Datasets:
CrowdMind
/
enwik8

Dataset card Data Studio Files
xet
Community
text
stringlengths
1.83k
10k
etaphysics" [[Aristotle]] found that the universal elements of beauty were order, symmetry, and definiteness. ===18th and 19th Century Europe=== In 1750 the German philosopher [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]] published the book "Aesthetica" in which he took the term to mean "criticism of taste". Baumgarten reduced taste to an intellectual act, ignoring the element of feeling. Baumgarten concluded that nature is the highest embodiment of beauty, and that art must seek its supreme function in the strictest possible imitation of nature. Despite interpretations by later philosophers to approach sensuality and feeling, Baumgarten's definition has survived as an important part of [[critical theory]].[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=aesthetic] In his 1790 book "Critique of Judgment," [[Immanuel Kant]] called Aesthetics "the science which treats of the conditions of sensuous perception". Kant emphasized beauty, taste, transcendence, and the sublime. Beautiful art might fall into the category of what we think of today as pretty, pleasant, or pleasing to the eye. Sublime images on the other hand were awe-inspiring. Dramatic scenes from nature such as vast mountainscapes, the dazzling sea, or light shining through forested trees might produce an experience of the sublime. Kant insisted that aesthetic judgment is always singular, of the form "This rose is beautiful." He denied that we can reach a valid universal aesthetic judgment of the form "All objects possessing such and such qualities are beautiful." The German [[Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel]] and later French philosophers J. Cousin and Jean Charles Leveque developed an elaborate system of aesthetics regarding it as spiritual in nature. The several beautiful characteristics of an organic body (the principal ones of magnitude, unity and variety of parts, intensity of color, grace or flexibility, and correspondence to the environment) may be brought under the ideal grandeur and order of the species. These are perceived by reason to be the manifestations of an invisible vital force. Similarly the beauties of inorganic nature were to be viewed as the grand and orderly displays of an immaterial physical force. Thus all beauty was in its objective essence either spirit or unconscious force acting with fullness and in order. ===Modern Philosophy=== The field of aesthetics has enjoyed a rebirth in recent years. Post-WWII Modern art -- particularly up through the 1980s -- strongly reacted against notions of beauty. Some theorists (Hal Foster) have described this as an "anti-aesthetic." Since artistic media were deconstructed and explored to their very foundational or essential elements, creating an aesthetically beautiful work was no longer the key. Instead, artists focused on conceptual questions such as 'what is art?' or 'who defines art?' For instance, the artist Joseph Beuys used materials such as heavy dark felt, dirt, logs, bones and sticks, all of which might be considered to be quite "ugly" by traditional understandings of beauty and aesthetics. Art today might be said to be more embracing, or at least better engaged with current notions of the beautiful or sublime. Theorists such as Jeremy Gilbert-Rolfe have discussed how the intensification of capitalism and new technologies might be developing a new notion of sublimity. Visual culture theorist Johanna Drucker proposed that contemporary artists recognize their complicity with the dominant ideologies of beauty and aesthetics, and may both critique and embrace these aesthetics simultaneously. ==Aesthetics in the arts== ===Visual arts=== Aesthetic considerations within the visual arts are usually associated with the sense of vision. A painting or sculpture however is also perceived spatially by recognized associations and context, and even to some extent by the senses of smell, hearing, and touch. The form of the work can be subject to an aesthetic as much as the content. In painting, the aesthetic convention that we see a three-dimensional representation rather than a two-dimensional canvas is so well understood that most people do not realize that they are making an aesthetic interpretation. This notion is the basis of [[abstract impressionism]]. Some aesthetic effects available in visual arts include variation, juxtaposition, repetition, field effects, symmetry/asymmetry, perceived mass, subliminal structure, linear dynamics, tension and repose, pattern, contrast, perspective, 3 dimensionality, movement, rhythm, unity/Gestalt, matrixiality and proportion. ===Music=== {{main|Aesthetics of music}} [[Music]] can affect our emotions, our intellect, our body and our psychology; lyrics can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions. As such, music is a powerful art form with an aesthetic appeal that is highly dependent upon the culture in which it is practiced. Some of the aesthetic elements expressed in music include lyricism, harmony, hypnotism, emotiveness, temporal dynamics, volume dynamics, resonance, playfulness, color, subtlety, depth, and mood (see [[Musical development]]). Aesthetics in music are highly sensitive to their context: what sounds good in modern American rock would sound terrible in the context of the early baroque age. ===Performing arts=== [[Theater|Performing arts]] appeal to our aesthetics of storytelling, grace, balance, class, timing, strength, shock, humor, costume, irony, beauty, drama, suspense, and sensuality. Whereas live stage performance is usually constrained by the physical reality at hand, film performance can further add the aesthetic elements of large-scale action, fantasy, and a complex interwoven musical [[Academy Award for Original Music Score|score]]. ===Literature=== Encompassing [[poetry]], [[Short story|short stories]], [[novel]]s and [[non-fiction]], authors use a variety of techniques to appeal to our aesthetic values. Depending on the type of writing an author may employ rhythm, illustrations, structure, time shifting, juxtaposition, dualism, imagery, fantasy, suspense, analysis, humor/cynicism, and thinking aloud. In literary aesthetics, the study of "affect" illuminates the deep structures of reading and receiving literary works. These affects may be broadly grouped by their mode of writing and the relationship that the reader assumes with time. Catharsis is the affect of dramatic completion of action in time. Kairosis is the affect of novels whose characters become integrated in time. Kenosis is the affect of lyric poetry which creates a sense of emptiness and timelessness. ===Gastronomy=== Although [[Culinary|food]] is a basic and frequently experienced commodity, careful attention to the aesthetic possibilities of foodstuffs can turn eating into gastronomy. Chefs inspire our aesthetic enjoyment through the visual sense using color and arrangement; they inspire our senses of taste and smell using [[spices]], diversity/contrast, anticipation, seduction, and decoration/garnishes. ==Aesthetics in the sciences== ===Information technology=== Aesthetics in information technology has focused upon the study of human-computer interaction and creating user-friendly devices and software applications; aesthetically pleasing "graphical user interfaces" have been shown to improve productivity. Software itself has aesthetic dimensions ("software aesthetics"), as do information-technology-mediated processes and experiences such as computer video games and virtual reality simulations. [[Digital culture]] is a distinct aesthetic to judge the appeal of digital environments such as browsers, websites, and icons, as well as visual and aural art produced exclusively with digital technologies. ===Mathematics=== {{main|Mathematical beauty}} The aesthetics of [[mathematics]] are often compared with music and poetry. Hungarian mathematician [[Paul Erdős]] expressed his views on the indescribable beauty of mathematics when he said "Why are numbers beautiful? It's like asking why is Beethoven's Ninth Symphony beautiful." Math appeals to the "senses" of logic, order, novelty, elegance, and discovery. Some concepts in math with specific aesthetic application include sacred ratios in Geometry, the intuitiveness of axioms, the complexity and intrigue of fractals, the solidness and regularity of polyhedra, and the serendipity of relating theorems across disciplines. ===Neuroesthetics=== [[Cognitive science]] has also considered aesthetics, with the advent of [[neuroesthetics]], pioneered by [[Semir Zeki]], which seeks to explain the prominence of great art as an embodiment of biological principles of the brain, namely that great works of art capture the essence of things just as vision and the brain capture the essentials of the world from the ever-changing stream of sensory input. ==Aesthetics in engineering== ===Industrial design=== Beyond providing functional characteristics, designers heed many aesthetic qualities to improve the marketability of manufactured products: smoothness, shininess/reflectivity, texture, pattern, curviness, color, simplicity (or usability), velocity, symmetry, naturalness, and modernism. ===Architecture and Interior Design=== Although structural integrity, cost, the nature of building materials, and the functional utility of the building contribute heavily to the design process, architects can still apply aesthetic considerations to buildings and related [[architecture|architectural]] structures. Common aesthetic design principles include ornamentation, edge delineation, texture, flow, solemnity, symmetry, color, granularity, the interaction of sunlight and shadows, transcendence, and harmony. Interior Designers, being less constrained by structural concerns, have a wider variety of applications to appeal to aesthetics. They may employ color, color harmony, wallpaper, ornamentation, furnishings,
endent of distance, because both interactions are inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Therefore on an atomic scale mutual gravity is negligible. Even so, the main interaction between everyday objects and the Earth and between celestial bodies is gravity, because at this scale matter is electrically neutral. This means that there is an equal number of positively charged particles in the universe to negatively charged particles. For example, there aren't any positively charged planets that zoom into negatively charged planets. This means that gravity dominates the universe even though it is the weaker force. However, to show the delicate balance of gravity over the electromagnetic force, given two bodies if even there were a surplus or deficit of only one [[electron]] for every 10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt; protons and [[neutron]]s this would already be enough to cancel gravity (or in the case of a surplus in one and a deficit in the other, double the force of attraction). Though the force of gravity dominates the visible macro universe, the main interactions such as [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]] between the charged particles in cosmic [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]], of which the sun is composed and which make up over 99% of the universe by volume, are due to the nuclear forces. In terms of [[Planck units]], the charge of a proton is 0.085, while the mass is only {{sn|8|&amp;minus;20}}. From that point of view, the gravitational force is not small as such, but because masses are small. The relative weakness of gravity can be demonstrated with a small [[magnet]] picking up pieces of [[iron]]. The small magnet is able to overwhelm the gravitational effect of the entire Earth. Even though gravity is relatively weak, the small gravitational interaction exerted by bodies of ordinary size can fairly easily be detected through experiments such as the [[Torsion bar experiment|Cavendish torsion bar experiment]]. '''Further reading''' * [[Oleg D. Jefimenko|Jefimenko, Oleg D.]], &quot;''Causality, electromagnetic induction, and gravitation : a different approach to the theory of electromagnetic and gravitational fields''&quot;. Star City [West Virginia] : Electret Scientific Co., c1992. ISBN 0917406095 * [[Oliver Heaviside|Heaviside, Oliver]], &quot;''[http://www.as.wvu.edu/coll03/phys/www/Heavisid.htm A gravitational and electromagnetic analogy]''&quot;. The Electrician, 1893. ==Gravity and quantum mechanics== It is widely believed that three of the four [[fundamental forces]] (the [[strong nuclear force]], the [[weak nuclear force]], and the [[electromagnetic force]]) are manifestations of a single, more fundamental force. Combining gravity with these forces of [[quantum mechanics]] to create a theory of [[quantum gravity]] is currently an important topic of research amongst physicists. General relativity is an essentially geometric theory that requires no exchange of particles in its explanation of gravity, whereas quantum mechanics relies on interactions between particles. Scientists have theorized about the [[graviton]] (a [[messenger particle]] that transmits the force of gravity) for years, but have been frustrated in their attempts to find a consistent [[quantum theory]] to describe it. Many believe that [[string theory]] holds a great deal of promise to unify general relativity and [[quantum mechanics]], but this promise has yet to be realized. It is notable that in general relativity gravitational radiation (which under the rules of quantum mechanics must be composed of gravitons) is created only in situations where the curvature of spacetime is oscillating, such as is the case with co-orbiting objects. The amount of gravitational radiation emitted by the [[solar system]] is far too small to measure. However, gravitational radiation has been indirectly observed as an energy loss over time in binary pulsar systems such as [[PSR1913+16]]. It is believed that [[neutron star]] mergers and [[black hole]] formation may create detectable amounts of gravitational radiation. Gravitational radiation observatories such as [[LIGO]] have been created to study the problem. No confirmed detections have been made of this hypothetical radiation, but as the science behind LIGO is refined and as the instruments themselves are endowed with greater sensitivity over the next decade, this may change. ==Alternative theories== ===Recent alternative theories=== * [[Brans-Dicke theory]] of gravity * [[Rosen bi-metric theory]] of gravity * In the [[modified Newtonian dynamics]] (MOND), [[Mordehai Milgrom]] proposes a modification of [[Newton's Second Law]] of motion for small accelerations. * The new and &quot;highly controversial&quot; [[Process Physics]] theory attempts to address gravity * The [[Self creation cosmology]] theory of gravity in which the [[Brans-Dicke theory]] is modified to allow mass creation. * The satirical theory of [[Intelligent falling]] ===Historical alternative theories=== * [[Aristotelian theory of gravity]] * [[Nikola Tesla]] challenged [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[theory of relativity]], announcing he was working on a ''[[Dynamic theory of gravity]]'' (which began between 1892 and 1894) and argued that a &quot;''[[Field (physics)|field of force]]''&quot; was a better concept and focused on [[Plasma physics|media with electromagnetic energy]] that fill all of [[space-time|space]]. * [[Induced gravity]]: In 1967 [[Andrei Sakharov]] proposed something similar, if not essentially identical. His theory has been adopted and promoted by Messrs. Haisch, Rueda and Puthoff who, among other things, explain that gravitational and inertial mass are identical and that high speed rotation can reduce (relative) mass. Combining these notions with those of [[Thomas Townsend Brown]], it is relatively easy to conceive how field propulsion vehicles such as &quot;flying saucers&quot; could be engineered given a suitable source of power. * [[LeSage gravity]], proposed by [[Georges-Louis LeSage]], based on a fluid-based explanation where a light gas fills the entire universe. * [[Nordström's theory of gravitation]], an early competitor of [[general relativity]]. * [[Whitehead's theory of gravitation]], another early competitor of [[general relativity]]. ==Notes== * {{fnb|1}} Proposition 75, Theorem 35: p.956 - I.Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, translators: Isaac Newton, ''The Principia'': Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Preceded by ''A Guide to Newton's Principia'', by I.Bernard Cohen. University of California Press [[1999]] ISBN 0-520-08816-6 ISBN 0-520-08817-4 * {{fnb|2}} See the works of Stillman Drake, for a comprehensive study of [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and his times, the [[Scientific Revolution]]. * {{fnb|3}} [[Max Born]] ([[1924]]), ''Einstein's Theory of Relativity'' (The 1962 Dover edition, page 348 lists a table documenting the observed and calculated values for the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, Venus, and Earth.) ==See also== {{portalpar|Gravitation}} * [[General relativity]] * [[Gravitational radiation|Gravitation wave]] * [[Gravitational binding energy]] * [[Gravity Research Foundation]] * [[Standard gravitational parameter]] * [[Weight]] * [[Weightlessness]] * [[n-body problem|''n''-body problem]] * [[Pioneer anomaly]] * Table of [[escape velocity|velocities]] required for a [[spacecraft]] to escape a [[planet]]'s gravitational field * [[Divergence theorem#Gravity|Application to gravity of the divergence theorem]] * [[Gravity field]] * [[Gravitation]] * [[Scalar Gravity]] * [[Newton's laws of motion]] * [[Artificial gravity]] * [[Kepler's third law]] ==References== * {{cite book | last = Halliday | first = David | coauthors = Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane | title = Physics v. 1 | location = New York | publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0471320579 }} * {{cite book | last = Serway | first = Raymond A. | coauthors = Jewett, John W. | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers | edition = 6th ed. | publisher = Brooks/Cole | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0534408427 }} * {{cite book | last = Tipler | first = Paul | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics | edition = 5th ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0716708094 }} ==External links== * [http://einstein.stanford.edu/ Gravity Probe B Experiment] The Official Einstein website from Stanford University [[Category:Gravity| ]] [[Category:Introductory physics]] [[Category:Celestial mechanics]] [[bs:Gravitacija]] [[ca:Gravetat]] [[cs:Gravitační pole]] [[da:Gravitation]] [[de:Gravitation]] [[eo:Gravito]] [[es:Gravedad]] [[fa:گرانش]] [[fr:Gravitation]] [[he:כבידה]] [[hu:Gravitáció]] [[ia:Gravitate]] [[io:Graveso]] [[it:Forza di gravità]] [[ja:重力]] [[ko:중력]] [[ms:Graviti]] [[nds:Gravitatschon]] [[nl:Zwaartekracht]] [[no:Gravitasjon]] [[pl:Grawitacja]] [[pt:Gravidade]] [[ru:Гравитация]] [[sl:gravitacija]] [[sr:Гравитација]] [[sv:Gravitation]] [[vi:Trọng lực]] [[yi:גראַוועטי]] [[zh:重力]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GPL</title> <id>11879</id> <revision> <id>15909591</id> <timestamp>2004-12-16T05:35:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RedWolf</username> <id>27822</id> </contributor> <comment>restoring redirect, I suspect 99% of existing links are for [[GNU General Public License]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU General Public License]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GothicLanguage</title> <id>11880</id> <revision> <id>15909592</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gothic language]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gas giants</title> <id>11881</id>
ctor's cuts considered superior to the original film. A related concept is that of an ''extended'' or ''[[special edition]]''. An example is [[Peter Jackson]]'s ''[[Lord of the Rings]]'' movies. While Jackson considers the theatrical releases of those films to be his final &quot;director's cut&quot;, the extended cut was made so that fans of the material could see nearly all of the scenes shot for the script, but that were cut for theatrical running time or other reasons. Other examples of extended/special editions include [[Francis Ford Coppola|Coppola]]'s ''[[Apocalypse Now|Apocalypse Now Redux]]'', [[James Cameron]]'s lengthier cuts of ''[[Aliens (1986 film)|Aliens]]'' and ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' and Luc Besson's ''Version Intégrale'' cut of ''[[Léon]]''. Less frequently, [[computer and video games|video games]] will receive re-releases with added material under a &quot;director's cut&quot; label. One of the earliest games to use this concept was ''[[Resident Evil (video game)|Resident Evil]]'' for the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation]], which featured a new &quot;arrange mode&quot; with various changes made to the game, among other changes. ''Grand Theft Auto: The Director's Cut'' packaged ''[[Grand Theft Auto (game)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' with the add-on [[expansion pack]] ''[[Grand Theft Auto: London, 1969]]''. ==See also== *[[Film modification]] [[Category:Film]] [[de:Director’s Cut]] [[fr:Director's cut]] [[it:Director's cut]] [[fi:Ohjaajan versio]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Digital video</title> <id>8733</id> <revision> <id>40822897</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T06:08:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>207.105.81.83</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital video''' is a type of [[video]] recording system that works by using a [[digital]], rather than [[analog signal|analog]], representation of the video signal. This generic term is not to be confused with the name ''[[DV|DV]]'', which is a specific type of digital video. Digital video is most often recorded on tape, then distributed on [[optical disc]]s, usually [[DVD]]s. There are exceptions, such as [[camcorder]]s that record directly to DVDs, and [[Digital8]] camcorders which encode digital video on conventional analog tapes. The terms &quot;camera&quot;, &quot;video camera&quot;, and &quot;camcorder&quot; are used interchangeably in this article. ==Introduction== Video cameras come in two different image capture formats: [[interlace]]d and [[progressive scan]]. Interlaced cameras record the image in alternating sets of lines: the odd-numbered lines are scanned, and then the even-numbered lines are scanned, then the odd-numbered lines are scanned again, and so on. One set of odd or even lines is referred to as a “field”, and a consecutive pairing of two fields of opposite parity is called a ''frame''. A progressive scanning digital video camera records each frame as distinct, with both fields being identical. Thus, interlaced video captures twice as many fields per second as progressive video does when both operate at the same number of [[frame rate|frames per second]]. This is one of the reasons video has a “hyper-real” look, because it draws a different image 60 times per second, as opposed to film, which records 24 or 25 progressive frames per second. Progressive scan camcorders such as the [[Panasonic DVX100]] are generally more desirable because of the similarities they share with film. They both record frames progressively, which results in a crisper image. They can both shoot at 24 frames per second, which results in motion strobing (blurring of the subject when fast movement occurs). Thus so, progressive scanning video cameras tend to be more expensive than their interlaced counterparts. (Note that even though the digital video format only allows for 29.97 interlaced frames per second [or 25 for PAL], 24 frames per second progressive video is possible by displaying identical fields for each frame, and displaying 3 fields of an identical image for certain frames. For a more detailed explanation, see the [http://adamwilt.com/24p/#24pRecording/ adamwilt.com link]. Standard [[film stock]]s such as [[16 mm]] and [[35 mm]] record at 24 or 25 [[frame rate|frames per second]]. For video, there are two frame rate standards: [[NTSC]], and [[PAL]], which shoot at 30/1.001 (about 29.97) frames per second and 25 frames per second, respectively. Because it is digital, video can be copied with almost no degradation in quality; no matter how many generations a source is copied, it will, perceptively at least, be as clear as the original first generation footage. Digital video can be processed and edited on an NLE, or [[non-linear editing]] station, a device built exclusively to edit video and [[sound recording|audio]]. These frequently can import from analog as well as digital sources, but are not intended to do anything other than edit videos. Digital video can also be edited on a personal computer which has the proper hardware and software. Using a NLE station, digital video can be manipulated to follow an order, or sequence, of video clips. [[Avid]]'s software and hardware is almost synonymous with the professional NLE market, but Apple’s Final Cut Pro, Adobe’s Premiere, and similar programs are also popular. More and more so, videos are edited on readily available, increasingly affordable hardware and software. Even large budget films, such as [[Cold Mountain]], have been edited entirely on Final Cut Pro, Apple's non linear editing software. Regardless of software, digital video is generally edited on a setup with ample disk space. Digital video applied with standard DV/DVCPRO compression takes up about 250 megabytes per minute or 13 gigabytes per hour. Digital video has a significantly lower cost than 35 mm film, as the tapes can be viewed on location without processing, and the tape stock itself is very inexpensive (about $3 for a 60 minute MiniDV tape, in bulk, as of December, 2005). By comparison, 35 mm film stock costs about $1000 per minute, including processing. Digital video is used outside of movie making. [[Digital television]] (including higher quality [[High Definition Television|HDTV]]) started to spread in most developed countries in early 2000s. Digital video is also used in modern [[mobile phones]] and [[Video teleconference|video conferencing]] systems. Digital video is also used for [[Internet]] distribution of media, including [[streaming video]] and [[peer-to-peer]] movie distribution. Many types of compression exist for serving digital video over the internet, and onto DVD’s. While DV video is not compressed beyond its own codec while editing, the file sizes that result are not practical for delivery onto optical discs or over the internet, with codecs such as the Windows Media format, MPEG2, MPEG4, Real Media, the more recent H.264, and the Sorenson media codec. Probably the most widely used formats for delivering video over the internet are MPEG4 and Windows Media, while MPEG2 is used almost exclusively for DVD’s, providing an exceptional image in minimal size but resulting in a high level of CPU consumption to decompress. [[As of 2005]], the highest resolution demonstrated for digital video generation is 33 [[megapixel]]s (7680 x 4320) at 60 frames per second (&quot;[[UHDV]]&quot;), though this has only been demonstrated in special laboratory settings [http://archive.avsforum.com/avs-vb/history/topic/409580-1.html]. The highest speed is attained in industrial and scientific [[high speed camera]]s that are capable of filming 1024x1024 video at up to 1 million frames per second (for very short time, obviously). ==Storage formats== ===Encoding=== All current formats, which are listed below, are [[PCM]] based. *[[CCIR 601]] used for broadcast stations *[[MPEG-4]] good for online distribution of large videos *[[MPEG-2]] used for DVDs and Super-VCDs *[[MPEG-1]] used for video CDs *[[H.261]] *[[H.263]] *[[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|H.264]] a.k.a. ''MPEG-4 Part 10'', a.k.a ''AVC'' *[[Theora]] standardized but still in development. used for video over the internet. ===Tapes=== *[[Betacam|Betacam SX]], [[Betacam|Betacam IMX]], [[Digital Betacam]] *[[D1 (Sony)|D1]], [[D2 (video format)|D2]], [[D3 (video)|D3]], [[D5]], [[D9]] (aka Digital-S) *[[DV]], [[MiniDV]] - used in most of today's consumer cameras *[[DVCAM]], [[DVCPRO]] - used in professional broadcast operations *[[Digital8]] - ==See also== *[[Video]] *[[Digital cinematography]] *[[List of video topics]] *[[Digital audio]], [[Digital film]] *[[DVD]] *[[Video coding]] *[[Camcorder]] *[[Video editing software]] *[[Webcam]] *[[Television]] *[[Digital visual interface]] ==External links== *[http://www.mandy.com/ Directory of Video Production Services] *[http://www.thedvshow.com/ Listen to a Podcast related to Video Production] *[http://www.adamwilt.com Adam Wilt's website], including the DV FAQ *[http://adamwilt.com/24p/#24pRecording/ Adam Wilt's explanation of how 24 progressive frames per second video is recorded to 29.97 interlaced frames per second] [[Category:Video and movie technology]] [[pl:Digital video]] [[zh:数字视频]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dijkstra</title> <id>8734</id> <revision> <id>15906691</id> <timestamp>2002-06-05T23:21:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Edsger Dijkstra]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Edsger Dijkstra]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BIND</title> <id>8735</id> <revision> <id>37729228</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T21:01:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fleminra</username> <id>44454</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+[[Comparison of DNS serve
ent is the same for matches of four or three days.) ==Definition of first-class cricket== As well as domestic competition, it is typical for international teams touring another country to play warm-up first-class matches against domestic teams. However, with the increasing schedule of international players and consequent more tightly-scheduled tours, the number of such one-off games is decreasing. According to the [[International Cricket Council]], a match is first class if: * It is of three or more days scheduled duration * Each side playing the match has eleven players * The match is played on natural, and not artificial, turf * The match is played on an international standard ground * The match conforms to the [[Laws of Cricket]], except for only minor amendments * The Board of cricket in the appropriate nation or the International Cricket Council recognizes the match as first-class. A Test Match is a first class match played between two Full Member countries given the status of a Test match-playing nation by the International Cricket Council, following the Playing Conditions for Test Matches established by the International Cricket Council, and following various other regulations. The following matches or competitions are also recognized as first-class by the appropriate Boards of Cricket, providing the above regulations are met: * [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]] ** [[County Championship]] matches ** [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] versus a first class county ** [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] versus [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] ** Cambridge, Durham, Oxford and Loughborough University Centres of Cricketing Excellence matches versus first class counties ** Scotland versus Ireland ** A first class team versus a touring first class team * [[Australia]] ** [[Pura Cup]] matches. ** Australia 'A' versus Australian XI ** Australia 'A' versus first class opponents, including State teams ** Australian XI versus first class opponents, including State teams ** A first class team versus a touring first class team * [[South Africa]] ** Super Sport Series matches ** A first class team versus a touring first class team * [[West Indies]] ** Red Stripe Cup matches ** A first class team versus a touring first class team * [[India]] ** [[Ranji Trophy]] matches ** [[Duleep Trophy]] matches ** [[Irani Trophy]] matches ** A State or regional associations versus another state or regional association, provided the associations are affiliated to the Board of Control for Cricket in India ** A first class team versus a touring first class team * [[New Zealand]] ** State Championship matches ** New Zealand 'A' versus a Cricket association, provided the association is affiliated to New Zealand Cricket ** A cricket association versus another cricket association, provided that the associations are affiliated to New Zealand Cricket ** New Zealand 'A' versus a first class opponent ** A cricket association versus a first class opponent, provided the association is affiliated to New Zealand Cricket ** A first class team versus a touring first class team * [[Pakistan]] ** Quaid-e-Azam Trophy matches ** Cricket Associations and Departments (corporate teams) versus each other, or other first class opponents, provided the associations or departments are affiliated to the Pakistan Cricket Board, and the match is organized by the Pakistan Cricket Board ** Pakistan 'A' versus a touring Test team or Kenya ** Pakistan versus a touring 'A' team from a Test country or Kenya ** Pakistan 'A' versus a touring 'A' team from a Test country or Kenya ** A first class team versus a touring first class team * [[Sri Lanka]] ** Premier League (Division I) Matches ** Sri Lanka 'A' (or another team designated by the Board of Control for Cricket in Sri Lanka) versus a touring 'A' team ** A first class team versus a touring first class team * [[Zimbabwe]] ** Logan Cup Matches ** A cricket association versus another cricket association, provided the associations are affiliated to the Zimbabwe Cricket Union ** A first class team versus a touring first class team * [[Bangladesh]] * [[Kenya]] (Not a Test Team) ** A first class team (including touring Test teams) versus Kenya * Other Non-Test Full Member Countries ** Non-Test Full Member Country versus a first class touring team, with the consent of the touring team ** Official Test Trial matches. ** Special matches between teams adjudged first class by the Board(s) of cricket concerned, with the approval of the International Cricket Council ** Games played for the [[ICC Intercontinental Cup]]. This competition involves teams from USA, Canada, Bermuda, Ireland, Scotland, the Netherlands, Uganda, Kenya, Namibia, UAE, Malaysia and Nepal. Notes: * A first class opponent is a team recognized as first class in its home country, and includes foreign touring Test teams (some first class teams are not entitled to play first class matches in other countries; such determinations are made by the local Board of cricket) * The 'A' Team and the 'XI' Team are the representatives of a nation subordinate to the Test team, and are not always adjudged first class == See also == *[[List of current first-class cricket teams]] == External links == * [http://acscricket.com/index.html Association of Cricket Statisticians &amp; Historians] * [http://www.cricketarchive.com/ CricketArchive] * [http://www.ecb.co.uk Official ECB website] * [http://www.thetwenty20cup.co.uk Twenty 20 Cricket] * [http://www.lords.org/cricket/laws.asp The official laws of cricket] * [http://www.cricket-online.org Cricket-Online] * [http://www.cricinfo.com CricInfo] * [http://cricketlearn.tripod.com Cricket Introduction] {{Forms of cricket}} [[Category:Cricket terminology]] [[Category:First class cricket]] [[Category:Forms of cricket]] [[de:First-Class-Cricket]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ferdinand de Saussure</title> <id>11041</id> <revision> <id>41416720</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:27:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.75.246.9</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Life and Work: */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Sem}} [[Image:Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|Saussure]] '''Ferdinand de Saussure''' ([[November 26]], [[1857]] - [[February 22]], [[1913]]) was a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[linguist]], considered by many to be the father of [[structuralism]]. Born in [[Geneva]], he laid the foundation for many developments in [[linguistics]] in the [[20th century]]. He perceived linguistics as a branch of a general [[science]] of signs he proposed to call ''semiology'' (now generally known as [[semiotics]]). ===Life and Work:=== Relatively little is known about Saussure's life apart from his academic pursuits. Born in Geneva to a family known for its scholastic achievement, Saussure's interest and ability in linguistics was recognized early. His first professional essay was written at fourteen, a response to the works of the paleontologist Pictet, a family friend . Before starting his graduate work at the University of [[Leipzig]] in 1876 (at nineteen), Saussure had taught himself [[Sanskrit]], attended a year of courses at the University of Geneva, submitted various articles for publication and joined the Société de linguistique de Paris. This would suggest he was a well-prepared and largely self-taught teen prodigy by the time he arrived at Leipzig. The German academic community was undergoing violent disagreements about language at this time; the advent of the [[Comparative Method]] in the late nineteenth century made it possible to reconstruct the history of certain parent languages and scholars were reexamining all elements of their field. However, it did not succeed in establishing the next wave of linguistics which Saussure would dominate because it did not pursue the nature of its object of study, that nature is to be found in more than the elemental words of which a language consists; it speaks to the formal relations between those components. The [[Neogrammarians]], who led the emergent school of linguistic thought at Leipzig, embraced the Comparative Method. While Saussure would work under them as a student, he would evetually break with their teachings. In 1878 Saussure spent a year studying at [[Berlin]]. At twenty-one he wrote four articles plus a 300-page monograph: ''Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européenes''. This would be the only full-length book published by him in his lifetime. The Mémoire was revolutionary and considered ingenious by many, although some of his mentors and peers at Leipzig were highly dismissive of its individuality. It did, however, establish his reputation and provide the foundation of his work on the ''Cours de linguistique générale''. After the Mémoire, Saussure returned to Leipzig to finish his dissertation, which was submitted in 1880; he received his doctorate and the thesis was published in 1881. In 1880 he moved to [[Paris]] and became a senior lecturer at l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. There he taught Gothic and [[Old High German]], Sanskrit, [[Latin]], [[Persian language|Farsi]] and [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]. When he arrived in Paris, the graduate education system was transforming at a magnificent rate. There was much enthusiasm – especially in language and linguistics. Two strands of linguistics vied for prominence: that anchored at the [[Sorbonne]], which published in Revue de linguistique et philologie comparée, and that led by Michel Brèal, which published in Société de linguistique de Paris. Saussure followed Brèal's group. French psychologists and sociologists were also making great strides in the study of the workings of the mind and the nature of consciousness and unconsciousness, which held great potential for linguistic scientists. Saussure studied the work of [[Broca]], [[Wernicke]], [[Bergson]], [[Jung]], [[Weber]], a
rrel design. Depending on how one defines the term, the Gatling gun is not the first &quot;machine gun&quot;, despite frequent references to it as such; machine guns operate entirely on the power of the fired cartridge (&quot;internal power&quot;), while the Gatling relies on a hand crank (&quot;external power&quot;). ==History of the gun== [[Image:gatling.gif|thumb||Gatling gun illustrated in an [[1885]] encyclopedia in [[Swedish (language)|Swedish]]]] The Gatling gun was designed in 1861 during the U.S. Civil War. However, in [[1862]], the U.S. government did not purchase any, for the Gatling guns lacked triggers and were far too heavy to be set up quickly in combat. Even when Dr. Gatling improved the design, it still lacked the desired trigger and weighed an unwieldy 90 lb (41 kg). However, Union General [[Benjamin Butler]] bought twelve and used them successfully on the Petersburg front. During its debut in combat both Union and Confederate soldiers were awestruck by its power and effect. They were only put into limited service late in the war by the Northern army. The Gatling gun was hand-crank operated with six barrels revolving around a central shaft, based on the [[Puckle Gun]]. Early models had a fibrous matting stuffed in among the barrels which could be soaked with water to cool the barrels down; this was eliminated in later models as being counterproductive. The ammunition, initially a steel cylinder charged with black powder and primed with a percussion cap (as self-contained brass cartridges had not yet been invented), was gravity-fed into the breech through a hopper or stick magazine on top of the gun. Each barrel had its own firing mechanism. After 1861, new [[brass]] cartridges similar to modern cartridges replaced the paper cartridge, but Gatling did not switch to them immediately. The model of [[1881]] was designed to use the Bruce feed system (U.S. Patents 247,158 and 343,532) that would accept two rows of .45/70 cartridges. While one row was being fed into the gun, the other could be reloaded, thus allowing sustained fire. The final gun required four operators. By [[1876]] the Gatling gun could fire 1,200 rounds per minute, although 400 was more reasonable. ==Basic design== [[Image:GatlingGunDrawing.jpg|thumb|Patent drawing for R.J. Gatling's ''Battery Gun'', [[9 May]] [[1865]].]] The Gatling gun is a rotary device, originally powered using a crank. A cylinder of ten barrels, spaced equally around the side of the cylinder, rotates around a central axis. Each barrel fires once per revolution at about the same position. Originally, the Gatling gun was produced in [[calibre]]s ranging from one inch (25.4&amp;nbsp;mm) down to 0.45 inch (11.43&amp;nbsp;mm). The barrels, a carrier, and a lock cylinder were separate and all mounted on a solid plate revolving around a central shaft, mounted on an oblong fixed frame. The carrier was grooved and the lock cylinder was drilled with holes corresponding to the barrels. Each barrel had a single lock, working in the lock cylinder on a line with the barrel. The lock cylinder was encased and joined to the frame. The casing was partitioned, and through this opening the barrel shaft was journaled. In front of the casing was a cam with spiral surfaces. The cam imparted a reciprocating motion to the locks when the gun rotated. Also in the casing was a cocking ring with projections to cock and fire the gun. Turning the crank rotated the shaft. Cartridges, held in a hopper, dropped individually into the grooves of the carrier. The lock was simultaneously forced by the cam to move forward and load the cartridge and when the cam was at its highest point the cocking ring freed the lock and fired the cartridge. After the cartridge was fired the continuing action of the cam drew back the lock bringing with it the spent cartridge which was then dropped to the ground. The grouped barrel concept was not new; it had been tried since the [[18th century]], but poor engineering and the lack of a [[Cartridge (weaponry)|unitary cartridge]] made previous designs unsuccessful. The initial Gatling gun design used self-contained, reloadable steel cylinders with a chamber holding a ball and black-powder charge, and a percussion cap nipple on one end. As the barrels rotated, these steel cylinders dropped into place, were fired, and were then ejected from the gun. The innovative features of the Gatling gun were its independent firing mechanism for each barrel and the simultaneous action of the locks, barrels, carrier and [[breech]]. The smallest calibre gun also had a Broadwell drum feed in place of the curved magazine of the other guns. The drum, named after L. W. Broadwell, an agent for Gatling's company, comprised twenty stick magazines arranged around a central axis, like the spokes of a wheel, each holding twenty cartridges with the bullet noses oriented toward the central axis. This significant invention does not appear to have been patented separately, and may have been included in the April 9, 1872 patent, U.S. 125,563; a post and base, apparently for mounting a Broadwell drum, is visible in Figure 13 of U.S. 125,563. As each magazine emptied, the drum was manually rotated to bring a new magazine into use until all 400 rounds had been fired. The Gatling gun was largely replaced after the development of the gas or [[recoil]] [[Blowback (arms)|blowback]] concept, which is the basis of most modern machine guns. Such guns could be made smaller and lighter, and were less expensive to produce. == Combat use == *The [[Royal Navy]] used fixed Gatling guns on board warships, intended to repel boarders. By the mid-nineteenth century though, boarding ships was no longer practicable, and so the the Gatlings mounted on board ships never saw close-range action. *The [[Naval Brigade]]s serving during the [[Anglo-Zulu War]]s used them alongside their artillery. At the [[Battle of Ulundi]] in [[1879]], Gatling guns were used to slaughter thousands of [[Zulu]] warriors who were forced to charge directly into their field of fire. *Gatling guns saw action during the British [[bombardment]] of [[Alexandria]] in [[1882]]. *During the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870-1871, several Gatling guns were purchased by [[Léon Gambetta]] on behalf of the [[Government of National Defense]], and were used by the French armies fighting in the provinces, to replace the defective [[mitrailleuse]] *Gatling guns were used by the US side during the [[Spanish-American War]], most notably during the [[battle of San Juan Hill]]. Some 31 gatling guns in all were purchased by the [[US Army]] before the war ended. [http://www.spanamwar.com/Gatling.htm] *Gatling guns were used throughout the [[Indian Wars]] against several Native American nations as the Western Expansion continued. The [[Battle of the Little Big Horn]], in which [[George Armstrong Custer]] and his men were routed by combined [[Lakota]] and [[Cheyenne]] forces, would have had a very different outcome had Custer brought the Gatling guns that had originally been in his detail. [[image:gatling.gun.750pix.jpg|thumb|The [[GAU-8]] Gatling gun of an [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]] at Osan Air Base, Korea]] ==Modern Gatling guns== Although the principle was unused for many years, Gatling-style guns with rotating barrels returned with the requirement for very high rate-of-fire weapons in military [[aircraft]] and ship-based [[CIWS|anti-missile defence system]]s, with [[electric motor]]s replacing mechanical cranks for rotation. One example is the [[M61 Vulcan]] 20 mm cannon, the most commonly used member of a family of weapons designed by [[General Electric]] and currently manufactured by [[General Dynamics]]. The Vulcan is a six-barrelled electric Gatling capable of firing more than 6,000 rounds per minute, a rate unachievable with a conventional machine gun. A variety of similar weapons are available in calibers ranging from 5.56 mm to 30 mm (There was even a 37mm Gatling that was mounted on the [[prototype]] T249 'Vigilante' [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-air]] platform), the rate of fire being somewhat inversely proportional to the size and mass of the ammunition (which also determines the size and mass of the barrels). During the [[Vietnam War]], the 7.62 mm calibre M134 [[Minigun]] was created for helicopters as an offensive and defensive weapon. Able to fire 4,000 rounds a minute, the Minigun proved to be one of the deadliest weapons ever built and is used in helicopters today. In addition to their incredibly high rate of fire, many modern gatling guns have the advantage of being operated by external power sources (as opposed to being powered by the energy of the fired cartidge). This increases their reliability as a cartridge's failure to fire does not cause the weapon's operations cycle to be interrupted. In addition certain other classes of stoppage, such as faulty extraction and many of those associated with feeding, are eliminated or reduced considerably due to the external power source. The Gatling gun cameoed in the [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] movie [[Predator (film)|''Predator'']] where the character played by [[Jesse Ventura]] was armed with a [[M134]] Minigun, although it would be impossible for a single person to actually carry and fire the Minigun because of the recoil. Indeed, the recoil in the movie's minigun was so great even though it was only firing blank ammunition that the actor had to be propped up in scenes where he fired the Minigun. Furthermore, it takes the equivalent of 6 car batteries to provide the current needed for the weapon's electric motor (a 28V DC/115V AC motor drawing 130A constantly, assuming that the minigun was firing at its maximum rate); the same gun would later be used in the film ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]''. A similarly improbable use of a gatling gun appeared in the video game [[Metal Gear Solid]], in which [[Vulcan Raven]] wielded a man-portable [[M61 Vulcan]]. A gatling gun als
confession as evidence against Bigfoot's existence, despite many marked inconsistencies in the testimonies of family members. ===Arguments against the hoax explanation=== Primatologist [[John Napier (primatologist)|John Napier]] acknowledges that there have been some hoaxes but also claims that hoaxing is often an inadequate explanation. Krantz argues that &quot;something like 100,000 casual hoaxers&quot; would be required to explain the footprints (Krantz, 32-34). As noted above, Wallace claimed to have begun the modern Bigfoot phenomenon in 1958 by using phony foot casts to leave Bigfoot prints in Humbolt County, California. His family received major press attention in 2002 when they detailed what they said were Wallace's claims. Bigfoot supporters deny their claims. One writer, for example, argues: &quot;The wooden track stompers shown to the media by the Wallace family do not match photos of the 1958 tracks they claim their father made. They are different foot shapes.&quot; [http://www.bfro.net/news/Wallace.asp] ==Conclusion== ===Mainstream response=== '''Skeptics''': Mainstream scientists and academics generally &quot;discount the existence of Bigfoot because the evidence supporting belief in the survival of a prehistoric, bipedal, ape-like creature of such dimensions is scant&quot; [http://skepdic.com/bigfoot.html]. Furthermore, the issue is so muddied with dubious claims and outright hoaxes that many scientists do not give the subject serious attention. Napier wrote that the mainstream scientific community's indifference stems primarily from &quot;insufficient evidence ... it is hardly unsurprising that scientists prefer to investigate the probable rather than beat their heads against the wall of the faintly possible&quot; (Napier, 15). Anthropologist David Daegling echoed this idea, citing a &quot;remarkably limited amount of Sasquatch data that are amenable to scientific scrutiny.&quot; (Daegling, 61) He also suggests mainstream skeptics should take a proactive position &quot;to offer an alternative explanation. We have to explain why we see Bigfoot when there is no such animal&quot; (ibid 20). While he does have some pointed criticism for mainstream science and academia, Krantz concedes that while &quot;the Scientific Establishment generally resists new ideas ... there is a good reason for it ... Quite simply put, new and innovative ideas in science are almost always wrong&quot; (Krantz, 236). A species cannot exist as a single individual, as there must be enough numbers for a breeding population. Every remote area of California, Washington, Oregon and British Columbia are examined by prospectors, hunters, dogs, loggers, biologists, fishermen, and so on. A real population of creatures this size, it is argued, would have had a lot more contacts with people. '''Proponents''': Although most scientists find current evidence regarding Bigfoot unpersuasive, a number of prominent experts, however, have spoken out on the subject, offering sympathetic opinions. In a 2003 ''[[The Denver Post|Denver Post]]'' article, [[Jane Goodall]] said, &quot;People from very different backgrounds and different parts of the world have described very similar creatures behaving in similar ways and uttering some strikingly similar sounds ... As far as I am concerned, the existence of hominids of this sort is a very real probability&quot; [http://www.denverpost.com/Stories/0%2C1413%2C36~53~1089877%2C00.html]. The same article cites several other prominent scientists who have expressed at least a guarded interest in Sasquatch reports: [[George Schaller]], [[Russell Mittermeier]], [[Daris Swindler]] and [[Esteban Sarmiento]]. Prominent anthropologist [[Carleton S. Coon]] wrote ''Why the Sasquatch Must Exist'' during his life, but was published after he died. He wrote, &quot;Even before I read [[John Green]]'s book ''Sasquatch: The Apes Among Us'', first published in 1973, I accepted Sasquatch's existence&quot; (Markotic and Krantz, 46). Coon examines the question from several angles, stating that he is confident only in ruling out a [[relict]] [[Neanderthal]] population as a viable candidate for Sasquatch reports. As noted above, Napier generally argued against Bigfoot's reality, but he also argued that some &quot;soft evidence&quot; (eyewitnesses, footprints, hair and droppings) is compelling enough that he advises against &quot;dismissing its reality out of hand&quot; (Napier, 197). Krantz and others have argued that a [[double standard]] is applied by many academics to Sasquatch studies: When a claim is made or evidence is presented alleging that Sasquatch is genuine, enormous scrutiny is applied to the claim or evidence, as well as it should be. Yet when individuals claim to have hoaxed Bigfoot evidence, their claims are often quickly accepted, though they typically lack corroborative evidence. In 2004, Henry Gee, editor of the prestigious ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', argued that creatures like Bigfoot deserved further study, writing, &quot;The discovery that ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' survived until so very recently, in geological terms, makes it more likely that stories of other mythical, human-like creatures such as [[Yeti]]s are founded on grains of truth ... Now, cryptozoology, the study of such fabulous creatures, can come in from the cold&quot; [http://www.nature.com/news/2004/041025/full/041025-2.html]. ==Proposed creatures== Various types of creature have been proposed by proponents to explain the sightings. ===''Gigantopithecus''=== Krantz argued that a relict population of ''[[Gigantopithecus blacki]]'' was the most likely candidate to explain Bigfoot reports. Based on his analysis of its jaws, he championed a view that ''Gigantopithecus'' was bipedal. Bourne writes that ''Gigantopithecus'' was a plausible candidate for Bigfoot since most ''Gigantopithecus'' fossils had been recovered from China, and also that extreme eastern [[Siberia]] has forests similar to northwestern North America. Many recognized animals were known to have migrated across the [[Bering Strait]], so it was not an unreasonable notion that ''Gigantopithecus'' could have as well. &quot;So perhaps,&quot; Bourne writes, &quot;''Gigantopithecus'' is the Bigfoot of the [[Americas|American continent]] and perhaps he is also the Yeti of the [[Himalaya]]s&quot; (Bourne, 296). This ''Gigantopithecus'' hypothesis is generally considered ''highly'' speculative. Rigorous studies of the existing fossilized remains seem to indicate that ''G. blacki'' is the common ancestor of two [[quadruped]]al [[genus|genera]], represented by ''[[Sivapithecus]]'' and the [[orangutan]] (''Pongo''). Given the mainstream view that ''Gigantopithecus'' was a quadruped, it seems most unlikely that it could be an ancestor to a biped, as Bigfoot is said to be. Furthermore, it has been argued that ''G. blacki''s enormous mass would have made it difficult for it to adopt a bipedal gait. However, an analysis of the famous Patterson-Gimlin film shows that frames 369, 370, 371, and 372 all show a slender lower mandible, that does not match the massive lower mandible of ''Gigantopithecus blacki'', which, assuming that the Patterson-Gimlin film is legitimate, would eliminate ''G. blacki'' as a candidate for Bigfoot. (Bigfoot Coop Newsletter, March 1997, also the documentary ''[[Sasquatch: Legend Meets Science]]''). ===''Paranthropus''=== If an animal like Sasquatch has ever existed in North America, it has been argued that a likely candidate would be a species of ''[[Paranthropus]]'', such as ''[[Paranthropus robustus]]'', which would have looked very much like Sasquatch, including the crested skull and naturally bipedal gait. This was suggested by Napier and by anthropologist Gordon Strasenburg. ===''Meganthropus''=== There is also a little known subspecies of the ''[[Homo erectus]]'', called ''[[Meganthropus]]'', which reputedly grew to enormous proportions, though most recent remains of the hominid are [[Lower Paleolithic|more than 1 million years old]], and are only to be found several thousand miles away from North America. ===Alternative theories=== Some researchers have suggested that Bigfoot is not a normal flesh-and-blood creature at all, but rather a &quot;trans-dimensional&quot; entity that can pass through [[wormhole]]s and enter our universe for short periods of time. Other researchers have proposed a connection between Bigfoot sightings and [[UFO]] activity, implying that Bigfoot may be of [[extraterrestrial]] origin. Indeed, reports of Bigfoot-like creatures have been made in connection with UFOs on several occasions. The majority of those involved in Bigfoot studies, however, strongly reject any [[paranormal]] explanations. ==Formal studies of Bigfoot== There have been a limited number of formal scientific studies of Bigfoot or Sasquatch. ===1950s=== [[Bernard Heuvelmans]]’s 1955 [[magnum opus]], ''On The Track of Unknown Animals'', did not specifically discuss Bigfoot, but did discuss Yeti accounts and is often seen as the root of cryptozoology. ===1960s=== [[Ivan T. Sanderson]]’s articles on mysterious animals, some appearing in the ''[[Saturday Evening Post]]'', as well as his book ''Abominable Snowmen: Legend Comes To Life'' (ISBN 051504444X) that went through several printings, were aimed at popular audiences. Coleman and Clark write that the 525-page volume &quot;remains a useful reference book&quot; (Coleman and Clark, 212), while Krantz characterizes Sanderson’s writing as &quot;'enthusiastic' ... reporting data from a variety of sources with what seemed to be little concern for consistency or verification,&quot; an approach which &quot;certainly lowered his credibility in the eyes of the few scientists who read his work&quot; (Krantz, 1). Sanderson’s book remains notable as perhaps the first book-length survey of enigmatic &quot;hairy hominids&quot;, and certainly helped popularize Yeti, Bigfoot and other mysterious primat
ars and car-transporters]]. *[[Gravel hoppers]]. === Multiple units === [[Image:Pacer at Manchester Victoria.jpg|thumb|right|The Pacer was British Rail's attempt to create a low cost [[Diesel and electric multiple units|Diesel Multiple Unit]] ]] *[[Multiple units]]. *[[Diesel and electric multiple units]]. *[[Pacer (train)|Pacer]] units. {{sectstub}} == See also == *[[British Rail brand names]] *[[History of rail transport in Great Britain]] *[[British Locomotive and Multiple Unit Numbering and Classification]] *[[British Carriage and Wagon Numbering and Classification]]. *[[London Underground]] *[[List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom]] *[[List of British companies]] *[[Gerry Fiennes]] ==External links== Sorted alphabetically * [http://ndad.ulcc.ac.uk/datasets/AH/britrail.htm British Railways Board history] * [http://www.railwayforum.com/Educational/british_railways_from_1948.htm British railways from 1948] * [http://www.numberseventy.co.uk/ferroequinology.htm Ferroequinology] * [http://www.brb.gov.uk The British Railways Board] [[category:British Rail(ways)]] [[Category:British railway companies]] [[de:British Rail]] [[fr:British Rail]] [[hu:British Railways]] [[nl:British Rail]] [[sv:British Rail]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Book of Job</title> <id>4386</id> <revision> <id>42098729</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:45:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stephensuleeman</username> <id>468855</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}} {{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Ketuvim}} The '''Book of Job''' ('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1489;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Iyyov''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#702;Iyyô&amp;#7687;'''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''&amp;#1571;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1617;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1576;''' '''&amp;#702;Ayy&amp;#363;b''') is one of the books of the Hebrew [[Bible]] (or [[Tanakh]]), and one of the books of the Christian [[Old Testament]]. The name Job or Yob (&quot;Yobe&quot;) means ''Hostility'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. ''Jobe'' is a [[Biblical poetry|didactic poem]] set in a [[prose]] framing device. The Book of Job has been called the most difficult book of the Bible. The numerous [[Exegesis|Exegeses]] of the ''Book of Job'' are classic attempts to reconcile the co-existence of evil and God (in Greek, these justifications are known as ''[[theodicy|theodicies]]''). ''Job'' appears both as an invocation to righteousness, a cynical outlook on the idea of righteousness, and a response to the [[problem of evil]]. Scholars are divided as to what the original intent of the poem was, and a few even suggest it was meant as a satire against more puritanical upholding of religion. === Authorship === A great diversity of opinion exists as to the authorship of this book. Two [[Talmud]]ic traditions hold that [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]] either lived in the time of [[Abraham]] or of [[Jacob]]. Levi ben La&amp;#7717;ma held that Job lived in the time of [[Moses]], by whom the Book of Job was written. Others argue that it was written by [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]] himself, or by [[Elihu (Job)|Elihu]], or [[Isaiah]]. From internal evidence, such as the similarity of sentiment and language to those in the [[Psalms]] and [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] (see [[Psalms]] 88 and 89), the prevalence of the idea of &quot;wisdom,&quot; and the style and character of the composition, it is supposed by some to have been written in the time of King [[David]] and King [[Solomon]]. Some, however place it in around the time of the Babylonian exile. [[Talmud|Talmudic tradition]] treats the story of Job as a parable. In contrast, secular examinations of the text more generally conclude that, though archaic features such as the &quot;council in heaven&quot; survive, and though the story of Job was familiar to Ezekiel, the present form of Job was fixed in the [[4th century BC]]. The story of Job apparently originated in the land of [[Edom]], which has been retained as the background. Fragments of ''Job'' are found among the [[Dead Sea scrolls]], and Job remains prominent in [[Aggadah|haggadic]] legends. Compare the later Greek ''[[Testament of Job]]'' among the [[apocrypha]]. Secular scholars agree that the introductory and concluding sections of the book, the framing devices, were composed to set the central poem into a prose &quot;folk-book,&quot; as the compilers of the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' expressed it. In the prologue and epilogue, the name of God is Yahweh, a name that even the Edomites use. Secular scholars agree that the central poem is from another source. === Narrative structure === The subject is the trial of Job, its occasion, nature, endurance, and issue. It consists of #An historical introduction in prose (ch. 1,2). #The controversy and its solution, in poetry (ch. 3-42:6). Job's desponding lamentation (ch. 3) is the occasion of the controversy which is carried on in three courses of dialogues between Job and his three friends. The first course gives the commencement of the controversy (ch. 4-14); the second the growth of the controversy (15-21); and the third the height of the controversy (22-27). Job puts God on trial through an &quot;Oath of Innocence&quot; (Job 27-31). This is followed by a solution of the controversy in the speeches of Elihu and the address of [[Jehovah]], followed by Job's humble confession (42:1-6) of his own fault and folly. Some read Elihu's speeches as a false climax since he repeats the arguments of Job's friends which God condemns (Job 42:7-8). Job's repentance is controversial and may imply only a change of course in his prosecution of God and not a moral confession of sin. #The third division is the historical conclusion, in prose (42:7-15). It is possible that the introductory and concluding sections of the book were composed by a different author than the body of the book. ==Later interpolations and additions== In the edited form of ''Job'' that we have, various interpolations have been claimed to have been made in the text of the central poem. The clearest of these are of two kinds: the &quot;parallel texts&quot;, which are parallel developments of the corresponding passages in the base text, and the speeches of Elihu (Chapters 32-37), which consist of a polemic against the ideas expressed elsewhere in the poem, and so appear to be interpretive interpolations. The speeches of Elihu (who is not mentioned in the prologue or epilogue) contradict the fundamental teachings of the central poem of Job, according to which it is impossible that the righteous should suffer, all pain being a punishment for some sin. Elihu, however, assumes that suffering may be decreed for the righteous as a protection against greater sin, and for moral betterment. Subjects of more contention among scholars are the identity of corrections and revisions of Job's speeches, which have been made for the purpose of harmonizing them with the orthodox doctrine of retribution. A prime example of this is the translation of the last line Job speaks(42:6). Traditional translations have him say, &quot;Therefore I despise myself, and repent in dust and ashes.&quot; Yet a more accurate translation(from the original Hebrew) would have Job saying, &quot;Therefore I despise, yet repent in dust and ashes.&quot; This makes him not despise himself, but dust and ashes, which refers to the thus perceived absurdity of the universe. === Exegesis of the ''Book of Job''=== [[Exegesis]] largely concerns the question, &quot;Is misfortune always a divine punishment for something?&quot; Job's three friends argued in the affirmative, stating that Job's misfortunes were proof that he had committed some sins for which he was being punished. His friends also advanced the converse position that good fortune is always a divine reward, and that if Job would renounce his supposed sins, he would immediately experience the return of good fortune. In response, Job asserted that he was a righteous man, and that his misfortune was therefore not a punishment for anything. This raised the possibility that God acts in capricious ways, and Job's wife urged him to curse God, and die. Instead, Job responded with equanimity: &quot;The Lord gives, and the Lord takes away; blessed be the name of the Lord.&quot; The climax of the book occurs when God responds to Job, not with an explanation for Job's suffering but rather with a question: Where was Job when God created the world? God's response itself may be read in a variety of ways. Some see it as an attempt to humble Job. Yet Job is comforted by God's appearance, and the fact that he 'saw God and lived', suggesting that the author of the book was more concerned with whether or not God is present in people's lives, than with the question of whether or not God is just. ''Job'' chapter 28 rejects these efforts to fathom divine wisdom. The framing story complicates the book further: in the introductory section God, during a conversation with Satan, allows Satan to inflict misery on Job and his family. The appended conclusion has God restoring Job to wealth, granting him new children, and possibly restoring his health, although this is not implied or explicitly stated. This suggests that the faith of the righteous is indeed rewarded. === Satan in the ''Book of Job''=== The name [[Satan]] appears in the prose prologue of ''Job'', with his usual connotation of &quot;the adversary,&quot; as a distinct being. He is shown as one of the celestial beings or &quot;sons of God&quot; before the Deity, replying to the inquiry of God as to whence he had come, with the words: &quot;from going to and fro in the earth, and from walking up and down in it&quot; (''Job'' 1:7). Both the question and the answer, as well as the dialogue that ensues, characterize Satan as that member of the divine council who wat
n]]s) which experience a force (called the [[Lorentz Force]]) due to the magnetic field. Some of these charge elements end up forced to the sides of the conductors, where they create a pool of net charge. This is only notable in larger conductors where the separation between the two sides is large enough. One very important feature of the Hall effect is that it differentiates between positive charges moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the opposite. The Hall effect offered the first real proof that electric currents in metals are carried by moving electrons, not by protons. Interestingly enough, the Hall effect also showed that in some substances (especially [[semiconductors]]), it is more appropriate to think of the current as positive &quot;holes&quot; moving rather than negative electrons. [[Image:Hall-effect.png|right|150px]] By measuring the Hall voltage across the element, one can determine the strength of the magnetic field applied. This can be expressed as &lt;math&gt;V_H = \frac{IB}{ned} &lt;/math&gt; where ''V&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the voltage across the width of the plate, ''I'' is the current across the plate length, ''B'' is the magnetic field, ''d'' is the depth of the plate, ''e'' is the electron charge, and ''n'' is the [[bulk density]] of the carrier electrons. So-called &quot;[[Hall effect sensor]]s&quot; are readily available from a number of different manufacturers, and may be used in various sensors such as fluid [[flow sensor]]s, [[power sensor]]s, and [[pressure sensor]]s. In the presence of large [[magnetic field]] strength and low [[temperature]], one can observe the [[quantum Hall effect]], which is the [[quantum mechanics|quantization]] of the Hall resistance. In [[ferromagnetic]] materials (and [[paramagnetic]] materials in a [[magnetic field]]), the Hall resistivity includes an additional contribution, known as the '''Anomalous Hall Effect''' (or the '''Extraordinary Hall effect'''), which depends directly on the [[magnetization]] of the material, and is often much larger than the ordinary Hall effect. (Note that this effect is &lt;i&gt;not&lt;/i&gt; due to the contribution of the [[magnetization]] to the total [[magnetic field]].) Although a well-recognized phenomenon, there is still debate about its origins in the various materials. The anomalous Hall effect can be either an &lt;i&gt;extrinsic&lt;/i&gt; (disorder-related) effect due to [[spin (physics)|spin]]-dependent [[scattering]] of the [[charge carrier]]s, or an &lt;i&gt;intrinsic&lt;/i&gt; effect which can be described in terms of the [[Berry phase]] effect in the crystal momentum space (&lt;b&gt;k&lt;/b&gt;-space). ==Applications== Hall effect devices produce a very low signal level and thus require amplification. While suitable for laboratory instruments, the [[vacuum tube]] [[amplifier]]s available in the first half of the [[20th century]] were too expensive, power consuming, and unreliable for everyday applications. It was only with the development of the low cost [[integrated circuit]] that the Hall effect sensor became suitable for mass application. Many devices now sold as &quot;[[Hall effect sensor]]s&quot; are in fact a device containing both the sensor described above and a high gain [[integrated circuit]] (IC) amplifier in a single package. Reed switch electrical motors using the hall effect IC is another application. ===Advantages over other methods=== Hall effect devices when appropriately packaged are immune to dust, dirt, mud, and water. These characteristics make Hall effect devices better for position sensing than alternative means such as optical and electromechanical sensing. [[Image:HallEffCurrentSense.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hall effect current sensor with internal integrated circuit amplifier. 8mm opening. Zero current output voltage is midway between the supply voltages that maintain a 4 to 8 volt differential. Non-zero current response is proportional to the voltage supplied and is linear to 60 amperes for this particular (25 A) device.]] When electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced. Thus, it is possible to create a non-contacting current sensor. The device has three terminals. A sensor voltage is applied across two terminals and the third provides a voltage proportional to the current being sensed. This has several advantages; no resistance (a &quot;shunt&quot;) need be inserted in the primary circuit. Also, the voltage present on the line to be sensed is not transmitted to the sensor, which enhances the safety of measuring equipment. The range of a given feedthrough sensor may be extended upward and downward by appropriate wiring. To extend the range to lower currents, multiple turns of the current-carrying wire may be made through the opening. To extend the range to higher currents, a current divider may be used. The divider splits the current across two wires of differing widths and the thinner wire, carrying a smaller proportion of the total current, passes through the sensor. ====Split ring clamp-on sensor==== A variation on the ring sensor uses a split sensor which is clamped onto the line enabling the device to be used in temporary test equipment. If used in a permanent installation, a split sensor allows the electrical current to be tested without dismantling the existing circuit. ===Analog multiplication=== The output is proportional to both the applied magnetic field and the applied sensor voltage. If the magnetic field is applied by a solenoid, the sensor output is proportional to product of the current through the solenoid and the sensor voltage. As most applications requiring computation are now performed by small (even tiny) [[digital computer]]s, the remaining useful application is in power sensing, which combines current sensing with voltage sensing in a single Hall effect device. ===Power sensing=== By sensing the current provided to a load and using the device's applied voltage as a sensor voltage it is possible to determine the power flowing through a device. This power is (for [[direct current]] devices) the product of the current and the voltage. With appropriate refinement the devices may be applied to [[alternating current]] applications where they are capable of reading the true power produced or consumed by a device. ===Position and motion sensing=== Hall effect devices used in motion sensing and motion limit switches can offer enhanced reliability in extreme environments. As there are no moving parts involved within the sensor or magnet, typical life expectancy is improved compared to traditional electromechanical switches. Additionally, the sensor and magnet may be encapsulated in an appropriate protective material. ====Automotive ignition and fuel injection==== If the magnetic field is provided by a rotating magnet resembling a toothed gear, an output pulse will be generated each time a tooth passes the sensor. This is used in modern [[automobile|automotive]] primary [[distributor]] ignition systems, replacing the earlier &quot;breaker&quot; points (which were prone to wear and required periodic adjustment and replacement). Similar sensor signals are used to control multi-port sequential fuel injection systems, where each cylinder's intake runner is fed fuel from an injector consisting of a spray valve regulated by a solenoid. The sequences are timed to match the intake valve openings and the duration of each sequence (controlled by a computer) determines the amount of fuel delivered. ====Wheel rotation sensing==== The sensing of wheel rotation is especially useful in [[anti-lock brake]] systems. The principles of such systems have been extended and refined to offer more than anti-skid functions, now providing extended vehicle &quot;handling&quot; enhancements. ==The Corbino effect== The Corbino effect is a phenomenon based on the Hall effect, but a disk-shaped metal sample is used in place of a rectangular one. == See also == * [[Capacitor]] * [[Elementary charge]] * [[Frank Wilczek]] * [[Hall effect thruster]] * [[Nernst effect]] * [[Nernst-Ettinghausen effect]] * [[Quantum Hall effect]] * [[Thermal Hall effect]] * [[Transducer]] * [[Van der Pauw method]] ==External links and references== * &quot;''[http://www.eeel.nist.gov/812/effe.htm The Hall Effect]''&quot;. nist.gov. * Hall, Edwin, &quot;''[http://www.stenomuseet.dk/skoletj/elmag/kilde9.html On a New Action of the Magnet on Electric Currents]''&quot;. American Journal of Mathematics vol 2 1879. [[Category:Hall effect| ]] [[Category:Condensed matter physics]] [[Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter]] [[da:Hall-effekt]] [[de:Hall-Effekt]] [[cs:Hallův jev]] [[es:Efecto Hall]] [[fr:Effet Hall]] [[it:Effetto Hall]] [[lt:Holo efektas]] [[hu:Hall-effektus]] [[nl:Hall-effect]] [[ja:ホール効果]] [[pl:Efekt Halla (klasyczny)]] [[ru:Эффект Холла]] [[sr:Холов ефекат]] [[vi:Hiệu ứng Hall]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hoover Dam</title> <id>14308</id> <revision> <id>41665442</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:56:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vary</username> <id>208472</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 41617895 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hoover dam.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Hoover Dam]] '''Hoover Dam''' ({{coor dms|36|0|56|N|114|44|16|W|}}) is a [[concrete]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|gravity-arch]] [[dam]] in the [[Black Canyon of the Colorado|Black Canyon]] of the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], on the [[border]] between [[Arizona]] and [[Nevada]]. The dam, located 48 kilometres (30 miles) southeast of [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], is named after [[Herbert Hoover]], who played an instrumental role in its construction, first as Secretary of Commerce and then later as [[President of the United States]]. Hoover Dam was built by [[Six Companies|Six Companies, Inc.]], under [[Fra
later, fans showed up at midnight screenings at [[repertoire (theatre)|repertoire]] theaters, dressed in costume and &quot;participating&quot; in the film (e.g. throwing rice at the wedding scene). [[Image:Eraserheadposter.jpg|170px|thumb|right|''Eraserhead'' (1977)]] ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'' is one of many cult films to survive initial box office failure by finding success in other outlets. Like ''Rocky Horror,'' ''[[Night of the Living Dead]],'' ''[[Pink Flamingos]],'' ''[[Female Trouble]],'' ''[[The Hills Have Eyes (1977 film)|The Hills Have Eyes]]'' and ''[[Eraserhead]]'' achieved cult status through repeat screenings at independent repertory cinemas, most usually during late night &quot;[[midnight movie]]&quot; screenings. Such films were cheaper for theaters to hire than current releases and thus were more sensible to screen during late night when attendance was lower. ''Night of the Living Dead'', in particular, was free to screen since it had accidentally fallen into the [[public domain]]. In the early 1990s many repertory cinemas went out of business due to changes in cinema ownership and distribution. [[Network television]], [[cable television]] and [[pay-per-view]] stations have also changed the nature of cult films. Despite failing to meet box office expectations, ''[[Blade Runner]]'' was a favorite of early pay-per-view and [[HBO]]. Repeated showings on [[Comedy Central]] helped popularize ''[[Office Space]]'' and ''[[Half Baked]].'' [[Image:Blade Runner poster.jpg|left|thumb|170px|''Blade Runner'' (1982)]] In most cases, these films tend to enjoy long runs on [[video]], thus being issued in more video &quot;runs&quot; with more copies than other movies. The box office bomb ''Office Space'' managed to financially redeem itself when word-of-mouth made it a popular video rental and ''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'' and ''[[Mulholland Drive (movie)|Mulholland Drive]]'' have earned considerably more in [[DVD]] sales than they did in movie theatres. Also, cult movies are more likely to be issued on newer video technology in the technology's early days than other films. [[Image:Office Space DVD.jpg|170px|right|thumb|''Office Space'' (1999)]] Although films of all types of [[cinematic genre|genre]]s and plot conventions become cult films, the [[horror film|horror]] and [[science fiction]] genres produce a large number of cult films, perhaps due to the devoted nature of these genres' fan bases. Also films that have unconventional plotlines, strange senses of humor and which generally deviate from current trends in film are more likely to become cult films. Many significant cult films are [[independent film|independently made]] and were not expected by their creators to have much mainstream success. These include ''Night of the Living Dead,'' ''[[Easy Rider]],'' ''Pink Flamingos,'' ''Eraserhead'' and ''[[Slacker (movie)|Slacker]].'' Other cult films have the backing of major studios but did not initially meet with the financial success these studios typically enjoy. These include the aforementioned ''[[Blade Runner]]'', ''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'', and ''[[1941 (film)|1941]]'', as well as such films as ''[[Legend (movie)|Legend]]'', and ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]].'' In rare cases, a film is both a huge, major studio release and a cult film, because a small, devoted following exists within the film’s larger audience (i.e. ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]],'' ''[[Taxi Driver]]'' and the [[Star Wars]] franchise.) With advances in web-based film distribution, films such as ''[[Life of a Tennis Ball (film)|Life of a Tennis Ball]]'' can develop a cult following even without being commerically distributed. ==Cult films within a particular culture== Occasionally, a film can become the object of a cult following within a particular region or culture if it has some unusual signifigance to that region or culture. An example is the cult status of [[United Kingdom|British]] [[comedy|comedic]] [[actor]] [[Norman Wisdom]]’s films in [[Albania]]. Wisdom’s films, in which he usually played a family man worker who outsmarts his boss, were some of the few Western films considered acceptable by the country’s [[communist]] rulers, thus Albanians grew familiar and attached to Wisdom. Curiously, he and his films are now acquiring nostalgic cult status in Britain. Similarly, the [[United States|American]] film ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]],'' which features an exploitative [[capitalist]] as its [[villain]], was allowed in the [[USSR]], giving it a cult status in [[Russia]]. Another example is the place of ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' in [[Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures|American gay culture]]. Although a widely viewed and historically important film in greater American culture, it has gained a special meaning to many gay men who see probably unintended gay themes in the film. Gay men sometimes refer to themselves as &quot;friends of [[Dorothy Gale|Dorothy]]&quot;. [[Image:Reefer Madness.jpg|left|thumb|170px|left|The 2004 DVD edition of ''Reefer Madness,'' which makes obvious reference to its cult status]] The 1936 anti-[[marijuana]] [[propaganda]] film ''[[Reefer Madness (1936 film)|Reefer Madness]]'' has become a cult film within [[stoner]] culture due to its humorously sensationalized, outdated and inaccurate descriptions of the effects of marijuana. [[20th Century Fox]] and [[Legend Films]] released the film on [[DVD]] on [[April 20]], [[2004]], an obvious reference to its ironic appeal (see [[420 (cannabis culture)]]). The [[World War II]]-era [[Department of Agriculture]] film ''[[Hemp for Victory]],'' encouraging the growing of [[hemp]] for war uses, has achieved a similar cult status. British comedies have enjoyed a cult status in America. These films include the [[Black Adder]] and [[Monty Python]] series, most notably ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]].'' Because British humor differs distinctly from that found in American films, British films only appeal to a minority (or cult audience) in the US. Asian cinema, specifically Hong Kong and Japanese films, which features one culture's distinct take on the action/fantasy/science fiction genre, have been growing very popular among factions of people in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. Asian Cult Cinema consisted of Hong Kong Martial Arts films, such as [[wuxia]], and Japanese [[tokusatsu]], primarily from the [[Daikaiju Eiga]], and [[anime]]. Unfortunately, it's the same array of films that reinforced [[stereotypes]] for Asians in America. ==So-bad-they're-good cult films== [[Image:SantaClausConquersMartians.jpg|thumb|right|170px|''Santa Claus Conquers the Martians'' (1964)]] Many films enjoy cult status because they are seen as ridiculously awful. The critic [[Michael Medved]] characterized examples of the &quot;so bad it's good&quot; class of low-budget cult film through books such as ''[[The Golden Turkey Awards]]''. These films include such financially fruitless and critically scorned films as ''[[Mommie Dearest (film)|Mommie Dearest]]'', ''[[Cool as Ice]]'', ''[[Boxing Helena]]'', ''[[Showgirls]]'', and ''[[Freddy Got Fingered]]'', which have become inadvertent comedies to film buffs. In other cases, little known or forgotten films from the Past, usually from the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, are revived as cult films, largely because they are considered goofy and senseless by modern standards, with laughable special effects and corny plotlines. These include ''[[Eegah]]'', ''[[Santa Claus Conquers the Martians]]'', ''[[The Creeping Terror]]'', ''[[The Incredibly Strange Creatures Who Stopped Living and Became Mixed-Up Zombies]]'', ''[[Attack of the 50ft. Woman]]'' and the works of [[Ed Wood, Jr.|Edward D. Wood, Jr.]]. These films should not be confused with comedic cult movies like ''[[The Toxic Avenger]]'', ''[[Bad Taste]]'', ''[[Army of Darkness]]'', and the films of [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]], all of which purposely utilize elements from films &quot;so bad they're good&quot; for comedic effect. For further explanation on both types of film, see [[camp (style)]]. ==Cult film figures== Some actors and directors are primarily known for their work in cult films and often become [[cult figure]]s because of that work. Some, such as [[Ridley Scott]] and [[Sam Raimi]], eventually make widely successful, mainstream films while others continue to be known only to a small group of fans. ===Selected list of cult film actors=== *[[Michael Berryman]] *[[Bruce Campbell]] *[[Bud Cort]] *[[Joe Dallesandro]] *[[Johnny Depp]] *[[Divine (Glen Milstead)|Divine]] *[[Robert Englund]] *[[Rondo Hatton]] *[[Rutger Hauer]] *[[Tor Johnson]] *[[Traci Lords]] *[[Paul Marco]] *[[Jack Nance]] *[[Richard O'Brien]] *[[Vincent Price]] *[[Linnea Quigley]] *[[Tom Savini]] *[[Mink Stole]] *[[Julie Strain]] *[[Dyanne Thorne]] *[[Peter Weller]] *[[Mary Woronov]] ===Selected list of cult film directors=== *[[Robert Altman]] *[[Gregg Araki]] *[[Dario Argento]] *[[Carlos Atanes]] *[[Ralph Bakshi]] *[[Luc Besson]] *[[Tim Burton]] *[[John Carpenter]] *[[Joel and Ethan Coen|Joel Coen]] *[[Roger Corman]] *[[David Cronenberg]] *[[David DeCoteau]] *[[Brian De Palma]] *[[Abel Ferrara]] *[[Jesus Franco]] *[[Terry Gilliam]] *[[Christopher Guest]] *[[Hal Hartley]] *[[Peter Jackson]] *[[Derek Jarman]] *[[Alexandro Jodorowsky]] *[[Lloyd Kaufman]] *[[Stanley Kubrick]] *[[David Lynch]] *[[Russ Meyer]] *[[Paul Morrissey]] *[[Bill Plympton]] *[[Sam Raimi]] *[[Bill Rebane]] *[[George A. Romero]] *[[John Sayles]] *[[Ridley Scott]] *[[Kevin Smith]] *[[Quentin Tarantino]] *[[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]] *[[Doris Wishman]] *[[Ed Wood, Jr.]] *[[Terry Zwigoff]] == See also == *[[B-movie]] *[[:Category:Cult films|List of cult films]] *[[Cult classic]] *[[Cult following]] *[[Cult television]] *[[Cult radio]] *[[Cult figure]] *[[Underground film]] [[Category:Cult films|*]] [[Category:Film genres]] [[da:Kultfilm]] [[
ional fights have three judges each, and each of the judges must use the 10 point must system: Under this system, each time a boxer wins a round in the judges' eyes, the judge gives that boxer 10 points, and the other 9 or less. If the judge deems the round to be a tie, he or she may score it 10-10. When the fight reaches its scheduled distance, all scores are added, round by round, to determine who won on each judges' cards. When all three judges have the same boxer as the winner, this is an unanimous decision. When two judges have one boxer winning the fight and the other one has it a tie, this is called a majority decision. When two judges have one boxer winning the fight and the other judge has the other boxer winning, this is called a split decision. When one judge gives his or her vote to one boxer, another one gives it to the other boxer, and the third judge calls it a tie, this is a [[draw]]. It is also a draw when two judges score the fight a tie, regardless of who the third judge score the bout for. In the United Kingdom, the bout is only scored by the referee, except when a title is at stake, in which case it is scored by three judges. If a fight can not go on because of an injury caused to one of the competitors by a headbutt, there are different rules: If the fight has not reached the end of round three, (in some places, round four), the fight is declared a technical draw or a no contest. If it has reached beyond the end of round three (or four), then the scorecards are read and whoever is ahead, wins by a [[technical decision]]. === Evolution of professional boxing === In [[1891]], the [[National Sporting Club]] (N.S.C.), a private club in London, began to promote professional glove fights at its own premises, and created nine of its own rules to augment the Queensberry Rules. These rules specified more accurately the role of the officials, and produced a system of scoring that enabled the referee to decide the result of a fight. The [[British Boxing Board of Control]] (B.B.B.C.) was first formed in [[1919]] with close links to the N.S.C., and was re-formed in 1929 after the N.S.C. closed. In [[1909]], the first of twenty-two belts were presented by the fifth [[Earl of Lonsdale]] to the winner of a British title fight held at the N.S.C. In [[1929]], the B.B.B.C. continued to award Lonsdale Belts to any British boxer who won three title fights in the same weight division. The &quot;title fight&quot; has always been the focal point in professional boxing. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, however, there were title fights at each weight. Promoters who could stage profitable title fights became influential in the sport, as did boxers' managers. The best promoters and managers have been instrumental in bringing boxing to new audiences and provoking [[mass media|media]] and public interest. The most famous of all three-way partnership (fighter-manager-promoter) was that of [[Jack Dempsey]] ([[List of Heavyweight Champions|Heavyweight Champion]], [[1919]]-[[1926]]), his manager [[Jack Kearns]], and the promoter [[Tex Rickard]]. Together they grossed US$ 8.4 million in only five fights between [[1921]] and [[1927]] and ushered in a &quot;golden age&quot; of popularity for professional boxing in the [[1920s]]. They were also responsible for the first live radio broadcast of a title fight (Dempsey v. [[Georges Carpentier]], in 1921). In the United Kingdom, [[Jack Solomons]]' success as a fight promoter helped re-establish professional boxing after the [[World War II|Second World War]] and made the UK a popular place for title fights in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. In the first part of the 20th century, the [[United States]] became the centre for professional boxing. It was generally accepted that the &quot;world champions&quot; were those listed by the ''[[Police Gazette]]''. After [[1920]], the [[National Boxing Association]] (N.B.A.) began to sanction &quot;title fights&quot;. Also during that time, [[Ring Magazine]] magazine was founded and it listed champions and awarded championship belts. The N.B.A. was renamed in [[1962]] and became the [[World Boxing Association]] (W.B.A.). The following year, a rival body, the [[World Boxing Council]] (W.B.C.), was formed. In [[1983]], another world body, the [[International Boxing Federation]] (I.B.F.) was formed. By the end of the 20th century, a boxer had to be recognized by the three separate bodies to be the &quot;Undisputed World Champion&quot;. Regional sanctioning bodies such as the [[North American Boxing Federation]], the [[North American Boxing Council]] and the [[United States Boxing Association]] also awarded championships. [[Ring Magazine]] also continued listing the World Champion of each weight division, and its rankings continue being of the most appreciated by fans. Although women fought professionally in many countries, in the United Kingdom the B.B.B.C. refused to issue licences to women until [[1998]]. By the end of the century, however, they had issued five such licenses. The first sanctioned bout between women was in November 1998 at [[Streatham]] in London, between [[Jane Couch]] and [[Simona Lukic]]. === Equipment === Boxing techniques utilize very forceful strikes with the hand. There are many bones in the hand, and striking surfaces without proper technique can cause serious hand injuries. Today, most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without handwraps and gloves. Handwraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them. Headgear, used in amateur boxing, protects against cuts, scrapes, and swelling, but does not protect very well against concussions. Headgear does not sufficiently protect the brain from the jarring that occurs when the head is struck with great force. Also, most boxers aim for the chin on opponents, and the chin is usually not padded. Thus, a powerpunch can do a lot of damage to a boxer, and even a jab that connects to the chin can cause damage, regardless of whether or not headgear is being utilized. === Length of bouts === For decades, from the 1920s to the 1980s, world championship matches in professional boxing were scheduled for fifteen rounds, but that changed after a November 13, 1982 WBA Lightweight title bout ended with the death of boxer [[Duk Koo Kim]] in a fight against [[Ray Mancini]] in the 14th round of a nationally televised championship fight on CBS. Exactly three months after the fatal fight, the [[World Boxing Council]] reduced the number of their championship fights to 12 rounds. The [[World Boxing Association]] even stripped a fighter of his championship in 1983 because the fight had been a 15-round bout, shortly after the rule was changed to 12 rounds. By [[1988]], to the displeasure of many boxing purists, all fights had been reduced to a maximum of 12 rounds only, partially for safety, and partially for television, as a 12-round bout could take one hour to broadcast, while a 15-round bout could requre 90 minutes to broadcast. == Technique == ===Stance and movement=== '''Development''' The modern boxing stance is a reflection of the current system of rules employed by professional boxing. It differs in many ways from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. It's been stated that Americans adopted a more upright vertical armed guard (as opposed to more horizontally held, knuckles facing the ground guard as seen when looking at early 20th century boxers such as Jack Johnson) due to the Americans' confrontations with the Filipino natives as a result of the Philippines Spanish-American war. When engaged in hand to hand combat, the Filipinos would slash the wrists of the American soldiers, the Americans adapted by changing the guarded stance and thus just one example of a boxing technicality evolving. '''The Boxer's Stance''' The following stance applies for a right-handed boxer. The boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart with the right foot a half-step behind the left foot. The left (lead) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The right (rear) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs. Modern boxers can sometimes be seen &quot;tapping&quot; their cheeks or foreheads with their fists in order to remind themselves to keep their hands up (which becomes difficult during long bouts). '''Movement''' Modern boxers are taught to &quot;push off&quot; with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body. ===Punches=== There are four basic punches in boxing: the Jab, Cross, Hook and Uppercut. If a boxer is right-handed, his left hand is the lead hand, his right hand is the rear hand and vice versa. The following techniques apply to a right-handed boxer. A right-handed boxer's handedness is commonly described as orthodox. A left-handed boxer is called an unorthodox boxer or a [[Southpaw]]. * Jab - A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 180 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder is brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face. The jab is the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal b
el part of device and resource management, however, is deferred to ''handlers'', which are not libraries but [[Task (computers)|task]]s, and communicate by means of [[message passing]]. One important type of handler is a [[filesystem]] handler. The AmigaOS can make use of any filesystem for which a handler has been written, a possibility that has been exploited by programs like [[CrossDOS]] and by a few &quot;alternative&quot; filesystems to the standard [[Amiga Old File System|OFS]] and [[Amiga Fast File System|FFS]]. These filesystems allow one to add new features like [[journaling file system|journaling]] or [[file privilege]]s, which aren't found in the standard OS. Handlers typically expose a ''device name'' to the [[disk operating system|DOS]], which can be used to access the peripheral (if any) associated with the handler. The ''SPEAK: handler'', offering one of several ways to access the AmigaOS speech synthesis system, is one example of a handler offering services not directly related to a peripheral. Device names are [[case sensitivity|case insensitive]] (uppercase by convention) strings followed by a [[colon (punctuation)|colon]]. After the colon a ''specifier'' can be added, which gives the handler additional information about ''what'' is being accessed and ''how''. In the case of filesystem, the specifier usually consists of a [[path (computing)|path]] to a file in the filesystem; for other handlers, specifiers usually set characteristics of the desired input/ouput channel (for the ''SER:'' serial port driver, for example, the specifier will contain [[bitrate]], [[Asynchronous start-stop|start and stop bits]], etc). Filesystems expose ''drive names'' as their device names. For example, ''DF0:'' by default refers to the first floppy drive in the system, while ''DH0:'' is the first hard drive. Filesystems also expose ''volume names'', following the same syntax as device names: these identify the specific medium in the filesystem-managed drive. If ''DF0:'' contains a disk named &quot;Workbench&quot;, then ''Workbench:'' will be a volume name that can be used to access files in ''DF0:''. If one wanted to access a file named &quot;Bar&quot; located in directory &quot;Foo&quot; of the disk with name &quot;Work&quot; in drive ''DF0:'', one could write DF0:Foo/Bar or Work:Foo/Bar However, these are not completely equivalent, since when the latter form is used, the system knows that the wanted volume '''is''' &quot;Work&quot; and not just any volume in ''DF0:'', and thus will say something to the effect of Please insert volume Work in any drive whenever a requested file on &quot;Work&quot; is being accessed without volume &quot;Work&quot; being present in any drive. [[Computer program|Program]]s often need to access files without knowing their physical location (either the drive or the volume): they only know the &quot;logical path&quot; of the file, i.e. whether the file is a library, a documentation file, a translation of the program's messages, etc. This is solved in AmigaOS by the use of ''assigns''. An assign follows, again, the same syntax as a device name; however, it already points to a directory inside the filesystem. The place an assign points to can be changed at any time by the user. Standard assigns that are generally present in an AmigaOS system include * ''SYS:'', which points to the boot drive's root directory; this is the only assign created automatically by the kickstart * ''LIBS:'', pointing to a directory containing the system's libraries, usually SYS:Libs/ * ''DEVS:'', pointing to a directory containing the system's devices, usually SYS:Devs/ * ''C:'', pointing to a directory containing shell commands, usually SYS:C/ ==The AmigaOS components== Until 3.5 release AmigaOS always came divided in two parts, Kickstart and the Workbench. Each Kickstart version is tied to a particular version of the Amiga's operating system software, so users should only boot Workbench 2.0 on a machine with a 2.0 Kickstart [[Read-only memory|ROM]]. It is possible to boot incorrect versions (Workbench 3.1 will boot on Kickstart 3.0, with some problems). The exception is Workbench 2.1, which works with Kickstart 2.04. Also, the latest Workbench versions, 3.5 and 3.9, use Kickstart 3.1 and load ROM updates at boot time. ===Kickstart=== [[image:Amiga kickstart.png|frame|right|The image shown by '''Amiga OS 1.x''' on startup, asking the user to insert the kickstart [[Floppy disk|disk]].]] '''Kickstart''' is the name given to the [[bootstrap]] [[Read-only memory|ROM]]. On the first [[Amiga]] model, the [[Amiga 1000|A1000]], this was loaded from disk, although eventually the Kickstart was embedded in a ROM chip inside the computer. The Amiga 1000 could be modified to take these chips, and subsequent Amiga models all used ROM chips. As well as containing the code needed to boot the computer, the Kickstart also contained large portions of the Amiga's operating system&amp;mdash;the portions making up the '''Amiga ROM Kernel'''&lt;!--correct?--&gt;&amp;mdash;such as Intuition (the Amiga's graphical user interface libraries), Exec (its [[preemptive multitasking]] microkernel), and AmigaDOS (the disk handling libraries). The latter based on a [[TRIPOS]] port by [[MetaComCo]] written in [[BCPL]]. Later versions of the Kickstart contained drivers for [[Integrated Drive Electronics|IDE]] and [[SCSI]] controllers, [[PCMCIA]] ports and various other hardware that came with Amiga. With third party [[Computer software|software]], it is possible to have a different Kickstart loaded in RAM and to use it instead of the ROM one - for example Kickstart 1.3 may be loaded in order to run old games incompatible with Kickstart 2.0 and higher. These programs are called ''Softkickers''. There are also hardware ''Kickstart switchers'' which allow you to have more than one set of Kickstart chips inside the computer, which are selectable either by a switch or a keyboard shortcut when you first turn the machine on. It is also possible to swap hardware ROM chips using minimal tools. ===Workbench=== Workbench is the native graphical [[operating system shell|shell]] for the [[Amiga]] computer. As the name suggests, the [[metaphor]] of a workbench, rather than a desktop, is used: directories are depicted as ''drawers'', executable files are depicted as ''tools'', data files are depicted as ''projects'' and GUI widgets are ''gadgets''. Most Amiga application software has [[pull-down menus]] starting &quot;Project Edit ...&quot; rather than the usual &quot;File Edit ...&quot; from other platforms. Strictly speaking, the term ''Workbench'' refers only to the main file-manager of AmigaOS, but it is commonly used in referring to all the parts of the OS not residing in the ROM. The Workbench environment is not required for the machine to function, therefore a lot of old games can boot directly from Kickstart, without loading it. Most such games don't even let the OS finish the normal booting process; instead, they take over most of the OS itself, disable multitasking, and sometimes run without even ''using'' OS functions. In many other aspects the interface resembles [[Mac OS]], with the main desktop having the drive icons, and a single menu bar at the very top of the screen. Unlike the contemporaneous Mac [[computer mouse|mouse]], the standard Amiga mouse has two buttons &amp;ndash; the right mouse button operates the pull-down menus, with a Macintosh-style &quot;release to select&quot; mechanism. Later, it was also possible to utilise a mouse with three buttons or a wheel. A unique feature of Workbench is ''multiple screens''. These are conceptually similar to [[X Window System]] virtual desktops or workspaces, but are generated dynamically by application programs as necessary. Each screen can have a different resolution and colour depth. A gadget in the top-right corner of the screen allows screens to be cycled - as the OS stores all screens in memory simultaneously, redrawing is instantaneous. Screens can also be dragged up and down by their title bars, but this functionality is provided only by the custom chipsets specially designed for the platform, so it is no longer available on systems that run with a modern graphics card. AmigaOS versions 2.0 and later also support ''public screen''. A public screen works technically like any other screen, but the program that opens it gives it a name within the OS, and other programs can then request the screen by its name, and open their own windows in it. AmigaOS up to 3.1 doesn't offer any software layer to use additional graphic or audio solutions. Starting with AmigaOS 3.5, some of these solutions were bundled with the OS, allowing the use of common hardware cards other than the native chipsets, but don't include any driver solution of their own. Users are required to use third party software to supply hardware dependent drivers. ====Workbench icons==== The [[icon (computing)|icon]]s that Workbench uses to represent the files in a volume or a drawer are stored in special &lt;code&gt;.info&lt;/code&gt; files, with the name of the &lt;code&gt;.info&lt;/code&gt; file matching the name of the file it represents. For example, the icon for &lt;code&gt;NotePad&lt;/code&gt;, a [[text editor]], is found in the file &lt;code&gt;NotePad.info&lt;/code&gt;. The &lt;code&gt;.info&lt;/code&gt; file includes the graphical representation of the icon and its position in the volume or drawer window. The icon also specifies the type of the file, as used by Workbench. Workbench recognises five different file types: * Tool: An executable program. * Project: A data file used by an executable program. * Drawer: A directory containing files, and other drawers. * Volume: A physical disk or a [[RAM disk]]. * Garbage: The Trashcan - a deleted file backup, which works in a similar way to the '[[Recycle bin]]' in [[Microsoft Windows]]. Project files can have a default tool assigned to them via the &lt;code&
tic [[Romanization]]s: ** K&amp;#466;ng F&amp;#363;z&amp;#464; (or K&amp;#466;ng f&amp;#363; z&amp;#464;) in [[pinyin]]. ** ''K'ung fu-tze'' in [[Wade-Giles]] (or, less accurately, Kung fu-tze). *** F&amp;#363;z&amp;#464; means teacher. Since it was disrespectful to call the teacher by name according to Chinese culture, he is known as just &quot;Master Kong&quot;, or Confucius, even in modern days. *** The character 'fu' is optional, so he is commonly also known as ''Kong Zi''. * His actual name was &amp;#23380;&amp;#19992;, K&amp;#466;ng Qi&amp;#363;. ''K&amp;#466;ng'' is a common [[Chinese family name|family name in China]]. * His [[Chinese courtesy name|courtesy name]] was &amp;#20210;&amp;#23612;, ''Zhòng Ní''. * In [[1]] AC (first year of the [[Yuanshi]] period of the [[Han Dynasty]]), he was given his first [[posthumous name]]: &amp;#35090;&amp;#25104;&amp;#23459;&amp;#23612;&amp;#20844;, Lord B&amp;#257;ochéngx&amp;#363;an, which means &quot;Laudably Declarable Lord Ni.&quot; * His most popular posthumous names are ** &amp;#33267;&amp;#32854;&amp;#20808;&amp;#24107;, Zhìshèngxi&amp;#257;nsh&amp;#299;, meaning &quot;The Former Teacher who Arrived at Sagehood&quot; (comes from [[1530]], the ninth year of the [[Jianing]] period of the [[Ming Dynasty]]); ** &amp;#33267;&amp;#32854;, ''Zhìshèng'', &quot;the Greatest Sage&quot;; ** &amp;#20808;&amp;#24107;, Xi&amp;#257;nsh&amp;#299;, &quot;the First Teacher&quot;. * He is also commonly known as &amp;#33836;&amp;#19990;&amp;#24107;&amp;#34920;, Wànshìsh&amp;#299;bi&amp;#462;o, &quot;the Model Teacher of a Myriad Ages&quot; in [[Taiwan]]. ==Philosophy== :''Main article: [[Confucianism]]'' Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, argument continues over whether to refer to it as a religion because it makes little reference to [[theological]] or [[spirituality|spiritual]] matters (god(s), the [[afterlife]], etc.). Confucius's principles gained wide acceptance primarily because of their basis in common Chinese opinion. He championed strong familial loyalty, [[ancestor worship]], and respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives, and used the family as a basis for an ideal government. He expressed the well-known principle, &quot;Do not to others what you do not want done to yourself&quot; (the [[Golden Rule]]). He also looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly the politicians, to model themselves on earlier examples. ===Ethics=== The Confucian theory of ethics is based on three important concepts: While Confucius grew up, ''l&amp;#464;'' (&amp;#31036; [&amp;#31150;]) referred to three aspects of life, that of sacrificing to the gods, social and political institutions, and daily behavior. It was believed that ''l&amp;#464;'' originated from the heavens. Confucius redefined ''l&amp;#464;'', arguing that it flowed not from heaven but from humanity. He redefined ''l&amp;#464;'' to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society. ''L&amp;#464;'' to Confucius became every action by a person aiming at meeting the person's surface desires. These can be either good or bad. Generally attempts to obtain short term pleasure are bad while those that in the long term try to make your life better are generally good. It is all about doing the proper thing at the proper time. To Confucius, ''yì'' (&amp;#20041; [&amp;#32681;]) was the origin of ''l&amp;#464;''. ''Yì'' can best be translated as [[righteousness]]. While doing things because of ''l&amp;#464;'', your own [[self-interest]], was not necessarily bad, you would be a better, more righteousful person if you base your life upon following ''yì''. This means that rather than pursuing your own selfish interests you should do what is right and what is moral. It is doing the right thing for the right reason. ''Yì'' is based upon [[reciprocity]]. An example of living by ''yì'' is how you must mourn your father and mother for three years after their death. Since they took care of you for the first three years of your life you must reciprocate by living in mourning for three years. Just as ''l&amp;#464;'' flows out of ''yì'', so ''yì'' flows out of ''rén'' (&amp;#20161;). ''Ren'' can best be translated as human heartedness. His moral system was based upon [[empathy]] and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To live by ''rén'' was even better than living by the rules of ''yì''. To live by ''rén'' one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: he argued that you must always treat your inferiors just as you would want your superiors to treat you. [[Virtue]] under Confucius is based upon harmony with others, very different from the [[Aristotelian]] view of virtue being personal excellence. He applied an early version of the Golden Rule: &amp;#8220;What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to any one else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others.&amp;#8221; (''Confucius and Confucianism, Richard Wilhelm'') ===Politics=== Confucius' political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argues that the best government is one that rules through &quot;rites&quot; and people's natural morality, rather than using bribery and force. He explained this in one of the most important analects: 1. &quot;If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good.&quot; (Translated by [[James Legge]]) This &quot;sense of shame&quot; is somewhat an internalization of [[duty]], where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]]. While he supported the idea of the all-powerful Emperor, probably because of the chaotic state of China at his time, his philosophies contained a number of elements to limit the power of the rulers. He argued for according language with [[truth]]&amp;mdash;thus [[honesty]] was of the most paramount importance. Even in [[facial expression]], one sought always to achieve this. In discussing the relationship between a son and his father (or a subject and his king), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors; this demanded that the inferior must give advice to his superior if the superior was considered to be taking the wrong course of action in a given situation. This was built upon by his disciple [[Mencius]] to argue that if the king was not acting like a king, he would lose the [[Mandate of Heaven]] and be overthrown. Therefore, [[tyrannicide]] is justified because a [[tyrant]] is more a thief than a king (but attempted tyrannicide is not). [[Image:PICT2367.JPG|thumb|Popular image of Confucius as an object of veneration, [[Thian Hock Keng]] temple, [[Singapore]].]] == Disciples == ''See main article : [[Disciples of Confucius]]'' Confucius' philosophical school was continued by his direct disciples and by his only grandson, [[Zisi]]. [[Mencius]] and [[Xun Zi]] are his two great followers, one on each &quot;side&quot; of his philosophy, perhaps simply described as [[optimism]] and [[pessimism]]. They built upon and expanded his ethico-political system. ==Home town== Soon after Confucius' death, [[Qufu]], his home town, became a place of devotion and remembrance. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many Chinese people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In China, there are many temples where one can find representations of [[Buddha]], [[Lao Zi]] and Confucius together. There are also many temples dedicated to him which have been used for Confucianist ceremonies. &lt;!-- REMOVED THIS UNTIL WE HAVE MORE ON THIS TOPIC The following is a list of temples dedicated to Confucius: *[[Mainland China]] **[[Yunnan]] [[provinces of China|province]] ***[[Kunming]] (1) ***[[Jianshui]] (1) *[[Taiwan]] (20+) **[[Taipei County]] (5) **[[Pescadores]] (1) *[[Japan]] **Yushima Seid&amp;#333;, [[Bunkyo, Tokyo|Bunkyo]] [[23 special wards|Ward]], [[Tokyo]] --&gt; == See also == * [[Neo-Confucianism]] * [[List of publications in philosophy#Chinese philosophy|Important publications in Chinese philosophy]] * [[Temple of Confucius]] ==Further reading== * Confucius. (1997). ''Lun yu'', (In English ''The Analects of Confucius''). Translation and notes by Simon Leys. New York : W.W. Norton. ISBN 0393040194 * Confucius. (2001). &quot;The Analects&quot;. Translated by E. Slingerland. In P. Ivanhoe, &amp; B. Norden, ''Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy''. New York: Seven Bridges Press. (Original work published c. 551-479 bc). ISBN 1889119091. * Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). &quot;Confucianism: An Overview&quot;. In ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' (Vol. C, pp. 1890-1905). Detroit: MacMillan Reference USA. * [[Herrlee Glessner Creel]], ''Chinese Thought, from Confucius to Mao Zedong'', ISBN 0226120309 * Mengzi (2001). ''Mengzi'' Translation by B. Van Norden. In P. Ivanhoe &amp; B. Norden, ''Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy''. New York: Seven Bridges Press. ISBN 1889119091. * Wu, J. (1995a). &quot;Confucius&quot;. In I. McGreal (Ed.), ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World: The Major Thinkers of the Philosophical and Religious Classics of China, India, Japan, Korea and the world of Islam'' (pp. 3-8). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0062700855 * Wu. J. (1995b) &quot;Mencius&quot;. In I. McGreal (Ed.), ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World: The Major Thinkers of the Philosophical and Religious Classics of China, India, Japan, Korea and the world of Islam'' (pp. 27-30). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0062700855 ==External links== {{Wikisource author}} {{wikiquote}} {{commonscat|Confucius}} * [http://www.confucius.org/ Multilingual web site on Confucius and
nd [[philosopher]]s have objected to the Copenhagen interpretation, both on the grounds that it is non-deterministic and that it includes an undefined measurement process that converts probability functions into non-probabilistic measurements. [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s quotations &quot;God does not play dice&quot; and &quot;Do you really think the moon isn't there if you aren't looking at it?&quot; exemplify this. Bohr, in response, said &quot;Einstein, don't tell God what to do&quot;. [[Erwin Schrödinger]] devised the [[Schrödinger's cat]] experiment that attempts to illustrate the incompleteness of the theory of quantum mechanics when going from subatomic to macroscopic systems. Also, the required &quot;instantaneous&quot; collapse of the wavefunction throughout all of space is problematic. Einstein's Relativity demonstrates that &quot;instantaneous&quot; has meaning only for observers sharing a single reference frame. No universal time reference exists so the &quot;instantaneous wave function collapse&quot; of the Copenhagen Interpretation is left undefined. == Alternatives == Many physicists have subscribed to the null interpretation of quantum mechanics summarized by [[Paul Dirac]]'s famous dictum &quot;Shut up and calculate!&quot;, often (perhaps erroneously) attributed to [[Richard Feynman]]. A list of alternatives can be found at [[Interpretation of quantum mechanics]]. ==See also== *[[Afshar experiment]] *[[Bohr-Einstein debates]] *[[Consistent Histories]] * [[Philosophical interpretation of classical physics]] ==Further reading== * G. Weihs et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (1998) 5039 * M. Rowe et al., Nature 409 (2001) 791. ==Video Demonstration== * From Movie &quot;What the Bleep Do We Know&quot; Clip of Double Split Experiment http://www.whatthebleep.com/trailer/doubleslit.wm.low.html (The download time over a modem connection is very slow, and playback is interrupted so frequently that it may be impossible to understand. ==External links== * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-copenhagen Copenhagen Interpretation (''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'')] * [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Quantum/bells_inequality.html Physics FAQ section about Bell's inequality] * [http://www.benbest.com/science/quantum.html The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics] * [http://www.irims.org/quant-ph/030503/ Preprint of Afshar Experiment] [[Category:Quantum measurement]] [[Category:University of Copenhagen]] [[ar:تفسير كوبنهاجن]] [[da:Københavnerfortolkningen]] [[de:Kopenhagener Deutung]] [[es:Interpretación de Copenhague]] [[fr:École de Copenhague]] [[gl:Interpretación de Copenhague]] [[he:פרשנות קופנהאגן]] [[ja:コペンハーゲン解釈]] [[pl:Interpretacja kopenhaska]] [[pt:Interpretação de Copenhaga]] [[ru:Копенгагенская интерпретация]] [[sv:Köpenhamnstolkningen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Customs union</title> <id>5864</id> <revision> <id>42057839</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:41:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>John wesley</username> <id>689662</id> </contributor> <comment>/* References */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{trading blocs}} A '''customs union''' is a [[free trade area]] with a [[Common External Tariff]]. The participant countries set up common [[external trade]] [[policy]], but in some cases they use different import [[quota]]s. Common [[competition policy]] is also helpful to avoid [[competition]] deficiency. Purposes for establishing a customs union normally include increasing [[economic efficiency]] and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries. It is the third stage of [[economic integration]]. Customs union is established through [[trade pact]]. == List of Customs Unions == ''Every [[Common market]] and [[Economic and monetary union]] has also a '''Customs Union''''' *[[Southern African Customs Union]] *[[East African Community]] *[[Gulf Cooperation Council]] *[[MERCOSUR]] *[[EU-Turkey Customs Union|EU - Turkey Customs Union]] (since 1996) *[[Third country relationships with the EU#Customs Union|EU - Andorra Customs Union]] *[[Third country relationships with the EU#Customs Union|EU - San Marino Customs Union]] *[[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa]] (CEMAC) *[[West African Economic and Monetary Union]] (UEMOA) *[[Andean Community]] (CAN) *[[Israel]] - [[Palestinian territories]] (since [[1994]]) *[[Switzerland]] - [[Liechtenstein]] (since [[1924]]) ===Proposed=== *Customs Union of the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS), due in 2007 *Customs Union of the [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] (COMESA), due in 2008 *Customs Union of the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC), due in 2010 *Customs Union of the [[Economic Community of Central African States]] (ECCAS), due in 2011 ? *Customs Union of the [[African Economic Community]] (AEC), due in 2019 *[[Eurasian Economic Community]] (EurAsEC) ===Defunct=== *[[Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa]] (UDEAC) - superceded by [[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa|CEMAC]] *Customs Union of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) - proposed successor is [[Eurasian Economic Community|EurAsEC]] *[[1925]] French Customs Union over occupied [[Saarland]] *The former [[Zollverein]] ==See also== * [[List of international trade topics]] ==References== * Michael T. Florinsky. 1934. The Saar Struggle. New York: The Macmillan Company. [[Category:International trade]] [[bg:Митнически съюз]] [[de:Zollunion]] [[lb:Zollunioun]] [[nl:Douane-unie]] [[pl:Unia celna]] [[sv:Tullunion]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Council of Europe</title> <id>5865</id> <revision> <id>41838344</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:53:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tibetibet</username> <id>196402</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Aims */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''CoE redirects here, which also stands for [[Church of England]].'' [[Image:Council of Europe.jpg|333px|thumb|right|The Palace of Europe in Strasbourg]] [[Image:European flag.svg|333px|thumb|right|European Flag: used by the Council of Europe and by the European Union]] The '''Council of Europe''' ([[French language|French]]: Conseil de l'Europe, [[German language|German]]: Europarat) is an [[international organizations|international organisation]] of 46 member states in the [[Europe]]an region. The seat of the Council of Europe is in [[Strasbourg]] on the [[France|Franco]]-[[Germany|German]] border. Originally meeting in Strasbourg's University Palace, it is now domiciled in the [[Palace of Europe]] on the outskirts of the city centre. Membership is open to all European states which accept the principle of the [[rule of law]] and guarantee fundamental [[human rights]] and [[freedom]]s to their citizens. One of the main successes of the Council was the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] in [[1950]], which serves as the basis for the [[European Court of Human Rights]]. The Council of Europe is not to be confused with the [[Council of the European Union]] or the [[European Council]], as it is a separate organisation and not part of the [[European Union]]. == Founding == The Council of Europe was founded following a speech given by [[Winston Churchill]] at the [[University of Zurich]] on [[19 September]], [[1946]] ([http://www.peshawar.ch/varia/winston.htm text of speech]) calling for a &quot;[[United States of Europe]]&quot;, similar to the [[United States of America]], in the wake of the events of [[World War II]]. The Council was officially founded on [[5 May]], [[1949]] by the [[Treaty of London, 1949|Treaty of London]] agreed to by the ten original members. This treaty is now known as the Statute of the Council of Europe. == Aims == Article 1(a) of the Statute states: :''The aim of the Council of Europe is to achieve a greater unity between its members for the purpose of safeguarding and realising the ideals and principles which are their common heritage and facilitating their economic and social progress.'' The Council concentrates on the following areas: *Protection of [[democracy]] and the [[rule of law]] *Protection of [[human rights]], notably: ** Social rights, with the [[European Social Charter]] ** Linguistic rights, with the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] ** Media freedom, with the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] *Promotion of Europe's [[cultural identity]] and diversity; *Addressing problems facing European society including [[discrimination]], [[xenophobia]], [[environmental degradation]], [[AIDS]], [[recreational drug use|drugs]] and [[organised crime]] *Encouraging democratic stability via reform. == Institutions == The institutions of the Council of Europe are: *The [[Council of Europe Secretariat|Secretariat]] and the [[Secretary-General of the Council of Europe|Secretary-General]] *The [[Council of Europe Committee of Ministers|Committee of Ministers]] * The [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe|Parliamentary Assembly]] (PACE) *The [[European Court of Human Rights]] * [http://www.coe.int/T/E/Commissioner_H.R/Communication_Unit/ The Commissioner for Human Rights] There's also the European Commission for Democracy through Law, better known as the [[Venice Commission]]. == Symbols == ''Main article: [[European symbols]]'' [[Image:European flag.svg|right|thumb|European flag]] The Council of Europe is responsible for the notable [[European flag]] with 12 golden stars (upward pointing) arranged in a circle on a blue background since [[1955]], and the [[anthem]] based on the [[Ode to Joy]] in the final movement of [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s ninth symphony since [[1972]]. In [[1964]], it established the anniversary of its founding on [[5 May]] [[1949]] as [[Europe Day]]. (The [[EU]] has also designated
eginning in 1838) to work on the sugar plantations. In [[1889]] Venezuela claimed the land up to the Essequibo. Ten years later an international tribunal ruled the land belonged to British Guiana. Guyana achieved independence from the United Kingdom in [[1966]] and became a [[republic]] in [[1970]], remaining a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. The [[CIA]] and [[United States State Department]] along with the British government played a strong covert role in influencing who would control Guyana during this time. ==Politics== ''Main article: [[Politics of Guyana]]'' [[Legislative]] power rests in the [[unicameral]] Guyanese [[parliament]], called the National Assembly, with 53 members chosen on the basis of [[proportional representation]] from national lists named by the political parties. An additional 12 members are elected by regional councils at the same time as the National Assembly. [[Executive (government)|Executive]] authority is exercised by the [[president]], who appoints and supervises the [[prime minister]] and other ministers. The president is not directly elected; each party presenting a slate of candidates for the assembly must designate in advance a leader who will become president if that party receives the largest number of votes. Any dissolution of the assembly and election of a new assembly can lead to a change in the assembly majority and consequently a change in the presidency. An ethnocultural divide between the two main ethnic groups has persisted and has on occasion led to turbulent politics. The highest judicial body is the Court of Appeal, headed by a chancellor of the [[judiciary]]. The second level is the High Court, presided over by a chief justice. The chancellor and the Chief Justice are appointed by the president. The [http://www.audit.org.gy Audit Office of Guyana (AOG)] is the country's Supreme Audit Institution (SAI). Guyana is a full and participating founder-member of the [[Caribbean Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]], the headquarters of which is located in Georgetown. The CARICOM Single Market &amp; Economy (CSME) will, by necessity, bring Caribbean-wide [http://www.caricomlaw.org legislation] into force and a [http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/ Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ)]. ===Heads of Government=== *[[Bharrat Jagdeo]] 1999 - Present *[[Janet Jagan]] 1997 - 1999 [http://www.jagan.org/janet_jagan.htm Jagan website] *[[Samuel Hinds]] [[March 6]] [[1997]] - [[19 December]] [[1997]] *[[Desmond Hoyte]] 1985 - 1992 *[[Forbes Burnham]] 1966 - 1985 *[[Cheddi Jagan]] 1957 - 1964, 1992 - 1997 [http://www.jagan.org/ Jagan website] ===Heads of State=== *[[Richard Luyt|Sir Richard Edmonds Luyt]]: [[26 May]] - [[16 December]] [[1966]] *[[David James Gardiner Rose|Sir David James Gardiner Rose]]: [[16 December]] [[1966]] - [[10 November]] [[1969]] *[[Edward Victor Luckhoo|Sir Edward Victor Luckhoo:]] [[10 November]] [[1969]] - [[22 February]] [[1970]] *[[Arthur Chung]] 1970 - 1980 ''*Note'': Guyana has adopted the Presidential System form of Government hence the current Head of State (the President) also holds the portfolio of Head of Government and Supreme Executive Authority. ==Political Divisions/Regions== ''Main article: [[Regions of Guyana]]'' Guyana consists of 10 regions: * [[Barima-Waini]] (Region 1) * [[Cuyuni-Mazaruni]] (Region 7) * [[Demerara-Mahaica]] (Region 4) * [[East Berbice-Corentyne]] (Region 5) * [[Essequibo Islands-West Demerara]] (Region 3) * [[Mahaica-Berbice]] (Region 6) * [[Pomeroon-Supenaam]] (Region 2) * [[Potaro-Siparuni]] (Region 8) * [[Upper Demerara-Berbice]] (Region 10) * [[Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo]] (Region 9) ==Geography== [[Image:Gy-map.png|thumb|Map of Guyana]] ''Main article: [[Geography of Guyana]]'' Guyana can be divided into three regions: a narrow and fertile marshy plain along the [[Atlantic]] coast where most of the population lives, then a white sand belt more inland consisting of dense [[rainforest]]s and containing most of Guyana's mineral deposits, and finally the larger interior highlands consisting mostly of mountains that gradually rise to the Brazilian border. Guyana's main mountains are contained here, including [[Mount Ayanganna]] (2042 m) and on [[Mount Roraima]] (2,835 m - highest mountain in Guyana) on the [[Brazil]]-Guyana-[[Venezuela]] [[tripoint]], part of the [[Pakaraima]] range. Roraima is said to be have been the inspiration for ''[[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]]''. There are also many steep escarpments and waterfalls, including the famous [[Kaieteur Falls]]. Between the [[Rupununi River]] and the border with Brazil lies the [[Rupununi savannah]], south of which lie the [[Kanuku Mountains]]. There are many rivers in the country, the main four being (west to east) the [[Essequibo River|Essequibo]], the [[Demerara River|Demerara]], the [[Berbice River|Berbice]] and the [[Courantyne River|Corentyne]] along the border with [[Suriname]]. At the mouth of the Essequibo are several large islands. The 145 km [[Shell Beach, Guyana|Shell Beach]] along the north-west coast of Guyana is a major breeding area for [[turtle]]s and other wildlife. The local [[climate]] is [[tropical climate|tropical]] and generally hot and humid, though moderated by northeast trade winds along the coast. There are two rainy seasons, the first from May to mid-August, the second from mid-November to mid-January. '''International disputes''' - all of the area west of the Essequibo (river) is claimed by Venezuela preventing any discussion of a maritime boundary; Guyana has expressed its intention to join Barbados in asserting claims before UNCLOS that Trinidad and Tobago's maritime boundary with Venezuela extends into their waters; Suriname claims a triangle of land between the New and Kutari/Koetari rivers in a historic dispute over the headwaters of the Courantyne; Guyana seeks UNCLOS arbitration to resolve the long-standing dispute with Suriname over the axis of the territorial sea boundary in potentially oil-rich waters. ''See also [[List of cities in Guyana]], [[Regions of Guyana]]'' ==Economy== ''Main article: [[Economy of Guyana]]'' The main economic activities in Guyana are [[agriculture]] (producing rice and Demerara sugar), [[bauxite]] mining, [[gold]] mining, timber, shrimp and minerals. The sugar industry, which accounts for 28% of all export earnings, is largely run by [[Guysuco]] which employs more people than any other industry. Many industries have a large foreign investment. The mineral industry, for example, is heavily invested in by the American company [[Reynolds Metals]] and the Canadian [[Alcan]] and the Korean/Malaysian [[Barama Company]] has a large stake in the logging industry. The Guyanese economy has exhibited moderate economic growth since [[1999]], based on an expansion in the [[agriculture|agricultural]] and [[mining]] sectors, a more favorable atmosphere for business initiatives, a more realistic exchange rate, fairly low [[inflation]], and the continued support of international organizations. Chronic problems include a shortage of skilled [[labor (economics)|labor]] and a deficient [[infrastructure]]. The government is juggling a sizable external debt against the urgent need for expanded public investment. Low prices for key mining and agricultural commodities combined with troubles in the [[bauxite]] and [[sugar]] industries threaten the government's already tenuous fiscal position and dim prospects for the future. Major private sector organizations include the [http://www.psc.org.gy Private Sector Commission (PSC)] and the [http://www.georgetownchamberofcommerce.org Georgetown Chamber of Commerce &amp; Industry (GCCI)]; see a list of [[List of Guyanese companies|companies in Guyana]]. '''Economic Summary''' - '''GDP/PPP (2004 est.):''' $2.899 billion; per capita $3,800. '''Real growth rate:''' 1.9%. '''Inflation:''' 4.5%. '''Unemployment:''' 9.1% (2000) (understated). '''Arable land:''' 2%. '''Labor force:''' 418,000 (2001 est.); agriculture n.a., industry n.a., services n.a. '''Agriculture:''' sugar, rice, wheat, vegetable oils; beef, pork, poultry, dairy products; fish, shrimp. '''Industries:''' bauxite, sugar, rice milling, timber, textiles, gold mining. '''Natural resources:''' bauxite, gold, diamonds, hardwood timber, shrimp, fish. '''Exports:''' $570.2 million (f.o.b., 2004 est.): sugar, gold, bauxite/alumina, rice, shrimp, molasses, rum, timber. '''Imports:''' $650.1 million (f.o.b., 2004 est.): manufactures, machinery, petroleum, food. '''Major trading partners:''' Canada, U.S., UK, Portugal, Belgium, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Italy, Cuba (2003) '''Communications''' - Telephones: Main lines in use: 102,700 (2004 - source: ITU); Mobile cellular: 219,000 (Sep 2005 - source: Informa Telecoms). Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998). Television broadcast stations: 14 (one public station; two private stations which relay U.S. satellite services) (2005). Internet hosts : 642 (2004 - source: ITU). Internet users: 145,000 (2004 - source: ITU). '''Transportation''' - Railways: total: 187 km (all dedicated to ore transport) (2001 est.). Highways: total: 7,970 km; paved: 590 km; unpaved: 7,380 km (1999 est.). Waterways: 1,077 km; note: Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo rivers are navigable by oceangoing vessels for 150 km, 100 km, and 80 km respectively (2004) . Ports and harbors: Georgetown. Airports: 49 (2004 est.). ==Demographics== ''Main article: [[Demographics of Guyana]]'' Guyana's population of 751,223 ([http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/ Statistics Bureau], 2002) is diverse: the three largest groups are the [[India]]ns or [[Indo-Guyanese]] (43.5% in 2002) who have remained predominantly rural, the [[Africa]]ns or [[Afro-Guyanese]] (30.2%) who constitute the majority urban population, and those of mixed origin (16.7%). The [[Amerindian]]s (9.2%) who live in the country's interior, are divided into a numb
rious anthropogenic movements due to, e.g., [[petroleum]] or water extraction or reservoir contruction. The science of studying deformations and motions in the Earth's crust and the solid Earth as a whole is called [[geodynamics]]. Often, also study of the Earth's irregular rotation is included in its definition. Techniques for studying geodynamic phenomena on the global scale include: satellite positioning by [[GPS]] and similar techniques, very long baseline interferometry ([[VLBI]]), and satellite and lunar [[laser ranging]]. Regionally and locally, precise levelling, precise tacheometers and monitoring gravity change, as well as synthetic aperture radar interferometry ([[inSAR]]) from orbit are often used techniques. == International organizations == * [http://www.iag-aig.org/ International Association of Geodesy (IAG)] * [http://www.iugg.org/ International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG)] * [http://www.fig.net/ Fédération Internationale des Géomètres (FIG)] == University institutes == Some [[university]] [[institute]]s engaged in geodesy include: * ''[http://www.kntu.ac.ir/facsurvey/main/main_page.htm Faculty of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering]'',''[http://www.kntu.ac.ir K.N.Toosi University of Technology]'', [[Tehran]],[[Iran]] * The ''Institut für Erdmessung'' in [[Hannover]], Germany - which specialises in [[astro-geodetic]] zenith cameras and [[geoid]] computations for many European countries * The ''Institut für Theoretische Geodäsie'' in [[Bonn]] (Geodesy, [[Radio astronomy]] and [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]) * The ''Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie'' in [[Munich]], southern Germany. * The [[Austria]]n ''Institute for Geodesy and Geophysics'' at the [[TU]] [[Vienna]] ([[astro-geodetic|astro-geological]] geoid, [[IGS]] and [[Very Long Baseline Interferometry|VLBI]]) * The [[Switzerland|Swiss]] ''Geodetic Institute'' at the [[ETH Zurich|ETH]] [[Zürich]] ([[Geophysics|geophysical]] geodesy, GPS etc.) * [http://geodesy.eng.ohio-state.edu/ Geodesy at Ohio State University, Columbus OH, USA] * [http://gge.unb.ca/HomePage.php3 Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Canada] * [http://www.hut.fi/Units/Departments/M/ Department of Surveying at Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland] * [http://www.geomatics.ucalgary.ca/ Geomatics Engineering at the University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada] * [http://www.wtusm.edu.cn/en/index.html Wuhan Technical University of Surveying and Mapping (WTUSM), Wuhan, China] * [http://www.spatial.curtin.edu.au/ Department of Spatial Sciences, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia] * [http://www.geof.hr Faculty of Geodesy and Geoinformatics], [[University of Zagreb]], [[Zagreb]], [[Croatia]] * [http://geomatics.fksg.utm.my/index.htm Faculty of Geoinformation Science &amp; Engineering, Malaysian University of Technology, Johor Bahru, Malaysia] *[http://geom.unimelb.edu.au Department of Geomatic Engineering, University Of Melbourne, Australia] * [http://www.luzingenieriageodesica.org.ve Escuela de Ingenieria Geodesica de La Universidad del Zulia]'' (LUZ-INGENIERIA GEODESICA) at Maracaibo, Venezuela == Governmental agencies == * [http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/ National Geodetic Survey] ([[NGS]]) in Silver Spring MD, USA * [http://www.nga.mil/portal/site/nga01/ National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency] ([[National_Geospatial-Intelligence_Agency|NGA]]) in Bethesda MD, USA (Previously National Imagery and Mapping Agency NIMA, previously Defense Mapping Agency DMA) * [http://www.usgs.gov/ U.S. Geological Survey] ([[USGS]]) in Reston VA, USA * ''Institut Geographique National'' in Saint-Mandé, France * [http://www.ifag.de/sitemap.html Bundesamt für Kartographie und Geodäsie] (BKG) In Frankfurt a.M., Germany (Previously Institut für Angewandte Geodäsie, IfAG) * ''Central Research Institute for Geodesy, Remote Sensing and Cartography'' (CNIIGAIK), Moscow, Russia * [http://www.geod.nrcan.gc.ca/index_e/geodesy_e/geodesy_e.html Geodetic Survey Division], Natural Resources Canada * [http://www.ga.gov.au/geodesy/ Geoscience Australia], Australian Federal Agency * ''[http://www.fgi.fi Finnish Geodetic Institute]'' (FGI) at Masala, Finland * ''[http://www.igeo.pt Portuguese Geographic Institute]'' (IGEO) at Lisbon, Portugal ''Note: This list is still largely incomplete.'' == See also == {{wikibookspar||Geodesy}} * [[History of geodesy]] * [[List of publications in geology#Geodetics| Important publications in geodesy]] * [[World Geodetic System]] * [[WGS 84]] ==External links== {{commons|Category:Geodesy}} *[http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/geodesy.html The Geodesy Page.] *[http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/geodesy/welcome.html Welcome to Geodesy] *[http://www.mapref.org MapRef.org: The Collection of Map Projections and Reference Systems for Europe] *[http://www.geomatics.kth.se/hf/geo.html Geodesy on the World Wide Web] *[http://www.pamagic.org/pamagic/lib/pamagic/Geodetic_Ver1_5.pdf Pennsylvania Geospatial Data Sharing Standard - Geodesy and Geodetic Monumentation] *[http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/FG5references.html References on Absolute Gravimeters] *[http://gge.unb.ca/Research/GeodesyGroup/tutorial/tutorial.htm Geodesy tutorial at U. New Brunswick] [[Category:Geodesy]] [[ar:جيوديسيا]] [[bg:Геодезия]] [[ca:Geodèsia]] [[da:Geodæsi]] [[de:Geodäsie]] [[es:Geodesia]] [[eo:Geodezio]] [[fr:Géodésie]] [[hr:Geodezija]] [[he:גאודזיה]] [[hu:Geodézia]] [[nl:Geodesie]] [[ja:測地学]] [[pl:Geodezja]] [[pt:Geodésia]] [[ro:Geodezie]] [[ru:Геодезия]] [[sk:Geodézia]] [[sl:Geodezija]] [[sr:Геодезија]] [[fi:Geodesia]] [[sv:Geodesi]] [[tr:Jeodezi]] [[zh:大地测量学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>German-style board game</title> <id>12609</id> <revision> <id>42132394</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:02:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Shaile</username> <id>249110</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Game designers */ added Inkognito to Leo Collovini, fixed his name</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''German-style board games''', also known as '''Euro games''', '''designer games''', '''family strategy games''' or '''hobby board games''', are family games designed to appeal simultaneously to older children and adults. Usually they have simple rules, attractive components, modest length and a tangible theme. Yet still they offer lots of opportunities to make strategic decisions. While games with all the hallmarks of German style board games originated in the 1960s ([[Acquire]], by [[Sid Sackson]], published by 3M in the USA being a notable example) the genre as a more concentrated design movement originated around the late 1970s/early 1980s in [[Germany]], and per capita that country publishes more board games than any other, hence the name. Nowadays, the phenomenon has spread to many other places in [[Europe]]; plenty of the games are designed and published in such places as [[France]] and [[The Netherlands]], and while many are published and played in other markets such as the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], they remain largely at niche status there. ''[[The Settlers of Catan]]'' (in German: ''Die Siedler von Catan''), first published in 1995, paved the way for the genre in the U.S. and outside Europe. It was not the first German game, but it quickly became much more popular than any of its predecessors. It quickly sold millions of copies in Germany, and in the process brought money and attention to the genre as a whole. == Characteristics == German games are usually designed as a vehicle to underpin a social gathering, rather than to play as an end in themselves as [[wargaming]] titles and classic [[strategy games]] like [[Chess]] and [[Go]] often are. Despite this, many titles (especially the strategically deeper ones) are enthusiastically played by &quot;gamers&quot; as a hobby, but the publishers are for the most part aiming their products at &quot;everyman&quot; social play. Bearing this social function in mind, designers have found various characteristics tend to support that aspect well, and these have become quite common across the genre. The following characteristics are consequently typical of German games: * Variable number of players - The games are designed to be played with a wide ranging group. Typically the minimum number of players is only two or three, and the maximum might be four or five or even more. * Simple, clever rules - The rules for most games are only a few pages and simple to learn. Novel mechanisms that will be unfamiliar to those brought up on older titles are often incorporated. The &quot;roll-and-move&quot; mechanic of games like [[Monopoly (game) | Monopoly]] is almost never seen. If a monetary system is included at all, it is usually very simple. * No player elimination - The games usually continue until some defined set of criteria is met. At that point, a winner is determined. Players don't get kicked out in midgame by running out of money or armies. * Heavy player interaction - Players often trade, compete for resources, try to win auctions, or affect one another in other ways. * Minimize direct conflict - War is rarely a theme. It is often difficult or impossible for one player to destroy other players' pieces or position. Usually you are trying to make your own position stronger or stop other players from growing. * Mitigated luck - The games usually feature some component of luck to keep the games exciting and varied. However, luck is often balanced against numerous strategic and tactical decisions. A skilled player will win far more than a foolish one. * Diversity of situations - The combination of unusual rules and randomness is used to achieve a variety of possible situations. The goal is to keep the game interesting and fresh even after it has been played many times. * Modest length - Games are typically designed to take about an hour, and most will rarely take more
nd they were dubbed in common parlance as the ''bon hommes''. The exemplary behavior of the Perfecti &amp;mdash; so blatantly in contrast on to the corruption of the normative medieval church &amp;mdash; was one the factors that made Catharism difficult to suppress within its homeland. (The Cathar example has been seen as one of the forces subsequently influencing the young [[Francis of Assisi]] and the [[Franciscan|movement]] he founded.) While the Perfecti lived lives of simplicity, frugality and purity, Cathar ''credentes'' (believers) were not expected to adopt the same stringent lifestyle. Catharism was above all a popular religion and the numbers of those who considered themselves &quot;believers&quot; in the late twelfth century included a sizable portion of the population of Languedoc, counting among them many noble families and courts. These individuals married, ate meat, and led relatively normative lives within the matrix of medieval society &amp;mdash; in contrast to the Perfecti, whom they honored as their exemplars. Though unable to immediately embrace a life of complete purity, the credentes looked toward an eventual time when this would be their calling and path. Many credentes would also eventually receive the consolumentum as death drew near &amp;mdash; embracing the ritual of liberation at a moment when the heavy obligations of purity required of a Perfecti would be temporally short. Some of those who received the sacrament of the consolamentum upon their death-beds may thereafter have shunned further food or drink in order to give the death process a quicker termination. This has been termed the ''endura''. It was claimed by Cathar opponents that by such action of self-imposed starvation, the Cathari committed suicide to escape this world. Other than at the moment of ''extremis'', however, little evidence exists to support such a Cathar practice more generally. ===Theology=== The Catharist concept of Jesus might be called docetistic (see [[docetism]]) &amp;mdash; theologically speaking, it resembled [[modalistic]] [[monarchianism]] in the West and [[adoptionism]] in the East. Simply put, most Cathars believed that [[Jesus]] had been a pure manifestation of spirit unbounded by the limitations of matter. They embraced the ''[[Gospel of John]]'' as their most sacred text, and completely rejected the [[Old Testament]] &amp;mdash; indeed, most of them proclaimed that the god of the [[Old Testament]] was by all textual evidence really the [[devil]]. They proclaimed that there was a higher God &amp;mdash; the True God &amp;mdash; and Jesus was his messenger while many in the West who adhered to a modalistic theology proclaimed he was the True God himself. These are views similar to those of [[Marcion]]. The deity found in the Old Testament had nothing to do with the God of Love known to Cathar faith. He had created the world as a prison, and demanded from these &quot;prisoners&quot; fearful obedience and worship. This false god was in reality &amp;mdash; so proclaimed the Cathari &amp;mdash; a blind usurper who under the most unjust pretexts tormented and murdered those whom he called all too possessively &quot;his children&quot;. (This exegesis upon the Old Testament is not unique to the Cathars, and clearly echoes views found in earlier Gnostic movements and certainly foreshadows later critical voices.) The dogma of the [[Trinity]] and the sacrament of the [[Eucharist]] were also rejected. Belief in [[metempsychosis]], or the transmigration of souls, resulted in logical rejection of [[purgatory]]; for the Cathars, the current world was purgatory enough. ===Social relationships=== From the theological underpinnings of the Cathar faith there came practical injunctions that were potentially destabilizing to the order of medieval society. For instance, Cathars rejected the giving of oaths as wrongful; an oath served to place one under the domination this world. To reject oaths in this manner was seen as very dangerous in a society where illiteracy was wide-spread and almost all business transactions and pledges of allegiance were based on the giving of oaths. In Cathar society and religion women were granted an uncommon equality and autonomy, including acceptance as Perfecti, the clerical order of Cathari. Cathars did not perform any rite of marriage, which was seen as a contract of social bondage. Nor was procreation encouraged: bringing more souls into what they considered a dark and sorrowful world was not a blessed act. Sexual intercourse and reproduction propagated the slavery of spirit to flesh, and sexual abstinence was considered desirable even in matrimony. Informal relationships (what might be termed [[concubine|concubinage]]) may have been considered preferable to the social contract of marriage among Cathar credentes. Perfecti were expected to observe complete celibacy. Abandonment of a wife or husband (and abrogation of a social contract, though not necessarily a relationship of love) might be necessary for those who would become Perfecti. The slaying of life was abhorrent to the Cathars, just as was the senseless copulation that produced enslavement in matter. Consequently, abstention from all animal food except fish was enjoined of the Perfecti. (The Perfecti apparently avoided eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction, including cheese, eggs, milk and butter.) War and capital punishment were also absolutely condemned, an abnormality in the medieval age, and a fact that prohibited the Cathar Perfecti from bearing arms even in their own defense. Such teachings, both theological and practical, brought upon the Cathars firm condemnation from the medieval civil and religious authorities whose social order they threatened. ==Suppression== In 1147, [[Pope Eugene III]] sent a legate to the affected district in order to arrest the progress of the Cathars. The few isolated successes of [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] could not obscure the poor results of this mission, and clearly shows the power of the sect in the south of France at that period. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St. Chrysogonus) to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano, in 1180&amp;ndash;1181, obtained merely momentary successes. Henry of Albano's armed expedition, where he took the stronghold at Lavaur, did not extinguish the movement. The persistent decisions of the councils against the Cathars at this period &amp;mdash; in particular, those of the Council of [[Tours]] (1163) and of the [[Third Council of the Lateran]] (1179) &amp;mdash; had scarcely more effect. By the time [[Pope Innocent III]] came to power in 1198, he had resolved to suppress the Cathari. The Pope called a formal crusade, appointing a series of leaders to head his holy army. There followed over forty years of war against the indigenous population. During this period some 500,000 Languedoc men women and children were massacred. [http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm] [[Dominic de Guzman|St Dominic]] encountered them while travelling, and tried to combat the strange doctrines. He had concluded that only the best of preachers could win over people who had fallen in with the Cathari sect. This led to the establishment of the [[Dominican Order]] in [[1216]]. The order was to live up to the terms of his famous rebuke, &quot;Zeal must be met by zeal, humility by humility, false sanctity by real sanctity, preaching falsehood by preaching truth.&quot; At first Pope Innocent III tried pacific conversion, and sent a number of legates into the affected regions. They had to contend not only with the Cathars, the nobles who protected them, and the people who venerated them, but also with the [[bishop]]s of the district, who rejected the extraordinary authority which the [[Pope]] had conferred upon his legates. In 1204, Innocent III suspended the authority of the bishops in the south of France. Papal legate Peter of Castelnau, known for excommunicating the noblemen who protected the Cathars, excommunicated the Count of Toulouse as an [[abettor]] of heresy in 1207. Peter was then murdered near Saint Gilles Abbey in 1208 on his way back to [[Rome]], according to the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', &quot;probably at the connivance of [[Raymond VI, count of Toulouse]]&quot;. As soon as he heard of the murder, the Pope ordered his legates to preach the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the Cathars. This war threw the whole of the nobility of the north of France against that of the south, possibly instigated by a papal decree stating that all land owned by Cathars could be confiscated at will. As the area was full of Cathar sympathisers, this made the entire area a target for northern nobles looking to gain new lands. It is thus hardly surprising that the barons of the north flocked south to do battle for the Church. In one famous incident in 1209, most of [[Beziers|Béziers]] were slaughtered by the Catholic forces headed by the Papal legate. [[Arnaud-Amaury]], the Abbot of Citeaux, was asked how to distinguish between the Catholic and Cathars, and allegedly answered, &quot;Kill them all, God will know his own&quot;. The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' denies these words were ever spoken, although they were recorded soon after the event by a respected Church chronicler who was also Arnaud-Amaury's fellow Cistercian. They are also consistent with other sources such as the contemporary Song of the Cusade. The war also involved [[Peter II of Aragon|Peter II]], the king of [[Aragon]], who owned fiefdoms and had vassals in the area. Peter died fighting against the crusade on September 12, 1213 at the [[Battle of Muret]]. The war ended in the Treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater part of its [[fiefs]], and that of Béziers of the whole of its fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an end. But in spite of t
ublic transportation to the city, primarily by bus. A [[regional rail|commuter rail]] plan, under the authority of Capital Metro, is underway and scheduled for completion in [[2008]]. The system &amp;#8212; which will be built on pre-existing freight rail lines &amp;#8212; will serve Downtown Austin, East Austin, Northwest Austin and Leander in the first phase. Austin's main airport is [[Austin-Bergstrom International Airport]], located 5 miles (8 km) southeast of the city. An [[Amtrak]] [[Texas Eagle]] station is located west of Downtown. Segments of the Amtrak route between Austin and San Antonio are being evaluated for a future passenger rail corridor as an alternative to the traffic congestion of Interstate-35. ==Suburban Area== Suburbs include [[Lakeway, Texas|Lakeway]], [[Round Rock, Texas|Round Rock]], [[Bastrop, Texas|Bastrop]], [[San Marcos, Texas|San Marcos]], and [[Georgetown, Texas|Georgetown]]. In addition, [[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]] is within 75 miles of Austin. ==Sister cities== * [[Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg|20px|]] [[Adelaide]], [[Australia]] - since 1983 * [[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|20px|]] [[Koblenz]], [[Germany]] * [[Image:Peru_flag_large.png|20px|]] [[Lima]], [[Peru]] * [[Image:Lesotho_flag_large.png|20px|]] [[Maseru]], [[Lesotho]] * [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|20px|]] [[Oita]], [[Japan]] * [[Image:{{Country flag alias Mexico}}|20px|]] [[Saltillo]], [[Mexico]] * [[Image:Flag of the Republic of China.svg|20px|]] [[Taichung]], [[Republic of China|Taiwan]] * [[Image:Flag_of_Canada.svg|21px|]] [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], [[Canada]] * [[Image:Nigeria_flag_large.png|20px|]] [[Old Orlu]], [[Nigeria]] * [[Image:South_korea_flag_large.png|20px|]] [[Kwangmyong]], [[South Korea]] ==External links== *[http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/ City of Austin] ===Media and entertainment=== *[http://www.statesman.com/ Austin American-Statesman] *[http://austin.bizjournals.com/ Austin Business Journal] *[http://www.auschron.com/ Austin Chronicle] (weekly) *[http://www.dailytexanonline.com/ UT's The Daily Texan] *[http://www.kmfa.org/ KMFA Classical 89.5FM (listener-supported, non-commercial, all-classical radio)] *[http://www.koop.org/ KOOP 91.7FM Community Radio for Austin] *[http://www.kut.org/ KUT 90.5FM] (Eclectic music and [[National Public Radio|NPR]] News) *[http://www.kvrnews.com/ KVR News 9, UT's Broadcast News Show] *[http://www.kvrx.org/ KVRX UT Student Radio] *[http://www.news8austin.com/ News 8 Austin (24-hour local cable news channel)] *[http://www.austin.indymedia.org/ Austin Independent Media Center] *[http://www.burntorangereport.com/ Burnt Orange Report] (blog) *[http://www.texastravesty.com/ The Texas Travesty] (bi-monthly) *[http://www.klru.org/ KLRU] ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] member TV station) *[[List of radio stations in Texas#Austin|List of radio stations in Austin]] ===Nature and environment=== *[http://www.hornsbybend.org/ Hornsby Bend Bird Observatory] *[http://www.batcon.org/home/index.asp?idPage=122 Bat Conservation International page on the Congress Avenue Bats] *[http://www.npsot.org/austin/ Austin chapter of the Native Plant Society of Texas] *[http://www.austinlovestheworld.com/ Austin's Humanitarian-Charitable-Environmental Web Portal] {{Mapit-US-cityscale|30.300474|-97.747247}} *[http://www.austinmap.org/ The Austin Map Project] *[http://www.weather.com/weather/local/USTX0057?from=search_city Current Austin weather from weather.com] ===Resources=== *[http://austin.about.com/ Austin TX at About.com] - Living in, Moving to, Visiting the City of Austin *[http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/library/ahc/briefhistory.htm Austin History Center] *[http://www.austinpostcards.com AustinPostcards.com] - Postcards, photographs and ephemera of historic significance to Austin *[http://www.memorywiki.org/en/Category:Austin%2C_Texas Memoirs of old Austin] - From MemoryWiki *[http://www.austintexas.org/ Austin Convention &amp;amp; Visitors Bureau] *[http://www.wildtexas.com/parks/results.php?nearby_cities=Austin Austin Area Parks] *[http://www.capmetro.org/ Capital Metro] - Public transportation in Austin *[http://www.austin-chamber.org/ Greater Austin Chamber of Commerce] *[http://www.klru.org/austinhistory/history.html KLRU: Brief History of Austin] *[http://www.housealmanac.com/property/austin/austin-texas.htm Austin House Statistics] *[http://austin.about.com/od/relocation/a/bestliving.htm Austin - Best Place to Live] - How Austin Ranks Among US Cities {{Austin}} {{Texas}} {{USStateCapitals}} {{USLargestCities}} [[Category:Austin, Texas|*]] [[Category:Cities in Texas]] [[Category:State capitals in the United States]] [[Category:Travis County, Texas]] [[bg:Остин]] [[cs:Austin]] [[da:Austin (Texas)]] [[de:Austin (Texas)]] [[el:Ώστιν]] [[es:Austin]] [[eo:Aŭstino]] [[fr:Austin (Texas)]] [[he:אוסטין]] [[nl:Austin (Texas)]] [[ja:オースティン]] [[no:Austin]] [[pl:Austin (Teksas)]] [[pt:Austin]] [[ru:Остин (Техас)]] [[fi:Austin]] [[sv:Austin, Texas]] [[tr:Austin]] [[zh:奧斯汀]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Assembler</title> <id>1999</id> <revision> <id>39688723</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T04:22:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>63.250.65.244</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Assemblers */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the category of computer programming tools''.'' See [[Assembler (disambiguation)]] for other meanings''. An '''assembler''' is a [[computer program]] for translating '''[[assembly language]]''' &amp;mdash; essentially, a [[mnemonic]] representation of [[machine language]] &amp;mdash; into [[object code]]. A '''cross assembler''' (see [[cross compiler]]) produces code for one type of processor, but runs on another. As well as translating assembly instruction mnemonics into [[opcode]]s, assemblers provide the ability to use symbolic names for memory locations (saving tedious calculations and manually updating addresses when a program is slightly modified), and [[macro]] facilities for performing textual substitution &amp;mdash; typically used to encode common short sequences of instructions to run inline instead of in a [[subroutine]]. Assemblers are far simpler to write than [[compiler]]s for [[high-level language]]s, and have been available since the [[1950s]]. Modern assemblers, especially for [[RISC]] based architectures, such as [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]], Sun [[SPARC]] and HP [[PA-RISC]], optimize [[instruction scheduling]] to exploit the [[CPU pipeline]] efficiently. [[High-level assembler]]s provide high-level-language abstractions such as advanced control structures, high-level procedure/function declarations and invocations, and high-level abstract data types including structures/records, unions, classes, and sets. ==Assemblers== For any given personal computer, mainframe, embedded system, and game console, both past and present, at least one--possibly dozens--of assemblers have been written. For some examples, see the [[list of assemblers]]. On [[Unix]] systems, the assembler is traditionally called [[as (Unix)|as]], although it is not a single body of code, being typically written anew for each port. A number of Unix variants use [[GNU Assembler|GAS]]. Within processor groups, each assembler has its own dialect. Sometimes, some assemblers can read another assembler's dialect, for example, TASM can read old MASM code, but not the reverse. FASM and NASM have similar syntax, but each support different macros that could make them difficult to translate to each other. The basics are all the same, but the advanced features will differ. Also, assembly can sometimes be portable across different operating systems on the same type of [[CPU]]. Calling conventions between operating systems often differ slightly to none at all, and with care it is possible to gain some portability in assembly language, usually by linking with a [[C programming language|C]] library that does not change between operating systems. However, it is not possible to link portably with C libraries that require the caller to use preprocessor macros that may change between operating systems. For example, many things in [[libc]] depend on the preprocessor to do OS-specific, C-specific things to the program before compiling. In fact, some functions and symbols are not even guaranteed to exist outside of the preprocessor. Worse, the size and field order of structs, as well as the size of certain typedefs such as off_t, are entirely unavailable in assembly language, and differ even between versions of [[Linux]], making it impossible to portably call functions in libc other than ones that only take simple integers and pointers as parameters. Some higher level computer languages, such as [[C programming language|C]], support [[Inline assembler|Inline assembly]] where relatively brief sections of assembly code can be embedded into the high level language code. Many people use an [[emulator]] to debug assembly-language programs. ==See also== *[[Compiler]] *[[Disassembler]] *[[List of assemblers]] ==References== *David Salomon, ''Assemblers and Loaders''. 1993 [http://www.davidsalomon.name/assem.advertis/asl.pdf] ==External links== *[http://www.program-transformation.org/ The Program Transformation Wiki] *[http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?LearningAssemblyLanguage C2: Learning Assembly Language] *[http://www.gnu.org/software/lightning/lightning.html GNU lightning is a library that generates assembly language code at run-time which is useful for Just-In-Time compilers] *[http://linuxassembly.org/ &quot;information on assembly programming under different platforms: IA32 (x86), IA64 (Itanium), x86-64, SPARC, Alpha, or whatever platform we find contributors for.&quot;] *[http://terse.com/ &quot;Terse: Algebraic Assembly Language for x86&quot;] *[http://retroforth.org/asmchart/ x86 Assembler Chart] - tries to be fairly complete, shows general lineage *[http://win32assembly.online.fr/tutorials.html Iczelion's Win
.html Space Travel]. They had been playing it on their company's [[mainframe]], but being underpowered and having to support about 100 users, Thompson and Ritchie found they didn't have sufficient control over the spaceship to avoid collisions with the wandering [[asteroid|space rocks]]. Thus, they decided to port the game to an idle [[PDP-7]] in the office. But it didn't have an [[operating system]] (OS), so they set about writing one. Eventually they decided to port the operating system to the office's [[PDP-11]], but this was [[wiktionary:onerous|onerous]] since all the code was in [[assembly language]]. They decided to use a higher-level portable language so the OS could be ported easily from one computer to another. They looked at using B, but it lacked functionality to take advantage of some of the PDP-11's advanced features. So they set about creating the new language, C. *The justification for obtaining the original computer that was used to develop Unix was to create a system to automate the filing of patents. The original version of Unix was developed in assembly language. Later, the C language was developed in order to rewrite the operating system. By 1973, the C language had become powerful enough that most of the [[Unix]] [[kernel (computers)|kernel]], originally written in [[PDP-11/20]] assembly language, was rewritten in C. This was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. (Earlier instances include the [[Multics]] system (written in [[PL/I programming language|PL/I]]), and MCP ([[Master Control Program]]) for Burroughs [[B5000]] written in [[ALGOL]] in 1961.) ===K&amp;R C=== In 1978, Ritchie and [[Brian Kernighan]] published the first edition of ''[[The C Programming Language (book) | The C Programming Language]]''. This book, known to C programmers as &quot;K&amp;R&quot;, served for many years as an informal [[specification]] of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as &quot;K&amp;R C.&quot; (The second edition of the book covers the later [[ANSI C]] standard, described below.) K&amp;R introduced the following features to the language: * &lt;code&gt;struct&lt;/code&gt; data types * &lt;code&gt;long int&lt;/code&gt; data type * &lt;code&gt;unsigned int&lt;/code&gt; data type * The &lt;code&gt;=+&lt;/code&gt; operator was changed to &lt;code&gt;+=&lt;/code&gt; to remove the semantic ambiguity created by the construct &lt;code&gt;i=+10&lt;/code&gt;, which could be interpreted as either &lt;code&gt;i&amp;nbsp;=+&amp;nbsp;10&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;i&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;+10&lt;/code&gt;. K&amp;R C is often considered the most basic part of the language that is necessary for a C compiler to support. For many years, even after the introduction of ANSI C, it was considered the &quot;lowest common denominator&quot; that C programmers stuck to when maximum portability was desired, since not all compilers were updated to fully support ANSI C, and reasonably well-written K&amp;R C code is also legal ANSI C. In these early versions of C, only functions that returned a non-integer value needed to be declared if used before the function definition. A function used without any previous declaration was assumed to return an integer. Example call requiring previous declaration: &lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt; long int SomeFunction(); int CallingFunction() { long int ret; ret = SomeFunction(); }&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt; Example call not requiring previous declaration: &lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt; int CallingFunction() { int ret; ret = SomeOtherFunction(); } int SomeOtherFunction() { return 0; } &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt; Since the K&amp;R prototype did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter [[type checking|type checks]] were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a function was called with the wrong number of arguments. In the years following the publication of K&amp;R C, several &quot;unofficial&quot; features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&amp;T and some other vendors. These included: * &lt;code&gt;void&lt;/code&gt; functions and &lt;code&gt;void *&lt;/code&gt; data type * functions returning &lt;code&gt;struct&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;union&lt;/code&gt; types (rather than pointers) * [[assignment (computer science)|assignment]] for &lt;code&gt;struct&lt;/code&gt; data types * &lt;code&gt;const&lt;/code&gt; qualifier to make an object read-only * a [[C standard library|standard library]] incorporating most of the functionality implemented by various vendors * [[enumeration]]s ===ANSI C and ISO C=== [[Image:kr_c_prog_lang.jpg|thumb|right|''The C Programming Language'', 2nd edition, is a widely used reference on ANSI C.]] During the late 1970s, C began to replace [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] as the leading [[microcomputer]] programming language. During the 1980s, it was adopted for use with the [[IBM PC]], and its popularity began to increase significantly. At the same time, [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] and others at Bell Labs began work on adding object-oriented programming language constructs to C. The language they produced, called [[C++]], is now the most common application programming language on the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system; C remains more popular in the Unix world. Another language developed around that time is [[Objective-C]] which also adds object oriented programming to C. While, now, not as popular as C++, it is used to develop [[Mac OS X]]'s [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]] applications. In 1983, the [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. After a long and arduous process, the standard was completed in 1989 and ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 &quot;Programming Language C&quot;. This version of the language is often referred to as [[ANSI C]], or sometimes C89 (to distinguish it from C99). In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with a few minor modifications) was adopted by the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990. This version is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms &quot;C89&quot; and &quot;C90&quot; refer to essentially the same language. One of the aims of the ANSI C standardization process was to produce a [[superset]] of K&amp;R C, incorporating many of the unofficial features subsequently introduced. However, the standards committee also included several new features, such as [[function prototype]]s (borrowed from C++), and a more capable preprocessor. The syntax for parameter declarations was also changed to reflect the C++ style: &lt;pre&gt; int main(argc, argv) int argc; char **argv; { ... } &lt;/pre&gt; became &lt;pre&gt; int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { ... } &lt;/pre&gt; ANSI C is now supported by almost all the widely used compilers. Most of the C code being written nowadays is based on ANSI C. Any program written ''only'' in standard C and without any hardware dependent assumptions is guaranteed to perform correctly on any [[system platform|platform]] with a conforming C implementation. However, many programs have been written that will only compile on a certain platform, or with a certain compiler, due to (i) the use of non-standard libraries, such as for [[Graphical user interface|graphical displays]], (ii) some compilers not adhering to the ANSI C standard, or its successor, in their default mode, or (iii) reliance on the exact size of certain datatypes and/or the [[endian]]ness of the platform. The __STDC__ macro can be used to split code into ANSI and K&amp;R sections. &lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt; #if __STDC__ extern int getopt(int,char * const *,const char *); #else extern int getopt(); #endif &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt; Some suggest using &quot;#if __STDC__&quot;, like above, over &quot;#ifdef __STDC__&quot; because some compilers set __STDC__ to zero to indicate non-ANSI compliance. ===C99=== After the ANSI standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for some time, whereas [[C++]] continued to evolve. (Normative Amendment 1 created a new version of the C language in 1995, but this version is rarely acknowledged.) However, the standard underwent revision in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO 9899:1999 in 1999. This standard is commonly referred to as &quot;C99&quot;. It was adopted as an ANSI standard in March 2000. The new features in C99 include: * [[inline function]]s * [[variable]]s can be declared anywhere (as in C++), rather than only after another declaration or the start of a compound statement * several new [[data type]]s, including &lt;code&gt;long long int&lt;/code&gt; (to reduce the pain of the looming [[32-bit]] to [[64-bit]] transition), an explicit [[Boolean datatype|boolean]] data type, and a &lt;code&gt;complex&lt;/code&gt; type representing [[complex number]]s * variable-length [[array]]s * support for one-line comments beginning with &lt;code&gt;//&lt;/code&gt;, like in [[BCPL]] or C++, and which many C compilers have previously supported as an extension * several new library functions, such as &lt;code&gt;snprintf()&lt;/code&gt; * several new [[header file]]s, such as &lt;code&gt;stdint.h&lt;/code&gt; [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] and several other C compilers now support most of the new features of C99. However, there has been less support from vendors such as [[Microsoft]] and [[Borland]] that are mainly focused on C++, since C++ provides similar functionality in often incompatible ways (e.g. the &lt;code&gt;complex&lt;/code&gt; template class). Said Microsoft's Brandon Bray, &quot;In general, we have seen little demand for many C99 features. Some features have more demand than others, and we will consider them in future releases provided they are compatible with C++.&quot; [http://msdn.microsoft.com/chats/transcripts/vstudio/vstudio_022703.aspx] ==
sees were ranked in descending order of precedence: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem. Aside from Rome, the [[archbishop|archiepiscopal]] [[Archbishopric of Mainz|See of Mainz]], which was also of [[prince-elector|electoral]] and [[primate (religion)|primatial]] rank, is the only other see referred to as the &quot;Holy See,&quot; although this usage is rather less common. == Organization of the Holy See == The Pope governs the Church through the [[Roman Curia]]. The Roman Curia consists of the [[Secretariat of State (Vatican)]], nine [[Congregation (Roman Curia)|Congregations]], three [[Ecclesiastical court|Tribunal]]s, 11 [[Pontifical Council]]s, and a complex of offices that administer church affairs at the highest level. The Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State, directs and coordinates the Curia. The current incumbent, [[Angelo Cardinal Sodano]], is the Holy See's equivalent of a prime minister. Archbishop [[Giovanni Lajolo]], Secretary of the [[Section for Relations With States]] of the Secretariat of State acts as the Holy See's foreign minister. Sodano and Lajolo served in their respective roles under [[Pope John Paul II]] and were then reappointed to those same roles by [[Pope Benedict XVI]]. Among the most active of the major Curial institutions are the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], which oversees church doctrine; the [[Congregation for Bishops]], which coordinates the appointment of bishops worldwide; the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]], which oversees all missionary activities; and the [[Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace]], which deals with international peace and social issues. Three tribunals are responsible for judicial power. The [[Sacra Rota]] is responsible for normal appeals, including annulments of marriage, with the [[Apostolic Signatura]] being the administrative court of appeal and highest ecclesiastical court. The [[Apostolic Penitentiary]] is different from those two and, instead of dealing with contentious cases, issues absolutions, dispensations, and indulgences. The [[Prefecture for Economic Affairs]] coordinates the finances of the Holy See departments and supervises the administration of the Patrimony of the Holy See, an investment fund dating back to the [[Lateran Pacts]]. A committee of 15 cardinals, chaired by the Secretary of State, has final oversight authority over all financial matters of the Holy See, including those of the [[Institute for Works of Religion]], the Vatican bank. The [[Prefecture for the Pontifical Household]] is responsible for papal ceremonies and the daily work and life of the Pope. Like any episcopal see, the Holy See does not dissolve upon the death or resignation of the reigning Pope. It instead operates under a different set of laws ''[[sede vacante]]''. During this interregnum, the heads of the [[dicasteries]] of the Roman Curia (such as the prefects of congregations) cease to hold office immediately, the only exceptions being the [[Major Penitentiary]], who continues his important role regarding absolutions and dispensations, and the [[Camerlengo|Cardinal Camerlengo]], who administers the temporalities (''i.e.'', properties and finances) of the Holy See during this period. The government of the Holy See (and therefore of the Roman Catholic Church) then falls to the [[College of Cardinals]]. [[Canon law]] prohibits the College and the Camerlengo from introducing any innovations or novelties in the government of the Church during this period. == Diplomacy of the Holy See == Since medieval times the Holy See has been recognized as a [[legal entity|legal personality]] under [[international law]]. The Holy See maintains formal diplomatic relations with [http://www.vatican.va/news_services/press/documentazione/documents/corpo-diplomatico_index_en.html 174 sovereign states], the [[European Union]], and the [[Order of Malta]]; 69 of these maintain permanent resident diplomatic missions accredited to the Holy See in Rome. The rest have missions with dual accreditation outside Italy, as the Holy See does ''not'' accept dual accreditation with an embassy located in Italy. It also has relations of a special nature with [[Russia]] (Mission with an Ambassador) and the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (Office with a Director). The Holy See maintains 179 permanent diplomatic missions abroad (106 of which are accredited to sovereign states). The diplomatic activities of the Holy See are performed by the [[Secretariat of State (Vatican)|Secretariat of State]] (headed by the [[Cardinal Secretary of State]]), through the Section for Relations with States. The Holy See is the only [[Europe]]an [[subject of international law]] to formally recognize the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan). It is the longest lasting diplomatic ally of the ROC, having held official relations since [[1942]]. Talks between the [[People's Republic of China]] and the Holy See on diplomatic recognition have been ongoing, with the main issue the treatment of Chinese Catholics. The PRC government controls a [[Chinese Catholic Association]] which does not recognize the authority of Rome and the PRC has officially banned an underground Catholic Church which does recognize the Holy See's authority. === International organizations === The Holy See is especially active in international organizations. The Holy See is a permanent observer in the [[United Nations]], and in July, 2004, gained all the rights of full membership except voting. According to Archbishop [[Celestino Migliore]], Holy See Permanent Observer, &quot;We have no vote because this is our choice.&quot; He added that the Holy See considers that its current status &quot;is a fundamental step that does not close any path for the future. The Holy See has the requirements defined by the UN statute to be a member state and, if in the future it wished to be so, this resolution would not impede it from requesting it.&quot; *[[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in [[Washington, DC|Washington]] *[[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU) *[[World Tourist Organization]] (WToO) *[[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) *[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) *[[World Food Programme]] (WFP) *[[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO) *[[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) *[[United Nations International Drug Control Programme]] (UNDCP) *[[United Nations Centre for Human Settlements]] (UNCHS) *[[Latin Union]] (LU) *[[International Organization for Migration]] (IOM) *[[International Labour Organization]] (ILO) *[[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] (IFAD) *[[United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO). The Holy See is also an observer on an informal basis of the following groups: *[[World Meteorological Organization]] in [[Geneva]] (WMO) *[[United Nations Committee of Peaceful Use of Outer Space]] (UNCOPUOS) *[[International Strategy for Disaster Reduction]] (ISDR) *[[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO) *[[African Asian Legal Consultative Committee]] (AALCC) *[[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) The Holy See is a member of the following groups: *[[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW) *[[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] (OSCE) *[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) *[[International Telecommunication Satellite Organization]] (ITSO) *[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) *[[Universal Postal Union]] (UPU), [[International Institute for the Unification of Private Law]] (UNIDROIT) *[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR), [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] (UNCTAD) *[[International Grains Council]] (IGC) *[[International Committee for Military Medicine]] (ICMM) *[[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) *[[Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization]] (CTBTO). In 1971, the Holy See announced the decision to adhere to the nuclear [[Non-Proliferation Treaty]] in order to &quot;give its moral support to the principles that form the base of the treaty itself.&quot; It is also a guest of honour to the [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]]. Furthermore, the Holy See has a delegate to the [[Arab League]] in [[Cairo]] (AL). == Relationship with the Vatican City == Although the Holy See is closely associated with the [[Vatican City]], the independent territory over which the Holy See is [[sovereign]], the two entities are separate and distinct. After the [[Italy|Italian]] takeover of the [[Papal States]] in [[1870]], there was some uncertainty among [[jurist]]s as to whether the Holy See, without territorial sovereignty, could continue to act as an independent personality in international matters. The State of the Vatican City was created by the [[Lateran treaties]] in [[1929]] to &quot;insure the absolute and visible independence of the Holy See&quot; and &quot;to guarantee to it an indisputable sovereignty in international affairs&quot; (quotes from the treaty). Archbishop [[Jean-Louis Tauran]], the Holy See's former Secretary for Relations with States, said that the Vatican City is a &quot;miniscule support-state that guarantees the spiritual freedom of the Pope with the minimum territory&quot;. [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/documents/rc_seg-st_doc_20020422_tauran_en.html] The Holy See, not the Vatican City, maintains diplomatic relations with states (such as with the [[British Ambassadors to the Holy See|United Kingdom]]), and participates in international organizations. Foreign [[embassy|embassies]] are accredited to the Holy See rather than to the Vatican City, and it is the Holy See that establishes [[treaty|treaties]] and [[concordat]]s with other sovereign entities. When necessary, the Holy See will enter a treaty on behalf of the Vatican Cit
ntua]] as a vocalist and viol player, and by 1602 he had become [[conducting|conductor]] there. Until his fortieth birthday he mainly worked on [[Madrigal (music)|madrigal]]s, composing nine books of them in all. The ''Quinto Libro'', published in 1605, was at the heart of the controversy between Monteverdi and [[Giovanni Artusi]], where the latter attacked the &quot;crudities&quot; and &quot;license&quot; of the modern style of composing, centering his attacks on madrigals (including ''Cruda Amarilli'', see Media, below) from the fourth book. Monteverdi made his reply in the introduction to the fifth book, with a proposal of the division of musical practice into two streams: what he called ''prima prattica'', and ''seconda prattica'': ''prima prattica'' being the previous [[polyphony|polyphonic]] ideal of the [[sixteenth century]], with flowing strict [[counterpoint]], prepared [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]], and equality of voices; and ''seconda prattica'' using much freer counterpoint with an increasing hierarchy of voices, emphasising [[soprano]] and [[basso|bass]]. This represents an unconscious move towards the new style of [[monody]]. The introduction of a [[figured bass|continuo]] instrumental part in many of the madrigals of the book is a further self-consciously modern feature. In addition, the fifth book showed the beginnings of conscious functional [[tonality]]. The ''Ottavo Libro'', published in 1638, includes the so-called ''Madrigali dei guerrieri ed amorosi'' which many consider to be the perfection of the madrigal form. As a whole, the first eight books of madrigals show the enormous development from the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] [[polyphony|polyphonic]] music to the [[monody|monodic]] style which is typical of [[Baroque]] music. The ninth book of madrigals, published posthumously in 1651, contains lighter pieces, such as [[canzonetta]]s, probably composed throughout his lifetime and representing both styles. From monody, with its emphasis on clear melodic lines, intelligible text and placid accompanying music, it was a logical step to begin composing [[opera]], especially for a dramatically inclined composer who also loved grand effect. In 1607 he composed his first opera, ''Orfeo''. It was common at that time for composers to create works on demand for special occasions, and this piece was meant to add some lustre to the annual [[carnival]] of [[Mantua]]. Indeed it was a great success, fitting very well in the spirit of the times. ''Orfeo'' is marked by its dramatic power and lively [[orchestration]]. Indeed, this piece is arguably the first example of a composer assigning specific instruments to parts, and it is also one of the first large compositions in which the exact instrumentation of the premiere has come down to us. The plot is described in vivid musical pictures and the melodies are linear and clear. With this opera Monteverdi had created an entirely new style of music, the ''dramma per musica'' (musical drama) as it was called. Monteverdi's operas are usually labelled &quot;pre-[[baroque]]&quot; or &quot;early-baroque&quot;. It is arguable that Monteverdi's greatest work remains the ''[[Vespro della Beata Vergine 1610 (Monteverdi)|Vespro della Beata Vergine 1610]]'' (The [[Vespers]] of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Blessed Virgin]] 1610). This is one of his few sacred works of any scale, but it remains to this day one of the greatest examples of devotional music, matched only by works such as [[Palestrina]]'s ''[[Missa Papae Marcelli]]'', [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]]'s ''[[The Messiah|Messiah]]'', and [[J. S. Bach]]'s ''[[St. Matthew Passion (Bach)|St. Matthew Passion]]''. The scope of the work as a whole is breathtaking - each part (there are twenty-five in total) is fully developed in both a musical and dramatic sense - the instrumental textures are used to precise dramatic and emotional effect, in a way that had not been seen in before. The Vespers of 1610 are also one of the best examples of early ''repetition and contrast'', with many of the parts having a clear ''[[ritornello]]''. This was something entirely new to the public of the time, and was an immediate hit. In 1613 Monteverdi was appointed as conductor at [[San Marco di Venezia|San Marco]] in [[Venice]], where he soon restored the musical standards of both the choir and instrumentalists, which had withered under the financial mismanagement of his predecessor, [[Giulio Cesare Martinengo]]. The managers of the basilica were relieved to have such a distinguished musician to take the post, where music had been in decline since the death of [[Giovanni Croce]] in 1609. While in Venice, Monteverdi also finished his sixth, seventh and eighth books of madrigals. The eighth is the largest, containing works written over a thirty-year period, including the dramatic scene ''Tancredi e Clorinda'' (1624), in which the orchestra and voices form two separate entities; they act as counterparts. Most likely Monteverdi was inspired to try this arrangement because of the two opposite balconies in San Marco, which had inspired much similar music from composers there, such as [[Giovanni Gabrieli|Gabrieli]]. What made this composition also stand out is the first-time use of string ''[[tremolo]]'' (fast repetition of the same tone) and ''[[pizzicato]]'' (plucking strings with fingers) for special effect in dramatic scenes. During the last years of his life Monteverdi became ill, but it did not keep him from composing his two last masterpieces, both operas: ''[[Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria]]'' (''The Return of Ulysses'', 1641), and the historic opera ''[[L'incoronazione di Poppea]]'' (''The Coronation of Poppea'', 1642), based on the life of the [[Roman empire|Roman]] [[emperor]] [[Nero]]. ''L'incoronazione'' especially is considered a culminating point of Monteverdi's work. It contains tragic, romantic, as well as comic scenes (a new development in opera), more realistic portrayal of the characters, and warmer [[melody|melodies]] than had previously been heard. It requires a smaller orchestra, and has a less prominent role for the choir. Monteverdi was ordained a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] priest in 1633. He died in [[Venice]]. ==Compositions== Monteverdi composed at least eighteen operas, of which only ''Orfeo'', ''L'incoronazione'', ''Il ritorno'', and the famous [[aria]] &quot;Lamento&quot; from his second opera ''l'Arianna'' have survived: *''Lamento d'Arianna'' *''[[Orfeo]]'' *''[[Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria]]'' *''[[L'incoronazione di Poppea]]'' Other works include secular and sacred compositions: *''[[Combatimento di Tancredi e Clorinda]]'' *''Lauda Jerusalem Dominium'' *''Gira il nemico insidioso Amore'' *''La finta pazza Licori'' *''[[Vespro della Beata Vergine 1610 (Monteverdi)|Vespro della Beata Vergine]]'' '''See also''': *[[:Category:Compositions by Claudio Monteverdi]] *[[:Category:Operas by Claudio Monteverdi]] ==Media== {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Monteverdi-cor mio mentre vi miro.ogg|title=Cor Mio Mentre Vi Miro|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Monteverdi - cruda amarilli.ogg|title=Cruda Amarilli|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Monteverdi - non si levav'ancor.ogg|title=Non Si Levav'ancor|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} ==External links== *{{ChoralWiki}} *{{IckingArchive|idx=Monteverdi|name=Claudio Monteverdi}} == Further reading == * [[Manfred Bukofzer]], ''Music in the Baroque Era''. New York, W.W. Norton &amp; Co., 1947. ISBN 0393097455 * Denis Arnold, ''Monteverdi.'' London, J.M. Dent &amp; Sons Ltd, 1975. ISBN 0460031554 * Leo Schrade, ''Monteverdi''. London, Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1979. ISBN 0575014725 * Tim Carter, ''Music in Late Renaissance and Early Baroque Italy''. Amadeus Press, 1992. ISBN 0931340535 [[Category:1567 births|Monteverdi]] [[Category:1643 deaths|Monteverdi]] [[Category:Opera composers|Monteverdi]] [[Category:Baroque composers|Monteverdi]] [[Category:Italian composers|Monteverdi]] [[Category:Natives of Cremona|Monteverdi]] [[ar:كلاوديو مونتيفيردي]] [[bg:Клаудио Монтеверди]] [[ca:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[cs:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[cy:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[da:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[de:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[es:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[eo:Claudio MONTEVERDI]] [[fr:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[hr:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[it:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[nl:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[ja:クラウディオ・モンテヴェルディ]] [[no:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[pl:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[pt:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[ro:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[ru:Монтеверди, Клаудио]] [[fi:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[sv:Claudio Monteverdi]] [[tr:Claudio Monteverdi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Central Intelligence Agency</title> <id>6227</id> <revision> <id>42155265</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:35:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>202.138.134.251</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* [[Philippines]] */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}} [[Image:Central Intelligence Agency logo.png|thumb|right|The CIA's seal features an eagle atop a sixteen-point compass.]] {{redirect|CIA}} The '''Central Intelligence Agency''' ('''CIA''') is an [[United States|American]] [[intelligence agency]], responsible for obtaining and analyzing information about foreign [[government]]s, [[corporation]]s, and individuals, and reporting such information to the various branches of the [[United States Government|U.S. Government]]. A third function of the CIA is to act as the &quot;hidden hand&quot; of the government for engaging in &quot;covert actions&quot; at &quot;the direction of the President.&quot;[http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/mission.html] It is this last function that has caused most of the controversies regarding the CIA over the years. Its headquarters are in the community of [[Langley, Virginia|Langley]] in the [[McLean, Virginia|McLean]] [[Census-design
. To see a 2004 per capita personal income comparison table on a state basis: [http://www.bea.gov/bea/newsrel/spi_highlights.pdf] ==Demographics== {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot; |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations |- ! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population |- | colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt; |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 34,277 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 39,864 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 194,327 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 413,249 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 539,700 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 799,024 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 939,629 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,035,791 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,123,296 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,325,089 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,753,947 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,207,259 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,889,964 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,294,394 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 4,301,261 |} === Population === As of 2005, Colorado has an estimated population of 4,665,177, which is an increase of 63,356, or 1.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 363,162, or 8.4%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 205,321 people (that is 353,091 births minus 147,770 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 159,957 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 112,217 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 47,740 people. According to estimates made in 2004, Colorado's population will increase to 7,150,000 by [[2030]] [http://cwcb.state.co.us/SWSI/Report/AppendixA.pdf]. The largest increases are expected along the [[Colorado Front Range|Front Range]], especially in the [[Denver-Aurora metropolitan area]]. As of 2004, 441,000 foreign-born persons (9.7% of the population) live in the state, including an estimated 144,000 illegal aliens (3.1% of the state population). === Race and ancestry === The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census: {{Racial_demographics_begin | year1=2000 | year2=1990 }} {{Racial_demographics_White | year1=82.8% | year2=88.2% }} {{Racial_demographics_Black | year1=3.8% | year2=4.0% }} {{Racial_demographics_Asian | year1=2.2% | year2=1.8% }} {{Racial_demographics_Amerindian | year1=1.0% | year2=0.8% }} {{Racial_demographics_Other | race=Other race | year1=7.3% | year2=5.1% }} {{Racial_demographics_Mixed | year1=2.8% | year2=&lt;center&gt;*&lt;/center&gt; }} {{Racial_demographics_Hispanic | year1White=74.5% | year2White=80.7% | year1Hispanic=17.1% | year2Hispanic=12.9% }} {{Racial_demographics_end}} (Estimates for the year 2003 are available at: [http://www.census.gov/popest/states/asrh/tables/SC-EST2003-03/SC-EST2003-03-28.pdf PDF].) Colorado's Hispanic presence is one of the USA's largest—only five states have more Hispanics ([[per capita]]). Denver and some other areas have significant [[Mexican]] populations, while southern Colorado has a large number of Hispanos, the descendants of early New Mexican settlers of colonial Spanish origin. According to the 2000 Census, the largest ancestry groups in Colorado are [[Germans|German]] (22%), [[Irish people|Irish]] (12.2%), and [[English people|English]] (12%). Persons reporting German ancestry are the largest group in the state and are especially strong in the Front Range and eastern Plains. People of British extraction are the largest group in the western Rocky Mountains. === Religion === *[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 75% **[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 48% ***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 9% ***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 5% ***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 5% ***[[Episcopal]] &amp;ndash; 3% ***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &amp;ndash; 3% ***Other Protestant or general Protestant &amp;ndash; 23% **[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 24% **[[Latter-Day Saint]] ([[Mormon]]) &amp;ndash; 2% **Other Christian &amp;ndash; 1% *[[Judaism|Jewish]] &amp;ndash; 2% *Other Religions &amp;ndash; 1% *Non-Religious/Agnostic &amp;ndash; 22% Compared to the nation at large, Colorado&amp;mdash;like many other Western states&amp;mdash;has a high percentage of non-religious people. In addition, although quite small in number overall, Colorado has one of the highest concentrations of [[Tibetan Buddhists]] in North America, located primarily in Boulder and Crestone. Nonetheless, the state&amp;mdash;specifically the city of [[Colorado Springs]]&amp;mdash;is home to numerous Christian groups. [[Focus on the Family]] is among the most prominent of these. === More information === For detailed social information on Colorado, see [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=n&amp;_lang=en&amp;qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_DP2&amp;ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&amp;geo_id=04000US08 here]; for economic information, see [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=n&amp;_lang=en&amp;qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_DP3&amp;ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&amp;geo_id=04000US08 here]; and for housing information, see [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=n&amp;_lang=en&amp;qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_DP4&amp;ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&amp;geo_id=04000US08 here]. ==Important cities and towns== {{ussm|colorado.png|co}} Each grouping represents a U.S. Census [[United States metropolitan area|metropolitan]] or [[United States micropolitan area|micropolitan]] area, headed by its principal city (or cities). Each city named in '''bold''' has a population greater than 100,000. {| |- valign=&quot;top&quot; | *'''[[Denver, Colorado|Denver]]'''-'''[[Aurora, Colorado|Aurora]]''' **'''[[Arvada, Colorado|Arvada]]''' **[[Brighton, Colorado|Brighton]] **[[Broomfield, Colorado|Broomfield]] **[[Castle Rock, Colorado|Castle Rock]] **'''[[Centennial, Colorado|Centennial]]''' **[[Commerce City, Colorado|Commerce City]] **[[Englewood, Colorado|Englewood]] **[[Federal Heights, Colorado|Federal Heights]] **[[Golden, Colorado|Golden]] **[[Greenwood Village, Colorado|Greenwood Village]] **'''[[Lakewood, Colorado|Lakewood]]''' **[[Littleton, Colorado|Littleton]] **[[Northglenn, Colorado|Northglenn]] **[[Parker, Colorado|Parker]] **'''[[Thornton, Colorado|Thornton]]''' **'''[[Westminster, Colorado|Westminster]]''' **[[Wheat Ridge, Colorado|Wheat Ridge]] | *''' [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]] ''' **[[Fountain, Colorado|Fountain]] *''' [[Fort Collins, Colorado|Fort Collins]] '''-[[Loveland, Colorado|Loveland]] *''' [[Pueblo, Colorado|Pueblo]] ''' *[[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]] **[[Lafayette, Colorado|Lafayette]] **[[Longmont, Colorado|Longmont]] **[[Louisville, Colorado|Louisville]] **[[Superior, Colorado|Superior]] *[[Greeley, Colorado|Greeley]] **[[Windsor, Colorado|Windsor]] | *[[Grand Junction, Colorado|Grand Junction]] *[[Canon City, Colorado|Canon City]] *[[Montrose, Colorado|Montrose]] *[[Durango, Colorado|Durango]] *[[Fort Morgan, Colorado|Fort Morgan]] *[[Silverthorne, Colorado|Silverthorne]] *[[Sterling, Colorado|Sterling]] |} Other notable cities (population under 10,000) *[[Alamosa, Colorado|Alamosa]] *[[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]] *[[Glenwood Springs, Colorado|Glenwood Springs]] *[[Leadville, Colorado|Leadville]] *[[Trinidad, Colorado|Trinidad]] *[[Vail, Colorado|Vail]] *[[Walsenburg, Colorado|Walsenburg]] &lt;/small&gt; ===25 Richest Places in Colorado=== {{main|Richest places in Colorado}} Ranked by [[per capita income]] 1 [[Cherry Hills Village, Colorado|Cherry Hills Village]] $99,996 &lt;br&gt; 2 [[Genesee, Colorado|Genessee CDP]] $79,180 &lt;br&gt; 3 [[Columbine Valley, Colorado|Columbine Valley]] $71,758 &lt;br&gt; 4 [[Castle Pines, Colorado|Castle Pines CDP]] $70,456 &lt;br&gt; 5 [[Greenwood Village, Colorado|Greenwood Village]] $69,189 &lt;br&gt; 6 [[Bonanza, Colorado|Bonanza]] $66,857 &lt;br&gt; 7 [[Bow Mar, Colorado|Bow Mar]] $53,558 &lt;br&gt; 8 [[Heritage Hills, Colorado|Heritage Hills CDP]] $50,041 &lt;br&gt; 9 [[Perry Park, Colorado|Perry Park CDP]] $47,574 &lt;br&gt; 10 [[Lone Tree, Colorado|Lone Tree]] $46,287 &lt;br&gt; 11 [[Meridian, Colorado|Meridian CDP]] $46,031 &lt;br&gt; 12 [[The Pinery, Colorado|The Pinery CDP]] $43,065 &lt;br&gt; 13 [[Eldorado Springs, Colorado|Eldorado Springs CDP]] $42,908 &lt;br&gt; 14 [[Vail, Colorado|Vail]] $42,390 &lt;br&gt; 15 [[Foxfield, Colorado|Foxfield]] $40,970 &lt;br&gt; 16 [[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]] $40,680 &lt;br&gt; 17 [[Niwot, Colorado|Niwot]] $39,943 &lt;br&gt; 18 [[Mountain Village, Colorado|Mountain Village]] $39,920 &lt;br&gt; 19 [[Edwards, Colorado|Edwards CDP]] $39,784 &lt;br&gt; 20 [[Pitkin, Colorado|Pitkin]] $39,182 &lt;br&gt; 21 [[Telluride, Colorado|Telluride]] $38,832 &lt;br&gt; 22 [[Woodmoor, Colorado|Woodmoor CDP]] $38,758 &lt;br&gt; 23 [[Castlewood, Colorado|Castlewood CDP]] $37,891 (now a part of [[Centennial, Colorado|Centennial]])&lt;br&gt; 24 [[Vona, Colorado|Vona]] $37,802 &lt;br&gt; 25 [[Eagle-Vail, Colorado|Eagle-Vail CDP]] $37,260 &lt;br&gt; ==Colorado tourism and recreation== [[Image:ColoradoWelcome.jpg|thumb|350px|Welcome to Colorado]] ===National parks=== *[[Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park]] *[[Mesa Verde National Park]] *[[Rocky Mountain National Park]] *[[Great Sand Dunes National
ttp://www.plannedparenthood.org/STI-SAFESEX/chlamydia.htm] In women, chlamydia may not cause any [[symptom]]s, but symptoms that may occur include: unusual [[vagina]]l bleeding or discharge, pain in the abdomen, painful [[sexual intercourse]], [[fever]], painful [[urination]] or the urge to urinate more frequently than usual. In men, chlamydia may not cause any symptoms, but symptoms that may occur include: a painful or burning sensation when urinating, an unusual discharge from the [[penis]], swollen or tender [[testicle]]s, or fever. Chlamydia in men can spread to the testicles, causing [[epididymitis]], which can cause [[sterility]]. Chlamydia causes more than 250,000 cases of epididymitis in the USA each year. Chlamydia may also cause [[Reiter's Syndrome]], especially in young men. About 15,000 men get Reiter's Syndrome from chlamydia each year in the USA, and about 5,000 are permanently affected by it. As many as half of all [[infant]]s born to mothers with chlamydia will be born with the disease. Chlamydia can affect infants by causing spontaneous abortion ([[miscarriage]]), [[premature birth]], [[blindness]], and [[pneumonia]]. ==Treatment== Fortunately, chlamydia can be effectively cured with [[antibiotic]]s once it is detected. Current [[Centers for Disease Control]] guidelines provide for the following treatments: * [[Azithromycin]] 1 gram by mouth once, or * [[Doxycycline]] 100 milligrams twice daily for seven days. ==Prevention== Because chlamydia is so common and because it often doesn't produce symptoms, it is especially important to take precautions against sexually transmitted disease by practicing [[safer sex]]. ==Pathophysiology== Chlamydiae replicate intracellularly, within a membrane-bound structure termed an inclusion. It is inside this inclusion, which somehow avoids lysosomal fusion and subsequent degradation, that the metabolically inactive &quot;elementary body&quot; (EB) form of Chlamydia becomes the replicative &quot;reticulate body&quot; (RB). The multiplying RBs then become EBs again and burst out of the host cell to continue the infection cycle. Since Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular parasites, they cannot be cultured outside of host cells, leading to many difficulties in research. ==Diseases caused by chlamydia== ''[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]'' can cause [[genital infection]]s, [[conjunctivitis]], [[pelvic inflammatory disease]], [[pneumonia]], [[urethritis]], [[Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome]], [[Reiter's syndrome]] and [[lymphogranuloma venereum]] ==Chlamydia in nonhumans== An outbreak of the human-borne sexually-transmitted disease was discovered in penguins at the San Francisco Zoo in May, 2005. Officials said that the disease was probably first contracted in February of that year, and was not sexually-transmitted. One theory links the outbreak to seagull droppings, but the actual cause remains unknown. Twelve penguins died from the disease, while fifty-five survived. See [http://www.theadvertiser.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5936,15207143%255E1702,00.html Chlamydia strikes penguin colony] for more information. Chlamydia has also become a problem in [[Koala]] populations. ==Sources== *[http://www.arhp.org/healthcareproviders/resources/stdis/index.cfm Sexually Transmitted Diseases/Infections Resource Center from the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals] * [http://www.plannedparenthood.org/pp2/portal/files/portal/medicalinfo/sti/pub-sti-chlamydia.xml &quot;Chlamydia: Questions and Answers&quot; from Planned Parenthood&quot;] * [http://www.cdc.gov/std/Chlamydia/STDFact-Chlamydia.htm Chlamydia fact sheet from the Center for Disease Control] * [http://www.emedicinehealth.com/articles/17179-1.asp eMedicine Health Chlamydia] * [http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/diseases/facts/chlamydia.htm NetDoctor Chlamydia fact sheet] * [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/md/chlamydiapictures.html Links to chlamydia pictures (Hardin MD/Univ of Iowa)] [[Category:Sexually-transmitted diseases]] [[Category: Infectious diseases]] [[da:Klamydia]] [[de:Chlamydien]] [[fr:Chlamydiose]] [[he:כלמידיה]] [[nl:Chlamydia]] [[ja:クラミジア]] [[nb:Klamydia-infeksjon]] [[fi:Klamydia]] [[sv:Klamydia]] [[zh:衣原體屬]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Candidiasis</title> <id>7038</id> <revision> <id>41749412</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:45:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hyperman 42</username> <id>999717</id> </contributor> <comment>cross reference to leaky gut syndrome and diet/probiotics notes added</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Candidiasis | ICD10 = {{ICD10|B|37||b|35}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|112}} | }} '''Candidiasis''', commonly called '''yeast infection''' or '''thrush''', is a [[fungal infection]] of any of the ''[[Candida (genus)|Candida]]'' species, of which ''[[Candida albicans]]'' is probably the most common. ==Locations== In [[immunocompetent]] people, candidiasis can usually only be found in exposed and moist parts of the body, such as: * the [[oral cavity]] ([[oral thrush]]) * the [[vagina]] ([[vaginal candidiasis]] or thrush) * folds of skin in the [[diaper]] area ([[diaper rash]]) * the most common cause of [[vagina]]l irritation or [[vaginitis]] * can also occur on the [[male genitals]], particularly in uncircumcised men. In [[immunocompromised]] patients, the ''Candida'' infection can become systemic, causing a much more serious condition, [[fungemia]]. ==Causes== Yeast organisms are always present in all people, but are usually prevented from &quot;overgrowth&quot; (uncontrolled multiplication resulting in symptoms) by naturally occurring [[microorganism]]s. At least three quarters of all women will experience candidiasis at some point in their lives. The ''Candida albicans'' organism is found in the vaginas of almost all women and normally causes no problems. However, when it gets out of balance with the other &quot;normal flora,&quot; such as [[lactobacilli]] (which can also be harmed by using [[douche]]s), an overgrowth and symptoms can result. Pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and some [[antibiotics]], and [[diabetes mellitus]] increase the risk of infection. ==Symptoms== The most common symptoms are itching and irritation of the [[vagina]] and/or [[vulva]]. A whitish or whitish-gray discharge may be present, sometimes resembling [[cottage cheese]], and may have a &quot;yeasty&quot; smell like [[beer]] or baking bread. ==Diagnosis== [[Potassium hydroxide|KOH]] (potassium hydroxide) preparation can be diagnostic. A scraping or swab of the affected area is placed on a microscope slide. A single drop of 10% solution of KOH is then placed on the slide. The KOH dissolves the skin cells but leaves the ''Candida'' untouched. When viewed under a microscope the hyphae and pseudo spores of ''Candida'' are visible. Their presence in large numbers strongly suggest a yeast infection. Swab and culture is performed by rubbing a sterile swab on the infected skin surface. The swab is then rubbed across a culture medium. The medium is incubated for several days, during which time colonies of yeast and or bacteria develop. The characteristics of the colonies provide a presumptive diagnosis of the organism. ==Treatment== Candidiasis is alleged to be successfully treated either with [[home remedy|home remedies]] or, in the case of a more severe infection, with either [[over the counter]] or [[prescription]] [[antifungal medication]]s. Home remedies for candidiasis include the consumption or direct application of [[yogurt]], which contains [[lactobacillus]] ([[probiotics]], &quot;friendly&quot; bacteria that kill yeast), [[acidophilus]] tablets or salves, and even lightly crushed cloves of [[garlic]], which yield [[allicin]], an antifungal. [[Boric acid]] has also been used to treat yeast infections when gelcaps are filled with boric acid powder and two are inserted at bedtime for three to four nights. While home remedies can offer relief in minor cases of infection, seeking medical attention can be necessary because the extent of the infection sometimes cannot be judged well by the sufferer. [[Prescription medication]] is often the only solution to an infection; the [[antifungal drug]]s commonly used to treat candidiasis are topical [[clotrimazole]], topical [[nystatin]], [[fluconazole]], topical [[ketoconazole]]. In severe infections (generally in hospitalized patients), [[amphotericin B]], [[caspofungin]], or [[voriconazole]] may be used. If indicated, an underlying reason should be looked for. As an example, oral candidiasis is often linked to the use of inhaled [[steroid]]s in [[asthma medication]]. Patients on long term inhaled steroids should rinse their mouth after each dose of steroids. It can also be the first sign of a more serious condition, such as [[HIV]]. Babies with diaper rash should have their diaper areas kept clean, dry, and exposed to air as much as possible. [[Sugar]] assists the overgrowth of yeast; thus, the increased prevalence of yeast infections in patients with [[diabetes mellitus]], as noted above. In the case of frequent yeast infections, sugar can be looked to as a culprit and should be avoided. [[Nutritionist|Nutritionists]] often recommend avoidance diets, eliminating sugar and often many other foods for a period. Extensive [[antibiotic]] treatment is sometimes implicated, and [[probiotics]] are then recommended. Following the health tips at [[vulvovaginal health]] can help prevent vaginal candidiasis. Local treatment may include vaginal [[suppository|suppositories]] or medicated [[douche]]s. ==History and taxonomic classification== B. Lagenbeck in 1839 in Germany was the first to demonstrate a yeastlike fungus in thrush. He also found that a fungus was able to cause thrush, a human oral infection. The genera ''Candida'', species ''albicans'' was described by Christine Marie Ber
d in Resistance)] * The Old Calendar Romanian Orthodox Church * The Old Calendar Orthodox Church of Bulgaria === Churches that have voluntarily &quot;walled themselves off&quot; === These Churches do not practice [[Full Communion|Communion]] with any other Orthodox jurisdictions nor do they tend to recognize each other. * [[Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church]] * [[Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece]] * [[Old Believers]] * [[Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church]] === Churches that are unrecognized by others === The following Churches recognize all other mainstream Churches, but are not recognized by (m)any of them due to various disputes: * [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]] * [[Ukrainian Orthodox Church - Kiev Patriarchy]] === Churches self-styled as Orthodox yet unrecognized as such === * [[Croatian Orthodox Church]] * [[Montenegrin Orthodox Church]] * [[Karamanli Turkish Orthodox Church]] == See also == * [[Eastern Rite]] == External links == * [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/List_of_autocephalous_and_autonomous_Churches Autocephalous and Autonomous Orthodox Churches], an [[OrthodoxWiki]] article * http://www.oca.org/OCworldindex.asp?SID=2 {{Eastern Christianity}} [[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]] [[Category:Christian group structuring]] [[de:Liste der orthodoxen Kirchen]] [[fr:Églises des sept conciles]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>EDT</title> <id>10271</id> <revision> <id>40674677</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T05:27:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.230.140.32</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''EDT''' can stand for: * [[Eastern Daylight Time]] * [[Eau de toilette]] * [[space tether|electrodynamic tether]]. * [[EDT text editor]] * [[EDT Ecosystem Diagnosis and Treatment]]. * [[EDT Escalating Density Training]]. {{TLAdisambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electric guitar</title> <id>10272</id> <revision> <id>42091767</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:49:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tailpig</username> <id>312490</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 42064095 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''electric guitar''' is a type of [[guitar]] with a solid or semi-solid body that utilizes [[Electronics|electronic]] &quot;[[pickup (music)|pickups]]&quot; to convert the vibration of the steel-cored strings into electrical current. The signal may be electrically altered to achieve various tonal effects prior to being fed into an [[instrument amplifier|amplifier]], which produces the final sound. In contrast to the [[acoustic guitar]] and most other acoustic [[string instrument]]s, the solid-body electric guitar does not rely as extensively on the acoustic properties of its construction to amplify the sound produced by the vibrating strings; as such, the electric guitar does not need to be naturally loud, and its body can be virtually any shape. Since all the sound produced by the amplifier comes from string vibrations detected by the electric pickups, an electric guitar that produces minimal acoustic sound may have maximal sustain, since less of the energy from the string [[oscillation]]s is radiated as sound energy. For this reason, electric versions of almost all other similar string instruments have also been produced. [[Image:Electricguitars.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Left: Rosa Hurricane, a [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]]-style solid-body guitar.&lt;br&gt;Right: [[Maton]] Freshman, a hollow-body guitar.]] The electric guitar is used extensively in many popular styles of music, including [[blues]], [[rock and roll]], [[country music]], [[pop music]], [[jazz]], [[rap]] and even contemporary classical music. == History == The popularity of the electric guitar began with the [[big band]] era because amplified instruments became necessary to compete with the loud volumes of the large brass sections common to jazz orchestras of the thirties and forties. Initially, electric guitars consisted primarily of hollow &quot;archtop&quot; acoustic guitar bodies to which electromagnetic transducers had been attached. Electric guitars were originally designed by an assortment of luthiers, electronics enthusiasts, and instrument manufacturers, in varying combinations. Some of the earliest electric guitars used [[Tungsten (music)|tungsten]] pickups and were manufactured in the [[1930s]] by [[Rickenbacker]]. === Fender === In the 1930s, steel guitar and instrument amplifier maker [[Leo Fender]], through his [[Fender|eponymous company]], designed the first commercially successful solid-body electric guitar, which was initially named the Broadcaster. However, the Gretsch company had a drumset by the same name, (Broadkaster) so Fender was forced to change the name, choosing ''[[Telecaster]]''. Features of the Telecaster included an ash body; a maple 25½[[inch|&quot;]] scale, 21-fret neck attached to the body with four-bolts reinforced by a steel neckplate; two single-coil, 6-pole pickups (bridge and neck positions), with tone and volume controls, pickup selector switch, and an output jack mounted on a control plate on the body top. A black bakelite pickguard concealed body routings for pickups and wiring. The bolt-on neck was consistent with Leo Fender's belief that the instrument design should be modular to allow cost-effective and consistent manufacture and assembly, as well as simple repair or replacement. A variant of the Telecaster, the Esquire, had only the bridge pickup. Due to the Broadcaster trademark issue, the earliest Telecasters were delivered with headstock decals with the Fender logo but no model identificaton, and are commonly referred to by collectors as &quot;Nocasters&quot;. In [[1954]] Fender introduced the ''[[Stratocaster]]'', or &quot;Strat&quot;, which was positioned as a deluxe model and offered various product improvements and innovations over the Telecaster. These innovations included an ash or alder double-cutaway body design for balance, a bridge assembly with an integrated [[vibrato]] mechanism (called a &quot;[[tremolo]]&quot; by Fender), three single-coil pickups, and body comfort contours. The Stratocaster has become the most-recognizable and most copied electric guitar design ever. [[Pink Floyd]]'s guitarist, [[David Gilmour]], owns one of the first Fender [[Stratocaster]]s ever made. Leo Fender is also credited with developing the first commercially-successful [[bass guitar|electric bass]] called the Fender Precision Bass, introduced in [[1951]]. The version of the instrument that is most well known today is the &quot;solid body&quot; electric guitar: a guitar made of solid wood, without resonating airspaces within it. One of the first solid body electric guitars was built by musician and inventor Les Paul in the early [[1940s]], working after hours in the Epiphone Guitar factory. His &quot;log&quot; guitar, so called because it consisted of a simple 4x4 wood post with a neck attached to it, two spanish hollow body halves attached to the sides, and homemade pickups and hardware. It was generally considered to be the first of its kind until recently, when research through old trade publications and with surviving luthiers and their families revealed many other prototypes, and even limited production models, that fit our modern conception of an 'electric guitar.' At least one company, Audiovox, built and may have offered an electric solid-body as early as the mid-1930s. [[Rickenbacker|Rickenbacher]] (later spelled ''Rickenbacker'', pronounced ''Rickenbocker'') offered a solid Bakelite electric guitar beginning in [[1935]] that, when tested by vintage guitar researcher John Teagle, reportedly sounded quite modern and aggressive. === Gibson === [[Gibson_Guitar_Corporation|Gibson]], like many guitar manufacturers, had long offered semi-acoustic guitars with pickups, and previously rejected [[Les Paul]] and his &quot;log&quot; electric in the 1940s. In apparent response to the Telecaster, Gibson introduced the first [[Gibson Les Paul]] solidbody guitar in [[1952]], designed at least in part with input from Les Paul. Features of the Les Paul included a mahogany body with a carved maple top (much like a [[violin]]) and contrasting edge binding, two single-coil &quot;soapbar&quot; pickups, a 24¾&quot; scale mahogany neck with a more traditional glued-in &quot;set&quot; neck joint, binding on the edges of the fretboard, and a tilt-back headstock with three tuners to a side. The earliest models had a combination bridge and trapeze-tailpiece design that was deemed unsuitable by Les Paul himself. Gibson then developed the Tune-o-Matic bridge and separate stop tailpiece, an adjustable non-vibrato design that has endured. By [[1957]], Gibson had made the final major change to the Les Paul as we know it today - the humbucking pickup, or humbucker. The humbucker, invented by Seth Lover, was a dual-coil pickup which produced a distinctive tone but also offered the advantage of elimination of the 60-cycle hum associated with single-coil pickups. The more traditionally designed and style Gibson solid-body instruments were contrast to Leo Fender's modular designs, with the most notable differentiator being the method of neck attachment and the scale of the neck (Gibson-24.75&quot;, Fender-25.5&quot;). Each design has it own merits. To this day, the basic design nearly every solid-body electric guitar available today echoes the features of early [[1950s]] originals - the Fender Telecaster &amp; Stratocaster, and the Gibson Les Paul. == Types of electric guitar == Most electric guitars are fitted with six strings and are usually tuned from low to high E - A - D - G - B - E, the same as an acoustic guitar, although many guitarists occasionally tune their instruments in a different way, including &quot;[[drop
[[Sils|Sils Maria]], near [[St. Moritz]] in [[Switzerland]], and many winters in the [[Italy|Italian]] cities of [[Genoa]], [[Rapallo]], and [[Turin]], and the French city of [[Nice]]. He occasionally returned to Naumburg to visit his family, and especially during this time, he and his sister had repeated periods of conflict and reconciliation. He lived on his pension from Basel, but also received aid from friends. A past student of his, [[Peter Gast]] (born Heinrich Köselitz), became a private secretary. To the end of his life, Gast and Overbeck were consistently faithful friends. Malwida von Meysenbug remained like a motherly patron even outside the Wagner circle. Soon Nietzsche made contact with the music critic [[Carl Fuchs]]. Nietzsche was at the beginning of his most productive period. Beginning with ''Human, All-Too-Human'' in 1878, Nietzsche would publish one book (or major section of a book) each year until 1888, his last year of writing, during which he completed five. In 1879, Nietzsche published ''Mixed Opinions and Maxims'', which followed the aphoristic form of ''Human, All-Too-Human''. The following year, he published ''The Wanderer and His Shadow''. Both were published as the second part of ''Human, All-Too-Human'' with the second edition of the latter. In 1881, Nietzsche published ''Daybreak: Reflections on Moral Prejudices'', and in 1882, the first part of ''The Gay Science''. That year he also met [[Lou Andreas-Salomé|Lou Salomé]] through Malwida von Meysenbug and Paul Rée. Nietzsche and Salomé spent the summer together in [[Tautenburg]], often with Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth as chaperone. However, Nietzsche's regard for Salomé was less as an equal partner than as a gifted student. He fell in love with her and pursued her despite their mutual friend Rée. When he asked to marry her, Salomé refused. Through various avenues of intrigue, Elisabeth broke up Nietzsche's relationship with Rée and Salomé in the winter of 1882-83. (Lou Salomé eventually came to correspond with [[Sigmund Freud]], introducing him to Nietzsche's thought.) In the face of renewed fits of illness, in near isolation after a falling out with his mother and sister regarding Salomé, and plagued by suicidal thoughts, he fled to Rapallo, where in only ten days he wrote the first part of ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''. After severing philosophical ties to Schopenhauer and social ties to Wagner, Nietzsche had few remaining friends. Now with the new style of ''Zarathustra'', his work became even more alienating and was received only to the degree prescribed by politeness. Nietzsche recognized this and maintained his solitude, even though he often complained about it. He gave up his short-lived plan to become a poet in public, and was troubled by concerns about his publications. His books were as good as unsold. In 1885, he printed only 40 copies of the fourth part of ''Zarathustra'', and only a fraction of these were distributed among close friends. In 1886, he printed ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'' at his own expense. With this book and the appearance in 1886-87 of second editions of his earlier works (''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'', ''[[Human, All-Too-Human]]'', ''[[Daybreak]]'', and ''[[The Gay Science]]''), he saw his work completed for the time and hoped that soon a readership would develop. In fact, the interest in Nietzsche did arise at this time, if also rather slowly and hardly perceived by him. During these years, Nietzsche's met [[Meta von Salis]], [[Carl Spitteler]], and also [[Gottfried Keller]]. In 1886, his sister Elisabeth married the [[Anti-Semitic|anti-Semite]] [[Bernhard Förster]] and travelled to Paraguay to found a &quot;Germanic&quot; colony, a plan to which Nietzsche responded with laughter. Through correspondence, Nietzsche's relationship with Elisabeth continued on the path of conflict and reconciliation, but she would not see him again in person until after his collapse. Nietzsche continued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible. In 1887, Nietzsche quickly wrote the polemic ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]''. He also exchanged letters with [[Hippolyte Taine]], and then also with [[Georg Brandes]], who at the beginning of 1888 delivered in Copenhagen the first lectures on Nietzsche's philosophy. In the same year, Nietzsche wrote five books, based on his voluminous notes for the long-planned work, ''[[The Will to Power]]''. His health seemed to be improving, and in the summer he was in high spirits. In the fall of 1888, his writings and letters began to reveal an overestimation of his status and 'fate'. He overestimated the increasing response to his writings, above all, for the recent polemic, ''[[The Case of Wagner]]''. On his 44th birthday, after completing ''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]'' and ''[[The Antichrist]]'', he decided to write the autobiography ''[[Ecce Homo]]'', which presents itself to his readers in order that they, 'Hear me! For I am such and such a person. Above all, do not mistake me for someone else.' (Preface, sec. 1, tr. [[Walter Kaufmann]]) In December, Nietzsche began correspondence with [[August Strindberg]], and thought that, short of an international breakthrough, he would attempt to buy back his older writings from the publisher and have them translated into other European languages. Moreover, he planned the publication of the compilation ''[[Nietzsche Contra Wagner]]'' and the poems ''[[Dionysian Dithyrambs]]''. On [[3 January]] [[1889]], Nietzsche had a mental collapse. That day he had been approached by two Turinese policemen after making some sort of public disturbance in the streets of Turin. What actually happened is not known. The often-repeated (and apocryphal) tale is that Nietzsche saw a horse being whipped at the other end of the Piazza Carlo Alberto, ran to the horse, threw his arms up around the horse’s neck to protect it, and collapsed to the ground. In the following few days, he sent short writings to a number of friends, including Cosima Wagner and Jacob Burckhardt, which showed signs of a breakdown. To his former colleague Burckhardt he wrote: 'I have had Caiphas put in fetters. Also, last year I was crucified by the German doctors in a very drawn-out manner. Wilhelm, Bismarck, and all anti-Semites abolished.' ([[The Portable Nietzsche]], trans. Walter Kaufmann) === Mental breakdown and death (1889&amp;ndash;1900) === On [[January 6]] [[1889]], Burckhardt showed the letter he received from Nietzsche to Overbeck. The following day Overbeck received a similarly revealing letter, and decided Nietzsche must be brought back to Basel. Overbeck traveled to Turin and brought Nietzsche to a psychiatric clinic in Basel. By that time, Nietzsche was fully in the grip of insanity, and his mother Franziska decided to bring him to a clinic in [[Jena]] under the direction of [[Otto Binswanger]]. From November 1889 to February 1890, [[Julius Langbehn]] attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the doctors' methods were ineffective to cure Nietzsche's condition. Langbehn assumed greater and greater control of Nietzsche until his secrecy discredited him. In March 1890, Franziska removed Nietzsche from the clinic, and in May 1890 to her home in Naumburg. During this process, Overbeck and Gast contemplated what to do with Nietzsche's unpublished works. In January 1889 they proceeded with the planned release of ''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]'', by that time already printed and bound. In February, they ordered a 50-copy private edition of ''Nietzsche Contra Wagner'', but the publisher [[C. G. Naumann]] secretly printed 100. Overbeck and Gast decided to withhold publishing ''Antichrist'' and ''Ecce Homo'' due to their more radical content. Nietzsche's reception and recognition enjoyed their first surge. In 1893, Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth returned from Paraguay after the suicide of her husband. She read and studied Nietzsche's works, and piece by piece took control of them and their publication. Overbeck was eventually dismissed, and Gast finally cooperated. After the death of Franziska in 1897, Nietzsche lived in [[Weimar]], where he was cared for by Elisabeth, who allowed people to visit the uncommunicative Nietzsche. On [[August 25]] [[1900]], Nietzsche died after contracting pneumonia. At the wish of Elisabeth, he was buried beside his father at the church in Röcken. The cause of Nietzsche's breakdown has been the subject of speculation and remains uncertain. An early and frequent diagnosis was a [[syphilis|syphilitic infection]]; however, some of Nietzsche's symptoms were inconsistent with typical cases of syphilis. Another diagnosis was a form of brain cancer. Others suggest that Nietzsche experienced a mystical awakening, similar to ones studied by [[Meher Baba]]. While most commentators regard Nietzsche's breakdown as irrelevant to his philosophy, some, including [[Georges Bataille]], argue that the breakdown must be considered. == Key concepts== [[Image:Nietzsche1882.jpg|thumb|200px|Friedrich Nietzsche in [[1882]]]] Much controversy surrounds whether Nietzsche advocated a single or comprehensive philosophical viewpoint. Many charge Nietzsche with propounding contradictory thoughts and ideas. Here are Nietzsche's main ideas. === Nihilism and the death of God === For Nietzsche, [[nihilism]] is the outcome of repeated frustrations in the search for meaning. He diagnosed nihilism as a latent presence within the very foundations of European culture, and thus, as a necessary and approaching destiny. The religious worldview had already suffered a number of challenges from contrary perspectives grounded in philosophical skepticism, and in modern science's evolutionary and heliocentric theory. Nietzsche sees this intellectual condition as a new challenge to European culture, which has extended itself beyond a sort of point-of-no-return. Nietzsche conceptualizes this with the famous statement, '[[God is dead]]', wh
sometimes used to describe [[further education college]]s that provide part-time [[adult education]]. ==Enrollment== In North America, community colleges operate under a policy of &quot;open admission&quot;. That is, anyone with a high school diploma or GED may attend, regardless of prior academic status or college entrance exam scores. The &quot;open admission&quot; policy results in a wide range of students attending community college classes. Students range in age from teenagers in [[high school]] taking classes under a &quot;concurrent enrollment&quot; policy (which allows both high school and college credits to be earned simultaneously) to working adults taking classes at night to complete a degree or gain additional skills in their field to students with graduate degrees who enroll to become more employable or to pursue lifelong interests. &quot;Reverse transfers&quot; (or those transferring from a university) constitute one of the fastest growing new community college college cohorts. ==Educational offerings== Community colleges generally offer three levels of study programs. The first level of study is toward an [[Associate's degree]], in which a student takes necessary courses needed to earn a degree that will allow for workforce entry into jobs requiring some level of college education but not a full four-year degree. The Associate's degree program also allows for students who wish to eventually obtain a [[bachelor's degree]] at a four-year college to complete the necessary &quot;core&quot; requirements to attend the college of their choice[http://www.academicforum.co.uk/university/home .] Many community colleges have arrangements with nearby four-year institutions, where a student obtaining an associate's degree in a field will automatically have his/her classes counted toward the bachelor's degree requirement. (For example, a community college associate's degree in hotel and restaurant management, computers or accounting would count toward the four-year school's core requirement for a Business Administration degree.) Some have gone one step further, having arrangements with a four-year college for the student to obtain the bachelor's degree from the four-year college while taking all the courses via [[distance learning]] or other non-traditional modes, on the community college campus, thus limiting the number of trips to the four-year school. The second level of study is towards certification in an area of [[vocational or occupational education|training]] (such as nursing, computer repair, or welding), which require preparation for a state or national examination, or where certification would allow for hiring preference and/or a higher salary upon entering the workforce. The third level of study offers services of local interest to members of the community, such as job placement, adult continuing-education classes (either for personal achievement or to maintain certification in specialized fields), and developmental classes for children. Some community colleges offer opportunities for students to return and earn a high school diploma or obtain a GED. Community colleges often work with local employeers to develop specialized classes tailored toward their organization's needs. ==Advantages of community colleges== *Community colleges are geared toward local students and local needs. Students who could not afford campus or off-site housing at a four-year college, or for other reasons cannot relocate, can attend courses while staying in their local community. Also, community colleges can work with local businesses to develop customized training geared toward local needs, whereas a four-year institution generally focuses on state-wide and/or national needs. Some community colleges have programs allowing local high school students to &quot;jump start&quot; their college career by taking classes at the community college that also count toward their high school diploma. Policies and classes offered vary with different agreements existing between the community college and high schools. *The &quot;open enrollment&quot; policy allows anyone to begin the goal towards future college education. The policy is highly beneficial to students with mediocre academic records in high school (or who dropped out and later obtained a GED), students &quot;maturing&quot; later in life who now see the benefits of college education, or students who could not attend college after high school but now have the chance to do so. *In North America, tuition and fees are substantially lower than those of a traditional four-year public or private institution. (This is not true in China where community college tuition exceeds that of the university.) Students from low-income families, or those having to work to pay for their education, benefit from the reduced costs. Many colleges offer and accept scholarships or educational grants. *Community colleges have little or no time limits on when classes must be taken or a degree must be earned (many four-year schools, tired of &quot;[[professional student|professional students]]&quot; taking up limited space, have imposed limits on when a degree can be earned). Students who must hold down full-time employment, and who cannot take a full-term load, are thus not under pressure to complete courses in a limited timeframe. *Four-year colleges often give priority to students transferring from community colleges, citing their demonstrated preparedness for junior and senior college-level work. Students who may not have been able to attend a particular college after high school (either for academic, financial, and/or personal reasons), may now be able to attend the college of their choice. *Community college professors are solely dedicated to teaching, and classes are generally small, whereas a four-year college course may be taught to 300 students by a student intern, while the professor is concentrating on research. Most professors have [[Master's degree]]s and some even hold [[doctorate]] degrees. *Several community colleges have tremendously successful athletic programs, where students have gone on to play for major colleges and/or the professional ranks. Others offer no athletic programs. *Research shows there is no learning or income penalty for individuals who start at a community college and transfer to a four-year institution. Additionally, research indicates students who begin their higher education career at a community college are more likely to transfer to a higher quality four-year institution than if they had started at a four-year college. ==Disadvantages of community colleges== *Transferring credits can sometimes be a problem, as each four-year college has its own requirements as to what is and isn't required for enrollment. However, many four-year colleges (usually nearby to the community college) have made arrangements allowing associate degrees to qualify for transfer, and in some cases allowing the student to complete the bachelor's degree via [[distance learning]] from the community college campus. [[Minnesota]] has created a statewide &quot;transfer curriculum&quot; allowing credits to be transfered to any other public university and almost all of the private colleges. Illinois' &quot;I-transfer&quot; program is a model articulation program (www.itransfer.org.) *It is frequent for many courses to be taught by part-time [[lecturer]]s holding only a Master's degree in the field, although there is little evidence, other than anecdotal, to indicate that taking a class from a full-time college instructor leads to higher order learning outcomes. *Few community colleges have on-campus housing. This makes it more difficult for students to participate in extra-curricular activities. *Many community colleges do not offer any athletic programs other than basic physical education classes. *Research shows individuals with Associate's degrees earn less than those with Bachelor's degrees. Because a correlation exists between years of education and earnings, this says more about years of schooling than the value of Associate's degrees or certificates, which have a strong value in the workplace. ==Community college libraries== Community college libraries, also called learning resources centers, have evolved over their existence. These libraries often include traditional library services such as book checkout, online research tools, and research help, but they also have included multimedia technology expertise, video centers, tutor centers and support services. Community college libraries play a significant role in the college curriculum by supporting information literacy across campus. The librarians spend a significant amount of their work week in the classroom teaching students about information, to select research tools, to evaluate search results, and to use their results in papers, speeches, or in other projects. For this reason, community college librarians are considered full faculty members at most institutions. Community college libraries are often at the cutting edge of research services, because they are able to change faster than their larger cousins at major research institutions. ==See also== *[[Adult education]] *[[Adult high school]] *[[Continuing education]] *[[Distance learning]] *[[E-learning]] *[[Lifelong learning]] *[[The Teaching Company]] *[[Vocational education]] In Australia *[[Technical and Further Education]] *[[Workers' Educational Association]] also in the UK ===North American community colleges=== {{seealso|List of community colleges}} *[[List of Ontario Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology|Ontario Colleges]] *[[California Community Colleges system]] *[[CEGEP|Quebec CEGEPs]] ==External links== * [http://www.aacc.nche.edu/ American Association of Community Colleges] * [http://www.acct.org/ Association of Community College Trustees] * [http://www.communitycolleges.org/ Illinois Community College Trustees Association * [h
ban sprawl]] of the 20th century, this area was home to large [[mixed forest]]s covering a mostly flat area of land between the [[Appalachian Mountains]] and the [[Canadian Shield]] Most of this forest has nowadays been cut down through agriculture and logging operations, but the remaining forests are for the most part heavily protected. While the relief of these lowlands is particularly flat and regular, a group of [[batholite]]s known as the [[Monteregian Hills]] are spread along a mostly regular line across the area. The most notable are [[Montreal]]'s [[Mount Royal]] and [[Mont Saint-Hilaire]]. These hills are known for a great richness in rare [[mineral]]s. ===Canadian Shield=== :''Main article: [[Canadian Shield]]'' The northern parts of [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], and [[Quebec]], as well as most of [[Labrador]], the [[mainland]] portion of the province of [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], are located on a vast rock base known as the [[Canadian Shield]]. The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly terrain and contains many important [[river]]s used for [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] production, particularly in northern [[Quebec]] and [[Ontario]]. The shield also encloses an area of wetlands, the [[Hudson's Bay]] [[lowlands]]. Some particular regions of the Shield are referred as [[mountain range]]s. They include the [[Torngat Mountains|Torngat]] and [[Laurentian Mountains]]. The Shield cannot support intensive [[agriculture]], although there is subsistence agriculture and small dairy farms in many of the river valleys and around the abundant lakes, particularly in the southern regions. [[Boreal forest]] covers much of the shield, with a mix of [[conifers]] that provide valuable timber resources. The region is known for its extensive [[mineral]] reserves. ===Canadian Interior Plains=== :''Main article: [[Canadian Prairies]]'' The Canadian prairies are part of a vast [[sedimentary]] [[Great Plains|plain]] covering much of [[Alberta]], southern [[Saskatchewan]], and southwestern [[Manitoba]], as well as much of the region between the Rocky Mountains and the [[Great Slave Lake|Great Slave]] and [[Great Bear Lake|Great Bear]] lakes in [[Northwest Territories]]. The prairies generally describes the expanses of (largely flat) arable agricultural land which sustain extensive grain farming operations in the southern part of the provinces. Despite this, some areas such as the [[Cypress Hills]] and [[Alberta Badlands]] are quite hilly. ===Western Cordillera=== [[Image:CPRinYoho.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A [[Canadian Pacific Railway|CPR]] train climbs through [[Yoho National Park]] towards [[Kicking Horse Pass]].]] :''Main articles: [[Rocky Mountains]]'', ''[[Pacific Coast Ranges]]'' The Canadian cordillera, part of the [[American cordillera]], stretches from the [[Rocky Mountains]] in the east to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. The [[Canadian Rockies]] are part of a major [[continental divide]] that extends north and south through western North America and western South America. The [[Columbia River|Columbia]] and the [[Fraser River]]s have their headwaters in the Canadian Rockies and are the second and third largest rivers respectively to drain to the west coast of North America. Immediately west of the mountains is a large interior plateau encompassing the [[Chilcotin]] and [[Cariboo]] regions in central BC (the [[Fraser Plateau]]) and the [[Nechako Plateau]] further North. The [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace River]] Valley in northeastern British Columbia is Canada's most northerly agricultural region, although it is part of the prairies. The dry, temperate climate of the [[Okanagan]] Valley in South central BC provides ideal conditions for fruit growing and a flourishing wine industry. The southern Okanagan contains Canada's only [[desert]]. This arid grassland is a continuation of the intermontane desert which extends from Mexico north through the U.S. and ends just north of [[Osoyoos]] BC. Between the plateau and the coast is a second mountain range, the [[Coast Mountains]]. [[Image:MountLogan.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Mount Logan]], one of the [[Saint Elias Mountains]] in [[Yukon]]; at 5,959 m, Canada's highest point and second highest in North America.]]West of Ontario, the broad, flat [[Canadian Prairies]] spread toward the [[Rocky Mountains]], which separate them from [[British Columbia]]. On the south coast [[Vancouver Island]] is separated from the mainland by the continuous [[Strait of Juan de Fuca|Juan de Fuca]], [[Strait of Georgia|Georgia]], and [[Johnstone Strait|Johnstone]] [[Strait]]s. Those straits include a large number of islands, notably the [[Gulf Islands]]. North, near the [[Alaska]]n border, the [[Queen Charlotte Islands]] lie across [[Hecate Strait]] from the [[Bella Coola]] region. Other than in the plateau regions of the interior and the river valleys, most of British Columbia is coniferous forest. ===Canadian Arctic=== :''Main article: [[Northern Canada]]''&lt;br&gt; While the largest part of the Canadian Arctic is composed of seemingly non-stop permanent ice and [[tundra]] north of the [[tree line]], it encompasses geological regions of varying types: the [[Innuitian Region]] (with the [[British Empire Range]] and the [[United States Range]] on [[Ellesmere Island]]) contains the northernmost mountain system in the world. The [[Arctic lowlands]] and [[Hudson Bay]] [[lowlands]] comprise a substantial part of the geographic region often designated as the [[Canadian Shield]] (in contrast to the sole geologic area). The ground in the Arctic is mostly composed of [[permafrost]], making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture virtually impossible. The Arctic, when defined as everything north of the [[tree line]], covers most of [[Nunavut]], and the northernmost parts of [[Northwest Territories]], [[Yukon]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], and [[Labrador]]. &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; ==Hydrography== [[Image:canadadrainagebasinsmap.jpg|left|thumb|Drainage basins of Canada]]Canada holds vast reserves of water: 7% of the world's [[fresh water]], a quarter of humid lands and the third largest amount of [[glacier]]s (after [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]]). Due to extensive [[glaciation]], Canada hosts more than two million [[lake]]s: of those that entirely within Canada, more than 31,000 are between 3 and 100 square kilometres (1.2 &amp; 38.6 mi²) in area, while 563 are larger than 100 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. There are 5 main [[watershed]]s in Canada: The [[Arctic Ocean|Arctic]] watershed, the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], the [[Hudson Bay|Hudson]] watershed and, due to parts of the [[Milk River (Montana-Alberta)|Milk River]] running through Alberta, the [[Gulf of Mexico]] watershed. The '''Atlantic watershed''' is mostly drained by the economically important [[St. Lawrence River]] and its tributaries, notably the [[Saguenay River|Saguenay]], [[Manicouagan River|Manicouagan]] and [[Outaouais River|Outaouais]] rivers. It drains the entirety of the Atlantic provinces (parts of the [[Quebec]]-[[Labrador]] [[boundary]] are fixed at the Atlantic [[continental divide]]), most of inhabitated Quebec and large parts of southern Ontario. The [[Great Lakes]], [[Lake Nipigon]], [[Churchill River (Atlantic)|Churchill River]], and [[St. John River]] are other important elements of the Atlantic watershed in Canada. The '''Hudson Bay watershed''' drains over a third of Canada. It covers northern Ontario and Quebec, Manitoba, most of Saskatchewan and southern Alberta, southwestern Nunavut and the southern half of [[Baffin Island]]. This basin is most important in fighting [[drought]] in the [[Canadian Prairies|prairies]] and producing [[hydroelectricity]], especially in Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec. Major elements of this watershed include [[Lake Winnipeg]], [[Nelson River]], the [[North Saskatchewan River|North Saskatchewan]] and [[South Saskatchewan River|South]] [[Saskatchewan River]]s, [[Assiniboine River]] and [[Lake Netiling]], on Baffin Island. The [[Continental Divide]], in the Rockies, separates the '''Pacific watershed''', in British Columbia and Yukon, from the Arctic and Hudson Bay watersheds. This watershed is important for irrigating the rich cultures of inner British Columbia (such as the [[Okanagan River|Okanagan]] and [[Kootenay River|Kootenay]] valleys) and producing hydroelectricity. Major elements are the [[Yukon River|Yukon]], [[Columbia River|Columbia]] and [[Fraser River]]. Northern parts of Alberta, Manitoba and British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories and Nunavut as well as parts of Yukon are drained by the '''Arctic watershed'''. This watershed has been little used for hydroelectricity, with the exception of the [[Mackenzie River]], the longest river of Canada. The [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace]], [[Athabasca River]], [[Great Bear Lake]] and [[Great Slave Lake]] (respectively the largest and second largest lakes wholly enclosed by Canada) are significant elements of the Arctic watershed. Each of these elements eventually merges with the Mackenzie so that it thereby drains the vast majority of the Arctic watershed. ==Floristic geography== {{sectstub}} {{main|Ecoregions of Canada}} Main [[biome]]s of Canada: * [[Tundra]] * [[Boreal forest]] * [[Mixed forest]] * [[Broadleaf forest]] * [[Prairie]]s * [[Rocky Mountains]] - vegetation includes various types of tundra and forests * [[Temperate coniferous forests]], of which the [[Temperate rain forest]]s of coastal British Columbia is an example. ==Human geography== Canada is divided into thirteen [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provinces and territories]]. According to [[Statistics Canada]], 72.0% of the population is concentrated within 150 kilometres (95&amp;nbsp;mi) of the nation's southern border with the United States, 70.0% live south of the [[49th parallel]], and over 60% of the population lives along the [[Great La
her companies or efforts. The newsletter was abandoned, and the Users' Group no longer holds yearly meetings. EDIF 3 0 0 and 4 0 0 are now [[ANSI]], [[IEC]] and European (EN) standards. EDIF Version 3 0 0 is IEC/EN 61690-1, and EDIF Version 4 0 0 is IEC/EN 61690-2. ==External links== *[http://www.edif.org/ EDIF web site] [[Category:CAD file formats]] [[Category:EDA software]] [[de:Electronic Design Interchange Format]] [[ja:EDIF]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Explosives</title> <id>10523</id> <revision> <id>15908330</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Explosive material]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Enea Silvio Piccolomini</title> <id>10526</id> <revision> <id>15908332</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Pius II]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Essential tremor</title> <id>10528</id> <revision> <id>41941292</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:53:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Arcadian</username> <id>104523</id> </contributor> <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Essential tremor | ICD10 = G25.0 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|333.1}} | }} '''Essential tremor''' is a [[neurological disorder]] characterized by shaking of [[hand]]s (and sometimes other parts of the body including the [[head (anatomy)|head]]), evoked by intentional movements. The incidence is unknown, but is estimated to be as common as one person in 20, and it is the most common type of [[tremor]] and also the most commonly observed movement disorder. ==Cause== The cause of the disease is unknown ([[idiopathic]]). While no identifiable and consistent structural abnormality has been demonstrated yet to exist in the [[nervous system]] of every person with ET, prominent researchers including Elan D. Louis are searching actively for neurochemical and brain structure abnormalities that might be commonplace among people with ET. Tremor intensity can worsen in response to fatigue, strong emotions, hunger, cold, or other factors and can be reduced with [[ethanol|alcohol]] in approximately 50 percent of patients. However, an over-reliance on alcohol to control tremor symptoms can sometimes lead to alcohol addiction. There is ongoing controversy as to whether ET is related to [[Parkinson's disease]] and whether essential tremor should properly be considered a kind of parkinsonism. While some research findings appear to suggest that ET patients face a greater than average chance of developing Parkinson's, those findings might be a misleading effect of the widespread difficulty that doctors experience when they try to distinguish Parkinson's symptoms from ET symptoms and arrive at a definitive diagnosis. Members of a family known as the &quot;Iowa Kindred&quot; develop either parkinsonism or symptoms that are indistinguishable from ET; their pattern of inheritance is associated with PARK4. ==Diagnosis== Usually the diagnosis is established on clinical grounds, but when suspicion exists, other potential sources of tremor (excessive [[caffeine]] consumption, [[recreational drug use]], [[hyperthyroidism]]) should be excluded. Essential tremor is often found in more than one member of a family (familial tremor), in which case it is usually dominant in inheritance, or it may occur with no [[Family history (medicine)|family history]]. Tremors can start as any age, from [[childbirth|birth]] through advanced ages (senile tremor). Any voluntary muscle in the body may be affected, though it's most commonly seen in the [[hands]] and [[arm]]s and slightly less commonly in the [[neck]] (causing the patient's head to shake), [[eyelid]]s, [[larynx]], [[tongue]], trunk, and legs. A resting tremor of the hands is sometimes present, despite the common misunderstanding that a resting tremor is proof of Parkinson's Disease. ET does sometimes occur in combination with other neurological disorders such as [[dystonia]] and [[benign fasciculation syndrome]]. However, there is no clear evidence that having ET predisposes a person to one of these diseases. ==Symptoms== Essential tremor (ET) generally presents as a rhythmic tremor (4-12[[Hertz| Hz]]) that is present only when the affected [[muscle]] is exerting effort (i.e., it is not present at rest). Any sort of physical or mental [[stress (medicine)|stress]] will tend to make the tremor worse, often creating the false impression that the tremor is of [[psychosomatic]] origin. It is typical for the tremor to worsen in &quot;performance&quot; situations, such as when making out a check at a checkout stand. This is probably due to the increased anxiety that a tremulous person experiences in such situations. ET-related tremors do not occur during sleep, but patients sometimes complain of an especially coarse tremor upon awakening that becomes noticeably less coarse within the first few minutes of wakefulness. It is commonly assumed among researchers that tremors are not the only symptom of ET. In disabling cases, ET can interfere with a person's ability to perform tasks of daily living, including feeding, dressing, and activities of personal hygiene. ET is usually painless, although in some cases tremor of the head or [[neck]] causes pain, and writing can become painful quickly for a person with hand tremors who grips a pen tightly in a struggle to maintain control over penmanship. In 1994, J.L. Izquierdo-Alonso and P. Martínez-Martín, et al, reported in the ''European Respiratory Journal'' that some ET patients exhibit tremor-related symptoms that mimic bronchial asthma. These patients have involuntary tremors, contractions, and other abnormal phasic activity in the musculature of their upper airway (at a rhythmic frequency of 7-8 Hz), including their glottal structures and laryngeal muscles. The abnormal movements close their airways partially and they exhibit paroxysmal attacks of wheezing, coughing, and dyspnoea that are worsened, not improved, by asthma medications. Sometimes people with ET develop a raspy speaking voice while their ET symptoms worsen over time. When this [[dysphonia]] occurs, it is true even in cases where the person's tremor symptoms were first noticeable during early childhood and, so, is unlikely to be related to commonplace reductions in quality that can gradually affect the speaking voices of some elderly people. People with ET often report a progressive decline in their sense of balance and their fine motor skills; published research does suggest that an impaired sense of balance might prevent ET patients from walking normally. Conflicting research results have so far made it difficult for medical researchers to say with certainty that people with ET are more likely than the general population to experience hearing loss and a reduction or complete loss of [[olfaction]], among a wide assortment of other non-tremor symptoms, but credible researchers have published findings that support claims of progressive hearing loss and progressive loss of olfaction in people with ET. Some hard research reports suggest people with ET frequently experience mild mental symptoms that include difficulty with &quot;word finding&quot; (remembering an intended word when speaking) and simple short-term memory loss. However, because such symptoms are common with normal aging, it's difficult to determine if these reports are significant. Other published reports suggest that people with ET experience personality changes that leave them pessimistic, fearful, shy, anxious, and easily fatigued. While ET is clearly progressive in some cases (sometimes rapidly, sometimes very slowly), and can in severe cases be disabling, it is apparently not life-threatening and does not appear to shorten lifespan. (Some research suggests that people with ET actually live longer than average.) On April 13, 2005, researchers Julián Benito-Leon and Elan D. Louis presented their findings at the American Academy of Neurology 57th Annual Meeting in Miami Beach that people with ET are more than twice as likely to develop dementia than people who do not have ET. Dr. Benito-Leon told journalists at that time, &quot;We don’t yet know whether the dementia is due to the same underlying problem that is causing the essential tremor or whether it is caused by another problem.&quot; In their research, 7.4 percent of people with ET went on to develop dementia, compared to just 3.5 percent in a control group. Among the recent and provocative peer-reviewed research regarding non-tremor symptoms of ET, these papers are especially noteworthy: - A Chatterjee, E C Jurewicz, L M Applegate, and E D Louis. ''Personality in essential tremor: further evidence of non-motor manifestations of the disease''. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, Jul 2004; 75: 958 - 961. - Lacritz LH, Dewey R, Giller C, et al. ''Cognitive functioning in individuals with &quot;benign&quot; essential tremor''. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2002;8:125–9. - Gasparini M , Bonifati V, Fabrizio E, et al. ''Frontal lobe dysfunction in essential tremor: a preliminary study''. J Neurol 2001;248:399–402. - Lombardi WJ, Woolston DJ, Roberts JW, et al. ''Cognitive deficits in patients with essential tremor''. Neurology 2001;57:785–90. - Duane DD, Vermilion KJ. ''Cognitive deficits in patients with essential tremor''. Neurology 2002;58:1706 discussion: 1706,. - Vermilion K , Stone A, Duane D. ''Cognition and affect in i
&quot;formally heretical&quot; and the second &quot;at least erroneous in faith&quot; in theology. This assessment led to [[Copernicus]]'s ''[[De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium]]'' to be placed on the [[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|Index of Forbidden Books]], until revised and [[Galileo Galilei]] to be admonished about his Copernicanism. It was this same body in [[1633]] that tried Galileo, condemned him for a &quot;grave suspicion of heresy&quot;, and banned all his works. Not all prosecutions of alleged heretics, atheists and other deviations from the Catholic faith were prosecuted by the Inquisition. In some countries, such as [[France]] under the ''[[ancien régime]]'', atheists and [[blasphemy|blasphemers]] could be prosecuted by civilian courts, with the possible penalty of [[death]]. ===Portuguese Inquisition=== :''Main article: [[Portuguese Inquisition]]'' The Portuguese Inquisition was established in [[Portugal]] in [[1536]] by the [[King of Portugal]], [[Joao III]], as a Portuguese analogue of the more famous Spanish Inquisition ==Other uses of the word &quot;Inquisitions&quot;== Even though the last Inquisition (The Spanish Inquisition) ended in [[1834]] almost 200 years ago, the word &quot;Inquisition&quot; remains a part of modern vocabulary; even those with no interest in European history associate it with negative meanings.[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/madden200406181026.asp] Because of the negative images associated with the Inquisition, the term has taken on a pejorative usage, and is often used to express disapproval, and is often used in a non-neutral manner, and not as a neutral historical descriptor. *Some Christian fundamentalist authors like [[Jack Chick]] and [[Alberto Rivera]], along with other like-minded authors, believe the [[Nazi]] [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] was an Inquisition against the Jews undertaken by [[Hitler]], a Catholic, at the behest of the Pope. *In modern American politics, [[United States Senate]] investigations are often called &quot;Inquisitions&quot; as a means of expressing disapproval of the investigators. For example some people call the Second [[Red Scare]] an inquisition. *[[Robert Anton Wilson]]'s book ''The New Inquisition'' (ISBN 1561840025) is critical of the application of the [[Scientific Method]] in the 20th century. *[[Emperor Qian Long]]'s literary inquisition in [[Qing dynasty]] China. ==Derivative works== The Inquisitions have been the subject of many cultural works. Some include: *[[The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)|The Spanish Inquisition]] was the subject of a classic [[Monty Python]] sketch (&quot;''Nobody'' expects the Spanish Inquisition!&quot;). *The short story by [[Edgar Allan Poe]], ''[[The Pit and the Pendulum]]'' was set during the Spanish Inquisition. *A body known as the [[Inquisition (Warhammer 40,000)|Inquisition]] exists in the fictional [[Warhammer 40,000]] universe. *[[Mel Brooks]]'s [[1981]] film [[The History of the World, Part I]] contains a musical number about the Spanish Inquisition. *In [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Small Gods]]'', the Omnian church has both an Inquisition and an ''Ex''quisition. *In [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[2003]] book ''[[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix]]'', [[Professor]] [[Dolores Umbridge]] sets up an Inquisition at [[Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry]], with herself as the High Inquisitor. ==See also== * [[Witchhunt]] * [[Konrad von Marburg]] * [[Malleus Maleficarum]] * [[Inquisitorial system]] * [[Grand Inquisitor|List of Grand Inquisitors of Spain]] * [[Historical revisionism (political)]] * [[Histoire de l'Inquisition en France]] * [[Michael Servetus]] * [[Vatican Secret Archives]] ==External links== * [http://www.bede.org.uk/inquisition.htm Frequently Asked Questions About the Inquisition] by James Hannam * [http://www.rbookshop.com/religion/i/Inquisition/index.html Books on the Inquisition] *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08026a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Inquisition] *[http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ247.HTM The Protestant Inquisition:&quot;Reformation&quot; Intolerance and Persecution] by [[Dave Armstrong]] ==References== * Edward M. Peters, ''Inquisition.'' (University of California Press, 1989). ISBN 0520066308 ** A brief, balanced inquiry, with an especially good section on the 'Myth of the Inquisition' (see [[The Inquisition Myth]]). This is particularly valuable because much of the history available in English of the Inquisition was written in the 19th century by Protestants interested in documenting the dangers of [[Catholicism]] or Catholic apologists demonstrating that the Inquisition had been an entirely reasonable judicial body without flaws. * Henry Kamen, ''The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision.'' (Yale University Press, 1999). ISBN 0300078803 ** This revised edition of his 1965 original contributes to the understanding of the Spanish Inquisition in its local context. * Cecil &amp; Irene Roth, ''A history of the Marranos'', Sepher-Hermon Press, 1974. * Simon Whitechapel, ''Flesh Inferno: Atrocities of Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition'' (Creation Books, 2003). ISBN 1840681055 * William Thomas Walsh, ''Characters of the Inquisition'' (TAN Books, 1997). ISBN 0895553260 ** Favorable treatment of inquisitors. [[Category:Inquisition|*]] [[af:Inkwisisie]] [[ca:Inquisició]] [[cs:Inkvizice]] [[da:Inkvisition]] [[de:Inquisition]] [[es:Inquisición]] [[eo:Inkvizicio]] [[eu:Inkisizioa]] [[fr:Inquisition]] [[gl:Inquisición]] [[it:Inquisizione]] [[he:אינקוויזיציה]] [[lt:Inkvizicija]] [[hu:Inkvizíció]] [[nl:Inquisitie]] [[ja:異端審問]] [[no:Inkvisisjonen]] [[pl:Inkwizycja]] [[pt:Inquisição]] [[ru:Святая инквизиция]] [[sk:Inkvizícia]] [[sl:Inkvizicija]] [[sr:Инквизиција]] [[fi:Inkvisitio]] [[sv:Inkvisition]] [[tr:Engizisyon]] [[uk:Інквізиція]] [[zh:異端裁判所]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Isaac</title> <id>15192</id> <revision> <id>42046361</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:42:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Enkyklios</username> <id>541615</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other uses, see [[Isaac (disambiguation)]]. For the Muslim view of Isaac, see [[Ishaq]].}} [[Image:Icelandic Isaac sacrifice.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An [[angel]] prevents [[Abraham]] from sacrificing Isaac in this illumation from a [[14th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]] '''Isaac''' ('''Yitschak''' or '''Yitzhak''') ('''יִצְחָק''' &quot;He will laugh&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''{{IPA|Yiẓḥaq}}''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''{{IPA|Yiṣḥāq}}'''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''اسحاق''' '''{{IPA|ʾIsḥāq}}''') is the son and heir of [[Abraham]] and the father of [[Jacob]] and [[Esau]] as described in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. His story is told in the [[Book of Genesis]]. ==Name== Isaac was named because when his mother, [[Sarah]], overheard that she would bear a child in her old age, she laughed (Genesis 18:10-15, 21:6-7). Some commentators believe that in the [[Book of Amos]] there is some suggestion that ''[[Israel (disambiguation)|Israel]]'' may actually be another name for Isaac (''Amos'' 7:9, 16) despite the Bible stating that ''Israel'' is the later name given to Isaac's son [[Jacob]] (''Genesis'' 32:22-28, especially 28). ==Life== [[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 035.jpg|thumb|left|The angel hinders the offering up of Isaac, by Rembrandt]] Isaac was born to Abraham by his wife Sarah, and the only child they had together. He was the longest lived of the three [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]] (Genesis 21:1-3). Isaac was [[Brit milah|circumcised]] by his father when eight days old (Genesis 4-7); and a great feast was held in connection with his being weaned. The next memorable event in his life is that connected with the story of God testing Abraham by asking him to offer Isaac as a [[Binding of Isaac | sacrifice]] on a mountain in the land of [[Moriah]] (Genesis 22). When he was forty years of age [[Rebekah]] was chosen for his wife (Genesis 24). After the death and burial of his father, he took up his residence at [[Beer-lahai-roi]] (Genesis 25:7-11), where his twin sons, [[Esau]] and [[Jacob]], were born (Genesis 21-26), the former of whom seems to have been his favorite son (Genesis 27, 28). Due to a famine (Genesis 26:1) Isaac went to [[Gerar]]. In order to avoid being killed, he lied about his relationship to Rebekah, and [[a wife confused for a sister|his wife was believed to be his sister]] much like Abraham's sojourn in [[Egypt]] (12:12-20) and also his sojourn in Gerar (20:2). The [[Philistine]] king rebuked Isaac for his dishonesty when he discovered him ''sporting'' with Rebekah. After staying for some time in the land of the Philistines, he returned to [[Beersheba]], where [[God]] gave him fresh assurance of the [[covenant]] blessing, and where [[a wife confused for a sister|the Philistine king entered into a covenant of peace with him]]. The next chief event in his life was the blessing of his sons (Genesis 27:1). He died at [[Mamre]], &quot;being old and full of days&quot; (Genesis 35:27-29), 180 years old, and was buried in the [[Cave of Machpelah]]. Isaac is &quot;at once a counterpart of his father in simple devoutness and purity of life, and a contrast in his passive weakness of character, which in part, at least, may have sprung from his relations to his mother and wife. After the expulsion of Ishmael and [[Hagar]], Isaac had no competitor, and grew up in the shade of Sarah's tent, moulded into feminine softness by habitual submission to her strong, loving will.&quot; His life was so quiet and uneventful that it was spent &quot;within the circle of a few miles; so guileless that he let Jacob overreach him rather than disbelieve his assurance; so tender that his mother's death was the poignant sorrow of years; so patient and gentle that peace with his neighbours was dearer than even such a coveted possession as a well of living water dug by h
''Satan in Goray'' which was first published in Poland in [[1932]]. It was written in the style imitative of medieval Yiddish chronicle and tells the story of the events surrounding the [[17th Century]] false messiah [[Shabbatai Zvi]]. The people in this novel, as elsewhere with Singer, are often at the mercy of the capricious infliction of circumstance, but even more so, their own passions, manias, superstitions and fanatical dreams. In his later work ''The Slave'' ([[1962]]) Singer returned again to the 17th Century in a love story of a Jewish man and a [[Gentile]] woman. To flee from anti-Semitism, and to follow his brother, Singer emigrated to the [[United States|U.S.]] in [[1935]]. He separated from his first wife Rachel, and son Israel, who went to Moscow and later Palestine. Singer settled in [[New York City|New York]], where he started writing as a journalist and columnist for ''[[The Forward]]'', a Jewish newspaper. He wrote nearly all his work in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and often used the penname Warshofsky. In 1940 he married Alma Haimann, a [[ethnic German|German]] emigrant. He became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States in [[1943]]. Throughout his career, Singer would continue to be a contributor and supporter of ''The Forward'', which remains in existence today as a weekly. Throughout the [[1940s]], Singer´s reputation began to grow among the many Yiddish-speaking immigrants. After [[World War II]] and the near destruction of the Yiddish-speaking peoples, Yiddish seemed a dead language. Though Singer had moved to the United States, he believed in the power of his native language and knew that there was still a large audience that longed to read in Yiddish. In an interview in ''Encounter'' (Feb 1979) he claimed that although the Jews of Poland had died &quot;something - call it spirit or whatever - is still somewhere in the universe. This is a mystical kind of feeling, but I feel there is truth in it.&quot; Singer's work is undoubtedly much indebted to the great writers of Yiddish tradition such as [[Sholom Aleichem]], but is much more modern in approach and has been shaped by his experience in America. His themes of witchcraft, mystery and legend draw on traditional sources, but they are established in modern and ironic way. They are also concerned with the bizarre and the grotesque. Singer published 18 novels, 14 children's books, a number of memoirs, essays and articles, but he is best known as a writer of short-stories which have appeared in over a dozen collections. The first collection of Singer's short-stories in English ''Gimpel, the Fool'', was published in 1957. The title story was translated by [[Saul Bellow]] and published in 1952 in ''Partisan Review''. Stories published in ''Daily Forward'' were later collected among others such as ''My Father's Court'' (1966). Later collections include ''A Crown of Feathers'' (1973), with notable masterpieces in between, such as, ''The Spinoza of Market Street'' (1961), or, ''A Friend of Kafka'' (1970). The world of his stories is the world and life of East European Jewry, such as it was lived in cities and villages, in poverty and persecution, and imbued with sincere piety and rites combined with blind faith and superstition. It appears to include everything - pleasure and suffering, coarseness and subtlety. We find obstrusive carnality, spicy, colourful, fragrant or smelly, lewd or violent. But there is also room for sagacity, worldly wisdom and humor. One of Singer's most prominent themes is the clash between the old and the modern world, tradition and renewal, faith and free thought. Among many other themes, it is dealt with in Singer's big family chronicles - the novels, ''The Family Moskat'' (1950), ''The Manor'' (1967), and ''The Estate'' (1969). These extensive epic works have been compared with [[Thomas Mann]]'s novel, ''Buddenbrooks''. Like Mann, Singer describes how old families are broken up by the new age and its demands, from the middle of the [[19th Century]] up to the Second World War, and how they are split, financially, socially and humanly. Throughout the 1960s Singer continued to write on questions of personal morality. One of his most famous novels (due to a popular movie remake) was ''Enemies, a Love Story'' in which a [[Holocaust]] survivor deals with his own desires, complex family relationships, and the loss of faith. His feminist story, &quot;Yentel,&quot; was also made into a popular movie, starring Barbra Streisand. Thanks to the film, the story has had a wide impact on culture. Singer's own relationship with religion was complex. He regarded himself as a skeptic and a loner, though he still felt connected to his Orthodox roots, and ultimately developed his own brand of religion and philosophy which he called a &quot;private mysticism: Since God was completely unknown and eternally silent, He could be endowed with whatever traits one elected to hang upon Him.&quot; After being awarded the Nobel Prize in [[1978]], Singer gained a monumental status among writers throughout the world, and his reputation with non-Jewish audiences is now higher than that of any other Yiddish writer. Singer died on [[July 24]], [[1991]] in [[Miami, Florida]], after suffering a series of [[stroke]]s. ==Vegetarianism== Singer was a prominent [[vegetarian]] for the last 35 years of his life and often included such themes in his works. In his short story, ''The Slaughterer'', he described the anguish that an appointed slaughterer had trying to reconcile his compassion for animals with his job of slaughtering animals. He felt that the eating of meat was a denial of all ideals and all religions: &quot;How can we speak of right and justice if we take an innocent creature and shed its blood&quot;. When asked if he had become a vegetarian for health reasons, he replied: &quot;I did it for the health of the chickens.&quot; In the preface to Steven Rosen's &quot;Food for Spirit: Vegetarianism and the World Religions&quot; (1986), Singer wrote, &quot;When a human kills an animal for food, he is neglecting his own hunger for justice. Man prays for mercy, but is unwilling to extend it to others. Why should man then expect mercy from God? It's unfair to expect something that you are not willing to give. It is inconsistent. I can never accept inconsistency or injustice. Even if it comes from God. If there would come a voice from God saying, &quot;I'm against vegetarianism!&quot; I would say, &quot;Well, I am for it!&quot; This is how strongly I feel in this regard.&quot; ==List of works== Note: the publication years in the following list refer to English translations, not the Yiddish originals (which often predate their translations by ten or twenty years). * ''[[The Family Moskat]]'' (1950) * ''[[Satan in Goray]]'' (1955) * ''[[The Magician of Lublin]]'' (1960) * ''[[The Slave]]'' (1962) * ''[[The Fearsome Inn]]'' (1967) * ''[[Mazel and Shlimazel]]'' (1967) * ''The Manor'' (1967) * ''[[The Estate]]'' (1969) * ''[[Elijah The Slave]]'' (1970) * ''[[Joseph and Koza: or the Sacrifice to the Vistula]]'' (1970) * ''[[The Topsy-Turvy Emperor of China]]'' (1971) * ''[[Enemies, a Love Story]]'' (1972) * ''[[The Wicked City]]'' (1972) * ''[[The Hasidim]]'' (1973) * ''[[Fools of Chelm]]'' (1975) * ''[[Naftali and the Storyteller and His Horse, Sus]]'' (1976) * ''[[Shosha (novel)|Shosha]]'' (1978) * ''[[A Young Man in Search of Love]]'' (1978) * ''[[The Penitent]]'' (1983) * ''[[Yentl the Yeshiva Boy]]'' (1983) (basis for the movie [[Yentl]]) * ''[[Why Noah Chose the Dove]]'' (1984) * ''[[The King of the Fields]]'' (1988) * ''[[Scum (novel)|Scum]]'' (1991) * ''[[The Certificate]]'' (1992) * ''[[Meshugah]]'' (1994) * ''[[Shadows on the Hudson]]'' (1997) see books: Aleksandra Ziółkowska &quot;Korzenie są polskie&quot;, Warszawa 1992 [[Aleksandra Ziółkowska Boehm]] &quot;The Roots Are Polish&quot;, Toronto 2004 ==External links== * [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1978/index.html 1978 Nobel Prize in Literature] *[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1978/singer-bio.html Nobel biography] *[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/004/783obafc.asp What Yiddish Says] article from The Weekly Standard * [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1096259488459&amp;p=1006953079969 An American exile] article from The Jerusalem Post *http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/ibsinger.htm *http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/singer_i.html *http://www.wbur.org/arts/2005/48687_20050101.asp [[Category:1904 births|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]] [[Category:1991 deaths|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Singer, Issac B]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]] [[Category:Polish Nobel Prize winners|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]] [[Category:Yiddish writers|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]] [[Category:Vegetarians|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]] [[Category:Jewish American writers|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]] [[de:Isaac Bashevis Singer]] [[es:Isaac Bashevis Singer]] [[eo:Isaac Bashevis SINGER]] [[fr:Isaac Bashevis Singer]] [[it:Isaac Bashevis Singer]] [[ja:アイザック・バシェヴィス・シンガー]] [[he:יצחק בשביס זינגר]] [[nl:Isaac Bashevis Singer]] [[no:Isaac Bashevis Singer]] [[pl:Isaac Bashevis Singer]] [[pt:Isaac Bashevis Singer]] [[sr:Исак Башевис Сингер]] [[fi:Isaac Bashevis Singer]] [[sv:Isaac Bashevis Singer]] [[yi:יצחק באַשעװיס זינגער]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Islamic eschatology</title> <id>15513</id> <revision> <id>42158960</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:16:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Colindownes</username> <id>820051</id> </contributor> <comment>rv to my last edit - see article's discussion page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Islamic eschatology''' is concerned with the ''[[Qiyamah]]'' ([[End of the world (religion)|end of t
se, marked by the possessive ''-'s'' ending (known as the [[saxon genitive]]). Some [[Linguistics|linguists]] believe that English possessive is no longer a case at all, but has become a [[clitic]], an independent [[grammatical particle|particle]] which, however, is always pronounced as part of the preceding word. This is claimed on the basis of the following sort of example: &quot;The king of Sparta's wife was called Helen.&quot; If the English ''-'s'' were a genitive case mark, then the wife would belong to Sparta; but the ''-'s'' attaches not to the word ''Sparta'', but to the entire phrase ''the king of Sparta''. Even those who feel that the genitive case has become a clitic do not deny that the English possessive had its origins as a genitive case. In [[Old English language|Old English]], a common singular genitive ending was ''-es''. In fact, the origin of the possessive marker, the apostrophe, is as an indicator of the 'e' &quot;missing&quot; from the [[Old English language|Old English]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]. Use of a particle for the possessive can be seen in the closely related [[Afrikaans]] language: ''die man se hand'' (the man's hand). The [[18th century]] explanation that the [[Apostrophe (punctuation)|apostrophe]] might replace a genitive pronoun, as in &quot;the king's horse&quot; being a shortened form of &quot;the king, his horse&quot;, is erroneous (a construction which actually occurs in [[German language|German]] dialects and has replaced the genitive there, together with the &quot;of&quot; construction that also exists in English). Indeed, it would be expected that plurals and feminine nouns would form possessives using '-r': &quot;*The queen'r children&quot; would be short for &quot;the queen, her children.&quot; Since this is different from the plural, it would provide a useful distinction. The fact that that is not how English speakers form possessives shows that the above explanation is incorrect. A few remnants of the genitive case do remain in [[Modern English]] in a few [[pronoun]]s as ''whose'', the genitive form of ''[[Who (pronoun)|who]]''; likewise, my/mine, his/hers/its, our/ours, their/theirs. ''See also [[Declension in English]].'' ===Uses of the marker in English=== The English construction in ''-'s'' has various uses other than a possessive marker. Most of these uses overlap with a complement marked by 'of' (''the music of Beethoven'' or ''Beethoven's music''), but the two constructions are not equivalent. The use of ''-'s'' in a non-possessive sense is more prevalent, and less restricted, in formal than informal language. ====Genitive of origin; subjective genitive==== *''Beethoven's music'' *''Fred Astaire's dancing'' *''Confucius' teaching'' In these constructions, the marker indicates the origin or source of the head noun of the phrase, rather than possession ''per se''. Most of these phrases, however, can still be paraphrased with ''of'': ''the music of Beethoven'', ''the teaching of Confucius''. ====Objective genitive; classifying genitive==== *''the Hundred Years' War'' *''A Dollar's worth'' *''Two weeks' notice'' *''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' In these constructions, the marker serves to specify, delimit, or describe the head noun. The paraphrase with ''of'' is often un-idiomatic or ambiguous with these genitives: *''the war of a Hundred Years'', *''the pay of a day'', and *''notice of two weeks'' introduce the likelihood of misunderstanding. ====Genitive of purpose==== *''Women's shoes'' *''Children's literature'' Here, the marked noun identifies the purpose or intended recipient of the head noun. ''Of'' cannot paraphrase them; they can be idiomatically paraphrased with ''for'': ''shoes for women''. ==The genitive in astronomy== In the case of [[constellation]]s, it is useful to know the genitive of the constellation's Latin name, since this is used to make the [[Bayer designation]] of stars in that constellation. For instance, since the genitive of the Latin word ''virgo'' (&quot;virgin&quot;) is ''virginis'', the brightest star in the constellation Virgo is known as [[Alpha Virginis]]. Many references on constellations list the genitive for each constellation. ==Baltic Finnic &quot;genitives&quot;== In [[Baltic-Finnic languages]], the [[accusative case]] ''-(e)n'' is homophonic to the genitive case. In [[Estonian language|Estonian]], it is often described that only a &quot;genitive&quot; exists. However, the cases have completely different functions, and the form of the accusative has developed from *''-(e)m''. (The same sound change has developed into a synchronic mutation of a final 'm' into 'n' in Finnish, e.g. genitive ''sydämen'' vs. nominative ''sydän''.) This homophony has only exceptions in [[Finnish language|Finnish]], where a separate accusative ''-(e)t'' is found in pronouns, e.g. ''kenet'' &quot;who (telic object)&quot;, vs. ''kenen'' &quot;whose&quot;. ==External links== * [http://www.russianlessons.net/grammar/nouns_genative.php Genitive Case In Russian] [[Category:Grammatical cases]] [[als:Genitiv]] [[ca:Cas genitiu]] [[da:Genitiv]] [[de:Genitiv]] [[es:Caso genitivo]] [[eo:Genitivo]] [[fr:Génitif]] [[hr:Genitiv]] [[is:Eignarfall]] [[it:Genitivo]] [[nl:Genitief]] [[ja:属格]] [[nn:Genitiv]] [[pl:Dopełniacz (przypadek)]] [[ro:Cazul genitiv]] [[ru:Родительный падеж]] [[fi:Genetiivi]] [[sv:Genitiv]] [[zh:属格]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gematria</title> <id>12541</id> <revision> <id>40363918</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gematria''' (&amp;#1490;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;) is [[numerology]] of the [[Hebrew language]] and [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Several forms can be identified: the &quot;revealed&quot; form and the &quot;mystical form&quot;. The word itself comes from the Greek word 'geometry' and the concept or system is the same as the Greek [[isopsephy]]. Although Hebrew Gematria is the best known now, Greek Gematria predates it by many centuries. There is also a Gematria of Latin-script languages, dating from the early Middle Ages, and very possibly back into Roman times, too. ==Revealed Gematria== The most common form of ''gematria'' is used occasionally in the [[Talmud]] and [[Midrash]] and elaborately by many post-Talmudic [[rabbinic literature|commentators]]. It involves reading words and sentences as numbers, assigning numerical instead of phonetic value to each letter of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. When read as numbers, they can be compared and contrasted with other words. A commentary almost completely dedicated to ''gematria'' is [[Baal ha-Turim]] by [[Rabbi]] [[Jacob ben Asher]]. ''Gematria'' is often used by the [[Maharal of Prague]] and [[Hasidic Judaism|hasidic]] [[Torah]] commentators (such as the &quot;''Sefath Emmeth''&quot; from [[Góra Kalwaria|Gur]]). One fascinating application of ''gematria'' is its use by exegetes to suggest that authors of certain biblical texts were keenly aware of specific mathematical principles and properties. For example, ''gematria'' has been employed to contend that the author of Kings, who according to traditionalists is [[Solomon]], was aware of the approximate value of [[Pi]]. Ostensibly, a plain reading of 1 Kings 7:23 indicates that its author believed that 3, rather than 3.14159, is the value of [[Pi]]. This tentative conclusion arises from the fact that the verse describes the molten sea that was made in the [[Temple]] as being 10 cubits from brim to brim (diameter) and as being encircled completely by a line of 30 cubits (circumference). Since [[Pi]] is the ratio of a circle's circumference to the circle's diameter, it would seem that the author of Kings thought [[Pi]] has a value of 3. However, ''gematria'' may be used to militate against claims that this verse contains an example of biblical error. In Jewish tradition, words appearing in portions of the Books of the Prophets are occasionally read (Kri) differently than they are written (Ktiv). Some biblical scholars, such as [[Rabbi Judah Loew]] of Prague of the 16th Century (the [[Maharal]] of Prague), trace the provenance of the Kri/Ktiv dichotomy all the way back to the authors of the Books of the Prohpets. In its written form (Ktiv), the verse uses the word KAVA (Kuf, Vav, Hey) for the molten sea's circumference. Yet, the word is read (Ktiv) as KAV (Kuf, Vav). The numerical value of KAVA is 111 (Kuf = 100, Vav = 6, Hey = 5), while the numerical value of KAV is 106 (Kuf = 100, Vav = 6). 111/106 = 1.047169. If 1.047169 (the value of the Kri divided by the Ktiv) is multiplied by 3 (the value that the author ostensibly attributes to Pi), the result is 3.14151, which closely approximates [[Pi]]. The [[Vilna Gaon]], a Rabbinic luminary of the 18th Century known for a remarkable mathematical prowess, is often credited with the discovery of this ''gematria.'' ==Mystical Gematria== ''Gematria'' is a system of recognizing a correspondence between the ten ''sefirot'', or fires of [[God]], and the twenty two letters in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. This system is elaborated in many mystical [[Judaism|Jewish]] writings such as the [[Zohar]]. One example of ''gematria'' is that there are twenty-two solid figures that are composed of [[polygon|regular polygons]]. There are five [[Platonic solid]]s, four [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s, and thirteen [[Archimedean solid]]s. Since there are twenty-two [[letter|letters]] in the [[Hebrew alphabet]], a correspondence can be inferred between these two disparate categories. The art of ''gematria'' is knowing which solid is associated with which letter. Another example is that of [[Hebrew numerals]]. Although there are twenty-two letters, there are twenty-seven numer
s previous work and this new rap-inflused work, as it bore a strong resemblance to ''Solar Plexus Part 1'' and included a lyric sample from ''Love on Haight Street''. The album hits a spectrum of genre-work. ''Shame'', ''Satellite'', and ''Running Down the Way Up'' lean towards the alt-rock, while ''Godspeed'' and ''Dreaming'' fall into classic trance ranks. ''Never Gonna Come Back Down'' was the most popular single from the album, and appeared on the ''[[Gone in 60 Seconds]]'' soundtrack in radio edited form. ''Mercury and Solace'', while failing to achieve the commercial success of ''Never Gonna Come Back Down'', is the most commercially remixed song from the album (http://folk.uio.no/ulfb/odd/btdisc.htm). ''[[Emotional Technology]]'' succeeded in being BT's most experimental album, to the great relief of fans. While the album opens with the hip-hop infused ''Knowledge of Self'', the rest of the album features hooking riffs with an almost excessive amount of electronic accent. ''Superfabulous'' (featuring vocals by [[Rose McGowan]]) is the least of the songs in that respect, and yet it breaks in the middle of the song for a brief spoken word conversation about Rose flipping off someone at the Geddy museum. The big single from the album, ''[[Somnambulist]]'', draws heavily from the breakbeats and new wave dance of [[New Order]] and [[Depeche Mode]], whom BT has cited as major influences. The rest of the album fairly escapes genre labeling, from the dark guitar work of ''Circles'', to ''The Only Constant is Change'' which is reminiscent of ''Satellite'', the album blends genres, changes genres in mid-track, and never fears the atonal. It is difficult to talk about BT's film scores in the context of his music's progress because each draws heavy influence from the film itself. What can be said is that after ''[[The Fast and the Furious (2001 film)|The Fast and the Furious]]'', BT recieved several offers to score for similar movies and turned them down, opting to work on a variety of film styles. He is currently recording a new album in Australia and Los Angeles, due for a mid-to-late 2006 release. ==Discography== ===Singles=== * &quot;Moment of Truth&quot; (1993) * &quot;Relativity&quot; (1993) * &quot;Embracing the Sunshine&quot; * &quot;Loving You More&quot; featuring Vincent Covello (1995) * &quot;Blue Skies&quot; featuring [[Tori Amos]] (1996) * &quot;Divinity&quot; (1996) * &quot;Quark&quot; (1997) * &quot;[[Flaming June]]&quot; (1997) * &quot;Love, Peace &amp; Grease&quot; (1997) * &quot;Remember&quot; (1997) * &quot;Shineaway&quot; (1997) * &quot;Believer&quot; (1999) * &quot;Godspeed&quot; (1998) * &quot;Mercury and Solace&quot; (1999) * &quot;Fibonacci Sequence&quot; (2000) * &quot;Never Gonna Come Back Down&quot; featuring [[Mike Doughty|M. Doughty]] (2000) * &quot;Dreaming&quot; (2000) * &quot;Shame&quot; (2001) * &quot;Somnambulist (Simply Being Loved)&quot; (2003) #98 US ===Albums=== * ''[[Ima]]'' (1996) * ''[[ESCM]]'' (1997) * ''[[Movement in Still Life]]'' (1999) * ''[[Emotional Technology]]'' (2003) * ''[[Monster - Music From and Inspired by the Film]]'' (2004) * ''[[Stealth - Original Motion Picture Score]]'' (2005) * ''[[Surveillance - Score]]'' (2006) ===[[Extended play|EPs]]=== * ''[[The Technology EP]]'' (2004) ===Compilations=== * ''R&amp;R (Rare &amp; Remixed)'' (2001) - A collection of BT's remix work. * ''Still Life In Motion'' (2001) * ''10 Years In the Life'' (2002) - &quot;Best of&quot; album. ===Remixes=== * B-Tribe, &quot;Nanita (A Spanish Lullaby)&quot; (1995) * Shiva, &quot;Freedom&quot; (1995) * [[Diana Ross]], &quot;Take Me Higher&quot; (1995) * Cabana, &quot;Bailando Con Lobos&quot; (1995) * Grace, &quot;Not Over Yet&quot; (1995) * Wild Colour, &quot;Dreams&quot; (1995) * [[Mike Oldfield]], &quot;Let There Be Light&quot; (1995) * [[Billie Ray Martin]], &quot;Running Around Town&quot; (1995) * [[Seal (musician)|Seal]], &quot;I'm Alive&quot; (1995) * [[Gipsy Kings]], &quot;La Rumba De Nicolas&quot; (1996) * [[Billie Ray Martin]], &quot;Space Oasis&quot; (1996) * [[Tori Amos]], &quot;Talula&quot; (1996) * [[Tori Amos]], &quot;Putting the Damage On&quot; (1997 - Unreleased) * Dina Carroll, &quot;Run To You&quot; (1997) * [[The Crystal Method]], &quot;Keep Hope Alive&quot; (1997) * [[Paul Van Dyk]], &quot;Forbidden Fruit&quot; (1997) * [[Deep Dish]], &quot;Stranded&quot; (1997) * [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], &quot;Drowned World/Substitute For Love&quot; (1998) * [[Lenny Kravitz]], &quot;If You Can't Say No&quot; (1998) * [[DJ Rap]], &quot;Bad Girl&quot; (1998) * [[Depeche Mode]], &quot;It's No Good&quot; (1998 - Unreleased) * [[Sarah McLachlan]], &quot;I Love You&quot; (1999) * [[Tom Jones (singer)|Tom Jones]], &quot;She's A Lady&quot; (2000) * [[Sarah McLachlan]], &quot;Hold On&quot; (2001) * [[Korn|KoЯn]], &quot;Here to Stay&quot; (2002) * [[The Doors]], &quot;Break on Through (To the Other Side)&quot; (2004) w/ additional production by Burufunk and Carmen Rizzo ===Film appearances &amp; scores=== * ''[[The Jackal]]'' (1997) - &quot;Shineaway&quot; (with Richard Butler) * ''[[Go (1999)|Go]]'' (1999) - Complete score, &quot;Believer&quot; * ''[[Under Suspicion]]'' (2000) - Complete score * ''[[Gone in Sixty Seconds (2000 movie)|Gone in Sixty Seconds]]'' (2000) - &quot;Down&quot; * ''Driven'' (2001) - Score, &quot;Satellite&quot; * &quot;[[Double Take]]&quot; (2001) - &quot;Movement In Still Life&quot; * ''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]'' (2001) - &quot;The Revolution&quot; * ''[[The Fast and the Furious (2001 movie)|The Fast and the Furious]]'' (2001) - Complete score, &quot;Nocturnal Transmission&quot; * ''[[American Pie 2]]'' (2001) - &quot;Anomaly-Calling Your Name&quot; (''Libra Presents Taylor'') * ''[[Zoolander]]'' (2001) - (removed his name, uncredited), &quot;Madskillz-Mic Chekka (Remix)&quot; * ''[[Sweet November]]'' (2001) - &quot;Shame (Ben Grosse Remix)&quot; * ''[[Blade 2]]'' (2002) - &quot;Tao Of The Machine&quot; (with [[The Roots]]) * ''[[The Core]]'' (2003) - &quot;Sunblind&quot; * ''[[Monster (movie)|Monster]]'' (2003) - Complete score * ''[[Win a Date with Tad Hamilton!]]'' (2004) - &quot;Superfabulous (Scott Humphrey Radio Mix)&quot; * ''[[The Underclassman (2005 movie)|The Underclassman]]'' (2005) - Complete score * ''[[Stealth (film)|Stealth]]'' (2005) - Complete score, &quot;She Can (Do That)&quot; (with [[David Bowie]]) * ''[[Domino]]'' (2005) - &quot;Paris&quot; * ''[[Surveillance]]'' (2006) - Complete score ===Video game appearances &amp; scores=== * ''Die Hard Trilogy 2: Viva Las Vegas'' (1999) - Complete score * ''[[Frequency (game)|Frequency]]'' (2001) - &quot;Smartbomb&quot; * ''[[SSX|SSX Tricky]]'' (2001) - &quot;Smartbomb (Plump's Vocal Mix)&quot; * ''[[Gran Turismo (game)|Gran Turismo 3: A-Spec]]'' (2001) - &quot;Madskillz-Mic Chekka&quot; * ''[[Wipeout Fusion]]'' (2002) - &quot;Smartbomb (Plump DJs Remix)&quot; * ''ATV Offroad Fury 2'' (2002) - &quot;The Revolution&quot; * ''[[Wreckless: The Yakuza Missions]]'' (2002) - Complete score * ''[[Need for Speed: Underground]]'' (2003) - &quot;Kimosabe&quot; (with [[Wildchild (musician)|Wildchild]]) * ''[[Need for Speed: Most Wanted]]'' (2005) - &quot;Tao of the Machine (Scott Humprhey's Remix) &quot; (with [[The Roots (musician)|The Roots]]) * ''[[Amplitude (game)|Amplitude]]'' (2003) - &quot;Kimosabe&quot; (with [[Wildchild (musician)|Wildchild]]) * ''[[Dance Dance Revolution Extreme]]'' (2004) - &quot;Simply Being Loved (Somnambulist)&quot; * ''[[Tiger Woods PGA Tour|Tiger Woods PGA Tour 2005]]'' (2004) - Complete score * Extreme Gravity Racing Accociation (XGRA) - &quot;Dreaming&quot;, &quot;Godspeed&quot;, and many more. * Burnout: Revenge (2005) - The Doors - &quot;Break On Through (BT Mix)&quot; ===Sample CDs=== * ''Breakz from the Nu Skool'' (2002) * ''Twisted Textures'' (2002) ==See also== *[[List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States)]] *[[List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart]] ==External links== *[http://www.btmusic.com/ BT's official website] *[http://folk.uio.no/ulfb/odd/bt.htm Electric Sky Church Music: Full BT Discography] *[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0117741/ BT] at the [[Internet Movie Database]] *[http://www.last.fm/music/BT BT] at [[Last.fm]] *[http://blog.myspace.com/mrbt BT's Blog] at [[myspace]] __NOTOC__ [[Category:1971 births|Transeau, Brian]] [[Category:Living people|Transeau, Brian]] [[Category:Berklee College of Music alumni|Transeau, Brian]] [[Category:Club DJs|Transeau, Brian]] [[Category:College dropouts|Transeau, Brian]] [[Category:Dance Top 40 acts in United States|Transeau, Brian]] [[Category:Electronic musicians|Transeau, Brian]] [[Category:Remixers|Transeau, Brian]] [[Category:Trance musicians|Transeau, Brian]] [[cs:BT (hudebník)]] [[sl:Brian Transeau]] [[de:Brian Transeau]]&lt;/ref&gt;</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brewing</title> <id>4410</id> <revision> <id>41494465</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:17:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gene Nygaard</username> <id>146986</id> </contributor> <comment>add degree signs, conversion, header capitalization</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The Brewer designed and engraved in the Sixteenth. Century by J Amman.png|right|thumb|360 px|The Brewer, designed and engraved, in the Sixteenth. Century, by J. Amman.]] :''This article concerns the production of alcoholic beverages. For other uses, including cookery, see [[brewing (disambiguation)]].'' '''Brewing''' is the production of [[alcoholic beverage]]s and [[alcohol fuel]] through [[fermentation]]. This is the method used in [[beer]] production, although the term can be used for other drinks such as [[sake]], [[mead]] and [[wine]]. The term is also sometimes used to refer to any chemical mixing process. Brewing has a very long history, and archeological evidence tells us that this technique was used in [[History of Egypt|ancient Egypt]
Euler's formula F - E + V = 2, (plus the fact that every vertex in a fullerene structure belongs to exactly 3 faces) one can easily prove that there are exactly 12 pentagons in a fullerene. The smallest fullerene is the [[dodecahedron]]--the unique C&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt;. There are no fullerenes with 22 vertices. The number of fullerenes C&lt;sub&gt;2n&lt;/sub&gt; grows with increasing n = 12,13,14... For instance, there are 1812 non-isomorphic fullerenes C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;. Note that only one of the C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;'s, the buckminsterfullerene alias [[truncated icosahedron]], has no pair of adjacent pentagons (the smallest such fullerene). To further illustrate the growth, there are 214,127,713 non-isomorphic fullerenes C&lt;sub&gt;200&lt;/sub&gt;, 15,655,672 of which have no adjacent pentagons. ==Fullerenes in popular culture== Examples of '''fullerenes in popular culture''' are numerous. In fact, [[fullerene]]s appeared in [[popular culture]] well before science started to take serious interest in them. *In ''[[New Scientist]]'' there used to be a weekly column called ''Daedelus'' written by David Jones, which contained humourous descriptions of unlikely technologies. In 1966 the columnist included a description of the C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; and other forms of graphite. This was meant as pure entertainment. *Also in the ''New Scientist'' magazine, a free book was enclosed entitled, &quot;100 Things to Do Before You Die&quot;, one of which was to kick a buckyball. *[[Stel Pavlou]] uses buckyballs, nanotechnology and complexity theory in the creation of flocking nano-swarms that form human-sized golems in the novel ''[[Decipher (novel)|Decipher]]'' [[2001]]. *Science fiction writer [[Neal Stephenson]] uses buckyballs as nanotechnological containers for things such as [[rod logic]] computers in his 1995 [[cyberpunk]]/[[postcyberpunk]] novel ''[[The Diamond Age]]''. *Buckyballs show up in ''Green Mars'' by [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] as a result of the fall of the first [[space elevator]] onto the surface of Mars. *In the Walt [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] film, ''[[Flubber]]'', the formula and molecular structure of the Flubber was modeled after buckminsterfullerene. *In the [[Global Television Network|Global]] television series ''[[ReGenesis]]'', buckyballs are the primary component of a HazMat suit produced by government contractor, Shining Armor. ==Media== {{multi-video start}} {{multi-video item | filename = c540 stereo animation.gif | title = Rotating C&lt;sub&gt;540&lt;/sub&gt; animation | description = Rotating [[stereogram]] of the C&lt;sub&gt;540&lt;/sub&gt; structure. (4.30 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[animated GIF]] format). | format = [[animated GIF]] }} {{multi-video end}} ==Further reading== *''The Most Beautiful Molecule: The Discovery of the Buckyball'' by Hugh Aldersey-Williams (John Wiley &amp; Sons, 1995) ISBN 0-471-19333-X == See also == *[[Carbon nanotube]] *[[Dodecahedrane]] *[[Graphene]] *[[Polyhedron]] *[[Geodesic dome]] *[[Prismane C8]] *[[Fictional applications of real materials]] ==External links== {{commons|Buckminsterfullerene}} * [http://www.mindspring.com/~kimall/Fuller/index.html Kim Allen] * [http://cnst.rice.edu/ Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology] * [http://www.nobel.se/chemistry/laureates/1996/smalley-autobio.html Dr. Smalley's brief autobiography] * [http://www.chem.rice.edu/CHEM_faculty_dtl.cfm?FDSID=437 Dr. Smalley's webpage] * [http://www.sciencedaily.com//releases/2003/04/030418081522.htm Potential use of fullerenes in medicine] * [http://www.vincentherr.com/cf/ Carbon Fullerene &amp; Nanotube Models ] Vincent Herr, Houston, TX * [http://3dscience.com/nanotechnology_buckyball_fullerene.asp Fullerene Images for Web and Presentation] * [http://www.physorg.com/news1667.html Discovery of graphene] * [http://www.quantum.univie.ac.at/research/matterwave/c60/index.html Diffraction and Interference with Fullerenes: Wave-particle duality of C60], University of Vienna * Fullerene-based architectures for quantum computing in [http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~ag-harneit Germany] and in [http://www.nanotech.org Great Britain] at the [http://www.qipirc.org QIP IRC] * [http://www.bluerhinos.co.uk/molview/indv.php?id=3 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk] See Buckminsterfullerene (C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;) in 3D * [http://www.sciencetechnologies.com/molviz/molviz.swf Interactive 3D molecular visualization of fullerene] (requires [[Macromedia Flash]]) * [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Buckminsterfullerene Computational Chemistry Wiki] [[Category:Chemical elements|Carbon, Fullerene]] [[Category:Nanotechnology]] [[Category:Carbon forms]] [[Category:Chemical compounds with unusual names]] [[Category:Buckminster Fuller]] [[Category:science fiction themes]] [[Category:In popular culture]] [[cs:Fulleren]] [[de:Fulleren]] [[es:Fulereno]] [[eo:Fulereno]] [[fr:Fullerène]] [[it:Fullerene]] [[he:פולרין]] [[nl:Fullereen]] [[ja:フラーレン]] [[pl:Fuleren]] [[pt:Buckminsterfullerenos]] [[ro:Fulerene]] [[ru:Фуллерены]] [[su:Fullerin]] [[fi:Fullereeni]] [[sv:Fulleren]] [[zh:富勒烯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Francis II</title> <id>10629</id> <revision> <id>33869857</id> <timestamp>2006-01-04T18:33:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdr</username> <id>55814</id> </contributor> <comment>oops</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Francis II''' may refer to: * [[Francis II, Duke of Brittany]] (1433–1488). * [[Francis II of France]] (1544–1560). * [[Francis II, Duke of Lorraine]] (1572–1632). * [[Francesco II d'Este]], Duke of Modena (1662–1694). * [[Francis II Rákóczi]], Duke of Transylvania (1676–1735). * [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1768–1835). * [[Francis II of the Two Sicilies]] (1836–1894). * [[Franz, Duke of Bavaria]] (born 1933), called &quot;Francis II&quot; by supporters of the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] claim to the British throne. {{disambig}} [[es:Francisco II]] [[it:Francesco II]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foundation Trilogy</title> <id>10630</id> <revision> <id>15908430</id> <timestamp>2003-08-31T17:53:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.175.29.106</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The_Foundation_Series]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fallacies of definition</title> <id>10632</id> <revision> <id>35571052</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:00:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Charles Matthews</username> <id>12978</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Over-broad definitions */ tighten</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fallacies of definition''' refer to the various ways in which [[definition]]s can fail to have merit. The term is used to suggest analogy with the [[logical fallacy|logical fallacies]]. This is a typical sort of list found in texts used in [[college logic]] courses. == Circularity == There is a general name for the first two sorts of error: ''[[circular definition]]''. A circular definition is somewhat similar to a [[begging the question|question-begging]] argument: neither offers us enlightenment about the thing we wanted to be enlightened about. === Defining with a synonym === A definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word [[synonym]]. For example, suppose we define the word &quot;[[virtue]]&quot;&amp;mdash;an important word in [[ethics]]&amp;mdash;just using the word &quot;[[excellence]].&quot; It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues (that was perhaps an ancient Greek view; see ''[[Arete (excellence)|arete]]''), but the word &quot;excellence&quot; by itself is ''not'' a good definition of &quot;virtue&quot; in philosophy. One can always simply ask, &quot;But what does 'excellence' mean?&quot; Surely, if one has a basic confusion about what &quot;virtue&quot; means, then one will ''also'' have a basic philosophical confusion about what &quot;excellence&quot; means. So it will not do to define one simply by stating the other. === Defining with a near synonym === A definition is no good if it uses a very near synonym in the definition. For example, suppose we define '[[beauty|beautiful]]' as 'possessing [[aesthetic]] value'. The words 'beautiful' and 'aesthetic' are very nearly the same in meaning; so if anyone is deeply confused or curious about beauty, then he is of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic. The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, ''or'' all objects that have aesthetic value. == Over-broad definitions == Definitions can be ''too broad''. Suppose we define '[[bachelor]]' as 'unmarried [[male]]'. At first glance this might look correct, but male is a word that can apply to many things. For example, male [[dog]]s and male [[baby|babies]] are not considered bachelors. A definition is too broad if it applies to things that are not part of the [[extension (semantics)|extension]] of the word defined. To correct this fallacy, narrow the definition. In this case, 'bachelor' ''can'' mean 'unmarried man'. == Over-narrow definitions == Definitions can be ''too'' ''narrow''. That is, they can ''exclude'' some things that they ''should'' apply to; they fail to describe some members of the word's [[extension (semantics)|extension]]. Here is an example of a narrow definition: 'piece of [[furniture]]' means 'object used to sit on'. Of course, some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for example, we put objects on them (like [[Table (furniture)|tables]]) or we put our feet on them (like [[footstool]]s), and so forth. So even though ''some'' pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not ''all'' furniture is used to sit on. We need a broader definition: w
th the boxed versions of Blitz Basic 2D and Blitz3D, there have been a few programming guides written. === Game Programming For Teens === '''Game Programming For Teens''' was written by Maneesh Sethi to teach young programmers how to get started writing games with Blitz Basic 2D. It became very popular because of its appealing concept, helping to get new developers quickly into programming. The second edition of this book was released in May 2005. === Learn to Program 2D Games in Blitz Basic === Written by John &quot;Krylar&quot; Logsdon, '''Learn to Program 2D Games in Blitz Basic''' was another popular book written to teach new programmers all they need to know to write their own game. It started from the fundamentals of programming and took the reader through every aspect of Blitz Basic 2D, as far as writing their own network game. ==Blitz Basic example code== The following code creates a normal windowed Windows application that shows the current time in binary and decimal format. AppTitle &quot;Binary Clock&quot; Graphics 150,80,16,3 ;Copy, modify and redistribute this source as much as you like ;##################################################### ; MAIN LOOP ;##################################################### ;create a timer that means the main loop will be executed twice a second secondtimer=CreateTimer(2) Repeat Hour = Left(CurrentTime$(),2) Minute = Mid(CurrentTime$(),4,2) Second = Right(CurrentTime$(),2) If Hour &gt;= 12 Then PM =1 If Hour &gt; 12 Then Hour = Hour - 12 If Hour = 0 Then Hour = 12 ;should do this otherwise your PM dot would be left up once the clock rolled past midnight! Cls Color(0,255,0) ;make the text green for the PM part If PM = 1 Then Text 5,5,&quot;PM&quot; Color(255,255,255) ;set the text colour back to white for the rest For bit=0 To 5 xpos=20*(6-bit) binaryMask=2^bit ;do hours If (bit&lt;4) If (hour And binaryMask) Text xpos,5,&quot;1&quot; Else Text xpos,5,&quot;0&quot; EndIf EndIf ;do the minutes If (minute And binaryMask) Text xpos,25,&quot;1&quot; Else Text xpos,25,&quot;0&quot; EndIf ;do the seconds If (second And binaryMask) Text xpos,45,&quot;1&quot; Else Text xpos,45,&quot;0&quot; EndIf Next Color(255,0,0) ;make the text red for the decimal time Text 5,65,&quot;Decimal: &quot; + CurrentTime$() Color(255,255,255) ;set the text back to white for the rest ;will wait half a second WaitTimer(secondTimer) Forever ==External links== *[http://www.blitzbasic.com Blitz Research] You can buy and download Blitz3D, Blitz Plus, or BlitzMax from this website. There are also forums for discussion of the language. *[http://www.idigicon.com Idigicon] *[http://www.codersworkshop.com CodersWorkshop] **[[Coders Workshop]] *[http://dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/BASIC/BlitzBasic/ BlitzBasic on dmoz] *[http://maneeshsethi.com/gpft.html Game Programming for Teens's Web Site] *[http://www.codersworkshop.com/viewproduct.php?id=11 Learn to Program 2D Games in Blitz Basic on Codersworkshop.com] *[http://www.inpac.art-fx.org/bb3dtutII.htm A great german blitz3d tutorial] *[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/1592008348 Game Programming for Teens on Amazon.com] [[Category:BASIC dialects]] [[Category:Game creation software]] [[Category:Amiga software]] [[de:Blitz Basic]] [[fr:Blitz Basic]] [[no:BlitzBasic]] [[sv:Blitz Basic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bytecode</title> <id>4841</id> <revision> <id>15903093</id> <timestamp>2003-05-20T12:18:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Byte-code]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bliss bibliographic classification</title> <id>4842</id> <revision> <id>33951443</id> <timestamp>2006-01-05T08:27:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Suidafrikaan</username> <id>724749</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Library and information science]] [[Category:Knowledge representation]] The '''Bliss bibliographic classification''' (or '''BC''' for short) is a [[library classification]] system that was created by [[Henry E. Bliss]] (1870–1955), published in four volumes between 1940 and 1953. Although originally devised in the [[United States]], it was more commonly adopted by [[United Kingdom|British]] libraries than by American ones. A revised, second edition of this system (BC2) has been developed since 1977 in the United Kingdom. ==Origins of the system== Bliss was born in New York in 1870, and in 1891 began to work in the [[library]] of the [[College of the City of New York]] (now known as the [[City College of New York|City College]] of the [[City University of New York]]). Bliss had a lifelong interest in the organization, structure and philosophy of knowledge, and was very critical of the library classification systems that were available to him. He believed that because the popular [[Library of Congress Classification|Library of Congress system]] had been designed for a specific library (the [[Library of Congress]]), that it had no use as a standard system outside of that library. He also greatly disliked the [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal system]]. Bliss wanted a classification system that would provide distinct rules, yet still be adaptable to whatever kind of collection a library might have, since different libraries have different needs. His solution was the concept of &quot;alternative location&quot;, in which a particular subject matter could be put in more than one place, as long as the library made a specific choice and used it consistently. In 1908, Bliss re-classified 60,000 of his library's books, and in 1910 he published an article with a rough scheme of his general ideas. But as he continued to develop his system, he realized that it was going to be a much larger project than he had originally anticipated. The first of his four official volumes appeared in 1940 (the year he retired), and the last in 1953, two years before his death. Some of the philosophies of the BC system were: *alternative location *brief, concise notation *organizing knowledge according to academic expertise *for subjects to move gradually from topic to topic as they naturally related to one another ==Examples== &lt;tt&gt;GER&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;Biochemistry of muscles in animals&lt;BR&gt; &lt;tt&gt;MN&amp;amp;,S&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;History of Finland in the 19th century&lt;BR&gt; &lt;tt&gt;PWWbca,L&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;The building and equipment of the YWCA in Albany, New York Bliss deliberately avoided the use of the [[decimal separator|decimal point]] because of his hatred of [[Melvil Dewey|Dewey]]'s system. Instead he used upper- and lower-case letters, numbers, and every typographical symbol available on his extensive and somewhat eccentric [[typewriter]] (which included both forward and reverse [[Emphasis (typography)|italics]]). ==Adoption and change== BC was not used by many North American libraries. The system was not without its flaws (the result of largely being a one-person project), and the layout of Bliss' text was difficult to read. A few library schools sometimes taught the BC system to their students, but only in a minor way. The failure of the system to catch on in North America was partially due to its internal deficiencies, but also because the Dewey Decimal and Library of Congress systems were already well-established. The City College library continued to use Bliss' system until 1967, when they reluctantly switched to the Library of Congress system. It had become too expensive to train new staff to use BC, and too expensive to maintain in general. Much of the Bliss stacks remain, however, as no one has recatalogued the books. The case was different, however, in Britain. BC proved more popular there and spread to other English-speaking allied countries. Part of the reason for its success was because libraries in [[normal school|teacher's colleges]] liked the way Bliss had organized the subject areas on teaching and education. By the mid-1950s, BC was being used in at least 60 British libraries, and in 100 by the 1970s. In 1967, the Bliss Classification Association was formed. Their first publication was the Abridged Bliss Classification (ABC), intended for school libraries. In 1977 they began to publish and maintain a much-improved, revised version of Bliss' system, referred to as BC2. ==See also== *[[Colon classification]] *[[Dewey Decimal Classification]] *[[Library of Congress classification]] *[[Universal Decimal Classification]] ==References== *Bliss, Henry E. (1910). A modern classification for libraries, with simple notation, mnemonics, and alternatives. ''Library Journal'' '''35''', 351-358. *Bliss, Henry E. (1935). ''A system of bibliographic classification''. New York: H.W. Wilson. *Bliss, Henry E. (1940-1953). ''A bibliographic classification, extended by systematic auxiliary schedules for composite specification'' (4 volumes). New York: H.W. Wilson. *Maltby, Arthur &amp;amp; Gill, Lindy (1979). ''The case for Bliss''. London: Clive Bingley. ISBN 0851572901 *Thomas, Alan R. (1997). Bibliographical classification: the ideas and achievements of Henry E. Bliss. ''Cataloging &amp; Classification Quarterly'' '''25''' (1), 51-104. ==External links== *[http://www.sid.cam.ac.uk/bca/bchist.htm Homepage of the Bliss Classification Association and BC2.] [[Category:Classification systems]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bilateral symetry</
tamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also the [[cellular automaton]] [[Conway's Game of Life|Game of Life]] devised by mathematician [[John Horton Conway]].'' '''The Game of Life''' is a [[board game]] designed by [[Reuben Klamer]] and originally published by [[Milton Bradley Company]] (now a subsidiary of [[Hasbro]]) in [[1960]] to celebrate Milton Bradley's centennial. [[Image:Game of life board.jpg|thumb|300px|rihgt|Early stages in a game of 'The Game of Life']] Between 2 and 10 players each get a plastic car in which they can collect their &quot;family&quot; throughout the game. Each turn consists of spinning a wheel with the numbers 1 to 10 on it, and obeying the instructions of the space they land on. As one progresses through the game, one collects cards with life events on them (''e.g.'' climb [[Mount Everest|Mt. Everest]], cure the [[common cold]] ''etc.''). The game board also has small mountains and other similar pieces, so the board does not appear flat. The player with the most money at the end of the game wins. The game was endorsed by [[Art Linkletter]] in the [[1960s]] and was updated in [[1992]] to reward players for &quot;good&quot; behavior, such as recycling trash. It is now part of the permanent collection of the [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]]'s [[National Museum of American History]]. {{Board-game-stub}} ==See also== *[[The Checkered Game of Life]] ==External links== *[[BoardGameGeek]] reviews and pictures of [http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/2921 the game] [[Category:Board games]] [[de:Spiel des Lebens (Brettspiel)]] [[nl:Levensweg]] [[ja:&amp;#20154;&amp;#29983;&amp;#12466;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12512;]] [[pt:Jogo da vida (jogo de tabuleiro)]] [[simple:The Game of Life]] [[fr:Destins (jeu)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Prince Harry of Wales</title> <id>14457</id> <revision> <id>42158350</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:09:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Acjelen</username> <id>107326</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Birth and childhood */ Sandhurst is a school</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right | [[Image:Prince Harry.jpg|thumb|200px|Prince Harry of Wales in uniform as a [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst|Sandhurst]] officer cadet.]] |- | {{British Royal Family}} |} '''Prince Henry of Wales''' (Henry Charles Albert David [[Mountbatten-Windsor]]) (born [[September 15]], [[1984]]), informally named '''Prince Harry''' by his parents,{{ref|parents}} is the third in the line of succession to the British throne and the thrones of other [[Commonwealth Realm]]s, behind his father, the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales]], and his elder brother, [[Prince William of Wales]]. He is the grandson of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]. He has generally been regarded as a carefree, fun-loving, and rebellious member of the [[British Royal Family]]. ==Birth and childhood== Harry was born on [[September 15]], [[1984]] at [[St Mary's Hospital (London)|St Mary's Hospital]], [[Paddington]], in central [[London]]. His father is His Royal Highness [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles, Prince of Wales]], the eldest son of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]]. His mother is the late [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], the former wife of the Prince of Wales, who died in 1997. He has an elder brother, [[Prince William of Wales|Prince William]]. He was christened on [[December 21]] [[1984]] at [[St. George's Chapel]] [[Windsor Castle]] by the Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Robert Alexander Kennedy Runcie|Dr. Robert Runcie]]. His godparents were: his uncle the [[Prince Andrew, Duke of York|Duke of York]], [[Lady Sarah Chatto]], Lady Vestey, Mrs William Bartholomew; the portrait painter, Mr. Bryan Organ; and Mr. Gerald Ward. The prince's official family name is that of Windsor, according to his grandmother's royal proclamation of 1960, but some of the descendants of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] appear to utilize the surname [[Mountbatten-Windsor]] as personal preference. At school, Prince Harry is known as Officer Cadet Wales or Mr Wales. Charles is said to have wanted a daughter, and to have been deeply disappointed when the baby was a boy; worse, according to Diana's version of events, Harry, Charles ruefully noted, had &quot;ruddy hair&quot;, a Spencer family trait. Biographers agree that their marriage was already troubled before then, and became irreparably broken shortly afterwards. Some people note that Harry shares red hair colour with Diana's lover [[James Hewitt]], and see this superficial characteristic enough to doubt Charles' paternity. Hewitt's affair with Diana may not have begun, however, until well after Harry was born. On 29th June 2005, the Sun newspaper published extracts from a close friend of Princess Diana, that proved Prince Charles was Harry's father. Harry resembles both his paternal grandfather in his youth and increasingly the Prince of Wales. ===Death of Diana, Princess of Wales=== [[Image:Harry and William.jpg|thumb|200px|Prince Harry with his brother Prince William in an official portrait for his 21st birthday]] On [[August 31]], [[1997]], Harry's mother died following in a car accident in [[Paris]], with her partner [[Dodi Al-Fayed]] and their driver [[Henri Paul]] (although a bodyguard survived, probably because he was the only one in the car wearing a seat belt). Her death came days after she spent a holiday in Southern France with William and Harry. The princes were staying at [[Balmoral Castle]]; it was Charles who awoke them and broke the tragic news. At Diana's celebrity-studded funeral - which was broadcast live throughout the world - the princes, their father, grandfather (Prince Philip), and uncle ([[Charles Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer |the Earl Spencer]]) walked behind Diana's funeral cortege from [[Buckingham Palace]] to [[Westminster Abbey]]. On Diana's coffin was a card from Harry, made out to ''Mummy''. Cameras were barred from showing the princes during the service itself; Harry reportedly broke down and sobbed several times. Both princes were praised for their strength shown on that day. Contrary to his eulogy, in which he promised that Diana's &quot;blood family&quot; would take over her less-traditional upbringing of them, the boys have seen little of the Earl Spencer and the other members of Diana's family. ==Education== {{infobox hrhstyles| image=[[image:COA Prince Harry Wales.gif|60px]]| royal name=HRH Prince Henry of Wales| dipstyle=[[HRH|His Royal Highness]]| offstyle=Your Royal Highness| altstyle=Sir|}} Harry attended the Mrs. Jane Mynors's nursery school in West [[London]], the same as William. He later followed his brother to the pre-prep [[Wetherby School]], and later to [[Ludgrove School]] in [[Berkshire]]. He later attended the prestigious [[Eton College]] in [[Eton, Berkshire]]. In June 2003, he finished Eton with two [[A-level]]s in Geography and Art, of grades D and B respectively. At school, he developed his love of sport, particularly [[polo]] and [[rugby union]]. He has also participated in the [[Eton Wall Game]]. After finishing [[Eton College|Eton]], Harry undertook a [[gap year]], visiting [[Australia]] and [[Africa]]. In Australia he worked on a cattle station, and watched the [[2003 Rugby World Cup]] being held in the country. In Africa, he worked in an orphanage in [[Lesotho]]. Later in the year he travelled to [[Argentina]] on vacation, but returned amid rumours of drunkenness and a kidnapping attempt. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/11/27/nharri27.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2004/11/27/ixnewstop.html] ==Army== On [[May 8]] [[2005]], the Prince entered the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]]. There he was known as Officer Cadet Wales instead of using his royal title, and was part of [[Alamein Company]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4526077.stm] Clarence House announced that he will, upon commissioning in April 2006, join the [[Blues and Royals]], regiment of the [[Household Cavalry]], and train as a reconnaissance troop commander. [http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/princes/harry/060125_harry_regiment.html] Since then it was reported that he was expected to deploy to [[Iraq]] in May 2007 as part of the [[1st Mechanised Brigade]] of the [[3rd (UK) Mechanised Division]]. The [[Blues and Royals]] would form part of the force patrolling the governorate of [[Maysan]] on the Iran-Iraq border. ==Romances== The prince's only serious romance has been with [[Chelsy Davy]] (born 1985), a [[Zimbabwe]]-born heiress to an [[African]] [[ranch]]ing and real estate fortune. According to published reports quoting the young woman's uncle Paul Davy, she and the prince discussed marriage in December 2004. This desire, however, resulted in no public announcements of any engagement, formal or informal, and the couple reportedly broke off their relationship in February 2005. However, in an interview conducted for his twenty-first birthday in September 2005, Prince Harry referred to Chelsy as his girlfriend and the press reported that their relationship was at that time eighteen months old, strongly contradicting reports they were no longer a couple. ==Controversies== ===Drinking and alleged drug-taking === Some of Harry's reported actions have provoked widespread media attention. In January 2002, it was revealed that the prince had admitted smoking [[Cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] and had allegedly engaged in under-age drinking, raising the possibility that criminal charges would be filed against him in the summer of 2001. A subsequent police investigation cleared Harry of wrongdoing and Harry's father C
enocarcinoma]] ([[Jaagsiekte]]), a fairly common disease of sheep. Roslin scientists stated that they did not think there was a connection with Dolly being a clone, and that other sheep on the farm had similar ailments. Such lung diseases are especially a danger for sheep kept indoors, as Dolly had to be for security reasons. &lt;!-- A post-mortem examination is planned for Dolly and it is hoped that this test will indicate whether or not her illness was connected to her being a clone. [Was this carried out? Any chance of an update?] --&gt; ==Legacy== After the cloning was successfully demonstrated by Dolly's creators, many other large mammals have been cloned, including [[horse]]s and [[cattle|bulls]]. Cloning is sometimes considered a promising tool for preserving [[endangered species]], usually by those who do not work in species conservation. Most animal conservation professionals point out that cloning does not alleviate the problems of loss of genetic diversity (see [[inbreeding]]) and [[habitat]], ergo must be considered an experimental technology for the time being, and all in all would only rarely be worth the cost, which on a per-individual basis far exceeds conventional techniques such as [[captive breeding]] or [[embryo transfer]]. The [[2000]]-[[2001]] attempt to clone a [[gaur]] failed, with the animal, &quot;[[Noah (cloned gaur)|Noah]]&quot;, dying 2 days after birth, and the attempt to clone [[argali]] sheep did not produce viable embryos. The attempt to clone a [[banteng]] bull was more successful, as were the attempts to clone [[mouflon]], both resulting in viable offspring. The banteng example is a case illustrating the circumstances under which the uncertainties of cloning attempts are outweighed by the benefits: the cell donator was an adult of a rare [[genotype]] combination which had been killed in a fight; the single surviving cloned individual now is integrated into the herd at [[San Diego Zoo]] and healthy (it had to undergo [[orchiopexy]], but this was probably due to an inbreeding and not a cloning problem). There have been some attempts and many suggestions to clone [[extinct animal]]s, but those that have seen any research ([[thylacine]], [[huia]], [[Pyrenean Ibex]] and [[mammut]]) have so far resulted in failures. Altogether, the only real benefit of cloning for animal conservation exists in some cases of large mammals where embryo transfer techniques are already established and the issue at hand is preservation of a rare genetic lineage, as in the case of the San Diego banteng. ==References== &lt;references/&gt; ==External links== *[http://www.liebertpub.com/clo Cloning and Stem Cells], a peer-reviewed journal edited by Ian Wilmut *[http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/antenna/dolly/index.asp Dolly the Sheep, 1996-2003 from the Science Museum, London] *[http://www.roslin.ac.uk/public/01-12-98-dnt.html Roslin Institute: Update on Dolly and nuclear transfer] *[http://www.roslin.ac.uk/imagelibrary/ Photos of Dolly and other cloned animals at Roslin] &lt;!--categories--&gt; [[Category:Sheep]] [[Category:Famous animals]] [[Category:Cloning]] &lt;!--interwikis--&gt; [[ca:Ovella Dolly]] [[cy:Dafad Doli]] [[da:Fåret Dolly]] [[de:Schaf Dolly]] [[es:Oveja Dolly]] [[fr:Dolly (brebis)]] [[fy:Dolly]] [[he:הכבשה דולי]] [[id:Domba Dolly]] [[it:Dolly]] [[ja:ドリー]] [[ko:돌리]] [[nl:Dolly (schaap)]] [[pl:Owca Dolly]] [[pt:Ovelha Dolly]] [[fi:Dolly-lammas]] [[sv:Dolly (får)]] [[zh:多利]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Datura Stramonium</title> <id>9150</id> <revision> <id>15907060</id> <timestamp>2002-06-18T12:12:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PierreAbbat</username> <id>1123</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Datura stramonium]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Didjeridoo</title> <id>9151</id> <revision> <id>15907061</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Didgeridoo]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diablo II Lord of Destruction</title> <id>9152</id> <revision> <id>15907062</id> <timestamp>2005-05-25T10:53:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Master Thief Garrett</username> <id>234433</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#redirect [[Lord of Destruction expansion pack]] &gt;&gt; #redirect [[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dakar Rallye</title> <id>9154</id> <revision> <id>35681198</id> <timestamp>2006-01-18T15:12:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Paris Dakar Rally&quot; +&quot;Dakar Rally&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dakar Rally]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dolores Fuller</title> <id>9156</id> <revision> <id>38260195</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T04:48:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bride Monster Catfight.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Dolores Fuller (right) opposite her on and offscreen rival, Loretta King, in ''Bride of the Monster'']] '''Dolores Fuller''' (b. [[1923]]) is best known as the one-time girlfriend of the notorious film director [[Ed Wood, Jr.]] She played the protagonist's girlfriend in ''[[Glen or Glenda]]'' and a filing clerk in ''[[Bride of the Monster]]''. According to Fuller, the female lead in the latter film was written for Fuller, but Wood gave it to [[Loretta King]] instead when she offered to help &quot;finance&quot; the movie. King denies the allegation to this day. Fuller left Wood shortly after. Fuller later earned popularity in her own right, serving as a body double for [[Dinah Shore]] in ''The Dinah Shore Show'', and wrote several songs for [[Elvis Presley]], including 'Rock-a-hula Baby', 'I Got Lucky', and 'Spinout'. She was portrayed by [[Sarah Jessica Parker]] in [[Tim Burton]]'s [[1994]] Wood [[biopic]], ''[[Ed Wood (movie)|Ed Wood]]''. {{US-film-actor-stub}} [[Category:1923 births|Fuller, Dolores]] [[Category:Living people|Fuller, Dolores]] [[de:Dolores Fuller]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Duvergers Law</title> <id>9157</id> <revision> <id>15907067</id> <timestamp>2003-05-04T05:34:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eclecticology</username> <id>372</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Duverger's law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dr Strangelove</title> <id>9158</id> <revision> <id>15907068</id> <timestamp>2002-12-27T23:38:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>De jure</title> <id>9160</id> <revision> <id>39371730</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T18:58:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MizuAmina</username> <id>262954</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}} '''''De jure''''' (in [[Classical Latin]] '''''de iure''''') is an expression that means &quot;based on [[law]]&quot;, as contrasted with ''[[de facto]]'', which means &quot;in fact&quot;. The terms ''de jure'' and ''de facto'' are used instead of &quot;in principle&quot; and &quot;in practice&quot;, respectively, when one is describing [[politics|political]] situations. They are also often used when discussing [[racial segregation]]. A practice may exist ''de facto'', where the people obey a contract as though there were a law although there is none. A process known as &quot;[[desuetude]]&quot; may allow ''de facto'' practices to replace obsolete laws. On the other hand, practices may exist ''de jure'' and not be obeyed or observed by the people. The Latin ''de jure'' should not be confused with the [[French language|French]] ''du jour'', which translates to &quot;of the day&quot;, as, for example, in ''[[soupe du jour]]'', or soup of the day. ''De jure'' and ''de facto'' standards can differ; for example, the [[U.S.]] has no ''de jure'' language, whereas the ''de facto'' language is English. Similarly, the U.S. ''de jure'' standard for measurement of road distances is the [[kilometre]] (as the U.S. is party to the ''[[Convention du Mètre]]''), but the ''de facto'' standard is the [[mile]]. ==See also== * [[List of Latin phrases]] * [[De facto]] ==References== {{unsourced}} [[Category:Latin legal phrases]] [[de:De jure]] [[es:De iure]] [[it:De jure]] [[he:דה יורה]] [[nl:De jure]] [[pt:De jure]] [[fi:De jure]] [[sv:De jure]] [[vi:De jure]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Des Moines, Iowa</title> <id>9163</id> <revision> <id>42092895</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:58:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Antandrus</username> <id>57658</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.221.1.253|205.221.1.253]] ([[User talk:205.221.1.253|talk]]) to last version by 128.178.41.23</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Des Moines}}
[Writer] * ''[[The Duck Variations]]'' (1972)[Writer] * ''[[Sexual Perversity in Chicago]]'' (1974)[Writer] * ''[[Squirrels (play)|Squirrels]]'' (1974) [Writer] * ''[[American Buffalo (play)|American Buffalo]]'' (1975)[Writer] * ''[[Reunion (play)|Reunion]]'' (1976) [Writer] * ''[[The Water Engine]]'' (1976)[Writer] * ''[[A Life in the Theatre]]'' (1977)[Writer] * ''[[Revenge of the Space Pandas, or Binky Rudich and the Two-Speed Clock]]'' (1978)[Writer] * ''[[The Woods]]'' (1979)[Writer] * ''[[Lakeboat]]'' (1980)[Writer] * ''[[Edmond (play)|Edmond]]'' (1982)[Writer] * ''[[The Frog Prince]]'' (1983)[Writer] * ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross]]'' (1984)[Writer] * ''[[The Shawl]]'' (1985)[Writer] * ''[[Speed-the-Plow]]'' (1988)[Writer] * ''[[Bobby Gould In Hell]]'' (1989)[Writer] * ''[[Oleanna]]'' (1992)[Writer] * ''[[The Cryptogram]]'' (1995)[Writer] * ''[[Boston Marriage (play)|Boston Marriage]]'' (2001)[Writer] * ''[[Faustus (Mamet play)|Faustus]]'' (2004)[Writer] * ''[[Romance (Mamet play)|Romance]]'' (2005)[Writer] * ''[[The Voysey Inheritance]]'' (2005)&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Writer-adaptation of play by [[Harley Granville-Barker]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; * ''Boston Marriage''(2005) == Books == * ''[[Writing in Restaurants]] (1987) [Author] * ''[[On Directing Film]] (1992) [Author] * ''[[Make-Believe Town: Essays and Remembraces]] (1996) [Author] * ''[[Three Uses of the Knife]] (1996) [Author] * ''[[True and False: Heresy and Common Sense for the Actor]] (1999) [Author] ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0000519|name=David Mamet}} * [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-mamet/ David Mamet's writings and cartoons on the Huffington Post]'' * [http://mamet.eserver.org/ The David Mamet Society] {{mamet}} [[Category:1947 births|Mamet, David]] [[Category:Living people|Mamet, David]] [[Category:American dramatists and playwrights|Mamet, David]] [[Category:American screenwriters|Mamet, David]] [[Category:Chicagoans|Mamet, David]] [[Category:Jewish American writers|Mamet, David]] [[Category:Jewish American directors|Mamet,David]] [[Category:Members of The American Academy of Arts and Letters|Mamet, David]] [[Category:People from Illinois|Mamet, David]] [[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Mamet, David]] [[de:David Mamet]] [[fr:David Mamet]] [[ja:デヴィッド・マメット]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>December 6</title> <id>8352</id> <revision> <id>42058188</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:44:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rklawton</username> <id>754622</id> </contributor> <comment>rv nonsense entry</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[December 6]] is the 340th day (341st on leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 25 days remaining. {{DecemberCalendar}} ==Events== *[[963]] - [[Leo VIII]] is elected [[Pope]]. *[[1240]] - [[Mongol invasion of Rus]]: [[Kiev]] under [[Danylo of Halych]] and [[Voivode Dmytro]] falls to the [[Mongols]] under [[Batu Khan]]. *[[1534]] - The city of [[Quito]] in [[Ecuador]] is founded by Spanish settlers led by [[Sebastián de Belalcázar]]. *[[1768]] - The first edition of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' is published. *[[1790]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] moves from [[New York City]] to [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] *[[1845]] - [[Alpha Sigma Phi]] Fraternity was founded at [[Yale College]] by [[Louis Manigault]], [[Horace Spangler Weiser]], and [[Stephen Ornsby Rhea]]. *[[1849]] - American [[abolitionist]] [[Harriet Tubman]] escapes from slavery. *[[1865]] - The [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] is ratified, banning [[slavery]]. *[[1877]] - The ''[[Washington Post]]'' newspaper is first published. *[[1884]] - The [[Washington Monument]] in [[Washington D.C.]] is completed. *[[1907]] - A [[List of disasters|coal mine explosion]] at [[Monongah, West Virginia]] kills 362 workers. *[[1917]] - [[Finland]] [[Finland's declaration of independence|declares its independence]] from [[Russia]]. * 1917 - [[Halifax Explosion]]: In [[Canada]], a munitions explosion kills more than 1900 people and destroys part of the city of [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]. *[[1921]] - The [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] is signed in London by British and Irish representatives *[[1922]] - One year to the day after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the [[Irish Free State]] comes into existence. *[[1933]] - U.S. federal judge John M. Woolsey rules that the [[James Joyce]] novel ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' is not obscene. *[[1947]] - The [[Everglades National Park]] in [[Florida]] is dedicated. *[[1957]] - [[Project Vanguard]]: A launchpad explosion thwarts the first [[United States]] attempt to launch a [[satellite]]. *[[1965]] - [[Pakistan]]'s Islamic Ideology Advisory Committee recommended that Islamic Studies be made a compulsory subject for [[Muslim]] students from primary to graduation level. *[[1969]] - [[Meredith Hunter]] is killed by [[Hell's Angels]] during [[The Rolling Stones]]'s concert at the [[Altamont]] speedway in [[California]]. *[[1971]] - [[Pakistan]] snaps diplomatic ties with [[India]] following [[India|New Delhi]]'s recognition of [[Bangladesh]]. *[[1971]] - King [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]] condemns Indian aggression on [[Pakistan]]. *[[1973]] - The [[United States House of Representatives]] votes 387 to 35 to confirm [[Gerald Ford]] as [[Vice President of the United States]] (on [[November 27]], the [[United States Senate|Senate]] confirmed him 92 to 3). *[[1975]] - [[Balcombe Street Siege]]: An [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] [[Active Service Unit]] takes a couple hostage in Balcombe Street, [[London]]. *[[1977]] - [[South Africa]] grants independence to [[Bophuthatswana]], although it is not recognized by any other country *[[1978]] - [[Spain]] approves [[Spanish Constitution of 1978|its latest constitution]] in a referendum. *[[1989]] - [[École Polytechnique Massacre]]: [[Marc Lépine]] kills 14 young women in [[Montreal, Quebec]]. *[[1991]] - In [[Croatia]], forces of the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] bombard [[Dubrovnik]] after laying siege there since May. *[[1992]] - In [[Ayodhya]], [[India]], [[Hinduism|Hindus]] belonging to the nationalist [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] demolish the [[Babri Mosque|Babri Masjid]], a 16th century [[mosque]]. *[[1997]] - A [[Russia]]n [[Antonov]] AN-124 transport cargo plane crashes into an apartment complex near [[Irkutsk]], [[Siberia]], killing 67. *[[2005]] - [[David Cameron]] becomes leader of the UK [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], defeating [[David Davis]]. ==Births== *[[846]] - [[Hasan al-Askari]], [[Shia Imam]] (d. [[874]]) *[[1285]] - King [[Ferdinand IV of Castile]] (d. [[1312]]) *[[1421]] - King [[Henry VI of England]] (d. [[1471]]) *[[1478]] - [[Baldassare Castiglione]], Italian diplomat and author (d. [[1529]]) *[[1550]] - [[Orazio Vecchi]], Italian composer (baptism) (d. [[1605]]) *[[1586]] - [[Niccolo Zucchi]], Italian astronomer (d. [[1670]]) *[[1608]] - [[George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle]], English soldier (d. [[1670]]) *[[1637]] - Sir [[Edmund Andros]], English governor in North America (d. [[1714]]) *[[1640]] - [[Claude Fleury]], French historian (d. [[1723]]) *[[1642]] - [[Johann Christoph Bach]], German composer (d. [[1703]]) *[[1721]] - [[James Elphinston]], British philologist (d. [[1809]]) * 1721 - [[Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes]], French statesman (d. [[1794]]) *[[1778]] - [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]], French physicist and chemist (d. [[1850]]) *[[1792]] - King [[William II of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1849]]) *[[1805]] - [[Adolf Reubke]], German organ builder (d. [[1875]]) * 1805 - [[Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin]], French magician (d. [[1861]]) *[[1823]] - [[Max Müller|Friedrich Max Müller]], German orientalist (d. [[1900]]) *[[1833]] - [[John Singleton Mosby]], American Confederate guerrilla leader (d. [[1916]]) *[[1841]] - [[Frédéric Bazille]], French painter (d. [[1870]]) *[[1849]] - [[August von Mackensen]], German field marshal (d. [[1945]]) *[[1863]] - [[Charles Martin Hall]], American chemist (d. [[1914]]) *[[1872]] - [[William S. Hart]], American actor (d. [[1946]]) *[[1875]] - [[Evelyn Underhill]], British poet (d. [[1941]]) *[[1886]] - [[Joyce Kilmer]], American poet (d. [[1918]]) *[[1890]] - [[Rudolf Schlichter]], German artist and writer (d. [[1955]]) *1890 - [[Yoshio Nishina]], Japanese physicist (d. [[1951]]) *[[1892]] - Sir [[Osbert Sitwell]], British author (d. [[1969]]) *[[1896]] - [[Ira Gershwin]], American lyricist (d. [[1983]]) *[[1898]] - [[Alfred Eisenstaedt]], German-born photojournalist (d. [[1995]]) * 1898 - [[Gunnar Myrdal]], Swedish economist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] (d. [[1987]]) *[[1900]] - [[Agnes Moorehead]], American actress (d. [[1974]]) *[[1903]] - [[Tony Lazzeri]], American baseball player (d. [[1946]]) *[[1905]] - [[James J. Braddock]], American boxer (d. [[1974]]) *[[1908]] - [[Pierre Graber]], Swiss Federal Councilor (d. [[2003]]) *[[1913]] - [[Eleanor Holm]], American swimmer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1917]] - [[Kamal Jumblatt]], leader of the Lebanese Druze (d. [[1977]]) *[[1919]] - [[Paul de Man]], Belgian-born literary critic (d. [[1983]]) *[[1920]] - [[Dave Brubeck]], American pianist and composer * 1920 - [[George Porter]], British chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2002]]) *[[1921]] - [[Otto Graham]], American football player (d. [[2003]]) *[[1928]] - [[Bobby Van]], American singer (d. [[1980]]) *[[1929]] - [[Alain Tanner]], Swiss filmmaker * 1929 - [[Nikolaus Harnoncourt]], German conductor *[[1930]] - [[Daniel Lisulo]], [[Prime Minister of Zambia]] *[[1933]] - [[Henryk Górecki]], Polish composer *[[1936]] - [[David Ossman]], American comedian *[[1942]] - [[Peter Handke]], Austrian writer *[[1945]] - [[Shekhar Kapur]], Indian filmmaker * 1945 - [[Larry Bowa]], baseball player a
ion suggests 100-150 points to modify attribute stats, select advantages and disadvantages, and purchase levels in skills. Normal [[Non-player character|NPCs]] are built on 25 or fewer points. Full fledged heroes usually have 200-250 points, while superheroes are commonly built with 400-800 points. Using character points, [[Gamemaster]]s can easily balance the power of foes to the abilities of the player characters. ===Attributes=== Characters in GURPS have four stats: *'''Strength (ST)''' A measure of the character's raw muscle power. *'''Dexterity (DX)''' A measure of the character's physical coordination. *'''Intelligence (IQ)''' A measure of the character's mental capacity. *'''Health (HT)''' A measure of the character's bodily stamina. Having only four stats is arguably much simpler compared to other role-playing games which can have several main stats that cover more defined abilities. Each stat has a number rating assigned to it. Normally they begin at 10, representing typical human ability, but can go as low as 1 for nearly useless, to 18 (or higher) for superhuman power. Basic Stat Levels of 1-4 are considered to be so far below the human norm that it they are only usually used for severely handicapped characters. Skills over 14 are said to make you famous for that ability, and skills of 18 and above make the character among the greatest human beings who ever lived in that field. Players assign these ratings with points. The higher the rating the more points it will cost the player, however, assigning a stat below the typical 10 gives the player points back to assign elsewhere. Since Skills are almost all based on Dexterity or IQ, those attributes are twice as expensive (or yield twice the points, if purchased below 10). Stat ratings also calculate several derived stats for the character, called Secondary Characteristics, such as Basic Speed, Move, Willpower, Perception, Hit Points, Fatigue Points, Basic Lift, Basic Damage, and others. ===Advantages and Disadvantages=== A player can select numerous Advantages and Disadvantages (including above-average or below-average Wealth, Status and Reputation) to spice up the character with special abilities and weaknesses. These are categorized as physical, mental or social, and as exotic, supernatural, or mundane. Advantages benefit the character and cost points to purchase. Selecting Disadvantages returns character points. Disadvantages include such positive attributes as honesty and truthfulness which limit the way a character is played. There are also many Perks and Quirks to choose from which give a character some personality. Perks (minor Advantages) and Quirks (minor Disadvantages) hinder or benefit the character a bit, but they mostly add role-playing flavor. New to the 4th edition is the concept of enhancements and limitations. These modify the effects and point cost of advantages and disadvantages. For example, to create a &quot;dragon's breath&quot; attack, a player would select the burning attack 4D advantage (normally 20 points) and modify it as follows: cone, 5 yards (+100%); limited use, 3/day (-20%); reduced range, x1/5 (-20%). The final percentage modifier would be +60%, making the final cost 32 points. This addition to the system greatly increases its flexibility while decreasing the number of specific advantages and disadvantages that must be listed. ===Skills=== Complementing the stats are numerous [[skill (role-playing)|skill]]s. A player buys skills with character points. Skills represent physical and mental areas of specialty which can prove useful in the game. Skills vary widely, from [[Acrobatics]] to Vehicle Piloting. The availability of skills depends on the particular genre the GURPS game is played. For instance, in a [[Medieval]] [[Fantasy]] world, skills for operating a [[computer]], or flying a [[Fighter aircraft|fighter jet]] would not normally be available for the player to choose unless they [[time travel]]ed. Skills are rated by level, and the more levels purchased with character points, the better the character is at that particular skill. Skills are categorized by difficulty: Easy, Average, and Hard. They are also categorized as Physical or Mental skills, with Very Hard as an option for some Mental skills. Easy skills cost fewer points to purchase levels in, while Hard skills cost more. A player can purchase a skill for his character at any level he or she can afford. The lower you choose the fewer points it costs to buy the skill, and the higher you go, the more points it costs. Some skills have default levels, which indicate the level rating a character has when using that skill untrained (i.e. not purchased). For example, a character with a Dexterity of 12, uses the Climbing skill untrained. Climbing has a default of DX-5 or ST-5, which means that using the skill untrained gives him a Climbing skill level of 7 (12-5) if he tied it to the Dexterity stat. If the character had a higher Strength stat, he could have a better chance of success if they tied the Climbing skill there instead. Many Skills also have a Tech Level (TL) rating attached to them, to differentiate between Skills that concern similar concepts, but whose tasks are accomplished in different ways when used with differing levels of technology. This helps during time traveling scenarios, or when characters are forced to deal with particularly outdated or advanced equipment. For instance, a modern boat builder's skills will be of less use if he is stuck on a desert island and forced to work with primitive tools and techniques. Thus, the skills he uses are different when in his shop (Shipbuilding/TL 8) and when he is on the island (Shipbuilding/TL 1). ===Success Rolls=== GURPS uses six-sided [[dice]] for all game mechanics. For instance, if the damage of a weapon says &quot;3d+2&quot; then you'd roll three six-sided dice, add the results of each die together, and add 2 to that result. Likewise, if it said &quot;2d-1&quot;, you'd roll only two dice and subtract 1 from the total result. For stat and skill checks, the player always rolls three six-sided dice. Note that this makes a &quot;default&quot; skill check (a skill of 10, based on an unmodified attribute) 50% likely to succeed. Making stat and skill checks in GURPS is the reverse of the mechanics of most other RPGs, where the higher the total of the die roll, the better. GURPS players hope to roll as low as possible under the tested stat's rating or skill's level. If the roll is less than or equal to that number, the check succeeds. There is no &quot;target number&quot; or &quot;difficulty rating&quot; set by the Game Master, as would be the case in many other RPG systems. The GM may however, calculate various modifiers to add or subtract to the die roll. In this way, positive modifiers increase the chance for success by adding to the stat or skill level you must roll under, while negative modifiers deduct from it, making things more difficult. For example: a player makes a pickpocketing test for his character. The player has assigned a Pickpocket skill with a level of 11. Rolling 3 dice, the result must be 11 or less to succeed the test. If the player rolls above 11, then the character has failed his attempt at pickpocketing. No matter the level of the skill, a die roll of 18 or 17 is always a failure, and a roll of 3 or 4 is always a success. The Game Master may choose in such cases, that the character has failed miserably and caused something disastrous, or succeeded incredibly well and gains something beneficial as a result. ===Combat=== Like most other RPGs, combat in GURPS is organized in rounds. A [[turn|round]] is equal to one [[second]] of real [[time]] (other RPGs typically have longer rounds). In one second, a player can allow his character to take an action, such as attack, or move. Free actions are simple actions that can be done at any time. Characters in a party have a set initiative every round that is based upon their Speed factors. There are two kinds of attacks, Melee (with hand-to-hand weapons) and Ranged (for bows and guns). Attacks made by a character are checked against their appropriate skill in the particular weapon they carry. For instance, if a character is attacking with a pistol, it is a good idea to have high levels in the [[Firearms]] skill. Like any other skill check, a player must roll equal to, or less than the level of the skill. Failure means a miss, success scores a hit. Rolls of 3 or 4 are &quot;critical hits&quot;, where the weapon deals its full possible damage to the target without rolling it. Attack modifiers are set by the GM when factoring in such things as body armor and cover. ===Damage and defenses=== Damage from melee weapons, (clubs, swords, daggers, etc.) is calculated based on a character's ST rating. The weaker a character is physically, the less damage he or she is capable of inflicting with a handheld weapon. Ranged weapons have a set damage value for the projectile they fire. When damage is inflicted upon a character, it is deducted from their Hit Points, which are calculated with the Strength stat (prior to GURPS 4th Edition, Hit Points were derived from the Health stat). Like any other RPG, when a character loses their hit points, they're in trouble. Depending on the nature of the attack, there will sometimes be additional effects. GURPS calculates shock penalties when someone is hit, representing the lasting harm it causes. Different weapons can cause different 'types' of damage, ranging from crushing (a club or mace), impaling (a spear or arrow), cutting (most swords and axes), piercing (bullets), and so on. ===Advancement=== Finally, the most useful award after playing a good session of GURPS are more character points, which can be used to advance the character with boosted stats and skills, and other goodies. ==GURPS in other media== The computer game publisher [[Interplay Productions|Interplay]] licensed GURPS a
ght] - older version of [[Chessbase]], which allows to view games in CBH and PGN format. * [http://www.aarontay.per.sg/Winboard/ Aaron's chess engines FAQ] * [http://jose-chess.sourceforge.net/ Jose Chess] * [http://www.gamesbyscott.com/games.htm ShaagChess] * [http://www.chessopolis.com/cchess.htm Chessopolis] - freeware chess engines * [http://www.bapuli.co.nr/chess.htm Easy Chess] - freeware to play chess with the computer * [http://www.compwebchess.com CompWebChess] - open source application, which allows to start own chess sever. ===Other chess topics=== * [http://www.chessvariants.org The chess variants pages] * [http://www.boardgamegeek.com/metasearch.php?searchtype=game&amp;search=chess Games with the word &quot;chess&quot; in the title] * [http://www.xs4all.nl/~timkr/chess/chess.html Chess curiosities] by Tim Krabbé * [http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lab/7378/chess.htm Bill Wall's chess page] * [http://www.edcollins.com/chess Ed Collins's chess page] - essays, problems, cartoons, limericks, games, photos, puzzles, etc. * [http://s6.invisionfree.com/ChessResources_Forum Chess Resources Forum] a forum all about chess * [http://www.freedigitalphotos.net/thumbnails.php?album=222 Images of chess boards and pieces] {{featured article}} [[Category:Chess| ]] [[Category:Etymology|Persian]] [[Category:Persian loanwords]] {{Link FA|ar}} {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|es}} {{Link FA|fr}} {{Link FA|it}} {{Link FA|nl}} {{Link FA|vi}} {{Link FA|da}} [[af:Skaak]] [[ar:شطرنج]] [[bg:Шахмат]] [[bn:দাবা]] [[bs:Šah]] [[br:Echedoù]] [[ca:Escacs]] [[cs:Šachy]] [[da:Skak]] [[de:Schach]] [[et:Male]] [[el:Σκάκι]] [[es:Ajedrez]] [[eo:Ŝako]] [[eu:Xake]] [[fr:Jeu d'échecs]] [[gl:Xadrez]] [[ko:체스]] [[hr:Šah]] [[io:Shako]] [[id:Catur]] [[ia:Chacos]] [[is:Skák]] [[it:Scacchi]] [[he:שחמט]] [[kn:ಚದುರಂಗ (ಆಟ)]] [[ka:ჭადრაკი]] [[la:Scacci]] [[lv:Šahs]] [[lt:Šachmatai]] [[lb:Schach]] [[hu:Sakk]] [[nl:Schaken]] [[ja:チェス]] [[no:Sjakk]] [[nn:Sjakk]] [[pl:Szachy międzynarodowe]] [[pt:Xadrez]] [[ro:Şah (joc)]] [[ru:Шахматы]] [[simple:Chess]] [[sd:شطرنج]] [[sk:Šach (hra)]] [[sl:Šah]] [[sr:Шах (игра)]] [[fi:Shakki]] [[sv:Schack]] [[ta:செஸ்]] [[vi:Cờ vua]] [[tr:Satranç]] [[uk:Шахи]] [[zh:國際象棋]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Canada</title> <id>5135</id> <revision> <id>42140776</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:16:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Prodego</username> <id>451766</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 42086094 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--{{editnote | Before you edit this article to change the name of the country to &quot;Dominion of Canada&quot; or &quot;Canadian Federation&quot; or anything else, please read the Talk Page. This issue has been discussed at great length there, and the evidence provided indicates that the country's *legal* name is &quot;Canada&quot;, not anything else. If you believe you have arguments or evidence to the contrary, please provide them on the talk page, and wait until the consensus changes before making the edit. Thank you!}} {{editnote | Please use Canadian spelling. :)}} {{editnote | Notice: This overview article is already too long and should serve only as an introduction for Canada. To keep this overview article concise, please consider adding information instead to one of the many &quot;main&quot; articles about Canada linked from this article, e.g., [[Politics of Canada]], [[Geography of Canada]], etc. Thank you.}}--&gt;{{Infobox Country |&lt;!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Canada]] also --&gt; native_name = Canada | common_name = Canada | image_flag = Flag_of_Canada.svg | image_coat = Bigcancoat.png | national_motto = (in [[Latin]]) ''A Mari Usque Ad Mare''&lt;br&gt;(From Sea to Sea) | national_anthem = [[O Canada]]&lt;br&gt;([[Royal anthem]]: [[God Save the Queen]]) | image_map = LocationCanada.png | capital = [[Ottawa]] |latd=45|latm=24|latNS=N|longd=75|longm=40|longEW=W| name = Formal Name:Canada &lt;br&gt;Common Name:Canada | largest_city = [[Toronto]] | official_languages = [[Canadian English|English]] and [[Canadian French|French]] | government_type = &lt;small&gt;[[Federation|Federal]] [[parliamentary democracy]]&lt;br&gt;and [[constitutional monarchy]]&lt;/small&gt;| leader_titles = &lt;br&gt;[[Monarchy in Canada|Monarch]]&lt;br&gt;[[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]&lt;br&gt;| leader_names = [[Elizabeth II of Canada|Elizabeth II]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michaëlle Jean]]&lt;br&gt;[[Stephen Harper]]| sovereignty_type = [[History of Canada|Independence]] | established_events = &amp;nbsp;- [[British North America Act|BNA Act]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act]]| established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom]]&lt;br&gt;[[July 1]], [[1867]]&lt;br&gt;[[December 11]], [[1931]]&lt;br&gt;[[April 17]], [[1982]] | area = 9,984,670 | areami²= 3,855,103 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt; area_rank = 2nd | area_magnitude = 1 E12 | percent_water = 8.92 (891,163 km²) | population_estimate = 32.4 million | population_estimate_year = 2006 | population_estimate_rank = 37th | population_census = 30,007,094 | population_census_year = 2001| population_density = 3.3 | population_densitymi² = 8.5 |&lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt; population_density_rank = 185th | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = $1.077 trillion | GDP_PPP_rank = 11th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $32,800 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 16th | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.949 | HDI_rank = 5th | HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; | currency = [[Canadian dollar]] ($) | currency_code = CAD | time_zone = | utc_offset = -3.5 to -8 | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = -2.5 to -7 | cctld = [[.ca]] | calling_code = 1 | footnotes = |}} {{otheruses}} '''Canada''' is a [[country]] occupying the northern portion of [[North America]], and is the world's [[List of countries by area|second largest]] country in total area. Inhabited exclusively for several millennia by [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|aboriginal peoples]], Canada was founded as a union of [[British colony|British colonies]], some of which had earlier been [[French colonial empire|French colonies]]. A [[federation|federal]] [[dominion]] of ten [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provinces]] with three [[Provinces and territories of Canada#Territories of Canada|territories]], Canada peacefully obtained its sovereignty in a process beginning in 1867 from its last colonial possessor, the [[United Kingdom]], and ending in 1982 with the patriation of its constitution from the UK. Canada is governed as a [[parliamentary democracy]] and [[constitutional monarchy]]. Canada's [[head of state]] is its [[Monarchy in Canada|monarch]], who is represented in Canada by the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]. The head of government is the [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]. Canada defines itself as a [[Bilingualism in Canada|bilingual]] and [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] nation. Both [[Canadian English|English]] and [[Canadian French|French]] are official languages of the country. In the early [[1970s]], Canada began to adopt policies based on the concepts of cultural diversity and multiculturalism. Many Canadians now view this as one of the country's key attributes. A technologically advanced and industrialized nation, Canada is a net exporter of energy because of its large fossil fuel deposits, [[nuclear energy]] generation, and [[hydroelectric power]] capacity. Its diversified [[Economy of Canada|economy]] relies heavily on an abundance of natural resources and trade, particularly with the [[United States]], with which Canada has had a long and complex relationship, one which can arguably be described as the strongest trade partnership in history. ==Canada's name== {{main|Canada's name}} The name ''Canada'' is believed to come from the [[Wyandot|Huron]]-[[Iroquoian languages|Iroquois]] word ''kanata'', which means &quot;village&quot; or &quot;settlement&quot;. In 1535, locals used the word to tell [[Jacques Cartier]] the way to [[Stadacona]], site of present-day Quebec City. Cartier used Canada to refer not only to Stadacona, but also to the entire area subject to Donnacona, Chief at Stadacona; by 1547, maps began referring to this and the surrounding area as Canada. ==History== {{Canadian History box}} :''Main articles: [[History of Canada]], [[Timeline of Canadian history]]'' ===Prehistory=== Aboriginal tradition holds that the [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|First Peoples]] have inhabited parts of what is now called Canada since the dawn of time. Archaeological records show that these lands have been inhabited for at least 10,000 years. Several [[Viking]] expeditions occurred circa AD 1000, with evidence of settlement at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]]. ===European settlement=== {{cleanup-section}} British claims to North America date from 1497, when [[John Cabot]] reached what he called ''Newfoundland'', though it is unclear whether Cabot landed in current [[Newfoundland]], [[Nova Scotia]], or [[Maine]]. French claims date from explorations by [[Jacques Cartier]] (from 1534) and [[Samuel de Champlain]] (from 1603). Neither Cabot's nor Cartier's explorations left any permanent settlers behind. On [[August 5]], [[1583]], Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]] claimed [[Newfoundland]] as [[England]]'s first overseas colony under [[Royal Charter]] of [[Queen Elizabeth I]]. In 1604, French settlers were the first Europeans to settle permanently in what is now Canada. After an unsuccessful winter in St. Croix Island (today in Maine), they settled Port-Royal in what is now the [[Annapolis Valley]] in Nova Scotia, but moved to found [[Quebec City]] in 1608. The current [[Acadians]] are descenda
] The state and administrative city cover 750 km² with 1.8 million inhabitants, while another 0.8 million live in neighboring urban areas. The Greater [[Hamburg Metropolitan Region]] (''Metropolregion Hamburg'') includes some districts in the adjacent federal states of [[Schleswig-Holstein]] and [[Lower Saxony]] and covers an area of 18,100 km² with a population of just over 4 million. Hamburg is organized into seven boroughs (Bezirke) comprising 104 quarters (Stadtteile): *[[Altona, Hamburg|Altona]] *[[Bergedorf]] *[[Eimsbüttel]] *[[Hamburg-Harburg|Harburg]] *[[Hamburg-Mitte|Mitte]] *[[Hamburg-Nord|Nord]] *[[Wandsbek]] Three small islands in the [[North Sea]] also belong to the City State of Hamburg: [[Neuwerk]], [[Scharhörn]] and [[Nigehörn]]. == History == The city takes its name from the first permanent building on the site, a fort ordered to be built by [[Emperor]] [[Charlemagne]] in [[808]] AD. The fort was built on some rocky ground in a marsh between the [[Alster]] and the [[Elbe]] as a defence against Slavic incursion. The fort was named ''Hamma Burg'', where &quot;burg&quot; means &quot;fort.&quot; The &quot;Hamma&quot; element remains uncertain. [[Old High German]] includes both a hamma, &quot;angle&quot; and a hamme, &quot;pastureland.&quot; The angle might refer to a spit of land or to the curvature of a river. However, the language spoken might not have been Old High German, as Plattdüütsch was spoken there later. Other theories are that the fort was named for a surrounding Hamma forest, or for the village of Hamm, later incorporated into the city. Hamm as a place name occurs a number of times in Germany, but its meaning is equally uncertain. It could be related to &quot;heim&quot; and Hamburg could have been placed in the territory of the ancient [[Chamavi]]. However, a derivation of &quot;home city&quot; is perhaps too direct, as the city was named after the castle. In 834 Hamburg was designated the seat of a [[bishopric]], whose first bishop, Ansgar, became known as the [[Apostle]] of the North. In 845 a fleet of 600 Viking ships came up the River Elbe and destroyed Hamburg, at that time a town of around 500 inhabitants. Two years later, Hamburg was united with [[Bremen]] as the bishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. In 1030 the city was burned down by King Mieszko II of [[Poland]]. After further raids in 1066 and 1072 the bishop permanently moved to Bremen. The charter in [[1189]] by [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I &quot;Barbarossa&quot;]] granted Hamburg the status of an [[Imperial Free City]] and tax free access up the Lower [[Elbe]] into the [[North Sea]]. This and Hamburg's proximity to the main trade routes of the [[North Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]] quickly made it a major port in [[Northern Europe]]. Its trade alliance with [[Lübeck]] in [[1241]] marks the origin and core of the powerful [[Hanseatic League]] of trading cities. In [[1520]] the city embraced [[Lutheranism]], and Hamburg subsequently received Protestant refugees from the [[Netherlands]] and [[France]]. Hamburg was at times under [[Denmark|Danish]] sovereignty while remaining part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] as an Imperial Free City. Briefly annexed by [[Napoleon I]] (1810-14), Hamburg suffered severely during his last campaign in Germany. The city was besieged for over a year by Allied forces (mostly Russian, Swedish and German). Russian forces under [[Levin August, count von Bennigsen|General Bennigsen]] finally freed the city in 1814. During the first half of the 19th century a patron goddess with Hamburg's Latin name ''Hammonia'' emerged, mostly in romantic and poetic references, and although she has no mythology to call her own, [[Hammonia]] became the symbol of the city's spirit during this time. Hamburg had several great fires, notably in 1284 and 1842. Hamburg experienced its fastest growth during the second half of the 19th century, when its population more than quadrupled to 800,000 as the growth of the city's Atlantic trade helped make it Europe's third-largest port. [[Image:hamburg old.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Hamburg's central promenade Jungfernstieg on Lake Alster in 1900]] In 1900 [[Hamburg-America Lines]] was the World's largest [[transatlantic]] shipping company, and Hamburg was also home to shipping companies to [[South America]], [[Africa]], [[India]] and [[East Asia]]. Hamburg became a cosmopolitan metropolis based on worldwide trade. Hamburg was the port for most Germans and Eastern Europeans to leave for the [[New World]] and became home to trading communities from all over the world (like a small [[Chinatown]] in [[Altona]]). After [[World War I]] Germany lost her [[German colonies|colonies]] and Hamburg lost many of its trade routes. In [[1937]] the city boundaries were extended with the ''Groß-Hamburg-Gesetz'' (Greater Hamburg Act) to incorporate [[Wandsbek]], [[Hamburg-Harburg|Harburg]], Wilhelmsburg and [[Altona, Hamburg|Altona]]. The city counts 1.7 million inhabitants. During [[World War II]] Hamburg suffered a series of devastating air raids which killed 42,000 German civilians ([[Bombing of Hamburg in World War II]]). Through this, and the new zoning guidelines of the [[1960s]], the inner city lost much of its architectural past. The [[Iron Curtain]] - only 50 kilometers east of Hamburg - separated the city from most of its hinterland and further reduced Hamburg's global trade. On February 16, 1962 a severe storm caused the Elbe to rise to an all-time high, drowning one fifth of Hamburg and killing more than 300 people. After [[German reunification]] in 1990, and the accession of some Eastern European and Baltic States into the [[EU]] in 2004, [[Hamburg Harbour]] and Hamburg have ambitions for regaining their positions as the region's largest deep-sea port for container shipping and its major commercial and trading center. [http://www.wachsende-stadt.hamburg.de/int-grafikversion/ Hamburg 2020] == Sister Cities == * [[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px]] [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]], [[USA]], since [[1994]] * [[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|25px]] [[Dresden]], [[Germany]], since [[1987]] * [[Image:Flag of Nicaragua.svg|25px]] [[León, Nicaragua|León]], [[Nicaragua]], since [[1989]] * [[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Marseille]], [[France]], since [[1958]] * [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|25px]] [[Osaka|Ōsaka]], [[Japan]], since [[1989]] * [[Image:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|25px]] [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]], since [[1990]] * [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|25px]] [[Shanghai]], [[People's Republic of China]], since [[1986]] * [[Image:Flag of Russia.svg|25px]] [[St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]], since [[1957]] == Economy == [[image:Landungsbrücken, Hamburg.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Landungsbrücken (''&quot;the Jetties&quot;''), in [[St. Pauli]] district]] The most significant economic basis for Hamburg in the past centuries has been (and still is) its harbour (see: [[Hamburg Harbour]]), which ranks 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; in Europe and 9&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; worldwide with transshipments of 7 million standard container units ([[TEU]]) and 115 million tonnes of goods in 2004. International trade is also the reason for the large number of [[Consulate general|consulates]] in the city. Although situated several kilometers upwards the Elbe, due to its ability to handle sea ships it is considered a sea harbour. [[image:Hamburg Shomat.JPG|thumb|left||300px|Hamburg near the dock]] Other important industries are the aerospace company [[Airbus]], which has one of its two assembly plants located there, and media businesses, most notably three of Germany's largest publishing companies, Axel Springer Verlag [http://www.axelspringer.de/], Gruner + Jahr [http://www.guj.de/] and Heinrich Bauer Verlag [http://www.hbv.de/]. About half of Germany's national newspapers and magazines are produced in Hamburg. There are also a number of music companies (the largest being [[Warner Music]] Germany) and Internet businesses (e.g. [[AOL]] and [[Google]] Germany). Heavy industry includes a steel, an aluminium and Europe's largest copper plant [http://www.na-ag.com/], and a number of shipyards like Blohm + Voss [http://www.blohmvoss.de/]. Research [[DESY]] - ''D''eutsches ''E''lektronen ''SY''nchrotron, the German Electron Synchrotron ==Transport== Hamburg is connected by four [[Autobahn|Autobahnen]] (motorways) and is the most important railway junction on the route to Northern Europe. Hamburg's international airport is [[Hamburg Airport]], which is the oldest airport in Germany still in operation. Though large cities in Germany normally only have a one letter prefix (e.g. B for Berlin), Hamburg's vehicle [[Licence plates in Germany|licence plate]] prefix is &quot;HH&quot; (Hansestadt Hamburg, English: Hanseatic City Hamburg), which underlines Hamburg's historic roots and allows the city of [[Hannover]] to use the prefix &quot;H&quot;. Like in most larger German cities, the local public transport is organised by a ''Verkehrsverbund'', basically a joint venture of all public transport companies servicing the area. In and around Hamburg, it's the ''HVV'' ([[Hamburger Verkehrsverbund]]). Tickets sold by one HVV company are accepted by all other HVV companies. Nine light rail routes across the city are the backbone of Hamburg public transport. Three lines comprise the [[Hamburg U-Bahn|U-Bahn]] and six the [[Hamburg S-Bahn|S-Bahn]] system. U-Bahn, short for Untergrundbahn (underground, subway), is a standard German term for a municipally owned electric light rail system. The lesser part of the Hamburg U-Bahn operates through underground tunnels. Most of the U-Bahn tracks are on embankments or viaducts; older residents still speak of the system as the ''Hochbahn'' (&quot;elevated railway&quot;). A third light rail system, the AKN connects to satellite towns in Schleswig-Holstein state. Gaps in the light rail network are filled by bus routes, plied
popularity, and was for a time excluded from the court. When the [[Attorney-General]]ship fell vacant in [[1594]] and Bacon became a candidate for the office, Lord Essex's influence could not secure him the position; in fashion, Bacon failed to become solicitor in [[1595]]. To console him for these disappointments Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which he subsequently sold for £1800, equivalent to a much larger sum now. [[Image:StatueOfFrancisBacon.jpg|thumb|left|Memorial to Francis Bacon, in the chapel of [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]]] In [[1596]] he was made a Queen's Counsel, but missed the appointment of [[Master of the Rolls]]. During the next few years, his financial situation remained bad. His friends could find no public office for him, a scheme for retrieving his position by a marriage with the wealthy widow Lady [[Elizabeth Hatton]] failed, and in 1598 he was arrested for debt. His standing in the queen's eyes, however, was beginning to improve. She had begun to employ him in crown affairs a few years previously, and he gradually acquired the standing of one of the learned counsel, though he had no commission or warrant and received no salary. His relationship with the queen also improved when he severed ties with Essex, a fortunate move considering that the latter would be executed for treason in [[1601]]; and Bacon was one of those appointed to investigate the charges against him, and examine witnesses, in connection with which he showed an ungrateful and indecent eagerness in pressing the case against his former friend and benefactor. This act Bacon endeavoured to justify in ''A Declaration of the Practices and Treasons, etc., of ... the Earl of Essex,'' etc. He received a gift of a fine of £1200 on one of Essex's accomplices. The accession of [[James I of England|James I]] brought Bacon into greater favour; he was knighted in [[1603]], and endeavoured to set himself right with the new powers by writing his ''Apologie'' (defence) of his proceedings in the case of Essex, who had favoured the succession of James. In the course of the uneventful first parliament session Bacon married [[Alice Barnham]], the daughter of a well-connected [[London]] alderman. Little or nothing is known of their married life. In his last will he disinherited her. However, substantial evidence suggests that Bacon's emotional interests lay elsewhere. John Aubrey in his Brief Lives states that Bacon was &quot;a [[Pederasty|pederast]]&quot;. Bacon's fellow parliamentary member Sir Simonds D'Ewes in his Autobiography and Correspondence writes of Bacon: &quot;yet would he not relinquish the practice of his most horrible &amp; secret sinne of sodomie, keeping still one Godrick, a verie effeminate faced youth, to bee his catamite and bedfellow&quot;. Bacon's mother Lady Ann Bacon expressed clear exasperation with what she believed was her son's behaviour. In a letter to her other son Anthony, she complains of another of Francis's companions &quot;that bloody Percy&quot; whom, she writes, he kept &quot;yea as a coach companion and a bed companion&quot; (&quot;coach companion&quot; in Bacon's day carried louche connotations, as the interior of a traveling coach was one of the few places affording privacy). Bacon exhibited a strong penchant for young Welsh serving-men. One such person, Francis Edney, received the enormous sum of two hundred pounds in Bacon's will. {{ref|SexOr}} Meanwhile (in [[1608]]), he had entered upon the Clerkship of the [[Star Chamber]], and was in the enjoyment of a large income; but old debts and present extravagance kept him embarrassed, and he endeavoured to obtain further promotion and wealth by supporting the king in his arbitrary policy. However, Bacon's services were rewarded in June [[1607]] with the office of Solicitor. In [[1610]] the famous fourth parliament of James met. Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons found themselves frequently at odds over royal prerogatives and the king's embarrassing extravagance, and the House was dissolved in February 1611. Through this Bacon managed in frequent debate to uphold the prerogative, while retaining the confidence of the Commons. In 1613, Bacon was finally able to become attorney-general, by dint of advising the king to shuffle judicial appointments; and in this capacity he would prosecute Somerset in 1616. The parliament of April [[1614]] objected to Bacon's presence in the seat for [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]&amp;mdash;he was allowed to stay, but a law was passed that forbade the attorney-general to sit in parliament&amp;mdash;and to the various royal plans which Bacon had supported. His obvious influence over the king inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers. Bacon continued to receive the King's favor, and in 1618 was appointed by James to the position of [[Lord Chancellor]]. In his great office Bacon showed a failure of character in striking contrast with the majesty of his intellect. He was corrupt alike politically and judicially, and now the hour of retribution arrived. His public career ended in disgrace in 1621 when, after having fallen into debt, a Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with corruption under 23 counts; and so clear was the evidence that he made no attempt at defence. To the lords, who sent a committee to inquire whether the confession was really his, he replied, &quot;My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed.&quot; He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000, remitted by the king, to be committed to the Tower during the king's pleasure (which was that he should be released in a few days), and to be incapable of holding office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped being deprived of his titles. Thenceforth he devoted himself to study and writing. However, Nieves Mathews in her book, ''Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination'' (1996, Yale University Press) alleges that Bacon was completely innocent of the bribery charges and that writers from later times were themselves guilty of slandering Bacon's reputation. Bacon commenting on his impeachment as Chancellor in which he claims to have been forced to plead guilty to bribery charges in order to save King James from a political scandal stated: &lt;blockquote&gt; I was the justest judge, that was in England these last fifty years. When the book of all hearts is opened, I trust I shall not be found to have the troubled fountain of a corrupt heart. I know I have clean hands and a clean heart. I am as innocent of bribes as any born on St. Innocents Day. &lt;/blockquote&gt; ==Death== [[Image:20040912-001-francis-bacon.jpg|thumb|right|Monument to Bacon at his burial place, [[St Michael's church]] in [[St Albans]]]] The supposed cause of Bacon's death is notoriously comic. In March, [[1626]], he came to London, and shortly after, when driving on a snowy day, he was inspired by the possibility of using snow to preserve meat. Bacon purchased a chicken (fowl) to investigate this possibility, but, during the endeavour of stuffing it with snow, contracted a fatal case of [[pneumonia]]. He died at [[Highgate]] on [[9 April]], [[1626]], leaving assets of about £7,000 and debts to the amount of £22,000. ==Works and Philosophy== Bacon's works include his ''[[Essays]]'', as well as the ''Colours of Good and Evil'' and the ''Meditationes Sacrae'', all published in [[1597]]. His famous aphorism, &quot;[[knowledge is power]]&quot;, is found in the ''Meditations''. Bacon also wrote ''In felicem memoriam Elizabethae'', a eulogy for the queen written in 1609 and various philosophical works which constitute the fragmentary and incomplete ''Instauratio magna'', the most important part of which is the ''[[Novum Organum]]'' (published 1620). Bacon also wrote the &quot;Astrologia Sana&quot; and expressed his belief that stars had physical effects on the planet. Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but rather a method of developing philosophy; he wrote that, whilst philosophy at the time used the deductive syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to law. Before beginning this induction, the inquirer is to free his mind from certain false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. These are called &quot;Idols&quot; (idola), and are of four kinds: &quot;Idols of the Tribe&quot; ([[idolon tribus|idola tribus]]), which are common to the race; &quot;Idols of the Den&quot; ([[idolon specus|idola specus]]), which are peculiar to the individual; &quot;Idols of the Marketplace&quot; ([[idolon fori|idola fori]]), coming from the misuse of language; and &quot;Idols of the Theater&quot; ([[idolon theatri|idola theatri]]), which result from an abuse of authority. The end of induction is the discovery of forms, the ways in which natural phenomena occur, the causes from which they proceed. Bacon's developments of the inductive philosophy would revolutionize the future thought of the human race. Bacon's somewhat fragmentary ethical system, derived through use of his methods, is explicated in the seventh and eighth books of his ''De augmentis scientiarum'' (1623). He distinguishes between duty to the community, an ethical matter, and duty to God, a purely religious matter. Any moral action is the action of the human will, which is governed by reason and spurred on by the passions; habit is what aids men in directing their will toward the good. No universal rules can be made, as both situations and men's characters differ. Bacon distinctly separated religion and [[philosophy]], though the two can coexist. Where philosophy is based on reason, faith is based on revelation, and therefore irrational&amp;mdash;in ''De augmentis'' he writes that &quot;[t]he more discordant, therefore, and incredible, the divine mystery is, the more honor is shown to
and the Silverdome crowd. It became a rallying symbol for the remainder of the season. They won their first division title in eight years, and got their first (and to date, only) postseason victory since 1957, when they defeated the [[Dallas Cowboys]] 38-6 at the [[Pontiac Silverdome|Silverdome]]. They lost to the Redskins in the NFC championship game, 41-10 (the Lions have never beaten the Redskins in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] in twenty tries, going back to 1936). This was the first time a team that had been shut out in its opener had reached the conference title round, and would remain the only such occasion until both the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] and the [[New England Patriots]] did likewise in 2003 (with New England going on to win the [[Super Bowl]]). The team has had considerable difficulty remaining competitive in recent years, going the entire 2001, 2002 and 2003 seasons without a road victory, thus becoming the only team in NFL history not to win on the road for three consecutive entire seasons. The streak, encompassing 24 games (also an NFL record) came to an end on [[September 12]], [[2004]], when the Lions defeated the Bears 20-16 at [[Soldier Field]] in Chicago. After starting the 2004 season 4-2, the Lions finished with a 6-10 record after numerous injuries hobbled many of their key players. In the 2005 season, the Lions (whose home stadium, Ford Field, was the site of [[Super Bowl XL]]) won their first game against division rival Green Bay (17-3), but were humiliated by the Bears in the second game (38-6). The Lions then lost a close game to the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] after a seemingly game winning touchdown was reviewed and controversially reversed (17-13). However, the Lions went to 2-2 after a win against the [[Baltimore Ravens]] (35-17). After a last-second loss to the [[Carolina Panthers]] (21-20), [[Jeff Garcia]] was named the starting quarterback, and he led the Lions to a 13-10 win over Cleveland in Week 7. However the Lions went into week 8 and lost to the Bears once again. Garcia threw a heartbreaking interception in OT which the Bears' CB [[Charles Tillman]] returned for a TD (19-13). The next week, the Lions had high hopes as Joey Harrington was reinserted as the starter vs. the troubled Minnesota Vikings. However the Lions went down early and lost 27-14. The Lions did get a 29-21 win in week 10 against the [[Arizona Cardinals]]. However, losses to the [[Dallas Cowboys]], 20-7, and the [[Atlanta Falcons]] on Thanksgiving, 27-7, pushed their regular season record to 4-7. As a result, head coach [[Steve Mariucci]] was fired a few days later on [[November 28]], and [[Dick Jauron]] was named interim head coach. After the release of Mariucci, Cornerback [[Dre' Bly|Dré Bly]], placed the blame on Harrington, saying that &quot;he [Harrington] had been there for 4 years and had not done anything for the team.&quot; Bly later apologized for his statement. Things only got worse for the Lions. They lost their Week 13 home game to the [[Minnesota Vikings]] 27-7 amidst chants from Lions' fans of &quot;[[Matt Millen|Fire Millen]]&quot;, a reference to embattled Lions' GM [[Matt Millen]], and then dropped to 4-9 with a Week 14 road loss at [[Lambeau Field]] in overtime 16-13 to the [[Green Bay Packers]]. Even worse, they got man-handled at home on Week 15 by the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] (41-17). With this losing record, they missed the postseason, and were unable to play Super Bowl XL on their own home turf. Despite winning on the road against the [[New Orleans Saints]] 13-12 in the [[Alamodome]], the Lions ended their season 5-11, with a 35-21 loss against the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] at [[Heinz Field]]. They were 1-4 under interim head coach Dick Jauron, and missed the playoffs for the sixth consecutive season. On January 19, the Lions made their very first step in the 2006 offseason, as they hired [[Rod Marinelli]] as the teams new head coach. From the [[Tony Dungy]] &quot;coaching tree&quot;, Marinelli had previously served as the defensive line coach and had the title of assistant coach for the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]]. ===Season-by-season records=== {{Start NFL SBS}} |- | colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Portsmouth Spartans''' |- |1930 || 5 || 6 || 3 || 8th NFL || valign=&quot;middle&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''The NFL did not hold playoff games until 1932'' |- |1931 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL |- |1932 || 6 || 2 || 4 || 3rd NFL || &lt;sup&gt;#&lt;/sup&gt; |- |1933 || 6 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || -- |- | colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Detroit Lions''' |- |1934 || 10 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || -- |- |1935 || 7 || 3 || 2 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' |- |1936 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || -- |- |1937 || 7 || 4 || 0 || T-2nd NFL West || -- |- |1938 || 7 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || -- |- |1939 || 6 || 5 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || -- |- |1940 || 5 || 5 || 1 || 3rd NFL West || -- |- |1941 || 4 || 6 || 1 || 3rd NFL West || - |- |1942 || 0 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFL West || -- |- |1943 || 3 || 6 || 1|| 3rd NFL West || -- |- |1944 || 6 || 3 || 1 || T-2nd NFL West || -- |- |1945 || 7 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || -- |- |1946 || 1 || 10 || 0 || 5th NFL West || -- |- |1947 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL West || -- |- |1948 || 2 || 10 || 0 || 5th NFL West || -- |- |1949 || 4 || 8 || 0 || 4th NFL West || -- |- |1950 || 6 || 6 || 0 || 4th NFL NFC || -- |- |1951 || 7 || 4 || 1 || T-2nd NFL NFC || -- |- |1952 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL NFC || '''Won NFL Championship''' |- |1953 || 10 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFC West || '''Won NFL Championship''' |- |1954 || 9 || 2 || 1 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]]) |- |1955 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL West || -- |- |1956 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || -- |- |1957 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' |- |1958 || 4 || 7 || 1 || 5th NFL West || -- |- |1959 || 3 || 8 || 1 || 5th NFL West || -- |- |1960 || 7 || 5 || 0 || T-2nd NFL West || -- |- |1961 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || -- |- |1962 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || -- |- |1963 || 5 || 8 || 1 || T-4th NFL West || -- |- |1964 || 7 || 5 || 2 || 4th NFL West || -- |- |1965 || 6 || 7 || 1 || 6th NFL West || -- |- |1966 || 4 || 9 || 1 || T-6th NFL West || -- |- |1967 || 5 || 7 || 2 || 3rd NFL Central || -- |- |1968 || 4 || 8 || 2 || 4th NFL Central || -- |- |1969 || 9 || 4 || 1 || 2nd NFL Central || -- |- |1970 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1970-71|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]]) |- |1971 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 2nd NFC Central || -- |- |1972 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 2nd NFC Central || -- |- |1973 || 6 || 7 || 1 || 2nd NFC Central || -- |- |1974 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || -- |- |1975 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || -- |- |1976 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || -- |- |1977 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || -- |- |1978 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || -- |- |1979 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 5th NFC Central || -- |- |1980 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || -- |- |1981 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central|| -- |- |1982 || 4 || 5 || 0 || 8th NFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|First Round]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]]) |- |1983 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1983-84|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]]) |- |1984 || 4 || 11 || 1 || 4th NFC Central || -- |- |1985 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || -- |- |1986 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || -- |- |1987 || 4 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC Central || -- |- |1988 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || -- |- |1989 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || -- |- |1990 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || -- |- |1991 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1991-92|Conference Championship]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]]) |- |1992 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC Central || -- |- |1993 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1993-94|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]]) |- |1994 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1994-95|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]]) |- |1995 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]]) |- |1996 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC Central|| -- |- |1997 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1997-98|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Tampa Bay Buccaneers|Buccaneers]]) |- |1998 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || -- |- |1999 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1999-2000|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]]) |- |2000 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || -- |- |2001 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 5th NFC Central || -- |- |2002 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th NFC North || -- |- |2003 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC North || -- |- |2004 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC North || -- |- |2005 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd NFC North || -- |} &lt;small&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;#&lt;/nowiki&gt;=The result of the [[1932 NFL Playoff Game]] to determine the NFL champion between the [[Chicago Bears]] and the Portsmouth Spartans counted in the standings.&lt;/small&gt; ^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Portsmouth Spartans/Detroit Lions franchise is 485-541-32 (including playoffs). ==Players of note== ===Current roster=== {{Template:Detroit Lions roster}} ===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs=== [[Image:DetroitLions 100.png|right|framed|Lions logo (1970-2002). This version of the logo had white and blue outlines instead of the black one that is on the current logo.]] * 7 [[Dutch Clark]], QB (1963) * 35 [[Bill Dudley]], HB (1966) * 22 [[Bobby Layne]], QB (1967) * 50 [[Alex Wojciechowicz]], C, LB (1968) * 14 [[Jack Christiansen]], DB (1970) * 56 [[Joe Schmidt]], LB (1973) * 81 [[Dick Lane|Dick &quot;Night Train&quot; Lane]], DB (1974) * 28 [[Yale Lary]], DB, P (1979) * 37 [[Doak Walker]], HB (1986) * 20 [[Lem Barney]], DB (1992) * 76 [[Lou Creekmur]], G, T (1996) * 20 [[Barry Sanders]], R
iminated for two colours, and if this be impossible, then it must be eliminated for those particular wave-lengths which are most effectual for the instrument in question (a graphical representation of this error is given in M. von Rohr, ''Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs''). The condition for the reproduction of a surface element in the place of a sharply reproduced point -- the constant of the sine relationship must also be fulfilled with large apertures for several colours. E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying the sine condition for several colours, which therefore, according to his definition, were ''aplanatic for several colours''; such systems he termed ''[[apochromatic]]''. While, however, the magnification of the individual zones is the same, it is not the same for red as for blue; and there is a chromatic difference of magnification. This is produced in the same amount, but in the opposite sense, by the oculars, which Abbe used with these objectives (''compensating oculars''), so that it is eliminated in the image of the whole microscope. The best telescope objectives, and photographic objectives intended for three-colour work, are also apochromatic, even if they do not possess quite the same quality of correction as microscope objectives do. The chromatic differences of other errors of reproduction have seldom practical importances. --&lt;br /&gt; &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; The investigations of [[Ernst Abbe]] on geometrical optics, originally published only in his university lectures, were first compiled by S. Czapski in 1893. See below, Authorities. ==Authorities.== The classical treatise in English is H. D. Taylor, ''A System of Applied Optics'' (1906); reference may also be made to R. S. Heath, ''A Treatise on Geometrical Optics'' (2nd ed., 1895); and L A. Herman, ''A Treatise on Geometrical Optics'' (1900). The ideas of Abbe were first dealt with in S. Czapski, ''Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe'', published separately at Breslau in 1893, and as vol. ii. of Winkelmann's ''Handbuch der Physik'' in 1894; a second edition, by Czapski and O. Eppenstein, was published at Leipzig in 1903 with the title, ''Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe'', and in vol. ii. of the 2nd ed. of Winkelmann's ''Handbuch der Physik''. The collection of the scientific staff of [[Carl Zeiss]] at [[Jena]], edited by M. von Rohr, ''Die bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten vom Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik'' (Berlin, 1904), contains articles by A. Konig and M. von Rohr specially dealing with aberrations. (O. E.) ==References== {{1911}} [[Category:Optics]] [[ca:Aberració]] [[de:Abbildungsfehler]] [[eo:Aberacio (optiko)]] [[it:Aberrazione ottica]] [[nl:Sferische aberratie]] [[pl:Aberracja optyczna]] [[ru:Аберрации объектива]] [[vi:Quang sai]] [[tr:Sapınç]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amy Grant</title> <id>2705</id> <revision> <id>40972958</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T05:14:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tjlatwork</username> <id>983491</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Career */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amy Lee Grant''' (born [[November 25]], [[1960]] in [[Augusta, Georgia]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[singer]]-[[songwriter]] whose [[music]] has strong [[Christianity|Christian]] themes. She was initially most successful in the [[Contemporary Christian music]] genre, and is notable for being one of the first CCM artists to have successfully crossed over into the mainstream pop music market. She has won multiple [[Grammy Award|Grammy]] and [[Dove Award|Dove]] awards and was elected to the [[Gospel Music Hall of Fame]] in [[2003]]. To date she has 5 [[gold album|gold]] and 6 [[platinum album|platinum]] albums. ==Career== Signed to a record company at the age of sixteen, Grant's first, self-titled [[Amy Grant (album)|album]] (largely self-composed) in [[1977]], was a runaway success in terms of the Christian music market of the time. A graduate of [[Harpeth Hall School]] and then an [[English language|English]] major at [[Vanderbilt University]], Grant made a few more albums before dropping out of college to pursue a career in music. These albums included [[1979]]'s ''[[My Father's Eyes]]'' (the title track written by Grant's future first husband, singer-songwriter [[Gary Chapman]]) and ''[[Never Alone]]'' in [[1980]]. The year [[1982]] marked a turning point in both Grant's career and personal life. After marrying Chapman in June, her album ''[[Age to Age]]'' forced critics to sit up and take notice. The breakthrough album contained the now signature track, &quot;El Shaddai&quot; and the Grant-Chapman penned song, &quot;In A Little While.&quot; She was now a star. Grant received her first [[Grammy Award]] for Best Contemporary Gospel Performance, as well two [[Dove Awards]] for Gospel Artist of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Album of the Year. Grant followed up this album with the first of her Christmas albums - albums that later would be the basis for her trademark holiday shows. [[1984]] saw the release of another pop-oriented Christian hit, ''[[Straight Ahead (Amy Grant album)|Straight Ahead]],'' earning Grant her first appearance at the Grammy Awards show. Hardly had Grant established herself as the &quot;Queen of Christian Pop&quot;, however, when she changed directions to widen her fan base (and hence her musical message). Her goal was to become the first Christian singer-songwriter who was also successful as a contemporary pop singer, being successful in both genres. [[1985]]'s ''[[Unguarded]]'' shocked some fans for its very mainstream sound (and Grant's leopard-print jacket, in four poses for four different covers). &quot;Find a Way,&quot; from ''Unguarded'', became the first Christian song to hit [[The Billboard Hot 100|Billboard's Top 40]] list, also reaching #7 on the Adult Contemporary chart. Amy Grant scored her first Billboard Number One hit in 1986 with &quot;The Next Time I Fall&quot;, a breezy duet with former [[Chicago (band)|Chicago]] singer/bassist [[Peter Cetera]]. [[1988]]'s ''[[Lead Me On]]'', released after Grant had become a mother and undergone considerable strain in her [[marriage]], is considered her most mature album, both lyrically and musically. This album, too, contained many songs that were still about Christianity and love relationships, but some interpreted it as not being an obviously &quot;Christian&quot; record; though the album's title track is now considered a CCM classic. (Years later, ''Lead Me On'' would be chosen as the greatest Contemporary Christian album of all time by ''[[CCM Magazine]]''.)This song talks about intense sufferings among people through racism, and that the comfort they seek, as their lives are threatened, is in their relationships with God. The track &quot;1974&quot; is clearly about young people experiencing the salvation of Christ for the first time; as the lyrics state, &quot;Quite a change, somewhere we had crossed a big line, down upon our knees we had tasted Holy wine and nothing could sway us in a lifetime.&quot; The mainstream song, &quot;Saved by Love&quot;, was a minor hit, receiving airplay on radio stations featuring newly emerging [[Adult Contemporary]] format. It gives a message of great love for family, affected by her greatest love for Jesus. &quot;Faithless Heart&quot; is an honest, heartfelt song about resisting inner temptations of infidelity. &quot;What About The Love?&quot; talks about the absence of faith in certain worldly things and the importance of resisting judgment of others. Other songs included were engaging love songs, including &quot;If These Walls Could Speak&quot;, which, like &quot;Saved By Love&quot;, includes a message about love of family and children. This was a deeply introspective album that she dedicated to one of her children, so that they could understand her at that time in her life. The album's fiery title song received some Top 40 airplay (including on WCZY-FM in Detroit) and crossed over to #96 on the Billboard Hot 100, and &quot;1974 (We Were Young)&quot; and &quot;Saved By Love&quot; also charted AC. Nevertheless, when ''[[Heart in Motion]]'' was released three years later, many fans were shocked and outraged that the album was so clearly one of contemporary [[pop music]]. The track &quot;Baby Baby&quot; (written for Grant's newborn daughter, Millie, whose &quot;six week old face was my inspiration&quot;), however, became a massive hit (hitting number 1 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 pop chart), and Grant was established as a name in the mainstream music world. The music video also created outrage in the industry, for she danced and flirted with a model ([[Jme Stein]]), not her husband. When interviewed about it, she thought the song was more relatable to others when shown in a romantic light. &quot;Baby Baby&quot; received Grammy nominations for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Record and Song of the Year (although it failed to win in any of those categories). Four other hits from the album made the pop top 20: &quot;Every Heartbeat&quot; (#2), &quot;That's What Love Is For&quot; (#7), &quot;Good For Me&quot; (#8), and &quot;I Will Remember You&quot; (#20). On the AC chart, all five songs were top 10 hits with two of the five (&quot;Baby Baby&quot; and &quot;That's What Love Is For&quot;) making it all the way to #1. Many Christian fans remained loyal, though, as the album also topped the Billboard's Contemporary Christian Chart for 32 weeks. ''Heart in Motion'' is her best-selling album, having sold over 5 million copies. Tracks like &quot;Hope Set High&quot; and &quot;Ask Me&quot; (the tale of an abused child who, as a grown woman, comes to terms with her past through her faith in God) were songs with clear religious messages. [[image:amygrant2.jpg|
chm from Athens about 490 BC]] The [[5th century BC]] [[Athens|Athenian]] ''tetradrachm'' (&quot;four drachmae&quot;) [[coin]] was the most widely used coin in the Greek world prior to [[Alexander the Great]]. It featured the helmeted profile bust of [[Athena]] on the obverse (front) and an owl on the reverse (back). In daily use they were called {{polytonic|γλα&amp;#8166;και}} ''glaukai'' (owls), hence the phrase [[List of Greek phrases|{{polytonic|&amp;Gamma;&amp;lambda;&amp;alpha;&amp;#8166;&amp;kappa;’ &amp;#7944;&amp;theta;&amp;#8053;&amp;nu;&amp;alpha;&amp;zeta;&amp;epsilon;}}]] . The reverse is featured on the national side of the Greek 1 euro coin, see [[Greek euro coins]]. After [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests, the name ''Drachma'' was used in many of the [[Hellenistic]] kingdoms in the [[Middle East]], including the [[Ptolemaic]] kingdom in [[Alexandria]]. The [[Arabia|Arabic]] unit of currency known as ''[[dirham]]'' (in the [[Arabic language]], &amp;#1583;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1605;), known from pre-[[Islam]]ic times and afterwards, inherited its name from the drachma; the dirham is still the name of the official currencies of [[Moroccan Dirham|Morocco]] and the [[UAE Dirham|United Arab Emirates]]. The [[Armenia]]n [[Dram (currency)|dram]] also derives its name from the drachma. The drachma was also used in [[Ancient Rome]] in the [[3rd century BC]]. It is difficult to give even comparative values for money from before the [[20th century]], due to vastly differing products, but in the 5th century BC a drachma had an estimated value of 25 1990 dollars. Classical historians regularly say that in the late [[Roman Republic]] and early [[Roman Empire]], the daily wage for a laborer was one Drachma. == Modern Drachma == The drachma was reborn in 1832, soon after the establishment of the modern state of Greece. It replaced the ''[[Greek phoenix |phoenix]]'' at par. In 1868 Greece joined the [[Latin Monetary Union]] and the drachma became equal in weight and value to the [[French franc]]. During the [[Germany|German]] occupation of Greece (1941-1944), catastrophic [[hyperinflation]] and [[Nazi]] looting of the Greek treasury made the drachma practically worthless; in 1944, old drachmae were exchanged for new ones at the ratio of 50,000,000,000 to 1. The new currency was soon devaluated again; in 1953, in an effort to halt the slide, Greece joined the [[Bretton Woods system]]. In 1956 notes were again exchanged for new ones, at a ratio of 1,000 to 1; the new notes were pegged at 30 drachmae = 1 [[US dollar]]. &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpading=&quot;2&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;green&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''Drachma'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;black&quot;&gt;[[Image:1drachma1988front.jpg]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;black&quot;&gt;[[Image:1drachma1988back.jpg]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;1 drachma 1988&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; In 1973, the Bretton Woods System was abolished; over the next 25 years the official exchange rate gradually declined, reaching 400 GRD = 1 USD. Greece joined the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]], on [[1 January]] [[2001]], and exactly one year later, the drachma was officially replaced by the [[Euro]] at a rate of 340.75 drachmas to the Euro. The coins continued to be exchangeable into Euros until [[March 1]], [[2004]]. The banknotes will continue to be exchangeable until [[March 1]], [[2012]]. The [[ISO 4217]] code for the Drachma is GRD; The [[currency sign]] is &amp;#x20AF; ([[Unicode]] character code #x20AF - often typed as Δρ.). '''[[Coin]]s in circulation at the time of the adoption of the Euro [http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/Banknotes/coins.htm]''' *50 Lepta (.147 Eurocents)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; *1 Drachma (.293 Eurocents)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; *2 Drachmae (.587 Eurocents)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; *5 Drachmae (1.47 Eurocents) *10 Drachmae (2.93 Eurocents) *20 Drachmae (5.87 Eurocents) *50 Drachmae (14.67 Eurocents) *100 Drachmae (29.35 Eurocents) *500 Drachmae (1.47 Euros) &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Minted, but rarely used '''[[Banknote]]s in circulation at the time of the adoption of the Euro [http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/Banknotes/banknotes.htm]''' *100 drachmae (29.35 Eurocents) *200 drachmae (58.69 Eurocents) *500 drachmae (1.47 Euros) *1000 drachmae (2.93 Euros) *5000 drachmae (14.67 Euros) *10,000 drachmae (29.35 Euros) '''Historic currency divisions''' :6 ''obols'' = 1 ''drachma'' :100 ''drachmae'' = 1 ''[[minae|mina]]'' (or ''mna'') :60 ''minae'' = 1 ''[[Athenian Talent]]'' (Athenian standard) [[Minae]] and talents were never actually minted: they represented weight measures used for commodities (e.g. grain) as well as metals like silver or gold '''Modern currency divisions''' :100 ''[[Greek lepton|lepta]]'' = 1 ''drachma'' ==External links== *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/business/2001/euro_cash/spent_currencies/drachma.stm Overview of the modern Greek drachma from the BBC] * [http://www.fleur-de-coin.com/currency/greekcoinshistory.asp?sec=4 The Greek currency history ] Complete presentation of the Greek modern coins {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Greece|Greek]] currency|before=[[Greek phoenix]]|after=[[euro]]|years=[[1832]]-[[2002]]}} {{end box}} {{PreEuroCurrencies}} [[Category:Coins of Ancient Greece]] [[Category:Currencies replaced by the Euro]] [[bg:Драхма]] [[da:Drakme]] [[de:Drachme]] [[eo:Draĥmo]] [[el:Δραχμή]] [[es:Dracma]] [[fr:Drachme]] [[ko:드라크마]] [[it:Dracma]] [[mo:Драхмэ]] [[nl:Drachme]] [[no:Drakme]] [[nn:Drakme]] [[pl:Drachma (moneta)]] [[pt:Dracma]] [[ro:Drahmă]] [[tr:Drahmi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Denarius</title> <id>8349</id> <revision> <id>42098772</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:46:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.137.186.26</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:8denarii.jpg|thumb|400px|First row : c. [[157 BC]] [[Roman Republic]], c. [[73|AD 73]] [[Vespasian]], c. [[161]] [[Marcus Aurelius]], c. [[194]] [[Septimius Severus]]; &lt;br /&gt; Second row: c. [[199]] [[Caracalla]], c. [[200]] [[Julia Domna]], c. [[219]] [[Elagabalus]], c. [[236]] [[Maximinus Thrax]]]] The [[ancient Rome|Roman]] [[currency]] system included the '''denarius''' (plural: ''denarii''), a small [[silver coin]], as the most common coin in circulation. It is difficult to give even comparative values for money from before the [[20th century]], due to vastly different types of products, however, its purchasing power in terms of bread was estimated at [[United States dollar|US$]]20 dollars in the early empire. Classical historians regularly say that in the late [[Roman Republic]] and early [[Roman Empire]] the daily wage for an unskilled laborer was one denarius, about [[United States dollar|US$]]20, for comparison, today. The average [[United States|American]] laborer makes [[United States dollar|US$]]180 a day. The actual silver content of the Denarius was about 50 [[grains]], or 1/10 [[troy ounces]] under the Empire. The denarius was first struck in [[211 BC]] during the [[Roman Republic]], valued at 10 [[as (coin)|asses]], giving the denarius its name which translates to &quot;containing ten&quot;. In about [[141 BC]] it was re-tariffed at 16 asses, to reflect the decrease in size of the [[as (coin)|as]]. The denarius continued to be the main coin of the empire until it was replaced by the [[antoninianus]] in the middle of the [[3rd century]]. The fineness of the silver content varied with political and economic circumstances. Even after the denarius was no longer regularly issued, it continued to be used as an accounting device and the name was applied to later Roman coins in a way that is not understood. The lasting legacy of the denarius can be seen in the use of &quot;d&quot; as the abbreviation for the old French [[Denier (coin)|denier]] and the British [[penny]] prior to 1971. The denarius also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the ''[[dinar]]'' &amp;#1583;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;, used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arabic-speaking nations. The [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''dinero'' (money), and the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word ''dinheiro'', are also derived from Latin &quot;denarius&quot;.[http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltGUIBusUsual?LEMA=dinero] The gold ''[[aureus]]'' seems to have been a &quot;currency of account&quot;, a denomination not commonly seen in daily transactions due to its high value. Numismatists think that the aureus was used to pay bonuses to the legions at the accession of new emperors. It was valued at 25 denarii. 1 [[gold]] aureus = 2 gold quinarii = 25 silver denarii = 50 silver [[quinarius|quinarii]] =100 bronze sestertii = 200 bronze dupondii = 400 copper asses = 800 copper [[semis]]ses = 1600 copper [[quadrans]] ''See also:'' [[Roman currency]], [[sestertius]], [[dupondius]], [[as (coin)|as]], [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] and [[drachma]]. == External links == {{Commons|Denarius}} http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Denarius.html [[Category:Coins of Ancient Rome]] [[da:Denarius]] [[de:Denarius]] [[es:Denario]] [[fr:Denier (monnaie)]] [[it:Denario]] [[la:Denarius]] [[lt:Denaras]] [[nl:Denarius]] [[pl:Denar]] [[pt:Denário]] [[simple:Denarius]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Della Rovere</title> <id>8350</id> <revision> <id>35661113</id> <timestamp>2006-01-18T10:40:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dbachmann</username> <id>86857</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Liguria]]n '''della
> </page> <page> <title>Honorius (emperor)</title> <id>11023</id> <revision> <id>40462419</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:06:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Panairjdde</username> <id>2400</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Trivia */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Honorius_coin1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Bronze coin bearing the profile of Honorius]] '''Flavius Honorius''' ([[September 9]], [[384]]&amp;ndash;[[August 15]], [[423]]) was [[List of Roman Emperors|Emperor]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]] from [[395]] until his death. He was the younger son of [[Theodosius I]] and his first wife [[Aelia Flaccilla]], and brother of the [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Eastern emperor]] [[Arcadius]]. Honorius was declared [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]] in [[393]] by his father and became western emperor at the age of 10, following his father's death in January 395. For the first part of his reign he depended on the military leadership of the [[Vandal]] general [[Stilicho]]. To strengthen his bonds to the young emperor, Stilicho married his daughter Maria to him. At first Honorius based his capital in [[Milan]], but when the [[Visigoths]] entered Italy in [[402]] he moved his capital to the coastal city of [[Ravenna]], which was protected by a ring of marshes and strong fortifications. While the new capital was easier to defend, it was poorly situated to allow Roman forces to protect central Italy from the barbarian incursions. The most notable event of his reign was the assault and sack of [[Rome]] on [[August 24]], [[410]] by the Visigoths under [[Alaric I|Alaric]]. The city had been under Visigothic siege since shortly after Stilicho's deposition and execution in the summer of 408. Lacking a strong general to control the by-now mostly barbarian Roman Army, Honorius could do little to attack Alaric's forces directly, and apparently adopted the only strategy he could do in the situation: wait passively to Visigoths to grow weary and spend the time marshalling what forces he could. Unfortunately, this course of action appeared to be the product of Honorius' indecisive character and he suffered much criticism for it both from contemporaries and later historians. Whether this plan could have worked is perhaps debatable, especially since he deprived himself of several skillful officers by only promoting Catholics to the top military positions. In any case it was overtaken by events. Stricken by starvation, somebody opened Rome's defenses to Alaric and the Goths poured in. The city not been under the control of a foreign force since an invasion of Gallic [[Celts]] some seven centuries before. The victorious Visigoths did untold damage to the city and the shock of this event reverberated from Britain to Jerusalem, and inspired [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] to write his magnum opus, ''[[The City of God]]''. The year 410 also saw Honorius reply to a British plea for assistance against local barbarian incursions. Preoccupied with the Visigoths and lacking any real capabilities to assist the distant province, Honorius told the [[Britons]] to defend themselves as best they could. There is a story (which [[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon]] disbelieved) that when he heard the news that Rome had &quot;perished&quot;, Honorius was initially shocked; thinking the news was in reference to a favorite chicken he had named &quot;Roma&quot;, he recalled in disbelief that the bird was just recently feeding out of his hand. It was then explained to him that the Rome in question was the city. His reign of twenty-eight years was one of the most disastrous in the Roman annals. Honorius' supposed weakness and timidity in the face of internal dissension and the attacks of the Visigoths and Vandals is often said to have contributed to the rapid disintegration of the western half of the empire. ==Trivia== Honorius and the attack of the Visigoths are both mentioned by Captain Jean-Luc Picard in the ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' episode ''The Best of Both Worlds (TNG episode)'' in the quote: &quot;I wonder if Honorius, watching the Visigoths coming over the [[Seventh Hill|Seven Hills of Rome]], truly realized that the [[Roman Empire]] was about to fall?&quot; ==See also== * Usurpers during Honorius reign: ** [[Priscus Attalus]] in Rome (two times); ** [[Maximus of Spain|Maximus]] in Spain; ** [[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine &quot;III&quot;]] and [[Constans, son of Constantine|Constans]] in Gaul and Britain; ** [[Jovinus]] and [[Sebastianus]]. * Succession to Honorius: ** [[Joannes]] and [[Valentinian III]]. == External links == {{Commons|Flavius Augustus Honorius}} {{Western Roman Emperor | Prev=[[Theodosius I]]| CoEmperor=with [[Constantius III]] (421)| Next=[[Valentinian III]]}} [[Category:384 births|Honorius, Roman emperor]] [[Category:423 deaths|Honorius, Roman emperor]] [[Category:Roman emperors|Honorius]] [[Category:House of Theodosius]] [[de:Honorius (Kaiser)]] [[fr:Flavius Honorius]] [[it:Flavio Onorio]] [[he:פלביוס אוגוסטוס הונוריוס]] [[nl:Flavius Augustus Honorius]] [[ja:ホノリウス]] [[no:Honorius]] [[pl:Flavius Honorius]] [[pt:Flávio Augusto Honório]] [[ru:Гонорий (римский император)]] [[sv:Honorius]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Formant</title> <id>11024</id> <revision> <id>40586914</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:22:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>IstvanWolf</username> <id>496966</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''formant''' is a peak in an acoustic [[frequency spectrum]] which results from the [[resonance|resonant]] frequencies of any acoustical system. It is most commonly invoked in [[phonetics]] or [[acoustics]] involving the resonant frequencies of [[vocal tract]]s or [[musical instrument]]s. However, it is equally valid to talk about the formant frequencies of the air in a room, as exploited, for example, by [[Alvin Lucier]] in his piece ''[[I am sitting in a room]]''. [[Image:Spectrogram -iua-.png|thumb|spectrogram of American English vowels [i, u, ɑ] showing the formants F1 and F2]] Formants are the distinguishing or meaningful frequency components of human [[speech]] and of [[singing]]. By definition, the information that humans require to distinguish between [[vowel|vowels]] can be representated purely quantitatively by the frequency content of the vowel sounds. Formants are the characteristic [[partial]]s that identify vowels to the listener. Most of these formants are produced by tube and chamber [[resonance]], but a few whistle tones derive from periodic collapse of [[Venturi effect]] low-pressure zones. The formant with the lowest frequency is called ''f''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, the second ''f''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and the third ''f''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. Most often the two first formants, ''f''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''f''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, are enough to disambiguate the vowel. These two formants are primarily determined by the position of the tongue. f&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; has a higher frequency when the tongue is lowered, and f&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; has a higher frequency when the tongue is forward. Generally, formants move about in a range of approximately 1000 Hz for a male adult, with 1000 Hz per formant. Vowels will almost always have four or more distinguishable formants; sometimes there are more than six. Not all sounds used in human language are composed of formants. Formants are restricted to [[sonorant]]s, a subset of [[pulmonic]] sounds including [[vowels]], [[approximants]], and [[nasal consonants|nasals]]. Nasals usually have a formant around 2500 Hz in addition to two lower formants (and, where applicable, voicing). The liquid [l] usually has a formant at 1500 Hz, while the [[english language|English]] &quot;r&quot; sound ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[&amp;#633;]}}) is distinguished by virtue of the third formant, which dips below 2000 Hz. [[Plosives]] (and, to some degree, fricatives) modify the placement of formants on the surrounding vowels. The distinguishing formant drop for [&amp;#633;] is characteristic of [[retroflex consonant|retroflexes]], for instance. [[Bilabial]] sounds (such as 'b' and 'p' as in &quot;ball&quot; or &quot;sap&quot;) sometimes feature a dip in the first two formants. [[Velar]] sounds ('k' and 'g' in English) almost always show F2 and F3 coming together before the velar and separating from a point once the velar sound is completed. [[Alveolar]] and [[dental]] sounds (English 't' and 'd') show little change from the ordinary formant positions. Note that fricatives always lack formant structure and are distinguished by the frequency range with the most noise, as well as overall strength of frication. If the fundamental frequency of the underlying vibration is higher than the formant frequency of the system, then the character of the sound imparted by the formant frequencies will be mostly lost. This is most apparent in the example of [[soprano]] [[opera]] singers, who sing high enough that their vowels become very hard to distinguish. Control of formants is an essential component of the vocal technique known as [[Overtone singing]], in which the performer sings a low fundamental tone, and creates sharp resonances to select upper [[harmonics]], giving the impression of several tones being sung at once. [[Spectrogram]]s are used to visualise formants.&lt;br&gt; {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; |- ! colspan=&quot;3&quot;| '''Vowel formant region''' |- ! Vowel ! Formant f&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ! Formant f&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; |- | U || 320 Hz || 800 Hz |- | O || 500 Hz || 1000 Hz |- | å || 700 Hz || 1150 Hz |- | A || 1000 Hz || 1400 Hz |- | o umlaut || 500 Hz || 1500 Hz |- | u umlaut || 700 Hz || 1650 Hz |- | a umlaut || 700 Hz || 1800 Hz
was unraveling]], President Bush and Soviet President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] declared a U.S.-Soviet strategic partnership at the summit of July 1991, decisively marking the end of the Cold War. President Bush declared that U.S.-Soviet cooperation during the Persian Gulf War in 1990-1991 had laid the groundwork for a partnership in resolving bilateral and world problems. * [[Malta Summit]] &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/24/documents/malta/ Transcripts from Malta Summit] - [[CNN]]&lt;/ref&gt; * Arms control: [[START I]], [[Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction]] {{sectstub}} {{seealso|Collapse of the Soviet Union|Brent Scowcroft|New World Order (political)|A World Transformed|History of the United States (1988-present)#The end of the Cold War}} === NAFTA (1992) === [[Image:Nafta.jpg|thumb|275px|NAFTA Initialing Ceremony, October 1992. From left to right: (standing) President [[Carlos Salinas]], President Bush, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]]; (seated) [[Jaime Serra Puche]], [[Carla Hills]], [[Michael Wilson]].]] Bush's government, along with the [[Progressive Conservative Party|Conservative]] [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Brian Mulroney]], spearheaded the negotiations of the [[NAFTA|North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), which Bill Clinton signed in 1993. {{sectstub}} [[Image:Ghwbush.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The official White House portrait of President George H.W. Bush]] === Pardons (December 1992)=== Bush's last controversial act in office was his pardon of six former government employees implicated in the [[Iran-Contra]] scandal on [[December 24]], [[1992]], most prominently former Secretary of Defense [[Caspar Weinberger]]. Weinberger had been scheduled to stand trial on [[January 5]], [[1993]] for allegedly lying to Congress regarding his knowledge of arms sales to [[Iran]] and concealing 1700 pages of his personal diary detailing discussions with other officials about the arms sales. As Weinberger's private notes contained references to Bush's endorsement of the secret shipments to Iran, some believe that Bush's pardon was an effort to prevent an order for Bush to appear before a [[grand jury]] or possibly to avoid an indictment. Weinberger's indictment stated that Weinberger's notes contradicted Bush's assertions that he had only peripheral knowledge of the arms for hostages deal. Lawrence Walsh, the [[United States Office of the Independent Counsel|Independent Counsel]] assigned to the case, charged that &quot;the Iran-contra cover-up, which has continued for more than six years, has now been completed.&quot; Walsh likened the pardons to President Nixon's [[Saturday Night Massacre]]. Bush responded that the Walsh probe constituted an attempt to criminalize a policy dispute between the legislative and executive branches. In addition to Weinberger, Bush pardoned [[Duane R. Clarridge]], [[Clair E. George]], [[Robert C. McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], and [[Alan G. Fiers Jr.]], all of whom had been indicted and/or convicted of charges by the Independent Counsel. &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; === Administration and Cabinet === {| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM''' |- !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''George H. W. Bush'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Dan Quayle|J. Danforth Quayle]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993 |- !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James Baker|James A. Baker III]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1992 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lawrence Eagleburger]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1992&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Nicholas F. Brady]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Dick Cheney|Richard B. Cheney]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Dick Thornburgh|Richard L. Thornburgh]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1991 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William Barr|William P. Barr]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1991&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Manuel Lujan, Jr.]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert Mosbacher|Robert A. Mosbacher]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1992 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Barbara Hackman Franklin]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1992&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Elizabeth Dole|Elizabeth Hanford Dole]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1991 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lynn Martin]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1991&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Clayton K. Yeutter]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1991 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Edward Madigan]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1991&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services|HHS]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Louis Wade Sullivan|Louis W. Sullivan]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Education|Education]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lauro Cavazos]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1990 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lamar Alexander]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1991&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Jack Kemp|Jack F. Kemp]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Transportation|Transportation]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Samuel K. Skinner]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1992 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Andrew Card|Andrew H. Card]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1992&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Energy|Energy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James D. Watkins]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs|Veterans Affairs]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Ed Derwinski|Edward J. Derwinski]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993 |} &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; === Supreme Court appointments === Bush appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]: * [[David Souter]] &amp;ndash; 1990 * [[Clarence Thomas]] &amp;ndash; 1991, making Bush the first Republican president to appoint an African American Supreme Court justice. == 1992 re-election campaign == [[Image:FordNixonBushReagenCarter.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Presidents [[Gerald Ford]], [[Richard Nixon]], George H. W. Bush, [[Ronald Reagan]], and [[Jimmy Carter]] at the dedication of the Reagan Presidential Library.]] The tail end of the [[late 1980s recession]], that had dogged most of Bush's term in office, was a contributing factor to his defeat in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 Presidential election]]. Several other factors were key in his defeat, including siding with Congressional [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] in 1990 to raise taxes despite his famous &quot;[[Read my lips: No new taxes]]&quot; pledge not to institute any new taxes. In doing so, Bush alienated many members of his conservative base, losing their support for his re-election. Another major factor, which may have helped [[Bill Clinton]] defeat Bush in the 1992 election, was the candidacy of [[Ross Perot]]. Ross Perot ran a maverick independent campaign, focusing on the budget deficit as a primary issue. Many conservatives, disillusioned by the tax increase and continued increases in federal spending, supported him. Perot won 19% of the popular vote, and Clinton, still a largely unknown quantity in American politics, won the election with a plurality. {{sectstub}} Despite his defeat, George H.W. Bush left office in 1993 with a 56 percent job approval rating. &lt;ref&gt;[http://abcnews.go.com/sections/politics/DailyNews/poll%5Fclintonlegacy010117.html Poll: Clinton Legacy Mixed] - Gary Langer, [[ABC News]], [[January 17]], [[2001]]&lt;/ref&gt; ==Post-presidency== [[Image:Pres38-42.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Five [[President_of_the_United_States#Former_Presidents|presidents]] and [[First Lady of the United States|first ladies]] attended the funeral of [[Richard Nixon]] on [[April 27]], [[1994]], in Nixon's hometown of [[Yorba Linda, California|Yorba Linda]], [[California]]. From left: [[Bill Clinton|Bill]] and [[Hillary Clinton]], [[George H. W. Bush|George H.W.]] and [[Barbara Bush]], [[Ronald Reagan|Ronald]] and [[Nancy Reagan]], [[Jimmy Carter|Jimmy]] and [[Rosalynn Carter]], [[Gerald Ford|Gerald]] and [[Betty Ford]].]] [[I
nity (Aeon)|Trinity]] and the successor to [[Adventure! (role-playing game)|Adventure!]]. Trinity details the future history of the novas, over a 60-year span of time. ==Factions== The metaplot revolves around the interactions between various factions, most of which employ Nova agents. Among the most important are: *Project Utopia, an organisation with altruistic ideals that promotes cooperation between Novas and humans to build a more perfect world. Utopia has [[United Nations|UN]] sanction to deal with novas. It is also linked to the Aeon Trinity organisation, which rises to greater prominence in ''Trinity'' and whose roots are detailed in ''Adventure!'' *The Teragen, a diverse group of Novas who claim biological superiority to humans. *The Aberrants, a group of Novas concerned about evidence of corruption within Project Utopia. While a small faction, they are nevertheless taken very seriously by Project Utopia. *The Directive, an intelligence organisation controlled by the governments of [[Russia]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Japan]] and the [[United States of America|United States]]. Various smaller groups exist, most of which are focused on more specific goals. Players' characters generally belong to one of the above factions, work for a specific corporation, or hire themselves out for odd jobs, often as mercenaries or troubleshooters. ==System== Aberrant uses a modified version of the [[Storyteller System]]. A character adds his attribute to his skill (or power as the case may be) and rolls that many 10 sided dice. Any dice that comes up as a 7 or higher counts as 1 success. Accomplishing different tasks require different numbers of successes to accomplish. Flying a plane may only require 1 success, but flying a 747 with a near fatal wound, all the rest of the crew dead, and no hydraulic pressure could require 5 or more successes. The first major difference with Aberrant is that in addition to normal attributes such as Dexterity, Manipulation and Wits, novas have what are called ''Mega attributes''. Scores in such attributes are added as dice every time a character makes a roll using the linked mundane attribute, but Mega-Attributes are much more powerful. Every success rolled using mega attribute dice count as 2 normal successes, and rolling a 10 counts as 3 successes. Powers are treated almost exactly like skills except that they come in different levels of power. Level 1 powers are comparatively weak, while level 6 powers can do nearly anything (a famous level 6 power is 'Universe Creation'). Lower level powers are cheaper to purchase with experience, while higher level powers cost more. There are a wide range of powers from controlling any single element (fire, gravity, entropy, quantum, magnetism, etc...), to flying, to mental domination, to imperviousness, to time travel and teleportation. ==External links== *[http://www.white-wolf.com White Wolf Online] [[Category:Science fiction role-playing games]] [[Category:Superhero role-playing games]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aleksandr Vladimirovich Rutskoy</title> <id>3195</id> <revision> <id>40761112</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:19:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fisenko</username> <id>247056</id> </contributor> <comment>page moved</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aleksandr Rutskoy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aleksandr Rutskoy</title> <id>3196</id> <revision> <id>40762739</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:32:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fisenko</username> <id>247056</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Biography */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|July 2005}} [[Image:Rutskoi.jpg|frame|Aleksandr Rutskoy in his Kursk office in [[2003]]]] '''Aleksandr Vladimirovich Rutskoy''' (Russian: ''Александр Владимирович Руцкой'') ([[September 16]], [[1945]]-) is a [[Russia|Russian]] politician and a former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] military officer. Rutskoy was Vice-President of Russian Federation (1991-1993), and on September 22, 1993 he took an oath of the President. He was born in [[Kursk]], [[Russia]]. == Biography == Rutskoy was a Soviet air force colonel during the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]], where he was injured. He was shot down by a F-16 of the [[Pakistan Air Force]] on August 4, 1988 by Sqn. Ldr. Bukhari while he was flying a Su-25 aircraft at night when he had entered Pakistan's aerospace. [http://www.geocities.com/Baja/Dunes/1107/heroes.htm]. As a soldier and a populist, he was chosen by [[Boris Yeltsin]] to be his vice presidential running mate in the 1991 Russian presidential election. Rutskoy was the [[Vice President of Russia]] from [[July 10]], [[1991]] to [[September 1]], [[1993]], when he was sacked by president [[Boris Yeltsin]] on corruption charges. The real issue, however, was that Rutskoy sided with the parliament during the [[Russian constitutional crisis of 1993]], which was triggered when Yeltsin tried to dissolve the parliament on [[September 21]], the parliament responded by declaring Yeltsin's presidency unconstitutional and appointing Rutskoy acting president. On September 21, 1993, after the decree of president [[Boris Yeltsin]] that illegally dissolved the [[Supreme Soviet]], Rutskoy assumed the position of president in accordance with Article 121-6 of the Constitution: :'''Article 121-6.''' ''Authority of the President of Russian Federation cannot be used to change national and state organization of Russian Federation, dissolution or halting activity of any elected organs of state power.'' On that day, Rutskoy said: &quot;I am taking the authority of President. Anticonstitutional decree of President Yeltsin is annulated.&quot; On September 22, during the night time, he took the presidential oath. On October 4, the Parliament building was taken by Yeltsin's military forces. Rutskoy and his supporters were arrested. They were charged with organization of mass disturbances. On February 26, 1994 Rutskoy was released from prison by the Decision of State Duma. Rutskoy's interim presidency, although constitutional, was never acknowledged outside Russia. Shortly after his release, Rutskoy founded a one-man political party, [[Derzhava]] ('The Great Power' in Russian, see [http://www.nupi.no/cgi-win/Russland/polgrupp.exe?Derzhava]), nationalist/communist in its ideology, and contested for presidency in 1996 as well as in the [[State Duma]] election of [[1995]], but didn't manage to pass the 5% threshold. He was elected, however, governor of [[Kursk Oblast]] in [[1996]]. Rutskoy was a central figure in the aggravation of the [[Transnistria]] military conflict. His [[1992]] visit in [[Tiraspol]] delivered the clear message of the Russian sustain, including military support, for the Russian population of the Moldavian breakaway entity. He was banned from running in [[2000]] [[Kursk]]'s governor elections on a technicality for failing to register his car. [[Category:1945 births|Rutskoy, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Living people|Rutskoy, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Russian politicians|Rutskoy, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Presidents of the Russian Federation|Rutskoy, Aleksandr]] [[de:Alexander Wladimirowitsch Ruzkoi]] [[fr:Alexandre Routskoï]] [[id:Aleksandr Vladimirovich Rutskoy]] [[ja:アレクサンドル・ルツコイ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A E Housman</title> <id>3197</id> <revision> <id>38853234</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T01:35:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nae'blis</username> <id>388895</id> </contributor> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A. E. Housman]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A. E. Housman</title> <id>3198</id> <revision> <id>41905354</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:43:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DanielCD</username> <id>81016</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.177.132.131|24.177.132.131]] ([[User talk:24.177.132.131|talk]]) to last version by DanielCD</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfred Edward Housman''' ([[March 26]], [[1859]] – [[April 30]], [[1936]]), usually known as A.E. Housman, was an [[England|English]] [[poet]] and [[classics|classical scholar]], now best known for his cycle of poems ''[[A Shropshire Lad]]''. [[Image:housman.jpg|right|portrait photo]] == Life == Housman was born in [[Fockbury]], [[Worcestershire]], the eldest of seven children of a country solicitor. His brother [[Laurence Housman]] and sister [[Clemence Housman]] also became writers. Housman was educated first in [[King Edward's School]], then in [[Bromsgrove School]] where he acquired a strong academic grounding and won prizes for his poetry. In 1877 he won an open scholarship to [[St John's College, Oxford]], where he studied classics. He was a brilliant student, gaining first class honours in classical moderations, but a withdrawn person whose only friends were his roommates Moses Jackson and [[A. W. Pollard]]. Housman fell in love with the handsome, athletic Jackson who, being heterosexual, rejected him, though the two remained friends. This experience, reflected in some of his poems, may be an explanation of Housman's unexpected failure in his final exams (the &quot;Greats&quot;) in 1881. Housman took this failure very seriously but managed to take a pass degree the next year, after a brief period of teaching in [[Bromsgrove School]]. After graduating, Jackson got a job as a [[Patent clerk|clerk]] in the [[Patent Office]] in [[London]] and arranged a job there for Housman as well. They shared an apartment with Jackson's brother Adalbert until 1885 when Housman moved in to lodgings of his own. Moses Jackson married
for him. Later in life he seemed attracted to women named Sophie. He went to live with his uncle, Friederich Schliemann, perhaps because of an educational opportunity. He enrolled in the [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] at [[Neustrelitz]] at age 11. His attendance was paid for by his father. He was at the Gymnasium for at least a year. Later he claimed that, as a boy, his interest in history was encouraged by his father, who, he said, had schooled him in the tales of The [[Iliad]] and The [[Odyssey]] and had given him a copy of Ludwig Jerrer's ''Illustrated History of the World'' for Christmas, 1829. Schliemann also later claimed that at the age of eight he declared he would one day excavate the city of [[Troy]]. It is unknown whether his childhood interest in and connection with the classics continued during his time at the Gymnasium, but it is likely that he would have been further exposed to Homer. It may be that he had just enough of a classical education to endow him with a yearning for it when it was snatched from him; he was transferred to the vocational school, or [[Realschule]], after his father was accused of embezzling church funds, and had to quit the vocational school in 1836, when his father had no funds to pay for it. According to his diary, his interest in ancient Greece was conceived when he overheard drunken university student citing the [[Odyssey]] of Homer in classical Greek and so Heinrich was taken by the language's beauty. However, the accuracy of that information remains questionable, as do many details in his diary, given his lack of providing the whole truth as he did by forging documents to divorce his wife and lied, later on, in his papers to obtain US citizenship. This established the fundamental character of his later life. He wanted to return to the educated life, to reacquire all the things of which he was deprived in childhood. In his archaeological career, there was always a dichotomy between the educated professionals and Schliemann. Heinrich developed a certain tendency to pose as something he was not. Moreover, the experiences of his father gave him a sympathy to means that were not always legal or aboveboard. After leaving Realschule, Heinrich became a grocer's apprentice at age fourteen, for Herr Holtz's grocery in Furstenburg. He labored in the grocery for five years, reading voraciously whenever he had a spare moment. In 1841 Schliemann fled to [[Hamburg]] and became a cabin boy on the '''Dorothea''', a steamer bound for [[Venezuela]]. After twelve days at sea the ship foundered in a gale, and the survivors washed up on the shores of [[Holland]]. ==Career as a businessman== After his shipwreck, Schliemann seems to have undergone a brief period of being footloose in [[Amsterdam]] and Hamburg, at age 19. This circumstance came to an end with his employment, in 1842, at the commodities firm of F. C. Quien and Son. (Some say this was in Amsterdam; others say [[Prussia]].) He became a messenger, office attendant and then book-keeper there. As messenger, he would stamp bills of exchange and cash them. On March 1, 1844, he changed jobs, going to work for B. H. Shröder &amp; Co., an import/export firm. There he evidenced such judgement and talent for the work that they sent him as a general agent in 1846 to [[St. Petersburg]], where the markets were favorable. He represented a number of companies. He prospered there, but how well is not known. In view of his later experiences with his first wife, he probably did not become rich at that time. He did learn Russian and Greek, employing a system that he used his entire life to learn languages -- Schliemann wrote his diary in the language of whatever country he happened to be in. Schliemann had a gift for languages and by the end of his life he was conversant in [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] as well as his native [[German language|German]]. Schliemann's ability with languages was an important part of his career as a businessman in the importing trade. How well he actually knew those languages is another question, but he seemed reasonably at home in many nations. In 1850 Heinrich learned of the death of his brother, Ludwig, who had become wealthy as a speculator in the California gold fields. Taking the cue, Schliemann went to California in early 1851 and started a bank in [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]. The bank bought and resold over a million dollars in gold dust in just six months. The prospectors could mine or pan for the gold, but they had no way to sell it except to middle men such as Schliemann, who made quick fortunes on it. Later Heinrich claimed to have acquired [[United States]] citizenship when California was made a state. According to his memoirs, before arriving in California he had dined in Washington with President [[Millard Filmore]] and family. He also published an account of the San Francisco fire of 1851. He wasn't in the United States long. On [[April 7]], [[1852]], he sold his business rather suddenly (due to fever, he said) and returned to Russia. There he attempted to live the life of a gentleman, which brought him into contact with Ekaterina Lyschin, the niece of one of his wealthy friends. Previously he had learned that his childhood sweetheart, Minna, had married. He was now 30. Heinrich and Ekaterina were married on [[October 12]], [[1852]]. The marriage was troubled from the start. Ekaterina wanted him to be richer than he was and witheld conjugal rights until he made a move in that direction, which he did. The canny Schliemann cornered the market in indigo and then went into the indigo business, turning a good round profit. This move won him Ekaterina's intimacy and they had a son, Sergey. Two other children followed. Having a family to support moved Schliemann to tend to business even though he still had his first fortune. He found a way to make yet another quick fortune as a military contractor in the [[Crimean War]], 1854-1856. He cornered the market in saltpeter, brimstone and lead, constituents of ammunition, which he resold to the Russian government. By 1858, Schliemann was as wealthy as ever a man could wish. The poor minister's son had overcome poverty in his own life. He refused to haunt the halls of trade and speculation. He was not a professional businessman, and was no longer interested in speculation. Some say he retired at 36, which would have been in 1858; others say 1863, at age 41. In his memoirs he claimed that he wished to dedicate himself to the pursuit of Troy, but this claim, along with many others, is unlikely to be true. ==Life as a classical archaeologist== [[Image:Sophia_schliemann_treasure.jpg|left|thumb|Sophia Schliemann (née Engastromenos) wearing treasures recovered at Hisarlik.]] It is not certain by what path Schliemann really did arrive at either archaeology or Troy. He travelled a great deal, seeking out ways to link his name to famous cultural and historical icons. One of his most famous exploits was disguising himself as a [[Bedouin]] tribesman to gain access to forbidden areas of [[Mecca]]. His first interest of a classical nature seems to have been the location of Troy. The city's very existence was then in dispute. Perhaps his attention was attracted by the first excavations at [[Santorini]] in 1862 by [[Ferdinand Fouqué]]. This possibility argues for an early retirement date, as he was already an international traveller by then. On the other hand, he may have been inspired by [[Frank Calvert]], whom he met on his first visit to the Hisarlik site in 1868. Somewhere in his many travels and adventures he lost Ekaterina. She was not interested in adventure and had remained in Russia. Schliemann claimed to have utilised the divorce laws of Indiana in 1850, after becoming a citizen, in order to divorce Ekaterina in absentia. This story established more of a distance between his first and second wives. Based on the work of a British [[archaeologist]], [[Frank Calvert]], who had been excavating the site in Turkey for over 20 years, Schliemann decided that [[Hissarlik]] was the site of Troy. In 1868 - a busy year for Schliemann - he visited sites in the Greek world, published ''Ithaka, der Peloponnes und Troja'' in which he advocated for Hissarlik as the site of Troy, and submitted a dissertation in ancient Greek proposing the same thesis to the University of [[Rostock]]. He later claimed to have received a degree from Rostock by that submission. In 1868, regardless of his previous interests and adventures, or the paths by which he arrived at that year, Schliemann's course was set. He would take over Calvert's excavations on the eastern half of the Hissarlik site, which was on Calvert's property. The Turkish government owned the western half. Calvert became Schliemann's collaborator and partner. Schliemann brought dedication, enthusiasm, conviction and a not inconsiderable fortune to the work. Excavations cannot be made without funds, and are vain without publication of the results. Schliemann was able to provide both. Consequently, he dominated the field of Mycenaean archaeology in his lifetime and despite his many faults still commands the loyalty of classical archaeologists, perhaps deservedly so. Schliemann knew he would need an &quot;insider&quot; collaborator versed in Greek culture of the times. As he had just divested himself of Ekaterina (1868), he was in a position to advertise for a wife, which he did, in the Athens newspaper. His friend, the Archbishop of Athens, suggested a relative of his, the seventeen-year-old Sophia Engastromenos. As she fit the qualifications, he married her almost at once (1869). They later had two
e land]], [[irrigation]] or [[permanent crop]]s, nor any [[forest]]s. 9% of the country is permanent [[pasture]]land ([[1993]] est). '''Area:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 23,000 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 22,980 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''water:'' 20 km&amp;sup2; '''Maritime claims:''' &lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:'' 24 nm (44.4 km) &lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:'' 200 nm (370.4 km) &lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 12 nm (22.2 km) '''Natural hazards:''' earthquakes; droughts; occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean bring heavy rains and flash floods '''Environment - current issues:''' inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification '''Environment - international agreements:''' &lt;br&gt;''party to:'' Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, [[Law of the Sea]], Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution '''Geography - note:''' strategic location near world's busiest shipping lanes and close to Arabian oilfields; terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia; mostly wasteland. {{Africa in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography by country|Djibouti]] [[Category:Geography of Djibouti| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Djibouti</title> <id>8043</id> <revision> <id>34641707</id> <timestamp>2006-01-10T18:44:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <comment>{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">About two-thirds of the [[Djibouti|Republic of Djibouti]]'s 652,000 inhabitants live in the capital city. The indigenous population is divided between the majority [[Somali]]s (predominantly of the [[Issa]] tribe, with minority [[Issak]] and [[Gadaboursi]] representation) and the [[Afars]] (Danakils). All are Cushitic-speaking peoples, and nearly all are [[Muslim]]. Among the 15,000 foreigners residing in Djibouti, the French are the most numerous. Among the French are 3,000 troops. '''Population:''' 451,442 (July 2000 est.) '''Age structure:''' &lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:'' 43% (male 96,482; female 96,025) &lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 55% (male 130,264; female 116,270) &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 2% (male 6,426; female 5,975) (2000 est.) '''Population growth rate:''' 1.45% (2000 est.) '''Birth rate:''' 40.98 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Death rate:''' 14.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Net migration rate:''' -11.63 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Sex ratio:''' &lt;br&gt;''at birth:'' 1.03 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:'' 1 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 1.12 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 1.08 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.) '''Infant mortality rate:''' 103.32 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) '''Life expectancy at birth:''' &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 50.82 years &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 49.01 years &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 52.68 years (2000 est.) '''Total fertility rate:''' 5.8 children born/woman (2000 est.) '''Nationality:''' &lt;br&gt;''noun:'' Djiboutian(s) &lt;br&gt;''adjective:'' Djiboutian '''Ethnic groups:''' Somali 60%, Afar 35%, French, Arab, Ethiopian, and Italian 5% '''Religions:''' Muslim 94%, Christian 6% '''Languages:''' French (official), Arabic (official), Somali, Afar '''Literacy:''' &lt;br&gt;''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 46.2% &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 60.3% &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 32.7% (1995 est.) :''See also :'' [[Djibouti]] {{Africa in topic|Demographics of}} [[Category:Demographics by country|Djibouti]] [[Category:Djibouti]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Djibouti</title> <id>8044</id> <revision> <id>40508946</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T02:12:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nuno Tavares</username> <id>157549</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>pt:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Djibouti}} '''Politics of Djibouti''' takes place in a framework of a [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]], [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The party system is dominated by the conservative [[People's Rally for Progress]]. ==Political developments== In 1981, [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]] was elected as President of [[Djibouti]]. He was re-elected, unopposed, to a second 6-year term in April 1987 and to a third 6-year term in May 1993 multiparty elections. The electorate approved the current constitution in September 1992. Many laws and decrees from before independence remain in effect. In early 1992, the government decided to permit multiple party politics and agreed to the registration of four political parties. By the time of the national assembly elections in December 1992, only three had qualified. They are the ''Rassemblement Populaire Pour le Progres'' ([[People's Rally for Progress]]) (RPP) which was the only legal party from 1981 until 1992, the ''Parti du Renouveau Democratique'' (The [[Party for Democratic Renewal]]) (PRD), and the ''Parti National Democratique'' ([[National Democratic Party]]) (PND). Only the RPP and the PRD contested the national assembly elections, and the PND withdrew, claiming that there were too many unanswered questions on the conduct of the elections and too many opportunities for government fraud. The RPP won all 65 seats in the national assembly, with a turnout of less than 50% of the electorate. In 1999, President Hassan Gouled Aptidon's chief of staff, head of security, and key advisor for over 20 years, [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] was elected to the Presidency as the RPP candidate. He received 74% of the vote, the other 26% going to opposition candidate [[Moussa Ahmed Idriss]], of the [[Unified Djiboutian Opposition]] (ODU). For the first time since independence, no group boycotted the election. Moussa Ahmed Idriss and the ODU later challenged the results based on election &quot;irregularities&quot; and the assertion that &quot;foreigners&quot; had voted in various districts of the capital; however, international and locally based observers considered the election to be generally fair, and cited only minor technical difficulties. Ismail Omar Guelleh took the oath of office as the second President of the Republic of Djibouti on [[May 8]], [[1999]], with the support of an alliance between the RPP and the government-recognized section of the Afar-led FRUD. Currently, political power is shared by a Somali president and an Afar prime minister, with cabinet posts roughly divided. However, it is the Issas who presently dominate the government, civil service, and the ruling party, a situation that has bred resentment and political competition between the Somali Issas and the Afars. In early November 1991, civil war erupted in Djibouti between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the [[Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy]] (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP. In February 2000, another branch of FRUD signed a peace accord with the government. On [[12 May]] [[2001]], President [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD. The peace accord successfully completed the peace process begun on [[7 February]] [[2000]] in Paris. [[Ahmed Dini Ahmed]] represented the FRUD. Djibouti has its own armed forces, including a small army, which has grown significantly since the start of the civil war. In recent years the armed force has downsized and with the peace accord with the FRUD in 2001, the armed forces are expected to continue its downsizing. The country's security also is supplemented by a special security arrangement with the Government of [[France]]. France maintains one of its largest military bases outside France in Djibouti. There are some 2,600 French troops, which includes a unit of the [[French Foreign Legion]], stationed in Djibouti. The right to own property is respected in Djibouti. The government has reorganized the [[labor union]]s. While there have been open elections of union leaders, the Government of Djibouti is working with the ILO to hold new elections. Although women in Djibouti enjoy a higher public status than in many other [[Islam]]ic countries, women's rights and family planning face difficult challenges, many stemming from poverty. Few women hold senior positions. Education of girls still lags behind boys and, because of the high unemployment rate, employment opportunities are better for male applicants. ==Executive branch== {{office-table}} |[[Heads of State of Djibouti|President]] |[[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] |[[People's Rally for Progress|RPP]] |[[8 May]] [[1999]] |- |[[Heads of government of Djibouti|Prime Minister]] |[[Dileita Mohamed Dileita]] |[[People's Rally for Progress|RPP]] |[[4 March]] [[2001]] |} The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term. The prime minister is appointed by the president and the Council of Ministers is responsible to the president. ==Legislative branch== The '''National Assembly''' (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 65 members, 33 Issa and 32 Afar, elected for a five year term in multi-seat (4 to 37 seats) [[constituency|constituencies]]. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Djibouti|Elections in Djibouti}} {{Djibouti presidential election, 2005}} {{Djibouti_parliamentary_election,_2003}} ==Judicial branch== Supreme Court or Cour Supreme ==Administrative divisions== Djibouti is divided in 5
h to visit him. Elijah then prophecies that the men will be killed by divine fire, and this duly occurs. Ahaziah again sends men to Elijah, and again Elijah prophecies, and the men are immediately killed by divine fire. The third time men are sent, their leader begs Elijah to listen, and an angel tells Elijah to go with them, so he does, and tells Ahaziah that he will die to his face, which comes true. *'''The story of the [[translation of Elijah]]''' (2 Kings 2:1-18) - Elisha and Elijah are on their way to Gilgal, but Elijah tells Elisha to remain, but Elisha insists on going with him. On reaching Bethel, the prophets there tell Elisha that God is due to take Elijah on that day, but Elisha insists he already knows. Elijah tells Elisha to remain, but Elisha again insists on going with him. And so they go to Jericho, where the same events occur. At the Jordan, Elijah rolls up his mantle and touches the waters, which duly part, and the two cross on dry land. A flaming chariot and horses then come and collect Elijah and take him to heaven. Elisha then picks up Elijah's mantle, which had fallen, strikes the waters of the Jordan, which part, and then crosses back over. *'''Stories of the [[minor miracles of Elisha]]''' (2 Kings 2:19-24, 4:1-7, 4:38-44, and 6:1-7) Once, the inhabitants of the city (not explicitely identified, but implicitely assumable to be Jericho) complain to Elisha about the poor state of the water and the land, so Elisha sprinkles salt on a spring to purify it, as it is &quot;to this day&quot;. Elisha goes to Bethel, where a large number of small boys shout &quot;baldy&quot; at him, so Elisha curses them, and two bears come out of the forest and tear [[42]] of the boys to pieces. A widow of a member of the prophet's guild complains to Elisha that her husband's creditors want to enslave her children to pay his debts, so Elisha tells her to fill as many vessels as possible with the oil that she owns, and to sell it, and miraculously the small amount of oil fills all the containers that she is able to find. During a famine, Elisha has his servants make vegetable stew for the guild of prophets at [[Gilgal]], but one of them adds ''wild gourds'' to the stew. When realising that they have been poisoned, the guild complains to Elisha, who adds grain to the pot, and serves it to the people instead, who suffer no ills. A man from [[Baal-shalishah]] brings Elisha twenty loaves, and Elisha manages to feed a hundred people with them, miraculously dividing each loaf between five people, and there are some left-overs. The guild of prophets move to the Jordan to build themselves a larger home, and while doing so the head slips off an axe into the river, but Elisha throws a stick in and the iron axe head floats to the surface. *'''The story of [[Jehoram of Israel]]''' (2 Kings 1:17b and 3:1-27): - Due to Ahaziah (king of Israel) being childless, upon his death, his brother, Jehoram, succeeds him as king of Israel. Moab stops sending tribute to Israel once Jehoram takes over, and raises its army against Israel. Jehoram responds by makes a pact with Judah, and the combined forces of Israel, Judah, and Edom (a vassal of Judah), set out to attack Moab. However, the water supply dries up, and they consult Elisha for help. Elisha reluctantly agrees to assist them, and, going into a trance, prophecies water and victory. Vast quantities of water then come from the direction of Edom, filling the wells, and covering the ground. From a distance, the Moabites, mistaking the water for blood, think that Israel, Judah, and Edom, have attacked each other, so the Moabites seek out the spoils. When the Moabites reach the camp of Israel, the Israelites launch a surprise attack, vanquish the Moabites, and cast stones on their fields and block their springs. The Moabites are entrapped in a city, and is besieged, so the king, having failed to escape to get reinforcements, sacrifices his son to Chemosh. The sacrifice results in Israel being defeated. Jehoram later joins Ahaziah (king of Judah) in battle against Aram, but while recovering from the wounds inflicted in the battle is killed in a conspiracy, in which Ahaziah is also killed. *'''The story of [[Elisha and the Shunemite woman]]''' (2 Kings 4:8-37 and 8:1-6) - When Elisha visits [[Shunem]], an influential woman asks him to dine with her, and consequently he dined with her each time he was in Shunem. The woman decides to prepare a room for him so that he can stay overnight, and so Elisha asks his servant how he can repay the woman. The servant tells Elisha that the woman is childless and her husband is old, so Elisha tells the woman that she will become pregnant, which comes true. Years later, while reaping the fields, the child, a boy, complains that his head hurts, and then abruptly dies. The mother sets off to find Elisha to tell him, and when Elisha is informed, he sends his servant to put the staff of Elisha on top of the boy. The boy remains dead, so Elisha himself goes to the boy, and twice lies on top of him, placing his hands in the boy's hands and his lips on the boy's lips, and the boy's body becomes warm. The third time he lies on the boy, the boy sneezes and awakens. Elisha later warns the woman, who has become a widow, of an approaching seven year famine, so she leaves the land. After the famine is over, the woman returns, and happens to pass the king at exactly the same moment that Elisha's servant is telling the king about the resurrection of the woman's son. The king consequently assigns an official to her, and orders that the woman's land be restored to her. *'''The story of [[Naaman]]''' (2 Kings 5:1-27) - Naaman, commander of Aram's forces, captured a girl from Israel during one of his campaigns. The girl tells Naaman, who suffers from leprosy, that Elisha can heal him. The king of Aram therefore sends Naaman to Elisha with letters of recommendation. Elisha orders Naaman to wash in the Jordan sevenfold, which angers Naaman, since there were closer rivers, but he is pursuaded to wash in the Jordan anyway, and is cured. Naaman asks Elisha how he can be repayed, but all Elisha will accept is dedication to Yahweh alone, which Naaman agrees to. Elisha's servant thinks this a bit too light, so he goes after Naaman and suggests he donate money and two festal garments, which Naaman does. However, when the servant returns to Elisha, Elisha is angry about his action and curses Gehazi with the leprosy that Naaman had had. *'''The story of the [[Battle of Dothan]]''' (2 Kings 6:8-23) Once upon a time (c.f. the masoretic text of 2 Kings 6:8), the (unidentified) king of Aram was at war with the (unidentified) king of Israel, but Elisha told the king of Israel all of the secret plans that the king of Aram had made, so undermining his tactics. The king of Aram is angered by this and so sends an army to kill Elisha at [[Dothan]]. Elisha is not worried by this turn of events, and shows his servant that he is defended by a mountainside full of chariots of fire and horses, that were hidden from the servant's view. Elisha, by a prayer, strikes the army of Aram blind, then leads them to Samaria, where he restores their sight. At Samaria, Elisha forbids orders the king of Israel to be hospitable to the Aramaean army, and not to harm them. After a feast, the Aramaeans leave, and the Aramaeans never return again to Israel. *'''The story of the [[Second Siege of Samaria]]''' (2 Kings 6:24-7:20) Somewhat contradicting the previous sentance, Ben-hadad, king of Aram, lays siege to Samaria. The siege causes inflation, and a famine that is so severe that some people have started eating other people's children. The (unnamed) king of Israel blames Yahweh for the tragedy, and refuses to trust Yahweh anymore, but Elisha prophecies that the an assassin has been sent against the king of Israel, and also that the inflation will end, and reverse. Four lepers realise that staying neutral, or entering the famished Israelite city, is a no-win situation for them, so they decide to go to the king of Aram, since at least there is a chance of survival. The lepers discover that the Aramaeans had fled, having mistaken some sounds for a large army, and fearing that Israel had hired Hittite and borderland mercenaries. After helping themselves to the food and treasure, the lepers decide to tell the people of Samaria that the Aramaeans have gone. Although the king of Israel does not believe them, his servants check for themselves, and when it becomes known to the rest of the population, the Aramaean camp is plundered, ending the famine. *'''The story of the [[accession]] of [[Hazael]]''' (2 Kings 8:7-15) - When Ben-hadad, king of Aram, lies sick, Elisha happens to be visiting Aram by chance. The king therefore sends Hazael to consult Elisha about the king's illness. Elisha is uneasy, prophecying that the king will not survive, and Hazael will become the new king and slaughter the Israelites. Hazael is shocked, and questions how he could become king (despite Elijah already having anointed him as the the next king of Aram, some while ago), but when he returns, he lies to Ben-hadad and says that Elisha had prophecied a recovery. The next day, Hazael smothers the king to death with a water soaked cloth, and becomes king in his place. *'''The story of [[Jehoram of Judah]]''' (1 Kings 22:51b and 2 Kings 8:16-24a) - Jehoram, the son of Jehoshaphat, succeeds him as king of Judah. Jehoram makes a pact with Israel, marrying into their royal family, though this results in him following their religious practices rather than the more Yahwistic ones of his own father. Edom, previously on Judah's side, revolts, and so Jehoram battles them, but is surrounded. Jehoram manages to escape, but his army flees, and Edom gains its independance. The town of Libnah also revolts against Jehoram. *'''The story of [[Ahaziah of Judah|Ahaziah/Jehoahaz of Judah]]''' (2 Kings 8:24b-29 and 9:27-29) When Jehoram (king of Judah)
evidence for the Big Bang, as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements. Indeed there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that, for example, the young universe (i.e. before star formation, as determined by studying matter essentially free of [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] products) should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He, and in constant ratios, too. ===Galactic evolution and distribution=== {{main|Large-scale structure of the cosmos}} Detailed observations of the [[Hubble sequence|morphology]] and [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos|distribution]] of galaxies and quasars provide strong evidence for the Big Bang. A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed about a billion years after the Big Bang, and since then larger structures have been forming, such as [[galaxy groups and clusters|galaxy clusters]] and [[supercluster]]s. Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state). Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang. These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model. Observations of [[star formation]], galaxy and quasar distributions, and larger structures agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe and are helping to complete details of the theory. ==Features, issues and problems== A number of problems have arisen within the Big Bang theory throughout its history. Some of them are mainly of historical interest today, and have been avoided either through modifications to the theory or as the result of better observations. Other issues, such as the [[cuspy halo problem]] and the [[dwarf galaxy problem]] of [[cold dark matter]], are not considered to be fatal as they can be addressed through refinements of the theory. There are a small number of proponents of [[non-standard cosmology|non-standard cosmologies]] who doubt that there was a Big Bang at all. They claim that solutions to standard problems in the Big Bang theory involve [[ad hoc]] modifications and addenda to the theory. Most often attacked are the parts of standard cosmology that include [[dark matter]], [[dark energy]], and [[cosmic inflation]]. However, while explanations for these features remain at the [[Unsolved problems in physics|frontiers of inquiry in physics]], together they are suggested by independent observations of [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]], the [[cosmic microwave background]], [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos|large scale structure]] and Type Ia [[supernova]]e. The [[gravity|gravitational]] effects of these features are understood observationally and theoretically but they have not yet been successfully incorporated into the [[Standard Model]] of [[particle physics]]. Though some aspects of the theory remain inadequately explained by fundamental physics, almost all astronomers and physicists accept that the close agreement between Big Bang theory and observation have firmly established all the basic parts of the theory. The following is a short list of Big Bang &quot;problems&quot; and puzzles: ===Horizon problem=== {{main|horizon problem}} The '''horizon problem''' results from the premise that information cannot travel [[faster than light]], and hence two regions of space which are separated by a greater distance than the speed of light multiplied by the age of the universe cannot be in [[causality (physics)|causal]] contact. The observed isotropy of the [[cosmic microwave background]] (CMB) is problematic in this regard, because the [[particle horizon|horizon]] size at that time corresponds to a size that is about 2 degrees on the sky. If the universe has had the same expansion history since the [[Planck epoch]], there is no mechanism to cause these regions to have the same temperature. A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by [[inflationary theory]] in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the universe at a time 10&lt;sup&gt;-35&lt;/sup&gt; seconds after the Planck epoch. During inflation, the universe undergoes exponential expansion, and regions in causal contact expand so as to be beyond each other's horizons. [[Heisenberg's uncertainty principle]] predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be [[primordial fluctuations|quantum thermal fluctuations]], which would be magnified to cosmic scale. These fluctuations serve as the seeds of all current structure in the universe. After inflation, the universe expands according to [[Hubble law|Hubble's law]], and regions that were out of causal contact come back into the horizon. This explains the observed isotropy of the CMB. Inflation predicts that the [[primordial fluctuations]] are nearly [[Scale invariance|scale invariant]] and [[Normal distribution|Gaussian]] which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB. ===Flatness problem=== {{main|flatness problem}} The '''flatness problem''' is an observational problem that results from considerations of the [[shape of the universe|geometry]] associated with a [[Robertson-Walker coordinates|Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker]] metric. In general, the universe can have three different kinds of geometries: [[hyperbolic geometry]], [[Euclidean geometry]], or [[elliptic geometry]]. The geometry is determined by the total energy density of the universe (as measured by means of the [[stress-energy tensor]]): hyperbolic results from a density less than the [[critical density]], elliptic from a density greater than the critical density, and Euclidean from exactly the critical density. The universe is required to be within one part in 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; of the critical density in its earliest stages. Any greater deviation would have caused either a [[heat death|Heat Death]] or a [[Big Crunch]], and the universe would not exist as it does today. A possible resolution to this problem is again offered by [[inflationary theory]]. During the inflationary period, spacetime expanded to such an extent that any residual [[curvature]] associated with it would have been smoothed out to a high degree of precision. Thus, it is believed that inflation drove the universe to be very nearly spatially flat. ===Magnetic monopoles=== The '''[[magnetic monopole]]''' objection was raised in the late 1970s. [[Grand unification theory|Grand unification theories]] predicted [[Topological defect|point defects]] in space that would manifest as [[magnetic monopole]]s with a density much higher than was consistent with observations, given that searches have never found any monopoles. This problem is also resolvable by [[cosmic inflation]], which removes all point defects from the observable universe in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness. ===Baryon asymmetry=== It is not yet understood why the universe has more [[matter]] than [[antimatter]]. It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot, it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of [[baryon]]s and anti-baryons. However, observations suggest that the universe, including its most distant parts, is made almost entirely of matter. An unknown process called '''[[baryogenesis]]''' created the asymmetry. For baryogenesis to occur, the Sakharov conditions, which were laid out by [[Andrei Sakharov]], must be satisfied. They require that [[baryon number]] be not conserved, that [[C-symmetry]] and [[CP-symmetry]] be violated, and that the universe depart from [[thermodynamic equilibrium]]. All these conditions occur in the [[Standard Model]], but the effect is not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry. Experiments taking place at [[CERN]] near Geneva seek to trap enough [[anti-hydrogen]] to compare its spectrum with hydrogen. Any difference would be evidence of a [[CPT symmetry]] violation and therefore a [[Lorentz violation]]. ===Globular cluster age=== In the mid-1990s, observations of '''[[globular cluster]]s''' appeared to be inconsistent with the Big Bang. Computer simulations that matched the observations of the [[star|stellar]] populations of globular clusters suggested that they were about 15 billion years old, which conflicted with the 13.7-billion-year age of the universe. This issue was generally resolved in the late 1990s when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to [[stellar wind]]s, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters {{ref|clusterage}}. There still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured, but it is clear that these objects are some of the oldest in the universe. ===Dark matter=== {{main|dark matter}} During the 1970s and 1980s various observations (notably of [[galaxy rotation problem|galactic rotation curves]]) showed that there was not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the universe is not normal or [[baryon]]ic matter but rather '''[[dark matter]]'''. In addition, assuming that the universe was mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations. In particular, the universe is far less lumpy and contains far less [[deuterium]] than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter was initially controversial, it is now a widely accepted part of standard cosmology due to observations of the anisotropies in the CMB, [[galaxy groups and clusters|galaxy cluster]] velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, [[gravitational lensing]] studies, and [[x-ray]] measurements from gala
cals held sway in a state did not mean that the side with less power accepted the result quietly. In Pennsylvania, the propertied class was horrified by their new constitution ([[Benjamin Rush]] called it &quot;our state dung cart&quot;), while in Massachusetts, voters twice rejected the constitution that was presented for ratification; it was ultimately ratified only as a result of the legislature tinkering with the third vote. The radical provisions of Pennsylvania's constitution were to last only fourteen years&amp;mdash; in 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and wrote a new constitution that substantially reduced universal white-male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America. ==War for independence, 1775-83== [[image:commonsense.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Common Sense by Thomas Paine]] [[Image:Yorktown80.JPG|thumb|right|280px|The Battle of Yorktown was the last major battle of the American Revolutionary War. It ended with the surrender of British forces.]] ''Main article: [[American Revolutionary War]]'' On January 10, 1776, [[Thomas Paine]] published a pamphlet entitled ''[[Common Sense]]'' arguing that the only solution to the problems with Britain was [[Republicanism]] and independence from Great Britain. On July 4, 1776, the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] was ratified by the [[Second Continental Congress]]. The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''', commonly known as the '''[[Articles of Confederation]]''', formed the first governing document of the [[United States|United States of America]]. They combined the colonies of the [[American Revolutionary War]] into a loose [[confederation]] of sovereign [[states]]. The second [[Continental Congress]] adopted the Articles on November 15, 1777. ==America after the war== The American Revolution saw several noteworthy political innovations: the [[separation of church and state]], which ended the special privileges of the [[Church of England]] in the South and the [[Congregationalist]] Church in [[New England]]; an assertion of liberty, individual rights and equality which would prove highly appealing in Europe; the idea that government should be by consent of the governed (including the right of rebellion against tyranny); the delegation of power to the government through written constitutions; and the notion that colonial peoples of the Americas could become self-governing nations in their own rights. All was not well, however, in the new nation. The [[Shays Rebellion]] was an armed uprising in [[Western Massachusetts]] that lasted from 1786 to 1787. Many of the rebels, known as [[Shaysites]] or Regulators, were small farmers angered by high debt and tax burdens. A state [[militia]] that had been raised as a private army defeated the Shaysites. The lack of a government force to respond to the uprising led some to re-evaluate of the effectiveness of the [[Articles of Confederation]]. The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] had given the U.S. government control, on paper, of all land east of the [[Mississippi River]] and south of the [[Great Lakes]], but the Native American nations actually living in this region were not a party to this treaty and had not been militarily defeated by the Patriots. Further, the British remained in possession of the Great Lakes forts through which they continued to supply their Native American allies with trade items (including weapons) and to otherwise stir up trouble for Americans. Then, Congress sought to stabilize the dollar and pay down its war debt through the sale of western lands still under Native American control. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] gave encouragement to land speculators, surveyors, and so on, who sought to gain this land-- sometimes through bribery or deceit--for resale to white settlers. Congress negotiated a treaty with Native Americans in 1785 to acquire most of the eastern portion of [[Ohio Country]] for settlement. However, settlers were already moving into land that the treaty set aside for the tribes. Conflict soon broke out, as the [[Northwest Indian War]]. Due to the lack of an army under the Confederation government, Congress was unable to successfully fight the tribes. These events and others led the Continental Congress to support the [[Philadelphia Convention]] in [[1787]], leading to the creation of a new central government that lasts to this day in the United States. ==The impact on British North America== For tens of thousands of inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies, the victory of the revolutionaries was followed by exile. Approximately fifty thousand [[United Empire Loyalists]] fled to the remaining British colonies in North America, such as the [[Province of Quebec (1763-1791)|Province of Quebec]], (concentrating in the [[Eastern Townships]]), [[Upper Canada]] (now known as [[Ontario]]), and [[Prince Edward Island]] and [[Nova Scotia]] (where their presence would result in the creation of [[New Brunswick]]). This exodus sowed the seeds for the French-English duality in British North America, arguably the most prominent political and cultural feature of what would one day become [[Canada]]. ==Revolution beyond America== The American Revolution was the first wave of the [[Atlantic Revolutions]] that would also take hold in the [[French Revolution]], the [[Haitian Revolution]], and the [[Bolívar's War|Latin American wars of liberation]]. [[Aftershock]]s would also be felt in [[Ireland]] in the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|1798 rising]], in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and in the [[Netherlands]]. The Revolution had a strong immediate impact in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. Many British and Irish [[Whig]]s had been openly indulgent to the Patriots in America, and the Revolution was the first lesson in politics for many European radicals who would later take on active roles during the era of the [[French Revolution]]. Jefferson's Declaration had [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap3a.html an immediate impact] on the French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen]] of 1789. The American Revolution affected the rest of the world. The thinkers of the [[Enlightenment]] only wrote that common people had the right to overthrow unjust governments. The American Revolution was a case of practical success, which provided the rest of the world with a 'working model'. The American Revolution set an example to the people in Europe and other parts of the world. It encouraged the people to realize they had rights independent of the sovereign; it promoted republicanism to overthrow monarchs. It incited people to fight for their rights, and it showed them that it was possible to win even against the world's foremost power, Great Britain. Nowhere was the influence of the American Revolution more profound than in Latin America, where American writings and the model of colonies, which actually broke free and thrived decisively, shaped their struggle for independence. Historians of Latin America have identified many links to the U.S. model . See [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&amp;hl=en&amp;id=0QghsDsSCB4C&amp;pg=PA45&amp;lpg=PA45&amp;dq=jefferson&amp;prev=http://books.google.com/books%3Fq%3Djefferson%2Bindependence%2Blatin%2Bamerica&amp;sig=v0afdyhrNgB42XLqhBEB9IQhCDU John Lynch, &quot;The Origins of Spanish American Independence,&quot; in ''Cambridge History of Latin America'' Vol. 3 (1985), pp 45-46] ==Legacy and interpretations== The American Revolution is often cited as a milestone in the history of [[American Exceptionalism]]. The [[intellectual]]s of the Revolution ([[Thomas Paine]]'s ''[[Common Sense]]'' is most likely the best example) for the first time expressed the belief that America was not just an extension of Europe but a new land, a country of nearly unlimited potential and opportunity that was being abused by the British mother country they had outgrown. These sentiments laid the intellectual foundations for the Revolutionary concept of American exceptionalism and was closely tied to [[Republicanism]], the belief that sovereignty belonged to the people, not to a hereditary ruling class. ==See also== *[[British colonization of the Americas]] *[[Founding Fathers of the United States]] *[[Industrial Revolution]] *[[List of important people in the era of the American Revolution]] *[[Second American Revolution]] *[[Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760-1789)]] *[[List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War]] ==Scholarly Secondary Sources== :*Bailyn, Bernard. ''The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution.'' Harvard University Press, 1967. ISBN 0674443012. :*Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0811705781. :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=104464395 Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise. ''The Southern Experience in the American Revolution'' (1978)] :*Higginbotham, Don. ''The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763-1789'' (1983) Online in ACLS History E-book Project; best overview of military topics :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=9503720 Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. ''The American Revolution, 1763-1783'' (1898)], British viewpoint :* McCullough, David. ''1776'' (2005). :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=55002630 Mackesy, Piers. ''The War for America: 1775-1783'' (1992)] British viewpoint. :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;amp;d=84633736 Middlekauff, Robert. '' The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789'' (1985)] :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=14559136 Miller, John C. ''Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783'' (1948)],
e and gender/number, but presently there are only six forms of the definite article used for the 16 possibilities. Inflection for case on the noun itself is required in the singular for strong masculine and neuter nouns in the genitive and sometimes in the dative. This dative ending is considered somewhat old-fashioned in many contexts and often dropped, but it is still used in sayings and in formal speech or written language. Weak masculine nouns share a common case ending for genitive, dative and accusative in the singular. Feminines are not declined in the singular. The plural does have an inflection for the dative. In total, six inflectional endings (not counting plural markers) exist in German: ''-s, -es, -n, -en, -ns, -e'' In the German orthography nouns and most words with the syntactical function of nouns are capitalized, which makes it quite easy for readers to find out what function a word has within the sentence. On the other hand, things get more difficult for the writer. This spelling convention is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by the closely related [[Luxembourgish]] language), although it was historically common in other languages (e.g., [[Danish language|Danish]]), too. Like most Germanic languages, German forms left-branching noun [[compound (linguistics)|compound]]s, where the first noun modifies the category given by the second, for example: ''Hundehütte'' (eng. ''doghouse''). Unlike English, where newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written in ''open'' form with separating spaces, German (like the other German languages) always uses the ''closed'' form without spaces, for example: Baumhaus (eng. ''tree house''). Like English, German allows arbitrarily long compounds, but these are rare. (''See also'' [[English compounds]].) The longest official German word is [[Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz]]. There is even a child's game played in kindergartens and primary schools where a child begins the spelling of a word (which is not told) by naming the first letter. The next one tells the next letter, the third one tells the third and so on. The game is over when the a child can not think of another letter to be added to the word (see [[Ghost (game)|Ghost]]). ===Verb Inflection=== Standard German verbs inflect into: * one of two conjugation classes, [[weak verb|weak]] and [[strong verb|strong]] (like English). (note: in fact there is a third class, called &quot;gemischte Verben&quot;, which can be either weak (&quot;active meaning&quot;) or strong (&quot;passive meaning&quot;)) There are about 200 strong or irregular verbs. * three persons: 1st, 2nd, 3rd. * two numbers: singular and plural * three [[Grammatical mood|mood]]s: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative * two [[Grammatical voice|genera verbi]]: active and passive; the passive being composed and dividable into static and dynamic. * 2 non-composed tenses (Present, [[Preterite]]) and 4 composed tenses (Perfect, Plusquamperfect, Future I, Future II) * no distinction between aspects (in English, perfect and progressive; in Polish between completed and incompleted form; in Turkish between first-hand and second-hand information) There are also many ways to expand, and sometimes radically change, the meaning of a base verb through several prefixes. Examples: haften=to stick, verhaften=to imprison; kaufen=to buy, verkaufen=to sell The word order is much more flexible than in English. The word order can be changed for subtle changes of a sentence's meaning. In normal positive sentences the verb always has position 2, in questions it has position 1. Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the [[Indo-European language family]], although there are significant minorities of words derived from [[Latin]], [[French language|French]], and most recently [[English language|English]] (which is known as [[Germish]]). ==Writing system== German is written using the [[Latin alphabet]]. In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with [[Umlaut]], namely ''ä'', ''ö'' and ''ü'', as well as a special symbol for &quot;ss&quot;, the Eszett or Scharfes-S (sharp &quot;s&quot;) ''[[ß]]''. In traditional German spelling, ''ß'' replaces any inseparable &quot;ss&quot;, while it appears only after long vowels or diphthongs in [[German spelling reform of 1996|reform spelling]]. ''ß'' is not used at all in [[Switzerland]]. Until the early [[20th century]], German was mostly printed in [[blackletter]] [[typefaces]] (mostly in [[fraktur (typeface)|Fraktur]], but also in [[Schwabacher]]) and written in corresponding [[handwriting]] (for example [[Kurrent]] and [[Sütterlin]]). These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or sans serif [[antiqua]] typefaces used today, and are difficult for the untrained to read. They were abolished by the [[Nazis]] (incorrectly claiming that these letters are Jewish) in [[1941]] but this has been retained for broader and easier usability. ==Alphabet== ''Main article: [[German alphabet]]''. ==Phonology== ''Main article: [[German phonology]]'' (pronunciation, historical sound changes). ==Cognates with English== There are many German words that are [[cognate]] to [[English language|English words]]. Most of them are easily identifiable and have almost the same meaning. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- bgcolor=#FFDEAD ! '''German''' ! Meaning of German word ! English cognate |- |best- || best || best |- |Bett || bed || bed |- |Bub (''regional'') || boy || boy |- |essen || to eat || to eat |- |Finger || finger || finger |- |haben || to have || to have |- |Haus || house || house |- |Katze || cat || cat |- |Laus || louse || louse |- |Läuse || lice || lice |- |Butter || butter || butter |- |Milch || milk || milk |- |lachen || to laugh || to laugh |- |Maus || mouse || mouse |- |Mäuse || mice || mice |- |Nacht || night || night |- |Pfeife || pipe || pipe, fife |- |Schiff || ship || ship |- |singen, sang, gesungen || sing, sang, sung || sing, sang, sung |- |sinken, sank, gesunken || sink, sank, sunken || sink, sank, sunk |- |fallen, fiel, gefallen || fall, fell, fallen || fall, fell, fallen |- |hören || to hear || hear |- |schwimmen || to swim || swim |- |Tag || day || day |- |Wetter || weather || weather |- |Wille || will (''noun'')|| will |- |Sommer || summer || summer |- |Winter || winter || winter |} When these cognates have slightly different consonants, this is often due to the [[High German consonant shift]]. There are cognates whose meanings in either language have changed through the centuries. It is sometimes difficult for both English and German speakers to discern the relationship. On the other hand, once the definitions are made clear, then the logical relation becomes obvious. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- bgcolor=#FFDEAD ! '''German''' ! Meaning of German word ! English cognate ! Comment |- |Baum || tree || beam || Both derive from Old High German ''boum'' meaning &quot;tree&quot;. It is the English one which, in Anglo-Saxon and Old English, has radically changed its meaning several times. |- |bekommen || to get || to become || |- |drehen || to turn || to throw || |- |ernten || to harvest || to earn || |- |fechten || to fence (''sport'') || to fight || |- |Gift || poison || gift || |- |Hund || dog || hound || |- |kaufen || to buy || cheap, chapman || |- |Knabe (''formal'')|| boy || knave || |- |Knecht || servant || knight || |- |Kopf || head || cup || Latin ''cuppa'' 'bowl'; cf. French ''tête'', from Latin ''testa'' 'shell/bowl' |- |nehmen || take || numb || sensation has been &quot;taken away&quot;; cf. German ''benommen'', 'dazed' |- |raten || to guess, to advise || to read || |- |ritzen || to scratch || to write || |- |Schmerz || pain || smart || |- |rächen || to take revenge || to wreak (havoc) || |- |Tisch || table || dish || Latin ''discus'' |- |Wald || forest || weald || |- |werden || to become || weird || see [[wyrd]] |- |werfen || throw || to warp || |- |Zeit || time || tide || the root is re-used in German ''Gezeiten'' 'tides' |} German and English also share many borrowings from other languages, especially from [[Latin]], [[French language|French]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], but also from many other languages. Most of these word have the same meaning, while a few have subtle differences in meaning. As many of these words have been borrowed by numerous languages, not only German and English, they are called ''[[internationalism (linguistics)|internationalisms]]'' in German [[linguistics]]. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- bgcolor=#FFDEAD ! '''German''' ! Meaning of German word ! language of origin |- |Armee || army || French |- |Arrangement || arrangement || French |- |Chance || opportunity || French |- |Courage || courage || French |- |Chuzpe || chutzpah || Yiddish |- |Disposition || disposition || Latin |- |Feuilleton || feuilleton || French |- |Futur || future tense || Latin |- |Genre || genre || French |- |Mikroskop || microscope || Greek |- |Partei || political party || French |- |Position || position || Latin |- |positiv || positive || Latin |- |Prestige || prestige || French |- |Psychologie || psychology || Greek |- |Religion || religion || Latin |- |Tabu || taboo || Tongan |- |Zigarre || cigar || Spanish |- |Zucker || sugar || Sanskrit, via Arabic |} ==Examples of German== {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- bgcolor=#FFDEAD ! Translation ! Phrase ! IPA |- |German || ''Deutsch'' || {{IPA|/ˈdɔʏtʃ/}} |- |hello || ''Hallo'' || {{IPA|/ˈhaloː/}} |- |good morning || ''Guten Morgen'' || {{IPA|/ˈguːtən ˈmɔrgən/}} |- |good day || ''Guten Tag'' || {{IPA|/ˈguːtən ˈtaːk/}} |- |good evening || ''Guten Abend'' || {{IPA|/ˈguːtən ˈaːbənt/}} |- |good night || ''Gute Nacht'' || {{IPA|/ˈguːtə ˈnaxt/}} |- |good-bye || ''Auf Wiedersehen'' || {{IPA|/aʊf ˈviːdərˌzeːn/}} |- |please || ''Bitte'' || {{IPA|/ˈbɪtə/}} |- |thank you || ''Danke'' || {{IPA|/ˈdaŋkə/}} |- |that || ''Das'' || {{IP
rookie?== In order to qualify for the award a player must have accumulated, prior to the season under consideration: * Fewer than 130 at bats and 50 innings pitched in the Major Leagues ''or'' * Fewer than 45 days on the active rosters of Major League clubs (excluding DL time or any time after rosters are expanded on September first) ==List of Rookie of the Year winners== === Major Leagues combined (1947-1948) === {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;450&quot; |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; ! Year ! align=&quot;left&quot; | Player, Team, Position |- | [[1947]] | [[Jackie Robinson]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], 1B |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1948]] | [[Alvin Dark]], [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]], SS |} === American and National League winners (1949-present) === {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; ! Year ! American League ! National League |- | [[1949]] | [[Roy Sievers]], [[Baltimore Orioles|St. Louis Browns]], OF | [[Don Newcombe]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], P |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1950]] | [[Walt Dropo]], [[Boston Red Sox]], 1B | [[Sam Jethroe]], [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]], OF |- | [[1951]] | [[Gil McDougald]], [[New York Yankees]], 3B | [[Willie Mays]], [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]], OF |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1952]] | [[Harry Byrd (baseball)|Harry Byrd]], [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]], P | [[Joe Black]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], P |- | [[1953]] | [[Harvey Kuenn]], [[Detroit Tigers]], SS | [[Jim Gilliam]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], 2B |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1954]] | [[Bob Grim]], [[New York Yankees]], P | [[Wally Moon]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF |- | [[1955]] | [[Herb Score]], [[Cleveland Indians]], P | [[Bill Virdon]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1956]] | [[Luis Aparicio]], [[Chicago White Sox]], SS | [[Frank Robinson]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], OF |- | [[1957]] | [[Tony Kubek]], [[New York Yankees]], SS | [[Jack Sanford]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], P |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1958]] | [[Albie Pearson]], [[Minnesota Twins|Washington Senators]], OF | [[Orlando Cepeda]], [[San Francisco Giants]], 1B |- | [[1959]] | [[Bob Allison]], [[Minnesota Twins|Washington Senators]], OF | [[Willie McCovey]], [[San Francisco Giants]], 1B |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1960]] | [[Ron Hansen (baseball)|Ron Hansen]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], SS | [[Frank Howard (baseball player)|Frank Howard]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], OF |- | [[1961]] | [[Don Schwall]], [[Boston Red Sox]], P | [[Billy Williams (baseball player)|Billy Williams]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1962]] | [[Tom Tresh]], [[New York Yankees]], SS | [[Ken Hubbs]], [[Chicago Cubs]], 2B |- | [[1963]] | [[Gary Peters]], [[Chicago White Sox]], P | [[Pete Rose]], [[Cincinnati Reds]] |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1964]] | [[Tony Oliva]], [[Minnesota Twins]], OF | [[Dick Allen]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]] |- | [[1965]] | [[Curt Blefary]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], OF | [[Jim Lefebvre]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], 2B |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1966]] | [[Tommie Agee]], [[Chicago White Sox]], OF | [[Tommy Helms]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], 2B |- | [[1967]] | [[Rod Carew]], [[Minnesota Twins]], 2B | [[Tom Seaver]], [[New York Mets]], P |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1968]] | [[Stan Bahnsen]], [[New York Yankees]], P | [[Johnny Bench]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], C |- | [[1969]] | [[Lou Piniella]], [[Kansas City Royals]], OF | [[Ted Sizemore]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], 2B |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1970]] | [[Thurman Munson]], [[New York Yankees]], C | [[Carl Morton]], [[Montreal Expos]], P |- | [[1971]] | [[Chris Chambliss]], [[Cleveland Indians]], 1B | [[Earl Williams]], [[Atlanta Braves]], C |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1972]] | [[Carlton Fisk]], [[Boston Red Sox]], C | [[Jon Matlack]], [[New York Mets]], P |- | [[1973]] | [[Al Bumbry]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], OF | [[Gary Matthews]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1974]] | [[Mike Hargrove]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], 1B | [[Bake McBride]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF |- | [[1975]] | [[Fred Lynn]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF | [[John Montefusco]], [[San Francisco Giants]], P |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1976]] | [[Mark Fidrych]], [[Detroit Tigers]], P | [[Butch Metzger]], [[San Diego Padres]], P&lt;br /&gt;[[Pat Zachry]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], P |- | [[1977]] | [[Eddie Murray]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], DH | [[Andre Dawson]], [[Montreal Expos]], OF |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1978]] | [[Lou Whitaker]], [[Detroit Tigers]], 2B | [[Bob Horner]], [[Atlanta Braves]], 3B |- | [[1979]] | [[John Castino]], [[Minnesota Twins]], 3B &lt;br /&gt;[[Alfredo Griffin]], [[Toronto Blue Jays]], SS | [[Rick Sutcliffe]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], P |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1980]] | [[Joe Charboneau]], [[Cleveland Indians]], OF | [[Steve Howe (baseball player)|Steve Howe]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], P |- | [[1981]] | [[Dave Righetti]], [[New York Yankees]], P | [[Fernando Valenzuela]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], P |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1982]] | [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], SS | [[Steve Sax]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], 2B |- | [[1983]] | [[Ron Kittle]], [[Chicago White Sox]], OF | [[Darryl Strawberry]], [[New York Mets]], OF |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1984]] | [[Alvin Davis]], [[Seattle Mariners]], 1B | [[Dwight Gooden]], [[New York Mets]], P |- | [[1985]] | [[Ozzie Guillen]], [[Chicago White Sox]], SS | [[Vince Coleman (baseball)|Vince Coleman]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1986]] | [[Jose Canseco]], [[Oakland Athletics]], OF | [[Todd Worrell]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], P |- | [[1987]] | [[Mark McGwire]], [[Oakland Athletics]], 1B | [[Benito Santiago]], [[San Diego Padres]], C |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1988]] | [[Walt Weiss]], [[Oakland Athletics]], SS | [[Chris Sabo]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], 3B |- | [[1989]] | [[Gregg Olson]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], P | [[Jerome Walton]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1990]] | [[Sandy Alomar, Jr.]], [[Cleveland Indians]], C | [[David Justice]], [[Atlanta Braves]], OF |- | [[1991]] | [[Chuck Knoblauch]], [[Minnesota Twins]], 2B | [[Jeff Bagwell]], [[Houston Astros]], 1B |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1992]] | [[Pat Listach]], [[Milwaukee Brewers]], SS | [[Eric Karros]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], 1B |- | [[1993]] | [[Tim Salmon]], [[California Angels]], OF | [[Mike Piazza]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], C |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1994]] | [[Bob Hamelin]], [[Kansas City Royals]], DH | [[Raul Mondesi]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], OF |- | [[1995]] | [[Marty Cordova]], [[Minnesota Twins]], OF | [[Hideo Nomo]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], P |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1996]] | [[Derek Jeter]], [[New York Yankees]], SS | [[Todd Hollandsworth]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], OF |- | [[1997]] | [[Nomar Garciaparra]], [[Boston Red Sox]], SS | [[Scott Rolen]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], 3B |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[1998]] | [[Ben Grieve]], [[Oakland Athletics]], OF | [[Kerry Wood (baseball player)|Kerry Wood]], [[Chicago Cubs]], P |- | [[1999]] | [[Carlos Beltran]], [[Kansas City Royals]], OF | [[Scott Williamson]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], P |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[2000]] | [[Kazuhiro Sasaki]], [[Seattle Mariners]], P | [[Rafael Furcal]], [[Atlanta Braves]], SS |- | [[2001]] | [[Ichiro Suzuki]], [[Seattle Mariners]], OF | [[Albert Pujols]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 3B-OF |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[2002]] | [[Eric Hinske]], [[Toronto Blue Jays]], 3B | [[Jason Jennings]], [[Colorado Rockies]], P |- | [[2003]] | [[Angel Berroa]], [[Kansas City Royals]], SS | [[Dontrelle Willis]], [[Florida Marlins]], P |- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | [[2004]] | [[Bobby Crosby]], [[Oakland Athletics]], SS | [[Jason Bay]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF |- | [[2005]] | [[Huston Street]], [[Oakland Athletics]], RP | [[Ryan Howard]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], 1B |} [[ja:&amp;#12523;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12461;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12458;&amp;#12502;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12470;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12516;&amp;#12540; (MLB)]] ==External links== * [http://www.baseball-almanac.com/awards/aw_roy.shtml Rookie of the Year / Jackie Robinson Award on Baseball Almanac] [[Category:Baseball awards and trophies|Rookie of the Year]] [[Category:1947 establishments]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>National League Championship Series</title> <id>3860</id> <revision> <id>39696557</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:19:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.248.50.23</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* NLCS results (1969-present) */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Major League Baseball]], the '''National League Championship Series''' ('''NLCS''') determines who wins the [[National League]] pennant and advances to [[baseball]]'s championship, the [[World Series]], facing the winner of the [[American League Championship Series]]. Prior to [[1969]], the National League Champion (the &quot;Pennant Winner&quot;) was determined by the best won-loss record at the end of the regular season. There was an occasional ad hoc playoff series due to ties under this formulation, as also happened in the rival [[American League]]. A structured playoff series began in [[196
<id>6098</id> <revision> <id>15904260</id> <timestamp>2003-08-24T06:40:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Olivier</username> <id>3808</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carolingian Renaissance]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carboxylic acid</title> <id>6099</id> <revision> <id>40808349</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:42:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Drini</username> <id>195374</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.90.128.28|202.90.128.28]] ([[User talk:202.90.128.28|talk]]) to last version by Tawker</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carboxy.png|frame|Structure of a carboxylic acid]] '''Carboxylic acids''' are [[organic acid]]s characterized by the presence of a [[carboxyl group]], which has the [[Chemical formula|formula]] -C(=O)-OH, usually written as '''-COOH'''. In general, the [[salt]]s and [[anion]]s of carboxylic acids are called '''carboxylates'''. The simplest series of carboxylic acids are the '''alkanoic acids''', R-COOH, where R is a [[hydrogen]] or an [[alkyl]] [[Functional group|group]]. Compounds may also have two or more carboxylic acid groups per molecule. == Acidity, electron distribution and resonance == Carboxylic acids are widespread in nature. Carboxylic acids are typically weak acids that partially [[Dissociation (chemistry)|dissociate]] into H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; [[cation]]s and RCOO&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; [[anion]]s in [[Water (molecule)|aqueous]] solution. For example, only about 0.02% of all [[acetic acid]] molecules are dissociated at room temperature in solution. The two [[electronegativity|electronegative]] oxygen atoms tend to pull the electron away from the hydrogen of the [[hydroxyl]] group, and the remaining [[proton]] H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; can more easily leave. The remaining negative charge is then distributed symmetrically among the two oxygen atoms, and the two carbon&amp;ndash;oxygen [[chemical bond|bonds]] take on a partial double-bond character (i.e., they are delocalised). This is a result of the resonance structure created by the [[carbonyl]] component of the carboxylic acid, without which the OH group does not as easily lose its H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; (see [[alcohol]]). The presence of electronegative groups (such as -[[hydroxyl|OH]] or -[[chloride|Cl]]) next to the carboxylic group increases the acidity. So, for example, [[trichloroacetic acid]] (three -Cl groups) is a stronger acid than [[lactic acid]] (one -OH group) which in turn is stronger than acetic acid (no helping group). == Synthesis == Carboxylic acids can be made by various methods: * Complete [[organic oxidation|oxidation]] of [[alcohol|primary alcohol]]s and [[aldehydes]]. This can be done with the [[Jones reagent]] or [[Tollens' reagent]]. * [[Alkene]] oxidation by [[Potassium permanganate]] . * [[Benzene | Alkylbenzene]] oxidation of [[Potassium permanganate]] to [[benzoic acid]]s. * Acid or base [[hydrolysis]] of [[nitrile]]s. * [[Hydrolysis]] of [[amide]]s and [[ester]]s. * Carbonylation (reaction with [[carbon dioxide]]) of [[Grignard reagent]]s. * Disproportionation of an [[aldehyde]] in the [[Cannizzaro reaction]] * Less-common reactions involving the generation of benzoic acids are the [[von Richter reaction]] from nitrobenzenes and the [[Kolbe-Schmitt reaction]] from [[phenol]]s. ==Reactions== *Carboxylic acids react with [[Base (chemistry)|base]]s to form carboxylate salts, in which the hydrogen of the -OH group is replaced with a metal [[ion]]. Thus, ethanoic acid (the same as acetic acid) reacts with [[sodium bicarbonate]] (baking soda) to form sodium ethanoate (sodium acetate), [[carbon dioxide]], and water: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + NaHCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COONa + CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O [[Image:COOH_reduced_by_LAH.png|center|frame|[[Lithium aluminium hydride]] [[reduction]] of a [[carboxylic acid]] to an [[alcohol]].]] * Carboxyl groups also react with [[amine]] groups to form [[peptide bond]]s and with [[alcohol]]s to form [[ester]]s in [[Fischer esterification]] or the [[Mitsunobu reaction]]. *Carboxylic acids react with [[thionyl chloride]] (SOCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) to form [[acyl chloride]]s. These are extremely reactive and useful to synthesize other organic compounds. * Carboxylic acids can be [[organic reduction|reduced]] by [[Lithium aluminium hydride|LiAlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] to form primary [[alcohol]]s, although this reaction can be sluggish, as a first step is often formation of the lithium carboxylate salt. Another [[reducing agent]] for this reaction is [[borane]]. *The [[Arndt-Eistert synthesis]] inserts an &amp;alpha;-methylene group into a carboxylic acid. *The [[Curtius rearrangement]] converts carboxylic acids to [[isocyanate]]s. *Carboxylic acids are decarboxylated in the [[Hunsdiecker reaction]] and &amp;alpha;-brominated in the [[Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky halogenation]]. == Nomenclature and examples == The carboxylate anion R-COO&lt;sup&gt;–&lt;/sup&gt; is usually named with the suffix '''-ate''', so acetic acid, for example, becomes acetate ion. In [[IUPAC nomenclature]], carboxylic acids have an '''[[-oic acid]]''' suffix (e.g. octadecanoic acid). In [[common nomenclature]], the suffix is usually '''-ic''' (e.g. stearic acid). Some representative carboxylic acids include: * [[Formic acid]] (methanoic acid) – HCOOH, found in insect stings (''formic'' refers to [[ant]]s) * [[Acrylic acid]] (ethenoic acid) - CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CHCOOH, used in polymer synthesis * [[Lactic acid]] (2-hydroxypropanoic acid) - found in sour milk * [[Amino acid]]s – the building blocks of [[protein]]s * [[Valproic acid]] (2-propylpentanoic acid) - pharmaceutical * '''[[Fatty acid]]s''' - where R is an [[alkane]] in saturated acids or an [[alkene]] in unsaturated acids ** [[Acetic acid]] (ethanoic acid) – CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH, the principal component of [[vinegar]] ** [[Propionic acid]] (propanoic acid) - CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COOH ** [[Butyric acid]] (butanoic acid) – found in rancid butter ** [[Lauric acid]] (dodecanoic acid) – found in coconut oil ** [[Docosahexaenoic acid]] - nutritional supplement ** [[Eicosapentaenoic acid]] - nutritional supplement * '''Aromatic carboxylic acids''' ** [[Benzoic acid]] - C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH. Sodium benzoate, the sodium salt of benzoic acid is used as a food preservative ** [[Salicylic acid]] - found in many skin care products * '''Diacids''' ** [[Aldaric acid]] - a family of sugar acids ** [[Oxalic acid]] - found in many foods ** [[Malonic acid]] ** [[Malic acid]] - found in apples ** [[Succinic acid]] - a component of the [[citric acid cycle]] ** [[Glutaric acid]] ** [[Adipic acid]] - the monomer used to produce nylon == See also == * [[Acid anhydride]] * [[Ester]] [[Category:Carboxylic acids|*]] [[Category:Functional groups]] [[Category:Acids]] [[ar:حمض كربوكسيلي]] [[da:Carboxylsyre]] [[de:Carbonsäuren]] [[et:Karboksüülhape]] [[es:Grupo carboxilo]] [[fr:Acide carboxylique]] [[id:Asam alkanoat]] [[it:Acidi carbossilici]] [[he:חומצה קרבוקסילית]] [[lv:Karbonskābes]] [[nl:Carbonzuur]] [[ja:カルボン酸]] [[nn:Karboksylsyre]] [[pl:Kwas karboksylowy]] [[pt:Ácido carboxílico]] [[ru:Карбоновые кислоты]] [[su:Asam karboksilat]] [[fi:Karboksyylihappo]] [[zh:羧酸]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chernobyl</title> <id>6100</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41930690</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:26:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mikkalai</username> <id>28438</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.133.19.3|86.133.19.3]] ([[User talk:86.133.19.3|talk]]) to last version by Shadow1</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This page is about the city of Chernobyl, Ukraine. For information on the 1986 nuclear plant disaster, see [[Chernobyl accident]]. For all other uses, see [[Chernobyl (disambiguation)]].}} [[Image:ChernobylMIR.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Chernobyl area. Taken from the Russian [[Mir]] spacecraft in 1997]] '''Chernobyl''' ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]: '''Chornobyl''' (Чорно́биль), [[Russian (spelling)|Russian]] '''Chernobyl''' (Черно́быль) is a city in northern [[Ukraine]], near the border with [[Belarus]] ({{coor dms|51|16|0|N|30|13|60|E|}}). It was a major communications node and important centre of trade and commerce, especially in the [[19th century]]. The city is located 14.5 kilometers (9 miles) south by south-east of the Chernobyl [[nuclear power]] [[nuclear plant|plant]], which is notorious for the [[Chernobyl accident]]. The plant exploded on [[April 26]], [[1986]]; clouds of [[radioactive]] [[particle_(ecology)|particle]]s were released, and the severely damaged containment vessel started leaking radioactive matter. More than 100,000 people were evacuated from the city and other affected areas. Despite the fact that radiation is still being emitted from the nuclear disaster site, the 800-year-old city of Chernobyl survives, although barely. As of [[2004]], government workers still police the zone, trying to clean up radioactive material. Hundreds of people &amp;mdash; mostly the elderly &amp;mdash; have decided to live with the dangers and have returned to their homes in the zones' towns and villages. Their population was highest in 1987, when there were more than 1200 people. In 2003, there were about 300. ==Name origin== The city is named after the Ukrainian word for [[mugwort]] (''Artemisia vulgaris''), which is &quot;chornobyl&quot;. The word is a combination of ''chornyi'' (чорний, '
China]]. One Georgian border station is [[Akhalkalaki]]. === Railway links with adjacent countries === * [[Transportation in Russia|Russia]] - yes - (1524mm) * [[Transportation in Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] - yes - 1524mm with through [[Standard Gauge]] (1435mm)line proposed. * [[Transportation in Armenia|Armenia]] - yes (1524mm) * [[Transportation in Turkey|Turkey]] - yes - [[break-of-gauge]] with through [[Standard Gauge]] (1435mm) line proposed. ==[[Highway]]s== &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 20,700 km &lt;br&gt;''paved:'' 19,354 km , mostly in bad condition &lt;br&gt;''unpaved:'' 1,346 km (1996 est.) See also: [[Georgian Military Road]] ==[[Pipeline]]s:== [[petroleum|Crude oil]] 370 km; refined products 300 km; [[natural gas]] 440 km (1992) ==Ports and harbors== === [[Black sea]] === [[Batumi]], [[Poti|P'ot'i]], [[Sokhumi]] ==Merchant marine== &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 17 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 103,080 GRT/158,803 DWT &lt;br&gt;''ships by type:'' cargo 10, chemical tanker 1, petroleum tanker 6 (1999 est.) ==Airports== 28 (1994 est.) === Airports - with paved runways === &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 14 &lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 7 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 4 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 1 (1994 est.) === Airports - with unpaved runways === &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 14 &lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 5 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 6 (1994 est.) == See also == * [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] * [[List of Tbilisi metro stations]] [[Category:Transportation in Georgia (country)| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Georgia</title> <id>12065</id> <revision> <id>42109678</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:04:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Header - references plural</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military | color=#CC3333 | age=18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service; conscript service obligation - 18 months ([[2004]]) | availability= 1,038,736 (2005 est.) | service= 827,281 (2005 est.) | reaching age= 38,857 (2005 est.) | active= | amount=$23 million (FY00) | percent GDP=0.59% (FY00) }} ==Armed Forces of Georgia== The [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] armed forces comprise 17,500 troops, including 10,400 conscripts. Military branches include Ground Forces (including National Guard), Air and Air Defense Forces, Maritime Defense Force, and Interior Forces. [[Image:georgian soldiers pkm.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Georgian soldiers]] On [[March 23]], [[1994]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] was one of the first former [[Soviet Republic]]s to join the [[Partnership for Peace]]. Among the Partners Georgia was the first country who could submit the special documentation (May [[2004]]) and on [[29 October]] [[2004]] the [[North Atlantic Council]] approved the first [[IPAP]] for Georgia. In case if the IPAP is successful, Georgia will have good opportunity to accede to the Membership Action Plan (MAP). The U. S.-sponsored [[Georgia Train and Equip Program]] ([[GTEP]]) was launched in April [[2002]]. Although the Program formally ended in [[2004]], Georgia continues to enjoy crucial military assistance from [[NATO]], especially from the [[United States]] and [[Turkey]]. The Georgian government has announced a reform of the Georgian armed forces in order to comply with NATO standards. The government has planned to reduce the size of the armed forces and increase the number of professional soldiers to two thirds of the total manpower. Georgia has its peacekeeping force in Kosovo, and participates in the [[War on Terrorism]] in [[Iraq]] and [[Afghanistan]]. ==Russian military in Georgia== [[Russia]]n military presence is a major challenge in the country. In violation of promises made at the [[1999]] [[Istanbul]] [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] conference, [[Russia]] continues to maintain the Soviet-era military bases in [[Batumi]] and [[Akhalkalaki]]. This has been and continues to be a source of great tension with Georgia, which has threatened to block access to the facility. The Russian withdrawal talks still continue. A [[CIS]] peacekeeping force of Russian troops is deployed in the [[Abkhazia]] region of Georgia together with a [[UN]] military observer group; a Russian peacekeeping battalion is deployed in [[South Ossetia]]. The breakaway republics of [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]] have their own armed forces, though the precise number remains unknown. ==References== * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gg.html CIA World Factbook, 2005] * [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5253.htm U.S. Department of State Background Notes, 2005] * [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/georgia/mod.htm GlobalSecurity.org on Georgia’s military] ==External links== * [http://www.mod.gov.ge/ Georgia Ministry of Defence website] * [http://nsc.gov.ge/ National Security Council of Georgia] * [http://intranet.parliament.ge/parl_2004/committees_en/site_11/nato_geo.htm NATO and Georgia] * [http://www.wri-irg.org/co/rtba/georgia.htm Conscription in Georgia] * [http://www.civil.ge/eng/category.php?id=20 Georgia military news] * [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/ge^mil.html Georgia: Military flags, 2004] ==See also== * [[Georgia Train and Equip Program]] ([[GTEP]]) {{Asia in topic|Military of}} [[Category:Military of Georgia| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Georgia</title> <id>12066</id> <revision> <id>37436365</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T00:23:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.39.174.238</ip> </contributor> <comment>Remove duplicate link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Georgia}} [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]'s location, nestled between the [[Black Sea]], [[Russia]], and [[Turkey]], gives it strategic importance far beyond its size. It is developing as the gateway from the Black Sea to the [[Caucasus]] and the larger Caspian region, but also serves as a buffer between Russia and Turkey. Georgia has a long and close relationship with Russia, but it is reaching out to its other neighbors and looking to the West in search of alternatives and opportunities. It signed a partnership and cooperation agreement with the [[European Union]], participates in the [[Partnership for Peace]], and encourages foreign investment. [[France]], [[Germany]], and the [[United Kingdom]] all have embassies in [[Tbilisi]], and Germany is a significant donor. Georgia is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]] and the [[Council of Europe]]. Because of its strategic location it is in both the [[Russia|Russian]] and [[United States|American]] spheres of influence. In common with many ex Soviet republics it is both influenced by and fearful of its larger neighbour. The invitation of US troops into the country caused tension with [[Moscow]]. The [[Russian government]] also believes that Georgia is being used by [[Chechnya|Chechen]] terrorists. The American government has interests in an oil pipeline passing through the country. Former president [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] attempted to balance these competing demands. The new leadership is much closer to the United States. '''Disputes - international:''' none '''Illicit drugs:''' illicit cultivator of [[cannabis]] mostly for domestic consumption; increasingly used as a transshipment point for illicit [[illegal drug trade|drugs]] - mostly [[opium]] and [[hashish]] - to [[Western Europe]] and the [[U.S]] via [[Iran]], [[Central Asia]], and [[Russia]] {{Asia in topic|Foreign relations of}} [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Georgia]] [[Category:Government of Georgia (country)]] [[Category:Politics of Georgia (country)]] [[lt:Gruzijos tarptautiniai santykiai]] [[ru:Внешняя политика Грузии]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ghana</title> <id>12067</id> <revision> <id>42031415</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:18:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.98.174.73</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Republic of Ghana'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Ghana.svg|125px|]] | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Ghana coa.gif|125px]] |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of Ghana|In Detail]]) | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | (Full size) |} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[National motto]]: Freedom and Justice''&lt;/small&gt; |- | align=center colspan=2 | [[image:LocationGhana.png]] |- | '''[[Official language]]''' | [[English language|English]] (official), [[Ga language|Ga]], [[Twi language|Twi]], [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Dagbani language|Dagbani]], [[Fante language|Fante]], and others. |- | '''[[Capital]] and largest city''' | [[Accra]] |- | '''Capital's [[coordinate]]s''' | {{coor dm|5|33|N|0|15|W|}} |- | '''[[President of Ghana|President]]''' | [[John Agyekum Kufuor]] |- | '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water | [[List of countries by area|Ranked 79th]] &lt;br&gt; 238,540 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br&gt; 3.5% |- | '''[[Population]]''' &lt;br&gt;&
]] to the moon for the first time when Conrad and Bean were looking through the lists during their first EVA. *Another idea that did not materialize was that Conrad - who loved collecting baseball caps - had a giant one made that would fit over his space helmet. He wanted to wear it during his lunar EVA's, but there was no way that it could be smuggled on board Apollo 12 without it being found out. *The Apollo 12 mission patch has four stars on it—one each for the three astronauts who flew the mission and one for [[Clifton Williams]]. Williams was killed on [[October 5]], [[1967]], after a mechanical failure caused the controls of his T-38 trainer to stop responding. He had been assigned to the back-up crew for what would be the [[Apollo 9]] mission and would have most likely been assigned as Lunar Module pilot for Apollo 12. *A part of one of the rock samples collected on Apollo 12, lunar sample 12013, has a composition which is remarkably similar to some [[tektite]]s. It is especially similar to high-magnesium javenites (part of the Australasian strewn field of Southeast Asia). ==References== * [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.40.htm Apollo 12 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19720019081_1972019081.pdf Analysis of Surveyor 3 material and photographs returned by Apollo 12 (PDF) 1972] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730064630_1973064630.pdf Examination of Surveyor 3 surface sampler scoop returned by Apollo 12 mission (PDF) 1971] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760072997_1976072997.pdf Apollo 12 Mission Report (PDF) March 1970] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19720066106_1972066106.pdf Analysis of Apollo 12 Lightning Incident, (PDF) February 1970] ==External links== *[http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo-12/apollo-12-patch.jpg Image of mission patch] *[http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/images/AP12Trav.jpg Map of surface activities for Apollo 12] *[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo12.htm Apollo 12 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] {{Project Apollo| before=''[[Apollo 11]]''| after=[[Apollo 13]]}} [[Category:1969]] [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:Human spaceflights]] [[Category:Lunar spacecraft]] [[da:Apollo 12]] [[de:Apollo 12]] [[fi:Apollo 12]] [[fr:Apollo 12]] [[hu:Apollo-12]] [[it:Apollo 12]] [[ja:アポロ12号]] [[nl:Apollo 12]] [[pl:Apollo 12]] [[pt:Apollo 12]] [[sl:Apollo 12]] [[sv:Apollo 12]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apollo 14</title> <id>1968</id> <revision> <id>42106669</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Header - references plural</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; |+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 14'''&lt;/font&gt; |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:AP14nightingale.jpg|200px|Apollo 14 insignia]] |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 14 |- |'''Call Signs:'''||Command module: ''Kitty Hawk''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module: ''Antares'' |- |'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[January 31]], [[1971]]&lt;br /&gt;21:03:02 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A |- |'''Lunar landing:'''||[[February 5]], 1971&lt;br /&gt;09:18:11 UTC&lt;br /&gt;3° 38' 43.08&quot; S - 17° 28' 16.90&quot; W&lt;br /&gt;[[Fra Mauro]] |- |'''Lunar EVA&lt;br /&gt;length:'''||1st: 4 h 47 min 50 s&lt;br /&gt;2nd: 4 h 34 min 41 s&lt;br /&gt;Total: 9 h 22 min 31 s |- |'''Lunar surface&lt;br /&gt;time:'''||33 h 30 min 29 s |- |'''[[Lunar sample]]&lt;br /&gt;mass:'''|| 42.28 kg (93.211 lb) |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[February 9]], [[1971]]&lt;br /&gt;21:05:00 UTC&lt;br /&gt;27° 1' S - 172° 39' W |- |'''Duration:'''||9 d 0 h 1 min 58 s |- |'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbits:'''||34 |- |'''Time in&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbit:'''||66 h 35 min 39.99 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 29,240 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 15,264 kg |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001168.jpg|300px|Apollo 14 crew portrait (L-R: Roosa, Shepard, and Mitchell)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo 14 crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Roosa, Shepard, and Mitchell) |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 14 crew |} '''Apollo 14''' was the eighth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the third mission to land on the moon. ==Crew== *[[Alan Shepard]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 3]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 14''), commander *[[Stuart Roosa]] (flew on ''Apollo 14''), command module pilot *[[Edgar Mitchell]] (flew on ''Apollo 14''), lunar module pilot ===Backup crew=== *[[Gene Cernan]], commander *[[Ron Evans]], command module pilot *[[Joe Engle]], lunar module pilot ===Support crew=== *[[Philip K. Chapman|Philip Chapman]] *[[Bruce McCandless]] *[[William Pogue]] *[[Gordon Fullerton]] ==Mission parameters== *'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 29,240 kg; LM 15,264 kg *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 183.2 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 188.9 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 31.12° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.18 min *'''[[Perilune]]:''' 108.2 km *'''[[Apolune]]:''' 314.1 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' ° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 120 min *'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 3.64530° S - 17.47136° W] or&lt;br /&gt; 3° 38' 43.08&quot; S - 17° 28' 16.90&quot; W ===LM - CSM docking=== *'''Undocked''': [[February 5]], [[1971]] - 04:50:43 UTC *'''Docked''': [[February 6]], [[1971]] - 20:35:42 UTC ===EVAs=== ===='''EVA 1 start''': [[February 5]], [[1971]], 14:42:13 UTC==== * ''Shepard '' - EVA 1 *'''Stepped onto moon''': 14:54 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 19:22 UTC * ''Mitchell'' - EVA 1 *'''Stepped onto moon''': 14:58 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 19:18 UTC *'''EVA 1 end''': February 5, 19:30:50 UTC **'''Duration''': 4 hours, 47 minutes, 50 seconds ===='''EVA 2 start''': [[February 6]], [[1971]], 08:11:15 UTC==== * ''Shepard '' - EVA 2 *'''Stepped onto moon''': 08:16 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 12:38 UTC * ''Mitchell'' - EVA 2 *'''Stepped onto moon''': 08:23 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 12:28 UTC *'''EVA 2 end''': February 6, 12:45:56 UTC **'''Duration''': 4 hours, 34 minutes, 41 seconds ===See also=== * [[Extra-vehicular activity]] * [[List of spacewalks]] * [[Splashdown]] * [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] * [[Google Moon]] ==Mission highlights== [[Image:Apollo_14_LM_adapter.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Apollo 14 LM is placed in LM Adapter. (NASA)]] [[Image:Apollo14Launch.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Launch of Apollo 14]] [[Image:As14-66-9232.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Alan Shepard on lunar surface. (NASA)]] [[Image:40_A14LEM.jpg|thumb|250px|Panoramic Assembly of Fra Mauro - Apollo 14 Landing Site]] [[Image:a14-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|Depiction of the plaque left on the moon by Apollo 14]] On the way down, the LM &quot;Antares&quot; had two problems. First, the LM computer began getting an ABORT signal from the ABORT switch. NASA believed that the computer might be getting erroneous readings like this if a tiny ball of soldering material had shaken loose and was floating between the switch and the contact, closing the circuit. The immediate solution - tapping on the panel next to the switch - did work, but if the problem recurred after the descent engine fired, the computer would think the signal was real and would initiate the sequence to blow the Ascent Stage back into orbit. NASA and the software teams at MIT scrambled to find a more permanent solution - reprogramming the computer to ignore the signal - and Shepard and Mitchell were able to accomplish this just in time. The second problem was the failure of the radar to lock onto the moon's surface. Eventually, at close to the last possible moment, it started working. Shepard landed the LM closer to its intended mark than any of the other five moon landing missions. After landing in the [[Fra Mauro formation]] - the destination for [[Apollo 13]] - Shepard and Mitchell took two moon­walks, adding new seismic studies to the by now familiar Apollo experiment package, and using a &quot;lunar rickshaw&quot; pull cart to carry their equipment. Roosa, meanwhile, took pictures from on board command module &quot;Kitty Hawk&quot; in lunar orbit. The second moonwalk, or EVA, was intended to reach the rim of the 1,000­ foot (300 m) wide Cone Crater. However, the two astronauts were not able to find the rim amid the rolling terrain of the crater's slopes. Later analysis, using the pictures that they took, determined that they had come within 65 feet of the crater's rim. Shepard and Mitchell deployed and activated various scientific instruments and experiments and collected almost 100 pounds (45 kg) of lunar samples for return to earth. Other Apollo 14 achievements included: first use of Mobile Equipment Transporter (MET); largest payload placed in lunar orbit; longest distance traversed on the lunar surface; largest payload return
ff. [[Image:Movingsidewalk.JPG|right|thumb|300px|An inclined moving sidewalk at Beaudry metro station in Montreal]] [[Image:Travelator-at-Roma-Street-Station.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A travelator at Roma Street Station in Brisbane]] ===Inclined moving sidewalks=== An '''inclined moving sidewalk''', also called a '''movator''', '''travelator''' or '''moving ramp''', is used in airports and [[supermarket]]s to move people to another floor with the convenience of an [[elevator]] (people can take along their suitcase trolley or [[shopping cart]]) and the capacity of an escalator. The carts have either a [[brake]] that is automatically applied when the cart handle is released, or specially designed wheels that secure the cart within the grooves of the [[Inclined plane|ramp]], so that it does not run away down the ramp. Some [[department store]]s instead use an escalator with a specially-designed chain, similar to those used on [[roller coaster]]s, to move specially-designed carts up and down a steeper slope beside and at the same speed as the passenger escalator. The [[Central-Mid-levels escalator]] system on [[Hong Kong Island]], [[Hong Kong]] also has several inclined moving sidewalks. [[Image:Escalator receiveing maintenance (from bottom).JPG|thumb|left||An escalator receiving maintenance. The steps have been removed, showing internal workings.]] === Spiral escalators === A spiral escalator would take up much less horizontal space than the usual straight escalator flight. However, early attempts at spiral designs ended in failure, such as one constructed by Reno in conjunction with [[William Henry Aston]] at London's [[Holloway Road tube station|Holloway Road Underground station]] in 1906. It was dismantled almost immediately and little of the mechanism survives. [[Mitsubishi Electric Corporation]] has developed and manufactured curved and spiral escalators since the 1980s. One notable set of spiral escalators is at the San Francisco Shopping Centre in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]] and at [[Forum Shops at Caesars|Forum Shops]] at [[Caesars Palace]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]]. The [[Times Square (Hong Kong)|Times Square]] shopping mall in [[Causeway Bay]], [[Hong Kong]] also features four curved escalators, as does [[Wheelock Place]] in [[Singapore]]. [[Caesar's Palace]] in Las Vegas recently installed a Spiral Escalator in an expansion and retail center. == History == In [[1892]], [[Charles A. Wheeler]] patented ideas for the first practical moving staircase, though it was never built. Some of its features were incorporated in the prototype built by the Otis Elevator Company in 1899. [[Jesse W. Reno]] invented the first escalator and installed it as an amusement ride at [[Coney Island]], [[New York, New York|New York]] in [[1897]]. This particular device was little more than a inclined belt with wooden slats or cleats on the surface for traction. The incline was as steep as 25°. Reno sold this machine to the [[Otis Elevator Company]] in [[1899]], and together they produced the first commercial escalator which won a first prize at the [[Paris]] [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|1900 Exposition Universelle]] in [[France]]. Some escalators of this vintage were still being used in the [[MBTA|Boston subway]] until 1994. Around the same time that Reno's invention appeared, [[Charles Seeberger]] developed a form of escalator as well. This device actually consisted of flat, moving stairs, not unlike the escalators of today, except for one important detail: the step surface was smooth, with no comb effect to safely guide the rider's feet off at the ends. Instead, the passenger had to step off sideways. To facilitate this, at the top or bottom of the escalator the steps continued moving horizontally beyond the end of the handrail (like a mini-moving sidewalk) until they disappeared under a triangular &quot;divider&quot; which guided the passenger to either side. The first escalator installed on the [[London Underground]] was one such Seeberger model; it was located at [[Earl's Court tube station|Earls Court]], [[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]. For a time, Otis Elevator sold both types of escalator. The company later combined the best aspects of both the Reno (guiding slats) and Seeberger (flat steps) inventions and in 1921 produced an escalator of the type used today. These improvements in design brought the escalator into extensive use in department stores, banks and [[metro]] stations. The German company [[Orenstein and Koppel GmbH|Orenstein &amp; Koppel]] (O&amp;K) would also become a major player in escalator design and manufacture. Escalators in the [[London Underground]] once had wooden steps, but this was changed after the [[Kings Cross fire|fire at King's Cross St. Pancras tube station]] in [[1987]]. Old escalators with wooden steps are still in use in some places, however, such as the [[Tyne Tunnel|Tyne Cyclist and Pedestrian Tunnel]] in [[Tyne and Wear]], [[England]], the [[Macy's]] department store in [[New York City]] and the St. Anna Pedestrian Tunnel underneath the [[Schelde]] in [[Antwerp]], [[Belgium]]. == Usage == When using escalators, it is customary for passengers who wish to stand and let themselves be carried up or down to stand on one side to allow other users to walk past them. The observance of this custom varies greatly from place to place&amp;mdash;the rule is more likely to be adhered to on, for example, the long escalators of an underground transport system than in a department store. Additionally it is customary to stand on a fixed side, so that walking people do not have to [[zigzag]]. The side for standing also varies, and does not necessarily correspond with the [[rules of the road]]: on the [[London Underground]], and [[Washington Metro]], and in [[Hong Kong]], one stands on the right; in [[Singapore]] and [[Australia]] on the left. In the [[Montreal Metro]], while walking on escalators is theoretically forbidden, this rule is scarcely observed and not at all enforced, and passengers tend to stand on the right. A mnemonic for the U.S./British convention on this point is that ''stand'' and ''right'' each have five letters, while ''walk'' and ''left'' have four. For fun, people sometimes use an escalator in opposite direction, climbing up or down the stairs faster than it moves. This can cause inconvenience for other users, unless it is very quiet. Sometimes escalators help in controlling traffic flow of people. For example, an escalator to an exit prevents most people from using it as entrance, hence it does not require a regular ticket check. An eye has to be kept on people trying to avoid the ticket check by using the escalator in opposite direction, compare [[turnstile jumping]]. == Accidents == There have been various reports of people actually falling off a moving escalator or getting their shoe stuck in part of the escalator. A few fatal accidents are known to have involved escalators and travelators: [[Sally Baldwin]], a professor of the [[University of York]], was crushed to death at [[Tiburtina Station]] in [[Rome]] on [[28 October]] [[2003]] after a travelator collapsed and she was pulled into the cogwheels. In another incident, on [[June 15]], [[2002]], Andrea Albright, a 24-year-old [[JC Penney]] employee in the [[Mall in Columbia]] ([[Columbia, Maryland]]), was critically injured while riding the store's escalator from the first to the second level. She somehow got her head caught between the escalator rail and a low ceiling. Albright died 10 days later of massive injuries to the [[brain]] from lack of [[oxygen]]. In 2005, her parents sued the property manager, two design firms, and the escalator company for $5 million. Francisco Portillo, a [[El Salvador|Salvadorian]] man living in Boston, died after getting his hood stuck in an [[MBTA]] escalator on [[21 February]], [[2005]]. Newer models of escalators are equipped with a device called a comb-plate sensor that will stop the escalator if something gets caught. [[Image:Long escalator in Washington Metro.jpg|thumb|300px|A long escalator in the [[Washington Metro]]]] == Longest escalators and systems == In [[Hong Kong]], tens of thousands of commuters travel each work day between [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], the [[Central business district|central business district]], and the [[Mid-levels]], a residential district hundreds of feet uphill, using a long distance system of escalators and [[moving sidewalk]]s called the [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator]]. It is the world's longest outdoor escalator ''system'' (not a single escalator span), at a total length of 800 m. It goes only one way at a time; the direction reverses depending on rush hour traffic direction. The [[Ocean Park, Hong Kong|Ocean Park]] in [[Hong Kong]] also has a long escalator system connecting two parts of the Park. In the [[Times Square (Hong Kong)|Times Square]] [[shopping centre]] in [[Causeway Bay]] there is a bank of four [[Escalator#Spiral_escalators|spiral escalators]], each of which turns through about 180 degrees - by necessity, the undersides of these escalators are thicker as the step return mechanism needs to be more complex than on a straight escalator. The longest escalator in the [[Western Hemisphere]] is at the [[Wheaton (Washington Metro)|Wheaton]] station of the [[Washington Metro]] [[rapid transit|subway]] system. It is 155 m (508ft) long, and takes almost 3 and a half minutes to ascend or descend without walking. It replaced what was formerly the longest escalator in the Western Hemisphere, which is also located on the Washington Metro system at the [[Bethesda (Washington Metro)|Bethesda]] station. The longest escalator on earth is a four-section outdoor escalator at Ocean Park, Hong Kong, with an overall length of 224 m (745ft). However, the metro systems in several cities in Eastern Europe (including [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Kiev|Kyi
view upon the world. Usually the eyes are focused in the same direction; but sometimes they're not. And as a result, each eye sees things in a different way. That doesn't mean that I see two visual sense-data in my mind; but it does mean that there are two slightly different acts of vision going on. One for each eye! What's mysterious about that? Nothing, as far as I can tell. And similar things can be said about the coin that appears both circular and oval-shaped: so the same coin can reflect different patterns of light to my eye. Does that mean that I perceive two different sense-data? No, all it means is that I perceive the same coin in two different ways. Now as for Mary's vivid hallucination of the pink elephants. It was so vivid that the elephants were just as real as real elephants. We said this was evidence for thinking that she is perceiving sense-data; she sure as heck isn't perceiving elephants, and yet she seems to be hallucinating something. So maybe it's elephant sense-data that she is hallucinating. Well, that seems like a pretty tough case to deal with. It definitely does seem that there is an object, in some sense, of Mary's hallucination; but this object is only in her mind. Isn't that what we'd call sense-data? The direct realist might reply to that case as follows: Mary was not perceiving anything at all; she was hallucinating. That's a different, though related, mental process. So maybe Mary has visual images of some sort when she is hallucinating; that wouldn't mean that she has such images when she engages in actual sense-perception. This may not be a particularly strong reply. If there are visual images when we hallucinate, it seems reasonable to think that there are visual images when we see. It's the same way with dreams: if there are visual and auditory images of some sort in our minds, when we dream, it seems reasonable to think that there are visual and auditory images, or sense-data, when we are awake and perceiving things. We might ask for a better reply. Some people end up denying that there are any such things as mental images at all, but this is rather hard to maintain, since we seem to be able to imagine all sorts of things: for example, here's something that will give you an image: imagine a square, then imagine the top of the square popping off and disappearing, and the two sides of the square collapsing together at a point, to make a triangle. Even if it should happen that perception does not involve images, other mental processes, like imagination, certainly seem to. ==Mental images== The topic of mental images is very complicated and controversial. One considered view is similar to Reid's. It is that, in some sense, we do indeed have images of various sorts in our minds when we perceive, and dream, and hallucinate, and use our imaginations, but when we actually perceive things, our sensory images, or sensations, if you will (that's Reid's word), cannot be considered the objects of perception, or attention, in any sense whatsoever. The only objects of perception are external objects. Even if perception is accompanied by images, or sensations, it's wrong to say we perceive sensations. This conclusion shows that direct realism simply defines perception as perception of external objects where an 'external object' is allowed to be a photon in the eye but not an impulse in a nerve leading from the eye. Recent work in neuroscience suggests a shared ontology for perception, imagination and dreaming, with similar areas of brain being used for all of these. As le Morvan (2004) points out, such a shared ontology is fatal for direct realism. ==See also== * [[Philosophy of mind]] * [[Consciousness]] * [[Philosophy of perception]] * [[Thomas Reid]] [[Category:Philosophy of mind]] == External links == * [http://home.sprynet.com/~owl1/book1.htm ''Skepticism and the Veil of Perception''], book defending direct realism. * [http://www.tcnj.edu/~lemorvan/DR_web.pdf Pierre Le Morvan, &quot;Arguments against direct realism and how to counter them&quot;], ''American Philosophical Quaterly'' 41, no. 3 (2004): 221-234. (pdf) *[http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/webstuff/bubw3/bubw3.html Steven Lehar, &quot;Gestalt Isomorphism&quot;] (2003), paper criticizing direct realism. * [http://home.sprynet.com/~owl1/dis.htm ''A Direct Realist Account of Perceptual Awareness''], dissertation on direct realism. * &quot;[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sense-data/ Sense Data]&quot;, article from the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. * [http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/cartoonepist/EpistDebate.html Epistemological debate on PSYCHE-D mailing list] * [http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/cartoonepist/cartoonepist.html A Cartoon Epistemology]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dune</title> <id>7890</id> <revision> <id>41885895</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:27:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.171.194.41</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Crescentic */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{two other uses|sand formations|the [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]]|Dune (novel)}} [[image:Mesquite_Sand_Dunes.JPG|thumb|300px|Mesquite Flat Dunes in [[Death Valley National Park]]]] In physical [[geography]], a '''dune''' is a [[hill]] of [[sand]] built by [[eolian]] ([[wind]]-related) processes. Bare dunes are subject to shifting location and size based on their interaction with the wind. The &quot;valley&quot; or trough between dunes is called a ''slack''. A &quot;dune field&quot; is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the [[beach]]. In most such cases the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the [[sea]]. Although the most widely distributed dunes are those associated with coastal regions, the largest complexes of dunes are found inland in dry regions and associated with ancient [[lake]] or [[sea]] beds. Dunes also form under the action of water flow ([[alluvial]] processes), on sand or [[gravel]] beds of [[river|rivers]], [[estuary|estuaries]] and the sea-bed. ==Types of dune== ===Crescentic=== The most common dune form on Earth (and on Mars) is the crescentic. Crescent-shaped mounds generally are wider than long. The slipface is on the dune's concave side. These dunes form under winds that blow from one direction, and they also are known as barchans, or transverse dunes. Some types of crescentic dunes move faster over [[desert]] surfaces than any other type of dune. A group of dunes moved more than 100 meters per year between 1954 and 1959 in [[China]]'s [[Ningxia Province]]; similar rates have been recorded in the Western Desert of [[Egypt]]. The largest crescentic dunes on Earth, with mean crest-to-crest widths of more than 3 kilometers, are in China's [[Taklamakan]] Desert. ===Linear=== Straight or slightly sinuous sand ridges typically much longer than they are wide are known as linear dunes. They may be more than 160 kilometers long. Linear dunes may occur as isolated ridges, but they generally form sets of parallel ridges separated by miles of sand, gravel, or rocky interdune corridors. Some linear dunes merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes. Many form in bidirectional wind regimes. The long axes of these dunes extend in the resultant direction of sand movement. ===Star=== Radially symmetrical, star dunes are pyramidal sand mounds with slipfaces on three or more arms that radiate from the high center of the mound. They tend to accumulate in areas with multidirectional wind regimes. Star dunes grow upward rather than laterally. They dominate the [[Grand Erg Oriental]] of the Sahara. In other deserts, they occur around the margins of the [[sand sea]]s, particularly near topographic barriers. In the southeast [[Badain Jaran Desert]] of China, the star dunes are up to 500 meters tall and may be the tallest dunes on Earth. ===Dome=== Oval or circular mounds that generally lack a slipface, dome dunes are rare and occur at the far upwind margins of sand seas. [[Image:Parabolic_dune.jpg|200px|thumb|Parabolic dune partially stabilized by [[marram grass]]]] ===Parabolic=== U-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by elongated arms are parabolic dunes. Sometimes these dunes are called U-shaped, blowout, or hairpin dunes, and they are well known in coastal deserts. Unlike crescentic dunes, their crests point upwind. The elongated arms of parabolic dunes follow rather than lead because they have been fixed by vegetation, while the bulk of the sand in the dune migrates forward. ; ===Combined types=== [[Image:SandDuneNamibDesert.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Complex dune: [[Dune 7]] in the [[Namib desert]], one of the tallest in the world.]] Occurring wherever winds periodically reverse direction, reversing dunes are varieties of any of the above types. These dunes typically have major and minor slipfaces oriented in opposite directions. All these dune types may occur in three forms: simple, compound, and complex. Simple dunes are basic forms with a minimum number of slipfaces that define the geometric type. Compound dunes are large dunes on which smaller dunes of similar type and slipface orientation are superimposed, and complex dunes are combinations of two or more dune types. A crescentic dune with a star dune superimposed on its crest is the most common complex dune. Simple dunes represent a wind regime that has not changed in intensity or direction since the formation of the dune, while compound and complex dunes suggest that the intensity and direction of the wind has changed. ==Coastal dunes== [[Image:Curonian spit.jpg|200px|thumb|Coastal dunes in [[Curonian spit]]]] Dunes form on coasts where the backshore can support and onshore winds encourage the accumulation of sand blown inland from off a beach. Any part of the upper beach, once dry, can lose sa
Space Agency) that is capable of human space flight and will further decrease costs for European manned missions (see below). One Soyuz launch costs approximately $30 million. {{ref|soyuzlaunch}} For a true comparison between the budgets, this major difference has between NASA and ESA should be taken into account. # While NASA's funding of many research projects has been cut in the recent years and months in order to free money for the development of the [[Crew Exploration Vehicle]] and for the retirement of the Space Shuttle, ESA's investment in research and development projects has increased steadily in the last years. With the joining of new ESA member states the budget is likely to increase further. # After the [[space race]] activities of the 1960s and early '70s, NASA has maintained a huge administration and bureaucracy that still burdens both current projects and NASA budgets. ESA was never involved in large-scale political activity such as the space race, it therefore has always had a small and efficient structure and agency level comparable to a private company. ====Comparison to other space agencies==== In terms of absolute Euros (Dollars), ESA has the second largest budget after NASA, with the Japanese [[JAXA]] having annual funds of €1.6 thousand million at its disposal {{ref|jaxabudget}} taking the third place, followed by the ambitious Chinese Space Agency with around €1 billion and the [[Russian Space Agency]] which incurred a considerable boost in funding in 2006 with an annual federal budget of $800-900 million {{ref|russianbudget}}. The [[Indian Space Agency]] has about the same amount of funds available as Russia. If not counted as part of Europe's total space budget together with ESA's 3 billion space budget (as outlined above) and other European space agencies, the [[French Space Agency]] would be in 4th place with €1.3 billion. One point in favour of the Russian Space Agency, the Chinese and the Indian space programs, is that their budgets are growing rapidly largely stemming from the high growth rates of their economies, which leads to increasing amounts of money available with the government. It should be noted that space programs have high labour costs, thus in order to compare the actual funds available for each space agency some adjustment with regard to [[purchasing power parity]] in each country should be made. As PPP is 5.5 for India and 4.5 for China, their space program budgets are actually worth more than the absolute euro/dollar figures. Still, considering that Russia, Europe, the US, China, India and Japan are all competing in commercial space launches and costs for rocket launches are in the same range for all of the forementioned countries, it seems that a modifier lower than 4 or 5 would be warranted for a true comparison of national space funding. A very good example of the true comparison of funding is the Russian Space Agency which partly due to its large experience in LEO manned space flight but also due to a higher [[purchasing power parity]] could sustain a manned space program comparable to [[NASA]] throughout the last 15 years despite its dramatically lower budget. ===Notable national space agencies=== *The ''[[CNES|Centre National d'Études Spatiales]]'' (CNES) (National Centre for Space Study) is the French government space agency (administratively, a &quot;public establishment of industrial and commercial character&quot;). Its headquarters are in central [[Paris]]. *The [[Italian Space Agency]] (''Agenzia Spaziale Italiana'' or ASI) was founded in [[1988]] to promote, coordinate and conduct space activities in Italy. Operating under the Ministry of the Universities and of Scientific and Technological Research, the agency cooperates with numerous entities active in space technology and with the president of the Council of Ministers. Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of the European Space Agency and to its subordinate bodies. *The German Aerospace Center (DLR) (German: ''Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.'') is the national research centre for aviation and space flight of the Federal Republic of Germany and of other member states in the [[Helmholtz Association]]. Its extensive research and development projects are included in national and international cooperative programmes. In addition to its research projects, the centre is the assigned space agency of Germany bestowing headquarters of German space flight activities and its associates. *The [[British National Space Centre]] (BNSC) is a partnership of the UK government departments which are active in space. Through the BNSC the partners provide delegates to represent the UK on the various ESA governing bodies. Each partner funds its own programme. ==Launch vehicle fleet== [[Image:1Ariane5LaunchArianespace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Ariane 5]] launched ESA's [[Rosetta space probe]] in March 2004.]] ESA has made great progress towards its goal of having a complete fleet of launch vehicles in service, competing in all sectors of the launch market. ESA's fleet will soon consist of three major rocket designs, [[Ariane 5]], [[Soyuz launch vehicle|Soyuz]] and [[Vega (launcher)|Vega]]. Rocket launches are carried out by [[Arianespace]], an ESA subsidiary (a minority share is held by [[EADS]] as well), at ESA's [[spaceport]] in French Guiana. Because many communication satellites have equatorial orbits, launches from French Guiana are able to take larger payloads into space than from other northern spaceports. ===Ariane 5=== The [[Ariane 5]] rocket is the primary launcher of the ESA. Its maximum estimated [[payload]] is 6-10 metric tons to [[Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO]] and up to 21 metric tons to [[Low earth orbit|LEO]]. The launch craft has been in service since [[1997]] and replaced the [[Ariane 4]]. The Ariane rocket exists in several specifications, the heaviest one of these is the [[Ariane 5 ECA]] that has been successfully launched in February 2005 for the first time, after it failed during its first test flight in 2002. {{ref|ariane}} ESA's [[Ariane]] [[Ariane 1|1]], [[Ariane 2|2]], [[Ariane 3|3]] and [[Ariane 4|4]] launchers (the latter of which was ESA's long time workhorse) have been retired. ===Soyuz launch vehicle=== [[Soyuz launch vehicle|Soyuz]] is a Russian medium [[payload]] (ca. 3 metric tons to [[Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO]]) launcher to be brought into ESA service in [[2007]] {{ref|soyuz2}}.ESA has entered into a 340 million euro joint venture with the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] over the use of the Soyuz launcher {{ref|soyuzcoop}}. Under the agreement, the Russian agency will manufacture Soyuz rocket parts for ESA, which will then be shipped to French Guiana for assembly. ESA benefits because it gains a medium [[payload]]s launcher, complementing its fleet while saving on development costs. In addition, the Soyuz rocket &amp;mdash; which has been the Russian's space launch workhorse for some 40 years &amp;mdash; is proven technology with a good safety record, which ESA might be happy to use for launching humans into space. Russia also benefits in that it will get access to the Kourou launch site. Launching from Kourou rather than [[Baikonur]] will allow the Russians to almost double the Soyuz payload (3.0 tonnes vs. 1.7 tonnes), because of Kourou's closer proximity to the equator. Both sides benefit from the long term strategic cooperation that in addition will be used to jointly develop future technology. It is perhaps worth noting that France (ESA's largest contributor) has historically had good relations with Russia, which contributed to reaching the agreement. (See [http://stream1.euronews.net:8080/ramgen/mag/space-soyouz-en.rm?usehostname EuroNews report about the joint venture] (Real video stream).) ===Vega=== [[Vega (launcher)|Vega]] is ESA's small payload (ca. 1.5 metric tons to 700 km orbit) launcher; its first launch is planned for [[2007]] {{ref|Vega}}. The leading ESA's member state for the Vega Programme is [[Italy]] contributing 65% of the costs. Vega itself has been designed to be a body launcher with three solid propulsion stages and an additional [[liquid propulsion]] upper module to place the cargo into the exact orbit intended. For a small-cargo rocket it is remarkable that Vega will be able to place multiple [[payload]]s into orbit. ''See also: [http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/VEGAbrochure.pdf ESA's Vega Brochure]'' ==Human space flight== ===History=== [[image:Chretien2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Jean-Loup Chrétien]] became the first Western European to fly into space]] At the time ESA was formed its main goals did not encompass human space flight, rather it considered itself to be primarily a scientific research organisation for unmanned space exploration in contrast to its American and Soviet counterparts. It is therefore not surprising that the first non-Soviet European in space was not an ESA astronaut on a European space craft: It was [[Czechoslovakian]] [[Vladimir Remek]] who in [[1978]] became the first non-soviet European in space (the truly first European in space being Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union) - on a [[Soviet]] [[Soyuz spacecraft]], followed by the [[Poles|Pole]] [[Mirosław Hermaszewski]] and [[East German]] [[Sigmund Jähn]] in the same year. This [[Soviet]] cooperation programme named [[Intercosmos]] primarily involved the participation of [[Eastern bloc]] countries, however in [[1982]] [[Jean-Loup Chrétien]] became the first western European cosmonaut on a flight to the [[Soviet]] [[Salyut 7]] space station. Because Chrétien did not officially fly into space as an ESA astronaut, but rather as a member of the French [[CNES]] astronaut corps, the German [[Ulf Merbold]] is considered the first ESA astronaut ever to fly into space. He participated in the [[STS-9]] space shuttle mission that included the first use of the European built [[Spacelab]] in [[1983]]. STS-9 marked the beginning of
ed wing, the [[Islamic Salvation Army]], disbanded in January [[2000]] and many armed militants of other groups surrendered under an [[amnesty]] program designed to promote national reconciliation. Nevertheless, small numbers of armed militants persist in confronting government forces and carrying out isolated attacks on villages and other types of terrorist attacks. Other concerns include [[Berber]] unrest, large-scale unemployment, a shortage of housing, and the need to diversify the [[petroleum]]-based economy. ==See also== *[[History of Africa]] *[[History of present-day nations and states]] ==References== *[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html Library of Congress Country Study on Algeria] *[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/8005.htm#history U.S. Department of State Background Note on Algeria] *[http://www.algeria-watch.de/francais.htm Algeria watch] *[http://www.bluespader.org/uploads/071_1.html Blue Spader Journals] *[http://www.rulers.org/rula1.html#algeria Rulers.org — Algeria] List of rulers for Algeria {{Africa in topic|History of}} [[Category:History by country|Algeria]] [[Category:History of Algeria| ]] [[ar:تاريخ الجزائر]] [[de:Geschichte Algeriens]] [[es:Historia de Argelia]] [[fr:Histoire de l'Algérie]] [[ja:アルジェリアの歴史]] [[lt:Alžyro istorija]] [[sv:Algeriets historia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Zimbabwe</title> <id>14114</id> <revision> <id>42092112</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:51:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Skysmith</username> <id>6995</id> </contributor> <comment>revert anon nonsense</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{attention}} This is the '''history of [[Zimbabwe]]''', a nation in southern [[Africa]]. == Ancient civilizations == Archaeologists have found [[Stone-Age]] implements and pebble tools in several areas of Zimbabwe, a suggestion of [[human]] habitation for many centuries, and the ruins of stone buildings provide evidence of early civilization. The most impressive of these sites are the [[Great Zimbabwe]] ruins, after which the country is named, located near [[Masvingo]]. Evidence suggests that these stone structures were built between the [[9th century|9th]] and [[13th century|13th centuries CE]] by indigenous [[Africans]] who had established trading contacts with commercial centers on Africa's southeastern coast. There have been many civilizations in Zimbabwe as is shown by the ancient stone structures at [[Khami]], Great Zimbabwe and [[Dhlo-Dhlo]]. The first major civilization to become established was the [[Mwene Mutapa]] (or [[Monomotapa]]s), who were said to have built Great Zimbabwe, in the ruins of which was found the soapstone bird that features on the Zimbabwean flag. By the mid-[[1440s]], King Mutota's empire included almost all of the Rhodesian (Zimbabwean) plateau and extensive parts of what is now [[Mozambique]]. The wealth of this empire was based on small-scale industries, for example iron smelting, textiles, gold and copper, along with agriculture. The regular inhabitants of the empire's trading towns were the Arab and Swahili merchants with whom trade was conducted. The [[Gokomere]] people, a [[Bantu]]-speaking group of migrant farmers, inhabited the Great Zimbabwe site from about [[500]]&amp;nbsp;CE, displacing earlier [[Khoisa]]n people. From about [[1000]], the fortress took shape, reaching its peak by the fifteenth century. These were the ancestors of the [[Shona people|Shona]] (or Mashona) people, who make up about 80% of modern Zimbabwe's population. Later they formed the [[Rozwi Empire]], which continued until the nineteenth century. == Arrival of the Portuguese == In the early 16th century A.D. the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] arrived and destroyed this trade and began a series of wars which left the empire so weakened that it was near collapse in the early 17th century. Several Shona states came together to form the Rozwi Empire which covered more than half of present day Zimbabwe. By 1690 the Portuguese had been forced off the plateau and the Rozwi controlled much of the land formerly under Mwene Mutapa. Peace and prosperity reigned over the next two centuries and the centres of Dhlo-Dhlo, Khami, and Great Zimbabwe reached their peaks. As a result of the mid-19th century turmoil in [[Transvaal]] and [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]], the Rozwi Empire came to an end. == Ndebele invasion == The [[Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)|Matabele]] (Ndebele) people in the south arrived in 1834 A.D.-- [[Mzilikazi]] fleeing [[Shaka]]. == British Conquest == British occupation began in the 1890s, under the leadership of [[Cecil Rhodes]], after whom the area was renamed Rhodesia. A treaty was signed with the [[British South Africa Company]] in 1888 allowing them to mine gold in the kingdom and to use force to enforce the terms of the treaty, now under Matabele rule. The increasing influx of settlers as a result of this treaty led to war with [[Lobengula]], King of [[Matabeleland]] in 1896-97. Lobengula died while fleeing north, and the Ndebele were defeated and European immigration began in earnest. == Self-government == Rhodesia became a [[self-governing colony]] with responsible Government in 1923. What this meant was that there was a local parliament although some powers (notably relating to African political advancement) were retained by [[London]]. Southern Rhodesia (as it was called then) was ruled via the [[Dominions Office]] (and ''not'' the [[Colonial Office]]) although strictly speaking the country was not a Dominion (like [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[South Africa]] etc.). This however was a unique case. From 1953 to 1963, Southern Rhodesia was part of the [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]]. The federation fell apart in 1963 when white minority rule collapsed in the other members of the federation who were granted independence as [[Zambia]] and [[Malawi]]. Southern Rhodesia reverted to its status as a [[crown colony]] in Britain but was now known as [[Rhodesia]]. From 1953 to 1958, the Southern Rhodesian government of [[Garfield Todd]] attempted to introduce liberal reforms to increase educational rights for the Black majority but Todd was forced from power when he attempted to expand the number of Blacks eligible to vote from 2% to 16%. The governments that followed Todd's became increasingly repressive introducing laws such as the ''Law and Order (Maintenance) Act of 1960'' and the ''Emergency Powers Act'' which restricted the rights of the Black African majority. The formation of a number of political parties along with sporadic acts of sabotage came as a result of African impatience with the pace of reforms and then in opposition to increased repression. At the forefront of this move was the [[Zimbabwe African Peoples Union]] (ZAPU), mostly [[Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)|Ndebele]], led by [[Joshua Nkomo]]. It was shortly joined by the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), mostly [[Shona people|Shona]], a breakaway group under [[Ndabaningi Sithole]]. After the collapse of the federation in 1963, both ZAPU and ZANU were banned and the majority of their leaders imprisoned. == Unilateral independence == [[United Kingdom|Britain]] adopted a policy known as [[NIBMAR]] (No Independence Before Majority African Rule), but in 1965 [[Ian Smith]]'s hardline [[Rhodesian Front]] (RF) party won every one of the 50 seats in the Legislative Assembly, which was controlled by the white minority. On [[11 November]], [[1965]], Smith made a [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI)]]. Initially, Smith claimed loyalty to [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] as head of state, although he refused to recognise the authority of her Governor, Sir Humphrey Gibbs. He declared Rhodesia a [[republic]] in 1970. [[United Kingdom|Britain]] declared Smith's actions illegal, and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] imposed economic sanctions. The UDI was not recognised by any other country, even by the [[apartheid]] regime in [[South Africa]]. In 1968 the [[UN]] voted to make the sanctions mandatory but they were largely ineffective. The measures taken by the British government to force Smith to revoke UDI seemed useless, as the economic sanctions imposed actually saw Rhodesia's economy grow. Most of the infrastructure still in the country today was developed during this period. == Guerrilla warfare== Both ZAPU and ZANU began campaigns of guerrilla warfare around 1966, and guerrilla raids led to escalation in white emigration from Rhodesia. Warfare continued through 1979, leaving 27000 dead. The coming of independence in [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]] in 1975 altered the power balance within Rhodesia greatly as it forced [[South Africa]] and the [[United States]] to rethink their attitudes to the area, in order that they could protect their economic and political interests. Attempts were made by both countries to pressure Smith into accepting majority rule. With [[Kenneth Kaunda]]'s Zambian support the nationalist groups were convinced to come together under the united front of [[Abel Muzorewa]]'s [[African National Council]]. The imprisoned nationalist leaders were released. Continuing talks failed to bring the two sides to an agreement, despite changes to the nationalist &quot;line-up&quot;, now called the Patriotic Front (PF), a union of ZANU and ZAPU. Muzorewa had since formed a new party, the United African National Council ([[UANC]]), as had Sithole, who had formed a breakaway party from ZANU, called ZANU Ndonga. In the face of a white exodus, Ian Smith made an agreement with Muzorewa and Sithole, known as the Internal Settlement. This led to the holding of new elections in 1979 in which black Africans would be in the majority for the first time. The country was renamed [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] in 1979, with Muzorewa as Prime Minister. However, the new state was
of his death, a memorial plaque was unveiled at his former residence, Hollymeade, in Wilmslow on [[June 7]] [[2004]]. [[Image:Turing_Plaque.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Plaque marking Turing's home]] The [[Alan Turing Institute]] was initiated by [[UMIST]] and [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] in Summer 2004. A celebration of Turing's life and achievements was held at the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] on [[5 June]] [[2004]]; it was arranged by the [[British Logic Colloquium]] and the [[British Society for the History of Mathematics]]. On [[October 28]] [[2004]] a bronze statue of Alan Turing sculpted by [[John W. Mills]] was unveiled at the [[University of Surrey]] [http://portal.surrey.ac.uk/press/oct2004/281004a/]. The statue marks the 50th anniversary of Turing's death. It portrays Turing carrying his books across the campus. [[Holtsoft]] produces a [[Turing programming language|programming language]] named for Turing. The language is designed for beginner programmers and has no direct access to the hardware. The [[Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico]] named a computer laboratory for graduate studies the [[Turing Lab]]. == Turing biographies == * Andrew Hodges wrote a definitive biography ''Alan Turing: The Enigma'' in 1983 (see references below). * The play ''Breaking the Code'' by Hugh Whitemore is about the life and death of Turing. In the original [[West End]] and [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] runs, the role of Turing was played by [[Derek Jacobi]], who also played Turing in a 1995 television adaptation of the play. *{{cite book | author=Leavitt, David | title=The Man Who Knew Too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer | publisher=New York: W. W. Norton | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0393052362}} == Turing in fiction== * Turing appears as a character in [[Neal Stephenson]]'s ''[[Cryptonomicon]]''. * In another one of Stephenson's books, ''[[The Diamond Age]]'', there is an intuitive explanation of recursion, important to Turing's and related work on computability, put into the format of a child's book. * &quot;Turing Police&quot; (Artificial Intelligence law enforcers) appear in [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s ''[[Neuromancer]]''. *In White Wolf Game Studio's [[World of Darkness]] role-playing universe, Turing was a leading member of the [[Mage: The Ascension|mage]] faction known as the [[Virtual Adepts]]. * An [[FBI]] [[Special agent|agent]] named Alan Turing made an appearance in the [[webcomic]] ''[[Questionable Content]]'' as a homage to Turing. * Appears in ''[[Enigma (novel)|Enigma]]'' by [[Robert Harris]] * A young Alan Turing introduces the title character to [[Kurt Gödel|Gödel]]'s first [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem|incompleteness theorem]] in [[Apostolos Doxiadis]]'s novel ''[[Uncle Petros and Goldbach's Conjecture]]''. * In the 1989 ''[[Doctor Who]]'' serial ''[[The Curse of Fenric]]'', the character of Dr. Judson is based on Turing. Turing himself is a narrator of the [[Doctor Who spin-offs#Original fiction|''Doctor Who'' spin-off]] [[Eighth Doctor Adventures|novel]] ''The Turing Test'' by Paul Leonard. * [[Greg Egan]]'s novella, ''[http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/MISC/ORACLE/Oracle.html Oracle]'', is about an alternate universe version of Turing * In [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s [[2010: Odyssey Two]], the sequel to [[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]], the stoic [[Dr. Chandra]], the programmer who created [[HAL 9000]], has a completely spartan cubicle except for a photo of Turing beside his computer screen. == See also == * [[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]] * [[Alan Turing's Unorganized Machines]] == References == * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Turing|title=Alan Mathison Turing}} * Copeland, B. Jack (2004) &quot;Colossus: Its Origins and Originators&quot;. ''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'', 26(4):38&amp;ndash;45. * Copeland, B. Jack (editor, 2004) ''[http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-825079-7 The Essential Turing]''. [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0-19-825079-7 (hardback) and ISBN 0-19-825080-0 (paperback). * Copeland, B. Jack (editor, 2005), ''[http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-856593-3 Alan Turing's Automatic Computing Engine]''. [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0-19-856593-3. * Hodges, Andrew (1983/2000). ''Alan Turing: The Enigma''. [[Simon &amp; Schuster]], 1983, ISBN 0-671-49207-1. Also: Walker Publishing Company, 2000. * [[Christof Teuscher]] (editor 2004), ''Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker''. [[Springer-Verlag]], ISBN 3540200207. * Yates, David M. (1997) ''Turing's Legacy: A history of computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945&amp;ndash;1995''. London: [[Science Museum, London|Science Museum]], ISBN 0-901805-94-7. * [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] (1932/1976) ''Wittgenstein's Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics (1932-1935)''. Edited by Cora Diamond. Cornell University Press. * [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/18/books/review/18johnson.html Johnson, George (2005) &quot;Enigmatic&quot;]. New York Times Book Review (12/18/2005). Review of David Leavitt, &lt;cite&gt;The Man Who Knew Too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer (2005)&lt;/cite&gt;. * [http://www.newyorker.com/critics/books/articles/060206crbo_books Holt, Jim (2006) &quot;CODE-BREAKER The life and death of Alan Turing.&quot;]. The New Yorker (1/30/2006). Review of David Leavitt, &lt;cite&gt;The Man Who Knew Too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer (2005)&lt;/cite&gt;. ==Note== {{ent|1|Hodges.26}} Hodges p. 26. == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/ Alan Turing Home Page] by Andrew Hodges including a [http://www.turing.org.uk/bio/part1.html short biography] * [http://www.alanturing.net/ AlanTuring.net Turing Archive for the History of Computing] by Jack Copeland * [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/turing.html A short biography] * [http://www.systemtoolbox.com/article.php?history_id=3 Alan Turing &amp;ndash; Towards a Digital Mind: Part 1] * [http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/TuringArticle.html Computing machinery and intelligence] &amp;mdash; full text of article. * [http://www.skyscraper.org.uk Skyscraper song inspired by Alan Turing] * [http://www.5xm.com/turing/ Hollymeade unveiling of memorial plaque marking 50th anniversary of Turing's untimely death] * [http://www.swintons.net/jonathan/turing.htm Alan Turing and morphogenesis] * [http://www.turingarchive.org The Turing Archive] * [http://www.teuscher.ch/turingday Turing Day 2002] * [http://www.maths.man.ac.uk/logic/turing2004/ Turing 2004: A celebration of his life and achievements] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/turing/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] * [http://www.adeptis.ru/vinci/m_part1_2.html Photos] {{Link FA|es}} [[Category:1912 births|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:1954 deaths|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:20th century mathematicians|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:20th century philosophers|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Alan Turing|Alan Turing]] [[Category:Alumni of King's College, Cambridge|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:British World War II veterans|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:British computer scientists|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:British cryptographers at Bletchley Park|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Computer designers|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Computer pioneers|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Computer scientists|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:English inventors|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:English mathematicians|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Formal methods people|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:LGBT history of the United Kingdom|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Suicides|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Old Shirburnians|Turing, Alan]] [[af:Alan Turing]] [[ast:Alan Turing]] [[bg:Алън Тюринг]] [[bs:Alan Turing]] [[ca:Alan Turing]] [[cs:Alan Turing]] [[de:Alan Turing]] [[et:Alan Turing]] [[el:Άλαν Τούρινγκ]] [[es:Alan Mathison Turing]] [[eo:Alan TURING]] [[fa:آلن تورینگ]] [[fr:Alan Mathison Turing]] [[gl:Alan Turing]] [[ko:앨런 튜링]] [[hr:Alan Turing]] [[io:Alan Turing]] [[id:Alan Turing]] [[is:Alan Turing]] [[it:Alan Turing]] [[he:אלן טיורינג]] [[lt:Alanas Tiuringas]] [[lb:Alan M. Turing]] [[li:Alan Turing]] [[hu:Alan Turing]] [[nl:Alan Turing]] [[ja:アラン・チューリング]] [[no:Alan Turing]] [[nn:Alan Turing]] [[pl:Alan Mathison Turing]] [[pt:Alan Turing]] [[ro:Alan Turing]] [[ru:Тьюринг, Алан Матисон]] [[sh:Alan Turing]] [[scn:Alan Turing]] [[simple:Alan Turing]] [[sk:Alan Mathison Turing]] [[sr:Алан Тјуринг]] [[fi:Alan Turing]] [[sv:Alan Turing]] [[th:แอลัน ทัวริง]] [[vi:Alan Turing]] [[tr:Alan Turing]] [[uk:Т'юрінґ Алан Метісон]] [[zh:艾伦·图灵]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Area</title> <id>1209</id> <revision> <id>41919041</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:48:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username> <id>153314</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>revert inappropriate links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article explains the meaning of area as a [[physical quantity]]. The article [[area (geometry)]] is more mathematical. See also [[area (disambiguation)]].'' '''Area''' is a physical [[quantity]] expressing the size of a part of a [[surface]]. '''Surface area''' is the summation of the areas of the exposed sides of an [[object (philosophy)|object]]. == Units == Units for measuring surface area include: :[[square metre]] = [[SI derived unit]] :[[are]] = 100 square metres :[[hectare]] = 10,000 square metres :[[square kilometre]] = 1,000,000 square metres :square megametre = 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; square metres [[Imperial unit]]s, as currently defined from the metre: :[[square foot]] (plural square feet) = 0.09290304 square metres :[[square yard]] = 9 square feet = 0.83612736 square metres :square [[perch]] = 30.25 square yards = 25.2928526 square metres :[
- In [[1959]] formed by [[Senegal]] and [[French Sudan]], both parts of [[French West Africa]], as an independent nation. It fell apart in [[1960]] into [[Senegal]] and [[Mali]]. *[[Peru-Bolivian Confederacy]] - A union formed in [[1836]] by [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] and which lasted until [[1839]]. *[[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (or The Commonwealth of the Two Nations) [[Partitions of Poland|partitioned]] in [[1772]]-[[1795]] among [[Russia]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]]. These lands are distrubuted today among [[Poland]], [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], and partly [[Russia]]. *[[Senegambia]] - Loose [[Confederation|confederation]] between African countries of [[Senegal]] and [[Gambia]] that existed from [[1982]] to [[1989]] *[[Soviet Union]], more formally known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (or USSR). Formed in [[1922]]. Dissolved [[1991]]-[[1992]] into its constituent [[republic]]s: [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Belarus]], [[Estonia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Moldova]], [[Russia]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Uzbekistan]]. *[[United Arab Republic]] - A union formed by [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] in [[1958]] was dissolved in [[1961]], though Egypt used the name until [[1971]]. *[[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] ([[1815]] - [[1830]]) (Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden/Royaume-Uni des Pays-Bas) created during the [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]], dissolved to [[Belgium]] (revolted [[1830]]), [[Luxembourg]] (left [[1835]]) and [[Netherlands]]. *[[History of Central America|United Provinces of Central America]] also known as '''United States of Central America'''-- independent [[1823]]; fell apart into separate states in civil war [[1838]]-[[1840]]. *[[West Indies Federation]] - Federal state created by the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1958]] which encompassed most of its possessions in the [[Caribbean]]. The federation collapsed after [[Jamaica]] voted to separate. *[[Tu'i Tonga]]-Lost states such as [[Samoa]], [[Fiji]], etc to foreign European powers. *[[Yugoslavia]] - State created from parts of [[Austria-Hungary]] and Kingdoms of [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] in 1918/1929. Re-created after [[World War II]], dissolved when four out of six constituent republics ([[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Republic of Macedonia|F.Y.R.O.M.]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]) seceded in [[1990s]]. Remaining two republics officially renamed back into [[Serbia and Montenegro]] in [[2003]]. ====Renamed countries==== {{main|Geographical renaming}} These country names have been replaced. *[[Abyssinia]] was a name formerly used for [[Ethiopia]] *[[Burma]] - Renamed [[Myanmar]] in [[1989]]. *[[Central African Empire]] - temporary phase ([[1977]] - [[1979]]) in the existence of the [[Central African Republic]]. *[[Ceylon]] - Name of [[Sri Lanka]] until [[1972]]. *[[Republic of the Congo]] - Name of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] from [[1960]] to [[1966]]. *[[Éire]] - took another ''description'' in [[1949]] *[[Irish Free State]] - renamed [[Éire]] in [[1937]]. *[[Ivory Coast]] - became [[Côte d'Ivoire]] in [[1985]], the French name being used in other languages thereafter (in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] the translated name ''Costa do Marfim'' is used) *[[Democratic Kampuchea]] - Name of [[Cambodia]] from [[1980]] to [[1989]], before reverting to the original ([[1949]] to [[1975]]) name. *[[Khmer Republic]] - Name of [[Cambodia]] from [[1975]] to [[1980]] *[[New Connecticut]] - Briefly, in [[1777]], the name of what became the [[Vermont Republic]]. *[[Iran|Persia]] - Name of [[Iran]] in the west until [[1935]], locally it has always been called Iran. *[[Mesopotamia]] - Name of [[Iraq]] until [[1930]]. *[[Siam]] - Name of [[Thailand]] until [[1939]]. *[[Transjordan]] - Renamed to [[Jordan]] in [[1946]] *[[Trucial States]] - Became [[United Arab Emirates]] in [[1971]]. *[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] renamed [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] in [[1927]], (26 of Ireland's 32 counties left the UK in [[1922]]). *[[Upper Volta]] - Name of [[Burkina Faso]] until [[1984]]. *[[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] renamed into [[Serbia and Montenegro]] in [[2003]]. *[[Zaire]] - Name of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] from [[1971]] to [[1997]]. ====Nominally independent homelands of South Africa==== Four of the [[Homeland (South Africa)|homelands]], or [[bantustans]], for [[black people]], were granted nominal independence from [[South Africa]]. Not recognised by other nations, these [[puppet state]]s were [[political union|re-incorporated]] in [[1994]]. *[[Bophuthatswana]] - Declared independent in [[1977]], reincorporated in [[1994]]. *[[Ciskei]] - Declared independent in [[1981]], reincorporated in [[1994]]. *[[Transkei]] - Declared independent in [[1976]], reincorporated in [[1994]]. *[[Venda]] - Declared independent in [[1979]], reincorporated in [[1994]]. ====Secessionist states==== These nations declared themselves independent, but failed to achieve or did not seek permanent independence and were either re-incorporated into the mother country or incorporated into another country. *[[Biafra]] - Declared independence of [[Nigeria]] in [[1967]]. Defeated and reincorporated in [[1970]]. *[[California Republic|California]] - declared independence from [[Mexico]] in June [[1846]], claimed by U.S. Navy for United States in July 1846. *[[Carpatho-Ukraine]] - declared independence from [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939, but was annexed by [[Hungary]] within a few days. *[[Cartagena Canton]] - the haven city of [[Cartagena, Spain]] seceded from the [[First Spanish Republic]] in [[1873]]. *[[Chechnya]] - Virtually independent from [[Russia]] from [[1996]] as '''Chechen Republic of [[Ichkeria]]''', however the country was recognized only by [[Taliban]]. After terrorist attacks in [[1999]] the republic was returned to the [[Russian Federation]]'s control in the [[Second Chechen War]]. *[[Confederate States of America]] - Declared its independence from the [[United States]] in [[1861]], reincorporated, [[1861]]-[[1865]]. *[[Independent State of Croatia]] *[[Crimea]], declared independence from [[Ukraine]] in [[1992]] but soon settled for being an autonomous republic within Ukraine. *[[Cruzob]], achieved independence from [[Mexico]] in [[1856]], but was reannexed in [[1901]]. *[[Republic of Ezo|Ezo]] - declared independence from [[Japan]] in [[1868]] after the defeat of the forces of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] during the [[Boshin War]] until it was reincorporated into Japan in [[1869]] *[[Italian Social Republic]] *[[Katanga]] - Declared its independence of the newly formed [[Republic of the Congo]] in [[1960]], was incorporated again in [[1963]]. *[[Republic of Manitoba|Manitoba]] - short-lived republic led by Thomas Spence, declared after the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] gave up [[Rupert's Land]] and before the government of [[Canada]] took control (1867). *[[Red River Rebellion]] - provisional government in [[Rupert's Land]], led by [[Louis Riel]] in (1869–1870). *[[Republic of Rio Grande|Rio Grande]] declared independence in [[1840]], brought back into [[Mexico]] by force less than a year later, encompassed the land of the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, and parts of the [[United States|USA]] state of [[Texas]]. *[[Republic of Texas|Texas]] - After becoming independent of [[Mexico]] in [[1836]], Texas sought annexation by the [[United States]], which occurred in [[1845]]. *[[Ukrainian People's Republic]] - declared independence after the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], but fell to the [[Soviet Union]] in 1920. ====Annexed countries==== These nations, once separate, are now part of another country. *[[Republic of Alsace-Lorraine]] - Formed after the collapse of the [[German Empire]] at the end of [[World War I]], 11 days later it was occupied by and incorporated in [[France]]. *[[British Somaliland]] - became part of [[Somalia]], but has since asserted its independence as the [[Somaliland]] republic. *''Regency of Carnaro'' in [[1919]] and ''Free State of Fiume'' in [[1920]], two short-lived states in the port city of [[Fiume]]/[[Rijeka]] proclaimed by [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]. Following [[World War I]], the city was disputed between [[Italy]] and [[Yugoslavia]], and eventually captured by [[Italy]] in [[1921]]. The city passed to [[Yugoslavia]] after [[World War II]] and is now in [[Croatia]]. *The Kingdom of [[Hawaii]] was unified in [[1810]] under [[Kamehameha I]], and was recognized by the United States as an independent nation from [[1826]] until [[January 17]], [[1893]]. Following the overthrow of the monarchy it existed as the independent [[Republic of Hawaii]] until annexation by the United States in [[1898]]. *[[Chan Santa Cruz]] [[Maya people|Maya]] state in eastern [[Yucatan]] peninsula, recognized as independent nation by [[British Empire]] in [[1850s]]; now part of [[Mexico]]. *[[Eastern Rumelia]] - province of the [[Ottoman Empire]] unified with [[Bulgaria]] in [[1885]] *[[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] - Unified with [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] in [[1990]]. *[[Far Eastern Republic]] - puppet of the [[RSFSR]] *[[Republic of Hatay]] *[[Indian Princely States]] *[[Republic of Indian Stream]] - 1832-1835, now part of U.S. *[[Italian Somaliland]] - Became part of [[Somalia]]. *[[Kalat]] - Became part of [[Pakistan]]. *[[Karelo-Finnish SSR|Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic]] - annexed by [[Russia]], upon the collapse of the Soviet Union became the autonomous [[Republic of Karelia]] *[[Manchukuo]] - Japanese puppet state in [[Manchuria]] from [[1931]] until [[1945]]. Reincorporated into [[China]] in 1945. *[[Moldavia]] - Now divided among [[Romania]], [[Moldova]] and [[Ukraine]]. *[[Moresnet]] - A tiny European territory that endured for a hundred years before definitively becoming part of [[Belgium]
tinue his voyages of exploration after the emperors withdrew their support. Another famous example was the suppression of the work of Galileo, and before him, [[Giordano Bruno]], burned at the stake, for his statements on [[cosmology]]; by the twentieth century, Galileo would be pardoned. ====Linguistics==== {{main|History of linguistics}} [[historical linguistics|Historical linguistics]] emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]] proposed that [[Sanskrit]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]], [[Gothic language|Gothic]], and [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]'s ''[[Cours de linguistique générale]]'' spawned the development of [[descriptive linguistics]]. Descriptive linguistics, and the related [[structuralism]] movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. [[Noam Chomsky]] further diversified linguistics with the development of [[generative linguistics]] in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid [[semantics]]. Additional specialties such as [[sociolinguistics]], [[cognitive linguistics]], and [[computational linguistics]] have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines. ====Economics==== {{main|History of economic thought}} [[Image:Supply-demand-P.png|thumb|130px|left|The [[supply and demand]] model]] The basis for [[classical economics]] forms [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[The Wealth of Nations|An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'', published in 1776. Smith criticized [[mercantilism]], advocating a system of free trade with [[division of labour]]. He postulated an &quot;[[Invisible Hand]]&quot; that large economic systems could be self-regulating through a process of enlightened self-interest. [[Karl Marx]] developed an alternative economical system, called [[Marxian economics]]. Marxian economics is based on the [[labor theory of value]] and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, [[capitalism]] was based on employeers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The [[Austrian school]] responded to Marxian economics by viewing [[entrepreneurship]] as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of [[supply and demand]]. In the 1920s, [[John Maynard Keynes]] prompted a division between [[microeconomics]] and [[macroeconomics]]. Under [[Keynesian economics]] macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote [[aggregate demand]] for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, [[Milton Friedman]] created the concept of [[monetarism]]. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into [[supply-side economics]] which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion. Other modern schools of economic thought are [[New Classical economics]] and [[New Keynesian economics]]. New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics, and deals with how inefficiencies in the market create a need for control by a central bank or government. ====Psychology==== {{main|History of psychology}} [[Image:Freud Sofa.JPG|thumb|right|[[Sigmund Freud]]'s couch]] The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year [[Wilhelm Wundt]] founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in [[Leipzig]]). Other important early contributors to the field include [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] (a pioneer in memory studies), [[Ivan Pavlov]] (who discovered [[classical conditioning]]), and [[Sigmund Freud]]. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology. Freud's basic theories postulated the existence in humans of various unconscious and instinctive &quot;drives&quot;, and that the &quot;self&quot; existed as a perpetual battle between the desires and demands of the internal [[Ego, Superego and Id|id, ego, and superego]]. The 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against [[Edward Titchener]]'s atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of [[behaviorism]] by [[John B. Watson]], which was popularized by [[B.F. Skinner]]. Behaviorism proposed [[epistemology|epistemologically]] limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the &quot;mind&quot; was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as [[cognitive science]]. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of [[evolutionary psychology]], [[linguistics]], [[computer science]], [[philosophy]], and [[neurobiology]]. This new form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as [[artificial intelligence]]. ====Sociology==== {{main|History of sociology}} [[Image:Max Weber.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Max Weber]] was a strong influence in the history of [[sociology]].]] [[Ibn Khaldun]] is regarded as the founder of modern sociology. As a scientific discipline, sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., [[Émile Durkheim]]), the aim of sociology was in [[Functionalism (sociology)|structuralism]], understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an &quot;antidote&quot; to social disintegration. [[Max Weber]] was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of [[rationalization (sociology)|rationalization]], which he believed would trap individuals in an &quot;iron cage&quot; of rational thought. Some sociologists, including [[Georg Simmel]] and [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], utilized more [[microsociology|microsociological]], qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of [[George Herbert Mead]] and his student [[Herbert Blumer]] resulting in the creation of the [[symbolic interactionism]] approach to sociology. American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by [[Talcott Parsons]], who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore &quot;functional&quot;. This [[structural functionalism]] approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, [[conflict theory]] was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of [[Karl Marx]]. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. [[Erving Goffman]] saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing &quot;backstage&quot; and attempting to control their audience through [[impression management]]. While these theories are currently the prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including [[feminist theory]], [[post-structuralism]], [[rational choice theory]], and [[postmodernism]]. ====Anthropology==== {{main|History of anthropology}} Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] and later [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] whose work formed the basis for the [[culture]] concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on [[colonial]] encounters between Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as forms of [[scientific racism]]. During the late 19th-century, battles over the &quot;study of man&quot; took place between those of an &quot;anthropological&quot; persuasion (relying on [[anthropometry|anthropometrical]] techniques) and those of an &quot;ethnological&quot; persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between [[physical anthropology]] and [[cultural anthropology]], the latter ushered in by the students of [[Franz Boas]]. In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of &quot;primitive cultures&quot; (scientific practice itself is often an arena of anthropological study). ===Emerging disciplines=== During the 20th century, a number of interdisciplinary s
{{flagicon|UK}} [[Stirling Moss]] | [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Climax (engine)|Climax]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1961 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- ! [[1960 Formula One season|1960]] | {{flagicon|UK}} [[Stirling Moss]] | [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Climax (engine)|Climax]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1960 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- ! [[1959 Formula One season|1959]] | {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Jack Brabham]] | [[Cooper Car Company|Cooper]]-[[Climax (engine)|Climax]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1959 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- ! [[1958 Formula One season|1958]] | {{flagicon|France}} [[Maurice Trintignant]] | [[Cooper Car Company|Cooper]]-[[Climax (engine)|Climax]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1958 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- ! [[1957 Formula One season|1957]] | {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Juan Manuel Fangio]] | [[Maserati]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1957 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- ! [[1956 Formula One season|1956]] | {{flagicon|UK}} [[Stirling Moss]] | [[Maserati]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1956 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- ! [[1955 Formula One season|1955]] | {{flagicon|France}} [[Maurice Trintignant]] | [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1955 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1952]] | {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Vittorio Marzotto]] | [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1952 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- ! [[1950 Formula One season|1950]] | {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Juan Manuel Fangio]] | [[Alfa Romeo]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1950 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1948 Grand Prix Season|1948]] | {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Farina]] | [[Maserati]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1948 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1937 Grand Prix Season|1937]] | [[Image:Flag_Germany_1933.svg|25px|Germany]] [[Manfred von Brauchitsch]] | [[Mercedes-Benz]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1937 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1936 Grand Prix Season|1936]] | [[Image:Flag_Germany_1933.svg|25px|Germany]] [[Rudolf Caracciola]] | [[Mercedes-Benz]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1936 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1935 Grand Prix Season|1935]] | [[Image:Italy_flag_1861.png|25px|Italy]] [[Luigi Fagioli]] | [[Mercedes-Benz]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1935 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1934 Grand Prix Season|1934]] | {{flagicon|France}} [[Guy Moll]] | [[Alfa Romeo]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1934 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1933 Grand Prix Season|1933]] | [[Image:Italy_flag_1861.png|25px|Italy]] [[Achille Varzi]] | [[Bugatti]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1933 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1932 Grand Prix Season|1932]] | [[Image:Italy_flag_1861.png|25px|Italy]] [[Tazio Nuvolari]] | [[Alfa Romeo]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1932 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1931 Grand Prix Season|1931]] | {{flagicon|Monaco}} [[Louis Chiron]] | [[Bugatti]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1931 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1930 Grand Prix Season|1930]] | {{flagicon|France}} [[René Dreyfus]] | [[Bugatti]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1930 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; ! [[1929 Grand Prix Season|1929]] | {{flagicon|UK}} [[William Grover-Williams]] | [[Bugatti]] | [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]] | [[1929 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] |} == External links == * [http://www.yourmonaco.com/grand_prix Monaco Grand Prix] * [http://www.acm.mc/ Automobile Club de Monaco] * [http://www.f1db.com/f1/page/62e_Grand_Prix_de_Monaco_2005 Monaco Grand Prix Statistics] * [http://www.cars-and-races.com/en/ Posters and photos of Monaco Grand Prix] * [http://holiday.monacoeye.com/maps/monacomap1.html Satellite Map of Monaco Grand Prix track] * [http://www.charterworld.com/index.html?sub=monaco-grand-prix Monaco Grand Prix Yachts] * [http://www.4mula1.ro/history/track/Monte_Carlo Monte Carlo formula 1 statistics] {{Formula_One_races}} [[Category:Monaco Grand Prix|*]] [[Category:Formula One Grands Prix]] [[cs:Grand Prix Monaka]] [[de:Großer Preis von Monaco]] [[es:Gran Premio de Mónaco]] [[fr:Grand Prix automobile de Monaco]] [[it:Gran Premio di Monaco]] [[nl:Grand Prix van Monaco]] [[ja:モナコグランプリ]] [[no:Monacos Grand Prix]] [[pl:Grand Prix Monako]] [[pt:Grande Prêmio de Mônaco]] [[fi:Monacon Grand Prix]] [[sv:Monacos Grand Prix]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fission</title> <id>10947</id> <revision> <id>33911712</id> <timestamp>2006-01-05T00:54:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fastfission</username> <id>42525</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>external links don't go on disambig pages</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In general '''fission''' is a splitting or breaking up into parts. In [[physics]], [[nuclear fission]] is a process where a large [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] such as [[uranium]] is split into two smaller nuclei. In [[biology]], [[binary fission]] refers to the process whereby a [[prokaryote]] reproduces by [[cell division]]. It is similar to [[mitosis]] and [[meiosis]] in [[eukaryote]]s. In [[anthropology]], fission refers to the process whereby a nationstate divides and becomes multiple states (example: [[Yugoslavia]]). {{disambig}} [[da:Fission]] [[sv:Fission]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fusion</title> <id>10948</id> <revision> <id>41374387</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:45:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.252.2.153</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|fusion}} '''Fusion''' means to merge or combine. It may refer to: *[[Nuclear fusion]] **[[Fusion power]] *[[Fusion (music)]], especially [[Jazz fusion]] *[[Fusion cuisine]] *[[Ford Fusion]] *''[[Fusion Magazine]]'' *[[Fusion (comics)]] *[[Fusion (Yu-Gi-Oh!)]] *[[Fusion (Dragon Ball)]] *[[Fusion Australia]], an Australian Christian organisation *[[Schumacher Fusion]], a radio-controlled car *[[BT Fusion]], a UK voice-over-IP service *Oracle Fusion, a technology and application development platform from [[Oracle]] Corporation '''Fusion''' could also refer to: *Fusion, an oil company which has stakes in the [[Chinguetti deposit]] in [[Mauritania]]. *[[Fertilization]] *[[Freezing]], and the associated [[Standard enthalpy change of fusion|heat of fusion]] *[[Arthrodesis]] *[[Sandhi]], a phonological processes *A [[Global Gillette#Current Gillette products|Gillette Fusion]] Razor ==See also== *[[Fission]] *[[Merger]] {{disambig}} [[de:Fusion]] [[pt:Fusão]] [[ja:&amp;#12501;&amp;#12517;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12519;&amp;#12531;]] [[sv:Fusion]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Four color theorem</title> <id>10949</id> <revision> <id>42081621</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:25:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dmharvey</username> <id>277018</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>removed friendly but inappropriate greeting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:FourColorMapEx.png|right|thumb|Example of a four color map]] [[Image:Map of Azerbaijan with cities.png|thumb|right|200px|Example of a map with non-contiguous regions]] The '''four color theorem''' states that given any plane separated into regions, such as a political map of the counties of a state, the regions may be colored using no more than four [[color]]s in such a way that no two adjacent regions receive the same color. Two regions are called ''adjacent'' if they share a border segment, not just a point. Each region must be [[contiguous]]: that is, it may not consist of separate sections like such real countries as [[Angola]], [[Azerbaijan]], and the [[United States]]. It is obvious that three colors are, in some cases, inadequate. This applies already to the map with one region surrounded by three other regions (even though with an even number of surrounding countries three colors are enough) and it is not at all difficult to prove that [[five color theorem|five colors are sufficient]] to color a map. The four color theorem was the first major [[theorem]] to be proved using a [[computer]], and the proof is not accepted by all mathematicians because it would be infeasible for a human to verify by hand (see [[computer-aided proof]]). Ultimately, one has to have faith in the correctness of the [[compiler]] and [[hardware]] executing the program used for the proof. The lack of mathematical elegance was another factor, and to [[paraphrase]] comments of the time, &quot;a good mathematical proof is like a poem &amp;mdash; this is a telephone directory!&quot; ==History== The [[conjecture]] was first proposed in [[1852]] when [[Francis Guthrie]], while trying to color the map of counties of [[England]], noticed that only four different colors were needed. At the time, Guthrie was a student of [[Augustus De Morgan]] at [[University College, London|University College]]. (Guthrie graduated in [[1850]], and later became a professor of mathematics in [[South Africa]]). According to de Morgan: :''A student of mine'' [Guthrie] ''asked me today to give him a reason for a fact which I did not know was a fact - and do not yet. He says that if a figure be anyhow divided and the compartments differently coloured so that figures with any portion of common boundary line are differently coloured - four colours may be wanted, but not more - the following is the case in which four colours are wanted. Query cannot a necessity for five or more be invented...'' The first published reference is found in [[Arthur Cayley]]'s, ''On the colourings of maps.'', Proc. [[Royal Geogr
at are known as [[Request for Comments]] documents (RFCs). Some RFCs are raised to the status of [[Internet Standard]] by the IETF process. Some of the most used application protocols in the [[Internet protocol suite]] are [[Internet Protocol|IP]], [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], [[Domain Name System|DNS]], [[Point-to-Point Protocol|PPP]], [[Serial line IP|SLIP]], [[ICMP]], [[Post Office Protocol|POP3]], [[Internet Message Access Protocol|IMAP]], [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]], [[HTTP]], [[HTTPS]], [[Secure shell|SSH]], [[Telnet]], [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]], [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]], [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]], and [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]]. Some of the popular services on the Internet that make use of these protocols are [[e-mail]], [[Usenet]] newsgroups, [[file sharing]], [[Instant Messenger]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[Gopher protocol|Gopher]], [[Session (computer science)|session access]], [[Wide area information server|WAIS]], [[finger protocol|finger]], [[Internet relay chat|IRC]], [[MUD]]s, and [[MUSH]]s. Of these, e-mail and the World Wide Web are clearly the most used, and many other services are built upon them, such as [[mailing list]]s and [[blog]]s. The Internet makes it possible to provide real-time services such as [[Internet radio]] and [[webcast]]s that can be accessed from anywhere in the world. Some other popular services of the Internet were not created this way, but were originally based on proprietary systems. These include [[Internet relay chat|IRC]], [[ICQ]], [[AOL Instant Messenger|AIM]], and [[Gnutella]], although all of those mentioned now have Free implementations, which in some cases are the most commonly used. === Internet structure === There have been many analyses of the Internet and its structure. For example, it has been determined that the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of [[scale-free network]]s. Similar to how the commercial Internet providers connect via [[Internet exchange point]]s, research networks tend to interconnect into large subnetworks such as: *[[GEANT]] *[[GLORIAD]] *[[Internet2]] *[[JANET]] (the UK's Joint Academic Network aka UKERNA) These in turn are built around relatively smaller networks. See also the list of [[:Category:Academic computer network organizations|academic computer network organizations]] In network [[schematic]] diagrams, the Internet is often represented by a [[cloud]] symbol, into and out of which network communications can pass. ===ICANN=== {{main|ICANN}} '''The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)''' is the authority that coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers on the Internet, including domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers. A globally unified namespace (i.e., a system of names in which there is one and only one holder of each name) is essential for the Internet to function. ICANN is headquartered in Marina del Rey, California, but is overseen by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and non-commercial communities. The US government continues to have a privileged role in approving changes to the root zone file that lies at the heart of the domain name system. Because the Internet is a distributed network comprising many voluntarily interconnected networks, the Internet, as such, has no governing body. ICANN's role in coordinating the assignment of unique identifiers distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body on the global Internet, but the scope of its authority extends only to the Internet's systems of domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers. ==Internet culture== The Internet is also having a profound impact on [[career|work]], [[leisure]], [[knowledge]] and [[worldview]]s. [[Image:WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png|thumb|300px|Graphic representation of a very small part of the [[World Wide Web|WWW]], representing some of the [[hyperlink]]s]] ===The World Wide Web=== {{main|World Wide Web}} Through [[keyword]]-driven [[Internet research]] using [[search engine]]s like [[Google (search engine)|Google]], millions worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to [[encyclopaedia]]s and traditional [[library|libraries]], the World Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data. Some companies and individuals have adopted the use of 'weblogs' or [[blog]]s, which are largely used as easily-updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to fill them with advice on their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is [[Microsoft]], whose product [[developer]]s publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work. For more information on the distinction between the World Wide Web and the Internet itself — as in everyday use the two are sometimes confused — see [[Dark internet]] where this is discussed in more detail. ===Remote access=== The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be across the world. They may do this with or without the use of security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements. This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An [[Accountancy|accountant]] sitting at home can [[audit]] the books of a company based in another country, on a [[server]] situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working book-keepers, in other remote locations, based on information e-mailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private, [[leased line]]s would have made many of them infeasible in practice. An office worker away from his desk, perhaps the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can open a [[Remote Desktop Protocol|remote desktop]] session into his normal office PC using a secure [[Virtual Private Network]] (VPN) connection via the Internet. This gives him complete access to all his normal files and data, including e-mail and other applications, while he is away. This concept is also referred to by some network security people as the Virtual Private Nightmare, because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network ''into its employees' homes''; this has been the source of some notable security breaches. ===Collaboration=== This low-cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge and skills has revolutionized some, and given rise to whole new, areas of human activity. One example of this is the [[collaboration|collaborative]] development and distribution of [[Free/Libre/Open-Source Software]] (FLOSS) such as [[Linux]], [[Mozilla]] and [[OpenOffice.org]]. See [[Collaborative software]]. ===File-sharing=== {{main|File sharing}} A [[computer file]] can be [[Electronic mail|e-mailed]] to customers, colleagues and friends as an [[E-mail attachment|attachment]]. It can be uploaded to a [[website]] or [[File transfer protocol|FTP]] server for easy download by others. It can be put into a &quot;shared location&quot; or onto a [[file server]] for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of &quot;[[mirror (computing)|mirror]]&quot; servers or [[peer-to-peer]] networking. In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user [[authentication]]; the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by [[encryption]] and money may change hands before or after access to the file is given. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example a [[credit card]] whose details are also passed - hopefully fully encrypted - across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by [[digital signature]]s or by [[MD5]] or other message digests. These simple features of the Internet, over a world-wide basis, are changing the basis for the production, sale and distribution of many types of product, wherever they can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of office documents, publications, software products, [[music]], photography, video, animations, graphics and the other arts. This in turn is causing seismic shifts in each of the existing industry associations, such as the [[RIAA]] and [[MPAA]] in the USA, that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products in that country. ===Streaming media and VoIP=== Many existing radio and television broadcasters have provided Internet 'feeds' of their live audio and video streams (for example, the [[BBC#Internet|BBC]]). They have been joined by a range of pure Internet 'broadcasters' who never had on-air licences. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a TV or radio receiver. The range of material is much wider, from pornography to highly specialised technical web-casts. The simplest equipment can allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast on a worldwide basis. Time-shift viewing or listening is not a problem as the BBC have shown with their Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. Web-cams can be seen as an even lower-budget extension of this phenomenon. In this case the picture may update only slowly - perhaps once every few seconds o
ntirety of this autonomy. For instance, only a few municipalities keep local police forces, some of them do not collect some taxes (to attract investors or residents) and many of them do not have a flag (although they are all required to have a coat-of-arms). Municipalities are governed by an elected ''prefeito'' [[Mayor]] and an unicameral ''Câmara de Vereadores'' (Councilors Chamber). In municipalities with more than 200,000 inhabitants, the Mayor must be elected by more than 50% of the valid vote. The executive power is called ''Prefeitura''. Brazilian municipalities can vary widely in area and population. The municipality of [[Altamira, Brazil]], in the State of [[Pará]] is larger than most countries of the world ( . Tenths of Brazilian municipalities are over 1,000,000 inhabitants. Until 1974 Brazil had one state-level municipality, the [[State of Guanabara]], now merged with [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], which comprised [[Rio de Janeiro (city)| the city of Rio de Janeiro]] only. ====The Federal District==== The Federal District is an anomalous unit of the federation, as it is not organized the same manner as a municipality, does not posses the same autonomy as a state (but is ranked among them) and is closely related to the central power. It is considered a single municipality, divided into the seat ([[Brasilia]] itself) and some urban districts (the so-called ''Satellite Cities''). Satellite cities are ''created'' (in right) and governed directly by the governor of the federal district and possess no true identity. ===Principal government officials=== *President: [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] *Vice-President: [[José Alencar Gomes da Silva]] ===Country name=== [[Image:Brazil.Congress.02.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Senate]] &lt;br /&gt;''conventional long form:'' Federative Republic of Brazil &lt;br /&gt;''conventional short form:'' Brazil &lt;br /&gt;''local long form:'' República Federativa do Brasil &lt;br /&gt;''local short form:'' Brasil ===Government type=== Federative republic ===Capital=== [[Brasília]] &amp;ndash; [[Distrito Federal, Brazil|DF]] ===Administrative divisions=== 26 [[States of Brazil|states]] ''(estados;'' singular &amp;ndash; ''estado)'' and 1 federal district* ''(distrito federal);'' [[Acre State|Acre]], [[Alagoas]], [[Amapá]], [[Amazonas State, Brazil|Amazonas]], [[Bahia]], [[Ceará]], [[Brazilian Federal District|Distrito Federal]]*, [[Espírito Santo]], [[Goiás]], [[Maranhão]], [[Mato Grosso]], [[Mato Grosso do Sul]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[Pará]], [[Paraíba]], [[Paraná]], [[Pernambuco]], [[Piauí]], [[Rio de Janeiro State|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Rio Grande do Norte]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]], [[Rondônia]], [[Roraima]], [[Santa Catarina State|Santa Catarina]], [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Sergipe]], [[Tocantins State|Tocantins]] [[Image:Brasilia National Congress.JPG|thumb|right|350px|[[National Congress of Brazil]].]] ===Independence=== [[September 7]] [[1822]] (from [[Portugal]]) ===National holiday=== Independence Day, [[7 September]] (1822) ===Constitution=== Now: [[5 October]] [[1988]] Brazil has had seven [[constitution]]s: * [[1824 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1824]] &amp;ndash; the first Brazilian constitution, enacted by [[Pedro I of Brazil|Dom Pedro I]]. It was monarchic, hereditary and highly centralized, permitting the vote only to property-holders. * [[1891 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1891]] &amp;ndash; the republic was proclaimed in 1889, but a new constitution was not promulgated until 1891. This federalist, democratic constitution was heavily influenced by the [[United States|U.S.]] model. However, women and illiterates were not permitted to vote. * [[1934 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1934]] &amp;ndash; when [[Getúlio Vargas]] came to power in 1930, he canceled the 1891 constitution and did not permit a new one until 1934. The [[Constitutionalist Revolution (Brazil)|Constitutionalist Revolution]] of 1932 forced Vargas to enact a new democratic constitution that permitted women's suffrage. Getúlio Vargas was elected president by the Constitutional Assembly to a four-year term, beginning in 1933. * [[1937 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1937]] &amp;ndash; Getúlio Vargas suppressed a Communist uprising in 1935 and used it as a pretext to establish autocratic rule. He instituted a corporatist constitution nicknamed ''the polish,'' written by [[Francisco Campos (lawyer)|Francisco Campos]]. * [[1946 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1946]] &amp;ndash; after a military coup ousted dictatorial Getúlio Vargas, an Assembly wrote a democratic constitution. * [[1967 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1967]] &amp;ndash; after the 1964 coup d'etât against [[João Goulart]], the military dictactorship passed the ''Institutional Acts'', a supraconstitutional law. This strongly undemocratic constitution simply incorporated these Acts. * [[1988 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1988]] &amp;ndash; the progressive redemocratization culminated in the current constitution. Very democratic, it is more expansive than a normal constitution &amp;ndash; many statutory acts in other countries are written into this constitution, like Social Security and taxes. ===Legal system=== Based on Roman codes; has not accepted compulsory [[International Court of Justice|ICJ]] jurisdiction. ===Suffrage=== Suffrage is voluntary between 16 and 18 years of age and over 70; compulsory over 18 and under 70 years of age (except for a few categories, such as illiterate and disabled people, for whom it is voluntary). President, state governors and mayors of state capitals and large cities are elected in two rounds ([[runoff voting]]): if no candidate obtains a [[majority]], the first two candidates of the first turn go for a second one. Senators and mayors of smaller cities (less than 400,000 habitants) are elected in a single round ([[First Past the Post electoral system|winner takes all]]). Deputies and city council members are elected by [[Proportional representation|proportional]] elections with [[open list|open]] [[Party-list proportional representation|party list]]s: the party candidates with the most individual votes take office. ==Executive branch== &lt;br /&gt;''[[Head of State]]:'' [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] (since [[1 January]] [[2003]]); Vice President [[José Alencar Gomes da Silva]] (since [[1 January]] [[2003]]); note &amp;ndash; the president is both the chief of state and head of government &lt;br /&gt;''[[Head of government]]:'' [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] (since [[1 January]] [[2003]]); Vice President [[José Alencar Gomes da Silva]] (since [[1 January]] [[2003]]); note &amp;ndash; the president is both the chief of state and head of government &lt;br /&gt;''[[cabinet]]:'' Cabinet appointed by the president ==Legislative branch== Bicameral [[National Congress of Brazil|National Congress]] or ''Congresso Nacional'' consists of the [[Federal Senate of Brazil|Federal Senate]] or ''Senado Federal'' (81 seats; three members from each state or federal district elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period) and the [[Chamber of Deputies of Brazil|Chamber of Deputies]] or ''Câmara dos Deputados'' (513 seats; deputies are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms). ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Brazil|Elections in Brazil}} {{Brazilian presidential election, 2002}} {{Brazilian legislative election, 2002}} ==Judicial branch== {{main|Justice in Brazil}} Brazilian [[jurisdiction]] courts function under [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and [[adversarial system]]. The Judicial Branch are organized in states' and federal systems with different jurisdictions. The judges of the courts of first instance take office after [[public competitive examinations]]. The second instance judges are promoted among the first instance judges. The Justices of the superior courts are appointed by the president for life and approved by the Senate. All the judges and justices must be graduated in law. Any Brazilian judge is compulsory retired at the age of 70. ===States' judicial branch=== The state territory is divided into [[judicial districts]] named ''comarcas'', which are composed by one or more cities. Each ''comarca'' has at least one [[court of first instance]]. There are specialized courts of first instance for [[family litigation]] or [[bankruptcy]] in some cities and states. Judgments from theses district courts can be subject of [[judicial review]] by the [[courts of second instance]]. Judgments of courts of first instance are usually made by only one judge. Brazilian judiciary system uses [[jury]] trials only for intentional crimes against the human life &amp;#8211; like [[murder]]. In all Brazilian states, there is only one court of second instance, named Justice Tribunal (''Tribunal de Justiça'' in Portuguese). Some states, as [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] and [[Minas Gerais]], used to have [[Courts of Appeals]] (''Tribunal de Alçada'' in Portuguese) too, but with different jurisdiction. The highest court of a state is the Justice Tribunal. The second instance judgments are usually made by three judges, who, in the Justice Tribunals, are named ''desembargadores''. ===Federal judicial branch=== The national territory is divided into five Regions, which are composed by one or more states. Each region is divided in Judiciary Sections (''Seções Judiciárias'' in Portuguese) with a territory that may not correspond to the states' comarcas. The Judiciary Sections has [[federal court]]s of first instance and each Region has a Federal Regional Tribunal (''Tribunal Regional Federal'' in Portuguese) as a court of second instance. There is a special federal court system for [[labor litigations]] called Labor Justice (''Justiça do T
name>Latinus</username> <id>800894</id> </contributor> <comment>rm category per CFD of [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 5#Category:David E. Kelley actors|5 February 2006]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Allymc44.jpg|thumb|Calista Flockhart in an undated publicity photo]] '''Calista Kay Flockhart''' (born [[November 11]], [[1964]] in [[Freeport, Illinois]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actress]]. She is most well-known for her starring role as the temperamental lawyer in the 1997-2002 television show, [[Ally McBeal]]. == Biography == Calista Flockhart was born in Freeport, Illinois, to Kraft Food executive [[Ronald Flockhart]], his English-teaching wife, [[Kay Calista]] and as a sibling to her older brother [[Gary Flockhart]]. Reversing her own first and second names, her mother named her '''Calista Kay'''. The name '''Calista''' means ''most beautiful'' in Greek. Because her father's job required the family to move often, Calista was raised with brother Gary in [[Illinois]], [[Iowa]], [[Minnesota]], upstate [[New York]], and [[New Jersey]]. As a child, she wrote a play called ''Toyland'' in which she performed to a small audience at a dinner party. However, she never professed an ambition to become an actor, instead claiming she wanted to be a clown when she grew up. Beginning in 1978 and graduating in 1982, Flockhart attended [[Shawnee High School]] in [[Medford Township, New Jersey]]. She served on the Student Council, participated in the drama program, and became a cheerleader. A football player named Brian Anderson was her high school sweetheart. Following her graduation, Flockhart attended The Mason Gross School of the Arts at [[Rutgers University]], in [[New Brunswick, New Jersey]]. While there, she attended a specialized and competitive class, lasting from 6 o'clock in the morning to 6 o'clock in the evening. In her sophomore year at Rutgers, Flockhart met [[Jane Krakowski]], the best friend of her room mate. Having already worked on Broadway, Calista often questioned Jane on how to find employment there. Flockhart's acting ability was recognized when William Esper (Mason Gross' theatre director and Flockhart's acting teacher) made an exception to policy by allowing Flockhart to perform on the main stage. Though usually reserved for juniors and seniors, Harold Scott insisted that Flockhart perform in his production of [[William Inge|William Inge's]] ''Picnic''. Flockhart graduated with a [[Bachelor of Fine Arts]] Degree in Theatre in 1988 as one of only a few students who successfully completed the course. Flockhart was inducted into the Rutgers Hall of Distinguished Alumni on [[May 3]], [[2003]]. After receiving her degree, Flockhart moved to New York City in 1989 where she remained until 1997, living with three other women in a two-bedroom apartment and working as a waitor and aerobics instructor whilst she simultaineously sought auditions. In spring, 1989, Flockhart had a minor role in one episode of ''[[The Guiding Light]]'' as a babysitter. Following this, she found her professional debut on the New York stage, appearing in ''[[Beside Herself]]'' alongside actor [[Melissa Joan Hart]] at the [[Circle Repertory Theatre]]. Two years later in 1991, Flockhart appeared in a television movie, ''[[Darrow]]''. Though she later appeared in films ''[[Naked in New York]]'' (1993) and ''[[Getting In]]'' (1994), Calista claims her big break into Hollywood came from [[Robert Redford]] who provided her with a brief but speaking part of a college student in ''[[Quiz Show]]''. Flockhart debuted on Broadway in 1994, as the character Laura in ''[[The Glass Menagerie]]''. Actor [[Julie Harris]] felt Flockhart should be hired without further auditions, claiming that Calista seemed ideal for the part of her character's daughter. Flockhart recieved a [[Clarence Derwent Award]] for her performance. In 1995, Flockhart became acquainted with actors such as [[Dianne Wiest]] and [[Faye Dunaway]] when she appeared in the movie [[Drunks]]. Later this year Flockhart starred in the title role in [[Jane Doe]] as a drug addict. In 1996, Flockhart appeared as the daughter of [[Dianne Wiest]] and [[Gene Hackman]]'s characters, in ''[[The Birdcage]]'', her last film role before securing the starring role in the hit show ''[[Ally McBeal]]''. Throughout this year she continued to work on Broadway, playing the role of Natasha in [[Anton Chekhov]]'s ''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]''. In 1997 Calista was requested to audition as the starring role in [[David E. Kelley]]'s [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX television]] series, [[Ally McBeal]]. Kelley, having heard of Flockhart, wanted her to audition for the contract part. Though Flockhart at first hesistated due to the necessary commitment to the show in a negotiatable contract, she was swayed by the compelling script and travelled to Los Angeles to audition for the part, which she was later informed of winning. Through 1997 to 2002 Flockhart starred the show's self-titled protagonist ''Ally McBeal'', winning a [[Golden Globe Award]] for her role in 1998. Flockhart also appeared on the [[June 29]], [[1998]] cover of ''[[Time]]'' magazine as her character Ally McBeal, placed as the newest iteration in the evolution of feminism, relating to the on-going debate about the role depicted by her character. As her popularity as ''Ally McBeal'' peaked, rumours began to spread that Flockhart suffered from the medical conditions [[anorexia]] and/or [[bulimia]]. These rumours heightened the criticism Flockhart met as to being a poor role-model for young women. It has also been speculated that she has been a drug user. Flockhart maintains that she has never been diagnosed with either of these medical conditions, nor has she been a user of illegal drugs. She has remarked, however, that while starring as Ally McBeal she refrained from eating sweets, retaining her slim figure by working out. While starring as Ally McBeal, Flockhart played the role of Helena in the 1999 film version of [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]''. In 2000, she appeared in ''[[Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her]]'' and ''[[Bash: Latter-Day Plays]]'', later accompanying [[Eve Ensler]] to Kenya in order to protest against violence against women, particularly FGM ([[Female Genital Mutilation]]). Flockhart also starred in the off-Broadway production of Ensler's ''[[The Vagina Monologues]]''. On [[January 11]], [[2001]], Flockhart adopted a baby boy, born ten days prior, whom she named Liam. Flockhart has been romantically involved with actor [[Harrison Ford]] since meeting him at the 2002 [[Golden Globe Awards]] after she spilled wine on his award, initiating a social exchange which resulted in the pair dating within a week. In 2004, Flockhart appeared as [[Matthew Broderick]]'s psychotic girlfriend in ''[[The Last Shot]]''. In the same year, Flockhart travelled to Barcelona, Spain, for the filming of the film ''[[Fragile (film)|Fragile]]'', which premiered in [[September]], [[2005]] at the [[Venice Film Festival]]. When approached to star in the film ''[[Indiana Jones 4]]'', [[Harrison Ford]] requested that Flockhart co-star as the love interest of Indiana. Though the film producers agreed, Flockhart is not currently attatched to the project. Flockhart's reaction to being asked to star has been quoted as the facetious &quot;Oh, yes. If I could kick his (butt), absolutely!&quot; Flockhart continues to support charities such as Public Schools Arts, and causes such as breast cancer. She is the national spokeswoman for the Los Angeles Commission on Assaults Against Women ([[LACAAW]]), which led her to require a [[Humanitarian Award]] on [[October 21]], [[2005]]. == Filmography == {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; ! Year !! Film !! Role !! Other notes |- | [[2005 in film|2005]] || ''[[Fragile (film)|Fragile]]'' || Amy || |- | [[2004 in film|2004]] || ''[[The Last Shot]]'' || Valerie Weston || |- | [[2000 in film|2000]] || ''[[Bash: Latter-Day Plays]]'' (TV) || || |- | [[2000 in film|2000]] || ''[[Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her]]'' || Christine Taylor || |- | [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[Ally McBeal]]'' (TV) || Ally || |- | [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' || Helena || |- | [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child]]'' (TV) || Vanna Van (Voice) || |- | [[1998 in film|1998]] || ''[[The Practice]]'' (TV) || Ally McBeal || |- | [[1997 in film|1997]] || ''[[Ally McBeal]]'' (TV) || Ally McBeal || |- | [[1997 in film|1997]] || ''[[Telling Lies in America]]'' || Diney Majeski || |- | [[1996 in film|1996]] || ''[[Milk &amp; Money]]'' || Christine || |- | [[1996 in film|1996]] || ''[[The Birdcage]]'' || Barbara Keeley || |- | [[1995 in film|1995]] || ''[[Drinks]]'' || Helen || |- | [[1995 in film|1995]] || ''[[Pictures of Baby Jane Doe]]'' || Jane Doe || |- | [[1994 in film|1994]] || ''[[Quiz Show]]'' || Barnard Girl || |- | [[1994 in film|1994]] || ''[[Getting In]]'' || Amanda Morel || |- | [[1993 in film|1993]] || ''[[Naked in New York]]'' || Acting student || |- | [[1992 in film|1992]] || ''[[Lifestories: Families In Crisis]]'' || Mary-Margaret Carter |- | [[1991 in film|1991]] || ''[[Darrow]]'' || Lillian Anderson || |- |[[1989 in film|1989]] || ''[[The Guiding Light]]'' (TV) || Elise || |- |} == External links == *[http://www.theofficialcalistaflockhartfanclub.com/ The official Calista Flockhart fan club] *[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/The_Official_Calista_Flockhart_Fan_Club/ The official Calista Flockhart fan club at Yahoo!] *[http://www.calistaflockhart.org/ An unofficial Calista Flockhart website] *[http://www.calista-flockhart.com/ An unofficial Calista Flockhart website] *[http://www.calistaflockhart.net/index.php/CalistaFlockhart An unofficial, French Calista Flockhar
138240</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:53:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>El C</username> <id>92203</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.249.89.93|69.249.89.93]] ([[User talk:69.249.89.93|talk]]) to last version by The tooth</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agnosticism''' is the [[philosophy|philosophical]] view that the [[truth]] or falsity of certain claims—particularly [[theology|theological]] claims regarding the existence of [[Monotheism|God]] or [[Polytheism|gods]]—is unknown, unknowable, or incoherent. Some agnostics infer from this that these claims are irrelevant to [[Meaning of life|life]]. The term and the related ''agnostic'' were coined by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] in [[1869]], and are also used to describe those who are unconvinced or noncommittal about the existence of deities as well as other matters of [[religion]]. The word agnostic comes from the Greek ''a'' (without) and ''[[gnosis]]'' (knowledge). Agnosticism, focusing on what can be known, is an [[epistemology|epistemological]] position (dealing with the nature and limits of human knowledge); while atheism and theism are [[ontology|ontological]] positions (a branch of metaphysics that deals with what types of entities exist). Agnosticism is not to be confused with a view specifically opposing the doctrine of [[gnosis]] and [[Gnosticism]]&amp;mdash;these are religious concepts that are not generally related to agnosticism. Agnosticism is distinct from [[strong atheism]] (also called ''positive atheism'' or ''dogmatic atheism''), which denies the existence of any deities. However, the more general variety of [[atheism]], [[weak atheism]] (also called ''negative atheism'', and sometimes ''neutral atheism''), professes only a lack of belief in a god or gods, which is not equivalent to but is compatible with agnosticism. ''Critical atheism'' admits that a god or gods are meaningful concepts but the evidence for them is not in hand, so a default position of not believing in them must be taken in the interim. Agnostics may claim that it isn't possible to have ''absolute'' or ''certain'' spiritual knowledge or, alternatively, that while certainty ''may'' be possible, they personally have no such knowledge. In both cases, agnosticism involves some form of [[philosophical scepticism|skepticism]] towards religious statements. This is different from the simple [[irreligion]] of those who give no thought to the subject. ==Variations== Agnosticism has suffered more than most expressions of philosophical position from terminological vagaries. Data collection services [http://adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Nonreligious], [http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2122.html] often display the common use of the term, distinct from strong atheism in its lack of disputing the existence of deities. Agnostics are listed alongside [[secularism|secular]], [[irreligion|non-religious]], or other such categories. Other variations include: * [[Strong agnosticism]] (also called hard agnosticism, closed agnosticism, strict agnosticism, absolute agnosticism)—the view that the question of the existence of deities is unknowable by nature or that human beings are ill-equipped to judge the evidence. * [[Weak agnosticism]] (also called soft agnosticism, open agnosticism, empirical agnosticism, temporal agnosticism)—the view that the existence or nonexistence of God or gods is currently unknown but isn't necessarily unknowable, therefore one will withhold judgment until more evidence is available. * [[Apathetic agnosticism]]—the view that there is no proof either of God's existence or nonexistence, but since God (if there is one) appears unconcerned for the universe or the welfare of its inhabitants, the question is largely academic. * [[Ignosticism]]—the view that the concept of God as a being is meaningless because it has no verifiable consequences, therefore it cannot be usefully discussed as having existence or nonexistence. See [[scientific method]]. * Model agnosticism—the view that philosophical and metaphysical questions are not ultimately verifiable but that a model of malleable assumption should be built upon rational thought. This branch of agnosticism does not focus on a deity's existence. * [[Agnostic theism]]—the view of those who do not claim to ''know'' God's existence, but still ''believe'' in his existence. (''See [[Epistemology#Knowledge_and_belief|Knowledge Vs Beliefs]]'') Whether this is truly agnosticism is disputed. It may also imply the belief that although there is something that resembles (or would at least appear to us as) a god (or gods,) there remains doubt over their true nature, motives, or the validity of the claim to be 'God' rather than superior, supernatural being(s). * [[Agnostic spiritualism]]—the view that there may or may not be a god (or gods,) while maintaining a general personal belief in a spiritual aspect of reality, particularly without distinct religious basis, or adherence to any established doctrine or dogma. * [[Agnostic atheism]]—the view that God may or may not exist, but that his non-existence is more likely. Some agnostic atheists would at least partially base their beliefs on [[Occam's Razor]]. ==Some philosophical opinions== Among the most famous agnostics (in the original sense) have been [[Robert G. Ingersoll]], [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], and [[Charles Darwin]]. Some have argued from the works of [[David Hume]], especially ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion'', that he was an agnostic, but this remains subject to debate. ===Thomas Henry Huxley=== Agnostic views are as old as [[philosophical skepticism]], but the terms agnostic and agnosticism were created by Huxley to sum up his thoughts on contemporary developments of metaphysics about the &quot;unconditioned&quot; (Hamilton) and the &quot;unknowable&quot; ([[Herbert Spencer]]). It is important, therefore, to discover Huxley's own views on the matter. Though Huxley began to use the term &quot;agnostic&quot; in 1869, his opinions had taken shape some time before that date. In a letter of September 23, 1860, to Charles Kingsley, Huxley discussed his views extensively: :I neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man. I see no reason for believing it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disproving it. I have no ''[[a priori]]'' objections to the doctrine. No man who has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about ''a priori'' difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in believing in anything else, and I will believe that. Why should I not? It is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter. . . . :It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities. I know what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse squares, and I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions. . . . :That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true. But the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal subtleties. I have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non-ego, noumena and phenomena, and all the rest of it, too often not to know that in attempting even to think of these questions, the human intellect flounders at once out of its depth. And again, to the same correspondent, [[May 6]], [[1863]]: :I have never had the least sympathy with the ''a priori'' reasons against [[orthodoxy]], and I have by nature and disposition the greatest possible antipathy to all the atheistic and [[infidel]] school. Nevertheless I know that I am, in spite of myself, exactly what the [[Christian]] would call, and, so far as I can see, is justified in calling, atheist and infidel. I cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us in the relation of a Father [who] loves us and cares for us as Christianity asserts. So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas, immortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments, what possible objection can I&amp;mdash;who am compelled perforce to believe in the immortality of what we call Matter and Force, and in a very unmistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds&amp;mdash;have to these doctrines? Give me a scintilla of evidence, and I am ready to jump at them. Of the origin of the name agnostic to describe this attitude, Huxley gave (Coll. Ess. v. pp. 237-239) the following account: :So I took thought, and invented what I conceived to be the appropriate title of &quot;agnostic.&quot; It came into my head as suggestively antithetic to the &quot;gnostic&quot; of Church history, who professed to know so much about the very things of which I was ignorant. To my great satisfaction the term took. Huxley's agnosticism is believed to be a natural consequence of the intellectual and philosophical conditions of the [[1860]]s, when clerical intolerance was trying to suppress scientific discoveries which appeared to clash with a literal reading of the [[Book of Genesis]] and other established [[Jewish]] and Christian doctrines. Agnosticism should not, however, be confused with [[natural theology]], [[deism]], [[pantheism]], or other science positive forms of [[theism]]. By way of clarification, Huxley states, &quot;In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable&quot; (Huxley, ''Agnosticism'', 1889). While A. W. Momerie has noted that this is nothing but a definition of [[honesty]], Huxley's usual definition goes beyond mere honesty to insist that these metaphysical issues are fundamentally unknowable. ===Bertrand Russell=== [[Bertrand Russell]]'s [[pamphlet]], ''Why I Am Not a Christian,'
[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:''' AM 120, FM 56, shortwave 4 (1998) '''Radios:''' 1.44 million (1997) '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 25 (1997) '''Televisions:''' 770,000 (1997) '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 5 [Verizon, Tricom, Aster, Centennial(wireless), France Telecom(wireless)] (2006) '''Internet Accounts:''' 107,543 (2005) '''[[Country code]]:''' DO :''See also :'' [[Dominican Republic]] [http://www.indotel.org.do Indotel (Dominican Republic Communications Regulation Authority)] [[Category:Communications by country|Dominican Republic]] [[Category:Communications in the Dominican Republic|*]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transportation in the Dominican Republic</title> <id>8069</id> <revision> <id>41966706</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:58:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mahanchian</username> <id>606519</id> </contributor> <comment>added {{cleanup|March 1006}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup|March 1006}} '''Railways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 757 km &lt;br&gt;''standard gauge:'' 375 km 1.435-m gauge (Central Romana Railroad) &lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:'' 142 km 0.762-m gauge (Dominican Republic Government Railway); 240 km operated by sugar companies in various gauges (0.558-m, 0.762-m, 1.067-m gauges) (1995) '''Highways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 12,600 km &lt;br&gt;''paved:'' 6,224 km &lt;br&gt;''unpaved:'' 6,376 km (1996 est.) '''Pipelines:''' crude oil 96 km; petroleum products 8 km '''Ports and harbors:''' Barahona, La Romana, Puerto Plata, San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo '''Merchant marine:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,587 GRT/1,165 DWT &lt;br&gt;''ships by type:'' cargo 1 (1999 est.) '''Airports:''' 28 (1999 est.) [[El Cibao]] Airport ([[Santiago de los Caballeros|Santiago]])&lt;br&gt; [[Puerto Plata Airport]] '''Airports - with paved runways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 13 &lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:'' 3 &lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 4 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 3 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 2 (1999 est.) '''Airports - with unpaved runways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 15 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 9 (1999 est.) '''National airline''' *[[Dominicana de Aviacion]] used to be the country's national airline for a large period of time. Due to economic crisis, however, this title has been passed on to various other companies after Dominicana stopped flying. Currently, the national flag carrier is [[Air Santo Domingo]]. :''See also :'' [[Dominican Republic]], [[Puerto Plata Airport]], [[Las Americas International Airport]]. [[Category:Transportation in the Dominican Republic|*]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of the Dominican Republic</title> <id>8070</id> <revision> <id>35478339</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T01:15:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.211.104.120</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Military]] branches:''' Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police '''Military manpower - military age:''' 18 years of age '''Military manpower - availability:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 2,239,309 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - fit for military service:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 1,405,845 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:''' &lt;br&gt;''males:'' 86,569 (2000 est.) '''Military expenditures - dollar figure:''' $180 million (FY98) '''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:''' 1.1% (FY98) ==References and Links== *{{CIA_WFB_2003}} *[[Dominican Republic]] [[Category:Government of the Dominican Republic]] [[Category:Militaries|Dominican Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic</title> <id>8071</id> <revision> <id>42008121</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:42:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>XLR8TION</username> <id>132585</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Dominican Republic]] has a close relationship with the [[United States]] and with the other states of the Inter-American system. It has accredited diplomatic missions in most [[Western Hemisphere]] countries and in principal [[Europe]]an capitals. The Dominican Republic maintains official relations with the [[Republic of China]] (commonly known as “Taiwan”) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]]. The Dominican Republic and [[Cuba]] recently established consular relations, and there is contact in fields such as commerce, culture, and sports. Although Dominican relations with its closest neighbor, the Republic of [[Haiti]], have never been extensive, there are signs this would have changed with the government of President Mejia. Growing immigration from and political instability in Haiti have forced the Dominican Republic to take a closer look at relations with its neighbor both country-to-country and in international fora. There is a sizeable Haitian migrant community in the Dominican Republic. The Dominican Republic belongs to the [[United Nations]] and many of its specialized and related agencies, including the [[World Bank]], [[International Labour Organization]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], and [[International Civil Aviation Organization]]. It also is a member of the [[OAS]], World Trade Organization, World Health Organization, World Customs Organization the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], and ACP Group. The Dominican Republic has very strong ties and relations with [[Puerto Rico]]. Although a [[United States]] Commonwealth, the island is the Dominican Republic's largest trading partner. While relations between both islands have had difficulties, mainly due the huge exodus of illegal immigrants from the Dominican Republic due to the nation's history of economic woes, the islands still, with the assistance of the United States Coast Guard and the Dominican navy have worked hard to reduce the number of Dominicans crossing the [[Mona Passage]] in recent years. Puerto Rico is home to an estimated 500,000 Dominicans, and the Dominican Republic maintains consulates in the cities of [[San_Juan_Puerto_Rico|San Juan]] and [[Mayagüez_Puerto Rico|Mayagüez]]. '''Illicit drugs:''' transshipment point for South American drugs destined for the U.S. and Europe ==External links== * [http://www.serex.gov.do/default.aspx Dominican Secretary of State for Foreign Relations (in Spanish)] * [http://www.consuladord-ny.org Dominican Consulate in New York City (in English/Spanish)] * [http://www.dominicanembassy.org.uk Dominican Embassy in London, United Kingdon (in English)] * [http://www.drembassy.org Dominican Embassy in Ottawa, Canada (in English/French/Spanish)] * [http://www.amba-dominicaine-paris.com Dominican Embassy in Paris France (in French/Spanish)] * [http://www.domrep.org Dominican Embassy in Washington, DC (in English/Spanish)] * [http://www.embelicerd.com Embassy of Belize in Santo Domingo (in English/Spanish)] * [http://http://www.funredes.org/ambafrance/article.php3?id_article=271 Embassy of France in Santo Domingo (in French/Spanish)] * [http://www.do.emb-japan.go.jp Embassy of Japan in Santo Domingo (in Spanish)] * [http://www.bm30.es/socios/consulados/repdomin_es.html Honorary Consulate of the Dominican Republic in Bilbao, Spain (in English/Spanish)] * [http://www.dominicanconsulate.org.pk Honorary Consulate of the Dominican Republic in Lahore, Pakistan (in English)] * [http://un.cti.depaul.edu/cgi-bin/spider.py?_request=0&amp;country=DominicanRepublic Permanent Mission of the Dominican Republic to the United Nations] * [http://www.usemb.gov.do United States Embassy in Santo Domingo (in English/Spanish)] [[Category:Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Disease</title> <id>8072</id> <revision> <id>41650292</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:19:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kd4ttc</username> <id>33215</id> </contributor> <comment>rv anon v and changes</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''disease''' is any abnormal condition of the [[human body|body]] or [[mind]] that causes [[discomfort]], [[dysfunction]], or distress to the person afflicted or those in contact with the person. Sometimes the term is used broadly to include injuries, disabilities, [[syndrome]]s, symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts these may be considered distinguishable categories. [[Pathology]] is the study of diseases. The subject of systematic classification of diseases is referred to as [[nosology]]. The broader body of knowledge about human diseases and their treatments is [[medicine]]. Many similar (and a few of the same) conditions or processes can affect animals (wild or domestic). The study of diseases affecting animals is [[veterinary medicine]]. Plants as well can suffer from a variety of processes such as infection, nutrient deficiency, or deleterious mutation. The study of diseases affecting plants is termed [[plant pathology]]. ==Syndromes, illness and disease== Medical usage sometimes distinguishes a ''disease'', which has a known specific cause or causes (called its [[etiology]]), from a ''syndrome'', which is a collection of signs or [[symptom]]s that occur together. However, many conditions have been identified, yet continue to be referred to as &quot;syndromes&quot;. Furthermore, numerous conditions of unknown etiology are referred to as &quot;diseases&quot; in many contexts. [[Illness]], although often used to mean disease, can also refer to a person's ''perception'' of their health, regardless of whether they in f
ency]] ''redirect to [[cache coherency]]''&lt;br&gt; [[cache hit]] ''redirect to [[cache]]''&lt;br&gt; [[cache line]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[cache memory]] ''redirect to [[cache]]''&lt;br&gt; [[cache miss]] ''redirect to [[cache]]''&lt;br&gt; [[Cache On A STick]] ''redirect to [[COAST]]''&lt;br&gt; [[caching]] ''redirect to [[cache]]''&lt;br&gt; CACI&lt;br&gt; CACM&lt;br&gt; CAD&lt;br&gt; CAD/CAM&lt;br&gt; CADD&lt;br&gt; Cadence Design Systems&lt;br&gt; CADET&lt;br&gt; CADRE&lt;br&gt; CAE&lt;br&gt; CAF&lt;br&gt; CAFE&lt;br&gt; CAGE&lt;br&gt; CAI&lt;br&gt; Cairo&lt;br&gt; CAIS&lt;br&gt; CAIS-A&lt;br&gt; CAiSE&lt;br&gt; CAJOLE&lt;br&gt; CAL&lt;br&gt; Calc&lt;br&gt; calculator&lt;br&gt; Calculus of Communicating Systems&lt;br&gt; Calendar API&lt;br&gt; Calendar Application Programming Interface&lt;br&gt; Caliban&lt;br&gt; Calico&lt;br&gt; California State University San Marcos&lt;br&gt; callback&lt;br&gt; call-by-name&lt;br&gt; call-by-need&lt;br&gt; call-by-reference&lt;br&gt; call-by-value&lt;br&gt; call-by-value-result&lt;br&gt; call/cc&lt;br&gt; callee&lt;br&gt; Caller ID&lt;br&gt; calling convention&lt;br&gt; Call-Level Interface&lt;br&gt; Call Unix&lt;br&gt; Callware&lt;br&gt; call-with-current-continuation&lt;br&gt; CALS&lt;br&gt; CAM&lt;br&gt; CAM-6&lt;br&gt; CAMAL&lt;br&gt; Cambridge Lisp&lt;br&gt; Camelot Library&lt;br&gt; camera ready&lt;br&gt; CAMIL&lt;br&gt; CAML&lt;br&gt; Caml Light&lt;br&gt; CAM-PC&lt;br&gt; Campus Wide Information System&lt;br&gt; CAN&lt;br&gt; can&lt;br&gt; Canada&lt;br&gt; Cancel&lt;br&gt; Cancelbunny&lt;br&gt; Cancelm00se&lt;br&gt; Cancelmoose&lt;br&gt; Cancelpoodle&lt;br&gt; candidate key&lt;br&gt; Candle&lt;br&gt; candygrammar&lt;br&gt; canonical&lt;br&gt; Canonical Encoding Rules&lt;br&gt; canonical name&lt;br&gt; canonicity&lt;br&gt; C (ANSI)&lt;br&gt; can't happen&lt;br&gt; Cantor&lt;br&gt; CAP&lt;br&gt; Capabilities Maturity Model&lt;br&gt; capability&lt;br&gt; Capability Maturity Model&lt;br&gt; capacitor&lt;br&gt; capacity&lt;br&gt; CAPI&lt;br&gt; Cap'n Crunch&lt;br&gt; Captain Abstraction&lt;br&gt; Captain Crunch&lt;br&gt; card&lt;br&gt; Cardbox for Windows&lt;br&gt; Cardbus&lt;br&gt; cardinality&lt;br&gt; cardinal number&lt;br&gt; CARDS&lt;br&gt; card walloper&lt;br&gt; Career Limiting Move&lt;br&gt; caret&lt;br&gt; careware&lt;br&gt; '''DONE''' cargo cult programming&lt;br&gt; Caribou CodeWorks&lt;br&gt; Carl Friedrich Gauss&lt;br&gt; Carnegie Mellon University&lt;br&gt; carpal tunnel syndrome&lt;br&gt; Carriage Return&lt;br&gt; Carrierless Amplitude/Phase Modulation&lt;br&gt; carrier scanner&lt;br&gt; carrier signal&lt;br&gt; Cartesian coordinates&lt;br&gt; Cartesian product&lt;br&gt; CAS&lt;br&gt; CAS 8051 Assembler&lt;br&gt; cascade&lt;br&gt; Cascading Style Sheets&lt;br&gt; CASE&lt;br&gt; case&lt;br&gt; case and paste&lt;br&gt; case based reasoning&lt;br&gt; CASE Data Interchange Format&lt;br&gt; CASE framework&lt;br&gt; case insensitive&lt;br&gt; Case Integration Services&lt;br&gt; CASE*Method&lt;br&gt; case sensitive&lt;br&gt; case sensitivity&lt;br&gt; CASE SOAP III&lt;br&gt; case statement&lt;br&gt; CASE tools&lt;br&gt; cashe&lt;br&gt; CAST&lt;br&gt; cast&lt;br&gt; casters-up mode&lt;br&gt; casting the runes&lt;br&gt; CAT&lt;br&gt; cat&lt;br&gt; Cat 3&lt;br&gt; Cat 5&lt;br&gt; catatonic&lt;br&gt; CATE&lt;br&gt; Categorical Abstract Machine Language&lt;br&gt; category&lt;br&gt; Category 3&lt;br&gt; Category 5&lt;br&gt; CA-Telon&lt;br&gt; cathode ray tube&lt;br&gt; CATIA&lt;br&gt; cationic cocktail&lt;br&gt; C/ATLAS&lt;br&gt; CATNIP&lt;br&gt; CATO&lt;br&gt; Cauchy sequence&lt;br&gt; cause-effect graphing&lt;br&gt; CAV&lt;br&gt; Cayenne Software&lt;br&gt; CAYLEY&lt;br&gt; cb&lt;br&gt; CBASIC&lt;br&gt; C-BC&lt;br&gt; CBD&lt;br&gt; C Beautifier&lt;br&gt; CBIR&lt;br&gt; CBN&lt;br&gt; CBR&lt;br&gt; CBT&lt;br&gt; CBV&lt;br&gt; cbw&lt;br&gt; cc&lt;br&gt; CC++&lt;br&gt; C/C++&lt;br&gt; CCalc&lt;br&gt; CCD&lt;br&gt; CCIRN&lt;br&gt; CCITT&lt;br&gt; CCITT HIgh-Level Language&lt;br&gt; CCL&lt;br&gt; CCLU&lt;br&gt; ccmail&lt;br&gt; cc:mail&lt;br&gt; CCP&lt;br&gt; CCR&lt;br&gt; CCS&lt;br&gt; CCSP&lt;br&gt; CCTA&lt;br&gt; CD&lt;br&gt; cd&lt;br&gt; CDA&lt;br&gt; CDC&lt;br&gt; CDDI&lt;br&gt; CDD/Plus&lt;br&gt; CDE&lt;br&gt; CDF ''redirect to'' [[Common Data Format]]&lt;br&gt; CD-i&lt;br&gt; CDIF&lt;br&gt; CDL&lt;br&gt; CDM&lt;br&gt; CDMA&lt;br&gt; CDP1802&lt;br&gt; CDPD&lt;br&gt; cdr&lt;br&gt; CD-R&lt;br&gt; CD-Read-Write&lt;br&gt; CD-Rewritable&lt;br&gt; CD-ROM&lt;br&gt; CD-ROM drive&lt;br&gt; CD-RW&lt;br&gt; CDS&lt;br&gt; cd tilde&lt;br&gt; CE&lt;br&gt; Cecil&lt;br&gt; Cedar&lt;br&gt; CEEMAC+&lt;br&gt; CEI-PACT&lt;br&gt; Celeron&lt;br&gt; CELIP&lt;br&gt; cell&lt;br&gt; Cellang&lt;br&gt; CELLAS&lt;br&gt; Cello&lt;br&gt; CELLSIM&lt;br&gt; Cellular&lt;br&gt; cellular automata&lt;br&gt; cellular automaton&lt;br&gt; Cellular Digital Packet Data&lt;br&gt; cellular multiprocessing&lt;br&gt; Cellular Neural Network&lt;br&gt; CELP&lt;br&gt; CEN&lt;br&gt; CENELEC&lt;br&gt; Centi-Call Second&lt;br&gt; central office&lt;br&gt; Central office exchange service&lt;br&gt; central processing unit&lt;br&gt; Centrex&lt;br&gt; Centronics&lt;br&gt; Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica&lt;br&gt; century meltdown&lt;br&gt; cepstra&lt;br&gt; cepstrum&lt;br&gt; CEPT&lt;br&gt; CER&lt;br&gt; Ceramic Pin Grid Array&lt;br&gt; Ceres workstation Oberon System&lt;br&gt; Cerf, Vint&lt;br&gt; CERN&lt;br&gt; CERNLIB&lt;br&gt; CERT&lt;br&gt; Certificate Authority&lt;br&gt; CESP&lt;br&gt; CESSL&lt;br&gt; cextract&lt;br&gt; cf&lt;br&gt; CFD&lt;br&gt; CFML&lt;br&gt; cforth&lt;br&gt; cfortran.h&lt;br&gt; CFP&lt;br&gt; CFP92&lt;br&gt; cg&lt;br&gt; CGA&lt;br&gt; CGGL&lt;br&gt; CGI&lt;br&gt; cgi-bin&lt;br&gt; CGI Joe&lt;br&gt; CGI program&lt;br&gt; CGI script&lt;br&gt; CGM&lt;br&gt; CGOL&lt;br&gt; cgram&lt;br&gt; ch&lt;br&gt; chad&lt;br&gt; chad box&lt;br&gt; Chadless keypunch&lt;br&gt; chain&lt;br&gt; Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol&lt;br&gt; Chalmers University of Technology&lt;br&gt; change management&lt;br&gt; channel&lt;br&gt; channel hopping&lt;br&gt; channel op&lt;br&gt; channel service unit&lt;br&gt; channel service unit/data service unit&lt;br&gt; chan op&lt;br&gt; chaos&lt;br&gt; CHAP&lt;br&gt; char&lt;br&gt; character&lt;br&gt; character encoding&lt;br&gt; character encoding scheme&lt;br&gt; character graphics&lt;br&gt; characteristic function&lt;br&gt; character repertoire&lt;br&gt; character set&lt;br&gt; character set identifier&lt;br&gt; Charge-Coupled Device&lt;br&gt; CHARITY&lt;br&gt; charityware&lt;br&gt; Charles Babbage&lt;br&gt; Charles Simonyi&lt;br&gt; CHARM&lt;br&gt; CHARM++&lt;br&gt; Charme&lt;br&gt; CHARYBDIS&lt;br&gt; chase pointers&lt;br&gt; CHASM&lt;br&gt; chat&lt;br&gt; chatbot&lt;br&gt; chat room&lt;br&gt; chatterbot&lt;br&gt; cheapernet&lt;br&gt; checkdigit&lt;br&gt; Checkout Test language&lt;br&gt; checkpoint&lt;br&gt; checksum&lt;br&gt; chemist&lt;br&gt; Chen&lt;br&gt; CHEOPS&lt;br&gt; Chernobyl packet&lt;br&gt; chess&lt;br&gt; CHI&lt;br&gt; Chicago&lt;br&gt; chicken head&lt;br&gt; [[chiclet keyboard|chicklet keyboard]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; [[chiclet keyboard]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; child&lt;br&gt; [[child process]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; child record&lt;br&gt; child version&lt;br&gt; CHILI&lt;br&gt; CHILL&lt;br&gt; Chimera&lt;br&gt; chine nual&lt;br&gt; Chinese Army technique&lt;br&gt; CHIP&lt;br&gt; chip&lt;br&gt; CHIP-48&lt;br&gt; CHIP-8&lt;br&gt; chip box&lt;br&gt; Chip Jewelry&lt;br&gt; Chip Scale Packaging&lt;br&gt; chip set&lt;br&gt; Chips &amp;amp&lt;br&gt; Technologies&lt;br&gt; CHISEL&lt;br&gt; chmod&lt;br&gt; CHOCS&lt;br&gt; choke&lt;br&gt; chomp&lt;br&gt; CHOP&lt;br&gt; Chop&lt;br&gt; Chorus&lt;br&gt; Christmas tree&lt;br&gt; Christmas tree packet&lt;br&gt; Christopher Strachey&lt;br&gt; chromatic number&lt;br&gt; chrome&lt;br&gt; chroot&lt;br&gt; CHRP&lt;br&gt; chug&lt;br&gt; chunker&lt;br&gt; Church, Alonzo&lt;br&gt; Church integer&lt;br&gt; Church of the SubGenius&lt;br&gt; Church-Rosser Theorem&lt;br&gt; ci&lt;br&gt; CI$&lt;br&gt; CICERO&lt;br&gt; CICS&lt;br&gt; CID&lt;br&gt; CIDR&lt;br&gt; CIEL&lt;br&gt; CIF&lt;br&gt; CIFS&lt;br&gt; Cigale&lt;br&gt; CIL&lt;br&gt; CIM&lt;br&gt; CIMS PL/I&lt;br&gt; Cinderella Book&lt;br&gt; CINT92&lt;br&gt; C-Interp&lt;br&gt; ciphertext&lt;br&gt; CIP-L&lt;br&gt; CIR&lt;br&gt; CIRCAL&lt;br&gt; circuit&lt;br&gt; CIRcuit CALculus&lt;br&gt; circuit switched&lt;br&gt; circuit switching&lt;br&gt; circular buffer&lt;br&gt; Cirrus Logic&lt;br&gt; CIS&lt;br&gt; CISC&lt;br&gt; Cisco Systems, Inc.&lt;br&gt; CISI&lt;br&gt; CITRAN&lt;br&gt; CityScape&lt;br&gt; CIX&lt;br&gt; '''NO IMPORT''' written in 1994 CJK&lt;br&gt; CJKV&lt;br&gt; ck&lt;br&gt; CL&lt;br&gt; cl&lt;br&gt; CLAM&lt;br&gt; C Language Integrated Production System&lt;br&gt; Clarify&lt;br&gt; Clarion&lt;br&gt; Claris&lt;br&gt; CLASP&lt;br&gt; class&lt;br&gt; class hierarchy&lt;br&gt; classic&lt;br&gt; Classic-Ada&lt;br&gt; classical logic&lt;br&gt; Classic C&lt;br&gt; Classless Inter-Domain Routing&lt;br&gt; class library&lt;br&gt; [[class method]]&lt;br&gt; Class Oriented Ring Associated Language&lt;br&gt; Class-Relation Method&lt;br&gt; [[Clean programming language|Clean]] '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt; clean&lt;br&gt; Cleanroom&lt;br&gt; CLEAR&lt;br&gt; clear box testing&lt;br&gt; CLEO&lt;br&gt; CLHEP&lt;br&gt; CLI&lt;br&gt; CLiCC&lt;br&gt; click&lt;br&gt; client&lt;br&gt; client-server&lt;br&gt; client/server&lt;br&gt; client-server model&lt;br&gt; Client To Client Protocol&lt;br&gt; C++Linda&lt;br&gt; C-Linda&lt;br&gt; CLIP&lt;br&gt; CLiP&lt;br&gt; clipboard&lt;br&gt; Clipper&lt;br&gt; CLIPS&lt;br&gt; clique&lt;br&gt; CLISP&lt;br&gt; Clive Sinclair&lt;br&gt; CLIX&lt;br&gt; CLM&lt;br&gt; CLNP&lt;br&gt; clobber&lt;br&gt; clock&lt;br&gt; [[clock rate]] - '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; clock speed&lt;br&gt; clone&lt;br&gt; clone-and-hack coding&lt;br&gt; clonebot&lt;br&gt; CLOS&lt;br&gt; closed-box testing&lt;br&gt; closed set&lt;br&gt; closed term&lt;br&gt; Clos network&lt;b
assical explanation holds that the local depletion of oxygen within the tumor is the cause of the high glycolytic rate in tumor cells. Nevertheless, there is also strong experimental evidence that attributes these high aerobic glycolytic rates to an overexpressed form of mitochondrially-bound [[hexokinase]] {{ref|www.pnas.org.886}} responsible for driving the high glycolytic activity when oxygen is not necessarily depleted. This phenomenon was first described in 1930 by [[Otto Warburg]], and hence it is referred to as the Warburg Effect. This has a current important medical application, as aerobic glycolysis by malignant tumors is utilized clinically to diagnose and monitor treatment responses of [[cancers]] by [[imaging]] uptake of [[Fluorodeoxyglucose|2-&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;F-2-deoxyglucose]] (a [[radioactive]] modified hexokinase [[substrate]]) with [[positron emission tomography]] (PET) {{ref|www.petscaninfo.com.887}}, {{ref|biogenomica.com.888}}. ==Alternative nomenclature== Some of the metabolites in glycolysis have alternative names and nomenclature. In part, this is because some of them are common to other pathways, such as the Calvin cycle. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|This article !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Alternative names !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Alternative nomenclature |- |1 |[[glucose]] |'''Glc''' |dextrose | | | | | |- |2 | [[glucose 6-phosphate]] |'''G6P''' | | | | | | |- |3 |[[fructose 6-phosphate]] |'''F6P''' | | | | | | |- |4 | [[fructose 1,6-bisphosphate]] |'''F1,6BP''' |fructose 1,6-diphosphate | | |'''FBP''' |'''FDP''' |'''F1,6DP''' |- |5 |[[dihydroxyacetone phosphate]] |'''DHAP''' | | | | | | |- |6 |[[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate]] |'''GADP''' |3-phosphoglyceraldehyde | |'''GAP''' |'''PGAL''' |'''G3P''' |'''GALP''' |- |7 | [[1,3-bisphosphoglycerate]] |'''1,3BPG''' |glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate |glycerate 1,3-diphosphate |1,3-diphosphoglycerate |'''PGAP''' |'''BPG''' |'''DPG''' |- |8 |[[3-phosphoglycerate]] |'''3PG''' |glycerate 3-phosphate | | |'''PGA''' |'''GP''' | |- |9 | [[2-phosphoglycerate]] |'''2PG''' |glycerate 2-phosphate | | | | | |- |10 |[[phosphoenolpyruvate]] |'''PEP''' | | | | | | |- |11 | [[pyruvate]] |'''Pyr''' | | | | | | |- |} ==See also== * [[Gluconeogenesis]] * [[Citric acid cycle]] (Krebs cycle) * [[Anaerobic respiration]] * [[Cellular respiration]] * [[Anaerobic glycolysis]] ==External links== * [http://nist.rcsb.org/pdb/molecules/pdb50_1.html The Glycolytic enzymes in Glycolysis: Protein Data Bank] * [http://www.wdv.com/CellWorld/Biochemistry/Glycolytic Glycolytic cycle with animations] * [http://www.biochemweb.org/metabolism.shtml Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology] * [http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/bq/glycolysis.htm The chemical logic behind glycolysis] ==References== * Stryer, Lubert (1987). ''Biochemistry''. W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-1920-7 # {{note|www.pnas.org.886}} {{Web reference | title=High Aerobic Glycolysis of Rat Hepatoma Cells in Culture: Role of Mitochondrial Hexokinase -- Bustamante and Pedersen 74 (9): 3735 -- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/74/9/3735 | date=December 5 | year=2005 }} # {{note|www.petscaninfo.com.887}} {{Web reference | title=PET Scan: PET Scan Info Reveals ... | url=http://www.petscaninfo.com/ | date=December 5 | year=2005 }} # {{note|biogenomica.com.888}} {{Web reference | title=4320139 549..559 | url=http://biogenomica.com/PDFs/PauwelsPETandHexokinase.pdf | date=December 5 | year=2005 }} [[Category:Cellular respiration]] [[Category:Metabolism]] [[Category:Biochemistry]] [[da:Glykolyse]] [[de:Glykolyse]] [[et:Glükolüüs]] [[es:Glucólisis]] [[eo:Glikolizo]] [[fr:Glycolyse]] [[ko:해당]] [[it:Glicolisi]] [[he:גליקוליזה]] [[lb:Glykolys]] [[nl:Glycolyse]] [[ja:解糖系]] [[pt:Glicólise]] [[ru:Гликолиз]] [[fi:Glykolyysi]] [[su:Glikolisis]] [[sv:Glykolys]] [[tr:Glikoliz]] [[zh:糖酵解]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gary North (Christian Reconstructionist)</title> <id>12645</id> <revision> <id>41706153</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:47:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Will Beback</username> <id>737021</id> </contributor> <comment>move elements</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Christian Reconstructionist. For the journalist and activist, see [[Gary_North_(journalist_and_activist)|Gary B. North]]'' [[image:Gary_north.jpg|frame|right|Gary North]] '''Gary North''' is a writer and publisher from the [[Christian Reconstructionism|Christian Reconstruction]] movement. (He is the son-in-law of [[R.J. Rushdoony]], one of the movement's founders.) North received a [[PhD]] in [[History]] from the [[University of California]] at [[Riverside,_California|Riverside]] in [[1972]]. He gained some wider notoriety for his inaccurate prediction of [[Y2K]] catastrophe before [[2000]]. Most Christian Reconstructionists hold to a type of [[Postmillennialism]] that holds that [[Jesus]] will return to earth only after Trinitarian [[Christianity]] has become the religion of the majority of the planet, with God's moral law as the civil standard for society. They believe that [[Old Testament]] moral and civil laws, such as those against [[adultery]] and [[sodomy]] and murder, should be presumed binding unless the [[New Testament]] says otherwise; this belief they call [[theonomy]]. Critics argue that what North is describing would be a [[theocracy]], and that North and other Postmillennial proponents of [[Dominion Theology]] have influenced the growth of the [[Dominionism|Dominionist]] tendency among the much larger (and largely [[Premillennialism|Premillennialist]]) [[Christian Right]]. Theologically, Gary North is a [[Calvinism|Calvinist]]. He is President of the [http://www.reformed-theology.org/ice/ Institute for Christian Economics], which now publishes many, but not all, Christian Reconstructionist books online. Christian Reconstructionists are also [[presuppositionalist]]s in their approach to Christian apologetics as taught by the Calvinist philosopher, [[Cornelius Van Til]] and oppose any [[natural law]] theory as a basis for civil law order. North argues for the abolition of the [[fractional reserve banking system]], and a return to the [[gold standard]]. Gary North once predicted that [[Y2K]] would be a global catastrophe [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,33445,00.html]. He later publicly apologised for his mistaken view of Y2K in a January 2000 ICE newsletter. North previously co-authored ''Fighting Chance: Ten Feet to Survival'', a book urging the construction of backyard underground fallout shelters in anticipation of a predicted nuclear war with the Soviet Union. North has attracted much criticism for his beliefs, not least from [[Dispensationalism|Dispensationalists]] who obviously dispute his [[Millennialism|Millennial]] eschatology. Many [[Calvinism|Calvinists]], especially those who hold to an ''Amillennial'' eschatology (which is most of them), also dispute North's position. His postmillennial views were once the majority position among American Calvinists prior to the 20th century. Starting in 1967, North became a frequent contributor to the libertarian journal ''The Freeman''. His writings also appear on [[LewRockwell.com]]. North's economic views are mostly [[libertarian]], but also so on some issues and foreign policy issues as he opposes the [[Iraq War]]. He believes that [[Social Security]] and other welfare programs are &quot;theft by majority vote.&quot; In addition, he argued that those concerned with preserving the life of [[Terri Schiavo]] should have offered to pay for her subsistence. ==See also== * [[Christian Reconstructionism]] * [[Dominionism]] * [[Dominion Theology]] * [[Christian Right]] * [[Postmillennialism]] ==External links== * http://www.garynorth.com/ * http://www.lewrockwell.com/north/north-arch.html * http://www.freebooks.com/ * [http://www.chalcedon.edu/featured/4-04terrell.php Gary North and Christian Economics] * [http://www.nndb.com/people/892/000058718/ Profile] * [http://people.smu.edu/acambre/garynorth/ Gary North is a Big Fat Idiot], a 1998 commentary on Gary North's apocalyptic Year 2000 views [[Category:Reformed theologians|North, Gary]] [[Category:American theologians|North, Gary]] [[Category:Living people|North, Gary]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guernica (city)</title> <id>12646</id> <revision> <id>42083720</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:43:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RexNL</username> <id>241337</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.20.29.45|216.20.29.45]] ([[User talk:216.20.29.45|talk]]) to last version by 24.75.202.210</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the city in Spain. See [[Bombing of Guernica]] for information about the attack on the city during the Spanish Civil War. See [[Guernica (painting)]] for information about the Pablo Picasso painting which depicts the bombing of Guernica.'' '''Guernica''' (pronounced in {{IPA2|ge&amp;#638;'nika}}) is the [[English language|English]] and [[Spanish language]] name for the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Basque Country|Basque]] city of ''Gernika''. The city is united in one municipality with neighbouring Luno, and the combined entity is known as '''Guernica and Luno''' (''Gernika-Lumo'' or ''Guernica y Lun&lt;!-- sic --&gt;o''). It is currently the seat of the Junta (parliament) of the province of [[Vizcaya]], whose executive branch is located in nearby [[Bilbao]]. For centuries prior it had been the meeting place of the [[Fueros|traditional]] Biscayne assembly, which met under an [[oak]] tree, the [[Gernikako Arbola]], which was a symbol of traditional freedoms of the [[Basque people]]. The trees are always rene
ods are the same, as the ballot is identical in most ranked choice voting methods. The method of counting (and in this case, the outcome) of the votes differs. === Special cases of IRV eliminations === Instant Runoff Voting as an ideal does not explicitly define how to handle special cases such as ties and different rules can be considered. A good IRV election must define rules to handle these cases before the votes are cast. This is because there are cases where one set of rules will select a winner different from another set of rules and the set of rules used may affect how the voters cast their ballots. Especially when performing IRV counts on smaller elections, there can be frequent last-place ties that prevent clear bottom elimination. Here are some approaches to consider, individually and combined. The first class of rules allows many candidates to be eliminated at the first count regardless of actual ties. These are practical rules before the first round that reward stronger candidates among the full set of competition. Such rules won't likely affect the winner but they will reduce the number of elimination rounds and thus the number of opportunities for ties to develop. A second class of rules consider actual ties that can't be avoided. * '''Consider multicandidate elimination of weak candidates as the first step:''' ** CANDIDATE COUNT: Define a maximum number of candidates that can survive the first round. *** Example top-two ** VOTE MINIMUM: Define a minimum vote threshold (5 vote for example) and eliminate all weaker candidates together. *** Requires limitations for rule to apply ** PERCENT MINIMUM: Define a minimum percent vote threshold (5% for example) and eliminate all weaker candidates together. *** Again, requires limitations for application ** PERCENT RETENTION: Define a minimum percent of votes by top candidates to be retained. *** Example - retain the top set of candidates who combined control 50% of the vote * '''Tie-breaking rules:''' ** LOGIC: If the tied candidates combined have fewer votes than the next highest candidate, the entire tied set can be eliminated at once. *** Logically deterministic, but may not apply ** FIRST ROUND: Eliminate the candidate in the tie with the lowest number of votes at the earliest stage in the count at which the candidates in question had an unequal number of votes (in effect this means the candidate with the lowest number of first-preference votes - except in the unlikely circumstance that the same candidates are tied both in the round when one has to be eliminated and in the first round). *** Traditional rule; violates purity of one person, one vote principle ** ALL: Eliminate all tied candidates at once. *** Good for weak candidates (with less than 5% of votes), but can lead to [[strategic nomination]]s, which cause IRV implementations using this method to not be [[Spoiler_effect|spoiler proof]] ** RANDOM: Eliminate one randomly to break the tie. ** ORDER: If the order of the candidates on the ballot paper has been determined by lot, then ties can be eliminated by choosing say the top candidate. ** [http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~seppley/MAM%20procedure%20definition.htm Random Voter Hierarchy (RVH)]: Randomly determine a strict ordering of the candidates and when selecting a candidate to eliminate, pick one based on this strict ordering. *** Similar to random elimination, but with many nice properties not found with random elimination == Assessing IRV == ===Comparison of IRV to plurality voting=== There are two major differences between IRV and Plurality voting: *Voters use [[preferential voting]] - a ranked ballot indicating numerically the order of their preference for candidates. *The intent of IRV is for the winning candidate to be one that receives [[absolute majority]] support of voters, compared to the requirement for only [[simple majority]] support in a [[plurality ]] system. ===Comparison of IRV to normal runoff voting=== Advantages of instant runoff ballot (IRV): ; More positive : Candidates are discouraged from negative campaigning. (A winning candidate will usually need first, second and lower ranked preferences to win, and can't safely afford to make enemies with no second chance vote) ; Avoids some fracturing of political interests : In a runoff, a major political interest may fracture into a variety of parties, with its vote splitting in the first ballot such that all those parties' candidates are eliminated in the first ballot. (In the 2002 French Presidential election, for example, the minority Front National candidate won through to the final ballot because the more numerous Socialist vote was split among different parties. ''This can also be considered as a spoiler effect in the first round vote'') ; Saves money : IRV spares the cost of having run-off elections. Advantages of sequential balloting (runoff voting): ; Easier to vote : A runoff allows voters and factions to refocus their attention on remaining candidates in each round. (In IRV, voters must make careful choices among a large set of candidates in one ballot and may not have enough information to make informed rankings among the competitive candidates.) ; Less confusion on voters' part : Many voters don't follow races closely. They know who their first choice is, but examining the differences between all the other candidates, they believe, requires too much time and effort. ; Less critical examination of candidates by one another : Candidates are discouraged from criticizing one another, as a candidate may need first, second and lower-ranked preferences to win, and therefore a candidate can't make enemies with another candidate by criticizing him or her. ; Chance for appeal : Candidates that were eliminated are given another chance to endorse and remaining candidates have another chance to court voters supporting the eliminated candidates. ; Presentation of minor parties : In a runoff, minor parties stand on their own merits in the first round of voting. Under the single event IRV, interest in the minor parties only focuses on how they recommend their supporters cast their preferences between the major parties: the electoral system configures minor parties as preference 'cows'. In a runoff, minor parties have the power to recommend second preferences in the final round. === Effect on parties and candidates === Unlike runoff voting, however, there are no chances to deal in between rounds, change voters' minds, or gain support of the other candidates. Giving them only one chance to do so, instant runoff voting encourages candidates to balance earning core support through winning first choice support and earning broad support through winning the second and third preferences of other candidates' core supporters. As with first-past-the-post, however, any block of more than half the voters can elect a candidate regardless of the opinion of the rest of the voters. This is considered a weakness by the advocates of a more [[deliberative democracy]], who point to the French system of presidential election where such between-round dealings are heavily exploited and useful (they say) to draw together a very factionalized electorate. However, critics of the French runoff system point to the dreaded &quot;votez escroc, pas facho&quot; (vote for the crook, not the fascist) phenomenon, which they believe awarded Chirac an undeserved landslide victory in 2002. The Australian system also allows minority parties to have key planks of their platforms included in those of the major parties by means of so-called &quot;preference deals&quot;. This is seen as legitimate political activity. If enough people care about (for instance) [[Green Party]] issues that that party's second preference can swing the vote, then it is fair enough that it have some limited say in policy. Another advantage of runoff voting is that it usually allows a &quot;protest vote&quot; to be made without penalty. A person voting for a minority party does not &quot;throw his vote away&quot;, as with first-past-the-post systems, so allowing the electorate to send clear signals to the major parties. === Criteria passed === There are several [[voting system criterion|voting system criteria]] that have been defined by political scientists for assessment of voting systems. IRV meets the [[majority criterion]], the [[mutual majority criterion]], the [[Condorcet loser criterion]] and, depending on the used tie-breaker method, the [[independence of clones]] criterion. IRV is invulnerable to the [[tactical voting|burying]] strategy. === Criteria failed === IRV does not pass the [[monotonicity criterion]], the [[consistency criterion]], the [[Condorcet criterion]], the [[summability criterion]], the [[participation criterion]], [[reversal symmetry]], or the [[Independence of irrelevant alternatives]] criterion. According to [[Arrow's theorem]], no voting system meets all of a certain set of criteria when there are three or more choices. These theoretical objections may correspond with practical failures of IRV, discussed below. The first two, '''compromise''' and '''push-over''', are types of [[tactical voting]], where voters vote insincerely to increase the likelihood of a favored outcome. Some argue that [[Condorcet methods]] and [[approval voting]] are better at selecting compromise candidates and at reducing the [[spoiler effect]]. Yet [[Condorcet methods]] may not yield a winner (see [[Condorcet paradox]]), in which case one must resort to another voting method (i.e. [[Borda count]], [[Instant-runoff]]), or restrict the field of candidates (see [[Condorcet_method#Resolving_circular_ambiguities]]). ==== Compromise ==== Assume the earlier Tennessee example. The voters from Memphis can get a better result by &quot;compromising&quot;: They can rank Nashville over Memphis, and thus ensure that Nashville, their second choice, will win, rather than Knoxville, their last choice. Alternatively, if the
ynonymous with increased participation in [[democracy|democratic]] [[political system]]s. During the 20th century overall, there was a dramatic growth in democracy, especially among the [[developed country|more developed countries]], and decline in monarchy and colonialism. However, there was also an increase in various types of [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] regimes, and currently 33 percent of people in [[less developed country|less developed countries]] live in countries subject to some kind of authoritarian rule. In the last several decades, there has only been moderate growth in freedom, and [[as of 2000]], about 40% of people in developing countries still live in countries which lack political freedoms. ==Quotes about political freedom== (see also [[Freedom#Quotes_about_freedom|Quotes about Freedom]]) *&quot;E&amp;lambda;&amp;epsilon;&amp;upsilon;&amp;theta;&amp;epsilon;&amp;rho;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha; ή &amp;theta;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;&quot; (Freedom or Death!)&lt;br&gt; &amp;mdash;[[Crete|Cretan]] War cry. *&quot;Give me Liberty or give me Death!&quot; &lt;br&gt;&amp;mdash;[[Patrick Henry]] *&quot;I may not agree with what you say, but I'll fight to the death for your right to say it.&quot; &lt;br&gt;&amp;mdash;[[Voltaire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foo</title> <id>11176</id> <revision> <id>15908939</id> <timestamp>2002-10-04T15:36:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tarquin</username> <id>83</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Metasyntactic variable]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Metasyntactic variable]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FUBAR</title> <id>11177</id> <revision> <id>40778575</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:29:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>12.201.103.238</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''FUBAR''' may refer to: * [[FUBAR: The Movie]], a 2002 Canadian mockumentary * [[Foobar]], a military slang term that is also sometimes used in computer programming * [[foobar2000]], a freeware media player for Microsoft Windows * [[FUBAR]], Fucked up beyond all recognition {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foobar</title> <id>11178</id> <revision> <id>41568784</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:12:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.73.159.233</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Army acronyms similar to FUBAR */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} '''Foobar''' is a common [[placeholder name]] used in [[computer programming]]. It has been described as &quot;the association of two [[metasyntactic variable]]s: ''foo'' and ''bar''&quot;. These [[variables]] are often used in computer programming examples. ==Etymology== Most probably, &quot;foo&quot; and &quot;bar&quot; were derived from &quot;foobar,&quot; which in turn had its origins in the military slang acronym '''[[FUBAR]]'''. The most common rendition is &quot;Fucked Up Beyond All Recognition&quot; (Several variant renditions exist, with, for example, the words &quot;Fouled&quot;, &quot;Any Repair&quot;, &quot;Any Redemption&quot;, or &quot;All Reason&quot; used instead of the versions above.) FUBAR may have had its origins in the [[German language|German]] word ''Furchtbar'', meaning frightful, or terrible. It is pronounced with a soft ''cht'', and probably made the transition during [[World War II]]. &quot;[[Foo]]&quot; had been popularized in American culture, appearing in a [[1938]] [[Warner Bros.]] [[Daffy Duck]] cartoon and the comic strip ''[[Smokey Stover]]''. Electronics engineers say that [[snafu]] and fubar were used before the war by repairmen sent out to repair [[phone booth]]s. They had to report the situation at arrival to the scene, often on a very bad line, so they developed these acronyms to make themselves understood. It is also possible that ''foobar'' is a phonological interpretation of the first letters of the [[Runic alphabet]]. Like ''[[Qwerty]]'' and ''[[Abcde]]'', this expression might have attracted various computer programmers. In a museum at [[Aarhus]], a large wooden bar with the runic enscription ''f u þ a r'', where ''fu'' is pronounced like ''foo''. However, the letter ''[[þ]]'' is actually pronounced like an unvoiced ''th'', not a ''b'' (hence the name ''[[Futhark]]'' for the Runic alphabet). One of the most popular hacker/[[Demoscene|demo]] groups on the [[Commodore_64|Commodore 64]] scene in the mid [[1980s]] was [[FBR]] - &quot;Fucked Beyond Repair&quot;. Except in [[military]] and [[computer science]]/[[Hacker culture|hacker]] communities, the word &quot;fubar&quot; had fallen out of use since the [[1960s]] but has enjoyed another resurgence since it was used in the movies ''[[Tango and Cash]]'' ([[1989]]) and ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' ([[1998]]). [[FUBAR:_The_Movie|''FUBAR'']] is also the title of a [[2002]] [[Canada|Canadian]] [[mockumentary]]. ==Army acronyms similar to FUBAR== There are a number of slang [[List of U.S. Army acronyms and expressions|army acronym]]s that are similar to FUBAR, all containing the word &quot;fuck&quot;. They include: * '''FUBAR''' - Fucked Up Beyond All Recognition * '''SAPFU''' - Surpasses All Previous Fuck Ups * '''[[SNAFU]]''' - Situation Normal: All Fucked Up * '''SUSFU''' - Situation Unchanged, Still Fucked Up * '''FUMTU''' - Fucked Up More Than Usual * '''FUBB''' - Fucked Up Beyond Belief * '''TARFU''' - Things Are Really Fucked Up * '''TOFU''' - Things Ordinary: Fucked Up * '''GFU''' - General Fuck Up * '''SAMFU''' - Self Adjusting Military Fuck Up * '''TUIFU''' - The Ultimate In Fuck Ups * '''[[fugazi | FUGAZI]]''' - Fucked Up, Got Ambushed, Zipped In; Refers to out-of-control situation such as a chaotic jungle warfare combat environment * '''JANFU''' - Joint Army/Navy Fuck-Up; apparently used by British troops in WWII * '''JAAFU''' - Joint Army-[[Air Force|Air Force]] Fuck-Up; the use of JANFU combined with a radical increase in joint-forces operations since [[1989]], has led to the rare but increasing use of JAAFU * '''[[Internet slang#D|DILLIGAF]]/DILLIGAS''' - Do I Look Like I Give A Fuck/Shit? Interrogative form of, &quot;(It) don't mean nothing.&quot; Both often heard in [[Vietnam-American War|Vietnam]]. * '''TINS''' - This Is No Shit! Often seen in [[veteran]]s' forums * '''IHTFP''' - I Hate This Fucking Place. Generally used at American [[Military Academy|Service Academies]]. &quot;The Fubar Suit&quot; (1997) is also the title of a [[science fiction]] [[short story]] by [[Stephen Baxter]]. ==See also== *[[List of U.S. Army acronyms and expressions]] *[[foobar2000]] (audio player) ==External links== ===Foo bar=== *[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/F/foobar.html The Jargon File entry on foobar] *[http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc3092.html RFC article on origin and usage of ''foobar''] ===FUBAR=== *[http://www.acronymfinder.com/af-query.asp?String=exact&amp;Acronym=FUBAR&amp;Find=Find Acronym Finder's FUBAR entry] *[http://www.cix.co.uk/~sjbradshaw/baxterium/fubar.html The Fubar Suit] *[http://www.fubar-themovie.com Website for ''Fubar'', the mockumentary.] *[http://sweatshopindustries.net Fubar Entertainment.] [[Category:6-letter acronyms]] [[Category:Military acronyms]] [[da:FUBAR]] [[de:Fubar]] [[nl:Foobar]] [[sv:Fubar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Functional analysis</title> <id>11180</id> <revision> <id>40211569</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T00:05:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username> <id>153314</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Normed vector spaces */ link to [[Invariant subspace]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Functional analysis''' is the branch of [[mathematics]], and specifically of [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], concerned with the study of spaces of [[function (mathematics)|function]]s. It has its historical roots in the study of [[Transformation (mathematics)|transformations]], such as the [[Fourier transform]], and in the study of [[differential equations|differential]] and [[integral equations|integral]] equations. This usage of the word ''[[functional (mathematics)|functional]]'' goes back to the [[calculus of variations]], implying a function whose argument is a function. Its use in general has been attributed to mathematician and physicist [[Vito Volterra]] and its founding is largely attributed to mathematician [[Stefan Banach]]. ==Normed vector spaces== In the modern view, functional analysis is seen as the study of [[complete space|complete]] [[normed vector space]]s over the [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] numbers. Such spaces are called [[Banach space|Banach spaces]]. An important example is a [[Hilbert space]], where the norm arises from an [[inner product space|inner product]]. These spaces are of fundamental importance in the mathematical formulation of [[quantum mechanics]]. More generally, functional analysis includes the study of [[Fréchet space]]s and other [[topological vector space]]s not endowed with a norm. An important object of study in functional analysis are the [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[linear transformation|linear operators]] defined on Banach and Hilbert spaces. These lead naturally to the definition of [[C*-algebra]]s and other [[operator algebra]]s. ===Hilbert spaces=== [[Hilbert space]]s can be completely classified: there is a unique Hilbert space up to [[isomorphism]] for every [[cardinal number|cardinality]] of the base. Since finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are fully understood in [[Linear Algebra|linear algebra]], and since [[morphisms]] of Hilbert spaces can always be divided into morphisms of spaces with [[Aleph-null]] (&amp;alefsym;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) dimensionality, functional
son]] *[[Tony Zale]] == External links == * [http://www.gary.in.us/ City of Gary, Indiana Official Page] * [http://www.garychicagoairport.com/ Gary/Chicago International Airport - GYY] * [http://wwca.relevantradio.com/docs/index.asp WWCA Radio] * [http://www.post-trib.com/ ''The Post-Tribune''] * [http://www.thetimesonline.com/ ''The Times''] * [http://upnchicago.com/ WPWR-TV Gary - UPN Chicago] * [http://www.wyin.com/ WYIN Gary - PBS 56] * [http://www.garycsc.k12.in.us/ Gary Community School Corporation] {{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.580786|-87.345449}} {{Chicagoland}} {{Indiana}} [[Category:Cities in Indiana]] [[Category:Lake County, Indiana]] [[de:Gary (Indiana)]] [[eo:Gary (Indianao)]] [[fr:Gary (Indiana)]] [[io:Gary, Indiana]] [[ja:ゲーリー (インディアナ州)]] [[no:Gary]] [[sv:Gary]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gregory the Illuminator</title> <id>12651</id> <revision> <id>38536765</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T23:56:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Karsetsi</username> <id>729381</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Gregory the Illuminator''' (alternate: [[Armenian language|Armenian]]: Գրիգոր Լուսաւորիչ translit. ''Grigor Lusavorich'', [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Gregarios Phoster'' or ''Photistes''), the founder and patron [[saint]] of the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], was born about [[257]] AD. [[Image:Stgregoryilluminator.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Saint Gregory]] He belonged to the royal line of the [[Arsacid Dynasty]], being the son of some Parthian named Anak, who assassinated [[Chosroes]] of [[Armenia]], and thus brought ruin on himself and his family. His mother's name was Okohe, and the Armenian biographers tell how the first [[Christianity|Christian]] influence he received was at the time of his conception, which took place near the monument raised to the memory of the holy apostle [[Thaddeus]]. Educated in [[Caesarea Mazaca|Caesarea]] in [[Cappadocia]] by a Christian nobleman Euthalius, Gregory sought, when he came to man's estate, to introduce the Christian doctrine into his native land. At that time [[Tiridates IV]], a son of Chosroes, sat on the throne. Influenced partly by the fact that Gregory was the son of his father's enemy, he subjected him to much cruel usage, and imprisoned him for fourteen years. It would be useless to recount the various forms of torture which the orthodox accounts represent the saint to have endured without permanent hurt; almost any one of his twelve trials would have been certain death to an ordinary mortal. But vengeance and madness fell upon the king, and at length Gregory was called forth from his pit to restore his royal persecutor to reason, by virtue of Gregory's saintly intercession. The cause of Christianity was now secured; king and princes and people vied with each other in obedience to Gregory's instruction. As a result, in AD [[301]], Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as its [[state religion]]. (More recent research puts the date at [[314]] AD.) Convents, churches and schools were established. In [[302]] AD, Gregory received consecration as [[Catholicos of Armenia|Patriarch of Armenia]] from Leontius of Caesarea. In [[318]] Gregory appointed his son [[Aristaces]] to be his successor. About [[331]] he withdrew to a cave in the mountain [[Sebuh]] in the province of [[Daranalia]] in Upper Armenia, and there he died a few years later, unattended and unobserved. When it was discovered he was dead his corpse was removed to the village of Thodanum or Tharotan. The remains of the saint were scattered far and near in the reign of Zeno. His head is believed to be now in [[Italy]], his right hand at [[Etchmiadzin]], and his left at [[Kozan, Adana|Sis]]. It is almost impossible to get at Gregory's real personality through the tangled growth of ecclesiastical legend; but he would appear to have possessed some of that consideration for expediency which is so frequently of service to the reformer. While he did his best to undermine their system, he left the old pagan priests in enjoyment of their accustomed revenues. A number of [[homilies]], possibly spurious, several prayers, and about thirty of the canons of the Armenian Church are ascribed to Gregory. The homilies appeared for the first time in a work called ''Haschacnapadum'' at [[Constantinople]] in [[1737]]; a century afterwards a Greek translation was published at [[Venice]] by the Mekhiterists; and they have since been edited in German by J.M. Schmid (ratisbon, [[1872]]). The original authorities for Gregory's life are [[Agathangelos]], whose ''History of Tiridates'' was published by the Mekhitarists in [[1835]]; [[Moses of Chorene]], ''Historiae Armenicae''; and [[Simeon Metaphrastes]]. A ''Life of Gregory'' by the vartabed Matthew, published in Armenian at Venice in [[1749]], was translated into English by Rev. S.C. Malan, [[1868]]. ==See also== [[Khor Virap]] ---- This article was taken from the 9th edition (1880) of an unnamed encyclopedia, and has since been edited on Wikipedia. [[Category:257 births]] [[Category:330s deaths]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Catholicoi of Armenia]] [[Category:Catholicoi of Cilicia]] [[Category:Armenian Apostolic Church]] [[de:Gregor der Erleuchter]] [[pl:Grzegorz Oświeciciel]] [[ru:Григорий Просветитель]] [[sv:Gregorius Upplysaren]] [[zh:格列高利 (启蒙者)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>God Emperor of Dune</title> <id>12653</id> <revision> <id>40363924</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{DuneSeries}} [[Image:GodEmperorofDune.jpg|thumbnail|200px|God Emperor of Dune]] '''God Emperor of Dune''' is a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]] &amp;mdash;the fourth of six novels within the ''[[Dune universe|Dune]]'' series. 3,500 years have passed since [[Paul Atreides]] became the [[messiah]] of the [[Fremen]] and the Emperor of the universe. His son, [[Leto Atreides II|Leto]], seeing a different path than his father, accepted the mantle of godhead from the [[Fremen]] and began to transform himself into a monster of the [[desert]], a [[sandworm (dune)|sandworm]], that has dominated the ecology of Dune for millennia. Leto is confident that his [[Golden Path]] &amp;mdash; a course into the future in which humanity's survival is guaranteed &amp;mdash; is now secure and he has started looking for a way out. {{spoiler}} ==Synopsis== The novel, God Emperor of Dune, places us in a very different universe to that of [[Children of Dune]]. [[Leto Atreides II]] still lives and rules the Empire three thousand years later, owing to his decision in the previous novel, to merge his human body with [[sandtrout]]. Leto is now much further along in his journey to becoming a worm, retaining only useless flippers for arms and legs, he moves about on a mechanical wagon; the one physical remnant of humanity Leto has retained is his human face. From the beginning of the novel, our moral viewpoint is played with a fine hand. In Children of Dune, Leto II was a hero, but three thousand years on this view seems far more doubtful. Does Leto still retain his humanity? Does he remain a force for good? Our action begins with a deadly chase, a band of rebel humans is pursued by a pack of deadly genetically modified wolves; and is being hunted down one by one. As we join the chase only three still survive and almost immediately another is brought down horrifically. The penultimate runner, hampered by an injury, makes a brave stand to try and give the last runner a few more precious minutes. The last runner, a woman on her last reserves, makes the safety of the opposite bank of the Idaho River; from this safety - [[Siona Atreides|Siona]] - looking across at the baying wolves, curses the Emperor of Arrakis, a curse made all the more meaningful, because we learn that she too is an Atreides. Our sense of right and wrong is further challenged by the behaviour of [[Duncan Idaho]]. In order to ease the loneliness of the centuries, Leto has been bringing back Duncan Idaho [[ghola]]s as a companion and leader for his army. Leto, prewarned by the [[Spacing Guild]], is aware that Duncan has purchased a lasgun from an [[Ixians|Ixian]], and probably intends to try and assassinate him. [[Leto Atreides II]] is not particularly shocked, because we learn that most of the time the ghola Duncan Idahos eventually turn against him, a fact that makes us wonder how corrupt Leto must be to make Duncan Idaho turn against an Atreides. However, Duncan, despite buying his weapon, has not fully convinced himself of his intentions and seeks further justification to kill Leto. During his meeting with Leto, Duncan acts as if nothing is unnatural, as if it was nothing more than a normal meeting between the two of them. In the midst of the meeting, we learn that the rebels have escaped with some of Leto's personal diaries and a map to his citadel. Leto II lapses into daydreams during the conversation, and Duncan takes this chance to try and kill him. However, Leto reacts faster than any human could, leaping instinctively in the air and crushing Duncan with his body, almost before Duncan gets off a shot. Leto is barely injured, losing only a seemingly unnecessary flipper in the process. The flipper is an important symbol, however, because it used to be one of his legs, and the fact that it was destroyed distances Leto still further from the human that he once was. [[Moneo Atreides|Moneo]], Leto's chief minister, is called in to arrange the disposal of Duncan. Moneo, we learn, had seen similar scenes before and is mostly bothered by how it will affect the routine of government. To make our moral quandaries even more confusing we discover that loyal Mon
ername>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Actinopterygii</title> <id>734</id> <revision> <id>40010022</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:44:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>209.158.165.30</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Classification */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{taxobox | color=pink | name=Ray-finned fish | image = Herring2.jpg | image_caption = [[Atlantic herring]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = '''Actinopterygii''' | classis_authority = Klein 1885 | subdivision_ranks = Subclasses | subdivision = [[Chondrostei]]&lt;br/&gt; [[Neopterygii]]&lt;br/&gt; See text for orders.}} The '''Actinopterygii''' are the '''ray-finned [[fish]]'''. They are the dominant group of [[vertebrate]]s, with over 27,000 species ubiquitous throughout [[fresh water]] and [[ocean|marine]] environments. ==Classification== Traditionally three grades of Actinopterygii have been recognized: the '''[[Chondrostei]]''', '''[[Holostei]]''', and '''[[Teleostei]]'''. The second is [[paraphyletic]] and tends to be abandoned, however, while the first is now restricted to those forms closer to extant [[Chondrostei]] than to the other groups. Nearly all fish alive today are teleosts. A listing of the different groups is given below, down to the level of orders, arranged in what is believed to represent the evolutionary sequence down to the level of superorder. * '''Subclass [[Chondrostei]]''' ** Order [[Polypteriformes]] (bichirs) ** Order [[Acipenseriformes]] (sturgeons, paddlefish) * '''Subclass [[Neopterygii]]''' ** Order [[Semionotiformes]] (gars) ** Order [[Amiiformes]] (bowfins) ** '''Infraclass [[Teleostei]]''' *** '''Superorder [[Osteoglossomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Osteoglossiformes]] (bony tongues, etc) **** Order [[Hiodontiformes]] (mooneye, etc) *** '''Superorder [[Elopomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Elopiformes]] (tarpons, etc) **** Order [[Albuliformes]] (bonefishes) **** Order [[Notacanthiformes]] (spiny eels) **** Order [[Anguilliformes]] (true eels, gulpers) **** Order [[Saccopharyngiformes]] *** '''Superorder [[Clupeomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Clupeiformes]] (herrings &amp; allies) *** '''Superorder [[Ostariophysi]]''' **** Order [[Gonorynchiformes]] **** Order [[Cypriniform]]es (minnows &amp; allies) **** Order [[Characiformes]] (characins &amp; allies) **** Order [[Gymnotiformes]] (electric eels, knifefishes) **** Order [[Siluriformes]] (catfishes) *** '''Superorder [[Protacanthopterygii]]''' **** Order [[Salmoniformes]] (salmon &amp; allies) **** Order [[Esociformes]] (pikes &amp; allies) **** Order [[Osmeriformes]] (smelts &amp; allies) *** '''Superorder [[Sternopterygii]]''' **** Order [[Ateleopodiformes]] (jellynose fishes) **** Order [[Stomiiformes]] (dragonfishes &amp; allies) *** '''Superorder [[Cyclosquamata]]''' **** Order [[Aulopiformes]] (lizardfishes) *** '''Superorder [[Scopelomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Myctophiformes]] (lanternfishes) *** '''Superorder [[Lampridiomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Lampridiformes]] (opahs, etc) *** '''Superorder [[Polymyxiomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Polymixiiformes]] (beardfishes) *** '''Superorder [[Paracanthopterygii]]''' **** Order [[Percopsiformes]] (trout-perches &amp; allies) **** Order [[Batrachoidiformes]] (toadfishes) **** Order [[Lophiiformes]] (goosefishes, etc) **** Order [[Gadiformes]] (cods &amp; allies) **** Order [[Ophidiiformes]] (cusk eels, etc) *** '''Superorder [[Acanthopterygii]]''' **** Order [[Mugiliformes]] (mullets &amp; allies) **** Order [[Atheriniformes]] (silversides &amp; allies) **** Order [[Beloniformes]] (needlefishes, etc) **** Order [[Cetomimiformes]] (whalefishes) **** Order [[Cyprinodontiformes]] (killifishes, etc) **** Order [[Stephanoberyciformes]] (pricklefishes, whalefishes, etc) **** Order [[Beryciformes]] (alfonsinos, etc) **** Order [[Zeiformes]] (dories, etc) **** Order [[Gasterosteiformes]] (sticklebacks, pipefishes, seahorses, etc) **** Order [[Synbranchiformes]] (swamp-eels, etc) **** Order [[Tetraodontiformes]] (triggerfishes &amp; allies) **** Order [[Pleuronectiformes]] (flatfishes &amp; allies) **** Order [[Scorpaeniformes]] (scorpionfishes &amp; allies) **** Order [[Perciformes]] (perches &amp; many allies) Subphulum Vertebrata ==External links== * * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?name=actinopterygii NCBI Taxonomy entry] ==References== * {{ITIS|ID=161061|year=2004|date=8 December|taxon=Actinopterygii}} [[Category:Ray-finned fish| ]] [[Category:Bony fish]] [[bg:Лъчеперки]] [[cs:Paprskoploutví]] [[da:Strålefinnede fisk]] [[de:Strahlenflosser]] [[fa:شعاع‌باله]] [[fr:Actinopterygii]] [[ko:조기어류]] [[is:Geisluggar]] [[he:מקריני סנפיר]] [[la:Actinopterygii]] [[lt:Stipinpelekės žuvys]] [[nl:Straalvinnigen]] [[ja:条鰭亜綱]] [[no:Strålefinnede fisker]] [[pl:Promieniopłetwe]] [[pt:Actinopterygii]] [[fi:Viuhkaeväiset]] [[sv:Taggfeniga fiskar]] [[zh:輻鰭魚]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Al Gore/Criticisms</title> <id>735</id> <revision> <id>15899255</id> <timestamp>2002-06-16T15:12:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ortolan88</username> <id>1325</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>*moved single para to main article, made this redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al Gore]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albert Einstein</title> <id>736</id> <revision> <id>42155072</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:33:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Licorne</username> <id>921428</id> </contributor> <comment>/* General relativity */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Einstein}} [[Image:Einstein In Overcoat.jpg|thumb|right|222px|Albert Einstein photographed by Oren J. Turner in 1947.]] '''Albert Einstein''' ([[March 14]], [[1879]] – [[April 18]], [[1955]]) was a [[Germany|German]]-born [[theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] widely regarded as the greatest [[science|scientist]] of the 20th century. He was the author of the [[general theory of relativity]] and made important contributions to the [[special theory of relativity]], [[quantum mechanics]], [[statistical mechanics]], and [[physical cosmology|cosmology]]. He was awarded the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize for Physics]] for his explanation of the [[photoelectric effect]] in 1905 (his &quot;[[Annus Mirabilis Papers|miracle year]]&quot;) and &quot;for his services to Theoretical Physics.&quot; After British [[solar eclipse]] expeditions in 1919 confirmed that light rays from distant stars were deflected by the gravity of the sun in the exact amount he predicted in his [[general theory of relativity]], Einstein became world-famous, an unusual achievement for a scientist. In his later years, his fame exceeded that of any other scientist in [[history of science and technology|history]]. In [[popular culture]], his name has become synonymous with great [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[genius]]. ==Biography== [[Image:Young Albert Einstein.jpg|thumb|left|222px|Young Einstein before the Einsteins moved from [[Germany]] to [[Italy]].]] ===Youth and college=== Einstein was born on [[March 14]], [[1879]] at [[Ulm]] in [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[German Empire]], about 100 km east of [[Stuttgart]]. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a featherbed salesman who later ran an [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] works, and Pauline, whose maiden name was Koch. They were married in Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt. The family was [[Jew]]ish (non-observant); Albert attended a [[Catholic school|Catholic elementary school]] and, at the insistence of his mother, was given [[violin]] lessons. Though he initially disliked (and eventually discontinued) the lessons, he would later take great solace in [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s [[violin sonata]]s. When Albert was five, his [[father]] showed him a pocket [[compass]], and Einstein realized that something in &quot;empty&quot; space acted upon the [[needle]]; he would later describe the experience as one of the most revelatory of his life. Though he built [[model (physical)|model]]s and [[machine|mechanical device]]s for fun and showed great mathematical faculty early on, he was considered a slow learner, possibly due to [[dyslexia]], simple [[shyness]], or the significantly rare and unusual structure of [[Albert Einstein's brain|his brain]] (examined after his death).{{rf|1|brain}} He later credited his development of the theory of relativity to this slowness, saying that by pondering space and time later than most children, he was able to apply a more developed intellect. Some researchers have speculated that Einstein may have exhibited some traits of mild forms of [[autism]], although they concede that a reliable posthumous diagnosis is impossible.{{rf|2|autism}} In 1889, a student named Max Talmud introduced Einstein to key science and [[philosophy]] texts including [[Immanuel Kant|Kant's]] ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. Two of his uncles would further foster his intellectual interests during his late childhood and early adolescence by suggesting and providing books on science, mathematics and philosophy. Einstein attended the [[Luitpold Gymnasium]] where he received a relatively progressive education. He began to learn [[mathematics]] around age twelve: in 1891, he taught himself [[Euclidean geometry|Euclidean plane geometry]] from a school booklet and began to study [[calculus]]. There is a recurring [[rumor]] that he failed mathematics later in his education, but this is untrue; a change in the way grades were assigned caused confusion years later. While there, he cla
rican Geophysical Union'', [[Case citation|60 F.3d at 921]]). More important is whether the use fulfills any of the &quot;preamble purposes&quot; also mentioned in the legislation above, as these have been interpreted as paradigmatically &quot;transformative&quot;. Although Judge Pierre Leval has distinguished the first factor as &quot;the soul of fair use,&quot; it alone is not determinative. For example, not every educational usage is fair (see the 1914 case, ''[[Macmillan Co. v. King]]'', although this case has only limited application since it was decided many years before the modern fair use provision became a part of the legislation). === Nature of the copied work === Although the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has ruled that the availability of copyright protection should not depend on the artistic quality or merit of the work at issue, fair use analyses nevertheless consider certain aspects of the copied work, such as whether it is fictional or non-fictional, to be germane. In order to prevent the private ownership of work that rightfully belongs in the public domain, facts and ideas cannot be copyrighted&amp;mdash;only their particular expression or fixation merits such protection. (See [[idea-expression divide]].) On the other hand, the social usefulness of freely available information can weigh against the appropriateness of copyright for certain fixations. The Zapruder film of the assassination of President Kennedy, for example, was purchased and copyrighted by ''Time'' magazine. Yet their copyright was not upheld, in the name of the public interest, when they tried to enjoin the reproduction of stills from the film in a history book on the subject (see ''Time Inc. v. Bernard Geis Associates'', [[Case citation|293 F. Supp. 130]]). Following the decisions of the Second Circuit in ''Salinger v. Random House, Inc.'', [[Case citation|650 F. Supp. 413]] ([[S.D.N.Y.]] [[1986]]), and in ''New Era Publications Int'l v. Henry Holt &amp; Co.'', [[Case citation|695 F. Supp. 1493]] ([[S.D.N.Y.]] [[1988]]), whether the copied work has been previously published suddenly trumped all other considerations because of, in the words of one commentator, &quot;the original author's interest in controlling the circumstances of the first public revelation of his work, and his right, if he so chooses, not to publish at all.&quot; Yet some view this importation of certain aspects of France's ''droit moral d'artiste'' into American copyright law as &quot;bizarre and contradictory&quot; because it sometimes grants greater protection to works that were created for private purposes that have little to do with the public goals of copyright law, than to those works that copyright was initially conceived to protect. This is not to claim that unpublished works, or, more specifically, works not intended for publication, do not deserve legal protection, but that any such protection should come from laws about privacy, rather than from laws about copyright. This debate is still open in the courts. === Amount and substantiality === The third factor assesses the quantity or percentage of the original copyrighted work that has been imported into the new work. In general, the less that is used in relation to the whole, e.g., a few sentences of a text for a book review, the more likely that the sample will be considered fair use. Yet see ''[[Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.|Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios]]'' for a case in which substantial copying &amp;mdash; entire programs for private viewing &amp;mdash; was upheld as fair use. Conversely, in ''[[Harper &amp; Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters.]]'', [[Case citation|471 U.S. 539]] ([[1985]]), the use of less than 400 words from [[Gerald Ford|President Ford]]'s memoir by a political opinion magazine was interpreted as infringement because those few words represented &quot;the heart of the book&quot; and were, as such, substantial. Prior to [[1991]], [[sampling (music)|sampling]] in certain genres of music was accepted practice and such copyright considerations as these were viewed as largely irrelevant. The infamously strict decision against [[rap]]per [[Biz Markie]]'s appropriation of a [[Gilbert O'Sullivan]] song in the case ''[[Grand Upright v. Warner]]'', [[Case citation|780 F. Supp. 182]] ([[S.D.N.Y.]] 1991), changed practices and opinions overnight. Samples now had to be licensed, so long as they rose &quot;to a level of legally cognizable appropriation&quot; (see ''[[Bridgeport Music Inc. v. Dimension Films]]'', [[Case citation|230 F. Supp.2d at 841]] [http://fsnews.findlaw.com/cases/6th/04a0297p.html]). In other words, ''de minimis'' sampling was still considered fair and free because, traditionally, &quot;the law does not care about trifles.&quot; The recent Sixth Circuit Court decision in the appeal to ''Bridgeport Music'' has reversed this standing. The new rule in that Circuit is even more strict in its rendering of copyright law: &quot;get a license or do not sample.&quot; Fair use does not come into play at all. === Effect upon work's value === The fourth factor measures the effect that the allegedly infringing use has had on the copyright owner's ability to exploit his original work. The court not only investigates whether the defendant's specific use of the work has significantly harmed the copyright owner's market, but also whether such uses in general, if widespread, would harm the potential market of the original. The burden of proof here rests on the defendant for commercial uses, but on the copyright owner for noncommercial uses. See ''[[Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios]]'', [[Case citation|464 U.S. 417, 451]] ([[1984]]), where the copyright owner, [[Universal Studios|Universal]], failed to provide any empirical evidence that the use of [[Betamax]] had either reduced their viewership or negatively impacted their business. In the ''Nation'' case regarding President Ford's memoirs above, the Supreme Court labelled this factor &quot;the single most important element of fair use&quot; (471 U.S. at 566) and it has indeed enjoyed some level of primacy in fair use analyses ever since. Yet the Supreme Court's more recent announcement in ''[[Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.]]'', [[Case citation|510 U.S. at 578]] ([[1994]]), that &quot;all [four factors] are to be explored, and the results weighed together, in light of the purposes of copyright&quot; has helped modulate this emphasis in interpretation. In evaluating the fourth factor, courts often consider two kinds of harm to the potential market of the original work. First, courts consider whether the use in question acts as a direct market substitute for the original work. In the words of the Supreme Court in ''Acuff-Rose Music'', &quot;when a commercial use amounts to mere duplication of the entirety of the original, it clearly supersedes the object of the original and serves as a market replacement for it, making it likely that cognizable market harm to the original will occur.&quot; In one instance, a court ruled that this factor weighed against a defendant who had made unauthorized movie trailers for video retailers, since his trailers acted as direct substitutes for the copyright owner's official trailers. See ''[[Video Pipeline v. Buena Vista]]'', [[Case citation|342 F.3d 191]] ([[3d Cir.]] [[2003]]). On the other hand, one might well question whether [[Roland Barthes]]' ''S/Z'' clearly supersedes [[Honoré de Balzac]]'s short story &quot;Sarrasine&quot; as a market replacement, since it reproduces the entirety of the latter, though only in short fragments followed by much critical explication by Barthes. Second, courts also consider whether potential market harm might exist beyond that of direct substitution, such as in the potential existence of a licensing market. This consideration has weighed against commercial copy shops that make copies of articles in course-packs for college students, when a market already existed for the licensing of course-pack copies. See ''[[Princeton Univ. Press v. Michigan Document Services]]'', [[Case citation|99 F.3d 1381]] ([[6th Cir.]] 1999). It is important to note that courts recognize that certain kinds of market harm do not oppose fair use, such as when a parody or negative review impairs the market of the original work. Fair use considerations may not shield a work against adverse criticism. ==Practical effect of fair use defense== The practical effect of this law and the court decisions following it is that it is usually possible to quote from a copyrighted work in order to criticize or comment upon it, teach students about it, and possibly for other uses. Certain well-established uses cause few problems. A teacher who prints a few copies of a poem to illustrate a technique will have no problem on all four of the above factors (except possibly on amount and substantiality), but some cases are not so clear. All the factors are considered and balanced in each case: a book reviewer who quotes a paragraph as an example of the author's style will probably fall under fair use even though he may sell his review commercially. But a non-profit educational website that reproduces whole articles from technical magazines will probably be found to infringe if the publisher can demonstrate that the website affects the market for the magazine, even though the website itself is non-commercial. ==Fair use as a defense== Fair use is an [[affirmative defense]] to copyright infringement. This means that if the defendant's actions do not constitute an infringement of the plaintiff's rights (for example, because the plaintiff's work was not copyrighted, or the defendant's work did not borrow from it sufficiently), fair use does not even arise as an issue. However, it also means that, once the plaintiff has proven (or the defendant concedes) that the defendant has committed an infringing act, the
e gave us the key closest to the one we were looking for. The effect is largely the same, but NGR, as it is called, results in better overall performance. The node to which the request was forwarded repeats the process until either the key is found or the request passes through a set maximum of nodes, known as the &quot;Hops To Live&quot; value. Along the route, if a node is visited more than once (and it will know this because it remembered forwarding the request the first time) then that node cuts off the loop by sending a message to the node that sent it the second request telling it to try the next-best choice, then the next-next-best, and so on. Eventually, either the document is found or the hop limit is exceeded. The terminal node sends a reply that works its way back to the originator along the route specified by the intermediate nodes' records of pending requests. The intermediate nodes may choose to cache the document along the way. Besides saving bandwidth, this also makes documents harder to censor as there is no one &quot;source node.&quot; Essentially, the same path-finding process is used to insert a document into the network: a request for the nonexistent document is made, and once it fails, the document is sent along the same path as the request. This ensures that documents are inserted into the network in the same place as requests will look for it. If the initial request doesn't fail, then the data already existed, and the insert &quot;collides.&quot; Initially, each node has no information about the performance of the other nodes it knows about. This means that routing of requests will be essentially random. But since different nodes have different randomness, they will disagree about where to send a request, given a key. So the data in a newly-started Freenet will therefore be distributed somewhat randomly. As more documents are inserted by the same node, they will begin to cluster with data items whose keys are similar, because the same routing rules are used for all of them. More importantly, as data items and requests from different nodes &quot;cross paths&quot;, they will begin to share clustering information as well. The result is that the network will self-organize into a distributed, clustered structure where nodes tend to hold data items that are close together in key space. There will probably be multiple such clusters throughout the network, any given document being replicated numerous times, depending on how much it is used. This is a kind of &quot;[[spontaneous symmetry breaking]]&quot;, in which an initially symmetric state (all nodes being the same, with random initial keys for each other) leads to a highly asymmetric situation, with nodes coming to specialize in data that has closely related keys. There are forces which tend to cause clustering (shared closeness data spreads throughout the network), and forces that tend to break up clusters (local caching of commonly used data). These forces will be different depending on how often data is used, so that seldom-used data will tend to be on just a few nodes which specialize in providing that data, and frequently used items will be spread widely throughout the network. This automatic mirroring counteracts the times when [[web traffic]] becomes overloaded, and due to a mature network's intelligent routing a network of size n should only require log(n) time to retrieve any given document. Freenet does not employ broadcast searches as used by [[Gnutella]] and other similar file sharing protocols. Keys are [[hash function|hash]]es: there is no notion of [[semantic closeness]] when speaking of key closeness. Therefore there will be no correlation between key closeness and similar popularity of data as there might be if keys did exhibit some semantic meaning, thus avoiding bottlenecks caused by popular subjects. There are two main varieties of keys in use on Freenet, the [[Content Hash Key]] (CHK) and the [[Signed Subspace Key]] (SSK). A CHK is an [[SHA-1]] hash of a document and thus a node can check that the document returned is correct by hashing it and checking the digest against the key. This key contains the meat of the data on freenet. It carries all the binary data building blocks for the content to be delivered to the client for reassembly and decryption. The CHK is unique by nature and provides tamperproof content. A hostile node altering the data under a CHK will immediately be detected by the next node or the client. CHKs also reduce the redundancy of data since the same data will have the same CHK. SSKs are based on [[public-key cryptography]]. Currently Freenet uses the [[Digital Signature Algorithm|DSA]] system as its [[public key infrastructure]]. Documents inserted under SSKs are signed by the inserter, and this signature can be verified by every node to ensure that the data is not tampered with. SSKs can be used to establish a verifiable [[pseudonymity|pseudonymous]] identity on Freenet, and allow for documents to be updated securely by the person who inserted them. A subtype of the SSK is the Keyword Signed Key, or KSK, in which the key pair is generated in a standard way from a simple human-readable string. Inserting a document using a KSK allows the document to be retrieved and decrypted if and only if the requester knows the human-readable string; this allows for more convenient (but less secure) [[Uniform Resource Identifier|URI]]s for users to refer to. == Scalability == A [[Peer-to-peer|P2P]] network is said to be scalable if the performance of the network does not deteriorate even for very large network sizes. The scalability of Freenet is being evaluated, but similar architectures have been shown to scale logarithmically [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/kleinberg00smallworld.html]. == History == Freenet is an enhanced [[free software]] / [[Open-source software|open source software]] implementation of the system described by [[Ian Clarke]]'s July [[1999]] paper &quot;A distributed decentralized information storage and retrieval system&quot;, written while Clarke was a student at the University of Edinburgh. Shortly after the publication of this paper, Clarke and a small number of volunteers began work on what became Freenet. By March [[2000]] version 0.1 of Freenet was ready for release. Since March 2000 Freenet has been extensively reported on in the press, albeit primarily due to its implications for [[copyright]] rather than for its wider aim of freedom of communication. Freenet has been developed via a collaborative, open source, methodology. Clarke, originally from Ireland, worked with individuals from many other countries, in a distributed manner utilizing the Internet. Not only is Freenet itself distributed, decentralized Internet software, but the method used to develop it is also distributed and decentralized. Reports of Freenet's use in authoritarian nations is difficult to track due to the very nature of Freenet's goals. One group, [[Freenet-China]], has translated the Freenet software to Chinese and is distributing it within China on CD and floppy disk. According to [[CiteSeer|Citeseer]], Ian Clarke's &quot;Freenet: A Distributed Anonymous Information Storage and Retrieval System&quot; was the most cited [[computer science]] paper of 2000. One analysis{{ref|2}} of Freenet files conducted in the year 2000 claimed that the top 3 types of files contained in Freenet were text (37%), audio (21%), and images (14%). 59% of all the text files were drug-related, 71% of all audio files were rock music, and 89% of all images were pornographic. It is important to note the fundamental design of Freenet makes accurate analysis of its content difficult. This analysis was done several years ago from within the [[United States]], and the network has been vastly changed and expanded since it was published and many different types of content have been added. == Current development == Freenet is currently undergoing a major re-write incorporating a number of fundamental changes. Version 0.7 of Freenet aims to create a scalable [[darknet]], where users only connect directly to other users they know and trust. The purpose of this change is to protect users who may be placed at risk simply by using the software, irrespective of what they are using it for. In the new model, users will choose who they connect to, and only those users will know that they are running the software. Previous darknets, such as [[WASTE]], have been limited to relatively small disconnected networks. The core innovation in Freenet 0.7 will be to allow a globally scalable darknet, capable of supporting millions of users. This is made possible by the fact that human relationships tend to form [[small-world network]]s, a property that can be exploited to find short paths between any two people. The work is based on a speech given at [[DEF CON|DEF CON 13]] by [[Ian Clarke|Clarke]] and Swedish mathematician [[Oskar Sandberg]]. Other modifications include switching from [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] to [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], which allows [[UDP hole punching]] along with faster transmission of messages between peers in the network. While previously Freenet only supported the insertion and retrieval of information, Freenet 0.7 will support new modes of usage including the real-time broadcast of messages. Features planned for later versions include anonymous &quot;channels&quot; to a particular node allowing for dynamic content, searching, and [[Onion Routing]]. Applications of this range from [[Internet Relay Chat]] to [[RSS (file format)|RSS]]-feeds. It is anticipated that Freenet 0.7 will be released in 2006. == Controversy == The same technology which allows the anonymous to communicate with a large group without the publisher's identity being revealed can also allow controversial information such as [[child pornography]] to be made available to anyone. Freenet's founders argue that only with true anonymit
' 18% (2001 est.) '''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' ''lowest 10%:'' 2.4% ''highest 10%:'' 28.3% (1997) '''Distribution of family income - Gini index:''' 35.5 (2001) '''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 0% (2004 est.) '''Labor force:''' 2.68 million (2004 est.) '''Labor force - by occupation:''' agriculture, forestry, and fishing 2.6%, manufacturing 20.2%, construction 7.5%, commerce 12.8%, transport, storage, and communications 6.2%, finance and business 13.1%, personal and other services 6.4%, public services 31.2% (1996) '''Unemployment rate:''' 9.0% (2003 est.) '''Budget:''' ''revenues:'' $48.09 billion ''expenditures:'' $52.11 billion, including capital expenditures of NA (2004 est.) '''Public debt:''' 104.5% of GDP (2004 est.) '''Agriculture - products:''' citrus, vegetables, cotton; beef, poultry, dairy products '''Industries:''' high-technology projects (including aviation, communications, computer-aided design and manufactures, medical electronics), wood and paper products, potash and phosphates, food, beverages, and tobacco, caustic soda, cement, diamond cutting '''Industrial production growth rate:''' 4.5% (2004 est.) '''Electricity - production:''' 42,670 GWh (2002) '''Electricity - consumption:''' 38,300 GWh (2002) '''Electricity - exports:''' 1,387 GWh (2002) '''Electricity - imports:''' 0 kWh (2002) '''Oil - production:''' 80 barrel/d (13 m&amp;sup3;/d) 2001 est. '''Oil - consumption:''' 260,000 barrel/d (41,000 m&amp;sup3;/d) 2001 est. '''Oil - exports:''' NA (2001) '''Oil - imports:''' NA (2001) '''Oil - proved reserves:''' 1.92 million barrels (305,000 m&amp;sup3;) [[1 January]] [[2002]] '''Natural gas - production:''' 10 million m³ (2001 est.) '''Natural gas - consumption:''' 10 million m³ (2001 est.) '''Natural gas - exports:''' 0 m³ (2001 est.) '''Natural gas - imports:''' 0 m³ (2001 est.) '''Natural gas - proved reserves:''' 20.81 km³ ([[1 January]] [[2002]]) '''Current account balance:''' $211.9 million (2004) '''Exports:''' $42.6 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.) '''Exports - commodities:''' machinery and equipment, software, cut diamonds, agricultural products, chemicals, textiles and apparel '''Exports - partners:''' US 36.8%, Belgium 7.5%, Hong Kong 4.9% (2004) '''Imports:''' $44.9 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.) '''Imports - commodities:''' raw materials, military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, fuels, grain, consumer goods '''Imports - partners:''' US 15%, Belgium 10.1%, Germany 7.5%, UK 6.1%, Switzerland 6.5% (2004) '''Reserves of foreign exchange &amp; gold:''' $28.48 billion (2004 est.) '''Debt - external:''' $74.46 billion (2004 est.) '''Economic aid - recipient:''' $662 million from US (2003 est.) '''Currency:''' new Israeli shekel (ILS); note - NIS is the currency abbreviation; ILS is the International Organization for Standarization (ISO) code for the NIS '''Currency code:''' new Israeli shekel (ILS); note - NIS is the currency abbreviation; ILS is the International Organization for Standarization (ISO) code for the NIS '''Exchange rates:''' new Israeli shekels per US dollar - 4.482 ([[2004]]), 4.5541 ([[2003]]), 4.7378 ([[2002]]), 4.2057 ([[2001]]), 4.0773 ([[2000]]), 4.1397 ([[1999]]) '''Fiscal year:''' calendar year ==See also== * [[Economy of Asia]] * [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)]] == External links == * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/is.html#Econ CIA World Factbook - Israel] * [http://www.imf.org/external/country/ISR/index.htm IMF] {{WTO}} [[Category:Economy of Israel| ]] [[Category:WTO members|Israel]] [[bg:Стопанство на Израел]] [[fr:Économie d'Israël]] [[he:כלכלת ישראל]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Israel/Communications</title> <id>14691</id> <revision> <id>15912227</id> <timestamp>2002-08-22T04:45:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.253.64.7</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Israel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Israel/Transportation</title> <id>14692</id> <revision> <id>15912228</id> <timestamp>2002-08-22T04:45:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.253.64.7</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Israel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Israel/Military</title> <id>14693</id> <revision> <id>15912229</id> <timestamp>2004-03-23T03:06:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Israel Defense Forces]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Israel/Transnational issues</title> <id>14694</id> <revision> <id>15912230</id> <timestamp>2002-08-29T12:54:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>-- April</username> <id>166</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Israel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel</title> <id>14696</id> <revision> <id>40743880</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T19:01:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Discospinster</username> <id>82432</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Declaration_of_State_of_Israel_1948.jpg|framed|[[David Ben Gurion]] (First Prime Minister of Israel) publicly pronouncing the Declaration of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948. [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]], beneath a large portrait of [[Theodore Herzl]], founder of modern political [[Zionism]].]] {{Israelis}} The '''Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel''', [[May 14]], [[1948]], was the official announcement that a new [[Jew]]ish [[state]], newly-named as the [[State of Israel]] (''Medinat Yisrael'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]), had been formally established in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], the land where the [[Kingdom of Israel]] and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] had once been. It has been called the start of the &quot;Third Jewish Commonwealth&quot; by some observers. (The &quot;First Jewish Commonwealth&quot; ending with the destruction of [[Solomon's Temple]], and the second ending with the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in [[Jerusalem]] two thousand years ago.) The text is [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Establishment_of_the_State_of_Israel available on WikiSource]. ==Historical background== The [[Declaration of Independence]] of the [[State of Israel]] was publicly read in [[Tel Aviv]] on [[May 14]] [[1948]], before the expiration of the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] at [[midnight]]. It was drafted in the months beforehand, and the final version is a result of a compromise between the various parts of the Israeli public of that time. On [[May 14]], [[1948]], the [[Vaad Leumi]] (Jewish National Council) gathered at the [[Tel Aviv Museum of Art]], and approved the proclamation, declaring the establishment of the State of Israel. The new state and its government was [[Diplomatic recognition|recognized]] [[de facto]] minutes later by the [[United States]] and three days later [[de jure]] by the [[Soviet Union]] ([[Stalin]] thought a communist or communist-oriented Jewish state could be a useful &quot;thorn in the back&quot; to his capitalist rivals in the [[Middle East]]). It was however opposed by many others, particularly [[Arab]]s (both the surrounding Arab states and the Palestinian Arabs) who felt it was being established at their expense. The declaration is written in a style reminiscent of [[United Nations|UN]] resolutions, beginning with preambulatory sentences explaining the causes for the declaration and the right of Jews to an independent country, and then operative sentences detailing the attributes of the forthcoming State of Israel. ==Context of the Declaration of the State of Israel May 14, 1948== The document commences by drawing a direct line from [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical]] times to the present: ''&quot;...the Land of Israel, was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books.&quot;'' It acknowledges the Jewish exile over the millennia, mentioning both ancient &quot;faith&quot; and new &quot;politics&quot;: ''&quot;After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughout their Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for the restoration in it of their political freedom.&quot;'' It speaks of the urge of Jews to merge with their ancient homeland: ''&quot;Impelled by this historic and traditional attachment, Jews strove in every successive generation to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decades they returned in their masses.&quot;'' It describes Jewish immigrants to Israel in the following terms: ''&quot;Pioneers,...and defenders, they made deserts bloom, revived the Hebrew language, built villages and towns, and created a thriving community controlling its own economy and culture, loving peace but knowing how to defend itself, bringing the blessings of progress to all the country's inhabitants, and aspiring towards independent nationhood.&quot;'' In [[1897]], at the summons of the spiritual father of the Jewish State, [[Theodore Herzl]], the [[First Zionist Congress]] convened and proclaimed the right of the Jewish people to national rebirth in what it claime
right|A file photo of a Hundi used in the British India from the archives of [[Reserve Bank of India]] [http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/m-hundi.html 1] ]] --&gt; ==Hawala after September 11 attacks== After the September 11 Attacks, the American government suspected that hawala brokers may have helped terrorist organizations to transfer money to fund their activities. The 9/11 Commission Report has since confirmed that the bulk of the funds used to finance the assault on the twin towers were not sent through the hawala system, but rather by inter-bank wire transfer to the [[SunTrust Bank]] in [[Florida]], where two of the conspirators had opened a personal account. However as a result of intense pressure from the US authorities, widespread efforts are currently being made to introduce systematic anti-money laundering initiatives on a global scale, the better to curb the activities of the financiers of terrorism and those engaged in laundering the profits of drug smuggling. Whether these initiatives will have the desired effect of curbing such activities has yet to be seen; although a number of hawala networks have been closed down, and a number of hawaladars have been successfully prosecuted for money laundering, there is little sign that these &quot;successes&quot; have brought the authorities any closer to identifying and arresting a significant number of terrorists or drug smugglers. In [[November]], [[2001]], the Bush administration froze the assets of [[Al Barakat]], a Somali remittance hawala company used primarily by the large Somali [[Diaspora]]. Many of its agents in several countries were initially arrested, though later freed after no concrete evidence against them were found. Many of them still have their assets frozen. Hawala have been made illegal in some states of the US and other countries as they are seen to be a form of money laundering and terrorist funding. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3463683.stm BBC news article about recent changes to hawala and their impacts] * [http://www.vineetnarain.com/the_hawala_crusade.htm Vineet Narain, the journalist who exposed India's biggest scam - The Jain Hawala Case] * [http://www.art.man.ac.uk/CASAS/pages/papers.htm#remittances A collection of academic papers exploring the operation of contemporary hawala networks, and the role they play in the transmission of migrant workers' remittances from Europe to South Asia] * [http://samvak.tripod.com/nm104.html Study of the Hawala money transfer networks] * [http://www.interpol.int/Public/FinancialCrime/MoneyLaundering/hawala/default.asp Interpol Report about Hawala] [[Category:Payment systems]] [[cs:Hawala]] [[da:Hawala]] [[de:Hawala]] [[es:Hawala]] [[nl:Hawala]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hydroponics</title> <id>14133</id> <revision> <id>42032668</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:34:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.148.13.181</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Deep Water Culture (DWC) */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hydroponic onions nasa.jpg|thumb|300px|NASA researcher checking hydroponic onions with Bibb lettuce to his left and radishes to the right]] '''Hydroponics''' is the growing of [[plant]]s without [[soil]]. A variety of techniques exist. Researchers of [[plant metabolism]] have discovered that plants absorb [[nutrient]]s as simple [[ion]]s in [[water]]. In natural conditions, [[soil]] acts as a [[nutrient]] reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the nutrients in the soil dissolve in water, plant roots are able to absorb them. When the required nutrients are introduced into a plant's water supply artificially, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. Almost any plant will grow with hydroponics, but some will do better than others. It is also very easy to do; the activity is often undertaken by very young children with such plants as [[watercress]]. == Uses == [[Image:Hydroponic strawberry usda.jpg|thumb|250px|Researcher with hydroponic strawberries]] Hydroponics is useful to us in two main ways. First, it provides a more controlled environment for plant growth than soil thereby removing many unknowns from experiments. Second, many plant [[species]] produce more in less time and sometimes of higher quality, which under certain economic and environmental conditions, makes hydroponics growing more profitable to the farmer. With hydroponics there are no soil-borne diseases, weeds to pull, or soil to till, and plants can be placed very close to one another. This allows a large amount of food to be produced in a small amount of space. Hydroponics is also very water-efficient as it uses containers or closed loop systems that recirculate the water, and therefore requires only a small fraction of the water used in traditional farming. These qualities combine to make hydroponics useful wherever people wish to grow plants in a non-traditional manner. [[Science fiction]] writers have long speculated that hydroponics would allow [[space station]]s or [[spaceship]]s to grow their own food. The same qualities make hydroponics ideal for those who wish to grow plants with maximum control over conditions, and maximum density. == History == Some examples of earlier attempts in hydroponics are the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] around 600 BC and the Floating Gardens of the Aztecs ([[chinampas]]) during the 11th century. In [[1929]], Professor Gericke of the [[University of California, Davis]] demonstrated that plants could be grown soil-free all the way to maturity, growing [[tomato]] plants in water to a quite remarkable size. By analogy with the ancient Greek term for agriculture, ''geoponics'', the science of cultivating the earth, Gericke coined the name ''hydroponics'' for the culture of plants in water (from the Greek ''hydros'', water, and ''ponos'', labour). == Techniques == There are a variety of techniques employed in hydroponics. Some, while dispensing with soil, use relatively inert material as a physical support for the plant roots. Other techniques dispense altogether with any growing medium, delivering nutrient solution directly to the roots by a variety of methods. === Passive hydroponics === The simplest method: the plant is planted in a container (pot or bag) of growing medium, and the container stands in a tray of nutrient solution. The medium generally has large air spaces, allowing ample [[oxygen]] to the roots, while capillary action delivers water and nutrients to the roots. A variety of materials can be used for the medium: [[vermiculite]], [[perlite]], clay granules, [[rockwool]], gravel, [[Horticube|Oasis Horticubes]]. Some newer media that are becoming popular are [[coir]] fibre, and cocoa bean shells. This needs the least maintenance of all hydroponic methods, requiring only topup and occasional replacement of the nutrient solution.This keeps the medium regularly flushed with nutrient and air. It is important in passive hydroponics to wash out the system from time to time to remove salt build up. This may be checked with a [[Parts per million|PPM]] meter, a good average reading would be about 1500 PPM. Lettuce grows well at about 800 PPM and tomatoes to 3000 PPM but both will grow reasonably well on 1500 PPM. It is important to keep the [[pH]] reading at about 6.3 to enable nutrient uptake. Data are available for the optimum settings for most plants. This is commonly employed for large display plants in public buildings: in Europe a system using small clay granules is marketed for growing houseplants. Passive hydroponic at home - [[Semi-hydroponic for growing orchids]] === Flood and Drain (or Ebb and Flow) === In its simplest form, there is a tray above a reservoir of nutrient solution. The tray is either filled with growing medium (clay granules being the most common) and planted directly, or pots of medium stand in the tray. At regular intervals, a simple timer causes a pump to fill the upper tray with nutrient, after which the nutrient drains back down into the reservoir. This keeps the medium regularly flushed with nutrient and air. === Deep Water Culture (DWC) === Deep Water Culture is a hydroponic method of growing plants in which the roots are suspended above, and allowed to drop down into an aerated nutrient solution. This is not natural but with a properly aerated solution the roots can be continualy submerged without problems because the roots take up nutrients in the presence of oxygen. The solution is usually aerated constantly by using standard aquarium pumps and air stones, which deliver oxygen to the roots. The container holding the roots and aerated nutrient solution must be completely light proof in order to prevent algae growth. The solution must be topped up from time to time. === Drip feeding === Similar to Flood and Drain in its physical setup, except the pump delivers a continuous trickle of nutrients and water onto the medium. The emitters are commonly set to run 5 to 10 minutes every hour. === Wick feeding === A variation on Drip feeding, except that the plant draws water by means of a wick. The wick runs from the base of the plant container (e.g. a pot or a tray) down to a bottle of nutrient feed solution. The solution travels up the wick into the pot plant. === Raft cultivation === A variant of DWC sometimes used for [[lettuce]]s: sheets of expanded [[polystyrene]] have holes drilled through them, and young plants are placed in the holes with the roots hanging down. The sheet then floats in a shallow tank of nutrient solution. === Nutrient film technique (NFT) === In this method, the plants grow through light-proof plastic films placed over shallow, gently sloping channels. A steady flow of nutrients is maintained along the channel, and the roots grow into dense mats, with a thin film of nutrient passing over them (hence the name of the technique). A downside of
ificantly strengthen its military might and as a result, extend its territories, conquering most parts of India with the massive Indian army it had acquired. They fought many wars with local Indian rulers during their conquest of India, the most difficult being the four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] (between 1766 and 1799) against the [[South India]]n [[Kingdom of Mysore]] ruled by [[Hyder Ali]], and later his son [[Tipu Sultan]] (''The Tiger of Mysore'') who developed the use of rockets in warfare. Mysore was only defeated in the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] by the combined forces of Britain and of Mysore's neighbours, for which Hyder Ali and especially Tipu Sultan are remembered in India as legendary rulers. After acquiring Mysore's rocket technology, Britain developed many rockets of its own for many wars, in which it later engaged. There were a number of other states which the Company couldn't conquer through military might, mostly in the North, where the Company's presence was ever increasing amidst the internal conflict and dubious offers of protection against one another. Coercive action, threats and diplomacy aided the Company in preventing the local rulers from putting up a united struggle against it. By the 1850s, the Company ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent and as a result, the Company began to function more as a nation and less as a trading concern. They were also responsible for the illegal [[opium trade]] with [[China]] against the [[Qing]] Emperor's will, which later led to the two [[Opium Wars]] (between 1834 and 1860). As a result of the Company's victory in the [[First Opium War]], it established [[Hong Kong]]. The Company also had a number of wars with other surrounding Asian countries, the most difficult probably being the three [[Anglo-Afghan Wars]] (between 1839 and 1919) against [[Afghanistan]], which were mostly unsuccessful. ===Collapse=== The Company's rule effectively came to an end 100 years after its conquest since 1757, when the 1857 [[Indian Mutiny]] took place, known to many Indians as the ''First War of Independence'', which saw many of the Company's Indian [[sepoys]] begin an armed uprising against their British commanders, after a period of political unrest triggered by a number of political events. One of the major factors was the Company's introduction of the [[Pattern 1853 Enfield]] rifle. The paper cartridges containing the gunpowder were lubricated with animal fat, and had to be bitten open before the powder was poured into the muzzle. Eating cow fat was forbidden for the Hindu soldiers, while pig fat was forbidden for the Muslim soldiers. Although it insisted that neither cow fat nor pig fat was being used, the rumour persisted and many sepoys refused to follow their orders and use the weapons. Another factor was the execution of the Indian sepoy [[Mangal Pandey]] who was hanged for attacking and injuring his British superiors, possibly out of insult for the introduction of the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle or a number of other reasons. These factors combined with a number of other reasons resulted in the Mutiny, which eventually brought about the end of the British East India Company's regime in India, and instead led to 90 years of direct rule of the Indian subcontinent by Britain, after the British East India Company was dissolved. The period of direct British rule in India is known as the [[British Raj]], when the regions now known as [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] would collectively be known as [[British India]]. ==Breakdown of ''Pax Britannica''== As the first country to industrialise, Britain had been able to draw on most of the accessible world for raw materials and markets. But this situation gradually deteriorated during the 19th century as other powers began to industrialise and sought to use the state to guarantee their markets and sources of supply. By the 1870s, British manufactures in the staple industries of the Industrial Revolution were beginning to experience real competition abroad. Industrialisation progressed rapidly in [[Germany]] and the [[United States]], allowing them to take over the &quot;old&quot; British and French economies as world leader in some areas. The German textile and metal industries, for example, had by 1870, surpassed those of Britain in organisation and technical efficiency and usurped British manufactures in the domestic market. By the turn of the century, the German metals and engineering industries would even be producing for the free trade market of the former &quot;workshop of the world&quot;. While invisible exports (banking, insurance and shipping services) kept Britain &quot;out of the red,&quot; her share of world trade fell from a quarter in 1880 to a sixth in 1913. Britain was losing out not only in the markets of newly industrialising countries, but also against third-party competition in less-developed countries. Britain was even losing her former overwhelming dominance in trade with India, China, [[Latin America]], or the coasts of Africa. Britain's commercial difficulties deepened with the onset of the &quot;[[Long Depression]]&quot; of 1873&amp;ndash;[[1896|96]], a prolonged period of price deflation punctuated by severe business downturns which added to pressure on governments to promote home industry, leading to the widespread abandonment of free trade among Europe's powers (in Germany from 1879 and in France from 1881). The resulting limitation of both domestic markets and export opportunities led government and business leaders in Europe and later the US to see the solution in sheltered overseas markets united to the home country behind imperial tariff barriers: new overseas subjects would provide export markets free of foreign competition, while supplying cheap raw materials. Although she continued to adhere to free trade until 1932, Britain joined the renewed scramble for formal empire rather than allow areas under her influence to be seized by rivals. ==Britain and the New Imperialism== ''Main article: [[New Imperialism]].'' [[Image:old_disraeli.jpg|left|framed|[[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and [[Benjamin Disraeli]].]] The policy and ideology of European colonial expansion between the 1870s and the outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914 are often characterised as the &quot;New Imperialism&quot;. The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of what has been termed &quot;empire for empire's sake&quot;, aggressive competition for overseas territorial acquisitions and the emergence in colonising countries of doctrines of [[race|racial]] superiority which denied the fitness of subjugated peoples for self-government. During this period, Europe's powers added nearly 8,880,000 sq mi (23,000,000 km²) to their overseas [[colony|colonial]] possessions. As it was mostly unoccupied by the [[western civilisation|Western]] powers as late as the 1880s, [[Africa]] became the primary target of the &quot;new&quot; imperialist expansion, although conquest took place also in other areas &amp;mdash; notably [[south-east Asia]] and the [[East Asia]]n seaboard, where the [[United States]] and [[Japan]] joined the European powers' scramble for territory. Britain's entry into the new imperial age is often dated to 1875, when the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government of [[Benjamin Disraeli]] bought the indebted [[Egypt]]ian ruler [[Ismail Pasha|Ismail]]'s shareholding in the [[Suez Canal]] to secure control of this strategic waterway, a channel for shipping between Britain and India since its opening six years earlier under Emperor [[Napoleon III]]. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882. Fear of [[Russia]]'s centuries-old southward expansion was a further factor in British policy: in 1878 Britain took control of [[Cyprus]] as a base for action against a Russian attack on the [[Ottoman Empire]], after having taken part in the [[Crimean War]] [[1854]]&amp;ndash;[[1856|56]] and invading [[Afghanistan]] to forestall an increase in Russian influence there. Britain waged three bloody and unsuccessful wars in Afghanistan, as ferocious popular rebellions, invocations of [[jihad]] and inscrutable terrain frustrated British objectives. The [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] led to one of the most disastrous defeats of the Victorian military when an entire British army was wiped out by Russian-supplied Afghan [[Pashtun]] tribesmen during the 1842 retreat from Kabul. The [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] led to the British debacle at [[Maiwand]] in 1880, the siege of Kabul and British withdrawal into India. The [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] of 1919 stoked a tribal uprising against the exhausted British military on the heels of World War I and expelled the British permanently from the new Afghan state. The &quot;[[Great Game]]&quot; in [[Inner Asia]] ended with a bloody British expedition against [[Tibet]] in 1903&amp;ndash;[[1904|04]]. At the same time, some powerful industrial lobbies and government leaders in Britain, later exemplified by [[Joseph Chamberlain]], came to view formal empire as necessary to arrest Britain's relative decline in world markets. During the 1890s Britain adopted the new policy wholeheartedly, quickly emerging as the front-runner in the scramble for tropical African territories. Britain's adoption of the New Imperialism may be seen as a quest for captive markets or fields for investment of surplus capital, or as a primarily strategic or pre-emptive attempt to protect existing trade links and to prevent the absorption of overseas markets into the increasingly closed imperial trading blocs of rival powers. The failure in the 1900s of Chamberlain's [[Tariff Reform campaign]] for Imperial protection illustrates the strength of free trade feeling even in the face of loss of international market share. Historians have argued that Britain's adoption of the &quot;New imperialism&quot; was an effect of her
]], previously called [[Jersey European]] and [[British European]] but now known as [[Flybe]], is a significant local employer. The Airport offers a variety of scheduled and [[Charter_airline|charter]] flights including a seasonal service to [[Toronto]] in [[Canada]]. ==See also== *[[Henry Phillpotts]] *[[Exeter Book]] ==External links== * [http://www.thisisexeter.co.uk/ Information site linked to the local newspaper] * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Devon/Exeter/ Exeter (DMOZ.org)] * [http://www.exeterviews.co.uk/ ExeterViews], Information site / visitor guide * [http://www.neweconomics.org/gen/z_sys_publicationdetail.aspx?pid=206 Clone Town Britain: The survey results on the bland state of the nation], identifying Exeter as the worst example of the towns surveyed * [http://www.rtpi.org.uk/resources/press-releases/2005/pr20050613.pdf Press release from the Royal Town Planning Institute] condemning the NEF's &quot;clone town&quot; research as flawed * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/devon/4610965.stm Devon city tops 'clone town' poll], a June 2005 [[BBC]] article about the survey * [http://www.polsloe.com Community news and information for the Polsloe ward area of Exeter] * Arts ** [http://www.exeterphoenix.org.uk/ Exeter Phoenix Arts Centre] ** [http://www.northcott-theatre.co.uk/ Northcott Theatre] ** [http://cnuk.org/ CNUK Media Foundation] {{SW_England}} {{English Cities}} [[Category:Towns in Devon]] [[Category:Cities in Devon]] [[Category:Exeter, Devon]] [[Category:English county towns]] [[Category:Cities in England]] [[Category:Local government in Devon]] [[Category:Shire districts]] [[af:Exeter]] [[ar:إكسيتر]] [[de:Exeter]] [[eo:Exeter]] [[fr:Exeter]] [[kw:Karesk]] [[no:Exeter]] [[simple:Exeter]] [[fi:Exeter]] [[sv:Exeter]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eusebius Amort</title> <id>9692</id> <revision> <id>41523202</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:54:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>167.128.59.208</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eusebius Amort''' ([[November 15]], [[1692]] - [[February 5]], [[1775]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[Catholic]] [[theology|theologian]]. Amort was born at Bibermuhle, near [[Tolz]], in Upper [[Bavaria]].Great, great, great, great, great grandfather to paul amort, he studied at [[Munich]], and at an early age joined the [[Canons Regular]] at [[Polling, Germany|Polling]], where, shortly after his ordination in 1717, he taught theology and [[philosophy]]. In 1733 he went to [[Rome]] as theologian to [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Niccolo Maria Lercari (d. 1757). He returned to Polling in 1735 and devoted the rest of his life to the revival of learning in Bavaria. He died at Polling in 1775. Amort, who had the reputation of being the most learned man of his age, was a voluminous writer on every conceivable subject, from [[poetry]] to [[astronomy]], from dogmatic theology to [[mysticism]]. His best known works are: *A manual of theology in 4 vols, ''Theologia eclectica, moralis et scholastica'' (Augsburg, 1752; revised by [[Pope Benedict XIV]] for the 1753 edition published at Bologna) *A defence of Catholic doctrine, entitled ''Demonstratio critica religionis Catholicae'' (Augsburg, 1751) *A work on indulgences, which has often been criticized by [[Protestant]] writers, ''De Origine, Progressu, Valore, et Fructu Indulgentiorum'' (Augsburg, 1735) *A treatise on mysticism, ''De Revelationibus et Visionibus, etc.'' (2 vols, 1744) *The astronomical work ''Nova philosophiae planetarum et artis criticae systemata'' (Nuremberg, 1723). The list of his other works, including his three erudite contributions to the question of authorship of the ''Imitatio Christi'', will be found in [[C. Toussaint]]'s scholarly article in [[Alfred Vacant]]'s ''Dictionnaire de theologie'' (1900, cols 1115-1117). ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1692 births|Amort, Eusebius]] [[Category:1775 deaths|Amort, Eusebius]] [[Category:German theologians|Amort, Eusebius]] [[de:Eusebius Amort]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Episcopi vagantes</title> <id>9693</id> <revision> <id>36419245</id> <timestamp>2006-01-23T22:50:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Midnite Critic</username> <id>321102</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Revert. There seems to be some consensus that this is not the place for dir. Suggest sep. article.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Episcopi vagantes''''' ([[Latin]] for &quot;wandering bishops&quot;) are persons who have been consecrated as [[bishop]]s in a [[Christianity|Christian]] church in some irregular fashion, especially those claiming to have valid [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] orders although their consecrations were not authorized by the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Church generally considers at least some such consecrations [[valid but unlawful]], following the principle of &quot;once a bishop, always a bishop&quot; and therefore, &quot;once having the authority of a bishop, always having the authority of a bishop.&quot; On the other hand, [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] follows another view, considering any consecration outside of the church as a whole as spurious. This is because, unlike for Roman Catholics, Orthodoxy traditionally has considered [[apostolic succession]] to exist only within the church as a whole, and not through any authority held by individual bishops. However, the normative view of the Roman Catholic Church and the disagreements on &quot;validity&quot; by some Orthodox patriarchs, bishops, and theologians, allows for the curious phenomeon of episcopi vagantes. Many episcopi vagantes claim succession from the [[Old Catholic]] See of [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], or from Eastern [[Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], or [[Eastern Rites|Eastern-Rite Catholic churches]]; others from Roman Catholic bishops that have consecrated their own bishops after disputes with the [[Holy See|Vatican]]. Many, if not most, bishops so labelled are associated with [[Independent Catholic Churches]]. These bishops are both very liberal and very conservative, including a large number of gay and lesbian clerics. Episcopi vagantes include a significant number of conservative &quot;Continuing Anglicans,&quot; who have broken with the Anglican Communion over various issues such as prayer book revision, women's ordination, and sexual orientation differences. According to the normative position of [[Roman Catholicism]], the consecration of a bishop is valid, even if outside the forms and norms of the church, so long as the bishop is in an indisputable line of succession of bishops dating back to the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] and the rites of consecration are properly performed (see [[Apostolic succession]]). That is why Roman Catholics maintain that they recognize the validity of consecrations in Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Old Catholic, and the Assyrian Churches but do not recognize Anglican consecrations. Some Roman Catholic theologians doubt, however, the validity of ordinations of bishops or priests not for the service of a Christian community, but for the individual's isolated personal advantage. Some people have claimed consecration as bishop in situations where it is questionable whether the consecration ever actually took place, which is a separate issue. The term ''episcopi vagantes'' is sometimes seen as a pejorative term by members and clergy of Independent Catholic, Old Catholic, Continuing Anglican and similar sects. == Bibliography == * ''Episcopi Vagantes and the Anglican Church''. Henry R.T. Brandreth. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1947. * ''Episcopi vagantes in church history''. A.J. Macdonald. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1945. * ''Bishops at Large''. Peter F. Anson. New York City: October House Publishing, 1963. * ''The Wandering Bishops: Apostles of A New Spirituality'' by Lewis Keizer. 2000 edition. * ''Independent Bishops: An International Directory'', edited by Gary L. Ward, Bertil Persson, and Alan Bain. Apogee Books, 1990 see also &quot;Episcopi Vagantes and the Challenge to Catholic Ministry&quot; an MA thesis by James Ford, Pacific School of Religion, Berkeley, California, 1991. [[Category:Catholics not in communion with Rome]] [[Category:Episcopacy in Catholicism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Europa/Moon</title> <id>9694</id> <revision> <id>15907565</id> <timestamp>2002-03-06T20:55:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Europa (moon)]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Europa (moon)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elizabeth Garrett Anderson</title> <id>9695</id> <revision> <id>35976235</id> <timestamp>2006-01-20T17:29:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stalfur</username> <id>432537</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>interwiki is</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eganderson.jpg|frame|Elizabeth Garrett Anderson]] '''Dr. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]]''' ([[9 June]] [[1836]] &amp;#150; [[17 December]] [[1917]]) was an [[England|English]] physician and [[feminism|feminist]], the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Britain. She was the daughter of Newson Garrett, of [[Aldeburgh]], [[Suffolk]], where she was born in [[1836]], and the sister of [[Millicent Fawcett]]. Elizabeth was educated at home and at a private school. In [[1860]] she resolved to study medicine, an unheard-of thing for a woman in those days, regarded by some as almost indecent. Having obtained some more or less irregular instruction at the [[Middlesex Hospital]], [[London]], she was
:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BrownHairedGirl</username> <id>754619</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Early life */ dab. Catholic</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Denis Leary.jpg|right|thumb|Denis Leary]] '''Denis Colin Leary''' (born [[August 18]], [[1957]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[comedian]], [[writer]] and [[film director|director]]. He is infamous for his dirty and often angst-filled humor. ==Early life== Leary was born in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] to [[Irish people|Irish]] [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] immigrants John Leary (an auto mechanic who died in [[1985]]) and Nora (a maid); Leary holds both [[Ireland|Irish]] and [[United States|American]] citizenship. Through marriage, Leary is a distant cousin of talk show host [[Conan O'Brien]], and has jokingly said on [[Late Night with Conan O'Brien]] that &quot;All Irish People are related.&quot; His name is often misspelled as &quot;Dennis&quot;, instead of &quot;Denis.&quot; This comes out in one of his comedy routines in which he mentions how his father had a peculiar way of writing which included &quot;D's&quot; that look like &quot;P's&quot;; it lead to notes that were written to Denis' teachers that looked like they said &quot;Penis.&quot; This is how Leary got the nickname &quot;PenisMan&quot;. ==Career== Leary first became famous through an [[MTV]]-[[sketch comedy|Sketch]] in which he ranted about [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M]]. Several other commericals for MTV followed, in which Leary would rant at high speeds about a variety of topics. He has released two [[album (Music)|records]] of his [[stand-up comedy]]: ''[[No Cure For Cancer]]'' ([[1993]]) and ''[[Lock 'N Load]]'' ([[1997]]). In late [[2004]] he released the [[extended play|EP]] ''Merry F#%$in' Christmas'', which included a mix of new music, previously unreleased recordings, and some tracks from ''Lock 'N Load''. In [[1994]], his [[sarcasm|sardonic]] song about the American lower-middle-class male, &quot;(I'm an) [[Asshole]]&quot;, achieved much notoriety. It was voted #1 in a major [[Australia|Australian]] youth radio poll (the [[Triple J Hottest 100]]) as well as reaching #2 in the singles chart in that country. The video also became a staple of [[MTV]]'s late-night programming. Due to its explicit and controversial content, however, it received limited airplay on [[mainstream]] American [[radio stations]]. Although he says he is most at home on stage doing stand-up, Leary has appeared as an actor in over 40 movies, including ''[[The Sandlot]]'', ''[[Monument Ave.]]'', ''[[The Match Maker]]'', ''[[The Ref]]'', ''[[Suicide Kings]]'', ''[[Wag the Dog]]'', ''[[Demolition Man]]'', and ''[[Operation Dumbo Drop]]''. He has also starred in two television series, ''[[The Job (television series)|The Job]]'' and ''[[Rescue Me (dramedy)|Rescue Me]]''. In addition, Leary has provided voices for characters in animated films such as the saber-toothed tiger ''Diego'' in ''[[Ice Age (film)|Ice Age]]'' and 'Francis' in ''[[A Bug's Life]]''. He's [[film producer|produced]] (and still produces) numerous movies, television shows, and specials through his production company [[Apostle (production company)|Apostle]]; these include [[Comedy Central]]'s ''Shorties Watching Shorties'' and the movie ''[[Blow]]''. ==Material Controversy== For many years, Leary had been friends with fellow comedian [[Bill Hicks]]. However, when Hicks heard Leary's 1993 release ''No Cure For Cancer'' he was upset and claimed Leary was stealing his material. This was due to the similarity in topics covered and some of Hicks' punchlines, particularly those from Hicks' releases of [[Sane Man]] ([[1989]]) and [[Dangerous]] ([[1990]]), allegedly having variants in Leary's act. The friendship ended abruptly as a result. Leary has said he wanted to patch things up before Hicks died in [[1994]], though this confession happened several years after Hicks' death. While it has never been proved that Leary stole material from anyone other than Bill Hicks (a claim which he fiercely denies), some comedians (notably [[Joe Rogan]] and [[Greg Giraldo]]) and especially fans loyal to Hicks consider aspects of Leary's act and persona to be stolen. However, many other comedians (including [[Colin Quinn]] - and, according to some questionable sources, [[Janeane Garofalo]], a Hicks fan and narrator of a 2003 documentary about Hicks) have formed close personal and/or professional relationships with Leary, which suggests that the opinion of him as a material thief is not shared by everyone within the profession. This controversy was addressed in ''The Bill Hicks Story'' by [[Cynthia True]]: :Leary was in [[Montreal]] to host the Nasty Show at Club Soda and Colleen (one of Bill Hicks' managers) was coordinating the talent so she was standing backstage when she heard Leary doing material that sounded incredibly similar&lt;!--similar or [[Sic (Latin)|[[''sic'']]]?--&gt; to old Hicks guitar riffs, including his perennial Jim Fixx joke: &quot;''[[Keith Richards]] outlived [[Jim Fixx]], the runner and health nut. Dude, the plot thickens''.&quot; When Leary came off-stage, Colleen said, more stunned than angry (but still mad), &quot;''Hey, you know that's '''Bill Hicks'''' material! Do you know that's his material''?&quot; Leary allegedly stood there, stared at her without saying a word, and apparently briskly left the dressing room.&quot; The book cites several other examples of lines in ''No Cure for Cancer'' that Leary allegedly used from older Bill Hicks rants, and points out that this doesn't include the &quot;intellectual&quot; or [[philosophical]] rantings of Hicks' act. Hicks himself said: &quot;I have a scoop for you. I stole his act. I camouflaged it with [[punchline|punchlines]], and to really throw people off, I did it before he did.&quot; Others point out that most comedians simply base material on the &quot;hot&quot; topics of their time, and that Hicks and Leary were far from being the only comedians (albeit among the more memorable) who had routines on subjects like the [[Judas Priest]] Trial or [[backmasking]] in general (e.g. [[Brian Haley]]), comparing different [[drugs]] (e.g. [[George Carlin]], [[Robin Williams]]), and the death of Jim Fixx (an irony jabbed at by many, including several late-night talk show hosts). Similarly, it's somewhat common for comedians who are smokers to have routines regarding the rise of anti-[[cigarette]] smoking campaigns. ==Leary Firefighters Foundation== On [[December 3]], [[1999]], six [[firefighter]]s from Leary's hometown of Worcester were killed in a massive warehouse fire. Among the dead were Leary's cousin, Jerry Lucey, and his close childhood friend, Lt. Tommy Spencer. In response, the comedian founded the [[Leary Firefighters Foundation]]. Since its creation in the year [[2000]], the foundation has distributed over $2.5 million ([[USD]]) to fire departments in the Worcester, Boston, and [[New York City]] areas for equipment, training materials, new vehicles, and new facilities. [http://www.learyfirefightersfoundation.org/history.html Official Site] A separate fund run by Leary's foundation, the [[Fund for New York's Bravest]], has distributed over $2 million (USD) to the families of the 343 firemen killed in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], as well as providing funding for necessities such as a new mobile command center, first responder training, and a high-rise simulator for the [[New York City Fire Department|FDNY]]'s training campus. This new fund was established because the families of the Worcester fire did not want to include New York families into the fund, as a result Leary created a separate fund for New York. As the foundation's president, Leary has been active in all of the fundraising, and usually presents large checks and donated equipment personally. The close relationship he has developed with the FDNY, as well as individual firefighters across the New York/[[New England]] area, has resulted in Leary's most recent television show, ''[[Rescue Me (TV show 2004)|Rescue Me]]'', a [[cross-genre|dramedy]] on [[FX Networks|FX]]. In the [[television pilot|pilot episode]] of the show, he is seen wearing a Leary Firefighter Foundation 9-11 Memorial T-Shirt. Leary has close ties with 107.3 [[WAAF-FM|WAAF-FM]], who in 2000 released the station album &quot;Survive This!.&quot; Part of the proceeds from this album were donated to the Leary Firefighters Foundation. ==Emerson College== Leary is a very proud graduate of [[Emerson College]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. At the school he founded the Emerson Comedy Workshop, a troupe that continues to thrive on-campus to this day. After graduating with the Emerson Class of 1979, he took up a job with the school teaching comedy writing classes and maintained the job for five years. At Emerson's 2005 commencement ceremony, he spoke and received an honorary doctorate. During a December 2005 appearance at Emerson's [[Cutler Majestic Theatre]] he claimed that Emerson College &quot;saved his life&quot; by giving him direction and that throughout his career he's &quot;never forgotten&quot; the lessons he learned there. He also claimed that he was the reason Emerson students were no longer allowed on the roofs of the buildings at Emerson, due to an incident following Game 6 of the 1975 World Series where he and some classmates allegedly poured a large bucket of ice water down onto a Cincinnati Reds fan on the sidewalk below. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.learyfirefightersfoundation.org/ Leary Firefighters Foundation] - Official Site. *[http://www.compfused.com/directlink/1059/ Denis Leary Asshole music video] *{{imdb name|id=0001459|name=Denis Leary}} [[Category:1957 births|Leary, Denis]] [[Category:Living people|Leary, Denis]] [[Category:American actors|Leary, Denis]] [[Category:American comedians|Leary, Denis]] [[Category:Emerson College
ory/body1.htm] [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/biography/moses.html] *[[1290s BCE|1295 BCE]] Egypt's 19th dynasty began with the reign of [[Ramses I]]. [[Ramses II]] ([[1270s BCE|1279]]-[[1210s BCE|1213 BCE]]) filled the land with enormous monuments, and signed a treaty with the [[Hittites]] after losing the northern Levant to the Hittite Empire. [[Moses]] led the Israelites out of Egypt. The Israelites then wandered in the desert for 40 years, and eventually came to &quot;the promised land&quot; in [[Canaan]]. Moses died before entering Canaan, and [[Joshua]] became the next leader. (If, however, the parting of the [[Red Sea]] was caused by the eruption of the [[Santorini]] [[volcano]], then [[The Exodus]] might have happened around [[1500 BCE]].) ==[[Book of Judges|Period of the Judges]]== [[Image:1759_map_Holy_Land_and_12_Tribes.jpg|thumb|1759 map of the tribal allotments of Israel]] The [[Hebrews]] migrated into [[Canaan]] circa [[1200s BCE|1200 BCE]], a time when the great powers of the region were neutralized by troubles of various kinds. In their initial attacks under [[Joshua]], the [[Hebrews]] occupied most of Canaan, which they settled according to traditional family lines derived from the sons of Jacob and Joseph (the &quot;tribes&quot; of Israel). No formal government existed and the people were led by ad hoc leaders (the &quot;judges&quot; of the biblical [[Book of Judges]]) in times of crisis. Around this time, the name &quot;Israel&quot; is first mentioned in a contemporary archaeological source, the [[Merneptah Stele]]. [[1200s BCE|1200 BCE]]. The Hittite empire of Anatolia was conquered by allied tribes from the west. The northern, coastal Canaanites (called the [[Phoenicia]]ns by the Greeks) may have been temporarily displaced, but returned when the invading tribes showed no inclination to settle. [http://www.escape.com/~farras/ugarit.htm] Circa [[1180s BCE|1185 BCE]] the [[Sea People]], as they were called by the Egyptians, swept across [[Asia Minor]] and the Mediterranean. They invaded [[Egypt]] in [[Ramesses III]]'s reign, but were repelled. Amongst them were a group called the ''P-r-s-t'' (first recorded by the ancient Egyptians as ''P-r/l-s-t'') generally identified with the Philistines. They appear in the [[Medinet Habu]] inscription of [[Ramses III]][http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams/cams400w_aek11/mhabtext.html], where he describes his victory against the [[Sea Peoples]]. [[Nineteenth-century]] Bible scholars identified the land of the Philistines (''Philistia'' or ''Peleshet'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] meaning &quot;invaders&quot;) with ''Palastu'' and ''Pilista'' in [[Assyria]]n inscriptions, according to ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'' (1897). The name is used in the Bible to denote the coastal region inhabited by the Philistines. The five principal Philistine cities were [[Gaza]], [[Ashdod]], [[Ekron]], [[Gath]], and [[Ashkelon]]. Modern archaeology has suggested early cultural links with the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenean]] world in mainland Greece. Though the Philistines adopted local Canaanite culture and language before leaving any written texts, an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] origin has been suggested for a handful of known Philistine words. [[1140s BCE|1140 BCE]] the Canaanite tribes tried to destroy the Israelite tribes of northern and central Canaan. According to the Bible, the Israelite response was led by [[Barak]], and the Hebrew [[prophet]] [[Deborah]]. The Canaanites were defeated. ==The United Monarchy== Increasing pressure from the [[Philistines]] and other neighboring tribes forced the [[Israelites]] to unite under one king. The notion of kingship was for a long time anathemetised, as it was seen as one man being put in a position of reverence and power that in their faith was reserved for the one true [[God]]. According to the Bible, it was [[Samuel]], one of last of the judges, to whom the nation appealed for a king. Although he tried to disuade them, they were resolute and Samuel anointed [[Saul the King|Saul ben Kish]] from the tribe of [[Benjamin]] as the first king of the Israelites in approximately [[1020s BCE|1020 BCE]]. It was his successor, [[David]] c.[[1000s BCE|1006 BCE]], who was responsible for consolidating the monarchy and creating the first Hebrew state. David waged several, successful military campaigns, annexing [[Philistia]], [[Edom]], [[Moab]], [[Ammon]], and parts of ancient [[Aram]] (roughly modern [[Syria]]) known as [[Aram-Zobah]], and [[Aram-Damascus]]. Aram itself became a vassal state of Israel under David. Perhaps the most important event of David's reign was his capture of [[Jerusalem]] from the Canaanite Jebusites. By moving his capital from [[Hebron]] and making [[Jerusalem]] his capital, David ensured its lasting importance as a religious center. David was succeeded by his son [[Solomon]] around [[960s BCE|965 BCE]]. Solomon's reign was largely peaceful and the kingdom prospered, becoming an international power and a center of culture and trade. But maintaining his splendid court life and ambitious building projects, including the [[Temple of Solomon|First Temple]] at [[Jerusalem]], proved burdensome to his people. Some Hebrews were used as forced labor and territory was ceded to [[Tyre]] in return for supplying craftsmen and materials. He was criticized for tolerating the pagan religious practices of the many non-Hebrew wives he had acquired from diplomatic marriages. However, on Solomon's death in c. [[920s BCE|926 BCE]] tensions between the northern and southern tribes mounted. When [[Solomon]] successor Rehoboam dealt tactlessly with the economic complaints of the northern tribes the kingdom split in to halves: the kingdom of Israel in the north (including the cities of [[Shechem]] and [[Samaria]]), and the kingdom of Judah in the south (containing Jerusalem). Most of the non-Hebrew provinces fell away. ==The period of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah== [[Image:Levant 800.png|thumb|272px|Map of the southern [[Levant]], c.[[800 BCE]].]] In [[920s BCE|922 BCE]], the [[Kingdom of Israel]] was divided. [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], the southern Kingdom, had Jerusalem as its capital and was led by [[Rehoboam]]. It was populated by the tribes of [[tribe of Judah|Judah]], [[tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]], and [[tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] (and some of [[tribe of Levi]]). Simeon and Judah later merged, and Simeon lost its separate identity. [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Kingdoms1.html] [http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/facts/hist/fhist2.html#divided] [[Jeroboam]] led the revolt of the northern tribes, and established the Kingdom of Israel, consisting of nine tribes: [[tribe of Zebulun|Zebulun]], [[tribe of Issachar|Issachar]], [[tribe of Asher|Asher]], [[tribe of Naphtali|Naphtali]], [[tribe of Dan|Dan]], [[tribe of Manasseh|Menasseh]], [[tribe of Ephraim|Ephraim]], [[tribe of Reuben|Reuben]] and [[tribe of Gad|Gad]] (and some of Levi), with [[Samaria]] as its capital. [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Kings.html] [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Judah.html] Israel fell to the [[Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]] in [[720s BCE|721 BCE]]; Judah fell to the [[Babylonia|Babylonians]] a little over a century later, in [[590s BCE|597 BCE]]. ==The period of captivity== In [[720s BCE|722 BCE]], the Assyrians, under [[Shalmaneser III|Shalmaneser]], and then under [[Sargon II|Sargon]], conquered Israel (the northern Kingdom), destroyed its capital Samaria, and sent many of the Israelites into exile and captivity. The ruling class of the northern kingdom (perhaps a small portion of the overall population) were deported to other lands in the Assyrian empire and a new nobility was imported by the Assyrians. *[[720s BCE|729]]-[[680s BCE|687 BCE]]. Reign of king [[Hezekiah]] of Judah. He is noted in the Bible for initiating reforms that outlawed, or enforced Jewish laws against, [[idolatry]] (in this case, the worship of [[Ba'al]]im and/or [[Asherah]], among other traditional Near Eastern divinities). [http://scholar.cc.emory.edu:80/scripts/ASOR/BA/Borowski.html] *[[680s BCE|687]]-[[630s BCE|638 BCE]]. Reign of King Manasseh. *[[630s BCE|638]]-[[630s BCE|637 BCE]]. Reign of king Amon. These two kings reversed Hezekiah's reforms and officially revived idolatry. According to later rabbinical accounts, Manasseh placed a grotesque, four-faced idol in the Holy of Holies. *[[630s BCE|637]]-[[600s BCE|607 BCE]]. The reign of king [[Josiah]] was accompanied by a religious reformation. According to the Bible, while repairs were made on the Temple, a 'Book of the Law' was discovered (possibly the book of [[Deuteronomy]]). [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gerald_larue/otll/chap19.html] *[[610s BCE|612 BCE]]. Nabopolassar of Babylonia attacked and destroyed the Assyrian capital city of [[Nineveh]], regaining Babylonia's independence. The Assyrian empire was destroyed. *[[580s BCE|587 BCE]]. Babylon, under king [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar II]], seized Jerusalem. The First Temple was destroyed; the date was the 9th of ''Av'', or ''[[Tisha B'Av]]''. [http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/festivls/9avrka.html] *[[580s BCE|586 BCE]]. Conquest of Judah (Southern Kingdom) by Babylon. Part of Judah's population, primarily the nobility, was exiled to [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylon]]. *[[720s BCE|722]] &amp; [[580s BCE|586 BCE]]. The First Dispersion, or [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]. Jews were either taken as slaves in what is commonly referred to as the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah]], or they fled to Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, or Persia. [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Exile.html] *[[550s BCE|559 BCE]]. [[Cyrus the Great]] became King of [[Iran|Persia]]. [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Persians.html] *[[530s BCE|539 BCE]]. The [[Babylonian Empire]] fell to Persia under Cyrus. *[[550s BCE|550]]-[[330s BCE|333 BCE]]. The Persian Empire ruled over much
grammed to implement different LSI-type functions such as [[logic gate]]s, [[adder (electronics)|adders]], and [[processor register|registers]]. Current devices named [[FPGA]]s (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) can now implement tens of thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 400 MHz. The techniques perfected by the integrated circuits industry over the last three decades have been used to create microscopic machines, known as [[MEMS]]. These devices are used in a variety of commercial and defense applications, including projectors, ink jet printers, and accelerometers used to deploy the airbag in car accidents. In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or [[Atheros]]'s 802.11 card. ==Silicon Graffiti== Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as [[Chip art|Chip Art]], or ''Silicon Art'', or ''Silicon Graffiti'', or ''Silicon Doodling''. For an overview of this practice, see the article [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/careers/careerstemplate.jsp?ArticleId=p030202 The Secret Art of Chip Graffiti], from the IEEE magazine ''Spectrum''. ==Key industrial and academic data== ===Notable ICs=== *The [[555 timer IC|555]] common [[multivibrator]] subcircuit (common in electronic timing circuits) *The [[741 operational amplifier]] *[[7400 series]] [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] logic building blocks *[[4000 series]], the [[CMOS]] counterpart to the 7400 series *[[Intel 4004]], the world's first [[microprocessor]] *The [[MOS Technology 6502]] and [[Zilog Z80]] microprocessors, used in many [[home computer]]s ===Manufacturers=== A list of notable manufacturers; some operating, some defunct: *[[Alcatel]] *[[AMD]] (Advanced Micro Devices; founded by ex-Fairchild employees) *[[Analog Devices]] &lt;!--*[[Applied Materials]]--&gt;&lt;!--Makes IC production equipment, not ICs themselves--&gt; *[[ATI Technologies]] (Array Technologies Incorporated; acquired parts of [[Tseng Labs]] in 1997) *[[Agere Systems]] (formerly part of [[Lucent]], which was formerly part of [[AT&amp;T]]) *[[Atmel]] (co-founded by ex-Intel employee) *[[MOS Technology|Commodore Semiconductor Group]] (formerly MOS Technology) *[[Fairchild Semiconductor]] (founded by ex-Shockley Semiconductor employees: the &quot;[[Traitorous Eight]]&quot;) *[[Intersil]] *[[Freescale Semiconductor]] (formerly part of [[Motorola]]) *[[MOS Technology|GMT Microelectronics]] (formerly Commodore Semiconductor Group) *[[IBM]] (International Business Machines) *[[Infineon Technologies]] (formerly part of [[Siemens AG|Siemens]]) *[[Intel]] (founded by ex-Fairchild employees) *[[MOS Technology]] (founded by ex-Motorola employees) *[[Mostek]] (founded by ex-Texas Instruments employees) *[[National Semiconductor]] (aka &quot;NatSemi&quot;; founded by ex-Fairchild employees) *[[Nordic Semiconductor]] (formerly known as Nordic VLSI) *[[NEC Corporation]] (formerly known as Nippon Electric Company) *[[NVIDIA]] (acquired IP of competitor [[3dfx]] in 2000; 3dfx was co-founded by ex-Intel employee) *[[Philips]] *[[PMC-Sierra]] (from the former Pacific Microelectronics Centre and Sierra Semiconductor, the latter co-founded by ex-NatSemi employee) *[[Renesas Technology Corporation|Renesas]] (joint venture of [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]] and [[Mitsubishi Electric Corporation|Mitsubishi Electric]]) *[[Rohm]] * [http://www.smartcodecorp.com SmartCode Corp.] *[[STMicroelectronics]] (formerly SGS Thomson) *[[Texas Instruments]] *[[VIA Technologies]] (founded by ex-Intel employee) (part of [[Formosa Plastics Group]]) *[[Xilinx]] (founded by ex-ZiLOG employee) *[[ZiLOG]] (founded by ex-Intel employees) (part of [[Exxon]] 1980&amp;ndash;89; now owned by [[Texas Pacific Group|TPG]]) ===VLSI conferences=== *ISSCC &amp;ndash; IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference *CICC &amp;ndash; IEEE Custom Integrated Circuit Conference *ISCAS &amp;ndash; IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems *VLSI &amp;ndash; IEEE International Conference on VLSI Design *DAC &amp;ndash; Design Automation Conference *ICCAD &amp;ndash; International Conference on Computer Aided Design *ESSCIRC &amp;ndash; European Solid-State Circuits Conference *ISLPED &amp;ndash; International Symposium on Low Power and Design *ISPD &amp;ndash; International Symposium on Physical Design *ISQED &amp;ndash; International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design *DATE &amp;ndash; Design and Test in Europe *ICCD &amp;ndash; International Conference on Computer Design *IEDM &amp;ndash; IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting *GLSVLSI &amp;ndash; IEEE Great Lakes Symposium on VLSI *ASP-DAC &amp;ndash; Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference *MWSCAS &amp;ndash; IEEE Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems *ICSVLSI &amp;ndash; IEEE Computer Society Annual Symposium on VLSI *EDS &amp;ndash; IEEE EDS Meetings Calendar *EDS &amp;ndash; IEEE EDS Sponsored, Cosponsored &amp; Topical Conferences ===VLSI journals=== *ED &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/ted.htm IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices] *EDL &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/edl.htm IEEE Electron Device Letters] *CAD &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/tcadics.htm IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems] *JSSC &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/jssc.html IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits] *VLSI &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tvlsi.html IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems] *CAS II &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tcs2.html IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Analogy and Digital Signal Processing] *SM &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tsm.html IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing] *SSE &amp;ndash; Solid-State Electronics *SST &amp;ndash; Solid-State Technology *TCAD &amp;ndash; Journal of Technology Computer-Aided Design ==Branch pages== *[[Clean room]] *[[Current mirror]] *[[Ion implantation]] ==See also== *[[Computer engineering]] *[[Electrical engineering]] *[[Electronics]] *[[Emitter_Coupled_Logic|Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL)]] *[[Hybrid circuit]] *[[Vacuum_tube#Integrated_circuit_vacuum_tubes|Integrated circuit vacuum tube]] *[[Integrated injection logic]] *[[Mixed-mode integrated circuit]] *[[Transistor-transistor logic|Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)]] *[[Microcontroller]] *[[Moore's law]] *[[Semiconductor manufacturing]] *[[Silicon Doodling]] *[[Simulation]] *[[Sound chip]] *[[SPICE]], [[Hardware description language|HDL]], [[ZIF]], [[Automatic test pattern generation]] ==References== Academic: * Mead, C. and Conway, L. (1980). ''Introduction to VLSI Systems''. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-04358-0. * Kang, S. and Leblebici, Y. (2002). ''CMOS Digital Integrated Circuits Analysis &amp; Design''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072460539. * Hodges, D.A., Jackson H.G. and Saleh, R. (2003). ''Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072283653. * Jan M. Rabaey, Anantha Chandrakasan, and Borivoje Nikolic (1996 - first edition). ''Digital Integrated Circuits, 2nd Edition''[http://bwrc.eecs.berkeley.edu/IcBook],'' ISBN: 0-13-090996-3 '', Publisher: Prentice Hall Patents: *{{anb|Lehovec}} Kurt Lehovec's patent on the isolation p-n junction: US patent 3 029 366 awarded on April 10, 1962, filed April 22, 1959. Robert Noyce credits Lehovec in his article &amp;ndash; &quot;Microelectronics&quot;, ''[[Scientific American]]'', September 1977, Volume 23, Number 3, pp. 63&amp;ndash;9. ==External links== {{Commons|Category:Microprocessors|Integrated circuit}} ;Patents *[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=3138743.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/3138743&amp;RS=PN/3138743 US3138743] &amp;ndash; Miniaturized electronic circuit &amp;ndash; [[Jack Kilby|J. S. Kilby]] *[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=3138747.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/3138747&amp;RS=PN/3138747 US3138747] &amp;ndash; Integrated semiconductor circuit device &amp;ndash; J. S. Kilby *[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=3261081.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/3261081&amp;RS=PN/3261081 US3261081] &amp;ndash; Method of making miniaturized electronic circuits &amp;ndash; J. S. Kilby *[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=3434015.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/3434015&amp;RS=PN/3434015 US3434015] &amp;ndash; Capacitor for miniaturized electronic circuits or the like &amp;ndash; J. S. Kilby ;Audio video *[http://www.appliedmaterials.com/HTMAC/animated.html A presentation of the chip manufacturing process], from [[Applied Materials]] [[Category:Integrated circuits| ]] [[bg:Интегрална схема]] [[cs:Integrovaný obvod]] [[da:Integreret kredsløb]] [[de:Integrierter Schaltkreis]] [[es:Circuito integrado]] [[eo:Integra cirkvito]] [[fa:تراشه]] [[fr:Circuit intégré]] [[hr:Integrirani krug]] [[ko:집적회로]] [[id:Sirkuit terpadu]] [[it:Circuito integrato]] [[he:מעגל משולב]] [[lt:Integrinė mikroschema]] [[hu:Integrált áramkör]] [[ms:Litar bersepadu]] [[nl:Geïntegreerde schakeling]] [[ja:集積回路]] [[pl:Układ scalony]] [[pt:C
ledge-based system * [[Product design]], or product architecture, the systems design of a product or product family * [[Vehicle architecture]], an automobile platform made from a set of components common to a number of different vehicles {{disambig}} [[af:Argitektuur]] [[bg:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1093;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;]] [[ca:Arquitectura]] [[da:Arkitektur]] [[de:Architektur]] [[eo:Arkitekturo]] [[es:Arquitectura]] [[fa:&amp;#1605;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1610;]] [[fi:Arkkitehtuuri]] [[fr:Architecture]] [[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;]] [[ia:Architectura]] [[it:Architettura]] [[ja:&amp;#24314;&amp;#31689;&amp;#23398;]] [[la:Architectura]] [[lt:Architekt&amp;#363;ra]] [[lv:Arhitektura]] [[nah:Arquitectura]] [[nl:Architectuur]] [[no:Arkitektur]] [[pl:Architektura]] [[pt:Arquitetura (desambiguação)]] [[ro:Arhitectur&amp;#259;]] [[ru:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1093;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;]] [[simple:Architecture]] [[sl:Arhitektura]] [[sr:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1093;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;]] [[sv:Arkitektur]] [[sw:Majenzi]] [[ta:&amp;#2965;&amp;#2975;&amp;#3021;&amp;#2975;&amp;#3007;&amp;#2975;&amp;#2965;&amp;#3021;&amp;#2965;&amp;#2994;&amp;#3016;]] [[zh:&amp;#24314;&amp;#31569;&amp;#23398;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Auteur Theory Film</title> <id>626</id> <revision> <id>15899155</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Auteur theory]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Agriculture</title> <id>627</id> <revision> <id>42032966</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:38:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pollinator</username> <id>22743</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.141.123.179|72.141.123.179]] ([[User talk:72.141.123.179|talk]]) to last version by 212.32.71.92</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HorseAndPlough.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[farm]]er in [[Germany]] working the land in the traditional way, with [[horse]] and [[plough]].]] [[Image:Ford_tractor,_Sweden.jpg|thumb|250px|Farming the modern way using a [[tractor]] in [[Sweden]].]] '''Agriculture''' is the process of producing [[food]], [[feed]], [[fiber]] and many other desired products by the cultivation of certain [[plant]]s and the raising of domesticated [[animal]]s ([[livestock]]). The practice of agriculture is also known as &quot;[[farming]]&quot;, while scientists, inventors and others devoted to improving farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in agriculture. More [[Person|people]] in the [[world]] are involved in agriculture as their primary [[economics|economic activity]] than in any other, yet it only accounts for four percent of the world's [[gross domestic product|GDP]].&lt;!--Source?--&gt; ==Overview== [[Image:Agriculture---Rice.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Tea]] plantation in [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Indonesia]].]] Agriculture sometimes refers to [[subsistence farming|subsistence agriculture]], the production of enough [[food]] to meet just the needs of the farmer/[[agriculturalist]] and his/her family. It may also refer to industrial agriculture, (often referred to as [[factory farming]]) long prevalent in developed nations and increasingly so elsewhere, which consists of obtaining financial income from the cultivation of land to yield [[produce]], the commercial raising of animals ([[animal husbandry]]), or both. Agriculture is also short for the ''study'' of the practice of agriculture&amp;mdash;more formally known as [[agricultural science]]. Agricultural students are known (sometimes derisively) as &quot;Aggies&quot;. Increasingly, in addition to food for humans and [[fodder|animal feeds]], agriculture produces goods such as cut [[flower]]s, ornamental and [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery]] plants, [[timber]] or lumber, [[fertilizer]]s, [[animal hides]], [[leather]], industrial chemicals ([[starch]], [[sugar]], [[ethanol]], [[alcohol]]s and [[plastic]]s), [[fiber]]s ([[cotton]], [[wool]], [[hemp]], and [[flax]]), fuels ([[methane]] from [[biomass]], [[biodiesel]]) and both legal and illegal drugs ([[biopharmaceutical]]s, [[tobacco]], [[marijuana]], [[opium]], [[cocaine]]). [[GMO|Genetically engineered]] plants and animals produce specialty drugs. In the [[Western world]], the use of [[genetic modification|gene manipulation]], better management of soil nutrients, and improved [[weed control]] have greatly increased yields per unit area. At the same time, the use of mechanization has decreased labour requirements. The developing world generally produces lower yields, having less of the latest science, [[capital (economics)|capital]], and technology base. Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences. [[Irrigation]], [[drainage]], [[conservation ethic|conservation]] and sanitary engineering, each of which is important in successful farming, are some of the fields requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers. Agricultural chemistry deals with other vital farming concerns, such as the application of fertilizer, insecticides (see [[Pest control]]), and fungicides, soil makeup, analysis of agricultural products, and nutritional needs of farm animals.[[Plant breeding]] and genetics contribute additionally to farm productivity. Advanced seed engineering has allowed strains of seed to become perfect in every farming situation. Seeds can now germinate faster and adapt to shorter growing seasons in different climates. Present-day seed can resist the spraying of pesticides that kill all green-leaf plants. [[Hydroponics]], a method of soilless gardening in which plants are grown in chemical nutrient solutions, may help meet the need for greater food production as the world's population increases. The packing, processing, and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by science. Methods of quick-freezing and dehydration have increased the markets for farm products (see [[Food preservation]]; [[Meat packing industry]]). Mechanization, the outstanding characteristic of late [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century]] agricultural evolution, has eased much of the backbreaking toil of the farmer. More significantly, mechanization has enormously increased farm efficiency and productivity (see [[Agricultural machinery]]). Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and dogs; however, are still used to cultivate [[field (agriculture)|fields]], harvest [[crops]] and transport farm products to markets in many parts of the world. Airplanes, helicopters, trucks and tractors are used in agriculture for seeding, spraying operations for insect and disease control, [[Aerial topdressing]], transporting perishable products, and fighting forest fires. Radio and television disseminate vital weather reports and other information such as market reports that concern farmers. Computers have become an essential tool for farm management. [[Image:Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Farming, ploughing rice paddy, in [[Indonesia]].]] According to the [[National Academy of Engineering]] in the US, agricultural mechanization is one of the 20 greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century. Early in the century, it took one American farmer to produce food for 2.5 people, where today, due to engineering technology (also, [[plant breeding]] and [[agrichemical]]s), a single farmer can feed over 130 people [http://www.greatachievements.org/greatachievements/ga_7_2.html]. This comes at a cost, however, of large amounts of energy input, from unsustainable, mostly [[fossil fuel]], sources. Animal husbandry means breeding and raising animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis. In recent years some aspects of industrial [[intensive agriculture]] have been the subject of increasing discussion. The widening [[sphere of influence]] held by large seed and chemical companies, meat packers and food processors has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public. There has been increased activity of some people against some farming practices, raising chickens for food being one example. Another issue is the type of feed given to some animals that can cause [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] in cattle. There has also been concern because of the disastrous effect that intensive agriculture has on the environment. In the US, for example, fertilizer has been running off into the Mississippi for years and has caused a dead spot in the Gulf of Mexico, where the Mississippi empties. Intensive agriculture also depletes the fertility of the land over time and the end effect is that which happened in the Middle East, were some of the most fertile farmland in the world was turned into a desert by intensive agriculture. The patent protection given to companies that develop new types of [[seed]] using [[genetic engineering]] has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users. This has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies, allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unheard of. Some argue these companies are guilty of [[biopiracy]]. [[Soil]] [[conservation ethic|conservation]] and [[nutrient management]] have been important concerns since the [[1950s]], with the best farmers taking a [[s
[nn:Ido]] [[oc:Ido]] [[pl:Ido]] [[pt:Ido]] [[ro:Ido]] [[ru:Идо]] [[sco:Ido]] [[sq:Gjuha Ido]] [[simple:Ido]] [[sk:Ido]] [[sl:Ido]] [[sr:Идо]] [[fi:Ido]] [[sv:Ido]] [[tr:İdo dili]] [[zh:伊多语]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Improvisational theatre</title> <id>15041</id> <revision> <id>39136447</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T23:11:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.234.14.4</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Improvisational Theatre''' (also known as '''improv''' or '''impro''') is a form of [[theatre]] in which the [[actor]]s perform spontaneously, without a [[script (performing arts)|script]]. Modern improvisation began in the classroom with the theatre games of [[Viola Spolin]] and [[Keith Johnstone]] in the 1950s, then evolved quickly to become an independent artform worthy of presentation before a paying audience. In all forms of improvisation, the actors invent/discover the [[dialogue]] and action as they perform. The unpredictable nature of such a performance lends itself naturally to [[comedy]], which might go somewhat towards explaining why the overwhelming majority of improvisational theatre is comedic, not dramatic. Dramatic improv is used by many companies and artists as a means of generating text and content for later performance. This is sometimes referred to as ''&quot;organic&quot;'' theatre, and is especially favored by creators of [[political theatre]], [[experimental theatre]], and practitioners of [[drama therapy]]. Improvisation is often found used in actor training as well. Modern [[improvisational comedy]], as it is practiced in the West, falls generally into two categories: [[Shortform improvisation|shortform]] and [[longform improvisation|longform]]. ==Improv process== Improvisational theatre allows an active relationship with the audience often absent from scripted theatre. Frequently improv groups will solicit suggestions from the audience as a source of inspiration, a way of getting the audience excited and involved, and as a means of proving that the performance is not scripted, a charge often aimed at the masters of the art, whose performances seem so effortless and detailed that those new to improv are convinced it must have been planned. Much of this success can be attributed to the level of cooperation and ''agreement'' these improvisers bring to the stage. In order for an improvised [[scene]] to be successful, the actors involved must work together responsively to define the parameters and action of the scene. With each spoken word or action in the scene, an actor makes an ''offer'', meaning that he or she defines some element of the reality of the scene. This might include giving another character a name, identifying a relationship, location, or using [[mime]] to define the physical environment. These activities are also known as ''endowment''. It is the responsibility of the other actors to accept the offers that their fellow performers make; to not do so is known as [[blocking (improv)|blocking]], which usually prevents the scene from developing. Some performers may deliberately block (or otherwise break out of character) for comedic effect -- this is known as ''gagging'' -- but this generally prevents the scene from advancing and is frowned upon by many improvisers. Accepting an offer is usually accompanied by adding a new offer, often building on the earlier one; this is a process improvisers refer to as ''&quot;Yes, And...&quot;'' and is considered the cornerstone of improvisational technique. For example, an improv scene might begin with these lines. '''Adam''': I'm proud of all the work you've done here on the farm, Junior. '''Bill''': Yes, and I'm proud of you for giving up the moonshine, Pa. The unscripted nature of improv also implies no predetermined knowledge about the [[prop]]s that might be useful in a scene. Improv companies may have at their disposal some number of readily accessible props that can be called upon at a moment's notice, but many improvisers eschew props in favor of the infinite possibilities available through [[mime]]. As with all improv ''offers'', actors are encouraged to respect the validity and continuity of the imaginary environment defined by themselves and their fellow performers; this means, for example, taking care not to walk through the table or &quot;miraculously&quot; survive multiple bullet wounds from another improviser's gun. Because improv actors may be required to play a variety of roles without preparation, they need to be able to construct characters quickly with physicality, [[gesture]]s, [[Accent (language)|accent]]s, [[human voice|voice]] changes, or other techniques as demanded by the situation. The actor may be called upon to play a character of a different age or sex. Character motivations are an important part of successful improv scenes, and improv actors must therefore attempt to act according to the objectives that they believe their character seeks. Many improvisational actors also work as scripted actors, and &quot;improv&quot; techniques are often taught in standard acting classes. The basic skills of listening, clarity, confidence, and performing without thinking are considered important skills for actors to develop. ==Improv troupes== See [[List of improvisational theatre companies]] ==Well-known improv actors== Some key figures in the development of improvisational theatre are [[Viola Spolin]] and her son [[Paul Sills]], founder of Chicago's famed [[The Second City|Second City]] troupe and inventor of [[Story Theater]], and [[Del Close]], founder of [[ImprovOlympic]] (along with [[Charna Halpern]]) and creator of the [[longform]] improv known as [[The Harold]]. [[Keith Johnstone]] authored [[Impro]] and [[Impro for Storytellers]] and developed the international formats [[Theatresports]], Micetro Impro, Gorilla Theatre and the Life Game. [[Dick Chudnow]] founded [[ComedySportz]] dealing specifically with competitive [[shortform]] improvisational theatre. [[Jonathan Fox]] founded [[Playback Theatre]], a community based form with links to oral storytelling and [[psychodrama]]. [[David Shepherd]], with Paul Sills, founded the [[Compass Theatre]] in Chicago. Shepherd was intent on developing a true &quot;people's Theatre&quot;, and hoped to bring political drama to the stockyards. The Compass went on to play in numerous forms and companies, in a number of cities including NY and Hyannis, after the founding of The Second City. A number of Compass members were also founding members of [[The Second City]]. In the 1970's, Shepherd began experimenting with group-creatied videos. He is the author of &quot;That Movie In Your Head&quot;, about these efforts. [[Robert Wells]] founded [[Chicken Lips]] Comedy Company and the [[World Humor Organization]] (WHO) which provides top class shortform improv. Based in Denver at the [[Avenue Theater]]. ==See also== * [[Improvisation]] * [[improvisational comedy]] * [[Commedia dell'arte]] * ''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]'' * [[ad-lib]] * [[:fr:Match_d'improvisation|Quebec Improvisational competition]] * [[Friday Nite Improvs]] * [[Chicken Lips]] / [[World Humor Organization]] ==External links== *[http://wiki.chicagoimprov.org/index.php/Main_Page The CIN Wiki] A Wiki dedicated to improvisational theater, hosted by [http://www.chicagoimprov.org The Chicago Improv Network] message boards. *[http://davehitt.com/improv.html The ISFP Players Handbook] A 140+ page Improv Handbook. Includes Hundreds of games, Advice for directors and performers, and long lists of ask-fors, emotions, film &amp; theater styles, etc. * [http://www.dangoldstein.com/howtoimprovise.html How to Be a Better Improviser]: an excellent primer on some of the basic precepts (&quot;ground rules&quot;) of improv, by improviser and professor [[Daniel_Goldstein | Dan Goldstein]]. * [http://www.humanpingpongball.com Improv Encyclopedia] encyclopedia of over 500 improv games, techniques and terminology. * [http://greenlightwiki.com/improv The Improv Wiki] discusses techniques for performing and learning improv. * [http://improvland.com Improvland] webpage about improvisational theatre, with articles, resources, message boards and an international links section to the groups around the world. * [http://www.yesand.com YesAnd.com] features improv news, resources and message boards. * The [http://www.improvresourcecenter.com Improv Resource Center] is a community site for dedicated improvisers in Chicago, New York and other parts of the United States. * [http://www.improstival.com Improstival France] International Improvisation Festival in Paris * [http://www.improvisades.org Les Improvisades France] Students and workers meet in improsessions in France * [http://www.impromania.com Impromania France] Dance Music and Theater Improvisation Festival in Paris * [http://www.impro.infini.fr Brest France] * [http://home.cwru.edu/improv IMPROVment - CWRU improv troupe] [[Category:Theatrical genres]] [[Category:Improvisation]] [[de:Improvisationstheater]] [[fr:Improvisation théâtrale]] [[it:Improvvisazione teatrale]] [[ja:&amp;#12452;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12503;&amp;#12525;]] [[sl:Improvizacijsko gledališče]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International Space Station</title> <id>15043</id> <revision> <id>42151836</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:01:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kavanagh</username> <id>971440</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>COTS link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=&quot;260&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&q
s closest friends and relatives who are unable to attend frequently send [[flower]]s to the viewing, with the exception of a Jewish Funeral[http://www.jdcc.org/sepoct97/doc1.htm], where flowers would not be appropriate. The viewing typically takes place at a [[funeral home]], which is equipped with gathering rooms where the viewing can be conducted, although the viewing may also take place at a [[church]]. The viewing may end with a prayer service; in the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] funeral, this may include a [[rosary]]. ====Funeral==== A [[memorial service]], often called a funeral and often officiated by [[clergy]] from the decedent's or bereaved's [[church]] or [[religion]]. A funeral may take place at either a [[funeral home]] or [[church]]. Funeral services include [[prayer]]s; readings from the [[Bible]] or other sacred texts; [[hymn]]s (sung either by the attendees or a hired vocalist); and words of comfort by the [[clergy]]. Frequently, a relative or close friend will be asked to give a [[eulogy]], which details happy memories and accomplishments. Tradition also allows the attendees of the [[memorial service]] to have one last opportunity to view the decedent's body and say good-bye; the immediate family (siblings (and their spouses); followed by the decedent's spouse, parents and children) are always the very last to view their loved one before the coffin is closed. This opportunity can take place immediately before the service begins, or at the very end of the service. ''Note: In some [[religious denomination|religious denominations]], for example, [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] and [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], eulogies are prohibited or discouraged during this service, in order to preserve respect for traditions.'' ====Burial service==== A [[burial]] service, conducted at the side of the [[grave]], [[tomb]], [[mausoleum]] or [[cremation|crematorium]], at which the body of the decedent is buried or cremated at the conclusion. Sometimes, the burial service will immediately follow the funeral, in which case a funeral procession (the hearse, followed by the immediate family and then the other attendees) travels from the site of the [[memorial service]] to the burial site. Other times, the burial service takes place at a later time, when the final resting place is ready. If the decedent served in a branch of the [[Armed forces]], [[military rites]] are often accorded at the burial service. In many religious traditions, [[pallbearer|pallbearers]], usually males who are close relatives (such as cousins, nephews or grandchildren) or friends of the decedent, will carry the casket from the chapel (of a [[funeral home]] or [[church]]) to the hearse, and from the hearse to the site of the [[burial]] service. The [[pallbearer|pallbearers]] often sit in a special reserved section during the [[memorial service]]. According to most religions, coffins are kept closed during the burial ceremony. In Eastern Orthodox funerals, the coffins are reopened just before burial to allow loved ones to look at the deceased one last time and give their final farewells. ====Luncheon==== In many traditions, a meal or other gathering following the burial service, either at the decedent's [[church]] or another off-site location. For Irish descendants, a wake is often quite extended and may include drinking and singing. As it is a type of party to celebrate the person's life, it will often be referred to as 'waking' the person who has died. An Irish Wake usually lasts 3 full days. On the day after the wake the funeral takes place. Family members and friends will ensure that there is always someone awake with the body, traditionally saying prayers. ====Etiquette==== Generally speaking, the number of people who are considered obliged to attend each of these three rituals by [[etiquette]] decreases at each step: * Distant relatives and acquaintances may be called upon to attend the visitation. * The decedent's closer relatives and local friends attend the funeral or memorial service, and subsequent burial (if it is held immediately after the memorial service). * If the [[burial]] is on a day other than the funeral, only the descendant's closest relatives and friends attend the burial service (although if the burial service immediately follows the funeral, all attendees of the memorial service are asked to attend). Also, etiquette dictates the bereaved and other attendees at a funeral wear semi-formal clothing - such as a suit and tie for men or a dress for women - in a darker color (usually, gray, dark blue or black). Women who are grieving the death of their husband or a close boyfriend sometimes wear a veil to conceal the face, although the veil is not common now. ===Private services=== On occasion, the family of the deceased may wish to have only a very small service, with just the decedent's closest family members and friends attending. This type of ceremony means it is closed to the public. One may only go to the funeral if he or she was invited. In this case, a private funeral service is conducted. Reasons vary but often include: * The decedent was an infant (possibly, they may have been [[stillborn]]) or very aged and therefore having few surviving family members or friends. * The decedent may be a crime victim or a convicted criminal who was serving a prison sentence. In this case, the service is made private either to avoid unwanted media coverage (especially with a crime victim); or to avoid unwanted intrusion (especially if the decedent was convicted of murder or child molestation). * The family does not feel able to endure a traditional service (due to emotional shock) or simply wants a quiet, simple funeral with only the most important people of the decedent's life in attendance. In some cases (particularly the latter), the family may schedule a public memorial service at a later time. ===Memorial services=== Increasingly, traditional funerals are being replaced by memorial services. These are often less formal than a traditional funeral, and include such things as eulogies, music and fellowship. A member of the [[clergy]] often participates in these services, usually to open and close the proceedings and offer [[prayers]] and a brief message of comfort. ===Non-traditional funerals=== ====New Orleans &quot;jazz funeral&quot;==== A unique funeral tradition in the United States occurs in [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]. The unique tradition arises from African spiritual practices, French [[Wiktionary:martial|martial]] musical traditions and uniquely African-American cultural influences. A typical [[jazz funeral]] begins with a march by the family, friends, and a [[jazz]] band from the home, funeral home or church to the cemetery. Throughout the march, the band plays very somber [[dirge]]s. Once the final ceremony has taken place, the march proceeds from the cemetery to a gathering place, and the solemn music is replaced by loud, upbeat, raucous music and dancing where onlookers join in to celebrate the life of the deceased. This is the origin of the New Orleans dance known as the &quot;[[second line]]&quot; where celebrants do a dance-march, frequently while raising the hats and umbrellas brought along as protection from intense New Orleans weather and waving handkerchiefs above the head that are no longer being used to wipe away tears. ====&quot;Green&quot; funeral==== Those with concerns about the effects on the environment of traditional burial or cremation may choose to be buried in a fashion more suited to their beliefs. They may choose to be buried in a coffin made of cardboard or other easily-biodegradable materials. Further, they may choose their final resting place to be in a park or woodland and may have a tree planted over their grave as a contribution to the environment and a remembrance. ==Funerals in East Asia== In most [[East Asian]] and many [[Southeast Asian]] cultures, the wearing of [[white]] is symbolic of death. In these societies, white or off-white robes are traditionally worn to symbolize that someone has died and can be seen worn among relatives of the deceased during a funeral ceremony. Contemporary Western influence however has meant that dark-colored or [[black]] attire is now often also acceptable for mourners to wear (particularly for those outside the family). In such cases, mourners wearing dark colors at times may also wear a white or off-white armband. When a coffin is lowered into the ground the mourners will bow their heads and must not watch the coffin being lowered into the ground. A traditional Chinese gift to the grieving is a white envelope usually containing money. This custom is also found in other East and Southeast Asian cultures. Most funerals in contemporary [[Japanese Funeral|Japan]] are conducted with [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] rites. Many feature a ritual that bestows a new [[name]] on the deceased; funerary names typically use obsolete or [[archaism|archaic]] [[kanji]] and words, to avoid the likelihood of the name being used in ordinary speech or writing. The new names are typically chosen by a Buddhist priest, after consulting the family of the deceased. The new name bestowed upon them is the name they will have in the afterlife, where they will train for 49 days to become a disciple of Buddha. Most Japanese are cremated. ==African funerals== The custom of burying the dead in the floor of dwelling-houses has been to some degree prevalent on the Gold Coast of Africa. The ceremony is purely animist, and apparently without any set ritual. The main exception is that the females of the family of the deceased and their friends may undergo mournful lamentations. In some instances they work their feelings up to an ostentatious, frenzy-like degree of sorrow. The revelry may be heightened by the use of alcohol, of which drummers, flute-players, bards, and singing men may partake. The funeral may last for as much as a week. Another custom, a kind
a wide range of species, not least in order to be able to make principled comparisons across [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] groups. Ethologists have made much more use of a truly [[comparative method]] than comparative psychologists ever have. == Darwinism and the beginnings of ethology == Because ethology is understood as a branch of [[biology]], ethologists have been particularly concerned with the [[evolution]] of behaviour and the understanding of behaviour in terms of the theory of [[natural selection]]. In one sense the first modern ethologist was [[Charles Darwin]], whose book &lt;cite&gt;The expression of the emotions in animals and men&lt;/cite&gt; influenced many ethologists. However, he pursued his interest in behaviour by encouraging his protégé [[George Romanes]], who investigated animal learning and intelligence using an anthropomorphic method that did not gain scientific support. The early ethologists, such as [[Oskar Heinroth]] and [[Julian Huxley]] instead concentrated on behaviours that can be called [[instinct]]ive, or natural, in that they occur in all members of a [[species]] under specified circumstances. Their first step in studying the behaviour of a new species was to construct an '''ethogram''', a description of the main types of natural behaviour with their frequencies of occurrence. This approach provided an objective, cumulative base of data about behaviour, which subsequent researchers could check and build on, and as a way of building a science of behaviour, it proved much more fruitful. == The fixed action pattern and animal communication == An important step, associated with the name of [[Konrad Lorenz]] though probably due more to his teacher, Heinroth, was the identification of [[fixed action pattern]]s (FAPs). Lorenz popularized FAPs as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of identifiable stimuli (called '''sign stimuli''' or '''releasing stimuli'''). These FAPs could then be compared across species, and the similarities and differences between behaviour compared with the similarities and differences in [[morphology (biology)]] on which taxonomy was based. An important and much quoted study of the [[Anatidae]] (ducks and geese) by Heinroth used this technique. The ethologists noted that the stimuli that released FAPs were commonly features of the appearance or behaviour of other members of their own species, and they were able to show how important forms of [[animal communication]] could be mediated by a few simple FAPs. The most sophisticated investigation of this kind was the study by [[Karl von Frisch]] of the so-called &amp;#8220;dance language&amp;#8221; underlying [[bee learning and communication|bee communication]]. Lorenz developed an interesting theory of the evolution of animal communication based on his observations of the nature of fixed action patterns and the circumstances in which animals emit them. == Imprinting == A second important finding of Lorenz concerned the early learning of young [[nidifugous]] birds, a process he called [[imprinting (psychology)|imprinting]]. Lorenz observed that the young of birds such as [[goose|geese]] and [[chicken]]s spontaneously followed their mothers from almost the first day after they were hatched, and he discovered that this following response could be transferred to an arbitrary stimulus if the eggs were incubated artificially and the stimulus was presented during a '''critical period''' (now called a '''sensitive period''') that covered the few days after hatching. The concept of imprinting has been widely adopted in [[developmental psychology]]. == Tinbergen's four questions for ethologists == Lorenz&amp;#8217;s collaborator, [[Niko Tinbergen]], argued that ethology always needed to pay attention to four kinds of explanation of any instance of behaviour: * Function: how does the behaviour impact on the animal&amp;#8217;s chances of survival and reproduction? * Causation: what are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning? * Development: how does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be shown? * Evolutionary history: how does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have arisen through the process of [[phylogeny]]? == The flowering of ethology == Through the work of Lorenz and Tinbergen, ethology developed strongly in continental Europe in the years before [[World War II]]. After the war, Tinbergen moved to the [[University of Oxford]], and ethology became stronger in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], with the additional influence of William Thorpe, [[Robert Hinde]] and [[Patrick Bateson]] at the Sub-department of Animal Behaviour of the [[University of Cambridge]], located in the village of [[Madingley]]. In this period, too, ethology began to develop strongly in [[North America]]. Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch were jointly awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in [[1973]] for their work in developing ethology. == Social ethology and recent developments == In [[1970]], the [[England|English]] ethologist [[John H. Crook]] published an important paper in which he distinguished '''comparative ethology''' from '''social ethology''', and argued that much of the ethology that had existed so far was really comparative ethology, looking at animals as individuals, whereas in the future, ethologists would need to concentrate on the behaviour of social groups of animals and the social structure within them. This was prescient. [[E. O. Wilson]]&amp;#8217;s book &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;[[Sociobiology]]&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217; appeared in [[1975]], and since that time the study of behaviour has been much more concerned with social aspects. It has also been driven by the stronger, but more sophisticated, Darwinism associated with Wilson and [[Richard Dawkins]]. The related development of [[behavioral ecology]] has also helped transform ethology. At the same time a substantial rapprochement with comparative psychology has occurred, so the modern scientific study of behaviour offers a more or less seamless spectrum of approaches, from [[animal cognition]], more traditional [[comparative psychology]], ethology, [[sociobiology]] and [[behavioural ecology]]. == Notes == * There are often mismatches between human senses and those of the organisms they are observing. To compensate, ethologists often reach all the way back to [[epistemology]] to give them the tools to predict and avoid misinterpretation of data. == List of ethologists == People who have made notable contributions to the field of ethology: {| width=100% | valign=top width=33% | * [[George Barlow]] * [[Patrick Bateson]] * [[John Bowlby]] * [[John H. Crook]] * [[Charles Darwin]] * [[Richard Dawkins]] * [[Iräneus Eibl-Eibesfeldt]] * [[Dian Fossey]] * [[Karl von Frisch]] * [[Jane Goodall]] | valign=top width=34% | * [[Oskar Heinroth]] * [[Robert Hinde]] * [[Julian Huxley]] * [[Julian Jaynes]] * [[Paul Leyhausen]] * [[Konrad Lorenz]] * [[Aubrey Manning]] * [[Desmond Morris]] * [[Ivan Pavlov]] | valign=top width=33% | * [[George Romanes]] * [[B. F. Skinner]] * [[Marian Stamp Dawkins]] * [[William Homan Thorpe]] * [[Niko Tinbergen]] * [[Jakob von Uexküll]] * [[Frans de Waal]] * [[William Morton Wheeler]] * [[E. O. Wilson]] |} == See also == * [[Altruism in animals]] * [[List of publications in biology#Ethology_.26_Behavior|Important publications in ethology]] [[Category:Animal behaviour]] [[Category:Behavioural sciences]] [[Category:Ethology|*]] [[Category:Zoology| ethology]] [[bg:Етология]] [[ca:Etologia]] [[cs:Etologie]] [[da:Etologi]] [[de:Ethologie]] [[es:Etología]] [[eo:Etologio]] [[fi:Etologia]] [[fr:Éthologie]] [[fy:Gedrachsbiology]] [[gl:Etoloxía]] [[ko:행동 생물학]] [[id:Etologi]] [[ia:Ethologia]] [[he:אתולוגיה]] [[lt:Etologija]] [[hu:Etológia]] [[nl:Ethologie]] [[no:Etologi]] [[ja:動物行動学]] [[pl:Etologia]] [[pt:Etologia]] [[ru:Этология]] [[sv:Etologi]] [[tl:Etolohiya]] [[vi:Tập tính học]] [[tr:Etoloji]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electromagnetic radiation</title> <id>9426</id> <revision> <id>41749773</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:49:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Heron</username> <id>2954</id> </contributor> <comment>caption: plane polarised</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Light-wave.png|thumb|right|350px|Electromagnetic radiation can be conceptualized as a self propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This diagram shows a plane polarised wave.]] '''Electromagnetic radiation''' is a propagating [[wave]] in space with [[electricity|electric]] and [[magnetism|magnetic]] components. These components oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation. The term ''electromagnetic radiation'' is also used as a synonym for electromagnetic waves in general, even if they are not radiating or travelling in free space. This sense includes, for example, [[light]] travelling through an [[optical fiber]], or [[radio frequency|electrical energy]] travelling within a [[coaxial cable]]. Electromagnetic (EM) radiation carries [[energy]] and [[momentum]] which may be imparted when it interacts with [[matter]]. == Physics == === Theory === '''Electromagnetic waves''' of much lower frequency than visible light were predicted by [[Maxwell's equations]] and subsequently discovered by [[Heinrich Hertz]]. Maxwell [[Electromagnetic wave equation | derived]] a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations which made explicit the wave nature of the electric and magnetic fields. These equations displayed the symmetry of the fields. According to the theory, a time-varying [[electric field]] generates a [[magnetic field]] and vice versa. Thus, an oscillating electric field creates an oscillating magnetic field, which in turn creates an oscillating electric
rules of the House, and may warn and punish Members who deviate from them. Disregarding the Speaker's instructions is considered a severe breach of the rules of the House, and may result in the suspension of the offender from the House. In the case of grave disorder, the Speaker may adjourn the House without taking a vote. The Standing Orders of the House of Commons do not establish any formal time limits for debates. The Speaker may, however, order a Member who persists in making a tediously repetitive or irrelevant speech to stop speaking. The time set aside for debate on a particular motion is, however, often limited by informal agreements between the parties. Debate may, however, be restricted by the passage of &quot;Allocation of Time Motions&quot;, which are more commonly known as &quot;[[Guillotine Motion]]s&quot;. Alternatively, the House may put an immediate end to debate by passing a motion to invoke the [[Cloture|Closure]]. The Speaker is allowed to deny the motion if he or she believes that it infringes upon the rights of the minority. When the debate concludes, or when the Closure is invoked, the motion in question is put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and Members respond either &quot;Aye&quot; (in favour of the motion) or &quot;No&quot; (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his or her assessment is challenged by any Member, a recorded vote known as a [[division (vote)|division]] follows. (The presiding officer, if he or she believes that the result of the voice vote is so clear that a division is not necessary, may reject the challenge.) If a division does occur, Members enter one of two lobbies (the &quot;Aye&quot; lobby or the &quot;No&quot; lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves Members of the House) who count the votes of the Members. Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker has a [[casting vote]]. The quorum of the House of Commons is forty members for any vote; if fewer than forty members have participated, the division is invalid. Formerly, if a Member sought to raise a point of order during a division, he was required to wear a hat, thereby signalling that he was not engaging in debate. Collapsible top hats were kept in the Chamber just for this purpose. This custom was discontinued in 1998. The outcome of most votes is largely known beforehand, since political parties normally instruct members on how to vote. A party normally entrusts some Members of Parliament, known as [[whip (politics)|whips]], with the task of ensuring that all party Members vote as desired. Members of Parliament do not tend to vote against such instructions, since those who do so are unlikely to reach higher political ranks in their parties. Errant Members may be deselected as official party candidates during future elections, and, in serious cases, may be expelled from their parties outright. Thus, the independence of Members of Parliament tends to be extremely low, and &quot;backbench rebellions&quot; by Members discontent with their party's policies are rare. In some circumstances, however, parties announce &quot;[[free vote]]s&quot;, allowing Members to vote as they please. Votes relating to issues of conscience such as [[abortion]] and [[capital punishment]] are typically free votes. ==Committees== The Parliament of the United Kingdom uses committees for a variety of purposes; one common use is for the review of [[Acts of Parliament|bills]]. Committees consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. Bills of great constitutional importance, as well as some important financial measures, are usually sent to the Committee of the Whole House, a body that, as its name suggests, includes all members of the House of Commons. Instead of the Speaker, the Chairman or a Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means presides. The Committee meets in the House of Commons Chamber. Most bills are considered by Standing Committees, which consist of between sixteen and fifty members each. The membership of each Standing Committee roughly reflects the standing of the parties in the whole House. Though &quot;standing&quot; may imply permanence, the membership of Standing Committees changes constantly; new Members are assigned each time the Committee considers a new bill. There is no formal limit on the number of Standing Committees, but there are usually only ten. Rarely, a bill may be committed to a Special Standing Committee, which operates much like a Standing Committee, but also investigates and holds hearings on the issues raised by the bill. The House of Commons also has several Departmental Select Committees. The membership of these bodies, like that of the Standing Committees, reflects the strength of the parties in the House of Commons. Each committee elects its own Chairman. The primary function of a Departmental Select Committee is to scrutinise and investigate the activities of a particular Government Department; to fulfil these aims, it is permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Departmental Select Committees, but such a procedure is very seldom used. A separate type of Select Committee is the Domestic Committee. Domestic Committees oversee the administration of the House and the services provided to Members. Other committees of the House of Commons include Joint Committees (which also include members of the House of Lords), the [[Committee on Standards and Privileges]] (which considers questions of [[parliamentary privilege]], as well as matters relating to the conduct of the Members), and the Committee of Selection (which determines the membership of other committees). ==Legislative functions== Although legislation may be introduced in either House, bills normally originate in the House of Commons. The supremacy of the Commons in legislative matters is assured by the Parliament Acts, under which certain types of bills may be presented for the [[Royal Assent]] without the consent of the House of Lords. The Lords may not delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Moreover, the Lords may not delay most other public bills for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons. Moreover, a bill that seeks to extend a parliamentary term beyond five years requires the consent of the House of Lords. By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the superiority of the House of Commons is ensured insofar as financial matters are concerned. Only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or [[Supply]]; furthermore, Supply bills passed by the House of Commons are immune to amendments in the House of Lords. In addition, the House of Lords is barred from amending a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply-related provision, but the House of Commons often waives its privileges and allows the Lords to make amendments with financial implications. Under a separate convention, known as the [[Salisbury Convention]], the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the Government's election [[manifesto]]. Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the more powerful branch of Parliament. {{see|Act of Parliament}} ==Relationship with the Government== [[Image:Tony Blair at PMQs.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[British Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]] in the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] during [[Prime Minister's Questions]].]] Though it does not elect the Prime Minister, the House of Commons indirectly controls the premiership ''according to the constitution'' - in practice, many political scientists believe it actually works the other way round. By convention, the Prime Minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons. Thus, whenever the office of Prime Minister falls vacant, the Sovereign appoints the person most likely to command the support of the House—normally, the leader of the largest party in the Lower House. (The leader of the second-largest party becomes the [[Leader of the Opposition]].) In modern times, and practically by convention, the Prime Minister is always a member of the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords. The Prime Minister may only stay in office as long as he or she retains the confidence of the House of Commons. The Lower House may indicate its lack of support for the Government by rejecting a [[Motion of Confidence]], or by passing a [[Motion of No Confidence]]. Confidence and No Confidence Motions are sometimes phrased explicitly, for instance: &quot;That this House has no confidence in Her Majesty's Government.&quot; Many other motions are considered confidence issues, even though not explicitly phrased as such. In particular, important bills that form a part of the Government's agenda are generally considered matters of confidence, as is the annual Budget. When a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister is obliged to either resign, or request the monarch to dissolve Parliament, thereby precipitating a general election. Except when compelled to do so by an adverse vote on a confidence issue, the Prime Minister is allowed to choose the timing of dissolutions, and consequently the timing of general elections. The timing reflects political considerations, and is generally most opportune for the Prime Minister's party. However, no parliamentary term can last for more than five years;
gt;''under 914 m:'' 64 (1999 est.) === Heliports === 1 (1999 est.) == See also == * [[El Salvador]] {{Salvador-stub}} [[Category:Transport in El Salvador| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of El Salvador</title> <id>9364</id> <revision> <id>31235546</id> <timestamp>2005-12-13T20:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CalJW</username> <id>233571</id> </contributor> <comment>adjusted categorisation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Military]] branches:''' [[Army of El Salvador|Army]], [[Navy of El Salvador|Navy]], [[Air Force of El Salvador|Air Force]] '''Military manpower - military age:''' 18 years of age '''Military manpower - availability:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 1,428,974 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - fit for military service:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 906,656 (2000 est.) '''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:''' &lt;br&gt;''males:'' 67,181 (2000 est.) '''Military expenditures - dollar figure:''' $105 million (FY98) '''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:''' 0.9% (FY98) ==References and Links== *[[El Salvador]] [[Category:Government of El Salvador]] [[Category:Militaries|El Salvador]] {{Salvador-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of El Salvador</title> <id>9365</id> <revision> <id>35318091</id> <timestamp>2006-01-15T21:59:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Folajimi</username> <id>508378</id> </contributor> <comment>Wikify 'working group'</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[El Salvador]] is a member of the [[United Nations]] and several of its specialized agencies, the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS), the [[Central American Common Market]] (CACM), the [[Central American Parliament]] (PARLACEN), and the [[Central American Integration System]] (SICA). It actively participates in the [[Central American Security Commission]] (CASC), which seeks to promote regional arms control. El Salvador also is a member of the [[World Trade Organization]] and is pursuing regional free trade agreements. An active participant in the [[Summit of the Americas]] process, El Salvador chairs a [[working group]] on market access under the [[Free Trade Area of the Americas]] initiative. El Salvador has joined its six Central American neighbors in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA or [[CONCAUSA]] to promote sustainable economic development in the region. El Salvador maintains diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]]. '''Disputes - international:''' In July 1969, El Salvador and [[Honduras]] fought the 100-hour [[Football War]] over disputed border areas and friction resulting from the 300,000 Salvadorans who had emigrated to Honduras in search of land and employment. The catalyst was nationalistic feelings aroused by a series of soccer matches between the two countries. The two countries formally signed a peace treaty on [[October 30]], 1980, which put the border dispute before the [[International Court of Justice]]. In September 1992, the court issued a 400-page ruling, awarding much of the disputed land to Honduras. Although there have been tensions between citizens on both sides of the border, the two countries have worked to maintain stability and signed an agreement in November 1996 to establish a framework for negotiating the final disposition of citizens and property in the affected areas. El Salvador and Honduras share normal diplomatic and trade relations. The [[Honduras]]-El Salvador Border Protocol ratified by Honduras in May 1999 established a framework for a long-delayed border demarcation, which is currently underway; with respect to the maritime boundary in the [[Golfo de Fonseca]], the [[ICJ]] referred to the line determined by the 1900 [[Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission]] and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras and [[Nicaragua]] likely would be required. '''Illicit drugs:''' transshipment point for [[cocaine]]; [[marijuana]] produced for local consumption; domestic [[drug use]] on the rise. [[Category:Foreign relations of El Salvador| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Equatorial Guinea</title> <id>9366</id> <revision> <id>41917218</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:33:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>El C</username> <id>92203</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.114.147.3|207.114.147.3]] ([[User talk:207.114.147.3|talk]]) to last version by Jorge Stolfi</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''República de Guinea Ecuatorial&lt;br&gt;République de la Guinée Équatoriale'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg|125px|Flag of Equatorial Guinea]] | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Equatorial Guinea coa.png|100px|Coat of Arms of Equatorial Guinea]] |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of Equatorial Guinea|In Detail]]) | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Coat of Arms of Equatorial Guinea|In Detail]]) |} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[National motto]]: Unidad, Paz, Justicia&lt;br&gt;([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: (Unity, Peace, Justice)''&lt;/small&gt; |- | align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:LocationEquatorialGuinea.png|Location of Equatorial Guinea]] |- | '''[[Official language]]''' | [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]] |- | '''[[Capital]] and Largest City''' | [[Malabo]] |- | '''Capital's [[coordinate]]s''' | N 3&amp;deg; 21&amp;prime; E 8&amp;deg; 40&amp;prime; |- | '''[[List of Presidents of Equatorial Guinea|President]]''' | [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]] |- | '''[[List of Prime Ministers of Equatorial Guinea|Prime Minister]]''' | [[Miguel Abia Biteo Boricó]] |- | '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water | [[List of countries by area|Ranked 141st]] &lt;br /&gt; 28,051 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br /&gt; Negligible |- | '''[[Population]]''' &amp;nbsp;- Total ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ek.html July 2005]) &amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]] | [[List of countries by population|Ranked 159th]] 535,881&lt;br /&gt; 18.6/km&amp;sup2; |- | '''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (PPP) &amp;nbsp;- Total ([[Year]]) &amp;nbsp;- GDP/head | [[List of countries by GDP|Ranked 182nd]] $25.69 billion&lt;br&gt; $50,200 (CIA Factbook)&lt;br&gt; By IMF GDP (PPP) per capita is $33,994 and rank is 6. |- |'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ([[2003]]) || 0.655 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|121st]]) – &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |- | '''[[Currency]]''' | [[CFA franc]] (XAF) |- | '''[[Time zone]]''' | [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +1 |- | '''[[Independence]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Date | From [[Spain]]&lt;br /&gt;[[October 12]], [[1968]] |- | '''[[National anthem]]''' | ''[[Caminemos pisando la senda]]'' |- | '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' | [[.gq]] |- | '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' | 240 |} The '''Republic of Equatorial Guinea''' is a nation in west [[central Africa]], and one of the smallest countries in continental [[Africa]]. It borders [[Cameroon]] on the north, [[Gabon]] on the south and east, and the [[Gulf of Guinea]] on the west, where the islands of [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] lie to its southwest. Formerly the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[colony]] of [[Spanish Guinea]], the country's territory (continentally known as [[Río Muni]]) includes a number of islands, including the sizable island of [[Bioko]] where the capital, [[Malabo]] (formerly Santa Isabel), is located. Its post-independence name is suggestive of its being situated near both the [[equator]] and the Gulf of Guinea. It is the only country in Africa where [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is an official language. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Equatorial Guinea]]'' The first inhabitants of the region that is now Equatorial Guinea are believed to have been [[Pygmies]], of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern [[Rio Muni]]. [[Bantu]] migrations between the 17th and 19th centuries brought the coastal tribes and later the [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]]. Elements of the latter may have generated the [[Bubi]], who emigrated to [[Bioko]] from [[Cameroon]] and Rio Muni in several waves and succeeded former neolithic populations. The [[Igbo people]] of [[Nigeria]] arrived in the 18th century. The [[Annobon]] population, native to [[Angola]], was introduced by the Portuguese via [[São Tomé Island]] ([[São Tomé and Príncipe]]). The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese explorer]], [[Fernão do Pó]], seeking a route to [[India]], is credited with having discovered the island of Bioko in [[1472]]. He called it ''Formosa'' (&quot;Beautiful&quot;), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer. The islands of Fernando Póo and Annobón were colonized by [[Portugal]] in [[1474]]. The Portuguese retained control until [[1778]], when the island, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between the Niger and [[Ogoue]] Rivers were ceded to [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] in exchange for territory in the American continent ([[Treaty of El Pardo]], between Queen [[Maria I
quot;. The song caused much controversy in the U.K. as BBC feared the single would reach the Top 30; this would require a performance of the song on ''[[Top of the Pops]]''. However, this never came to be as the single peaked at #31. The EP ''[[In God We Trust, Inc.]]'' (1981) and album ''[[Plastic Surgery Disasters]]'' (1982) showed a development in musical style, and their music became a political force, pitting itself against rising elements of American social and political life such as the [[religious right]] and [[Ronald Reagan]]. The band continued touring all over the United States, as well as Europe and Australia, during the 1980s and gained a large underground following. The release of the album ''[[Frankenchrist]]'' in 1985 caused a fervor with the newly formed [[PMRC]] (Parents Music Resource Center), and in 1986, the members of the DKs, along with other parties involved in the distribution of ''[[Frankenchrist]]'', were brought to trial for &quot;distribution of harmful matter to minors&quot; due in part to an [[H.R. Giger]] [[Penis_Landscape|illustration]] included with the album. Biafra says that during this time government agents invaded and searched his home. The band members were each faced with up to a year in jail and a $2000 fine. In 1987, the charges were dropped after a three-week trial. The album, however, was banned from many record stores nationwide. In January of 1986, the DKs decided to break up to pursue other interests. They played their last concert on February 21. During the summer they recorded ''[[Bedtime for Democracy]]'', which was released in November. In December, the band announced their split. Biafra went on to become a highly active political force, appearing on numerous television shows and releasing a number of [[spoken-word]] albums. Ray, Flouride, and Peligro also went on to solo careers. ==Internal conflicts== It was discovered in the late 1990s that there were issues with the payments each band member had received from their record label [[Alternative Tentacles]]. Former band members claimed that Jello Biafra had conspired to pay less royalty rates to the band members. Although both sides agreed that the failure to pay these royalties was an accounting mistake, the DKs took issue with the fact that Biafra failed to inform the band of the mistake after he and his co-workers discovered it (though by all accounts he paid the band). Biafra claims that the DKs' lawyers had told him only to correspond through lawyers and not directly with the band, as the conflict over payment had apparently arisen before the accounting mistake was discovered. Both sides claim they attempted to resolve the matter without legal action, but the ultimately complicated legal dispute (involving royalties, publishing rights, and a number of other issues) soon led to the courts, where Biafra was found liable. Biafra's appeal was denied; he had to pay the outstanding fees, and was forced to hand over the rights to the majority of Dead Kennedys' back catalogue to the three, who claimed that [[songwriting credits]] were due to the entire band (Jello had received sole songwriting credit for most Dead Kennedys songs on all released albums for the last 20 years or so without complaints from the band, though a minority of songs had given credit to certain group members or the entire band as a whole, indicating a system designed to reflect the primary composers rather than a regimented system like the Jagger/Richards partnership; today, most Kennedys reissues list the songwriters as &quot;Biafra, Dead Kennedys&quot; indicating Biafra's lyrical contributions -- which the band doesn't dispute, or else simply as &quot;Dead Kennedys&quot;). Jello's bandmates found new distribution through another label, [[Manifesto Records]]. This dispute was hotly contested by all concerned who felt passionately for their cause, and the case caused minor waves within punk circles. Many fans felt that DKs' lawsuit against Jello was motivated by greed, as the other three band members had numerous unsuccessful solo records and gigs after the band's break-up (Biafra was by far the most prolific and successful of the four). In addition, Biafra claims that guitarist [[East Bay Ray]] had long expressed displeasure with [[Alternative Tentacles]] and with the amount of money he received from them, thus the original incentive for the discovery of the back payments. Some observers felt that although Biafra did not try to cheat his band in any way (as he does not take a salary from Alternative Tentacles), his sneering, irreverent attitude did not endear him to jurors during the trial. Biafra, using his typical tactics, accused the band of wanting to license the famous Dead Kennedys song &quot;[[Holiday in Cambodia]]&quot; for use in a Levi's jeans commercial, which the band denied. Biafra apparently pushed this issue in court, although there was no hard evidence and the jurors were apparently unconcerned with corporate use of independently produced political music. Biafra would later complain that the jury was not sympathetic towards underground music and punk culture. The song never appeared in a Levi's commercial, although in interviews Biafra described the situation surrounding the commercial in detail and was able to give specifics about the advertisement. Biafra's bandmates, under the apparent, though unspoken leadership of [[East Bay Ray]], maintain that they sued because of Jello Biafra's deliberate witholding of money, though when pressed they have acknowledged that the payment was an accounting mistake and that Biafra was wrong in failing to inform the band directly, however details about this issue remain scarce. The band also maintains that the entire Levi's story was completely fictitious and invented by Biafra to discredit them. Ultimately, these issues have led to a souring of relationships with the erstwhile bandmates, who still have not resolved their personal differences as of 2006. Matters were stirred up even further when the three bandmates invited Jello Biafra to &quot;bury the hatchet&quot; at a band reunion. Jello Biafra felt it was unprofessional because no one contacted him directly (though he was undoubtedly still distressed by having been dragged through numerous lawsuits and by having the entire Dead Kennedys catalog taken from his label’s care). In addition, Biafra was disdainful of the reunion, having long expressed his disdain for nostalgia and rock reunion/oldies tours in particular (with the 1996, corporate-sponsored Sex Pistols reunion perhaps fresh in his mind), flatly stating that the whole affair was an exercise in greed. The re-formed Dead Kennedys, it must be said, followed their court victory by announcing a number of tour dates, released re-issues of all Dead Kennedys albums (except ''[[Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables]]'', which they did not have the rights to until 2005) and a number of concert DVDs, as well as licensing several songs for use by major corporations (in [[Tony Hawk Pro Skater]] and ''[[The Manchurian Candidate (2004 film)|The Manchurian Candidate]]'' remake, respectively), actions that were extremely controversial among more politically astute fans, but ultimately (and curiously) paid little attention by the press and the groups overall fanbase. Biafra, predictably angry with his former bandmates, did not mince words in criticizing the reunited group, slagging all of the commercially-oriented re-issues and DVDs they released, as well as criticizing them for advertising shows using his own image taken from the original 80s incarnation of the band, which he labeled as false advertising. Biafra also attacked them on song called &quot;[[Those Dumb Punk Kids (Will Buy Anything)]]&quot;, which appears on his second collaboratory with punk metal band [[The Melvins]], ''[[Sieg Howdy|Sieg Howdy!]]''. ==Reformation== In 2001, Ray, Peligro and Flouride reformed the group with [[Brandon Cruz]] taking Biafra's role as vocalist (due to the breakdown in communications detailed above). There has been much debate as to whether this is a reformed DKs, or some form of tribute band, however they have played under the group name &quot;Dead Kennedys&quot; as well as the variant &quot;DK Kennedys&quot; (to make the distinction between the original line up including Biafra and possibly to avoid further lawsuits such as the one filed against the new lineup of [[the Doors]] without [[Jim Morrison]]). Many promoters simply advertise them as &quot;Dead Kennedys&quot; regardless, and promotional material has featured pictures of Biafra. The reformed group has played across the continental United States, Europe, Asia, South America, and Russia. These shows included a show in Turkey sponsored by Coke. Brandon Cruz left the band, citing creative differences. Cruz was replaced by [[Jeff Penalty]] as lead vocalist. The band has released two live albums on Manifesto Records of old performances - ''[[Mutiny On The Bay]]'', an edited-together compilation of various live performances of varying quality from the San Francisco area, and ''[[Live at the Deaf Club]]'', a recording of a 1979 performance at the Deaf Club in San Francisco, which was greeted with more enthusiasm. Incidentally, the latter performance was former bandmember 6025's final show with the band. These releases have caused more conflict among the band and its former frontman, and have been denounced by Jello Biafra as an attempt to cash in on the DKs' legacy, who accused the releases of being of poor sound quality and claims to not be receiving royalties from their sale or the sale of any Manifesto Records releases. The other band members deny Biafra's accusations of greed, despite having licensed DKs music, traditionally an expression of anti-corporatism, for use in major corporate endeavors (see above). ==Lyrical stance== The DKs are noted for the acerbity of their lyrics, which generally take a harsh critique of contemporary Amer
care system]] in the world, and Chicago is arguably the capital of that system. The city is first among the major dental and medical training centers in the United States. It is also home to the sprawling [[Illinois Medical District]] on the Near West Side, which includes [[Rush University Medical Center]], the [[The University of Illinois College of Medicine|University of Illinois at Chicago medical center]], and [[John H. Stroger, Jr. Hospital of Cook County]], the largest trauma-center in the city and the basis for the hospital in NBC's popular drama [[ER (TV series)|ER]]. The [[American Medical Association]], the [[American Hospital Association]], the [[American Dental Association]], and the [[American College of Surgeons]] are also based in the city. [[The University of Illinois College of Medicine]] at [[University of Illinois at Chicago|UIC]] is the largest medical school in the United States (1300 students, including those at campuses in Peoria, Rockford and Urbana-Champaign). Chicago is also home to a large number of nationally recognized medical schools. These include the above-mentioned University of Illinois medical school, [[Rush Medical College]], [[University of Chicago]], and [[Northwestern University]]. In addition, the [[Chicago Medical School]] and [[Loyola University Chicago]]'s Stritch School of Medicine are located in the suburbs of North Chicago and Maywood, respectively. The Midwestern University Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine is located in Downers Grove. The [[American Osteopathic Association]] is also located in Chicago. ==Utilities and infrastructure== ===Electric=== Electricity is provided to residents through [[Commonwealth Edison]], also known as ComEd. With over 6,000 employees ComEd provides service to all of northern Illinois. Their service territory borders [[Iroquois County, Illinois|Iroquois County]] to the south (roughly [[Interstate 80]]), the [[Wisconsin]] border to the north, the [[Iowa]] border to the west and the [[Indiana]] border to the east. ===Telecommunications=== Most landline telephone service is provided by [[AT&amp;T]], but there are a number of other smaller players such as [[RCN]] that service the city. New technologies allowing phone service over cable lines and the Internet are broadening the competitive landscape. '''Related Topics''' *[[North American Numbering Plan|Area Codes]] **[[Area code 312|312]] (The [[Chicago Loop|Loop]] and central neighborhoods, e.g. the Near North Side) **[[Area code 773|773]] (Everywhere else in the city proper, the neighborhoods) **[[Area code 847|847]] (North and Northwest Suburbs) **[[Area code 708|708]] (Near West and South Suburbs) **[[Area code 630|630]] (Western Suburbs) **[[Area code 224|224]] (Overlay area code for 847) ===Cable=== Cable television services in Chicago are provided to the citizens through one of three providers over five service territories covering the city. The three players are [[Comcast]], [[Wide Open West]] (WOW) and [[RCN]]. Comcast services are available city wide while RCN and WOW are only cover the North East and South side respectively. Service providers are regulated by The Office of Cable Communications which is a division of the Department of Consumer Affairs. ==See also== *[[Sister Cities of Chicago]] *[[Famous Chicagoans]] *[[Landmarks of Chicago]] *[[Parks of Chicago]] *[[Chicago architecture]] *[[Tallest buildings in Chicago]] *[[Notable citizens of Chicago]] *[[List of fiction set in Chicago]] *[[List of non-fiction about Chicago]] *[[List of Chicago music venues]] ==References== &lt;!--When creating references please refer to the Wikipedia [[Wikipedia:Cite sources|Cite Sources]] guidelines. --&gt; *{{wikitravelpar|Chicago}} * [http://www.cityofchicago.org/ City of Chicago Homepage] *{{cite book | year = 2004 | month = October | title = The Encyclopedia of Chicago | editor = Edited by James R. Grossman, Ann Durkin Keating, Janice L. Reiff. | publisher = University of Chicago Press | id = ISBN 0226310159 }} * [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ ''The Encyclopedia of Chicago (online version)''] *{{cite book | first = Donald L. | last = Miller | year = 1996 | month = April | title = City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America | publisher = Simon &amp; Schuster | id = ISBN 0684801949 }} ==External links== {{Spoken Wikipedia|Chicago.ogg|2005-07-22}} {{sisterlinks|Chicago}} {{portal|Chicago}} *[http://www.cityofchicago.org/ Official City Website] *[http://www.chicagotraveler.com/ Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau] *[http://www.chicagolandchamber.org/ Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce] *[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ Encyclopedia of Chicago] *[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/658.html The Italian Community of Chicago] *[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/982.html The Polish Community of Chicago] *[http://www.schwabenverein.org/history.htm The German-American Community of Chicago] *[http://www.bh.org.il/Communities/Archive/chicago.asp The Jewish Community of Chicago] *[http://www.chipublib.org/004chicago/chihist.html Historical Information About Chicago] *[http://www.areachicago.com AREA Chicago Art/Education/Activism Publication] {{Chicago}} {{Chicagoland}} &lt;br&gt; {{USLargestCities}} [[Category:Chicago, Illinois| ]] [[Category:Communities on U.S. Highway 66]] [[ar:شيكاغو]] [[bg:Чикаго]] [[bs:Chicago]] [[ca:Chicago]] [[cs:Chicago]] [[cy:Chicago]] [[da:Chicago]] [[de:Chicago]] [[et:Chicago]] [[es:Chicago]] [[eo:Ĉikago]] [[fr:Chicago]] [[gl:Chicago]] [[ko:시카고]] [[hr:Chicago]] [[id:Chicago]] [[it:Chicago]] [[he:שיקגו]] [[ka:ჩიკაგო]] [[la:Sicagum]] [[lt:Čikaga]] [[nl:Chicago]] [[ja:シカゴ]] [[no:Chicago]] [[pl:Chicago]] [[pt:Chicago]] [[ro:Chicago]] [[ru:Чикаго]] [[sq:Chicago]] [[simple:Chicago, Illinois]] [[sk:Chicago]] [[sr:Чикаго]] [[fi:Chicago]] [[sv:Chicago]] [[th:ชิคาโก]] [[uk:Чікаґо]] [[zh:芝加哥]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyrix 6x86</title> <id>6887</id> <revision> <id>35326317</id> <timestamp>2006-01-15T23:12:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Morkork</username> <id>158129</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cyrix 6x86L-PR200plusGP top.jpg|thumb|A Cyrix 6x86 Processor]] [[Image:Cy6x86_arch.png|300px|thumb|The Cyrix 6x86 architecture.]] The '''Cyrix 6x86''' is a sixth-generation, [[32-bit]] [[80x86]]-compatible [[microprocessor]] designed by [[Cyrix]] and manufactured by [[International Business Machines|IBM]] and SGS-Thomson. The 6x86 combines aspects of both [[RISC]] and [[CISC]]. It has a [[superscalar]], [[superpipelined]] core, and performs [[register renaming]], [[speculative execution]], [[out-of-order completion]], and [[data dependency removal]]. It has a 16-[[kilobyte]] primary [[CPU cache|cache]] and is socket-compatible with the [[Intel Pentium P54C]]. It was also unique in that it was the only [[x86]] design to incorporate a 256-byte ''Level 0'' scratchpad cache. It has six performance levels: PR 90+, PR 120+, PR 133+, PR 150+, PR 166+ and PR 200+. These performance levels do not map to the clock speed of the chip itself (for example, a PR 133+ ran at 110MHz, a PR 166+ ran at 133MHz, etc). The 6x86L was later released by [[Cyrix]] to address heat issues; the ''L'' standing for ''low-power''. The architecture of the 6x86 is more advanced than that of the [[Intel Pentium]], incorporating some of the features of the [[Intel Pentium Pro]] but for [[Socket 7]]. At a given clock rate it executes most code more quickly than a Pentium would. However, its [[FPU]] is considerably less efficient than Intel's. Note that the 6x86 and 6x86L weren't completely compatible with the [[Intel Pentium]] instruction set. It is for this reason that by default the chip identified itself as a [[486]] and disabled the CPUID instruction. CPUID support could be enabled by first enabling extended CCR registers then setting bit 7 in CCR4. A later release of the 6x86, the '''6x86MX''', added [[MMX]] compatibility and quadrupled the primary cache size to 64 kilobytes. ==External links== *[http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&amp;l1=Cyrix&amp;l2=6x86 cpu-collection.de] Cyrix 6x86 processor images and descriptions {{FOLDOC}} [[Category:x86 microprocessors|Cyrix 686]] [[fi:Cyrix 6x86]] [[zh:Cyrix 6x86]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Colon classification</title> <id>6888</id> <revision> <id>38594211</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T09:32:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.83.76.99</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Classes */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Colon classification''' ('''CC''') is a system of [[library classification]] developed by [[S. R. Ranganathan]]. It was the first ever [[Faceted classification|faceted]] (or analytico-synthetic) [[classification]]. It is especially used in [[library|libraries]] in [[India]]. Its name &quot;Colon classification&quot; comes from the use of [[Colon (punctuation)|colons]] to separate facets in class numbers. However, many other classification schemes, some of which are completely unrelated, also use colons and other [[punctuation]] in various functions. They should not be confused with Colon classification. As an example, the subject &quot;research in the cure of tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950&quot; results in a call number :L,45;421:6;253:f.44'N5 The components of this call number represent :Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India'1950 == Organization == The Colon Classification uses 42 main classes that are combined with other letters, numbers and marks in a manner reminiscent of the [[Library of Congress Classification]] to sort a publication. === Facets === CC uses five primary categories, or facets to further specify the sorting of a publication collectively called 'PMEST'. : , personali
ed for forty years over the rest of the kingdom, and transmitted the crown to her descendants. At one point in the next century, the last of Yodit's successors were overthrown by an [[Agaw]] lord named [[Mara Takla Haymanot]], who founded the [[Zagwe dynasty]] and married a female descendant of Axumite monarchs (&quot;son-in-law&quot;) or previous ruler. One of the highlight stages of this dynasty was the reign of [[Gebra Maskal Lalibela]], in whose reign the stone churches of [[Lalibela]] were carved. In about [[1270]], a new dynasty established the Abyssinian highlands as their realm in person of [[Yekuno Amlak]] who deposed the last of the Zagwe kings and married one of their daughters. According to legends the new dynasty were male-line descendants of Axumite monarchs, now recognized as the continuing [[Solomonid dynasty]] (the kingdom being thus restored to the biblical royal house). ==Portuguese Influence== Under the [[Solomonid dynasty]], the [[Subdivisions of Ethiopia|chief provinces]] became [[Tigray]] (northern), [[Amhara]] (central) and [[Shewa]] (southern). The seat of government, or rather of overlordship, has usually been in Amhara or Shewa, the ruler of which, calling himself ''[[Emperor of Ethiopia|{{IPA|nəgusä nägäst}}]]'' (king of kings, or [[emperor]]), has exacted tribute, when he could, from the other provinces. The title of ''{{IPA|nəgusä nägäst}}'' has been to a considerable extent based on the blood in the veins of the claimant. All the emperors have based their claims on their direct descent from Solomon and the queen of Sheba; but it is needless to say that in many, if not in most, cases their success has been due more to the force of their arms than to the purity of their [[lineage]]. Towards the close of the [[15th century]] the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] missions into Ethiopia began. A belief had long prevailed in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the far east, whose monarch was known as [[Prester John]], and various expeditions had been sent in quest of it. Among others who had engaged in this search was [[Pedro de Covilham]], who arrived in Ethiopia in [[1490]], and, believing that he had at length reached the far-famed kingdom, presented to the ''negus'', or emperor of the country, a letter from his master the [[king of Portugal]], addressed to Prester John. Covilham remained in the country, but in [[1507]] an Armenian named Matthew was sent by the Emperor to the king of [[Portugal]] to request his aid against the Muslims. In [[1520]] a Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered the [[Red Sea]] in compliance with this request, and an embassy from the fleet visited the Emperor, [[Dawit II of Ethiopia|Lebna Dengel]], and remained in Ethiopia for about six years. One of this embassy was Father [[Francisco Alvarez]], who wrote one of the earliest and not the least interesting account of the country. Between 1528 and 1540 armies of Muslims, under the renowned general [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]], entered Ethiopia from the low country to the south-east, and overran the kingdom, obliging the emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses. In this extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese. [[John Bermudez]], a subordinate member of the mission of 1520, who had remained in the country after the departure of the embassy, was, according to his own statement (which is untrustworthy), ordained successor to the ''[[Abuna]]'' (archbishop), and sent to Lisbon. Bermudez certainly came to Europe, but with what credentials is not known. Be that as it may, a Portuguese fleet, under the command of [[Christovão da Gama]], was sent from [[India]] and arrived at [[Massawa]] in February [[1541]]. Here he received an ambassador from the Emperor beseeching him to send help against the Moslems, and in the July following a force of 400 musketeers, under the command of Christovão da Gama, younger brother of the admiral, marched into the interior, and being joined by native troops were at first successful against the enemy; but they were subsequently defeated at the [[Battle of Wofla]] ([[28 August]] [[1542]]), and their commander captured and executed. On [[February 21]], [[1543]], however, Ahmad was shot and killed in the [[Battle of Wayna Daga]] and his forces totally routed. After this, quarrels arose between the Emperor and Bermudez, who had returned to Ethiopia with da Gama and who now wished the emperor publicly to profess himself a convert to Rome. This the Emperor refused to do, and at length Bermudez was obliged to make his way out of the country. The [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] who had accompanied or followed the da Gama expedition into Ethiopia, and fixed their headquarters at [[Fremona]] (near [[Adowa]]), were oppressed and neglected, but not actually expelled. In the beginning of the 17th century Father [[Pedro Páez]] arrived at Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, who soon rose into high favour at court, and gained over the emperor to his faith. He directed the erection of churches, palaces and bridges in different parts of the country, and carried out many useful works. His successor [[Alfonso Mendez]] was a man of much less conciliatory manners, and the feelings of the people became strongly excited against the intruders, till at length, on the death of Emperor [[Sissinios of Ethiopia|Sissinios]], and the accession of his son [[Fasilidos of Ethiopia|Fasilidos]] in [[1633]], the Jesuits were expelled. ==The Period of the Princes== This era was, on one hand, a religious conlict between settling Muslims and traditional Christians, between nationalities they represented, and on the other hand between feudal lords on power over the central government. Two phases can be distinguished: 1706-69 and 1769-1855. Some historians date the murder of [[Iyasu I]], and the resultant decline in the prestige of the dynasty, as the beginning of the Ethiopian [[Zemene Mesafint]] or &quot;Era of the Princes&quot; (a time of disorder when the power of the monarchy was eclipsed by the power of local warlords). Nobles became to utilize their positions in making emperors, and rather soon started to enroach into the direct succession of the dynasty, by candidates among the nobility itself: e.g on the death of [[Tewoflos of Ethiopia|Emperor Tewoflos]], the chief nobles of Ethiopia feared that the cycle of vengeance that had characterized the reigns of Tewoflos and [[Tekle Haymanot I of Ethiopia|Tekle Haymanot I]] would continue if a member of the [[Solomonid dynasty]] were picked for the throne, so they selected one of their own, [[Yostos of Ethiopia|Yostos]] to be ''negusa nagast'' - however his tenure was brief. Emperors faced many challehges to their authority. They tended to insulate in the capital of [[Gondar]]. The imperial coffers ran rather empty, the emperors lacked resources to maintain effective government. Iyasu II asecended the throne as a child. His mother, Empress Mentewab played a major role in Iyasu's reign, as well as in that of her grandson [[Iyoas I of Ethiopia|Iyoas]] too. Mentewab had herself crowned as co-ruler, becoming the first woman to be crowned in this manner in Ethiopian history. Empress Mentewab was crowned co-ruler upon the succession of her son (a first for a woman in Ethiopia) in 1730, and held unprecedented power over government during his reign. Her attempt to continue in this role following the death of her son 1755 led her into conflict with Wubit (Welete Bersabe), his widow, who believed that it was her turn to preside at the court of her own son Iyoas. The conflict between these two queens led to Mentewab summoning her Kwaran relatives and their forces to Gondar to support her. Wubit responded by summoning her own [[Oromo]] relatives and their considerable forces from [[Yejju]]. The treaure of the Empire being attestedly penniless on the death of Iyasu, it suffered further from ethnic conflict between nationalities that been part of the Empire for hundreds of years -- the [[Agaw]], [[Amhara]]ns, [[Shewa|Showans]], and [[Tigrean]]s -- and the [[Oromo]] newcomers. Mentewab's attempt to strengthen ties between the monarchy and the Oromo by arranging the marriage of her son to the daughter of an Oromo chieftain backfired in the long run. Iyasu II gave precedence to his mother and allowed her every prerogative as a crowned co-ruler, while his wife Wubit suffered in obscurity. Wubit waited for the accession of her own son to make a bid for the power wielded for so long by Mentewab and her relatives from [[Qwara]]. When Iyoas assumed the throne upon his father's sudden death, the aristocrats of Gondar were stunned to find that he more readily spoke in the Oromo language rather than in [[Amharic]], and tended to favor his mother's Yejju relatives over the Qwarans of his grandmothers family. Iyoas further increased the favor given to the Oromo when adult. On the death of the Ras of Amhara region, he attempted to promote his uncle Lubo governor of that province, but the outcry led his advisor [[Walda Nul]] to convince him to change his mind. It is believed that the power struggle between the Qwarans led by the Empress Mentewab, and the Yejju Oromos led by the Emperor's mother Wubit was about to erupt into an armed conflict. Ras [[Mikael Sehul]] was summoned to mediate between the two camps. He arrived and shrewdly maneuvered to sideline the two queens and their supporters making a bid for power for himself. Mikael settled soon as the leader of Amharic-Tigrean (Christian) camp of the struggle. The reign of Iyaos' reign becomes a narrative of the struggle between the powerful Ras Mikael Sehul and the Oromo relatives of Iyoas. As Iyoas increasingly favored Oromo leaders like [[Fasil of Damot|Fasil]], his relations with Mikael Sehul deteriorated. Eventually Mikael Sehul deposed the Emperor Iyoas (7 May, 1769). One week later, Mikael Sehul had him killed; although the details of his death are contradict
however, since it leads to confusion with the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]''. He was &quot;a [[soldier]] and a [[Greek people|Greek]]&quot; he tells us, and his enrollment among the elite ''protectores domestici'' (household guards) shows that he was of noble birth. He entered the army at an early age, when [[Constantius II]] was emperor of the East, and was sent to serve under [[Ursicinus]], governor of [[Nisibis]] in [[Roman Mesopotamia]], and ''magister militiae.'' He returned to Italy with Ursicinus, when he was recalled by Constantius, and accompanied him on the expedition against [[Silvanus the Frank]], who had been forced by the unjust accusations of his enemies into proclaiming himself emperor in [[Gaul]]. With Ursicinus he went twice to the East, and barely escaped with his life from Amida or Amid (modern [[Diyarbakir]]), when it was taken by the Persian king [[Shapur II of Persia|Shapur II]]. When Ursicinus lost his office and the favour of Constantius, Ammianus seems to have shared his downfall; but under [[Julian the Apostate]], Constantius's successor, he regained his position. He accompanied this emperor, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the [[Alamanni]] and the [[Sassanid dynasty|Persians]]; after his death he took part in the retreat of [[Jovian]] as far as Antioch, where he was residing when the conspiracy of [[Theodorus]] ([[371]]) was discovered and cruelly put down. Eventually he settled in Rome, where, at an advanced age, he wrote (in Latin) a history of the Roman empire from the accession of [[Nerva]] ([[96]]) to the death of [[Valens]] at the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]] ([[378]]), thus forming a continuation of the work of [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]]. This history (''Res Gestae Libri XXXI'') was originally in thirty-one books, but the first thirteen are lost. The surviving eighteen books cover the period from [[353]] to 378. As a whole it has been considered extremely valuable, being a clear, comprehensive and impartial account of events by a contemporary of soldierly honesty, independent judgement and wide reading. Recent studies have, however, shown the [[rhetoric]]al power in his histories. Like all ancient historians, he did not even attempt to produce a history in the modern style: he had a strong political and pagan religious agenda to pursue, and he contrasted Constantius II with Julian to the former's constant disadvantage. [[Edward Gibbon]] judged Ammianus as &quot;an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary.&quot; Ammianus was a [[paganism|pagan]], and when he marginalises [[Christianity]] repeatedly in his account, we are reminded that making Christianity the state religion did not make all Romans Christians. His style is generally harsh, often pompous and extremely obscure, occasionally even journalistic in tone, but the author's foreign origin and his military life and training partially explain this. Further, the work being intended for public recitation, some rhetorical embellishment was necessary, even at the cost of simplicity. It is a striking fact that Ammianus, though a professional soldier, gives excellent pictures of social and economic problems, and in his attitude to the non-Roman peoples of the empire he is far more broad-minded than writers like [[Livy]] and Tacitus; his digressions on the various countries he had visited are particularly interesting. In his description of the Empire &amp;mdash;the exhaustion produced by excessive taxation, the financial ruin of the middle classes, the progressive decline in the morale of the army&amp;mdash; we find the explanation of its fall before the [[Goths]] twenty years after his death. ==Reference== Latin text and facing English translation commonly available in the [[Loeb Classical Library]], 1935&amp;#8209;1940 with many reprintings. ==External links== *[http://odur.let.rug.nl/~drijvers/ammianus/index.htm Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project] *[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ammianus.html Ammianus Marcellinus' works] in Latin at the Latin Library ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Roman era historians]] [[Category:Late Antique writers]] [[Category:Ancient Roman soldiers]] [[bg:Амиан Марцелин]] [[de:Ammianus Marcellinus]] [[es:Amiano Marcelino]] [[fr:Ammien Marcellin]] [[gl:Ammiano Marcelino]] [[it:Ammiano Marcellino]] [[hu:Ammianus Marcellinus]] [[nl:Ammianus Marcellinus]] [[pl:Ammianus Marcellinus]] [[pt:Ammiano Marcellino]] [[ru:Аммиан Марцеллин]] [[fi:Ammianus Marcellinus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ALICE</title> <id>1768</id> <revision> <id>41144813</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T09:01:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.58.14.205</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''ALICE''' may stand for: *[[A Large Ion Collider Experiment]], a high energy heavy ion- and particle physics experiment at the European Center for Nuclear Research CERN's Large Hadron Collider LHC *[[All-purpose Lightweight Individual Carrying Equipment]], a package of load-bearing equipment utilized by the United States Armed Forces *[[Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity]], a natural language processing chatterbot ==See also== *[[Alice]] {{disambig}} [[Category:5-letter acronyms]] [[pl:ALICE]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding/Text</title> <id>1769</id> <revision> <id>15900234</id> <timestamp>2002-06-21T23:53:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>no need to have this in a separate subspace any more</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apollo 13</title> <id>1770</id> <revision> <id>42105272</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:34:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>No overlap visible here. If it persists on other borwsers insert {{subst:clear}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Moon mission. There is also a ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|''film by the name of ''Apollo 13]]''.'' {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 20em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; clear: right;&quot; |+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 13'''&lt;/font&gt; |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;9&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Ap13.jpg|200px|Apollo 13 insignia]] |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 13 |- |'''Call sign:'''||Command module: ''Odyssey''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module: ''Aquarius'' |- |'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[April 11]], [[1970]]&lt;br /&gt;19:13:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A |- |'''Lunar flyby:&lt;br /&gt;(Pericynthion)'''||[[April 15]], [[1970]]&lt;br /&gt;00:21:00 UTC&lt;br /&gt;254.3 km from Moon&lt;br /&gt;400,171 km from Earth |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[April 17]], [[1970]]&lt;br /&gt;18:07:41 UTC&lt;br /&gt;21° 38' 24&quot; S - 165° 21' 42&quot; W |- |'''Duration:'''||5 d 22 h 54 min 41 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,945 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 15,235 kg |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture |- |colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001167.jpg|300px|Apollo 13 crew portrait (L-R: Lovell, Swigert, and Haise)]]&lt;br/&gt;Apollo 13 crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Lovell, Swigert, and Haise) |- !colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 13 Crew |} '''Apollo 13''' was an [[United States|American]] space mission, part of the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]]. It was intended to be the third mission to land on the [[Moon]], but instead is famous for the critical malfunction it suffered and its difficult but successful return home. ==Crew== *[[James A. Lovell]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 7]]'', ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''[[Apollo 8]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 13''), commander *[[Jack Swigert]] (flew on ''Apollo 13''), command module pilot *[[Fred Haise]] (flew on ''Apollo 13''), lunar module pilot *[[Ken Mattingly]] was originally slated to be command module pilot, but he was removed from the flight three days before launch after being exposed to [[German Measles]]. He later flew as command module pilot on [[Apollo 16]]. ===Backup crew=== *[[John W. Young|John Young]], commander *[[Jack Swigert]], command module pilot *[[Charles Duke]], lunar module pilot ===Support crew=== *[[Vance Brand]] (flew on [[Apollo-Soyuz]], [[STS-5]], [[STS-41-B]], and [[STS-51]]) *[[Jack Lousma]] (flew on [[Skylab 3]] and [[STS-3]]) *[[William Pogue|Bill Pogue]] (flew on [[Skylab 4]]) *[[Joseph P. Kerwin|Joe Kerwin]] (flew on [[Skylab 2]]) ==Mission parameters== *'''[[Mass]]:''' CM 28,945 kg; LM 15,235 kg *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 181.5 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 185.6 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 33.5° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.07 min ===Oxygen tank explosion=== *[[April 14]], [[1970]], 03:08:53.555 UTC ** 321,860 km from earth. ===Closest approach to Moon=== *[[April 15]], [[1970]], 00:21:00 UTC ** 254.3 km above far side of Moon; ** 400,171 km from Earth (possibly a record distance, see below). ===See also=== * [[Splashdown (spacecraft landing)|Splashdown
al-news/observations/conspiracy-theory-definition-20060106132 Conspiracy Theories Overview] * [http://www.geocities.com/johnfkosanke/occult.htm The Occult Technology of Power] The mechanics of institutionalized conspiracy * [http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1116/p09s01-coop.htm On the hunt for a conspiracy theory], ''CS Monitor'' article * [http://www.clydelewis.com Ground Zero with Clyde Lewis] * [http://www.conspiracyarchive.com Conspiracy Archive] * [http://www.conspiracybomb.com/azconspiracy.htm The A-Z of Conspiracy Theories] * [http://www.globalresearch.ca/ Centre for Research on Globalization] * [http://www.davidicke.com/icke/temp/reptconn.html The Reptilian Connection &amp;mdash; David Icke] * [http://www.alternet.org/story.html?StoryID=14873 Top Ten Conspiracy Theories of 2002], from AlterNet. *[http://www.threeworldwars.com/intro.htm An Introduction to Conspiratorial History] * Hutchinson, Martin, &quot;'' [http://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=20031006-060121-9328r The Bear's Lair: The new Cold War]''&quot;, [[UPI]] * [http://verschwoerungen.info/wiki/Liste_der_Essays Essays about Conspiration theories (in German)] * [http://www.timboucher.com/journal/2005/07/24/an-integral-approach-to-conspiracy-theory/ An Integral Approach to Conspiracy Theory] * [http://verschwoerungen.info/wiki/Liste_der_Verschw%F6rungen Interesting collection of conspiracy theories (in German)] * [http://www.alienview.net/conspire.html Sociopathy &amp; Conspiracy] (...Conspiracy Likely As A Result Of Sociopathy?) * [http://www.lobster-magazine.co.uk/articles/l29consp.htm 'Conspiracy Theories' and Clandestine Politics] by Jeffrey M. Bale in ''Lobster Magazine'' * [http://fnord.wikicities.com/ The Conspiracy Wiki] ===Links critical of conspiracism=== *&amp;lsquo;[http://www.nationalism.org/patranoia/hofstadter-paranoid-style.htm The Paranoid Style in American Politics]&amp;rsquo; [[Richard Hofstadter]], &lt;cite&gt;Harper's&lt;/cite&gt; [[1964]] November * [http://skepdic.com/illuminati.html Skeptic's Dictionary on conspiracy theories] * [http://www.conspiracy-theories-hoax.com/ Popular Conspiracy Theories] (Balanced but skeptical view of popular conspiracy theories) * [http://www.publiceye.org/tooclose/conspiracism.html The Dynamics of Conspiracism] (site critical of conspiracy theories that scapegoat) * [http://www.amirbutler.com/archives/2002/11/15/12 Amir Butler: Our Credibility Problem is a Conspiracy] (A discussion of the spread of conspiracy theories in the Muslim community) [[Category:Conspiracy theories| {{PAGENAME}}]] {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|it}} [[ar:نظرية المؤامرة]] [[da:Konspirationsteori]] [[de:Verschwörungstheorie]] [[et:Vandenõuteooria]] [[el:Θεωρία συνωμοσίας]] [[es:Teoría de la conspiración]] [[eo:Konspira teorio]] [[fr:Théorie du complot]] [[ko:음모론]] [[it:Teoria del complotto]] [[he:תאוריית קשר]] [[hu:Összeesküvés-elmélet]] [[nl:Complottheorie]] [[ja:陰謀論]] [[pl:Teoria spiskowa]] [[pt:Teoria da conspiração]] [[ru:Теория заговора]] [[fi:Salaliittoteoria]] [[sv:Konspirationsteori]] [[zh:陰謀論]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cook Island</title> <id>5531</id> <revision> <id>40210800</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:59:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kevin Ryde</username> <id>564285</id> </contributor> <comment>add [[Cook Islands]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cook Island''' may refer to, * [[Cook Island, South Sandwich Islands]], central island in Southern Thule * [[Cook Island, New South Wales]], small rocky island in Australia See also, * [[Cook Islands]], self governing democracy in the Pacific, associated with New Zealand All three of the above are named after [[Captain James Cook]]. {{geodis}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cook Island/History</title> <id>5532</id> <revision> <id>40079570</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T23:57:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joturner</username> <id>153365</id> </contributor> <comment>revert to last version</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the Cook Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cook Island/Geography</title> <id>5533</id> <revision> <id>15903737</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T09:18:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Geography of the Cook Islands]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of the Cook Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cook Island/People</title> <id>5534</id> <revision> <id>15903738</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T16:00:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of the Cook_Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cook Island/Government</title> <id>5535</id> <revision> <id>15903739</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T14:42:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of the Cook Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cook Island/Economy</title> <id>5536</id> <revision> <id>15903740</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T14:57:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of the Cook Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cook Island/Communications</title> <id>5537</id> <revision> <id>15903741</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T14:57:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ap</username> <id>122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixing double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in the Cook Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cook Island/Transportation</title> <id>5538</id> <revision> <id>15903742</id> <timestamp>2005-02-25T08:12:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jguk</username> <id>145867</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in the Cook Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coral Sea Islands</title> <id>5541</id> <revision> <id>41285764</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:43:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BrightLights</username> <id>815580</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Aust article: kilometers changed to kilometres</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}} [[Image:Coral_Sea_Islands.gif|right|Map of the Coral Sea Islands]] The '''Coral Sea Islands Territory''' includes a group of small tropical islands and reefs in the [[Coral Sea]], northeast of [[Queensland]], [[Australia]], around {{coor d|18|S|152|E|}}. There are about 30 separate [[reef]]s and [[atoll]]s, 12 of them wholly submerged or drying only during low tide, and 18 others with a total of about 51 islets and [[cay]]s (18 alone on the atoll [[Lihou Reef and Cays]]), some of which are vegetated. The atolls exhibit a wide range of size, from a few kilometres in diameter to perhaps the second largest atoll in the world by total area (including [[lagoon]]): '''Lihou Reef''', with a lagoon size of 100 by 30 km and an area of 2,500 km², which compares to a combined land area of the 18 individual islets of only 0.91 km². The islands are all very low. The territory's [[FIPS 10-4]] code is CR, whereas [[ISO 3166]] includes it in Australia (AU). The atolls are scattered over a sea area of about 1 million km². The [[Willis Islets]] (Willis Group) are important nesting areas for birds and turtles, but their natural resources are negligible. They comprise less than three square kilometres of land. There is no port or harbour, only offshore anchorage. The territory was created in [[1969]] by the Coral Sea Islands Act (before, the area was considered part of Queensland) and extended in [[1997]] to include '''Middleton Reef''' and '''Elizabeth Reef''' nearly 800 km further South, already in the [[Tasman Sea]]. The two latter reefs are indeed much closer to [[Lord Howe Island]], [[New South Wales]] (about 150 km) than to the southernmost island of the rest of the territory, Cato Island. The islands, cays and reefs of the [[Great Barrier Reef]] are not part of the territory, belonging to Queensland instead. The outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef is the boundary between Queensland and the Coral Sea Islands Territory. The territory is a possession of [[Australia]], administered from [[Canberra]] by the Australian Department of the Environment, which has control over the activities of visitors. Defence is the responsibility of Australia, and the territory is visited regularly by the [[Royal Australian Navy]]. Australia maintains automatic weather stations on many of the isles and reefs, and claims a 200 [[nautical mile]] (370 km) exclusive [[fishing]] zone. There is no economic activity, and only a staff of three or four people to run the meteorological station on '''Willis Island''' (South Islet), established in [[1921]]. However, a group of gay activists have settled on Cato Island and claimed the islands as a sovereign gay territory. Automatic, unmanned weather stations are located on following reefs or atolls: *Bougainville Reef *Cato Island *Flinders Reef (Flinders Coral Cay) *Frederick Reef *Holmes Reef *Lihou Reef (Turtle Islet) *Ma
g car]]. The great distances transversed by railways had meant stopping for the night at hotels and inns by the railside, so that passengers could rest. The sleeping car sped up travel and helped Americans settle the American west. The investment proved a great success and a source of great fortune for Woodruff and Carnegie. The young Carnegie, who started work at an early age as a [[bobbin boy]] in a [[cotton]] mill, and, who was, a few years later, engaged as a [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] clerk and operator with the [[Atlantic and Ohio Company]], now became the superintendent of the western division of the entire line. In this post, Carnegie was responsible for several improvements in the service. When the [[American Civil War]] opened in 1861, he accompanied Scott, then [[Assistant United States Secretary of War]], to the front. Following his good fortune, Carnegie proceeded to increase it still further through fortunate and careful investments. In 1864, Carnegie invested the sum of $40,000 in Storey Farm on [[Venango County, Pennsylvania|Oil Creek, in Venango County, Pennsylvania]]. In one year, the farm yielded over $1,000,000 in cash dividends, and oil from [[oil well]]s on the property sold profitably. Carnegie was subsequently associated with others in establishing a [[steel]] [[rolling mill]]. Aside from Carnegie's investment successes, he was beginning to figure prominently in the American cause and in American culture. With the Civil War raging, Carnegie soon found himself in Washington. Carnegie was selected by his boss at the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, Thomas A. Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, to join him in Washington. Carnegie was appointed Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East and was Scott's right hand man. Carnegie, himself, was on the foot plate of the locomotive that pulled the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington. Shortly after this, following the defeat of Union forces at Bull Run, he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces. Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory. During his work &quot;in the field&quot;, Carnegie fell ill and needed treatment for sunstroke. The Civil War, as so many wars before it, brought boom times to the suppliers of war. The U.S. iron industry was one such. Before the war its production was of little significance, but the sudden huge demand brought boom times to Pittsburgh and similar cities and great wealth to the iron masters. Carnegie had some investments in this industry before the war and, after the war, left the railroads to devote all his energies to the ironworks trade. Carnegie worked to develop several iron works, eventually forming The Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he did not totally sever his links with the railroads. These links would prove valuable. The Keystone Bridge Company made iron train bridges, and, as company superintendent, Carnegie had noticed the weakness of the traditional wooden structures. These were replaced in large numbers with iron bridges made in his works. As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. He was invited to many important social functions, functions that Carnegie exploited to his own advantage and to the fullest extent. Carnegie’s philanthropic inclinations began some time before retirement. He wrote; &quot;I propose to take an income no greater than $50,000 per annum! Beyond this I need ever earn, make no effort to increase my fortune, but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes! Let us cast aside business forever, except for others. Let us settle in Oxford and I shall get a thorough education, making the acquaintance of literary men. I figure that this will take three years active work. I shall pay especial attention to speaking in public. We can settle in London and I can purchase a controlling interest in some newspaper or live review and give the general management of it attention, taking part in public matters, especially those connected with education and improvement of the poorer classes. Man must have an idol and the amassing of wealth is one of the worst species of idolatry! No idol is more debasing than the worship of money! Whatever I engage in I must push inordinately; therefore should I be careful to choose that life which will be the most elevating in its character. To continue much longer overwhelmed by business cares and with most of my thoughts wholly upon the way to make more money in the shortest time, must degrade me beyond hope of permanent recovery. I will resign business at thirty-five, but during these ensuing two years I wish to spend the afternoons in receiving instruction and in reading systematically!&quot; Carnegie postponed most of his philanthropic intentions to &quot;proper old age&quot;. ===Postwar years, 1865-1880: Carnegie the investor=== In the late 1860’s and into the 1870s, Carnegie was &quot;out and about and all over the place&quot;. Carnegie now had new investments aside from the iron venture, the [[Keystone Bridge Company]]. Carnegie had added to his investments in Pennsylvania oil investments in [[Texas]], which earned him a small fortune, and, after the war, undertook several trips to [[Europe]] selling railroad securities on a commission basis for, among others, the London firm of [[Junius S. Morgan &amp; Company]]. The last of these trips was in 1872, the commission earned being $150,000. Andrew Carnegie's multiple successes in bond selling, oil trading, and bridge building were so rapidly successful that the conservative Pittsburgh business community regarded him with a certain circumspection. It was during these trips to Europe and to Britain, in particular, that Carnegie came into contact with British steel makers, then the world leaders. He obtained a working knowledge of the [[Bessemer process]] of steel making and became a friend of its inventor, Sir [[Henry Bessemer]]. In 1868, he introduced the Bessemer steel making process into the U.S.A. and, in 1873, decided on a now famous gamble. He decided to &quot;put all his eggs in one basket, and then watch the basket.&quot; That year he staked all his wealth on steel making. His fellow Americans did not realize it at the time, but the day Carnegie decided to take this gamble was the day the eventual industrial supremacy of the U.S. became certain. It took Andrew Carnegie only a matter of a few years to become the principal owner of the [[Homestead &amp; Edgar Thompson Steel Works]], and only a short time more to be heading the firms of [[Carnegie, Phipps &amp; Company]] and[[ Carnegie Bros. &amp; Company]], as well. ===1880-1890: Carnegie the scholar and activist=== Whilst Carnegie continued his business career, some of his literary intentions were fulfilled. During this time, he made many friends in the literary and political worlds. Among these were such as [[Malcolm Arnold]] and [[Herbert Spencer]] as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the U.S. Presidents, statesmen, and notable writers of the time. Many were visitors to the Carnegie home. Carnegie greatly admired [[Herbert Spencer]], the polymath who seemed to know everything. He did not, however, agree with Spencer's [[Social Darwinism]] which held that philanthropy was a bad idea. In 1881, Andrew Carnegie took his family, which included his mother, then aged 70, on a trip to Great Britain. They toured the sights of [[England]] and [[Scotland]] by coach having several receptions en-route. The highlight for them all was a triumphal return to Dunfermline where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of the &quot;Carnegie Library&quot;. Andrew Carnegie's criticism of British society did not point to a dislike of the country of his birth, on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a catalyst for a close association between the English speaking peoples. To this end, he purchased, in the first part of the 1880's, a number of newspapers in England, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of &quot;the British Republic&quot;. Surprisingly, Carnegie's charm aided by his great wealth meant that he had many British friends, including [[Prime Minister]] [[William Ewart Gladstone|Gladstone]]. In 1886, tragedy struck Carnegie when his young brother Thomas died at the early age of 43. Success in the business continued, however. At the same time as owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased, at low cost, the most valuable of the iron ore fields around Lake Superior. The same year Andrew Carnegie became a figure of controversy. Following his tour of Great Britain, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled, ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain''. Although still actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor of articles to numerous serious minded magazines, most notably the ''Nineteenth Century'', under the editorship of [[James Knowles]], and the ''North American Review'', whose editor, [[Lloyd Bryce]], oversaw the publication during its most influential period. That year, 1886, Carnegie penned his most radical work to date, entitled ''Triumphant Democracy''. The work, liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, was an attempt to argue his view that the American [[republic]]an system of government was superior to the British [[monarchy|monarchical]] system. It not only gave a overly-favourable and idealistic view of American progress, but made some considerable criticism of the British royal family. Most antagonistic, however, was the cover that depicted amongst other mot
''logos''. Examples include: * speech over writing * presence over absence * identity over difference * fullness over emptiness * meaning over meaninglessness * mastery over submission * life over death Derrida argues in ''Of Grammatology'' (translated by [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]] and published in English in [[1976]]) that, in each such case, the first term is classically conceived as original, authentic, and superior, while the second is thought of as secondary, derivative, or even &quot;parasitic.&quot; These binary oppositions, or &quot;violent hierarchies&quot;, and others of their form, he argues, must be deconstructed. This deconstruction is effected in stages. First, Derrida suggests, the opposition must be inverted, and the second, traditionally subordinate term must be privileged. He argues that these oppositions cannot be simply transcended; given the thousands of years of [[history of philosophy|philosophical history]] behind them, it would be disingenuous to attempt to move directly to a domain of thought beyond these distinctions. So deconstruction attempts to compensate for these historical power imbalances, undertaking the difficult project of thinking through the philosophical implications of reversing them. Only after this task is undertaken (if not completed, which may be impossible), Derrida argues, can philosophy begin to conceive a conceptual terrain ''outside'' these oppositions: the next project of deconstruction would be to develop concepts which fall under neither one term of these oppositions nor the other. Much of the philosophical work of deconstruction has been devoted to developing such ideas and their implications, of which ''différance'' may be the prototype (as it denotes neither simple identity nor simple difference). Derrida spoke in an interview (first published in French in [[1967]]) about such &quot;concepts,&quot; which he called merely &quot;marks&quot; in order to distinguish them from proper philosophical concepts: :...[I]t has been necessary to analyze, to set to work, ''within'' the text of the history of philosophy, as well as ''within'' the so-called literary text,..., certain marks, shall we say,... that ''by analogy'' (I underline) I have called undecidables, that is, unities of simulacrum, &quot;false&quot; verbal properties (nominal or semantic) that can no longer be included within philosophical (binary) opposition, resisting and disorganizing it, ''without ever'' constituting a third term, without ever leaving room for a solution in the form of speculative dialectics. (''Positions'', trans. Alan Bass, pp. 42-43) As can be seen in this discussion of its terms' undecidable, unresolvable complexity, deconstruction requires a high level of comfort with suspended, deferred decision; a deconstructive thinker must be willing to work with terms whose precise meaning has not been, and perhaps cannot be, established. (This is often given as a major reason for the difficult writing style of deconstructive texts.) Critics of deconstruction find this unacceptable as philosophy; many feel that, by working in this manner with unspecified terms, deconstruction ignores the primary task of philosophy, which they say is the creation and elucidation of concepts. This deep criticism is a result of a fundamental difference of opinion about the nature of [[philosophy]], and is unlikely to be resolved simply. ==Text and deconstruction== According to deconstructive readers, one of the phallogocentrisms of modernism is the distinction between speech (''[[logos]]'') and writing, with writing historically being thought of as derivative to ''logos''. As part of subverting the presumed dominance of ''logos'' over text, Derrida argued that the idea of a speech-writing dichotomy contains within it the idea of a very expansive view of textuality that subsumes both speech and writing. According to [[Jacques Derrida]], &quot;There is nothing outside of the text&quot; (Derrida, 1976, at 158). That is, text is thought of not merely as linear writing derived from speech, but any form of depiction, marking, or storage, including the marking of the human brain by the process of cognition or by the senses. In a sense, deconstruction is simply a way to read text (as broadly defined); any deconstruction has a text as its object and subject. This accounts for deconstruction's broad cross-disciplinary scope. Deconstruction has been applied to literature, art, architecture, science, mathematics, philosophy, and psychology, and any other disciplines that can be thought of as involving the act of marking. In deconstruction, text can be thought of as &quot;dead&quot;, in the sense that once the markings are made, the markings remain in suspended animation and do not change in themselves. Thus, what an author says about her text doesn't revive it, and is just another text commenting on the original, along with the commentary of others. In this view, when an author says, &quot;You have understood my work perfectly,&quot; this utterance constitutes an addition to the textual system, along with what the reader said was ''understood'' in and about the original text, and not a resuscitation of the original dead text. The reader has an opinion, the author has an opinion. Communication is possible ''not'' because the text has a transcendental signification, but because the brain tissue of the author contains similar &quot;markings&quot; as the brain tissue of the reader. These brain markings, however, are unstable and fragmentary... ==The terminology of deconstruction== Deconstruction makes use of a number of terms, many of which are coined or repurposed, that illustrate or follow the process of deconstruction. Among these words are ''différance'', ''trace'', ''écriture'', ''supplement'', ''hymen'', ''pharmakon'', ''slippage'', ''marge'', ''entame'', ''parergon'', ''text'', and ''same''. ===''Différance''=== ''Main Article: [[différance]]'' Against the [[metaphysics of presence]], deconstruction brings a (non)concept called ''différance''. This French neologism is, on the deconstructive argument, properly neither a word nor a concept; it names the non-coincidence of meaning both [[synchronicity|synchronically]] (one French homonym means &quot;differing&quot;) and [[diachronicity|diachronically]] (another French homonym means &quot;deferring&quot;). Because the resonance and conflict between these two French meanings is difficult to convey tersely in English, the word ''différance'' is usually left untranslated. In simple terms, this means that rather than privileging commonality and simplicity and seeking unifying principles (or grand [[teleology|teleological]] narratives, or overarching concepts, etc.) deconstruction emphasizes difference, complexity, and non-self-identity. A deconstructive reading of a text, or a deconstructive interpretation of philosophy (for deconstruction tends to elide any difference between the two), often seeks to demonstrate how a seemingly unitary idea or concept contains different or opposing meanings within itself. The elision of difference in philosophical concepts is even referred to in deconstruction as a kind of ''violence'', the idea being that theories' willful misdescription or simplification of reality always does violence to the true richness and complexity of the world. This criticism can be taken as a rejection of the philosophical [[law of excluded middle|law of the excluded middle]], arguing that the simple oppositions of [[Aristotelian logic]] force a false appearance of simplicity onto a recalcitrant world. Thus the perception of différance has two sides, both a ''deferment'' of final, unifying meaning in a unit of text (of whatever size, word or book), and a ''difference'' of meaning of the text upon every act of re-reading a work. Repetition, and the impossibility of final access to a text, of ever being at the text's &quot;ground zero&quot; so to speak, are emphasized, indefinitely leaving a text outside of the realm of the knowable in typical senses of &quot;mastery&quot;. A text can, obviously, be experienced, be read, be &quot;understood&quot; -- but that understanding, for all its deep feeling or lack of it, is marked by a quintessential provisionality that never denies the possibility of ''rereading''. Indeed it requires this. If the text is traditionally thought to be some perdurable sequence of symbols (letters) that go through time unchanged in the formal sense, différance moves the concept toward the realization that for all the perdurability of the text, experience of this structure is impossible and inconceivable outside of the realm of the unique instance, outside of the realm of perception. A text cannot read itself, therein lies the provisionality of différance. ===''Trace''=== The idea of ''différance'' also brings with it the idea of ''trace''. A trace is what a sign differs/defers from. It is the absent part of the sign's presence. In other words, through the act of ''différance'', a sign leaves behind a ''trace'', which is whatever is left over after everything ''present'' has been accounted for. According to Derrida, &quot;the trace itself does not exist&quot; (Derrida 1976, at 167)&quot;, because it is self-effacing. That is, &quot;[i]n presenting itself, it becomes effaced&quot; (Id. at 125.) Because all signifiers viewed as ''present'' in Western thought will necessarily contain traces of other (absent) signifiers, the signifier can be neither wholly present nor wholly absent. ===''Écriture''=== In deconstruction, the word ''écriture'' (usually translated as ''writing'' in English) is appropriated to refer not just to systems of graphic communication, but to all systems inhabited by ''différance''. A related term, called ''archi-écriture'', refers to the positive side of writing, or writing as an ultimate principle, rather than an a derivative of ''logos'' (speech). In other words, whereas the Western ''logos
roup than the [[Canaanites]] conquered by the Israelites) were temporarily displaced, but returned when the invading tribes showed no inclination to settle. The [[Egyptians]] called the horde that swept across Asia Minor and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] the [[Sea Peoples]]. The [[Philistines]] (whose traces disappear before the [[5th century BCE]]) are presently considered to have been among them, giving the name [[Philistia]] to the region in which they settled. For further discussion on the very early ethnic history of the region, see: * [[Canaan]] * [[Israelites]] * [[Philistines]] * [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]] Eventually, the Israelites established the [[Kingdom of Israel]], which later split between a northern Kingdom of Israel and a southern [[Kingdom of Judah]]. In [[722 BCE]], the northern [[Kingdom of Israel|Kingdom of Ephraim]] (commonly referred to as [[Israel]], sometimes as [[Samaria]]) was destroyed by the [[Assyria]]ns, the elite amongst its inhabitants were deported (giving rise to the legend of &quot;the [[Lost Tribes]]&quot;) and replaced by [[settler]]s from elsewhere in the [[Assyrian Empire]]. Many however fled to their southern [[Israelite]] sister kingdom, and many stayed behind; they (mixed with deportees from [[Mesopotamia]]) became the [[Samaritan]]s. The [[Babylonia]]n Empire under [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] conquered the (southern) [[Kingdom of Judah]] in [[597 BC|597]]-[[586 BCE]], and deported the middle and upper classes of the Jews to [[Babylonia]] in the [[Babylonian captivity]], where they flourished. Most regard the collapse of the Israelite kingdoms as the beginning of the [[Jewish diaspora]]. == Persian, Hellenistic and Roman periods == [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II of Persia]] conquered the Babylonian Empire by [[539 BCE]] and incorporated Palestine into the Persian Empire. Cyrus organized the empire into provincial administrations called [[satrap|satrapies]]. The administrators of these provinces, called ''satraps'', had considerable independence from the emperor. The Persians allowed Jews to return to the regions that the Bablyonians had exiled them from. The exiled Jews who returned to their traditional home encountered the Jews that had remained, surrounded by non-Jews. One group of note (that exists up until this day) were the [[Samaritans]], who adhered to most features of the Jewish rite and claimed to be descendants of the Assyrian Jews; they were not recognized as Jews by the returning exiles for various reasons (at least some of which seem to be political). The return of the exiles from Babylon reinforced the Jewish population, which gradually became more dominant and expanded significantly. [[Image:Map-alexander-empire.png|thumb|Map of Alexander's empire (1913 map)]] In the early [[330s BC|330s BCE]], [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the region, beginning an important period of Hellenestic influence in Palestine. After Alexander's death in [[323 BCE]], his empire was partitioned, and the competing [[Ptolemaic Empire|Ptolemaic]] and [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] Empires occupied various portions of the eastern Mediterranean, including different parts of Palestine. The Jews were divided between the [[Hellenism|Hellenists]] who supported the adoption of Greek culture, and those who believed in keeping to the traditions of the past, which resulted in the [[Maccabean revolt]] of the [[2nd century BCE]]. [[Image:Southeastern Roman Empire.PNG|right|thumb|The Roman province of Palestina]] Following the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquest in [[63 BCE]], the region that later became known as Palestine - first a client kingdom of the [[Roman Empire]], after year [[6]] CE [[Roman province]] [[Iudaea (Roman province)]], after year 135 province [[Syria Palaestina]] - was in nearly constant revolt (see [[Jewish-Roman Wars]]). A number of events with far-reaching consequences took place, including religious [[schisms]], such as [[Christianity]] branching off of [[Judaism]]. &lt;br&gt; The [[Great Jewish Revolt]] in [[66]]-[[73]] resulted in the [[destruction of Jerusalem|destruction of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem]] ([[70]]) and the sacking of the entire city by the Roman army led by [[Titus Flavius]] and the estimated death toll of 600,000 to 1,300,000 Jews (see [[Josephus Flavius]]). In 135, the crushing of [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]] by [[Hadrian]] resulted in 580,000 Jews killed (according to [[Cassius Dio]]) and the reestablishment of Jerusalem as the [[Paganism|pagan]] [[polis]] [[Aelia Capitolina]], in which Jews were forbidden to set foot. Hundreds of thousands were taken as [[Slavery|slave]]s throughout the Empire. The province was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]]. Over several centuries, the Diaspora grew even further. In addition to the large Jewish community in Babylon, large numbers of Jews settled in [[Egypt]], and in other parts of the [[Hellenistic]] world and in the [[Roman Empire]]. The frequent conflict contributed to Jewish emigration, both as refugees, through deportation, and by reducing economic opportunities in the region. It also led to many deaths among the Jewish population - deaths in battles with the Romans and others, deaths due to massacres, and deaths due to the famine and disease that so often accompany armed conflict. However, the Jewish population in the north of Palestine remained large for several centuries. == Byzantine Period== Palestine became part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] after the division of the Roman Empire into east and west (a fitful process that was not finalized until 395). Under Byzantine rule, the region became a center of [[Christianity]], while retaining significant [[Jewish]] and [[Samaritan]] communities (although the Samaritans were greatly reduced following [[Julianus ben Sabar]]'s revolt.) During a protracted conflict with the Byzantine Empire, the [[Sassanian Empire]] under [[Khosrau II]] briefly wrested control of the region from the Byzantines. An invasion of Mesopotamia by Byzantine Emperor [[Heraclius]] forced the Sassanians to withdraw. == Arab Califate Period == [[Image:Califate 750.jpg|thumb|The territory of the Caliphate in 750. (1926 map)]] After 634, Palestine, under the Arabic name ''Filastin'', became part of the newly established Islamic [[Caliphate]], ruled by the &quot;Rightly Guided&quot; caliphs, then the [[Umayyad]]s until they were overthrown by the [[Abbasid|Abbasids]] in 750. Over the following centuries it acquired a Muslim, Arabic-speaking majority, through conversion, [[language shift]] from Aramaic, and immigration. [[Image:Medieval_Arab_Palestine.jpg|thumb|left|Palestine as described by the medieval Arab geographers. (19th century map)]] In the 900s, the [[Fatimid]]s, a self-proclaimed Shia caliphate, took control. In the next century, [[Seljuk]] Turks invaded large portions of West Asia, including Asia Minor and Palestine. == Crusader Period == The proximate cause of the [[Crusades]], following 1095, by the Christian European powers was the desire to reconquer the birthland and [[holy land]] of Christianity, which had been lost to the Islamic Arab invasion of the byzantine roman empire in the 7th century. [[Image:Crusaderstates.jpeg|thumb|100px|Crusader states. (1911 map)]] The Christian forces established the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], which lasted from 1099 until 1291, though [[Saladin]] reconquered the city of Jerusalem in 1187. ==Mamluk Period == The [[Ayyubid]] Sultanate, founded by Saladin, controlled parts of the region until 1250, when it was defeated by the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] of Egypt. The Mamluk Sultanate ultimately became a vassal state of the [[Ottoman Empire]], in the wake of campaigns waged by [[Selim I]] in the 16th century. ==Ottoman Period== [[Image:Ottoman empire 1481-1683.jpg|left|thumb|Image:Ottoman empire 1481-1683. (1923 map)]] In 1516 the [[Ottoman Turk]]s occupied Palestine. The country became part of the Ottoman Empire. [[Constantinople]] appointed local governors. Public works, including the city walls, were rebuilt in [[Jerusalem]] by [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] in 1537. [[Napoleon]] of [[France]] briefly waged war against the Ottoman Empire (allied then with Great Britain). His forces conquered and occupied cities in Palestine, but they were finally defeated and driven out by 1801. Turkish rule lasted until [[World War I]]. Jewish immigration to Palestine, particularly to the &quot;four sacred cities&quot; ([[Jerusalem]], [[Safed]], [[Tiberias]] and [[Hebron]]) which already had significant Jewish communities, increased particularly towards the end of Ottoman rule; Jews of European origin lived mostly off donations from off-country, while many [[Sephardic]] Jews found themselves a trade. The rise of [[Zionism]], a political movement seeking to have Jews return to their ancient homeland in Palestine, in Europe and Russia in the 19th century increased the trend. By 1920, the Jewish population of Palestine had reached 11% of the population. ==The British Mandate period== ''main article: [[British Mandate of Palestine]]'' &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:PalestineMap.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Map of the territory administered as Palestine after September 1922]] --&gt; In [[World War I]], [[Turkey]] sided with [[Germany]]. As a result, it was embroiled in a conflict with [[Great Britain]], leading to the British capture of Palestine in a series of battles led by General [[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Allenby]]. (See [[Third Battle of Gaza]] and [[Battle of Beersheba]]). Allenby famously dismounted from his horse when he entered captured Jerusalem as a mark of respect for the ''Holy City''. He was greeted by the [[Christian]], [[Jewish]], and [[Islamic]] leaders of the city with great honor. At the subsequent 1919 [[Paris Peace Conference]] and [[Treaty of Versailles]], Turkey's loss of its Middle East empire was formalized. The British had in the interim made two agreements. In the [[Hussein-McMahon
odoo] and [[Mount Bachelor]] [http://www.mtbachelor.com] ski resorts. The [[Three Sisters Wilderness]] and the [[Oregon Dunes]] are just a short drive away. The non-profit [[Saturday Market]] [http://www.eugenesaturdaymarket.org/] was the first &quot;Saturday Market&quot; in the US, starting in 1970, and since recreated in cities around the country. It is still the most radical in the country; only the farmers and craftspeople themselves can sell there. ===Libraries, museums, and art collections=== Eugene has several museums, including the [http://eugene-museums.com Oregon Air and Space Museum] at the airport, [http://eugene-museums.com Conger Street Clock Museum] in West Eugene, and the [http://eugene-museums.com Lane County Historical Museum,] downtown. The largest library in Oregon is in Eugene, the [[Knight Library]] [http://libweb.uoregon.edu/], at the University. The [[Eugene Public Library]] [http://www.ci.eugene.or.us/library/] recently moved into a new, larger building downtown. It uses state-of-the-art technology such as an automated checking system, which sorts the books using [[RFID]] chips. Over a dozen private art galleries are located in Eugene. The [[Maude Kerns Art Center]] [http://www.mkartcenter.org/] with its non-profit summer [[Art and the Vinyeard festival]] [http://www.artandthevineyard.org/], and the [[Lane Arts Council]] [http://www.lanearts.org/] help foster a thriving arts community. Eugene is also home to [[The Eugene Glass School]] [http://www.eugeneglassschool.org/], an art school featuring workshops with some of the most prestigous glass artists in the world in off-hand, lampworked, and fused glass. ===Annual cultural events and fairs=== The annual non-profit [[Oregon Country Fair]], which takes place in nearby [[Veneta, Oregon|Veneta]], is one of the largest volunteer events in the US, and one of the most successful. Its primitive ecotopian atmosphere is stunning. Perhaps the single event in the US that most resembles the [[World Social Forum]], is the [[Public Interest Environmental Law Conference]] [http://www.pielc.org/], an annual gathering of environmental advocates from around the world. Other local events include: [[Eugene Celebration]], [[Lane County Fair]], [[Asian Celebration]], and the [[Oregon Country Fair]]. ===Performing arts=== Eugene is home to numerous cultural organizations, including the [[Eugene Symphony]] [http://www.eugenesymphony.org/] (Giancarlo Guerrero, Conductor), the [[Eugene Ballet]] [http://www.eugeneballet.org/] (Toni Pimble, Artistic Director), and the [[Eugene Opera]] [http://www.eugeneopera.com/]. [[Image:Eugenehotel.jpg|right|thumb|190px|''Eugene Hotel'']] Eugene is also home to a number of cultural events, including the world renowned [[Oregon Bach Festival]] [http://www.oregonbachfestival.com/] ([[Helmuth Rilling]], artistic director) and [[Oregon Festival of American Music]] [http://www.ofam.org/] (&quot;OFAM&quot;). Eugene has a number of performing arts venues, including the [[Hult Center|Hult Center for the Performing Arts]], [[The Shedd Institute| The John G. Shedd Institute for the Arts]] [http://www.theshedd.org/] (&quot;The Shedd&quot;), Beall Concert Hall on the University of Oregon campus, the [[McDonald Theater]] [http://www.mcdonaldtheatre.com/], and [[W.O.W. Hall]] [http://www.wowhall.org/], which is primarily a venue for alternative music. Because of its status as a college town, Eugene has many music acts, especially of underground [[punk rock]] such as [[2Bucks Short]] and original independent artists such as [[Nero (band)|Nero]] and [[the Crash Engine]], although the city also boasts hip hop musicians [[The Phormula]], [[Undermind]], and [[Posse of Two]]. The Cherry Poppin' Daddies who made their start here in the mid-90's and then went national with their album of swing hits &quot;Zoot Suit Riot&quot;.. Also, Five Fingers of Funk with Mac Brown. A surprising number of dedicated live theatres, all non-profit or governmental, are busy in Eugene: [[Willamette Repertory Theatre]] [http://www.willrep.org/], [[Lord Leebrick Theatre]] [http://www.lordleebrick.com/], [[The Very Little Theatre]] [http://www.thevlt.com/], [[Actors Caberet]] [http://actorscabaret.org/], [[LCC Theatre]] [http://www.lanecc.edu/perarts/theatre/], [[University Theatre]] [http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~theatre/] etc. ===Cinema=== The film [[Animal House]] was filmed in Eugene and [[Cottage Grove, Oregon|Cottage Grove]]. [[John Belushi]] had the idea for the film [[The Blues Brothers]] during filming of Animal House when he happened to meet [[Curtis Salgado]] at the then Eugene Hotel. The &quot;Chicken Salad on Toast&quot; scene in the Jack Nicholson movie &quot;[[Five Easy Pieces]]&quot; was filmed at the Denny's restaurant at the southern I-5 freeway interchange (Glenwood exit). In addition, Eugene is home to the Bijou Art Cinemas, an independent movie theater located in a building modeled after [[Spanish Colonial Revival Style architecture|Spanish Colonial Revival]] architectural style by the first dean of the [[University of Oregon]] School of Architecture in 1925. ===Media=== Some of the most familiar names in Public Radio come from the local NPR affiliate [http://www.klcc.org/ KLCC]. The Pacifica affiliate (airing Democracy Now! and FreeSpeech Radio News) is the [[University of Oregon]] student-run radio station, [http://www.kwvaradio.org/ KWVA]. Additionally, the community supports two other radio stations: [http://www.kwax.com/ KWAX] (classical) and [http://www.krvm.org/ KRVM] (alternative). The Eugene-Springfield area is served by [[The Register-Guard]] [http://www.registerguard.com], a daily newspaper with a circulation of 70,108 Monday through Friday, 77,993 on Saturday,and 74,918 on Sunday. The Register-Guard is published by the Baker family of Eugene. Other newspapers serving the area include the [[Eugene Weekly]] [http://www.eugeneweekly.com] and the [[Oregon Daily Emerald]] [http://www.dailyemerald.com], the independent newspaper serving the University of Oregon campus. Local television stations include [[KMTR]] ([[NBC]]), [[KVAL-TV|KVAL]] ([[CBS]]), and [[KEZI]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]). ==Sports== [[Image:preclassic.jpg|thumb|250px|Hayward Field]] Most of Eugene's interest in sports surrounds the [[Oregon Ducks]], part of the [[Pacific 10 Conference]] (Pac 10). [[American football]] is especially popular, with intense rivalries between the [[Oregon State University]] [[Oregon State Beavers|Beavers]] and the [[University of Washington]] [[Washington Huskies|Huskies]]. With a [[seating capacity]] of 59,000, [[Autzen Stadium]] is home to Oregon Duck Football. It is often considered one of the toughest places to play in all of college football: “Autzen’s 59,000 strong make the Big House [Michigan] collectively sound like a pathetic whimper. It’s louder than ‘The Swamp’ at Florida, ‘The Shoe’ in Columbus and ‘Death Valley’ at Louisiana State. Autzen Stadium is where great teams go to die.” — Michigan Daily, September 2003. For nearly 40 years Eugene has been the &quot;Track Capital of the World&quot;. Oregon's most famous track alumnus is Steve Prefontaine, killed in a car crash in 1975. He has become a legendary figure among Eugene runners for his guts and lack of fear in races. Eugene's excellent jogging trails include Pre's Trail in Alton Baker Park, Rexius Trail, the Adidas Oregon Trail, and the Ridgeline Trail. Jogging was introduced to the US first in Eugene, in the sixties, by Bill Bowerman, who coached the champion University of Oregon track and cross country teams. In 16 of 24 years at Oregon his track teams finished in the top ten at the Ncaa Chmapionships, with a dual meet record of 114-20. They won four times and finished second twice. Bowerman also invented the waffle running shoe in Eugene, and with U of O alumni Phil Knight founded shoe giant [[Nike, Inc.]] The Nike Store in Eugene includes a museum of this slice of track history. Eugene's miles of running trails, through its unusually large park system, are the most extensive in the US. There are dozens of running clubs here. The climate is cool temperate, good both for jogging and record-setting. Eugene is home to the University of Oregon's [[Hayward Field]] track, which hosts numerous collegiate and amateur track and field meets throughout the year, most notably the [[Prefontaine Classic]]. It was host to the [[2004 Junior Olympics]], and the 1972, 1976 and 1980 US Olympic Track and Field trials, and as recently announced, will be host to the 2008 trials. Hayward Field will also be home of the 2006 Pacific-10 track and field championships. A few feet from Hayward Field, the earth's oldest pairs of running shoes are on display, at the Museum of Natural History. In [[November]] of [[2005]], Eugene was chosen by [[USA Track &amp; Field]] to host the [[2008]] [[U.S. Olympic Track &amp; Field Trials]], to be heald at Hayward Field [[June 27]]-[[July 6]], 2008. Finalists of this competition of more than 1,000 athletes will go on to attend the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in [[Beijing, China]]. The event is expected to be attended by around 350,000 spectators and reported by more than 1,000 members of the media [http://www.usatf.org/news/view.aspx?DUid=USATF_2005_10_14_22_17_56]. Eugene is also home to the [[Eugene Emeralds]], a Class A [[Minor-league baseball|minor-league baseball team]] that plays home games in Civic Stadium, and the Eugene Generals, a semi-pro hockey team. ==Infrastructure== ===Transportation=== [[Image:Eugenestationclipdude.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Lane Transit District|LTD]]'s Eugene Station]] Eugene is the headquarters of the [[Lane Transit District]] (LTD), a [[public transportation]] agency formed in [[1970]]. LTD covers 240 square miles (620&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of Lane County, including [[Creswell, Oregon|Creswell]], [[Junction City, Oregon|Junction City]] and [[Veneta, Oregon|Veneta]]. Operating more than 90 buses at the hi
nd other ministers, who are in turn accountable to the two Houses of Parliament. The Upper House, the House of Lords, is mostly made up of appointed members (&quot;Lords of Parliament&quot;). The whole House is formally styled ''The Right Honourable The Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Parliament Assembled'', the Lords Spiritual being clergymen of the [[Church of England]] and the Lords Temporal being [[Peerage|Peers of the Realm]]. The Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal are considered separate &quot;[[Estates of the realm|estates]],&quot; but they sit, debate and vote together. The Lords Spiritual formerly included all of the senior clergymen of the Church of England&amp;mdash;archbishops, bishops, abbots and priors. Upon the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII, however, the abbots and priors lost their positions in Parliament. All diocesan bishops continued to sit in Parliament, but the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847 and later acts provide that only the twenty-six most senior are Lords Spiritual. These twenty-six always include the incumbents of the &quot;five great [[episcopal see|sees]],&quot; namely, the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], the [[Archbishop of York]], the [[Bishop of London]], the [[Bishop of Durham]] and the [[Bishop of Winchester]]. The remaining twenty-one Lords Spiritual are the most senior diocesan bishops, ranked in order of [[consecration]]. The Lords Temporal are all members of the [[Peerage]]. Formerly, they included hereditary peers, of the ranks of Duke, Marquess, Earl, Viscount and Baron. The right of some hereditary peers to sit in Parliament was not automatic: after Scotland and England united into Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that all peers whose dignities had been created by English Kings could sit in Parliament, but those whose dignities had been created by Scottish Kings were to elect a limited number of &quot;representative peers.&quot; A similar arrangement was made in respect of Ireland when that nation merged with Great Britain in 1801. But when Southern Ireland left the United Kingdom in 1922, the election of Irish representative peers ceased. By the [[Peerage Act 1963]], the election of Scottish representative peers also ended, but all Scottish peers were granted the right to sit in Parliament. Under the House of Lords Act 1999, only life peerage dignities (that is to say, peerage dignities which cannot be inherited) automatically entitle their holders to seats in the House of Lords. Of the hereditary peers, only ninety-two&amp;mdash;the individuals exercising the offices of [[Earl Marshal]] and [[Lord Great Chamberlain]], in addition to ninety hereditary peers elected by other peers&amp;mdash;retain their seats in the House. The Commons, the last of the &quot;estates&quot; of the Kingdom, are represented in the House of Commons, which is formally styled ''The Honourable The Commons in Parliament Assembled''. The House currently consists of 646 members. Until the 2005 general election, the House consisted of 659 members, but the number of Scottish Members of Parliament was reduced by the [[Scottish Parliament (Constituencies) Act 2004]]. Each &quot;Member of Parliament&quot; or &quot;MP&quot; is chosen by a single constituency according to the [[First Past the Post electoral system|First-Past-the-Post]] electoral system. Universal adult [[suffrage]] exists for those 18 and over; citizens of the United Kingdom, as well as citizens of the [[Republic of Ireland]] and of [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth nations]] resident in the United Kingdom, are qualified to vote. The term of members of the House of Commons depends on the term of Parliament; a [[general election]], during which all the seats are contested, occurs after each dissolution (see below). The three components of Parliament are supposed to be kept separate from each other; no individual may form a part of more than one component of Parliament. Lords of Parliament are legally barred from voting in elections for members of the House of Commons; furthermore, the Sovereign by convention does not vote, although there is no statutory impediment. ==Procedure== Each of the two Houses of Parliament is presided over by a Speaker. In the House of Lords, the [[Lord Chancellor]], a member of the Cabinet, is the ''ex officio'' Speaker. Where there is a vacancy in the office, a Speaker may be appointed by the Crown. Deputy Speakers, who take the place of an absent Lord Chancellor, are also chosen by the Crown. The House of Commons has the right to elect its own [[Speaker of the British House of Commons|Speaker.]] Theoretically, the approval of the Sovereign is required before the election becomes valid, but it is, by modern conventions, always granted. The Speaker's place may be taken by three deputies, known as the Chairman, First Deputy Chairman and Second Deputy [[Chairman of Ways and Means]]. (They take their name from the Committee of Ways and Means, of which they were once presiding officers, but which no longer exists.) In general, the Lord Chancellor's influence as Speaker is very limited, whilst the powers belonging to the Speaker of the House of Commons are vast. Decisions on points of order and on the disciplining of unruly members are made by the whole body in the Upper House, but by the Speaker alone in the Lower House. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole (using the words &quot;My Lords&quot;), but those in the House of Commons are addressed to the Speaker alone (using the words &quot;Mr Speaker&quot; or &quot;Madam Speaker&quot;). Both Houses may decide questions with voice voting; members shout out &quot;Aye&quot; and &quot;No&quot; (in the House of Commons), or &quot;Content&quot; and &quot;Not-Content&quot; (in the House of Lords), and the presiding officer declares the result. The pronouncement of the Lord Chancellor or Speaker may be challenged, and a recorded vote (known as a [[division (vote)|division]]) demanded. (The Speaker of the House of Commons may choose to overrule a frivolous request for a division, but the Lord Chancellor does not possess an equivalent power.) In each House, a division requires members to file into one of the two lobbies alongside the Chamber; their names are recorded by clerks, and their votes are counted as they exit the lobbies to re-enter the Chamber. The Speaker of the House of Commons, who is expected to remain non-partisan, does not cast a vote except in the case of a tie; the Lord Chancellor, however, votes along with the other Lords. (For further details on procedure, see the separate articles on the [[House of Lords]] and the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]].) ==Term== Following a general election, a new Parliamentary session begins. Parliament is formally summoned forty days in advance by the Sovereign, who is considered the source of parliamentary authority. On the day indicated by the Sovereign's proclamation, the two Houses assemble in their respective chambers. The Commons are then summoned to the House of Lords, where [[Lords Commissioners]] (representatives of the Sovereign) instruct them to elect a Speaker. The Commons perform the election; on the next day, they return to the House of Lords, where the Lords Commissioners confirm the election and grant the new Speaker the royal approval in the Sovereign's name. The business of Parliament for the next few days of its session involves the taking of the [[Oath of Allegiance (UK)|oaths of allegiance]]. Once a majority of the members have taken the oath in each House, the State Opening of Parliament may occur. The Lords take their seats in the House of Lords Chamber, the Commons appear at the Bar (immediately outside the Chamber), and the Sovereign takes his or her seat on a throne. The Sovereign then reads the [[Speech from the Throne]]&amp;mdash;the content of which is determined by the Ministers of the Crown&amp;mdash;outlining the Government's legislative agenda for the upcoming year. Thereafter, each House proceeds to the transaction of legislative business. By custom, before considering the Government's legislative agenda, a bill is introduced ''pro forma'' in each House&amp;mdash;the [[Select Vestries Bill]] in the House of Lords and the [[Outlawries Bill]] in the House of Commons. These bills do not actually become laws; they are merely ceremonial indications of the power of each House to debate independently of the Crown. After the ''pro forma'' bill is introduced, each House debates the content of the Speech from the Throne for several days. Once each House formally sends its reply to the Speech, the proper legislative business of the House may commence. At once, each House becomes fully active in appointing committees, electing officers, passing resolutions and considering legislation. A session of Parliament is brought to an end by a prorogation. There is a ceremony similar to the State Opening, but it is much less well-known. Normally, the Sovereign does not personally attend the prorogation ceremony in the House of Lords; rather, he or she is represented by Lords Commissioners. The next session of Parliament begins under the procedures described above, but it is not necessary to conduct another election of a Speaker or take the oaths of allegiance afresh at the beginning of such subsequent sessions. Instead, the State Opening of Parliament is proceeded to directly. Each Parliament, after a number of sessions, comes to an end, either by the command of the Sovereign or by effluxion of time, the former being more common in modern times. The dissolution of Parliament is affected by the Sovereign, but always on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister may seek dissolution because the time is politically advantageous to his or her party. Furthermore, if the Prime Minister loses the support of the House of Commons, he must either resign or seek dissolution of Parliament to renew his or her mandate. Origi