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e workings of a major college basketball program, as John Feinstein (recommended to Knight by Duke coach Mike Krzyzewski) was granted full access to the program and Knight's personal life for an entire season. This book led to a trend of season-long coverage of sports teams by prominent authors.
The episode portrayed in the book most often cited as proof of Knight's lack of sanity is when he takes assistant coaches to see an elementary school basketball game and tells them that the star player of the team is a better player than any guard on the current IU college squad. When journalists, after reading the book, asked Knight if he really believed that, he famously replied, "I'm paid a lot of money by IU to know about such things." That player, Damon Bailey, was later voted the greatest high school player in Indiana's storied basketball history (even beating out [[Larry Bird]] and [[Oscar Robertson]],) and went on to star at Indiana University for four years.
In [[2002]] Knight and longtime friend and sports journalist Bob Hammel wrote his [[biography]], ''"Knight: My Story"'' (ISBN 0312311176.)
== Film and television ==
Many aspects of the teaching style and basketball philosophy of Coach Norman Dale (played by [[Gene Hackman]]) in the [[1986 in film|1986]] movie ''[[Hoosiers]]'' are obviously derived from Bob Knight's real history.
''[[Blue Chips]]'' is a [[1994 in film|1994]] feature film about Pete Bell, a volatile, but honest college basketball coach under pressure to win who decides to blatantly violate NCAA rules to field a competitive team after several sub-par seasons. It starred [[Nick Nolte]] as Bell and [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] star [[Shaquille O'Neal]] as Neon Bordeaux, a dominating once-in-a-lifetime player Bell woos to his school with gifts and other perks. Several incidents in the film are clearly inspired by Knight's history. Current NBA guard [[Penny Hardaway|Anfernee "Penny" Hardaway]] co-stars as another "blue chipper" recruited by Bell. NBA legend [[Bob Cousy]] plays the school's president. Knight himself has a cameo alongside other collegiate and NBA legends such as [[Larry Bird]] and [[Rick Pitino]].
In [[2002 in film|2002]], veteran character actor [[Brian Dennehy]] portrayed Knight in ''[[A Season on the Brink]]'', a TV film adapted from John Feinstein's book. It was ESPN's first feature-length film.
It was announced in mid-2005 that Knight would be the central character of a new [[reality television|reality show]] for ESPN. To be titled ''[[Knight School (TV series)|Knight School]]'', the show will follow a handful of Texas Tech students who will compete for the right to join the Red Raiders as a non-scholarship player. Recently Knight was promoting ''Knight School'' on [[ESPN]]'s ''[[Cold Pizza]]'' in an interview with [[Dana Jacobson]]. Dana asked Knight at the end of the interview if he was interested in returning to his old coaching job at [[Indiana University]]. Knight replied that he would not answer questions about IU. When Knight was asked the same question, he walked out of the interview. Jacobson, who had a previously scheduled day off, was not at work the next day.
===''The Top 5 Reasons You Can't Blame...''===
On [[February 28]], [[2006 in television|2006]], [[ESPN Classic]] aired, as part of its regular series, ''[[The Top 5 Reasons You Can't Blame...]] Bob Knight For His Repeated Outbursts.'' Their reasons:
*5. West Point. Living in a military atmosphere gives some people the idea that there is only one right way to do anything, and that higher rank means automatic superiority and lower rank means absolute obedience is required. Although Knight has never served in the armed forces, his experience coaching the Army basketball team allowed him to absorb that mindset, which he has never relinquished.
*4. "Scared straight." Knight always tells his new recruits to name the two teachers who have meant the most to them, and then name their two most demanding teachers, in the belief that they will be the same two. His demands on his players get them to follow his rules, keep the program clean, graduate on time and become productive adult citizens. Even his harshest critics concede that he does this.
*3. He wins. Barring illness or another devastating scandal, in the 2006-07 season, Knight will likely surpass [[Dean Smith]] to become the winningest coach in the history of men's collegiate basketball. At Indiana, he won 13 Conference Championships, made four trips to the Final Four and won three National Championships. The only other active coach with three National Championships is his former Army assistant, [[Mike Krzyzewski]] of Duke, who may end up surpassing Knight's win total for a new record. While Knight has not yet matched this success at Texas Tech, he is already making a case for himself as the school's best coach ever.
*2. Indiana University was an enabler. Because Knight won with a clean program, the school let him get away with the kinds of things that would have ruined a losing coach.
*1. The public. Both fans and the media have taken Knight's incidents and treated them as a show, and have also become enablers. Like certain other sports figures and teams, he is loved as much as hated, and for many of those who love him, it is partly due to the same fiery personality that causes others to hate him.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[United States Military Academy|Army Basketball Coaches]][http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/army/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/77-112.pdf] | before=[[Tates Locke]] | years=1965–1971| after=Dan Dougherty}}
{{succession box | title=[[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University Basketball Coaches]][http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/ind/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/mbbhistory151-166.pdf] | before=Jerry Oliver | years=1972–2000| after=[[Mike Davis (coach)|Mike Davis]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Texas Tech University|Texas Tech University Basketball Coaches]][http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/text/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/mediaguide8.pdf] | before=James Dickey | years=2001–| after=Pat Knight (designate)}}
{{end box}}
==Notes==
#{{note|baylor}}{{news reference
| author=Keith Whitmire
| url=http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/spt/colleges/texastech/stories/030306dnspoknight.1c4691b0.html
| title=Big 12 won't take action against Knight
| org=The Dallas Morning News
| date=March 2, 2006
}}
==References==
*[http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/army/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/77-112.pdf "The Archives".] ''2004-05 Army Men's Basketball Media Guide''. Retrieved Dec. 23, 2005.
*[http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/ind/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/mbbhistory151-166.pdf "History".] ''2005-06 Indiana Men's Basketball Media Guide''. Retrieved Dec. 23, 2005.
*[http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/text/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/mediaguide8.pdf "Texas Tech Record Book".] ''2005-06 Red Raider Media Guide''. Retrieved Dec. 23, 2005.
==External links==
* [http://www.redraiders.com/coach/mbball/mbball_hcoach.shtml/ Bob Knight's page at the ''Lubbock Avalanche-Journal'' website]
[[Category:1940 births|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:Basketball Hall of Fame|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:American basketball players|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:American basketball coaches|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:College men's basketball coaches|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:Indiana Hoosiers basketball|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:Texas Tech Red Raiders basketball|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:Ohio State Buckeyes men's basketball players|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:Living people|Knight, Bobby]]
[[de:Bobby Knight]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Babis</title>
<id>4872</id>
<revision>
<id>15903123</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-08T10:10:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.149.37.181</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*#REDIRECT [[Bábís]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bábís]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black metal</title>
<id>4874</id>
<revision>
<id>42158164</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:07:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hmas</username>
<id>1019222</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Characteristics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Pakistani black metal}}
{{blackmetal}}
'''Black metal''' is a [[musical genre]] which emerged in the early 1980s predating the great expansion of [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] 'extreme' genres. Black metal evolved from [[thrash metal]], as did its sister genre [[death metal]].
There are two views on the genre. One views black metal as a very specific form of music that must adhere to a particular 'style' in order for it to be a part of the genre; while the second considers the lyrical and philosophical/political ideology of the music to take more precedence in defining the genre itself, rather than 'style'.
The main originators of black metal are considered to be the bands [[Venom (band)|Venom]] (who coined the term in 1981 and named their second album Black Metal in 1982), [[Mercyful Fate]], [[Bathory (band)|Bathory]], [[Hellhammer]], [[Bulldozer (band)|Bulldozer]], [[Celtic Frost]] and [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]. Albums that first sounded like what is generally considered to be black metal today are considered to be the recordings of [[Bathory (band)|Bathory]] in the mid [[1980s]]. Most notably ''[[Under the Sign of the Black Mark]]''
Black metal congealed in its current form (known as the second wave of black metal, which is rooted much more heavily in classical musical theory) through the influence of Norwegian bands such as [[Darkthrone]], [[Enslaved (band)|Enslaved]], [[Burzum]], [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]], [[Immortal (band)|Immortal]], and |
utonomous regimes for the Basque Country and Navarre were approved in later referenda by the respective populations.
Basque nationalist activity has a violent form in ''[[Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]'' (ETA), an armed organization that uses murder, bombs and kidnappings against what they hold as "Spanish interests".
In the fight against ETA, the Spanish government and courts have taken controversial measures like:
* Banning of the democratically elected political coalition [[Batasuna|HB-Batasuna]] in 2002 (and successive coalitions) as well as other political organisations, as the judges considered they were part of ETA, sharing goals and resources with at group considered to be terrorists. The candidature of the new [[Herritarren Zerrenda]] (HZ) in the [[European Parliament election, 2004]] has been banned in Spain, although it is legal in France. Despite the banning, 120,000 Basques voted for HZ with illegal ballot papers in the last EU elections (15% of Basques in Spain and 7% in France voted to HZ).
* Closure of the only newspaper fully in Basque language, ''[[Egunkaria]]'', in 2003. Many personalities associated to this paper have reported being tortured by the Spanish authorities while under detention (although is is claimed <!--by whom? --> that reporting torture when arrested is a common practise of the terrorists to slow the practice of justice, and that suggestions to do so have been found in internal newsletters of ETA).<!-- cite?--> Several other publications and organisations have also been banned, such as the bilingual nationalist newspaper ''[[Egin]]'' and the radio station [[Egin Irratia]]. The newspapers ''[[Berria]]'' and ''[[Gara]]'' have taken their niches.
====GAL====
<!-- Data checked against [[es:GAL]] -->In the 1970s, para-police forces fought ETA.
From 1983 to 1987, the Spanish State funded and controlled [[Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación|GAL]], which was a right-wing paramilitary force that attacked and killed Basque citizens in both the Spain and France. The GAL murdered over 23 citizens. In the 1990s several high-profile investigations were conducted in Spain, which led to the imprisonment of high-ranking police officials and a former government minister. There is evidence to suggest that control of the GAL went to the highest levels within the Spanish State Government.
==Culture==
There are interesting social differences between the Basques and their neighbours. The Basque people have an unusually close attachment with their homes. A person's home is their family in the Basque Country. Even if one does not still live there and has not for generations a Basque family is still known by the house in which it once lived. Common Basque surnames could translate as "top of the hill", or "by the river" all relating to the location of their ancestral home. This is interesting evidence for considering the Basques to be the only people who have always had a fixed and stable abode.
Though matriarchality has been sometimes attributed to Basque society, today it seems clear that the actually known familiar structure is patrilinear, being the top position given to the father, as in neighbour cultures. Nevertheless there are some signs that this could have not always been that way. Also it must be said that the social position of women has always been rather better than in neighbour countries.
The [[fueros]] on inheritance favoured the unity of the inherited land (in contrast to Galician [[minifundia]]) so, until the Industrial Age, poor Basques (usually the younger sons) emigrated to the rest of Spain or France and the Americas. Saint [[Francis Xavier]] and [[Conquistador]]es like [[Lope de Aguirre]] were Basque.
Despite ETA and the crisis of heavy industries, the Basques have been doing remarkably well in recent years, emerging from persecution during the Franco regime with a strong and vibrant language and culture. For the first time in centuries, the Basque language is expanding geographically led by large increases in the major urban centres of Pamplona, Bilbao, and Bayonne, where only a few decades ago the Basque language had all but disappeared. Legislation and abundant public funding have helped this increase. The establishment of bilingual and mostly Basque teaching has led to the controversial firing of those teachers who could not achieve the required command of Basque language.
The opening of the new [[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao|Guggenheim Museum]] in Bilbao is widely seen as a symbol of a linguistic and cultural revival.
A twentieth-century feature of Basque culture is the phenomenon of [[gastronomical society|gastronomical societies]] (''txoko'', "corner" in Biscay), food clubs where men gather to cook and enjoy their own food. Until recently, women were only allowed one day in the year.
''See also:'' [[Basque music]]
===Language===
''Main article:'' [[Basque language]].
[[As of 2005]], virtually all Basques speak the dominant language of their respective countries. Besides Spanish or French, about a quarter of Basques speak their own ethnic Basque language, referred to, in that tongue, as [[Basque language|Euskara]], which is not only distinct from [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], but apparently unrelated to every other language, both modern and historical, in Europe and the world.
The Basque language is thus a [[language isolate]], although the Spanish language has greatly influenced it, particularly in the [[vowel]] set. An alternative theory states that it was actually Basque's simplified vowel set that influenced the development of Spanish from [[Vulgar Latin]].
This unique and isolated language has attracted the interest of a great many linguists trying to discover its history and origin.
The first time we find Basque in writing is the late [[Middle Ages]], which is not, however, evidence of their late arrival, for the Basques were already very well established by this point.
Around the same time and place, Castilian and Navarrese-Aragonese Romance languages start to differentiate from Medieval Latin.
===Religion===
Most Basques are [[Roman Catholic]]s. In the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth, Basques as a group remained notably devout and churchgoing. In recent years church attendance has fallen off, as in most of Western Europe. The region has been a source of missionaries like [[Francis Xavier]] and [[Michel Garicoïts]]. [[Ignatius Loyola]], founder of the [[Society of Jesus]], was a Basque.
A sprout of [[Protestantism]] in the continental Basque Country produced the first translation of the new Testament into Basque by [[Joannes Leyçarraga]]. After the king of Navarre converted to Catholicism to be king of France, Protestantism almost disappeared.
[[Bayonne, France|Bayonne]] held a Jewish community composed mainly of [[Sephardi Jews]] fleeing from the [[Spanish Inquisition|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese Inquisition]]s.
====Pre-Christian religion and mythology====
There is strong evidence of a previous religion, reflected in countless legends and some enduring traditions. This pre-Christian religion was apparently centered on a superior female [[genie]]: [[Mari (goddess)|Mari]]. Her consort [[Sugaar]] also seems to bear some importance. This [[chthonic]] couple seem to bear the superior ethical power and also the power of creation and destruction. It's said that when they gathered in the high caves of the sacred peaks, they engendered the storms. These meetings typically happened on Friday nights, the day of historical [[akelarre]] or [[coven]]. Mari was said to reside in mount [[Anboto]], periodically she crossed the skies as a bright light to reach her other home at mount [[Txindoki]].
Another divinity seems to be [[Urtzi]] (also ''Ost'', ''Ortzi'': sky) but it seems to have been imported, as legends do not speak of him. Nevertheless his name appears in weekdays, months names and metereological events. In medieval times, [[Aymeric Picaud]], a French pilgrim, wrote on the Basques, saying: ''et Deus vocant Urcia'' ("and they name God as Urci-a"; the -a being the Basque nominative or suffixed article).
There is also ''[[Anbotoko Mari]]'', a goddess whose movements affected the weather. According to one tradition, she travelled every seven years between a cave on mount [[Anboto]] and one on another mountain (the stories vary); the weather would be wet when she was in Anboto, dry when she was in [[Aloña]], or [[Supelegor]], or [[Gorbea]]. It is hard to say how old this legend is; despite the [[Paganism|pagan]] elements, one of her names, ''Mari Urraca'', ties her to a possibly historical Navarrese princess of the [[11th century|11th]] and [[12th century]] and other legends give her a brother or cousin who was a Roman Catholic priest.
Legends also speak of many and abundant genies, like ''[[jentilak]]'' (equivalent to [[giant (mythology)|giant]]s), ''lamiak'' (equivalent to [[nymph]]s), ''mairuak'' (builders of the cromlechs or stone circles, literally [[Moors]]), ''iratxoak'' ([[imp]]s), ''sorginak'' ([[witch]]es, priestess of Mari), etc. [[Basajaun]] is a Basque version of the [[wild man]]. There is a [[trickster]] named ''[[San Martin Txiki]]'' ("St Martin the Lesser").
It has been shown that some of these stories have entered Basque culture in recent centuries or as part of Roman ''[[superstitio]]''. It is unclear whether [[neolithic]] stone structures called [[dolmen]]s have a religious significance or were built to house animals or resting shepherds.
Some of the dolmens and [[cromlech]]s are burial sites serving as well as border markers.
The ''jentilak'' ('[[Giant (mythology)|Giants]]'), on the other hand, are a legendary people which explains the disappearance of a people of [[Stone Age]] culture that used to live in the high lands and with no knowledge of the iron. Many legends about them tell that they were bigge |
<title>Flood fill</title>
<id>11635</id>
<revision>
<id>36301106</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T02:26:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Poor Yorick</username>
<id>9697</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] reorder links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wikisourcepar|Flood fill}}
'''Flood fill,''' also called '''seed fill,''' is an [[algorithm]] that determines the area [[Glossary of graph theory#Connectivity|connected]] to a given node in a multi-dimensional [[array]]. It is used in the "bucket" fill tool of [[paint program|paint programs]] to determine which parts of a [[bitmap]] to fill with color, and in puzzle games such as [[Puyo Puyo]], [[Lumines]], [[Magical Drop]], and some implementations of [[Tetris]] (but not [[Columns (video game)|Columns]]) for determining which pieces are cleared.
The flood fill algorithm takes three parameters: a start node, a target color, and a replacement color. The algorithm looks for all nodes in the array which are connected to the start node by a path of the target color, and changes them to the replacement color. There are many ways in which the flood-fill algorithm can be structured, but they all make use of a [[queue]] or [[stack (computing)|stack]] data structure, explicitly or implicitly. One implicitly stack-based ([[recursion|recursive]]) flood-fill implementation (for a two-dimensional array) goes as follows:
[[image:Recursive Flood Fill 4 (aka).gif|none|right|recursive flood-fill with 4 directions]]
[[image:Recursive Flood Fill 8 (aka).gif|none|right|recursive flood-fill with 8 directions]]
'''Flood-fill''' (node, target-color, replacement-color):
1. If the color of ''node'' is not equal to ''target-color'', return.
2. Set the color of ''node'' to ''replacement-color''.
3. Perform '''Flood-fill''' (one step to the west of ''node'', ''target-color'', ''replacement-color'').
Perform '''Flood-fill''' (one step to the east of ''node'', ''target-color'', ''replacement-color'').
Perform '''Flood-fill''' (one step to the north of ''node'', ''target-color'', ''replacement-color'').
Perform '''Flood-fill''' (one step to the south of ''node'', ''target-color'', ''replacement-color'').
4. Return.
An explicitly queue-based implementation might resemble the following:
'''Flood-fill''' (node, target-color, replacement-color):
1. Set ''Q'' to the empty queue.
2. If the color of ''node'' is not equal to ''target-color'', return.
3. Add ''node'' to the end of ''Q''.
4. For each element ''n'' of ''Q'':
5. Set the color of ''n'' to ''replacement-color''.
6. If the color of the node to the west of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
If the color of the node to the east of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
If the color of the node to the north of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
If the color of the node to the south of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
7. Continue looping until ''Q'' is exhausted.
8. Return.
Most practical implementations use a loop for the west and east directions as an optimization to avoid the overhead of queue management:
'''Flood-fill''' (node, target-color, replacement-color):
1. Set ''Q'' to the empty queue.
2. If the color of ''node'' is not equal to ''target-color'', return.
3. Add ''node'' to the end of ''Q''.
4. For each element ''n'' of ''Q'':
5. Set ''w'' and ''e'' equal to ''n''.
6. Move ''w'' to the west until the color of the node to the west of ''w'' no longer matches ''target-color''.
7. Move ''e'' to the east until the color of the node to the east of ''e'' no longer matches ''target-color''.
8. Set the color of nodes between ''w'' and ''e'' to ''replacement-color''.
9. For each node ''n'' between ''w'' and ''e'':
10. If the color of the node to the north of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
If the color of the node to the south of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
11. Continue looping until ''Q'' is exhausted.
12. Return.
Adapting the algorithm to use an additional array to store the shape of the region allows generalization to cover "fuzzy" flood filling, where an element can differ by up to a specified threshold from the source symbol. Using this additional array as an [[Alpha compositing|alpha channel]] allows the edges of the filled region to blend somewhat smoothly with the not-filled region.
[[Category:Algorithms]]
[[Category:Computer graphics]]
[[de:Floodfill]]
[[it:Algoritmo flood fill]]
[[pl:Flood fill]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francis of Assisi</title>
<id>11638</id>
<revision>
<id>41884087</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:01:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>58.69.61.240</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Founding of the Order of Friars Minor */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''"Saint Francis of Assisi", "St. Francis of Assisi" and "St Francis of Assisi" all redirect here. For the opera by Olivier Messiaen see [[Saint-François d'Assise]].''
[[Image:Francisbyelgreco.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Francis of Assisi by [[El Greco]]]]
'''Saint Francis of Assisi''' ([[1182]] &ndash; [[4 October]] [[1226]]) founded the [[Franciscan]] Order or "Friars Minor". He is the [[patron saint]] of [[animal]]s, [[merchant]]s, Catholic action and the [[Natural environment|environment]].
<!-- [[Image:franasis.JPG|right|thumb|Francis of Assisi]] -->
==Boyhood and early manhood==
Born '''Giovanni di Bernardone''', commonly known as Francesco. He was either born in 1181 or 1182. His father, Pietro, was a wealthy cloth merchant. Of his mother, Pica, little is known. Francis was one of several children.
Rebellious toward his father's business and pursuit of wealth, Francis would spend most of his youth lost in books (ironically, his father's wealth did afford his son an excellent education, and he became fluent in reading several languages including Latin). He was also known for drinking and enjoying the company of his many friends, who were usually the sons of nobles. His displays of disillusionment toward the world that surrounded him became evident fairly early, one of which is shown in the story of the beggar. In this account, he found himself out having fun with his friends one day when a beggar came along and asked for [[alms]]. While his friends ignored the beggar's cries, Francis gave the man everything he had in his pockets. His friends quickly chided and mocked him for his stupidity, and when he got home, his father scolded him in a rage.
In 1201 he joined a military expedition against [[Perugia]], was taken prisoner, and spent a year as a captive. It is probable that his conversion to more serious thoughts was a gradual process relating to this experience.
It is said that when he began to avoid the [[sport]]s of his former companions, and they asked him laughingly if he was thinking of marrying, he answered "Yes, a fairer bride than any you have ever seen" - meaning his "lady [[poverty]]", as he afterward used to say.
He spent much time in lonely places, asking God for [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. By degrees he took to nursing the most repulsive victims in the [[lazar house]]s near Assisi.
After a [[pilgrim]]age to [[Rome]], where he begged at the [[church]] doors for the poor, he had a mystical experience in the Church of [[St. Damian]] just outside of Assisi, in which the Icon of Christ Crucified came alive and said to him 3 times, "Francis, Francis, go and repair My house which, as you can see, is falling into ruin." He thought this to mean the very ruined church in which he was presently praying, and so sold his horse together with some cloth from his father's store, to assist the priest there for this purpose.
[[Image:Giotto - Legend of St Francis - -05- - Renunciation of Wordly Goods.jpg|thumb|right|Renunciation of Wordly Goods, by [[Giotto di Bondone]]]]
Pietro, highly indignant, attempted to bring him to his senses, first with threats and then with corporal chastisement. After a final interview in the presence of the [[bishop]], Francis renounced his father and his patrimony, laying aside even the garments he had received from him. For the next few months he lived as a begger in the region of Assisi.
Returning to the town where he spent two years this time, he restored several ruined churches, among them the little [[chapel]] of [[St Mary of the Angels, Assisi]], just outside the town, which later became his favorite abode.
== The Founding of the Order of Friars Minor ==
[[Image:Stfrancis.jpg|left|thumb|St. Francis of Assisi in [[Sacro Speco]], Subiaco, Italy]]
At the end of this period (according to [[Jordanus]], on February 24, [[1209]]), a [[sermon]] which he heard on the [[Gospel of Matthew ]] 10:9, where Christ tells his followers that they should go forth and proclaim that the Kingdom of Heaven is upon them, and that they should take no money with them, that they should take no walking stick for the road, and that they should wear no shoes -- made such an impression on him that he decided to devote himself wholly to a life of apostolic poverty.
Clad in a rough garment, barefoot, and, after the Evangelical precept, without staff or scrip, he began to preach repentance. He was soon joined by a prominent fellow townsman, [[Bernardo da Quintavalle]], who contributed all that he had to the work, and by other companions, who are said to have reached the number of eleven within a year, whom he called the "fratres minores", in Latin, "the younger brothers". The Franciscans are sometimes called Friars, and this is a term derived from "fratres", or &quo |
inflections]], for example in {{nihongo|''tabemashita''|ate|}}, ''BE MA SHI TA'' are written in hiragana. In this case, part of the root is also written in hiragana. Hiragana are also used to give the pronunciation of kanji in a reading aid called ''[[furigana]]''. The article [[Japanese writing system]] discusses in detail when the various systems of writing are used.
There are two main systems of [[Kana#Collation|ordering hiragana]], the old-fashioned [[iroha]] ordering, and the more prevalent [[gojūon]] ordering.
==The hiragana writing system==
The hiragana consist of a basic set of characters, the ''gojūon'' , which can be modified in various ways. By adding a ''[[dakuten]]'' marker ゛ an unvoiced consonant such as ''k'' or ''t'' is turned into a voiced consonant such as ''g'' or ''d'': ''k''→''g'', ''t''→''d'', ''s''→''z'', and ''h''→''b''.
Hiragana beginning with an ''h'' can also add a ''[[handakuten]]'' marker ゜ changing the ''h'' to a ''p''. A small version of the hiragana for ''ya'', ''yu'' or ''yo'' (ゃ, ゅ or ょ respectively) may be added to hiragana ending in ''i''. This changes the ''i'' vowel sound to a glide [[palatalization]]. Addition of the small ''y'' kana is called [[yōon]]. A small ''tsu'' っ called a ''[[sokuon]]'' indicates a [[geminate]] (doubled) consonant. It appears before fricatives and stops, and sometimes at the end of sentences. This is represented in [[romaji|rōmaji]] by doubling the following consonant.
In informal writing small versions of the five vowel kana are sometimes used to represent trailing off sounds (はぁ, ねぇ).
There are a few hiragana which are rarely used. ''Wi'' ゐ and ''we'' ゑ are obsolete. ''V'' ゔ is a modern addition used to represent the "v" sound in foreign languages such as English, but since Japanese does not have a ''v'' sound, it is pronounced as a ''b''. It is rarely seen because [[loan words]] and [[Transliteration|transliterated]] words are usually written in [[katakana]].
==Table of hiragana==
The following table shows hiragana together with their [[Hepburn romanization]]. The obsolete kana are shown in <font color=red>red</font> romanization.
{| border="0" cellspacing="2px" cellpadding="2px" width="100%"
|-
|bgcolor="#BECFEB" valign=top align="center" colspan = 5 | vowels
|bgcolor="#D4D4D4" colspan = 3 align="center"|[[yōon]]
|-bgcolor="#BECFEB" valign=top align="center"
![[あ]] ''a''
![[い]] ''i''
![[う]] ''u''
![[え]] ''e''
![[お]] ''o''
|bgcolor="#D4D4D4"|('''''ya''''')
|bgcolor="#D4D4D4"|('''''yu''''')
|bgcolor="#D4D4D4"|('''''yo''''')
|-
|colspan="8"|
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|[[か]] ''ka''
|[[き]] ''ki''
|[[く]] ''ku''
|[[け]] ''ke''
|[[こ]] ''ko''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|きゃ ''kya''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|きゅ ''kyu''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|きょ ''kyo''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|[[さ]] ''sa''
|[[し]] ''shi''
|[[す]] ''su''
|[[せ]] ''se''
|[[そ]] ''so''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|しゃ ''sha''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|しゅ ''shu''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|しょ ''sho''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|[[た]] ''ta''
|[[ち]] ''chi''
|[[つ]] ''tsu''
|[[て]] ''te''
|[[と]] ''to''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ちゃ ''cha''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ちゅ ''chu''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ちょ ''cho''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|[[な]] ''na''
|[[に]] ''ni''
|[[ぬ]] ''nu''
|[[ね]] ''ne''
|[[の]] ''no''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|にゃ ''nya''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|にゅ ''nyu''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|にょ ''nyo''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|[[は]] ''ha''
|[[ひ]] ''hi''
|[[ふ]] ''fu''
|[[へ]] ''he''
|[[ほ]] ''ho''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ひゃ ''hya''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ひゅ ''hyu''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ひょ ''hyo''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|[[ま]] ''ma''
|[[み]] ''mi''
|[[む]] ''mu''
|[[め]] ''me''
|[[も]] ''mo''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|みゃ ''mya''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|みゅ ''myu''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|みょ ''myo''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|[[や]] ''ya''
|bgcolor="#E9E9E9"|
|[[ゆ]] ''yu''
|bgcolor="#E9E9E9"|
|[[よ]] ''yo''
|bgcolor="#E9E9E9" colspan="3"|
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|[[ら]] ''ra''
|[[り]] ''ri''
|[[る]] ''ru''
|[[れ]] ''re''
|[[ろ]] ''ro''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|りゃ ''rya''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|りゅ ''ryu''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|りょ ''ryo''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|[[わ]]&nbsp;''wa''
|<font color=red>[[ゐ]]&nbsp;''wi''</font>
|bgcolor="#E9E9E9"|
|<font color=red>[[ゑ]]&nbsp;''we''</font>
|[[を]]&nbsp;''o/wo''
|bgcolor="#E9E9E9" colspan="3"|
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|bgcolor="#E9E9E9" colspan="4"|
|[[ん]] ''n''
|bgcolor="#E9E9E9" colspan="3"|
|-
|colspan="8"|
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|が ''ga''
|ぎ ''gi''
|ぐ ''gu''
|げ ''ge''
|ご ''go''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ぎゃ ''gya''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ぎゅ ''gyu''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ぎょ ''gyo''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|ざ ''za''
|じ ''ji''
|ず ''zu''
|ぜ ''ze''
|ぞ ''zo''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|じゃ ''ja''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|じゅ ''ju''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|じょ ''jo''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|だ ''da''
|ぢ ''(ji)''
|づ ''(zu)''
|で ''de''
|ど ''do''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ぢゃ ''(ja)''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ぢゅ ''(ju)''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ぢょ ''(jo)''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|ば ''ba''
|び ''bi''
|ぶ ''bu''
|べ ''be''
|ぼ ''bo''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|びゃ ''bya''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|びゅ ''byu''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|びょ ''byo''
|-bgcolor="#E7F5DE" valign=top align="center"
|ぱ ''pa''
|ぴ ''pi''
|ぷ ''pu''
|ぺ ''pe''
|ぽ ''po''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ぴゃ ''pya''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ぴゅ ''pyu''
|bgcolor="#F3F5DE"|ぴょ ''pyo''
|}
The sound ''ti'' is spelt てぃ, but this sequence of sounds is found only in [[loan word]]s, so is normally written only in [[katakana]].
==Spelling rules==
With a few exceptions for sentence particles は, を, and へ (''wa'', ''o'', and ''e''), and a few other arbitrary rules, Japanese is spelled as it sounds. This has not always been the case: a previous system of spelling, now referred to as [[historical kana usage]] had many spelling rules; the exceptions in modern usage are the legacy of that system. The exact spelling rules are referred to as {{nihongo|''kanazukai''|仮名遣い|}}, "kana use".
There are two hiragana pronounced ''ji'' (じ and ぢ) and two hiragana pronounced ''zu'' (ず and づ). These pairs are not interchangeable. Usually, ''ji'' is written as じ and ''zu'' is written as ず. There are some exceptions. If the first two syllables of a word consist of one syllable without a ''dakuten'' and the same syllable with a ''dakuten'', the same hiragana is used to write the sounds. For example ''chijimeru'' (‘to boil down’ or ‘to shrink’) is spelled ちぢめる. For compound words where the dakuten reflects ''[[rendaku]]'' voicing, the original hiragana is used. For example, ''chi'' (血 "blood") is spelled ち in plain hiragana. When 鼻 hana (“nose”) and 血 combine to make ''hanaji'' 鼻血 "nose bleed"), the sound of 血changes from ''chi'' to ''ji''. So ''hanaji'' is spelled はなぢ according to ち: the basic hiragana used to transcribe 血. Similarly, ''Tsukau'' (使う; "to use") is spelled つかう in hiragana, so ''kanazukai'' (かな使い; "kana use" .. or .. "kana orthography") is spelled かなづかい in hiragana.
However, this does not apply when kanji are used to make words which do not relate directly to their elemental meaning. The Japanese word for ‘lightning’, for example, is ''inazuma'' (稲妻). The ‘稲’ component means ‘rice plant’, is written いな in hiragana and is pronounced: ''ina''. The 妻 component means ’wife’ and is pronounced ''tsuma'' (つま) when written in isolation or frequently as ''zuma'' (ずま) when it features after another syllable. Neither of these components have anything to do with ‘lightning’, but together they do when they compose the word for ‘lightning’. In this case, the default spelling in hiragana いなずま rather than いなづま is used.
Hiragana usually spells [[long vowel]]s with the addition of a second vowel kana. The [[chōon]] (vowel extender mark) (ー) used in katakana is rarely used with hiragana, for example in the word らーめん, [[ramen]], but this usage is considered non-standard.
A word cannot begin with the kana ん (''n''). This is at the basis of the word game [[shiritori]]. However, ''n'' is sometimes directly followed by a vowel. For example, ''ren'ai'' 恋愛 ("romantic love, emotion") is written in hiragana as れんあい rather than れない ''renai'' (a nonexistant word).
==History==
Hiragana developed from ''[[manyogana|man'yōgana]]'', [[Chinese language|Chinese]] characters used for their pronunciations, a practice which started in the [[5th century]]. The forms of the hiragana originate from the ''[[grass script|sōsho]]'' style of [[Chinese calligraphy]]. The figure below shows the derivation of hiragana from manyōgana via sōsho. The upper part shows the character in the [[Regular Script|kaisho]] form, the centre character in red shows the sōsho form of the character, and the bottom shows the equivalent hiragana.
[[Image:Hiragana_origin.jpg]]
When they were first created, hiragana were not accepted by everyone. |
ted [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/columbus1.html portrait of Christopher Columbus], based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
* {{gutenberg author| id=Christopher+Columbus+(1451-1506) | name=Christopher Columbus}}
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=5764 Find-A-Grave profile for Christopher Columbus]
* [http://www.cristobal-colon.net/aCh00.htm L'Amiral de la Mer Océane] a French on-line encyclopedia about Columbus, in French language, based on various sources and books.
*[http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Scolumb.htm The Round Earth and Christopher Columbus"] &nbsp; (educational site, includes lesson plan)
==References==
* [http://www.unmaskingcolumbus.com/default.htm Unmasking Columbus: Lies, Spies, Cover-up & Conspiracy]. New Research by Iberian historian Manuel Rosa is casting doubt on the whole Columbus story.
* [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=523794 Full text] of Columbus' log of his first voyage.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/columbus1.html Extracts from Columbus' journal]
* [[Jack Forbes]], ''Columbus and Other Cannibals'', Autonomedia, 1992.
* [http://www.unmaskingcolumbus.com/unmasking_columbus/Christopher_Columbus_intro.htm The False History of Columbus]. New Research by Iberian historian Manuel Rosa proves the Columbus "Last Will" is false.
* [[Samuel Eliot Morison]], ''[[Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus]]'', Little, Brown and Company, 1991, trade paperback, 680 pages, ISBN 0316584789 (9 other editions available both in hardback and paperback). A biography sympathetic to Columbus, though not blind to violent acts by Columbus and his crew
* [[Brian Fagan]]: ''Clash of the Cultures'', AltaMira Press 1997. Presents a less-favorable view.
* [[Felipe Fernandez-Armesto|Felipe Fernández-Armesto]]: ''[[Columbus (book)|Columbus]]'', Oxford University Press 1991. Scholarly work, careful to support all statements with sources.
* [[Sherburn Cook]] and [[Woodrow Borah]]: ''Essays in Population History Volume I'', University of California Press, 1971
* [[John Noble Wilford]] and [[Ashbel Green]], ''The mysterious history of Columbus :an exploration of the man, the myth, the legacy'', Knopf, 1991, hardcover: ISBN 0679404767, trade paperback: ISBN 0679738320. John Noble Green''(?)'' is a science editor at the New York Times.
* [[J.M. Cohen]]: "The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus: Being His Own Log-Book, Letters and Dispatches With Connecting Narrative Drawn from the Life of the Admiral by His Son Hernando Colon and Others", Penguin Classics, 1992.
* [[Michael H. Hart]], ''[[The 100]]'', Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0806513500
*James Loewen. "Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong". New Press, 1995.
* Crosby, Alfred W. ''The Columbian Voyages. the Columbian Exchange, and Their Historians.'' Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1987. ED 303 417.
* A Finger in the Wound : Body Politics in Quincentennial Guatemala, ISBN 0520212843
* Turner, Jack. "Spice - The History of a Temptation", Random House, 2004 ISBN 0-375-40721-9.
* [http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/ Keith Pickering's Columbus Navigation Page]
* [http://cuba.no.sapo.pt/paginas/cuba-informa/cristovao-colom.htm The Cuba, Portugal Reference, by Mascarenhas Barreto]
* Mascarenhas Barreto, "The Portuguese Columbus: Secret Agent of King John II", 1992, ISBN 0312079486
* [http://www.dightonrock.com/enigmacolombo.htm The enigma of Columbus (in Portuguese)] and American Edition.[http://www.dightonrock.com/columbus_was_100_portuguese.htm]
* [http://www.colaco.net/3/colon.htm Cabalistic discussion of CC signature]
* Urvoy, Jean-Michel, [http://www.cristobal-colon.net/Colon/C05p10.htm "Où est enterré Christophe Colomb ?"] (Trans. Where is buried Christopher Columbus) p.20-21 in l'Histoire, [http://www.cristobal-colon.net/Colon/C05p11.htm N°286, avril 2004, Paris, France]
[[Category:1451 births|Columbus]]
[[Category:1506 deaths|Columbus]]
[[Category:Italian explorers|Columbus]]
[[Category:Natives of Genoa|Columbus]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Columbus]]
[[Category:Explorers of Central America|Columbus]]
[[Category:Age of Discovery]]
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|ta}}
[[af:Christopher Columbus]]
[[ar:كريستوفر كولومبوس]]
[[ast:Cristóbal Colón]]
[[bg:Христофор Колумб]]
[[bn:ক্রিস্টোফার কলম্বাস]]
[[bs:Kristofor Kolumbo]]
[[ca:Cristòfor Colom]]
[[cs:Kryštof Kolumbus]]
[[cy:Christopher Columbus]]
[[da:Christoffer Columbus]]
[[de:Christoph Kolumbus]]
[[et:Christoph Kolumbus]]
[[es:Cristóbal Colón]]
[[eo:Kristoforo KOLUMBO]]
[[eu:Kristobal Kolon]]
[[fa:کریستف کلمب]]
[[fr:Christophe Colomb]]
[[ka:ქრისტეფორე კოლუმბი]]
[[ko:크리스토퍼 콜럼버스]]
[[hr:Kristofor Kolumbo]]
[[io:Kristoforo Kolumbo]]
[[id:Christopher Columbus]]
[[it:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[he:כריסטופר קולומבוס]]
[[la:Christophorus Columbus]]
[[lv:Kristofors Kolumbs]]
[[lt:Kristupas Kolumbas]]
[[ms:Christopher Columbus]]
[[nah:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[nl:Christoffel Columbus]]
[[nds:Christoph Kolumbus]]
[[ja:クリストファー・コロンブス]]
[[no:Christofer Columbus]]
[[nn:Christofer Columbus]]
[[pl:Krzysztof Kolumb]]
[[pt:Cristóvão Colombo]]
[[ro:Cristofor Columb]]
[[ru:Колумб, Христофор]]
[[sco:Christopher Columbus]]
[[scn:Cristòfuru Culommu]]
[[simple:Christopher Columbus]]
[[sk:Krištof Kolumbus]]
[[sl:Krištof Kolumb]]
[[sr:Кристофер Колумбо]]
[[fi:Kristoffer Kolumbus]]
[[sv:Christofer Columbus]]
[[tl:Christopher Columbus]]
[[ta:கொலம்பஸ்]]
[[th:คริสตอเฟอร์ โคลัมบัส]]
[[tr:Kristof Kolomb]]
[[uk:Колумб Христофор]]
[[zh:克里斯托弗·哥]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chemist</title>
<id>5636</id>
<revision>
<id>38017219</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T16:58:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lkinkade</username>
<id>155237</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Julie Perkins at LLNL.jpg|right|frame|Chemist Julie Perkins of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory pours from a [[Florence flask]].]]
A '''chemist''' is a [[scientist]] trained in the [[science]] of [[chemistry]]. Chemists study the composition of matter and its small-scale properties such as [[density]] and [[acidity]] instead of large-scale properties like size and shape. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of [[molecules]] and their component [[atom]]s. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, [[Chemical reaction|reaction]] rates, and other [[chemical properties]]. Chemists use this knowledge to learn the composition, structure, and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of [[Chemistry#Subdisciplines of chemistry|subdisciplines of chemistry]]. [[Materials science|Materials scientists]] share much of the same education and skills with chemists.
In [[Commonwealth English]], '''''chemist''''' may also refer to a [[dispensing chemist]], a [[pharmacist]], or a general retailer of chemicals (usually for medicinal purposes).
==Education==
Jobs for chemists usually require at least a [[bachelor's degree]], but many positions, especially those in research, require a [[PhD]]. Most undergraduate programs emphasize [[mathematics]] and [[physics]] as well as chemistry. At the [[Master's degree|Master's]] level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field. Fields of specialization include [[biochemistry]], [[organic chemistry]], [[inorganic chemistry]], [[analytical chemistry]], and [[physical chemistry]]. Post-doctorate experience may be required for certain positions.
==Employment==
The three major employers of chemists are academic institutions, industry, especially the [[chemical industry]] and the [[pharmaceutical industry]], and government laboratories.
Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry. There is a great deal of overlap between different branches of chemistry, as well as with other scientific fields such as biology, medicine, physics, and several engineering disciplines.
*[[Analytical chemistry]] is the [[analysis]] of material samples to gain an understanding of their [[chemical composition]] and [[structure]]. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.
*[[Biochemistry]] is the study of the [[chemical compound|chemicals]], [[chemical reaction]]s and chemical [[interaction]]s that take place in living [[organism]]s. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related f.e. in [[medicinal chemistry]].
[[Image:Laura Miller at ANL.jpg|right|frame|Chemist Laura Miller of Argonne National Laboratory prepares a new [[fuel cell]] for testing.]]
*[[Inorganic chemistry]] is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of [[organometallic chemistry]].
*[[Organic chemistry]] is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and [[chemical reaction|reactions]] of [[organic compound]]s.
*[[Physical chemistry]] is the study of the physical basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include [[chemical thermodynamics]], [[chemical kinetics]], [[electrochemistry]], [[statistical mechanics]], and [[spectroscopy]]. Physical chemistry has lar |
aysia]], [[Malta]], the [[Marshall Islands]], [[Pakistan]], [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Philippines]], [[Rwanda]], the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Samoa]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Singapore]], [[Swaziland]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]].
English is the most widely learned and used foreign language in the world, and as such, some linguists believe that it is no longer the exclusive cultural emblem of 'native English speakers', but rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures world-wide as it grows in use. Others believe that there are limits to how far English can go in suiting everyone for communication purposes. Many people feel that the use of English through media such as the Internet and its constant, informal use by others has led to a diminution in the importance of using the language correctly, thus resulting in a 'dumbing down' of the English language. English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in [[Europe]] (32.6 per cent), followed by French, German, and Spanish. It is also the most studied in [[Japan]], [[South Korea]] and in the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), where it is compulsory for most [[secondary school]] students. See [[English as an additional language]].
===English as a global language===
''See also: [[English on the Internet]]''
Because English is so widely spoken, it has been referred to as a "[[global language]]". While English is not an official language in many countries, it is the language most often taught as a [[second language]] around the world. It is also, by international treaty, the official language for aircraft/airport communication. Its widespread acceptance as a first or second language is the main indication of its worldwide status.
There are numerous arguments for and against English as a global language. On one hand, having a global language aids in communication and in pooling information (for example, in the scientific community). On the other hand, it leaves out those who, for one reason or another, are not fluent in the global language. It can also marginalise populations whose first language is not the global language, and lead to a [[cultural hegemony]] of the populations speaking the global language as a first language. Most of these arguments hold for any candidate for a global language, though the last two counter-arguments do not hold for languages not belonging to any ethnic group (like [[Esperanto]]).
A secondary concern with respect to the spread of global languages (including major non-English languages such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) is the resulting disappearance of [[minority language]]s, often along with the cultures and religions that are primarily transmitted in those languages. English has been implicated in a number of historical and ongoing so-called '[[language death]]s' and '[[linguicide]]s' around the world, many of which have also led to the loss of cultural heritage. Language death caused by English has been particularly pronounced in areas such as [[Australia]] and [[North America]] where speakers of [[indigenous language]]s have been displaced or absorbed by speakers of English in the process of [[colonisation]].
===Dialects and regional variants===
{{main|List of dialects of the English language}}
{{English dialects}}
The expansiveness of the British and the Americans has spread English throughout the globe. Because of its global spread, it has bred a variety of [[List of dialects of the English language|English dialects]] and English-based [[creole language]]s and [[pidgin]]s.
The major varieties of English in most cases contain several subvarieties, such as [[Cockney]] slang within [[British English]], [[Newfoundland English]] within [[Canadian English]], and [[African American Vernacular English]] ("[[Ebonics]]") within [[American English]]. English is considered a [[pluricentric language]], with no variety being clearly considered the only standard.
Some consider [[Scots language|Scots]] as an English dialect. Pronunciation, grammar and lexis differ, sometimes substantially.
Because of English's wide use as a second language, English speakers can have many different [[accent (language)|accent]]s, which may identify the speaker's native dialect or language. For more distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see [[Regional accents of English speakers]]. For more distinctive characteristics of regional dialects, see [[List of dialects of the English language]].
Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English [[loanword]]s now appear in a great many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence wielded by English speakers. Several pidgins and creole languages have formed on an English base - [[Tok Pisin]] was originally one such example. There are a number of words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words - [[Franglais]], for example, is used to describe [[French language|French]] with a very high English content.
===Constructed variants of English===
*[[Basic English]] is simplified for easy international use. It is used by some aircraft manufacturers and other international businesses to write manuals and communicate. Some English schools in the Far East teach it as an initial practical subset of English.
*[[Special English]] is a simplified version of English used by the [[Voice of America]]. It uses a vocabulary of 1500 words.
*[[English reform]] is an attempt to improve collectively upon the English language.
*[[Seaspeak]] and the related [[Airspeak]] and [[Policespeak]], all based on restricted vocabularies, were designed by Edward Johnson in the [[1980s]] to aid international co-operation and communication in specific areas. There is also a [[tunnelspeak]] for use in the [[Channel Tunnel]].
*[[European English]] is a new variant of the English language created to become the common language in Europe, spoken in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland.
*[[Manually Coded English]] — a variety of systems have been developed to represent the English language with hand signals, designed primarily for use in deaf education.
==Sounds==
{{main|English phonology}}
===Vowels===
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" class="wikitable"
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! Description !! word
|-
! colspan="3" style="text-align:left; background:#dedede"| [[monophthong]]s
|-
| {{IPA|i/iː}} || [[Close front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|ea}}d
|-
| {{IPA|ɪ}} || [[Near-close near-front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|i}}d
|-
| {{IPA|ɛ}} || [[Open-mid front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|e}}d
|-
| {{IPA|æ}} || [[Near-open front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|a}}d
|-
| {{IPA|ɒ}} || [[Open back rounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|o}}d {{footnote|1}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɔ}} || [[Open-mid back rounded vowel]] || p{{bold dark red|aw}}ed {{footnote|2}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɑ/ɑː}} || [[Open back unrounded vowel]] || br{{bold dark red|a}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʊ}} || [[Near-close near-back rounded vowel]] || g{{bold dark red|oo}}d
|-
| {{IPA|u/uː}} || [[Close back rounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|oo}}ed
|-
| {{IPA|ʌ/ɐ}} || [[Open-mid back unrounded vowel]], [[Near-open central vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|u}}d
|-
| {{IPA|ɝ/ɜː}} || [[Open-mid central unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|ir}}d {{footnote|3}}
|-
| {{IPA|ə}} || [[Schwa]] || Ros{{bold dark red|a}}'s {{footnote|4}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɨ}} || [[Close central unrounded vowel]] || ros{{bold dark red|e}}s {{footnote|5}}
|-
! colspan="3" style="text-align:left; background:#dedede"| [[diphthongs]]
|-
| {{IPA|eɪ}} || [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel]] <br> [[Close front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|ay}}ed
|-
| {{IPA|oʊ/əʊ}} || [[Close-mid back rounded vowel]] <br> [[Near-close near-back rounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|o}}de
|-
| {{IPA|aɪ}} || [[Open front unrounded vowel]] <br> [[Near-close near-front rounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|uy}}
|-
| {{IPA|aʊ}} || [[Open front unrounded vowel]] <br> [[Near-close near-back rounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|ough}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || [[Open-mid back rounded vowel]] <br> [[Close front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|oy}}
|}
'''Notes:'''
It is the vowels that differ most from region to region.
Where symbols appear in pairs, the first corresponds to the sounds used in North American English, the second corresponds to English spoken elsewhere.
#North American English lacks this sound; words with this sound are pronounced with {{IPA|/ɑ/}} or {{IPA|/ɔ/}}. According to The Canadian Oxford Dictionary (1998), this sound is present in Standard Canadian English.
#Many dialects of North American English do not have this vowel. See [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Cot-caught merger|''Cot-caught merger'']].
#The North American variation of this sound is a [[r-colored vowel|rhotic vowel]].
#Many speakers of North American English do not distinguish between these two unstressed vowels. For them, ''roses'' and ''Rosa's'' are pronounced the same, and the symbol usually used is [[schwa]] {{IPA|/ə/}}.
#This sound is often transcribed with {{IPA|/i/}} or with {{IPA|/ɪ/}}.
#The letter ''U'' can represent either /u/ or the [[iotation|iotated]] vowel /ju/.
===Consonants===
This is the English Consonantal System using symbols from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).
{|class="wikitable"
! &nbsp;
![[bilabial consonant|bilabial]]
![[labiodental consonant|labio-<br />dental]]
![[interdental consonant|dental]]
![[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
![[palato-alveolar consonant|post-<br />alveolar]]
![[palatal consonant|palatal]]
![[velar consonant|velar]]
![[glottal consonant|glottal]]
|-
|'''[[plosive consonant|plosive]]'''
| style="text-alig |
[http://functions.wolfram.com/ComplexComponents/Abs/35/ functions.Wolfram.com] credits [[Karl Weierstrass]] with introducing the notation |''x''| in [[1841]].</div>
<div id="endnote_Schechter"><sup><small>[[#ref_Schechter|3]]</small></sup> [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0126227608/103-5443484-7306247?v=search-inside&keywords=absolute%20value Schechter, p 260-261]. </div>
[[Category:Numeration]]
[[cs:Absolutní hodnota]]
[[de:Absoluter Betrag]]
[[es:Valor absoluto]]
[[eo:Absoluta valoro]]
[[fr:Valeur absolue]]
[[gl:Valor absoluto]]
[[is:Algildi]]
[[it:Valore assoluto]]
[[he:ערך מוחלט]]
[[nl:Absolute waarde]]
[[ja:絶対値]]
[[pl:Wartość bezwzględna]]
[[pt:Valor absoluto]]
[[ru:Абсолютная величина]]
[[sk:Absolútna hodnota]]
[[sl:Absolutna vrednost]]
[[sr:Апсолутна вредност]]
[[fi:Itseisarvo]]
[[sv:Absolutbelopp]]
[[th:ค่าสัมบูรณ์]]
[[vi:Giá trị tuyệt đối]]
[[tr:Mutlak değer]]
[[uk:Абсолютна величина]]
[[zh:绝对值]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arches National Park</title>
<id>992</id>
<revision>
<id>41037453</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T17:25:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NekoDaemon</username>
<id>239574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:National parks of the United States]] → [[Category:National Parks of the United States]]. Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_protected_area | name = Arches National Park
| iucn_category = II
| image = US_Locator_Blank.svg
| caption =
| locator_x = 70
| locator_y = 84
| location = [[Utah]], [[United States|USA]]
| nearest_city = [[Moab, Utah]]
| lat_degrees = 38
| lat_minutes = 41
| lat_seconds = 0
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 109
| long_minutes = 34
| long_seconds = 0
| long_direction = W
| area = 76,358.98 acres<br><font size="-2">&nbsp; (76,193.01 federal)</font><br>309.01 km²
| established = [[April 12]], [[1929]]
| visitation_num = 733,131
| visitation_year = 2004
| governing_body = [[National Park Service]]
}}
'''Arches National Park''' preserves over 2,000 [[natural arch|natural sandstone arches]], including the world-famous [[Delicate Arch]], in addition to a variety of unique geological resources and formations.
The park is located near [[Moab, Utah]], and is 119 square miles ([[1 E8 m²|309 km²]]) in size. Its highest elevation is 5,653 feet (1,723 m) at Elephant Butte and its lowest elevation is 4,085 feet (1,245 m) at the [[visitor center]]. It receives 10 inches (250 mm) of rain a year on average.
The area, administered by the [[National Park Service]], was originally designated as a [[U.S. National Monument|national monument]] on [[April 12]], [[1929]]. It was redesignated a [[U.S. National Park|national park]] on [[November 12]], [[1971]]. More than 730,000 people visited it in 2004.
==Features==
[[Image:North_&_South_Window_Arches_1.jpg|left|thumb|250px|North Window and South Window Arches]]
Among the notable features of the park are:
* [[Delicate Arch]], a lone-standing arch which has become a symbol of Utah
* [[Balanced Rock]], a large balancing rock
* [[Double Arch]], two arches located close to each other
* [[Landscape Arch]], a very thin, long arch over 300 feet (100 m), the largest in the park
* [[Fiery Furnace (park)|Fiery Furnace]], an area of maze-like narrow passages and tall rock columns
* [[Devil's Garden]], with many arches and columns scattered along a ridge
* [[Dark Angel (park)|Dark Angel]], a free-standing column of dark stone at the end of the Devil's Garden trail
* [[Courthouse Towers]], a collection of tall columns
* [[Petrified dunes]], petrified remnants of [[sand dunes]] blown from the ancient lakes that covered the area
==Geology==
[[Image:Delicate arch 3d.jpg|right|thumb|175px|Delicate Arch, one of the most famous arches in the park. (USGS){{3d_glasses}}]]
The national park lies atop an underground salt bed, which is basically responsible for the arches and spires, balanced rocks, sandstone fins, and eroded monoliths in the area. Thousands of feet thick in places, this salt bed was deposited over the [[Colorado Plateau]] some 300 million years ago when a sea flowed into the region and eventually evaporated. Over millions of years, the salt bed was covered with residue from floods and winds and the oceans that came in intervals. Much of this debris was compressed into rock. At one time this overlying earth may have been one mile thick.
Salt under pressure is unstable, and the salt bed below Arches was no match for the weight of this thick cover of rock. Under such pressure it shifted, buckled, liquefied, and repositioned itself, thrusting the Earth layers upward into domes. Whole sections dropped into cavities. In places they turned almost on edge. [[Geologic fault|Faults]] occurred. The result of one such 2,500-foot displacement, the [[Moab Fault]], is seen from the visitor center.
As this subsurface movement of salt shaped the Earth, surface erosion stripped away the younger rock layers. Except for isolated remnants, the major formations visible in the park today are the salmon-colored [[Entrada Sandstone]], in which most of the arches form, and the buff-colored [[Navajo Sandstone]]. These are visible in layer cake fashion throughout most of the park. Over time water seeped into the superficial cracks, joints, and folds of these layers. Ice formed in the fissures, expanding and putting pressure on surrounding rock, breaking off bits and pieces. Winds later cleaned out the loose particles. A series of free-standing fins remained. Wind and water attacked these fins until, in some, the cementing material gave way and chunks of rock tumbled out. Many damaged fins collapsed. Others, with the right degree of hardness and balance, survived despite their missing sections. These became the famous arches. This is the geologic story of Arches - probably. The evidence is largely circumstantial.
==History==
[[Image:Turret_Arch_1.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Turret Arch]]
Humans have occupied the region since the last [[ice age]] 10,000 years ago. [[Fremont people]] and [[Ancient Pueblo People]] lived in the area up until about 700 years ago. Spanish missionaries encountered Ute and Paitue tribes in the area when they first came through in [[1775]], but the first European-Americans to attempt settlement in the area were the [[Mormon]] [[Elk Mountain Mission]] in [[1855]], but then soon abandoned the area. Ranchers, farmers, and prospectors later settled Moab in the neighboring riverine valley in the 1880s. Word of the beauty in the surrounding [[rock formations]] spread beyond the settlement as a possible tourist destination.
The Arches area was first brought to the attention of the National Park Service by Frank A. Wadleigh, passenger traffic manager of the [[Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad]]. Wadleigh, accompanied by railroad photographer George L. Beam, visited the area in September 1923 at the invitation of Alexander Ringhoffer, a [[Hungary|Hungarian]]-born [[prospector]] living in Salt Valley. Ringhoffer had written to the railroad in an effort to interest them in the tourist potential of a scenic area he had discovered the previous year with his two sons and a son-in-law, which he called the "Devil's Garden" (known today as the "Klondike Bluffs"). Wadleigh was impressed by what Ringhoffer showed him, and suggested to Park Service director Stephen T. Mather that the area be made a national monument.
The following year additional support for the monument idea came from Laurence M. Gould, a University of Michigan graduate student studying the geology of the nearby La Sal mountains, who was shown the scenic area by retired local physician Dr. J.W. "Doc" Williams.
[[image:Landscape arch 20030917 093317 1.1504x807.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Landscape Arch]]
A succession of government investigators examined the area, in part due to confusion as to the precise location. In the process the name "Devil's Garden" was transposed to an area on the opposite side of Salt Valley, and Ringhoffer's original discovery was omitted, while another area nearby, known locally as "The Windows", was included. Designation of the area as a national monument was supported by the Park Service from [[1926]], but was resisted by President [[Calvin Coolidge]]'s Interior Secretary. Finally in April [[1929]], shortly after his inauguration, President [[Herbert Hoover]] signed a presidential proclamation creating Arches National Monument, consisting of two comparatively small, disconnected sections. The purpose of the reservation under the 1906 [[Antiquities Act]] was to protect the arches, spires, balanced rocks, and other sandstone formations for their scientific and educational value. The name "Arches" was suggested by Frank Pinkely, superintendent of the Park Service's southwestern national monuments, following a visit to the Windows section in 1925.
In late [[1938]], President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] signed a proclamation which enlarged the Arches to protect additional scenic features and permit development of facilities to promote tourism. A small adjustment was made by President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] in [[1960]] to accommodate a new road alignment.
In early [[1969]], just before leaving office, President [[Lyndon Johnson]] signed a proclamation substantially enlarging the Arches. Two years later President [[Richard Nixon]] signed legislation enacted by Congress which significantly reduced the area of Arches, but changed its status to a National Park.
==Publicity==
American writer [[Edward Abbey]] was a [[park ranger]] at Arches National Monument when he kept journals that became his book ''Desert Solitaire''. |
A defensive package combining a blitz with zone pass coveragee. Allows the defense to choose the blitzer after the offense shows formation and pass coverage requirements, and features unpredictable blitzes from different linebackers and defensive backs. Invented by coach [[Dick LeBeau]].
{{compactTOC4}}
[[Category:American football terminology| ]]
[[Category:Glossaries|American football]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algorithm</title>
<id>775</id>
<revision>
<id>41965420</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:49:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jidan</username>
<id>258229</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:flowchart.png|frame|right|[[Flowchart|Flowcharts]] are often used to represent algorithms.]]
In [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]], an '''algorithm''' is a procedure (a finite [[set]] of well-defined instructions) for accomplishing some task which, given an initial state, will [[termination|terminate]] in a defined end-state.
Informally, the concept of an algorithm is often illustrated by the example of a [[recipe]], although many algorithms are much more complex; algorithms often have steps that repeat ([[iteration|iterate]]) or require decisions (such as [[Boolean logic|logic]] or [[inequality|comparison]]).
The concept of an algorithm originated as a means of recording procedures for solving mathematical problems such as finding the common divisor of two numbers or multiplying two numbers. The concept was formalized in [[1936]] through [[Alan Turing]]'s [[Turing machines]] and [[Alonzo Church]]'s [[lambda calculus]], which in turn formed the foundation of [[computer science]].
Most algorithms can be implemented by [[computer program]]s.
== History ==
The word ''algorithm'' comes from the name of the 9th century mathematician [[al-Khwarizmi|Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi]]. The word ''[[algorism]]'' originally referred only to the rules of performing [[arithmetic]] using [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numerals]] but evolved via European Latin translation of al-Khwarizmi's name into ''algorithm'' by the 18th century. The word evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems or performing tasks.
The first case of an algorithm written for a [[computer]] was [[Ada Lovelace|Ada Byron]]'s [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine|notes on the analytical engine]] written in 1842, for which she is considered by many to be the world's first [[programmer]]. However, since [[Charles Babbage]] never completed his [[analytical engine]] the algorithm was never implemented on it.
The lack of [[mathematical rigor]] in the "well-defined procedure" definition of algorithms posed some difficulties for mathematicians and [[logic]]ians of the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]]. This problem was largely solved with the description of the [[Turing machine]], an abstract model of a [[computer]] formulated by [[Alan Turing]], and the demonstration that every method yet found for describing "well-defined procedures" advanced by other mathematicians could be emulated on a Turing machine (a statement known as the [[Church-Turing thesis]]). Nowadays, a formal criterion for an algorithm is that it is a procedure that can be implemented on a completely specified Turing machine or one of the equivalent [[formalism]]s.
{{sect-stub}}
== Formalization of algorithms ==
Algorithms are essential to the way [[computer]]s process information, because a [[computer program]] is essentially an algorithm that tells the computer what specific steps to perform (in what specific order) in order to carry out a
specified task, such as calculating employees&#8217; paychecks or printing students&#8217; report cards. Thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations which can be performed by a [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]] system.
Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data is read from an input source or device, written to an output sink or device, and/or stored for further use. Stored data is regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm. The state is stored in a [[data structure]].
For any such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined: specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with, case-by-case; the criteria for each case must be clear (and computable).
Because an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps, the order of computation will almost always be critical to the functioning of the algorithm. Instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly, and are described as starting 'from the top' and going 'down to the bottom', an idea that is described more formally by ''[[control flow|flow of control]]''.
So far, this discussion of the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of [[imperative programming]]. This is the most common conception, and it attempts to describe a task in discrete, 'mechanical' means. Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the [[assignment operation]], setting the value of a variable. It derives from the intuition of '[[memory]]' as a scratchpad. There is an example below of such an assignment.
See [[functional programming]] and [[logic programming]] for alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm.
Some writers restrict the definition of ''algorithm'' to procedures that eventually finish. Others include procedures that could run forever without stopping, arguing that some entity may be required to carry out such permanent tasks. In the latter case, success can no longer be defined in terms of halting with a meaningful output. Instead, terms of success that allow for unbounded output sequences must be defined. For example, an algorithm that verifies if there are more zeros than ones in an infinite random binary sequence must run forever to be effective. If it is implemented correctly, however, the algorithm's output will be useful: for as long as it examines the sequence, the algorithm will give a positive response while the number of examined zeros outnumber the ones, and a negative response otherwise. Success for this algorithm could then be defined as eventually outputting only positive responses if there are actually more zeros than ones in the sequence, and in any other case outputting any mixture of positive and negative responses.
Summarizing the above discussion about what algorithm should consist.
* Zero or more Inputs
* One or more Outputs
* Finiteness or computability
* Definitiveness or Preciseness
=== Implementation ===
An algorithm is a set of steps to perform a computation. Most algorithms will be implemented as [[computer programs]]. They can be expressed in any notation including [[English language|English]] for documenting and research purposes. A more preferred way is to embody (or sometimes called ''codify'') an algorithm by writing of its [[pseudocode]]. [[Pseudocode]] representation avoids ambiguities that are common in English statements. The pseudocode can also be translated into particular programming language more straightforwardly. Algorithms are implemented not only as [[computer program]]s, but often also by other means, such as in a biological [[neural network]] (for example, the [[human brain]] implementing [[arithmetic]] or an insect relocating food), in [[electric circuit]]s, or in a mechanical device.
== Example ==
One of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in an (unsorted) list of numbers. The solution necessarily requires looking at every number in the list, but only once at each. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be stated in [[English language|English]] as
# Let us assume the first item is largest.
# Look at each of the remaining items in the list and make the following adjustment.
#:a. If it is larger than the largest item we gathered so far, make a note of it.
# The latest noted item is the largest in the list when the process is complete.
And here is a more formal coding of the algorithm in [[pseudocode]]:
{{algorithm-begin|name=LargestNumber}}
Input: A non-empty list of numbers ''L''.
Output: The ''largest'' number in the list ''L''.
''largest'' &larr; ''L''<sub>0</sub>
'''for each''' ''item'' '''in''' the list ''L<sub>&ge;1</sub>'', '''do'''
'''if''' the ''item'' > ''largest'', '''then'''
''largest'' &larr; the ''item''
'''return''' ''largest''
{{algorithm-end}}
For a more complex example, see [[Euclid's algorithm]], which is one of the oldest algorithms.
=== Algorithm analysis ===
As it happens, most people who implement algorithms want to know how much of a particular resource (such as time or storage) is required for a given algorithm. Methods have been developed for the [[analysis of algorithms]] to obtain such quantitative answers; for example, the algorithm above has a time requirement of O(''n''), using the [[big O notation]] with ''n'' as the length of the list. At all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values: the largest number found so far, and its current position in the input list. Therefore it is said to have a space requirement of ''O(1)''{{ref|space}}. (Note that the size of the inputs is not counted as space used by the algorithm.)
Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or effort than others. For example, given two different recipes for making potato salad, one may have ''peel the potato'' before ''boil the potato'' while the other presents the steps in the reverse order, yet they both call for these steps to be repeated for all potatoes and end when the potato salad is ready t |
ey}} Wesley, John "A Plain Account of Christian Perfection", ''Works''
<br>'''Other Variations'''
<br> (25) {{note|25-Picirilli}} Picirilli, ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 40 - Picirilli actually objects so strongly to the link between Arminianism and Open theism that he devotes an entire section to his objections. See 59ff
<br> (26) {{note|26-Dongell}} Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'', 45
<br> (27) {{note|27-Picirilli}} Picirilli, ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 42-43, 59ff
<br> (28) {{note|28-Ashby}} Ashby, ''Four Views on Eternal Security'', 146-147
<br> (29) {{note|29-Picirilli}} Picirilli, ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 40
<br> (30) {{note|30-Ridderbos}} Ridderbos, Herman ''Paul: An Outline of His Theology'' trans. John Richard de Witt (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 350-351
<br> (31) {{note|31-Abasciano}} Abasciano, Brian ''Paul’s Use of the Old Testament in Romans 9:1-9: An Intertextual and Theological Exegesis'' (T&T Clark Publishers, 2006), ISBN 0567030733
<br> (32) {{note|32-Abasciano}} Ibid.
<br> (33) {{note|33-Abasciano}} Ibid.
<br> (34) {{note|34-Dongell}} Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry ''Why I am Not a Calvinist'', 76
<br> (35) {{note|35-Barth}} Barth, Markus ''Ephesians'' (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974), 108
<br>'''Comparison to Opposing Views'''
<br> (36) {{note|36-Pawson}} Pawson ''Once Saved, Always Saved?'' 121-124
<br> (37) {{note|37-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 160ff
<br> (38) {{note|38-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' 142ff
<br> (39) {{note|39-Ashby}} Ibid., 138-139
<br> (40) {{note|40-Arminius}} Arminius, ''Writings'' 2:192
<br> (41) {{note|41-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 104-105, 132ff
<br> (42) {{note|42-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' 140ff
<br> (43) {{note|43-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 132
<br> (44) {{note|44-Arminius}} Arminius ''Writings'', II:219ff (the entire treatise occupies pages 196-452)
<br> (45) {{note|45-Pawson}} Pawson ''Once Saved, Always Saved?'', 106
<br> (46) {{note|46-Pawson}} Ibid., 97-98, 106
<br> (47) {{note|47-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 6ff
<br> (48) {{note|48-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' 146-147
<br> (49) {{note|49-Ashby}} Ibid.
<br> (50) {{note|50-Dongell}} Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist''
<br> (51) {{note|51-Pawson}} Pawson ''Once Saved, Always Saved?'' 106
</div>
==External links==
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/arminianism/Arminius/index.htm The Works of Arminius]
* [http://gbgm-umc.org/Umhistory/Wesley/arminian.stm What is an Arminian?] by John Wesley
* [http://gbgm-umc.org/Umhistory/Wesley/sermons/serm-058.stm Sermon #58: "On Predestination"] by John Wesley
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/17-12.htm The Nature of Wesleyan Theology] by J. Kenneth Grider
* [http://www.biblical-theology.com/security/eternal.htm Eternal Security] by Gordon Olson
* [http://www.biblical-theology.com/security/ues.htm Eternal Security] by Daniel Corner
* [http://www.biblicaladvancedbasics.com/Security.pdf Eternal Security] by Frederick E. Lewis
* [http://www.affcrit.com/pdfs/2003/01/03_01_wr.pdf The Perseverance of the Saints] - PDF article showing the differences and similarities between Arminian and Calvinist viewpoints on the perseverance of the saints while arguing for assurance of salvation
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/21-25/22-06.htm Characteristics of Wesley's Arminianism] by Luke L. Keefer, Jr.
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01740c.htm Arminianism] from the Catholic Encyclopedia
* [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/arminianism.html A Comparison of Arminian Theology with the Calvinist Tradition] (from a conservative Calvinist perspective)
* [http://www.gotquestions.org/arminianism.html Is Arminianism Biblical?] (from a Calvinist perspective)
* [http://www.the-highway.com/Arminianism_Exposed2.html Armininaism Exposed] by Mark Herzer (from a Calvinist perspective)
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Methodism]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Reformation]]
[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Arminianism]]
[[de:Remonstranten]]
[[es:Arminianismo]]
[[fr:Arminianisme]]
[[ia:Arminianismo]]
[[nl:Remonstranten]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12523;&#12511;&#12491;&#12454;&#12473;&#20027;&#32681;]]
[[pl:Arminianizm]]
[[sv:Arminianism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Alan Parsons Project</title>
<id>1307</id>
<revision>
<id>40663533</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T03:42:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
<id>419920</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] formatting and related</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''The Alan Parsons Project''' was a British [[progressive rock]] and pop group active between 1975 and 1987 founded by [[Alan Parsons]] and [[Eric Woolfson]].
Most of their titles, especially the early work, share common traits (likely influenced by [[Pink Floyd]]'s ''[[Dark Side of the Moon]]'', on which Parsons was the [[audio engineer]] in [[1973 in music|1973]]): they were [[concept album]]s, they tended to begin with an instrumental introduction which faded into the first song, often had an instrumental piece in the middle of the second [[gramophone record|LP]] side, and concluded with a quiet, sad, or powerful song. (The opening instrumental was largely done away with by 1980; no later Project album except "Eye In The Sky" featured one.)
The group was also unusual for its lack of a single lead vocalist. Lead vocal duties alternate between Woolfson (mostly for slow or sad songs) and a stream of guest vocalists chosen by their vocal style to complement each song. Woolfson sang lead on many of the group's hits (including "Time" and "Eye In The Sky") and the record company pressured Parsons to use him more, but Parsons preferred "real" singers, which Woolfson admitted he was not. In addition to Woolfson, Chris Rainbow, Lenny Zakatek, and Colin Blunstone made regular appearances. Other singers, such as Ambrosia's David Pack, Vitamin Z's Geoff Barradale, and Procol Harum's Gary Brooker, have recorded only once or twice with the Project. Parsons himself only sang lead on one song ("The Raven") and can be heard singing backup on another ("To One in Paradise"). Both of those songs appeared on the group's first record, ''[[Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'', an album containing music based on the stories and poetry of [[Edgar Allan Poe]].
Although the vocalists varied, a small number of musicians worked with the Alan Parsons Project regularly. They, and Parsons' production, are the reason listeners can instantly recognize a song as a Project work even with an unfamiliar singer. Andrew Powell (composer and arranger of orchestral music throughout the life of the Project), Ian Bairnson (guitar) and Richard Cottle (synthesizer and saxophone) were integral parts of the Project's sound. Powell is also notable for having composed a [[film score]] in the Project style for [[Richard Donner]]'s film ''[[Ladyhawke]]''.
Behind the revolving lineup and the regular sidemen, the true core of the Project was the duo of Parsons and Woolfson. Eric Woolfson was a lawyer by profession, but is a classically-trained composer and pianist as well. Alan Parsons was a successful producer and accomplished engineer. Both worked together to craft noteworthy songs with impeccable fidelity, and almost all songs on Project albums are credited to "Woolfson/Parsons."
== Members ==
* [[Alan Parsons]], keyboards, production, engineering;
* [[Eric Woolfson]], keyboards, executive production
* [[Andrew Powell]], keyboards, orchestral arrangements;
* [[Ian Bairnson]], guitars
*Bass: [[David Paton]] (1975-1985); Laurie Cottle (1985-1987)
*Drums, Percussion: [[Stuart Tosh]] (1975-1977); Stuart Elliott (1977-1987)
*Saxophones, Keyboards: [[Mel Collins]] (1980-1984); Richard Cottle (1984-1987)
*Vocals: [[Eric Woolfson]], Lenny Zakatek, [[John Miles (musician)|John Miles]], [[Chris Rainbow]], [[Colin Blunstone]], [[David Paton]], and many others including [[Arthur Brown (musician)|Arthur Brown]].
==Trivia==
*In the [[Austin Powers]] movie ''[[Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me|The Spy who Shagged Me]]'', [[Dr. Evil]]'s laser was called "The Alan Parsons Project," after the "noted Cambridge physicist Dr. Parsons"
*The project for developing a new site for the [[National Library for the Blind]] is officially called "The Alan Parsons Project"
*"Sirius", the instrumental piece that opens ''Eye In The Sky,'' is popular in the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] as background music during player introductions. It is perhaps best remembered as playing this role for all six [[Chicago Bulls]] championship teams of the 1990s.
*"Sirius" and ''Eye In The Sky'''s other instrumental, "Mammagamma", were used as music-under for a [[1987]] [[The Weather Channel|Weather Channel]] special on thunderstorms (this was far before the network engaged in regular non-live programming), alongside the music of [[Jean-Michel Jarre]].
* In [[The Simpsons]] episode 3F21 [[Homerpalooza]], Homer thought that The Alan Parsons Project was "some sort of hovercraft".
* [[Grandaddy]]'s promo-only single "[[Alan Parsons In A Winter Wonderland|Alan Parsons in a Winter Wonderland]]" is a humourous cover of the Christmas song [[Winter Wonderland]], with lyrics altered to make the song about Alan Parsons.
== Discography ==
* [[1975 in music|1975]] ''[[Tale |
Ray Goetz]], B. G. DeSylva and Ballard MacDonald)
*1924 - ''Sweet Little Devil'' (lyrics by B. G. DeSylva)
*1924 - ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1924]]'' (lyrics by B. G. DeSylva)
*1924 - ''Primrose'' (lyrics by [[Desmond Carter]] and Ira Gershwin). Premiered in [[West End|London]].
*1924 - ''[[Lady, Be Good!]]'' (lyrics by [[Ira Gershwin]])
*1925 - ''Tell Me More!'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin and B. G. DeSylva)
*1925 - ''Tip-Toes'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1925 - ''Song of the Flame'' (lyrics by [[Otto Harbach]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], and musical collaboration by [[Herbert Stothart]])
*1926 - ''[[Oh, Kay!]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
**Includes the famous song, "[[Someone to Watch Over Me]]"
**Revived in 1928 and 1990 (the latter with an all-Black cast)
*1927 - ''[[Strike Up The Band]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin). Premiered in [[Long Branch, New Jersey]].
**Revised and produced on Broadway in 1930
*1927 - ''[[Funny Face]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1928 - ''Rosalie'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin and [[P. G. Wodehouse]], co-composed with [[Sigmund Romberg]])
*1928 - ''Treasure Girl'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1929 - ''Show Girl'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin and [[Gus Kahn]])
*1930 - ''[[Girl Crazy]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1931 - ''[[Of Thee I Sing]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
**Awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize for Drama]] for 1932 and was the first [[Musical theater|musical]] to win that award, although only Ira Gershwin and the [[book (musical theater)|bookwriters]] were awarded the Prize and not George Gershwin
**Revived in 1933 and 1952
*1933 - ''Pardon My English'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1933 - ''Let 'Em Eat Cake'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1935 - ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin and [[DuBose Heyward]])
**Revived on Broadway in 1942, 1943, 1953, 1976 ([[Houston Grand Opera]] winner of the [[Tony Award]] for Most Innovative Revival of a Musical), and 1983
'''Works featuring original Gershwin songs'''
*1916 - ''The Passing Show of 1916'' - "Making of a Girl" co-composed with [[Sigmund Romberg]], lyrics by Harold Atteridge
*1918 - ''Hitchy-Koo of 1918''
*1918 - ''Ladies First''
*1919 - ''Good Morning, Judge''
*1919 - ''The Lady in Red''
*1919 - ''The Capitol Revue''
*1920 - ''Dear Mabel''
*1920 - ''[[Ed Wynn]]'s Carnival''
*1920 - ''The Sweetheart Shop''
*1920 - ''Sinbad'' - "Swanee"
*1920 - ''Broadway Brevities of 1920''
*1920 - ''Piccadilly to Broadway''
*1921 - ''Blue Eyes''
*1921 - ''Selwyn's Snapshots of 1921''
*1921 - ''The Perfect Fool''
*1922 - ''The French Doll''
*1922 - ''For Goodness Sake''
*1922 - ''The Dancing Girl''
*1923 - ''Little Miss Bluebeard'' ([[play]])
*1923 - ''Nifties of 1923''
*1926 - ''Americana of 1926''
*1930 - ''9:15 Revue''
*1936 - ''The Show is On''
**Revived in 1937
'''Works interpolating Gershwin songs posthumously''':
*1953 - ''At Home With [[Ethel Waters]]'' - "[[Lady Be Good]]"
*1956 - ''[[Mr. Wonderful]]''
*1983 - ''My One And Only'' - an adaptation of the music from ''[[Funny Face]]''
*1986 - ''Uptown...It's Hot!'' - "[[Lady Be Good]]"
*1992 - ''[[Crazy For You]]'' - [[Musical theater|musical]] adapting George and Ira Gershwin [[Tin Pan Alley]] and Broadway songs
**Awarded the [[Tony Award for Best Musical]]
*1999 - ''The Gershwins' Fascinating Rhythm'' - [[revue]] with songs by George and Ira Gershwin
*2002 - ''[[Elaine Stritch]] at Liberty'' - ''But Not For Me''
*2002 - ''Back From Broadway'' - one-time concert featuring songs by George Gershwin
===[[Musical film]]s===
*1923 - ''The Sunshine Trail'' - theme song of same title (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1931 - ''[[Delicious (film)|Delicious]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1937 - ''[[Shall We Dance (film)|Shall We Dance]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1937 - ''[[A Damsel in Distress (RKO)|A Damsel in Distress]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1938 - ''[[Goldwyn Follies]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1947 - ''[[The Shocking Miss Pilgrim]]'' ([[Kay Swift]] adapted a number of unpublished Gershwin melodies and Ira Gershwin wrote the lyrics.)
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Gershwin Prelude No 2 Brian E Young.ogg|title=Prelude No 2|description=from ''Three Preludes for Piano''|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==See also==
* [[List of notable brain tumor patients]]
==References==
* Hyland, William G.''George Gershwin : A New Biography'' Praeger Publishers ([[August 30]] [[2003]]) ISBN 0275981118
* Mawer, Deborah (Editor). Cross, Jonathan (Series Editor). ''The Cambridge Companion to Ravel (Cambridge Companions to Music)'' Cambridge University Press ([[August 24]] [[2000]]) ISBN 0521648564
==External links==
* [http://www.carolinaclassical.com/gershwin/index.html George Gershwin: American Genius]
* [http://www.gershwin.com Official Site]
* http://www.classical.net/music/comp.lst/gershwin.html
* [http://www.anecdotage.com/browse.php?category=people&who=Gershwin Anecdotage: Gershwin] Gershwin Anecdotes (with sources noted)
* [http://www.gershwinfan.com GershwinFan.com - The Gershwin Educational Fanpage]
* [http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?id=5813 George Gershwin] at the [[Internet Broadway Database]]
{{Porgy}}
[[Category:1898 births|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:1937 deaths|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 30s|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:American composers|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:High school dropouts|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Jewish American musicians|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Jewish classical musicians|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Jewish composers and songwriters|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Modernism|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Musical theatre composers|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:American pianists|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Brooklynites|Gershwin, George]]
[[ar:جورج غيرشوين]]
[[da:George Gershwin]]
[[de:George Gershwin]]
[[es:George Gershwin]]
[[fr:George Gershwin]]
[[hr:George Gershwin]]
[[it:George Gershwin]]
[[he:ג'ורג' גרשווין]]
[[nl:George Gershwin]]
[[ja:ジョージ・ガーシュウィン]]
[[no:George Gershwin]]
[[pl:George Gershwin]]
[[pt:George Gershwin]]
[[ro:George Gershwin]]
[[simple:George Gershwin]]
[[fi:George Gershwin]]
[[sv:George Gershwin]]
[[uk:Гершвін Джордж]]
[[zh:乔治·格什温]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grimms Law</title>
<id>13067</id>
<revision>
<id>15910709</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-13T23:57:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*#redirect [[Grimm's law]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Grimm's law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grammatical gender</title>
<id>13068</id>
<revision>
<id>41111114</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T02:56:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PuzzletChung</username>
<id>24164</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Removing: io Modifying: pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In linguistics, '''noun classes''', also called '''grammatical [[gender]]''' is a type of [[inflection]]. A language is said to have noun classes when [[nouns]] are divided into groups according to characteristics which the concepts they represent are conventionally said to have. This division can manifest itself in two ways: through [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] characteristics of the nouns themselves, and through morphological changes in other [[parts of speech]] that refer to nouns ([[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]]).
== Types of noun classes ==
Most Indo-European languages distinguish feminine, masculine and sometimes neuter noun classes. But this system of classification is not universal. The [[Algonquian languages]], for example, classify nouns into ''animate'' and ''inanimate'' classes. In other languages, both masculine and feminine nouns are considered to be part of a broader noun class of ''person'', either generally, or only in the plural, as in the [[North Caucasian languages]] and some [[Dravidian languages]]. Other languages, such as the [[Alamblak language]], classify objects based on their shape: oblong objects and animals are named using masculine nouns, and round ones using feminine nouns. A more or less discernible [[Correlation between object shape and noun gender|correlation between the noun gender and the shape of the respective object]] is also found in some languages even in the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family.
Not all languages have noun classes. Modern [[English language|English]], for example, does not as is discussed in greater detail in the section on gender-based classification. On the other hand, [[Niger-Congo languages]] can have ten or more noun classes. In [[Swahili]], for instance, nouns that begin with ''m-'' in the singular and ''wa-'' in the plural denote persons, and nouns that begin with ''m-'' in the singular but ''mi-'' in the plural denote plants. In the sentence below, the [[Marker (linguistics)|class marker]] ''ki-'' (marking singular nouns in class number 7) shows up on both the [[adjective]] (''-kubwa'') and the [[verb]] (''-anguka''), to express their relation to the class 7 noun ''kitabu'' 'book':
:'''ki'''tabu '''ki'''kubwa '''ki'''naanguka <br>
(cl.7-book cl.7-big cl.7-<small>PRESENT</small>-fall) <br>
:'The big book falls.'
Common criteria for defining noun classes include:
* animate vs. inanimate (as with [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]])
* rational vs. non-rational (as with [[Tamil language|Tamil]])
* human vs. non-human
* male vs. other
* male human vs. other
* masculine vs. feminine (as with [[French language|French]] and other [[Romance languages]])
* masculine vs. feminine vs. neuter (as with [[Latin]], [[Romanian langu |
to [[solid state physics]] problems. The electronic structure of a crystal is in general described by a [[band structure]], which defines the energies of electron orbitals for each point in the [[Brillouin zone]]. Ab initio and semiempirical calculations yield orbital energies, therefore they can be applied to band structure calculations. Since it is time consuming to calculate the energy for a molecule, it is even more time consuming to calculate them for the entire list of points in the Brillouin zone.
The most popular classes of ab initio electronic structure methods:
* [[Hartree-Fock]]
* [[Møller-Plesset perturbation theory]]
* [[Multi-configurational self-consistent field]] (MCSCF)
* [[Configuration interaction]]
* [[multireference configuration interaction | Multi-Reference Configuration Interaction]]
* [[Coupled cluster]]
* [[Quadratic configuration interaction]]
* [[Quantum Monte Carlo]]
* [[Density functional theory]]
* [[Generalized Valence Bond]] (GVB)
* [[Modern valence bond theory]]
The [[Atoms in Molecules]] model developed by [[Richard Bader]] was developed in order to effectively link the quantum mechanical picture of a molecule, as an electronic wavefunction, to chemically useful older models such as the theory of [[Lewis pair]]s and the [[Valence bond theory|valence bond model]]. Bader has demonstrated that these empirically useful models are connected with the [[topology]] of the quantum charge density.
===Chemical dynamics===
Once the electronic and [[molecular geometry | nuclear]] variables are [[separation of variables | separated]] (within the Born-Oppenheimer representation), in the time-dependent approach, the [[wave packet]] corresponding to the nuclear [[degrees of freedom]] is propagated via the [[time evolution]] [[operator (physics)]] associated to the time-dependent [[Schrödinger equation]] (for the full [[molecular Hamiltonian]]). In the [[complementarity (physics) | complementary]] energy-dependent approach, the time-independent [[Schrödinger equation]] is solved using the [[scattering theory]] formalism. The potential respresenting the interatomic interaction is given by the [[potential energy surface]]s. In general, the [[potential energy surface]]s are coupled via the [[vibronic coupling]] terms.
The most popular methods for propagating the [[wave packet]] associated to the [[molecular geometry]] are
* the [[split operator technique]],
* the [[Multi-Configuration Time-Dependent Hartree]] method (MCTDH),
* the [[semiclassical]] method.
[[Molecular dynamics]] examines (using [[Newton's laws of motion]]) the time-dependent behavior of systems, including vibrations or Brownian motion, most often with a classical mechanical description as well. Combined with [[density functional theory]] methods molecular dynamics is called [[Car-Parrinello method]].
== Semiempirical methods ==
=== Electronic structure ===
Within the framework of Hartree-Fock calculations, some pieces of information (such as two-elecron integrals) are sometimes approximated or completely omitted. In order to correct for this loss, semiempirical methods are parametrized, that is their results are fitted by a set of parameters, normally in such a way as to produce results that best agree with experimental data, but sometimes to agree with ab initio results.
Semiempirical methods followed what are often called empirical methods where the two-electron part of the [[Hamiltonian]] is not explicitly included. For π-electron systems, this was the [[Huckel method]] proposed by [[Erich Hückel]] and for all valence electron systems, the [[Extended Huckel method]] proposed by [[Roald Hoffmann]].
Semiempirical calculations are much faster than their ab initio counterparts. Their results, however, can be very wrong if the molecule being computed is not similar enough to the molecules in the database used to parametrize the method.
Semiempirical calculations have been most successful in the description of organic chemistry, where only a few elements are used extensively and molecules are of moderate size.
As with empirical methods, we can distinguish methods that are:-
* restricted to [[Pi electron semiempirical methods|pi-electrons]], and those
* restricted to [[Valence electron semiempirical methods|valence electrons]],
the latter being by far the largest group of methods.
== Molecular mechanics ==
In many cases, large molecular systems can be modelled succesfully avoiding quantum mechanical calculations entirely. [[Molecular mechanics]] simulations, for example, use a single classical expression for the energy of a compound, for instance the [[harmonic oscillator]]. All constants appearing in the equations must be obtained beforehand from experimental data or ab initio calculations.
The database of compounds used for parameterization - (the resulting set of parameters and functions is called the [[Force field (chemistry)|force field]]) - is crucial to the success of molecular mechanics calculations. A force field parameterized against a specific class of molecules, for instance proteins, would be expected to only have any relevance when describing other proteins.
== Software packages ==
A number of software packages that are self-sufficient and include many quantum-chemical methods are available. The following is a table illustrating the capabilities of various software packages, (corrections to table entries requested). There is a separate list of [[Valence bond codes|Valence Bond Programs]].
{| border="1"
|-
|Package||Molecular Mechanics||Semi-Empirical||[[Hartree-Fock]]||[[Post-Hartree-Fock methods]]||[[Density Functional Theory]]||Periodic
|-
|[[ACES (computational chemistry)|ACES]]||N||N||Y||Y||N||N
|-
|[[Amsterdam Density Functional|ADF]]||N||N||N||N||Y||Y
|-
|[[AMPAC]]||N||Y||N||N||N||N
|-
|[[CADPAC]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[CASTEP]]||N||N||N||N||Y||Y
|-
|[[COLUMBUS]]||N||N||Y||Y||N||N
|-
|[[CRYSTAL]]||N||N||Y||N||Y||Y
|-
|[[DALTON]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[DMol3]]||N||N||N||N||Y||Y
|-
|[[GAUSSIAN]]||Y||Y||Y||Y||Y||Y
|-
|[[GAMESS]]||N||Y||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[JAGUAR]]||Y||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[MOLCAS]]||Y||Y||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[MOLPRO]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[MOPAC]]||N||Y||N||N||N||Y
|-
|[[MPQC]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[NWChem]]||Y||N||Y||Y||Y||Y
|-
|[[PLATO (Package for Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals)|PLATO]]||Y||N||N||N||Y||Y
|-
|[[PQS (chemical)|PQS]]||Y||Y||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[PSI (computational chemistry)|PSI]]||N||N||Y||Y||N||N
|-
|[[TURBOMOLE]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[Q-Chem]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[Vienna Ab-initio Simulation Package|VASP]]||N||Y||N||N||N||N
|}
== See also ==
* [[Basis sets used in computational chemistry]]
* [[Cheminformatics]]
* [[International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_chemistry#Computational chemistry| Important publications in computational chemistry]]
* [[Molecular dynamics]]
* [[Molecular mechanics]]
* [[Molecular modelling]]
* [[Quantum chemistry]]
* [[Statistical mechanics]]
== References ==
*T. Clark ''A Handbook of Computational Chemistry'', Wiley, New York (1985)
*C. J. Cramer ''Essentials of Computational Chemistry'', John Wiley & Sons (2002)
*F. Jensen ''Introduction to Computational Chemistry'', John Wiley & Sons (1999)
*D. Rogers ''Computational Chemistry Using the PC, 3rd Edition'', John Wiley & Sons (2003)
*A. Szabo, N.S. Ostlund, ''Modern Quantum Chemistry'', McGraw-Hill (1982)
*D. Young ''Computational Chemistry: A Practical Guide for Applying Techniques to Real World Problems'', John Wiley & Sons (2001)
*David Young's [http://www.ccl.net/cca/documents/dyoung/topics-orig/compchem.html Introduction to Computational Chemistry]
== External links ==
*[http://www.ccl.net/ Computational Chemistry List]
*[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jhome/33822 Journal of Computational Chemistry]
*[http://www.ccc.uga.edu Center for Computational Chemistry]
*[http://srdata.nist.gov/cccbdb/ NIST Computational Chemistry Comparison and Benchmark DataBase] - Contains a database of thousands of computational results for hundreds of molecules
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Main_Page Computational Chemistry Wiki] - Wiki of computational chemistry results
*[http://www.vigyaancd.org/ VigyaanCD]: A free software workbench for computational chemistry
*[http://www.vcclab.org/ VCCLAB]: Virtual Computational Chemistry Laboratory
[[Category:Computational chemistry| ]]
[[Category:Theoretical chemistry]]
[[Category:Computational science]]
{{BranchesofChemistry}}
[[ca:Química computacional]]
[[de:Computerchemie]]
[[es:Química computacional]]
[[id:Kimia komputasi]]
[[it:Chimica computazionale]]
[[ja:計算化学]]
[[pl:Chemia obliczeniowa]]
[[th:เคมีการคำนวณ]]
[[vi:Hóa học tính toán]]
[[zh:计算化学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crash (novel)</title>
<id>6020</id>
<revision>
<id>41294141</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T09:39:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.152.205.254</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The story */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Crash''''' is a novel by [[J. G. Ballard]] first published in [[1973]] about a [[subculture]] of people who are sexually aroused by car crashes. They re-enact famous car crashes (such as those that killed [[James Dean]] and [[Jayne Mansfield]]), cause accidents themselves, and document other crashes. It was a highly controversial novel: famously one publisher's reader returned the verdict "This author is beyond psychiatric help. Do Not Publish." The novel was adapted and made into a film in [[1996]], also called ''[[Crash (1996 film)|Crash]].
==The story==
Crash is a story about car-crash [[fetish]]ist, who gets their sexual kicks by staging and participating in very real car-crashes, often with very real consequences. Ballard writes the book in a cold and detached language, giving the impression of an [[engineering report]] or a [[medical journal]].
The stor |
ators would participate. The actual number ranged from 350,000 (as quoted by the police) to 700,000 (as quoted by protesters) and even 1,000,000 (quoted from a pro-[[Falun Gong]] agency), but the generally accepted figure is 500,000, which is just less than one tenth of the population. Their route stretched from Victoria Park football field through Causeway and Central to the Government's Central offices. Nonetheless, the large numbers meant that people were still starting the march as late as 10PM.
In dissatisfaction with the NPC's interpretation of Basic Law that universal suffrage was impossible for Chief Executive and Legislative Council elections in 2007 and 2008 respectively, and in fear of the loss of [[freedom of speech]] fueled by the heated patriotic debate and abrupt pause of popular radio programmes allegedly suppressed by Beijing authorities, another similar protest march occurred on the same day in [[2004]]. The peaceful march took the same route from the previous year from Victoria Park through Hennessy road and by Admiralty and Central MTR stations, and ended at the Government's Central Offices. The numbers were estimated to be 530,000 by organisers, whilst the police gave numbers around 200,000. The probable lower numbers were attributed to the fact that it was the hottest [[1 July]] ever recorded, at 34 degrees Celsius. Another suggested reason is that a large number of people stayed up late until the early morning to watch the [[2004 European Football Championship|Euro 2004]] match between [[Portugal]] and the [[Netherlands]]. There was a noticeable fall in the general anger of the crowds when compared to the 2003 march, attributed to the fact that the Hong Kong economy was showing signs of recovery, and the dissolution of Article 23.
However, there was much criticism as to the slogan for the [[2004]] protest by some Beijing bureaucrats and pro-Beijing political parties. The phrase "Return power to the people" was particularly inflammatory because it implied that power was taken away from the people, which in fact they never had. Some pro-democracy political leaders such as [[Lau Chin-shek]] had considered changing the phrase, but many criticized this move as it was seen to be satisfying Beijing. The organizers kept the phrase. The planners instructed the protesters to wear white, as a sign of democracy. Furthermore, unlike the previous year, the protest march started as soon as the football field venues were 80% full, causing the protest to start half hour earlier. Learning from the previous year, planning was much more smooth, allowing more of the road to be open as well as starting earlier. Most of the protesters had finished their march by 7PM, ending earlier than the previous year.
In [[2005]] a follow up protest was attempted, however only about 21,000 poeple participated in the march, as the economy had come back since [[2003]]. That led some people to claim that many Hong Kong protesters from the first two marches care more about their economic livelihood than political reform.
===Resignation of Tung Chee-hwa and interpretation of Basic Law===
:''Main article: [[Tung Chee Hwa's resignation]]''
On [[March 12]], [[2005]], the Chief Executive, Tung Chee-hwa, resigned. Tung's position is now filled by [[Donald Tsang]], formerly the [[Chief Secretary for Administration]] — a popular bow tie-wearing career civil servant who was educated at Harvard and received a knighthood for his service during British colonial rule. Immediately after Tung's resignation, Tsang assumed the role of ''acting'' Chief Executive, which he stepped down from prior to putting himself forward as a candidate for the post of Chief Executive. Tsang was subsequently [[Hong Kong Chief Executive election, 2005|chosen]] to be the next Chief Executive, and his term will expire in 2007.
After Tung's resignation, there was dispute over the length of the term of the Chief Executive. To most local legal professionals, the length is obviously five years, under whatever circumstances. It should also be noted that the wordings in the Basic Law on the term of the Chief Executive is substantially different from the articles in the PRC constitution concerning the length of term of the president, premier, etc. Nonetheless, legal experts from the mainland said it is a convention a successor will only serve the remainder of the term if the position is vacant because the predecessor resigned. The [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|Standing Committee]] of the [[National People's Congress]] exercise its right to interpret the Basic Law, and affirm that the successor will only serve the remainder of the term. Many in Hong Kong saw this an adverse impact on the rule of law in the territory, as the Central People's Government interpret the Basic Law to serve its need, that is, a two-year probation for Tsang, instead of a five-year term.
===Political Reform Package===
On [[December 4]] [[2005]], [[December 2005 protest in Hong Kong|people in Hong Kong demonstrated]] against Donald Tsang's proposed reform package, before a vote on [[December 21]]. Turnout estimates ranged from 63,000 to 250,000.
The march has send a strong message to hesitant pro-democracy legislators to follow public opinion. The pro-government camp claims to have collected 700,000 signatures on a petition backing Mr. Tsang's reform package. This number, however, is unlikely to influence pro-democraty lawmakers. The Reform Package debate has seen the return of key political figure and former Chief Secretary Anson Chan, raising speculations of a possible run up for the 2007 Chief Executive election, though she dismissed having a personal interest in standing for the next election.
In an attempt to win last minutes votes from moderate pro-democracy lawmakers, the government amended its reform package on [[December 19]] by proposing a gradual cut in district councils appointed members. Their number would be reduced from 102 to 68 by 2008. It would then be decided in 2011 whether to scrap the remaining seats in 2012 or in 2016.
The amendment has been seen as a reluctant response by Donald Tsang to give satisfaction to the democratic demands of the [[December 4]] demonstrations. The move has been qualified "Too little, too late" by pan-democrates in general.
On [[December 21]], [[2005]], the reform political reform package was vetoed by the pro-democracy lawmakers. Chief Secretary [[Rafael Hui]] openly criticised pro-democracy [[Martin Lee]] and [[Bishop Zen]] for blocking the democratic development in Hong Kong.
==Nationality and citizenship==
===Chinese nationality===
Before and after the [[handover]], the PRC recognises the ethnic Chinese people in Hong Kong as its [[Chinese nationality law|citizens]]. The PRC issues [[Home Return Permit]]s for them to enter the mainland China.
Most residents of Hong Kong are [[Chinese nationality law|PRC citizens]], by virtue of the [http://www.info.gov.hk/trans/jd/jd6.htm PRC Memorandum] to the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]]. Hong Kong issues the [http://www.immd.gov.hk/ehtml/hktraveldoc_1.htm HKSAR passport] through its Immigration Department to all PRC citizens who are permanent residents of Hong Kong (permanent residency implies that they have the [[right of abode]] in Hong Kong) .
The HKSAR passport is not the same as the ordinary PRC passport (which is issued to residents of [[mainland China]]), and only permanent residents of Hong Kong who are PRC citizens are eligible to apply. To acquire the status of permanent resident one has to have "ordinarily resided" in Hong Kong for a period of seven years and adopted Hong Kong as their permanent home. Therefore, citizenships between residents of [[mainland China]] and residents Hong Kong are differentiated.
Interestingly, new immigrants from mainland China (still are Chinese Citizens) to Hong Kong are denied from getting an ordinary PRC passport from the mainland authorities, and are not eligible to apply for an HKSAR passport. They usually hold the [[Document of Identity]] (DI) as the travel document, until the permanent resident status is obtained after seven years of residence.
[[Naturalisation]] as a PRC Citizen is common among ethnic Chinese people in Hong Kong who are not PRC Citizens. Some who have surrendered their [[Chinese nationality law|PRC citizenship]], usually those who have emigrated to foreign countries and have retained the permanent resident status, can apply for PRC citizenship at the Immigration Department.
Naturalisation of persons of non-Chinese ethnicity is rare. A notable example is [[Michael Rowse]], a permanent resident of Hong Kong and the current Director-General of Investment Promotion of Hong Kong Government, naturalised and became a PRC citizen, for the offices of secretaries of the [[Government of Hong Kong|policy bureaux]] are only open to PRC citizens.
===British nationality===
''Main article: [[British nationality law and Hong Kong]]
Hong Kong residents who were born in Hong Kong in the colonial era (about 3.5 million) could acquire the British Dependent Territories citizenship (BDTC). HK residents who were not born in Hong Kong could also naturalize as a BDTC before the handover. To allow them to retain the status of British national while preventing a possible flood of immigrants from Hong Kong, the United Kingdom created a new nationality status, [[British National (Overseas)]] (BN(O)) that Hong Kong British Dependent Territories citizens could apply for. Holders of the BN(O) passports, however, have no right of abode in the UK. See [[British nationality law and Hong Kong]] for details.
British National (Overseas) status was given effect by the [http://www.britishcitizen.info/HKBNO1986.pdf Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986]. Article 4(1) of the Order provided that on and after [[1 July]] [[1987]], there would be a new form of British nationality, the holders |
[[yeast]] and some [[bacterium|bacteria]]. It is used either directly or as its [[sodium]], [[potassium]] or [[calcium]] salt. The mechanism starts with the absorption of benzoic acid in to the cell. If the intra cellular [[pKa]] changes to 5 or lower the [[Fermentation|anaerobic fermentation]] of [[glucose]] through phosphorfructokinase is decreased by 95%. The effectivity of benzoic acid and benzoate is depending on the pKa of the food.{{ref|boom}} Acidic food and beverage like [[fruit juice]] ([[citric acid]]), sparkling drinks ([[carbon dioxide]]), [[soft drinks]] ([[phosphoric acid]]), [[Pickling|pickles]] ([[vinegar]]) or other acidified food are preserved with benzoic acid and benzoates.
=== Synthesis ===
Benzoic acid is used to make a large number of chemicals, for example:
'''[[Benzoyl chloride]]'''
The chlorination of benzoic acid can be done with [[thionyl chloride]], [[phosgene]] or one of the [[phosphorus chlorides|chlorides of phosphorus]].
As very reactive [[acid chloride]] [[benzoyl chloride]] is the important starting material for several other benzoic acid derivates like [[benzyl benzoate]] and [[benzoyl peroxide]].
'''[[Benzyl benzoate]]'''
Benzoic acid esters (for example [[benzyl benzoate]]) are also used as [[Flavouring|artificial flavours]] and [[insect repellent]]s.
'''[[Benzoyl peroxide]]'''
Mixing [[sodium peroxide]] with [[benzoyl chloride]] gives [[benzoyl peroxide]], which is a [[initiator|radical starter]] in [[polymerization]] reactions and also used in cosmetic products.
'''[[Terephthalic acid]]'''
With the [[Kolbe-Schmitt reaction]] it is possible to introduce a second carboxylic acid group. Under high presure and alkaline conditions [[carbondioxide]] reacts directly to the terephtalate. Terephtalic acid is the starting material for several [[polyester]] [[polymers]] like [[PET]].
(Most of terephthalic acid is manufactured from [[p-Xylene]] by direct oxidation with oxygen, described in the section industrial production of benzoic acid of this article.)
'''Benzoat [[plasticizer|plasticizers]]'''
The Glycol- diethylengylcol- and triethyleneglycol esters are obtained by [[transesterification]] of [[methyl benzoate]] with the corresponding [[glycol]] derivate. A second synthesis starts with the benzoylchloride and the glycol derivate. The use of these plasticizer is similar to those of the terephthalic acid ester.
'''[[Phenol]]'''
The [[decarboxylation]] reaction at 300-400°C lead to phenol. The temperatures can be lowered to 200°C by the addition of catalytic amounts of [[copper|copper(II) salt]]s. The phenol can be converted to [[cyclohexanol]], which is than starting material for [[nylon]] synthesis.
Most of the benzoic acid is used for [[sodium benzoate]], benzoate [[plasticizer|plasticizers]], [[phenol]] synthesis and [[benzoyl chloride]] synthesis.
==Biology and health effects==
[[Gum benzoin]] contains up to 20% of benzoic acid and 40% benzoic acid esters.{{ref|tomokuni}}
Benzoic acid is present as part of [[hippuric acid]] (N-Benzoylglycine) in [[urine]] of [[mammals]], especially [[herbivores]] (Gr. hippos, horse, ouron, urine). Humans produce about 0.44 g/L [[hippuric acid]] per day in their urine, and if the person is exposed to [[toluene]] or benzoic acid it can rise above that level.{{ref|krebs}}
For humans the [[IPCS]] suggests a provisional tolerable intake would be 5 mg/kg body weight per day.{{ref|innovation}} {{ref|concise}} [[Cats]] have a significantly lower tolerance against benzoic acid and its [[salts]] than [[rats]] and [[mice]]. Lethal dose for cats can be as low as 300 mg/kg body weight, where as mice die of a intake of 6000 mg/kg body weight.{{ref|bedford}} The [[LD50|LD<font size ="-1"><sub>50</sub></font>]] for rats is 1700 mg/kg, and for humans 500 mg/kg.{{ref label|innovation|8|a}} {{ref label|concise|9|a}}
==Chemistry==
Reactions may occur in either the '''[[aromatic ring]]''' or the '''[[carboxylic group]]''':
=== Aromatic ring ===
[[Image:Benzoic_acid-chemical-reaction-1.png|440px|benzoic acid aromatic ring reactions]]
[[Substitution reactions]] at the [[aromatic ring]] are possible and are influenced by the effects of the [[carboxylic group]]. [[Electrophilic aromatic substitution]] reaction will take place mainly in 3-position to the electron-withdrawing [[carboxylic group]].
=== Carboxylic group ===
All the reactions mentioned for [[carboxylic acid]]s are also possible for benzoic acid.
*Benzoic acid [[esters]] are the product of the acid catalysed reaction with [[alcohols]].
*Benzoic acid [[amides]] are more easily available by using activated acid derivatives (such as [[benzoyl chloride]]) or by coupling reagents used in [[peptide synthesis]] like [[Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide|DCC]] and [[DMAP]].
*The more active benzoic [[acid anhydride|anhydride]] is formed by dehydration using [[acetic anhydride]] or [[Diphosphorus pentoxide|phosphorus pentoxide]].
*The most reactive acid derivatives such as [[Acyl halide|acid halides]] are easily obtained by mixing with [[halogenation]] agents like [[phosphorus chlorides]] or [[thionyl chloride]].
*[[Orthoesters]] can be obtained by the reaction of [[alcohols]] under acidic water free conditions with [[benzonitrile]].
*Reduction to [[benzaldehyde]] and [[benzyl alcohol]] is possible using [[DIBAL-H]] or [[Lithium aluminium hydride|LiAlH<sub>4</sub>]].
*The copper catalysed [[decarboxylation]] of [[benzoate]] to benzene is effected by heating with [[quinoline]].
[[Image:Benzoic_acid-chemical-reaction-2.png|490px|benzoic acid acid group reactions]]
==References==
#{{note|römpps}}{{cite book | author= Neumüller O-A | year = 1988| title = Römpps Chemie-Lexikon| edition = 6| publisher = Frankh'sche Verlagshandlung | location = Stuttgart| id = ISBN 3-440-04516-1 }}
#{{note|liebig}}{{cite journal | author= [[Justus von Liebig|Liebig J]], [[Friedrich Wöhler|Wöhler F]]| title= | journal=Liebigs An Chem| year=1832 | volume=3 | pages=249}}
#{{note|salkowski}}{{cite journal | author= Salkowski E| title= | journal=Berl Klin Wochenschr| year=1875 | volume=12 | pages=297-298}}
#{{note|boom}}{{cite journal | author=Pastrorova I, de Koster CG, Boom JJ | title= Analytic Study of Free and Ester Bound Benzoic and Cinnamic Acids of Gum Benzoin Resins by GC-MS HPLC-frit FAB-MS | journal=Phytochem Anal | year=1997 | volume=8 | pages=63-73 }}
#{{note|tomokuni}}{{cite journal| author= Tomokuni K, Ogata M| title=Direct Colorimetric Determination of Hippuric Acid in Urine| journal=Clin Chem | year=1972 | pages=349-351| volume=18}}
#{{note|krebs}}{{cite journal | author=Krebs HA, Wiggins D, Stubbs M | title= Studies on the mechanism of the antifungal action of benzoate | journal= Biochem J | year=1983 | volume=214 | pages=657-663 }} </ref>
#{{note|bedford}}{{cite journal| author= Bedford PG, Clarke EG |title=Experimental benzoic acid poisoning in the cat|journal=Vet Rec |year=1972|pages=53-58|volume=90}} PMID 4672555
# {{note|concise}}{{note label|innovation|8|a}}[http://www.the-innovation-group.com/ChemProfiles/Benzoic%20Acid.htm Chemical Profiles] (updated [[2002-04-03]])
# {{note|concise}}{{note label|concise|9|a}}[http://www.inchem.org/documents/cicads/cicads/cicad31.htm Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 26: BENZOIC ACID AND SODIUM BENZOATE]
* {{cite journal | author= Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel Bindu Nair | title= Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Benzyl Alcohol, Benzoic Acid, and Sodium Benzoate| journal=Int J Tox | year=2001 | volume= 20 | issue=Suppl. 3 | pages=23-50 }}
== External links ==
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc01/icsc0103.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0103]
*{{PubChemLink|243}}
*[http://www.chemicalland21.com/arokorhi/industrialchem/organic/BENZOIC%20ACID.htm ChemicalLand]
[[Category:Organic compounds]]
[[Category:Organic acids]]
[[Category:Carboxylic acids]]
[[Category:Aromatic compounds]]
[[bg:Бензоена киселина]]
[[de:Benzoesäure]]
[[es:Ácido benzoico]]
[[fr:Acide benzoïque]]
[[ko:벤조산]]
[[it:Acido benzoico]]
[[lv:Benzoskābe]]
[[nl:Benzoëzuur]]
[[ja:安息香酸]]
[[pl:Kwas benzoesowy]]
[[pt:Ácido benzóico]]
[[sv:Bensoesyra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boltzmann distribution</title>
<id>4107</id>
<revision>
<id>39291905</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T03:26:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jheald</username>
<id>141421</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>another slight clarification</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], the '''Boltzmann distribution''' predicts the [[distribution function]] for the fractional number of particles ''N<sub>i</sub> / N'' occupying a set of states ''i'' which each have energy ''E<sub>i</sub>'':
:<math>{{N_i}\over{N}} = {{g_i e^{-E_i/kT}}\over{Z(T)}}</math>
where ''k'' is the [[Boltzmann constant]], ''T'' is temperature (assumed to be a sharply well-defined quantity), <math>g_i</math> is the degeneracy, or number of states having energy <math>E_i</math>, ''N'' is the total number of particles:
:<math>N=\sum_i N_i\,</math>
and ''Z(T)'' is called the [[partition function]], which can be seen to be equal to
:<math>Z(T)=\sum_i g_i e^{-E_i/kT}</math>
Alternatively, for a single system at a well-defined temperature, it gives the probability that the system is in the specified state. The Boltzmann distribution applies only to particles at a high enough temperature and low enough density that quantum effects can be ignored, and the particles are obeying [[Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics]]. (See that article for a derivation of the Boltzmann distribution.)
The Boltzmann distribution is often expressed in terms of &beta;=''1/kT'' where &beta; is referred to as [[thermodynamic beta]]. The term ''e |
sh]], and [[Russian language|Russian]]. [[Dutch language|Dutch]] is taught in [[counties]] bordering the [[Netherlands]]. [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] are part of the syllabus of [[classical education]] which is offered by some secondary schools.
According to a [[2004]] survey, two thirds of Germany's citizens have at least basic knowledge of English. About 20% consider themselves as speakers of French, followed by those of Russian (18%), Italian (6.1%), and Spanish (5.6%). The high number of Russian speakers is a result of the [[GDR]]'s close relation to the Soviet Union &mdash; more than half of the Germans in the East speak Russian, compared to 5.5% in the western part of the country (a big part of them is also originaly from the East).
[[Danish language|Danish]], [[Low German]], [[Sorbian]], and [[Frisian]] are officially recognized and protected as minority languages per the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] in their respective regions.
As speakers of [[Romany]] are living in all parts of Germany, the federal government has promised to take action to protect the language. Until now, [[Hesse]] is the only ''Land'' that has followed Berlin's announcement and implemented concrete measures to support speakers of Romany.
{{start box}}
|+ Protected Minority Languages in Germany
|-
! Language !! States
|-
|[[Danish language|Danish]] || [[Schleswig-Holstein]]
|-
|[[North Frisian language|North Frisian]] || [[Schleswig-Holstein]]
|-
|[[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland Frisian]]|| [[Lower Saxony]]
|-
|[[Low German]] || [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Lower Saxony]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]]
|-
|[[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]] || [[Saxony]]
|-
|[[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]] || [[Brandenburg]]
|-
|[[Romany]] || [[Hesse]] (see text)
{{end box}}
== Literacy ==
Over 99% of those of age 15 and above are estimated to be able to read and write.
==Statistics ==
Age structure (2003):
0-14 years: 14.7%
15-64 years: 67.3%
65 years and over: 18%
Population growth rate: 0.0% (2004)
Birth rate: 8.56 births/1,000 population (2003)
Death rate: 10.35 deaths/1,000 population (2003)
Net migration rate: 4.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
Sex ratio:
{{start box}}
|-
|at birth:
|1.06 male(s)/female
|-
|under 15 years:
|1.05 male(s)/female
|-
|15-64 years:
|1.03 male(s)/female
|-
|65 years and over:
|0.62 male(s)/female
|-
|total population:
|0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
{{end box}}
Infant mortality rate: 4.2 deaths (within one year) per 1,000 live births (2003)
Life expectancy at birth (2001):
{{start box}}
|-
|total population:
|78.29 years
|-
|male:
|75.59 years
|-
|female:
|81.34 years
{{end box}}
Total fertility rate: 1.42 children born/woman (2004)
== External Links ==
{{commons|Demographie Deutschlands}}
[[Category:Demographics by country|Germany]]
[[Category:Geography of Germany]]
[[Category:German society]]
[[Category:Metropolitan areas of Germany| ]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[de:Demografie Deutschlands]]
[[es:Demografía de Alemania]]
[[fr:Démographie de l'Allemagne]]
[[he:דמוגרפיה של גרמניה]]
[[pt:Demografia da Alemanha]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Germany</title>
<id>11930</id>
<revision>
<id>42143779</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:44:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ksenon</username>
<id>541820</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Germany table}}
[[Image:Frankfurt-Skyline-NilsJeppe.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Frankfurt]] is Germany's financial center]]
[[Image:Berlin-brandenburg-gate.jpg|thumb|300px|Since reunification, Germany faces low growth rates]]
'''[[Germany]]''' is one of the world's highest developed market '''[[Economics|economies]]'''. It is the world's third largest economy in [[United States dollar|USD]] [[exchange rate|exchange-rate]] terms, the fifth largest by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) and the largest economy in [[Europe]].
Recent performance has not been dynamic, however, and the German economy is marked by vulnerability to external shocks, domestic structural problems, and continued difficulties in fueling formerly [[Communism|communist]] [[East Germany]].
Germans describe their economic system as a "[[social market economy]]". An extensive array of [[Social security|social services]] is provided. Although the state intervenes in the economy through the provision of [[subsidies]] to selected sectors and the ownership of some segments of the economy, competition and [[free enterprise]] are promoted as a matter of government policy.
== History ==
From the [[1948]] [[currency]] reform until the early [[1970]]s, West Germany experienced almost continuous economic expansion (''see also'': [[Wirtschaftswunder]]), but real [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth slowed and even declined from the mid-1970s through the [[recession]] of the early [[1980]]s. The economy then experienced eight consecutive years of growth that ended with a downturn beginning in late [[1992]]. Since [[German reunification|reunification]] in [[1990]], Germany has seen annual average real growth of only about 1.5% and stubbornly high [[unemployment]]. The best performance since reunification was registered in [[2000]], when real growth reached 3.0%. In [[2003]], Germany experienced a negative GDP growth about -0.1%. Estimated growth rate in [[2006]]: +2.0%.
{| {{prettytable}} border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
! align="right" | Year
! align="center" | GDP growth rate
|-
! align="center" | 2002
| align="center" | +0.2%
|-
! align="center" | 2003
| align="center" | -0.1%
|-
! align="center" | 2004
| align="center" | +1.6%
|-
! align="center" | 2005
| align="center" | +0.9%
|-
|}
== General view ==
The heart of the German economy is the [[industry sector]] (28.6% of GDP), though its share in GDP and the number of employees continue to decline. Since the late 1970s, most of the people work in the steadily growing [[service sector]] (70.3% of GDP), agriculture is of small importance (1.1% of GDP).
The German economy is heavily export-oriented, with exports accounting for more than one-third of [[national output]] (since spring 2003, Germany exports in absolute figures more goods than every other country). As a result, exports traditionally have been a key element in German macroeconomic expansion. Germany is a strong advocate of closer European economic integration, and its economic and commercial policies are increasingly determined by agreements among [[European Union]] (EU) members. Germany uses the common European currency, the [[Euro]], and its [[Monetary policy of central banks|monetary policy]] is set by the [[European Central Bank]].
Despite this external vulnerability, most foreign and German experts consider domestic structural problems to be mainly responsible for recent sluggish performance. They note that
*an inflexible [[labour market]] is a main cause of persistently high unemployment
*the same is true for high non-wage labour costs
*heavy bureaucratic [[regulation]]s burden many businesses and the process of starting new businesses
Nevertheless, the export oriented economy is doing well (exports grew 50% during the last 5 years), the main problem is a weak home market, in part due to a low consumer confidence. Therefore, some experts believe that Germany's current trouble doesn't result from domestic structural problems, but from stagnating wages over more than a decade. Germany finances its reunification to a large extent by social insurance contributions, forcing up non-wage labour costs. To conserve the competitiveness of German workers, the unions abandon high wage claims since the mid-1990s.
More than ten years after the unification of the two German states, great progress has been made in raising the standard of living in eastern Germany, introducing a market economy and improving infrastructure there. At the same time, the process of convergence between East and West is taking longer than originally expected and, on some measures, has stagnated since the mid-1990s. Eastern economic growth rates have been slower than in the West in recent years, unemployment is twice as high, prompting many skilled easterners to seek work in the West, and productivity continues to lag. Eastern consumption levels are dependent on public net financial transfers from West to East totalling about $65 [[billion]] per year, or over 4% of the GDP of western Germany. The German news magazine "[[Der Spiegel]]" estimates the total reunification costs between 1990 and 2003 at €1.25 [[trillion]]. In addition to social assistance payments, the government plans to extend funds to promote eastern economic development through [[2019]].
== Industries ==
== Media & Advertising ==
The German TV market is divided into two parts: Two publicly-funded television stations, [[ARD]] and [[ZDF]], and some private television stations, mainly [[RTL Television|RTL]] (owned by [[Bertelsmann]]), [[Sat.1]] and [[Pro7]].
[[Bild]] is Europe's best-selling newspaper, dominating the German [[tabloid]] market. The most important subscription newspapers are [[Süddeutsche Zeitung]] and [[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]], important news magazines are [[Der Spiegel]] and [[Der Stern]].
The German advertising industry grew in 2005 by about 5%, after several years of stagnation. The outlook on 2006 is good, not least because of [[FIFA World Cup]] 2006, that is hosted by Germany.
== Machinery, Cars & Heavy Industry ==
[[BMW]]; [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]]; [[DaimlerChrysler]]; [[MAN AG|MAN]]; [[Porsc |
andy''' ([[April 8]], [[1897]] – [[July 7]], [[1988]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Civil service|civil servant]]. Gandy, who at age twenty-one left her native [[New Jersey]] for [[Washington, D.C.]], was the [[secretary]] to [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] for fifty-four years. Hoover called her "indispensable" and she exercised great behind-the-scenes influence on Hoover and the workings of the Bureau. Following Hoover's death in [[1972]], she spent weeks destroying his "Personal File," thought to be where the most incriminating material he used to manipulate and control the most powerful figures in Washington was kept.
==Background==
[[Image:Annie Gandy.jpg|frame|right|Annie Gandy, her mother, painted by [[Thomas Eakins]].]]
Gandy, "a [[wraith]]-like, grim-faced spinster from [[New Jersey]]" (in Athan Theoharis and John Cox's phrase), was born in [[Rockville, New Jersey|Rockville]], one of three children (two daughters and a son) of Franklin Dallas and Annie (Williams) Gandy. She grew up in [[Fairton, New Jersey|Fairton]] or [[Port Norris, New Jersey|Port Norris]] (sources differ) and graduated from [[Bridgeton, New Jersey|Bridgeton]] High School. In [[1918]], aged twenty-one, she moved to [[Washington, D.C.]], where she later took classes at Strayer Business College and [[George Washington University]]'s [[law school]].
Gandy briefly worked in a department store in Washington before she found a job as a file clerk at the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in [[1918]]. Within weeks, she went to work as a typist for Hoover, effective [[March 25]], [[1918]], having told Hoover in her interview she had "no immediate plans to marry." She, like Hoover, would never marry, both being [[J._Edgar_Hoover#Personal_life|completely devoted]] to the Bureau.
[[Image:Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg|thumb|right|225px|[[J. Edgar Hoover]], director of the F.B.I, photographed in 1961. Gandy worked for him from 1921 to his death in 1972.]]
When Hoover went to the Bureau of Investigation (as it was then known) as its assistant director on [[August 22]], [[1921]], he specifically requested Miss Gandy return from vacation to help him in the new post. Hoover became director of the Bureau in [[1924]] and Gandy continued in his service. She was promoted to "office assistant" on [[August 23]], [[1937]], and "executive assistant" on [[October 1]], [[1939]]. Though she would receive promotions in her [[civil service]] grade subsequently, she would retain her title as executive assistant to her retirement on [[May 2]], [[1972]], the day Hoover died. Hoover said of her "if there is anyone in this Bureau whose services are indispensable I consider Miss Gandy to be that person." Despite this, Curt Gentry reported:
:Theirs was a rigidly formal relationship. He'd always called her 'Miss Gandy' (when angry, barking it out as one word). In all those fifty-four years he had never once called her by her first name.
Theoharis and Cox would say "her stern face recalled [[Cerberus]] at the gate," a view echoed by Anthony Summers in his life of Hoover, who also pictured Gandy as Hoover's first line of defense against the outside world. When [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Robert F. Kennedy]], Hoover's nominal boss, had a direct telephone line installed between their offices, Hoover refused to answer the phone. "Put that damn thing on Miss Gandy's desk where it belongs," Hoover would declare.
Curt Gentry would describe her influence:
:Her genteel manner and pleasant voice contrasted sharply with this domineering presence. Yet behind the politeness was a resolute firmness not unlike his, and no small amount of influence. Many a career in the Bureau had been quietly manipulated by her.
:Even those who disliked him, praised her, most often commenting on her remarkable ability to get along with all kinds of people. That she had held her position for fifty-four years was the best evidence of this, for it was a Bureau tradition that the closer you were to him, the more demanding he was.
William C. Sullivan, an agent with the Bureau for three decades, reported in his memoir when he worked in the public relations section answering mail from the public, he gave a correspondent the wrong measurements for Hoover's personal popover recipe, relying on memory rather than the files. Gandy, ever protective of her boss, caught the error and brought it to Hoover's attention. The director then placed an official letter of reprimand in Sullivan's file for the lapse. [[W. Mark Felt]], deputy associate director of the Bureau, wrote in his memoir that Gandy "was bright and alert and quick-tempered&mdash;and completely dedicated to her boss."
==The Files==
[[J. Edgar Hoover]] died during the night of [[May 1]]-[[May 2]], [[1972]]. When his housekeeper, Annie Fields, discovered the body on the morning of the second, her second call (after telephoning acting director [[Clyde Tolson]]) was to Gandy, who learned the news at 8:40 A.M. Within an hour, the "D List", "d" standing for destruction, was being distributed and the destruction of files began. However, ''[[The New York Times]]'' quoted an anonymous F.B.I. source in the spring of [[1975]] that "Gandy had begun almost a year before Mr. Hoover's death and was instructed to purge the files that were then in his office."
[[Image:Patrickgrey.jpeg|right|frame|[[L. Patrick Gray]], was appointed Acting FBI Director by President Nixon after Hoover's death.]]
Anthony Summers reported that [[G. Gordon Liddy]] stated his sources in the F.B.I. said "by the time [[L. Patrick Gray|Gray]] went in to get the files, Miss Gandy had already got rid of them." The day after Hoover died, [[L. Patrick Gray]], who had been named acting director by President [[Richard Nixon]] upon Tolson's resignation from that position, went to Hoover's office. Gandy paused from her work to give Gray a tour. He found file cabinets open and packing boxes being filled with papers. She informed him the boxes contained personal papers of Hoover's. Gandy stated Gray flipped through a few files and approved her work, but Gray was to deny he looked at any papers. Gandy also told Gray it would be a week before she could clear Hoover's effects out so he could move into the suite.
Gray reported to Nixon that he had secured Hoover's office and its contents. However, he had sealed only Hoover's personal inner office, where no files were stored, not the entire suite of offices. Since [[1957]], Hoover's "Official/Confidential" files, containing material too sensitive to include in the Bureau's central files, had been kept in the outer office, where Gandy sat. Curt Gentry reported that Gray would not have known where to look in Gandy's office for the files, as her office was lined floor to ceiling with filing cabinets. And without her index to the files, he would not have been able to locate incriminating material for files were deliberately mislabeled, e.g. President Nixon's file was labeled "Obscene Matters".
The next day, [[May 4]], she turned over twelve boxes of the "Official/Confidential" containing 167 files and 17,750 pages to [[W. Mark Felt|Mark Felt]]. Many of them contained derogatory information. Gray told the press that afternoon that "there are no dossiers or secret files. There are just general files and I took steps to preserve their integrity." Gandy retained the "Personal File".
Gandy worked on going through Hoover's "Personal File" in the office until [[May 12]]. She then transferred at least thirty-two file drawers of material to the basement rec room of Hoover's Washington home at [http://www.mapquest.com/maps/map.adp?searchtype=address&country=US&addtohistory=&searchtab=home&address=4936+30th+place+nw&city=washington&state=dc&zipcode= 4936 Thirtieth Place, Northwest], where she would continue her work from [[May 13]] to [[July 17]]. Gandy later testified nothing official had been removed from the Bureau's offices, "not even his badge." There the destruction was overseen by [[John P. Mohr]], the number three man in the Bureau after Hoover and Tolson. They were aided by [[James Jesus Angleton]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s counterintelligence chief, whom Hoover's neighbors saw removing boxes from Hoover's home. Mohr would claim the boxes Angleton removed were cases of spoiled wine.
When the [[United States House of Representatives|House]] [[U.S. House Committee on Government Oversight|Committee on Government Oversight]] investigated the F.B.I.'s spying on and harassment of [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] and others in [[1975]], Gandy was called to testify. "I tore them up, put them in boxes, and they were taken away to be shredded," she told the congressmen about the papers. The Bureau's Washington field office had F.B.I. drivers transport the material to Hoover's home, then once Gandy had gone through the material, the drivers transported it back to the field office in the [[Old Post Office Building (Washington)|Old Post Office Building]] on Pennsylvania Avenue where it was shredded and burned.
Gandy stated that Hoover had left standing instructions to destroy his personal papers upon his death and that this instruction was confirmed by Tolson and Gray. Gandy stated that she destroyed no official papers, that everything was personal papers of Hoover. The staff of the subcommittee did not believe her, but she told the committee "I have no reason to lie." Representative [[Gene Andrew Maguire]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]-[[New Jersey]]), a freshman member of the [[Ninety-fourth Congress of the United States|94th Congress]], said "I find your |
been associated with underage drinking, partly due to it's relatively low alcohol content and partly due to low prices.
[[Category:Brands of beer]]
[[Category:Australian beer]]
[[de:Fosters Lager]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Friends</title>
<id>11315</id>
<revision>
<id>42130523</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:46:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tombadevil</username>
<id>751201</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Friends (disambiguation)]].
{{Unreferenced}}
{{infobox television |
| show_name = Friends
| image = [[Image:Friends.PNG|200px]]
| caption =
| rating = {{TV-14}}
| format = [[Sitcom]]
| runtime = approx. 0:22 (per episode)
| creator = [[David Crane (television)|David Crane]] and [[Marta Kauffman]]
| starring = [[Jennifer Aniston]]<br>[[Courteney Cox|Courteney Cox Arquette]]<br>[[Lisa Kudrow]]<br>[[Matt LeBlanc]]<br>[[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]]<br>[[David Schwimmer]]
| country = [[United States|USA]]
| network = [[NBC]]
| first_aired = [[September 22]], [[1994]]
| last_aired = [[May 6]], [[2004]]
| num_episodes = 236
|}}
'''''Friends''''' was a long-running [[United States|American]] [[television]] [[situation comedy|sitcom]] centered on the lives of a group of six [[Twenty something|twenty-somethings]] (eventually [[Thirty something|thirty-somethings]]) consisting of three men and three women living in [[New York City]].
The program was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions in association with [[Warner Bros. Television]] for [[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]] in the [[United States|US]], first broadcast on that network and followed by other [[Friends broadcast details|broadcast networks]] in numerous countries throughout the world. In the US, its first episode was aired on [[September 22]], [[1994]], the last on [[May 6]], [[2004]].
== Overview ==
''Friends'' is one of the most successful sitcoms in the US. By the end of the series the six main cast members were each paid US$1,000,000 per episode. [[Advertisement]]s during the series finale, which [[List of most-watched television episodes|attracted an audience of over 52 million viewers]], cost $2,000,000 for a 30-second spot in the [[United States]] and CAD$190,000 in [[Canada]]. The last episode was released on [[DVD]] 5 days after its [[Broadcasting|broadcast]].
The show focused on the lives of a group of six friends living in a state of [[arrested development]]: spoiled Daddy's girl [[Rachel Green]]; compulsively clean chef [[Monica Geller]]; wise-cracking, perennially unlucky-in-love, underconfident office drone [[Chandler Bing]]; oversexed, clueless actor [[Joey Tribbiani]]; divorced [[paleontologist]] nerd [[Ross Geller]]; and flaky, positive, [[massage|masseuse]], and aspiring folk [[singer-songwriter]] [[Phoebe Buffay]]. As the pilot begins, Rachel has just left her fiancé Barry at the altar and moves in with her childhood best friend, Monica. The pair live across the hall from Chandler and Joey. They hang out with Monica's brother, Ross &ndash; who recently divorced his lesbian wife &ndash; and Phoebe, the "free spirit" of the bunch and Monica's old roommate. The settings for the show include [[Monica's apartment]], [[Chandler and Joey's apartment]] and the coffee shop downstairs, [[Central Perk]].
{{spoiler}}
After cutting herself off from her father's money, Rachel got her first job as a [[waitress]] in the coffee shop and later becomes a personal shopper at [[Bloomingdale's]], then a buyer for [[Ralph Lauren]]. Monica struggled for the first several seasons for success, and later became head chef at a well-respected restaurant. Chandler eventually switched to a career in advertising by the last few seasons. After on-and-off success as a soap opera actor Joey's career eventually stabilized with a regular part on a soap opera from which he was initially fired earlier in the series' run. Paleontologist Ross eventually becomes a college professor. Phoebe makes out a living as a singer-songwriter and a masseuse.
A constant story line throughout the series was the on-again/off-again romance between Ross and Rachel, and later in the series, the developing relationship between Chandler and Monica.
The show's [[theme song]], "[[I'll Be There for You (Theme from "Friends")|I'll Be There For You]]" by [[The Rembrandts]], became a major hit after a Tennessee [[disc jockey]] looped it into a full length track and played it on the radio. The band's record label required them to write additional material and re-record the track as a full-length song, which peaked on the [[Billboard Hot 100]] chart at #17.
== Cast members ==
[[Image:TV The One After Ross Says Rachel.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Chandler Bing|Chandler]] and [[Monica Geller|Monica]] share a kiss (episode: The One After Ross Says Rachel)]]
=== Main characters ===
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Role !! Actor
|-
| [[Rachel Green|Rachel Karen Green]] || [[Jennifer Aniston]]
|-
| [[Monica Geller|Monica E. Geller]] || [[Courteney Cox|Courteney Cox Arquette]]
|-
| [[Phoebe Buffay]] || [[Lisa Kudrow]]
|-
| [[Joey Tribbiani|Joseph Francis Tribbiani Jr.]] || [[Matt LeBlanc]]
|-
| [[Chandler Bing|Chandler Muriel Bing]] || [[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]]
|-
|[[Ross Geller|Ross Eustace Geller]] || [[David Schwimmer]]
|}
'''See also:''' ''[[List of significant others of Friends]]'' and ''[[List of guest stars on Friends]]''
==Celebrity Cameos==
Throughout its ten year run the show had numerous celebrity cameos who included Julia Roberts, Brad Pitt, Winona Ryder, George Clooney and others.
== Running gags ==
[[Image:Phoebe Buffay 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Lisa Kudrow]] as [[Phoebe Buffay]] in [[Friends]]. In this picture she is playing a guitar in a [[New York City|New York]] coffee shop named [[Central Perk]].]]
''Friends'' had many running gags throughout the span of the show. Some of the most famous include:
* '''The One With/Where [episode name]''': Almost every episode name starts with these three words.
* '''Fat Monica''': Monica, now slim, was [[obese]] as a child.
*'''Gay Chandler''': Chandler was often painted with the possibility of being [[homosexuality|gay]], despite his determination to prove himself as the heterosexual he actually was. His friends and colleagues used to think so, his father is gay, and sometimes it seems that in subconscious mind, something might be there. For example: In the first season first episode, he had seen speaking to himself - "Sometimes I wish I was a lesbian".
* '''Gunther likes Rachel''': When Gunther appeared in an episode it usually involved his anything-but-secret crush on Rachel, who remains oblivious to his feelings throughout most of the show's run.
* '''Ross' tendency to marry''': Ross marries a total of three times throughout the course of the show, all of which end in divorce.
* '''[[Phoebe's music]]''': Phoebe was often a musician at Central Perk and was known for her rather unusual, original songs.
* '''Oh...My...God!''': Janice's catchphrase; used as her introductory line in her later guest appearances.
* '''Chandler's speech''': Chandler has a strange way of speaking, in which he emphasizes the wrong word in his sentences. One exaggerated example, where Ross was mocking Chandler's speech pattern: "The hills are alive with the sound (pause) OF music". In "The One Where No One's Ready", Joey wore all of Chandler's clothes and mocked him by saying, "Hi, I'm Chandler. Could I (pause) BE wearing any more clothes?"
*'''How ''You'' Doin'?''': This is Joey's pick-up line.
*'''The Magna Doodle''': The [[Fisher-Price]] [[Magna Doodle]] almost always had something humorously written or drawn on it. They also wrote respectful slogans to the 9/11 victims after the September 11 attacks.
* '''The Grandma Killer''': In several episodes, usually when one of the cast was reading a newspaper or watching TV, someone refers to a serial killer who strangles grandmas and shoves them in ovens. This was first referred to in the episode 'The One With The Baby In The Bus'.
''For a full list of gags, see [[Running gags in Friends]].''
== Cultural legacy ==
[[Image:Friendspurses.jpg|right|thumb|225px|''Friends'' handbags, on sale at a mall in Florida.]]
''Friends'' has, in some areas, made a notable contribution to language, fashion and, to a lesser extent, women's attitudes. The use of "so" to mean "very" or "really" was not invented by any ''Friends'' writer, but it is quite arguable that the extensive use of the phrase in the series encouraged its use in everyday life. [http://www.news.utoronto.ca/bin5/040107a.asp] Also commonly said by the characters, particularly Monica, was the loud "I know!" The series has also been noted for its impact on everyday-fashion and [[Haircut|hair-styles]]. [[Jennifer Aniston]], in particular, had her hair-style copied by many women. Along with this, Joey Tribbiani's catchphrase, "How you doin'?" has become a popular part of American slang, often used as a pick-up line or when greeting friends. The show also inspired the cultural meme of the [[laminated list]].
== Spinoffs ==
{{main|Joey (sitcom)}}
''Joey'' premiered [[September 9]], [[2004]] on NBC. It centres on the ''Friends'' character [[Joey Tribbiani]], still played by LeBlanc, who moved to [[Los Angeles]] to advance his career as an actor. Past ''[[Friends]]'' cast members are expected to have [[cameo appearance]]s on the show from time to time, though as of December 2005, none have, and none have been asked. It has been hinted at that [[Matthew Perry]] will be the first to, however.
Although ''Joey'' debuted to strong ratings its numbers have steadily decreased since then, there is |
ar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Crimean War]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cheshire</title>
<id>7406</id>
<revision>
<id>41912290</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:52:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grstain</username>
<id>74943</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sort; consistency; tidy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the English county. For other uses see [[Cheshire (disambiguation)]]''
{| class="toccolours" style="border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin-left: 1em" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="300"
|+ <big>'''Cheshire'''</big>
|-
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center; background: white;"|[[Image:EnglandCheshire.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Geography
|-
! width="45%" | Status
| [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] & (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
! Origin
| [[Traditional counties of England|Historic]]
|-
! Region
| [[North West England]]
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''<br />- Total<br />- Admin. council<br />- Admin. area
| [[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 25th]]<br />[[1 E9 m²|2,343]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]<br />[[List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area|Ranked 25th]]<br />2,083 km&sup2;
|-
! Admin HQ
| [[Chester]]
|-
! [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
| GB-CHS
|-
! [[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
| 13
|-
! [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3
| UKD22
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Demographics
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Population]]'''<br />- Total ([[2004]] est.)<br />- [[Density]]<br />- Admin. council<br />- Admin. pop.
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 18th]]<br />992,600<br />424 / km&sup2;<br />[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 14th]]<br />680,000
|-
! Ethnicity
| 98.3% White
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:arms-cheshire.jpg|200px|Arms of Cheshire County Council]]<br />Cheshire County Council<br />http://www.cheshire.gov.uk/
|-
! Executive
| [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
*[[Gwyneth Dunwoody]]
*[[Mike Hall (politician)|Mike Hall]]
*[[Helen Jones]]
*[[Andrew Miller]]
*[[Stephen O'Brien]]
*[[George Osborne]]
*[[Christine Russell]]
*[[Helen Southworth]]
*[[Derek Twigg]]
*[[Ann Winterton]]
*[[Nicholas Winterton]]
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Districts
|-
|colspan=2|<center>[[Image:Cheshire_Ceremonial_Numbered.png]]</center>
#[[Ellesmere Port and Neston]]
#[[City of Chester|Chester]]
#[[Crewe and Nantwich]]
#[[Congleton (borough)|Congleton]]
#[[Macclesfield (borough)|Macclesfield]]
#[[Vale Royal]]
#[[Halton (borough)|Halton]] (Unitary)
#[[Warrington]] (Unitary)
|}
'''Cheshire''' (or archaically the ''County of Chester'') is a [[county palatine|palatine]] [[Counties of England|county]] in [[North West England]]. Its county town is the city of [[Chester, England|Chester]]. It is one of the most affluent counties in [[England]], with numerous rural towns and villages. It borders the [[Ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial counties]] of [[Merseyside]], [[Greater Manchester]], [[Derbyshire]], [[Staffordshire]] (with [[Stoke-on-Trent]]), and [[Shropshire]]. It also borders the unitary authorities of [[Flintshire]] and [[Wrexham]] in [[Wales]].
Some northern parts of the county are effectively [[suburb]]s of [[Manchester]] or [[Liverpool]], and many of those who work in these cities commute from other parts of the county.
Cheshire's largest town is [[Warrington]] &mdash; although half of the town lying to the north of the [[River Mersey]] it is traditionally part of [[Lancashire]]. The administrative centre for Cheshire is [[Chester]], the historical [[county town]]. Other important towns in Cheshire are: [[Northwich]], [[Crewe]], [[Wilmslow]], [[Ellesmere Port]], [[Macclesfield]], [[Runcorn]] and [[Widnes]]. Warrington and [[Halton (borough)|Halton]] (including Widnes and Runcorn) are [[unitary authority|unitary authorities]].
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Cheshire]].''
Cheshire in the [[Domesday Book]] was recorded as a much larger county than it is today. Its northern border was the [[River Ribble]], and it was recorded with eighteen [[hundred (division)|hundred]]s, six of which were north of the [[River Mersey]].
In [[1182]] the land north of the Mersey became administered as part of the new county of [[Lancashire]] instead. Later, the hundreds of [[Atiscross]] and [[Exestan]] became part of [[Wales]]. Over the years the ten hundreds consolidated to just seven &mdash; [[Broxton]], [[Bucklow]], [[Eddisbury]], [[Macclesfield (hundred)|Macclesfield]], [[Nantwich (hundred)|Nantwich]], [[Northwich (hundred)|Northwich]], and [[Wirral (hundred)|Wirral]].
In a local government reform in [[1974]], some areas near the border with Lancashire became part of the new metropolitan counties of [[Greater Manchester]] and [[Merseyside]], notably [[Stockport]], and much of the [[Wirral Peninsula]] was also lost, as was the North-Eastern tip, comprising the areas of Woodhead and Tintwistle, which transferred into Derbyshire. Also at this time, Cheshire gained [[Warrington]] and the surrounding district from Lancashire, as well as [[Widnes]].
[[Halton (borough)|Halton]] and [[Warrington]] became unitary authorities independent of Cheshire on [[April 1]], [[1998]], but remain part of the county for ceremonial purposes, as well as fire and policing. A referendum for a further local government reform connected with a [[regional assemblies in England|regional assembly]] was planned for [[2004]], but was abandoned (''see [[Northern England referendum, 2004]]'').
==Geography==
[[Image:Cattle33.JPG|thumb|left|Cattle farming in the county]]
Cheshire covers a boulder clay plain separating the hills of [[North Wales]] and the [[Peak District]] of [[Derbyshire]]. This was formed following the retreat of [[ice age]] glaciers which left the area dotted with [[kettle hole]]s, locally referred to as "meres". The bedrock of this region is almost entirely [[Triassic]] [[sandstone]], outcrops of which have long been quarried, notably at [[Runcorn]], providing the distinctive red stone for [[Liverpool Cathedral]] and [[Chester Cathedral]].
The eastern half of the county is Upper Triassic Mercia mudstone laid down with large [[table salt|salt]] deposits which were mined for hundreds of years around [[Northwich]]. Separating this area from Lower Triassic Sherwood sandstone to the west is a prominent Sandstone Ridge. A 51km footpath follows this ridge from [[Frodsham]] to [[Whitchurch]] passing [[Delamere Forest]], [[Beeston Castle]] and earlier [[iron age]] forts.
Cheshire is a mainly rural county with a high concentration of villages. Agriculture is generally based around the dairy trade and cattle are the predominant livestock. Most of the industry is in the North adjacent to the [[Mersey]], notably the centre of the British chemical industry, including [[ICI]] at [[Runcorn]] (originally sited here because of the proximity of salt mines). [[Crewe]] was once the centre of the [[Rail transport in Great Britain|British railway industry]] and remains a major junction. Towns in the east of Cheshire form Manchester's most affluent commuter belt with some of the UK's highest property prices outside the [[Home Counties]]. Cheshire is rich in [[canal]]s, particularly the east of the county with its strategic importance between [[Manchester]], [[Stoke]] and [[Birmingham]]. The Rochdale, [[Ashton Canal|Ashton]], [[Peak Forest Canal|Peak Forest]], [[Macclesfield Canal|Macclesfield]], [[Trent and Mersey Canal|Trent and Mersey]] and [[Bridgewater Canal|Bridgewater]] canals have been restored for leisure use, forming the "Cheshire Ring".
==Famous products==
*[[Cheshire cheese]]
*[[table salt|Salt]]
==Famous people==
* Singer [[Tim Burgess]] from the [[Charlatans_UK|Charlatans]]
* [[Charles Lutwidge Dodgson|Lewis Carroll]] was born and raised here, hence the [[Cheshire cat]]
* Actor and singer [[Tim Curry]] was born in [[Warrington]]
* [[Thomas Egerton, 1st Baron Ellesmere]] was born in [[Ellesmere]]
* Writer [[Alan Garner]]
* Film and stage actress [[Dame Wendy Hiller]] was born in [[Bramhall]]
* Victorian novelist [[Elizabeth Gaskell]] was brought up in the town of [[Knutsford]], which she depicted in her book, ''[[Cranford (novel)|Cranford]]''
* [[Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster]], one of the UK's wealthiest residents lives at [[Eaton Hall (Cheshire)|Eaton Hall]] near [[Chester]]
* [[Emma Hamilton]] (Lady Hamilton) was born in the county
* [[George Mallory]] born in Mobberley, Cheshire, famous [[mountaineer]], died in 1924 climbing [[Mt. Everest]]
* [[Wayne Rooney]], footballer
* [[Michael Owen]], footballer, was born in Chester and stills maintains a family home there despite his recent transfer North-East to Newcastle.
==Settlements==
This is a list of the major towns and cities in Cheshire, for a full list of settlements see [[list of places in Cheshire]].
{|cellspacing=10
| valign=top |
* [[Alderley Edge]]
* [[Alsager]]
* [[Bollington]]
* [[Chester, Cheshire|Chester]]
* [[Congleton]]
* [[Crewe]]
* [[Ellesmere Port]]
* [[Frodsham]]
* [[Knutsford]]
* [[Macclesfield]]
* [[Middlewich]]
| valign=top |
* [[Nantwich]]
* [[Neston, Ch |
s interpretation. This reflects the fact that <math>-i</math> also solves the equation <math>x^2 = -1</math> &mdash; see [[imaginary unit]].
In [[electrical engineering]] and related fields, the imaginary unit is often written as <math>j</math> to avoid confusion with a changing [[current (electricity)|current]], traditionally denoted by <math>i</math>.
==Applications of imaginary numbers==
Despite their name, imaginary numbers are just as "real" as real numbers. (See [[complex number#Definition|the definition of complex numbers]] on how they can be constructed using [[naive set theory|set theory]].) One way to understand this is by realizing that [[Number|numbers]] themselves are abstractions, and the abstractions can be valid even when they are not recognized in a given context. For example, fractions such as <math>\frac{3}{4}</math> and <math>\frac{5}{7}</math> are meaningless to a person counting stones, but essential to a person comparing the sizes of different collections of stones. Similarly, negative numbers such as <math>-3</math> and <math>-5</math> are meaningless when keeping score in a football game, but essential when keeping track of monetary debits and credits.
Imaginary numbers follow the same pattern. For most human tasks, real numbers (or even rational numbers) offer an adequate description of data, and imaginary numbers have no meaning; however, in many areas of science and mathematics, imaginary numbers (and complex numbers in general) are essential for describing reality. Imaginary numbers have essential concrete applications in a variety of sciences and related areas such as [[signal processing]], [[control theory]], [[electromagnetism]], [[quantum mechanics]], and [[cartography]].
For example, in [[electrical engineering]], when analyzing [[alternating current|AC]] [[Electric circuit|circuitry]], the values for the electrical [[volt]]age (and current) are expressed as imaginary or complex numbers known as [[phasor (electronics)|phasor]]s. These are real voltages that can cause damage/harm to either humans or equipment even if their values contain no "real part".
Specifically, [[Euler's formula]] is used extensively to express signals (e.g., electromagnetic) that vary periodically over time as a combination of sine and cosine functions. Euler's formula accomplishes this more conveniently via an expression of exponential functions with imaginary exponents. Euler's formula states that, for any [[real number]] ''x'',
: <math> e^{ix} = \cos x + i\sin x. \,</math>
==See also==
*[[Complex number]]
*[[Quaternion]]
*[[Octonion]]
==External links==
*[http://www.math.toronto.edu/mathnet/answers/imaginary.html Why imaginary numbers really do exist]
*[http://www.algebra.com/algebra/homework/complex/ Imaginary number calculator]
[[Category:Complex analysis]]
[[da:Imaginære tal]]
[[de:Imaginäre Zahl]]
[[el:Φανταστικός αριθμός]]
[[es:Número imaginario]]
[[fr:Nombre imaginaire pur]]
[[ko:&#54728;&#49688;]]
[[is:Þvertala]]
[[he:&#1502;&#1505;&#1508;&#1512; &#1502;&#1512;&#1493;&#1499;&#1489;]]
[[nl:Imaginair getal]]
[[ja:&#34394;&#25968;&#21336;&#20301;]]
[[pl:Liczby urojone]]
[[pt:Número imaginário]]
[[fi:Imaginaariluku]]
[[zh:&#34394;&#25968;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isomer</title>
<id>14555</id>
<revision>
<id>41059234</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T20:16:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edwardpicciotto</username>
<id>986322</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Isomers Basic Edit With Study Aid</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], '''isomers''' are [[molecule]]s with the same [[chemical formula]] and often with the same kinds of [[chemical bond|bonds]] between atoms, but in which the atoms are arranged differently. Many isomers share similar if not identical properties in most chemical contexts.
A simple example of consitutional isomers is given by [[propanol]]: it has the formula [[Carbon|C]]<sub>3</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>8</sub>[[Oxygen|O]] (or [[Carbon|C]]<sub>3</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>7</sub>[[Hydroxide|OH]]) and two isomers Propan-1-ol (n-propyl alcohol; '''I''') and Propan-2-ol (isopropyl alcohol; '''II''').
[[Image:Structural isomers.png|center|400px|isomers of propanol]]
Note that the position of the [[oxygen]] atom differs between the two: it is attached to an end [[carbon]] in the first isomer, and to the center carbon in the second. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly as the number of atoms increases; for example the next largest alcohol, named [[butane|butanol]] (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O), has five different isomers.
There is, however, another isomer of [[Carbon|C]]<sub>3</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>8</sub>[[Oxygen|O]] which has significantly different properties than '''I''' or '''II''': [[methyl]] [[ethyl]] [[ether]] ('''III'''). Notice that unlike the top two examples, the oxygen is connected to two carbons rather than to one carbon and one hydrogen. As it lacks a [[Hydroxyl_group|hydroxl group]], the above molecule is no longer considered an alcohol but is classified as an [[ether]], and has chemical properties more similar to ethers than to the two propanol isomers.
== Stereoisomers ==
'''In stereoisomers the bond structure is the same, but the geometrical positioning of atoms and functional groups in space differs.''' This class includes [[enantiomer]]s where different isomers are mirror-images of each other, and [[diastereomer]]s when they are not. Diastereomerism is again subdivided into [[cis-trans isomerism]] when this is not possible.
While constitutional isomers typically have different chemical properties, stereoisomers behave identically in most chemical reactions. [[Enzyme]]s however can distinguish between different stereoisomers of a compound, and organisms often prefer one stereoisomer over the other. Some stereoisomers also differ in the way they rotate [[polarized light]].
'''STUDY AID: What compound used medicinally as a sedative and hypnotic has a teratogenic (causes birth defects) isomer? Hint - Google "tetratogenic isomer".'''</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Input/Output Device</title>
<id>14556</id>
<revision>
<id>15912101</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-12T18:09:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Input/output]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Input/output]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Input/Output</title>
<id>14557</id>
<revision>
<id>15912102</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-15T22:33:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Input/output]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Input/output</title>
<id>14558</id>
<revision>
<id>41755485</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:44:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.184.130.10</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the computer interface. For the economic use of the term, see [[input-output model]].''
In [[computing]], '''Input/output''', or I/O, is the collection of [[Interface (computer science)|interface]]s that different [[functional unit]]s ([[system|sub-systems]]) of an [[information processing system]] use to communicate with each other, or the [[Signal_(information_theory)|signals]] ([[information]]) sent through those interfaces. [[Input]]s are the signals received by the unit, and [[output]]s are the signals sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "do I/O" is to perform an input or output [[operation]]. I/O devices are used by a person (or other system) to communicate with a computer. For instance, [[computer keyboard|keyboards]] and [[computer mouse|mice]] are considered input devices of a computer and [[computer monitor|monitors]] and [[computer printer|printers]] are considered output devices of a computer. Typical devices for communication between computers are for both input and output, such as [[modem]]s and [[network card]]s.
It is important to notice that the previous designations of devices as either input or output change when the perspective changes. Mice and keyboards take as input physical movement that the human user outputs and convert it into signals that a computer can understand. The output from these devices is treated as input by the computer. Similarly, printers and monitors take as input signals that a computer outputs. They then convert these signals into representations that human users can see or read. (For a human user the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving input.)
In computer architecture, the combination of the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and [[main memory]] (i.e. memory that the CPU can read and write to directly, with individual [[instruction set|instructions]]) is considered the heart of a computer, and any movement of information from or to that complex, for example to or from a [[disk drive]], is considered I/O. The CPU and its supporting circuitry provide [[I/O methods]] that are used in low-level [[computer programming]] in the implementation of [[device driver]]s.
Higher-level [[operating system]] and programming facilities employ separate, more abstract I/O concepts and [[primitive (computer science)|primitive]]s. For example, operating system provides application programs with the concept of [[com |
'G'' and ''N'' are infinite (e.g. '''Z''' ''/'' 2'''Z''').
There is a "natural" [[surjective]] [[group homomorphism]] &pi; : ''G'' &rarr; ''G / N'', sending each element ''g'' of ''G'' to the coset of ''N'' to which ''g'' belongs, that is: &pi;(''g'') = ''gN''. The mapping &pi; is sometimes called the ''canonical projection of G onto G / N''. Its [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] is ''N''.
There is a bijective correspondence between the subgroups of ''G'' that contain ''N'' and the subgroups of ''G / N''; if ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'' containing ''N'', then the corresponding subgroup of ''G / N'' is &pi;(''H''). This correspondence holds for normal subgroups of ''G'' and ''G / N'' as well, and is formalized in the [[lattice theorem]].
Several important properties of quotient groups are recorded in the [[fundamental theorem on homomorphisms]] and the [[isomorphism theorem]]s.
If ''G'' is [[abelian group|abelian]], [[nilpotent group|nilpotent]] or [[solvable group|solvable]], then so is ''G / N''.
If ''G'' is [[cyclic group|cyclic]] or [[generating set of a group|finitely generated]], then so is ''G / N''.
If ''H'' is a subgroup in a finite group ''G'', and the order of ''H'' is one half of the order of ''G'', then ''H'' is guaranteed to be a normal subgroup, so ''G / H'' exists and is isomorphic to ''C''<sub>2</sub>. This result can also be stated as "any subgroup of index 2 is normal", and in this form it applies also to infinite groups.
Every group is isomorphic to a quotient of a [[free group]].
Sometimes, but not necessarily, a group ''G'' can be reconstructed from ''G / N'' and ''N'', as a [[direct product]] or [[semidirect product]]. An example where it is ''not'' possible is as follows. Z<sub>4</sub> / { 0, 2 } is isomorphic to Z<sub>2</sub>, and { 0, 2 } also, but the only semidirect product is the direct product, because Z<sub>2</sub> has only the trivial [[automorphism]]. Therefore Z<sub>4</sub>, which is different from Z<sub>2</sub> &times; Z<sub>2</sub>, cannot be reconstructed.
==See also==
*[[Ideal (ring theory)#Factor rings (quotient rings) and kernels|factor ring]] (also called ''quotient ring'')
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[de:Faktorgruppe]]
[[es:Grupo cociente]]
[[fr:Groupe quotient]]
[[it:Gruppo quoziente]]
[[he:חבורת מנה]]
[[pl:Grupa ilorazowa]]
[[ru:Факторгруппа]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fundamental theorem on homomorphisms</title>
<id>11527</id>
<revision>
<id>37608508</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T01:19:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.120.193.31</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Link to the First Isomorphism Theorem</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], for a number of algebraic structures, the '''[[fundamental theorem]] on homomorphisms''' relates the structure of two objects between
which a [[homomorphism]] is given, and of the [[kernel of a homomorphism|kernel]] and image of the
homomorphism.
For [[group (mathematics)|groups]], the theorem states:
:Let ''G'' and ''H'' be groups; let ''f'' : ''G''&rarr;''H'' be a [[group homomorphism]]; let ''K'' be the kernel of ''f''; let &phi; be the natural [[surjective]] homomorphism ''G''&rarr;''G''/''K''. Then there exists a unique homomorphism ''h'':''G''/''K''&rarr;''H'' such that ''f'' = ''h'' &phi;. Moreover, ''h'' is [[injective]] and provides an isomorphism between ''G''/''K'' and the image of ''f''.
The situation is described by the following [[commutative diagram]]:
[[image:FundHomDiag.png]]
Similar theorems are valid for [[monoid]]s, [[vector space]]s, [[module (mathematics)|modules]], and [[ring (mathematics)|rings]].
This is very similar to the [[Isomorphism_theorem|first isomorphism theorem]].
[[de:Homomorphiesatz]]
[[es:Teorema fundamental sobre homomorfismos]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FCO</title>
<id>11528</id>
<revision>
<id>26568331</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-26T22:57:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hongshi</username>
<id>486656</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''FCO''' is the acronym for:
*[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] - UK Ministry of Foreign Affairs
-----
'''FCO''' is also the [[IATA airport code]] for:
*[[Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fermion</title>
<id>11529</id>
<revision>
<id>38492160</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T18:33:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Xerxes314</username>
<id>43566</id>
</contributor>
<comment>more fiddling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[particle physics]], '''fermions''', named after [[Enrico Fermi]], are particles which form [[identical particles|totally-antisymmetric composite quantum states]]. As a result, they are subject to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]] and obey [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]]. According to the [[spin-statistics theorem]] of [[quantum field theory]], fermions have [[half-integer]] [[spin (physics)|spin]]. One important aspect of half-integer spin is that particles with such spin have to be rotated by two 360-degree [[rotation]]s to return them to their initial state.
All [[elementary particle]]s are either fermions or [[boson]]s. Composite particles composed of fermions may be either fermions or bosons, depending on the number of fermionic constituents: Particles composed of an even number of fermions are themselves bosons (such as [[meson]]s); those composed of an odd number of fermions are themselves fermions (such as [[baryon]]s).
The known elementary fermions are divided into two groups: [[quark]]s and [[lepton]]s. The elementary particles that make up ordinary [[matter]] are fermions, belonging to either the quarks (which form [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s) or the leptons (such as [[electron]]s). The Pauli exclusion of fermions is responsible for the stability of the [[electron configuration|electron shells]] of atoms, making complex [[chemistry]] possible. It also allows the stability of [[degenerate matter]] under extreme pressures.
==See also==
* [[List of particles]]
* [[Fermionic field]]
* [[Identical particles]]
* [[Parastatistics]]
{{elementary}}
[[Category:Particle physics]]
[[Category:Subatomic particles]]
[[Category:Fermions]]
[[bg:Фермион]]
[[ca:Fermió]]
[[cs:Fermion]]
[[de:Fermion]]
[[et:Fermion]]
[[el:Φερμιόνιο]]
[[es:Fermión]]
[[fr:Fermion]]
[[ko:페르미온]]
[[hr:Fermion]]
[[id:Fermion]]
[[is:Fermíeind]]
[[it:Fermione]]
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[[zh:费米子]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fred Savage</title>
<id>11530</id>
<revision>
<id>41290954</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T08:54:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.230.195.169</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Career */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Canadian children's author please see [[Fred Savage (author)]].''
'''Frederick Aaron Savage''' (born [[July 9]], [[1976]]) is an [[United States of America|American]] [[actor]] and [[television director]].
==Early life==
Savage was born in [[Glencoe]], [[Illinois]] to [[Jewish American]] parents Lew Savage, a real estate agent, and Joanne, a housewife; his brother is actor [[Ben Savage]]. He graduated from [[Stanford University]], where he was a member of the [[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]] [[fraternity]], in [[1999]] with a degree in [[English studies|English]].
==Career==
Savage began his acting career at the age of 4, in [[1980]], in the film ''Dinosaur''. His first kiss was as an actor in the series ''[[The Wonder Years]]''. The show also led to his being the youngest person ever to be nominated for an [[Emmy Award]] for outstanding leading performer. His most famous roles are in the movie ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' and on the two [[television]] series ''[[The Wonder Years]]'' and ''Working''.
Fred Savage is currently a co-director of several children/teen programs on [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] and [[The Disney Channel|Disney]]. In [[January 2006]], he began his starring role in the ABC comedy ''[[Crumbs]]''.
==Private life==
He married his childhood sweetheart, [[Jennifer Stone]], on [[August 7]], [[2004]]. The two were wed at the L'Orangerie restaurant in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]].
Fred also plays on the [[World Poker Tour]] in the Hollywood Home games for the Childrens Hospital Los Angeles charity.
==Filmography==
# ''[[Crumbs]]'' (TV) (2006)
# ''[[Welcome to Mooseport]]'' (2004)
# ''[[The Last Run]]'' (2004)
# ''[[The Rules of Attraction]]'' (2002)
# ''[[Austin Powers in Goldmember]]'' (2002)
# ''[[Area 52]]'' (2001) (TV)
# ''[[Oswald (movie)|Oswald]]'' (2001) (TV)
# ''[[The Jungle Book: Mowgli's Story]]'' (1998) (V)
# ''[[Working (tv)|Working]]'' (1997) (TV)
# ''[[A Guy Walks Into a Bar]]'' (1997)
# ''[[How Do You Spell God?]]'' (1996) (TV)
# ''[[No One Would Tell]]'' (1996) (TV)
# ''[[Christmas on Division Street]]'' (1991) (TV)
# ''[[When You Remember Me]]'' (1990) (TV)
# ''[[The Wizard (movie)|The Wizard]]'' (1989)
# ''[[Little Monsters]]'' (1989)
# ''[[The Wonder Years]]'' (1988) (TV)
# ''[[Run Till You Fall]]'' (1988) (TV)
# ''[[Vice Versa ]]'' (1988)
# ''[[Runaway Ralph]]'' (1988) (TV)
# ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' (1987)
# ''[[Convicted: A Mother's Story]]'' (1987) (TV)
# ''[[The Boy Who Could Fly]]'' (1986)
# ''[[Morningstar/Eveningstar]]'' (1986) (TV)
# ''[[Dinosaur (1980 movie)|Dinosaur]]'' (1980)
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000625|nam |
otis unilateralis''.
==Research==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abalone}}
*Lin, A., and Meyers, M.A. 2005. Growth and structure in abalone shell, ''Materials Science and Engineering A'' '''390'''(Jan. 15):27–41 (see [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TXD-4DH2DRS-1&_coverDate=01%2F15%2F2005&_alid=256050522&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=5588&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=f4efd0a3d7cf3b4a0b8f9861cff4514d abstract])
*[http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mrd/ab_info.html California Red Abalone]
*[http://www.isa.org/InTechTemplate.cfm?Section=InTech&template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=41313 Bullet proof abalone]
*[http://www.seapulse.com/gallery/details.php?image_id=7 Abalone Varieties]
==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Haliotidae}}
* [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,49847,00.html Abalone Farming on a Boat]
*[http://www.ocde.k12.ca.us/sciencek12/Tidepool7/index.htm Abalone biology]
* [http://texts.cdlib.org/dynaxml/servlet/dynaXML?docId=kt738nb1zx&doc.view=frames&chunk.id=d0e112&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e112&query=0 Online Archive of California]
* [http://www.conchology.be/availableShells/SearchspeciesGallery.php?family=HALIOTIDAE&species=&index=true Conchology]
* [http://www.specimenshells.net/5266.htm Specimen shells; many pictures.]
* [http://manandmollusc.net/links_gastropoda.html Man and Mollusk : many links]
* [http://www.homepages.paradise.net.nz/ljhill/ Natural Abalone "horn" Pearls : Sample photos]
* [http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/zoology/abnet/species.html Imagemap of worldwide abalone distribution]
[[Category:Gastropods]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Seafood]]
[[Category:Tree of Life cleanup]]
[[de:Seeohren]]
[[ja:アワビ]]
[[tr:Denizkulağı (Hayvan)]]
[[uk:Абалон]]
[[zh:鮑魚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abbess</title>
<id>1301</id>
<revision>
<id>41813052</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:38:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JeffW</username>
<id>927455</id>
</contributor>
<comment>not a people category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''Abbess''' ([[Latin]] ''abbatissa,'' fem. form of ''abbas,'' [[abbot]]) is the female [[religious superior|superior]], or [[Mother Superior]], of an
[[abbey]] or [[abbey|convent]] of [[nun]]s.
The mode of election, position, rights and authority of an abbess correspond generally with those of an [[abbot]]. The office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the sisters from their own body. The abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by [[episcopal]] [[benediction]], together with the
conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and holds for life, though liable to be deprived for misconduct.
The [[council of Trent]] fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years of profession. Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedience of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the [[bishop]]. As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot. She cannot ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate. In England abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that of Becanfield in [[694]], where they signed before the [[presbyter]]s.
By [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic]] usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and nuns. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France and Spain, and even to Rome itself. At a later period, A.D. [[1115]], Robert, the founder of [[Fontevraud Abbey]] near [[Chinon]] and [[Saumur]], [[France]] committed the government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior.
In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess (''Äbtissin'') has in some cases--e.g. Itzehoe--survived to designate the heads of abbeys which since the Protestant [[Reformation]] have continued as ''Stifte,'' i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses (''Kanonissinen'') or more usually ''Stiftsdamen.'' This office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and was sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbess}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:Religious work]]
[[Category:Religious executives]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church offices]]
[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
[[da:Abbedisse]]
[[it:Badessa]]
[[gl:Abadesa]]
[[ru:Аббатиса]]
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[[sv:Abbedissa]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Human abdomen</title>
<id>1302</id>
<revision>
<id>41551531</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T02:35:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shadowcaster</username>
<id>736084</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed image. picture was unproffesional to be included.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The human abdomen (from the [[Latin]] word meaning "belly") is the part of the body between the [[pelvis]] and the [[thorax]]. Anatomically, the abdomen stretches from the thorax at the [[thoracic diaphragm]] to the pelvis at the [[pelvic brim]]. The '''pelvic brim''' stretches from the [[lumbosacral angle]] (the [[intervertebral disk]] between L5 and S1) to the [[pubic symphysis]] and is the edge of the [[pelvic inlet]]. The space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the [[abdominal cavity]]. The boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear.
Functionally, the human abdomen is where most of the [[alimentary tract]] is placed and so most of the absorption and digestion of food occurs here. The alimentary tract in the abdomen consists of the lower [[oesophagus]], the [[stomach]], the [[duodenum]], the [[jejunum]], [[ileum]], the [[cecum]] and the [[Vermiform appendix|appendix]], the [[ascending colon|ascending]], [[transverse colon|transverse]] and [[descending colon|descending colons]], the [[sigmoid colon]] and the [[rectum]]. Other vital organs inside the abdomen include the [[liver]], the [[kidneys]], the [[pancreas]] and the [[spleen]].
The '''abdominal wall''' is split into the posterior (back), lateral (sides) and anterior (front) walls. There is a common set of layers covering and forming all the walls: the deepest being the [[extraperitoneal fat]], the [[parietal peritoneum]], and a layer of [[fascia]] which has different names over where it covers (eg transversalis, psoas fascia). Superficial to these, but ''not'' present in the posterior wall are the three layers of muscle, the [[transversus abdominus]] (tranvserse abdominal muscle), the [[internal oblique|internal]] (obliquus internus) and the [[external oblique]] (obliquus externus).
==Muscles of the abdominal wall==
[[Image:Grays_Anatomy_image392.png|thumb|RIGHT|200px|''Henry Gray (1825–1861). Anatomy of the Human Body.'']]
The obliquus externus ([[external oblique muscle|external oblique]]) [[muscle]] is the outermost muscle covering the side of the abdomen. It is broad, flat, and irregularly quadrilateral. It originates on the lower eight [[rib]]s, and then curves down and forward towards its insertion on the outer anterior crest of the [[Ilium (disambiguation)|ilium]] and (via the sheath of the [[rectus abdominus]] muscle) the midline [[linea alba]].
The obliquus internus ([[internal oblique muscle|internal oblique]]) muscle is triangularly shaped and is smaller and thinner than the external oblique muscle that overlies it. It originates from [[Poupart's ligament]]/[[inguinal ligament]] and the inner anterior crest of the ilium. The lower two-thirds of it insert, in common with fibers of the external oblique and the underlying transversus abdominus, into the [[linea alba]]. The upper third inserts into the lower six ribs. The transversus abdominus muscle is flat and triangular, with its fibers running horizontally. It lies between the internal oblique and the underlying transversalis fascia. It originates from Poupart's ligament, the inner lip of the ilium, the lumbar fascia and the inner surface of the [[cartilage]]s of the six lower ribs. It inserts into the linea alba behind the [[rectus abdominis]].
The [[rectus abdominis muscle]]s are long and flat. They originate at the [[pubic bone]], run up the abdomen on either side of the linea alba, and insert into the cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs. The muscle is crossed by three [[tendon|tendinous]] intersections called the [[linae transversae]]. The rectus abdominus is enclosed in a thick sheath formed, as described above, by fibers from each of the three muscles of the lateral abdominal wall.
The [[pyramidalis muscle]] is small and triangular. It is located in the lower abdomen in front of the rectus abdominis. It originates at the pubic bone and is inserted into the linea alba half way up to the [[umbilicus]] (belly button).
== Abdominal organs ==
[[Image:Gray1120.png|thumb|RIGHT|200px|The relations of the viscera and large vessels of the abdomen.]]
The abdomen contains most of the tubelike organs of the digestive tract, as well as several solid organs. Hollow abdominal organs include the [[stomach]], the [[small intestine]], and the [[colon (anatomy)|colon]] with its attached [[Vermiform appendix|appendix]]. Organs such as the [[liver]], its attached [[gallbladder]], and the [[pancreas]] function in close association with the digestive tract and communicate with it via ducts. The [[spleen]], [[kidney]]s, and [[adrenal gland]]s also lie within the abdomen, along with many blood vessels including the [[aorta]] and [[venae cavae|inferior vena cava]]. Anatomists may consider the [[urinary bladder]], [[uterus]], [[fallopian tube]]s, and [[ovary|ovaries]] as either abdominal organs or as pelvic organs. Finall |
all of [[mathematical finance]], although certainly, when there is money to be made, and eyebrows not to be raised, extreme discretion is employed in its use.
====Intelligence====
{{section-stub}}
Shannon's theory of information is extremely important in intelligence work, much more so than its use in cryptography would indicate. The theory is applied by intelligence agencies to keep classified information secret, and to discover as much information as possible about an adversary. The [[Shannon-Hartley theorem|fundamental theorem]] leads us to believe it is much more difficult to keep secrets than it might first appear. In general it is not possible to stop the leakage of classified information, only to slow it. Furthermore, the more people that have access to the information, and the more those people have to work with and belabor that information, the greater the redundancy of that information becomes. It is extremely hard to contain the flow of information that has such a high redundancy. This inevitable leakage of classified information is due to the psychological fact that what people know does influence their behavior somewhat, however subtle that influence might be.
The premier example of the application of information theory to covert signaling is the design of the [[Global Positioning System]] signal encoding. The system uses a [[pseudorandom number generator|pseudorandom encoding]] that places the radio signal below the [[noise floor]]. Thus, an unsuspecting radio listener would ''not even be aware that there was a signal present'', as it would be drowned out by atmospheric and antenna noise. However, if one [[integral|integrates]] the signal over long periods of time, using the "secret" (but known to the listener) pseudorandom sequence, one can eventually detect a signal, and then discern modulations of that signal. In GPS, the C/A signal has been publicly disclosed to be a 1023-bit sequence, but the pseudorandom sequence used in the P(Y) signal remains a secret. The same technique can be used to transmit and receive covert intelligence from short-range, extremely low power systems, without the enemy even being aware of the existence of a radio signal.
====Music====
{{section-stub}}
Composer [[James Tenney]], among others such as his teacher [[Lejaren Hiller]], has used information theory in the composition of musical works such as ''[[Ergodos]]''.
==History==
The decisive event which established the subject of information theory, and brought it to immediate worldwide attention, was the publication of [[Claude E. Shannon]] ([[1916]]&ndash;[[2001]])'s classic paper "[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]]" in the ''[[Bell System Technical Journal]]'' in [[July]] and [[October]] of [[1948]].
In this revolutionary and groundbreaking paper, the work for which Shannon had substantially completed at Bell Labs by the end of [[1944]], Shannon for the first time introduced the qualitative and quantitative model of communication as a statistical process, which underlies information theory; and with it the ideas of the [[information entropy]] and [[redundancy (information theory)|redundancy]] of a source, and its relevance through the [[source coding theorem]]; the [[mutual information]], and the [[channel capacity]] of a noisy channel, as underwritten by the promise of perfect loss-free communication given by the [[noisy-channel coding theorem]]; the practical result of the [[Shannon-Hartley law]] for the channel capacity of a Gaussian channel; and of course the [[bit]] - a new common currency of information.
=== Before 1948 ===
==== Quantitative ideas of information ====
The most direct antecedents of Shannon's work were two papers published in the [[1920s]] by [[Harry Nyquist]] and [[Ralph Hartley]], who were both still very much research leaders at Bell Labs when Shannon arrived there in the early [[1940s]].
Nyquist's [[1924]] paper, ''Certain Factors Affecting Telegraph Speed'' is mostly concerned with some detailed engineering aspects of telegraph signals. But a more theoretical section discusses quantifying "intelligence" and the "line speed" at which it can be transmitted by a communication system, giving the relation
:<math>W = K \log m \,</math>
where ''W'' is the speed of transmission of intelligence, ''m'' is the number of different voltage levels to choose from at each time step, and ''K'' is a constant.
Hartley's [[1928]] paper, called simply ''Transmission of Information'', went further by introducing the word information, and making explicitly clear the idea that information in this context was quantitative measurable quantity, reflecting only that the receiver was able to distinguish that one sequence of symbols had been sent rather than any other -- quite regardless of any associated meaning or other psychological or semantic aspect the symbols might represent. This amount of information he quantified as
:<math>H = \log S^n \,</math>
where ''S'' was the number of possible symbols, and ''n'' the number of symbols in a transmission. The natural unit of information was therefore the decimal digit, much later renamed the [[Hartley]] in his honour as a unit or scale or measure of information. The [[Hartley information]], ''H''<sub>0</sub>, is also still very much used as a quantity for the log of the total number of possibilities.
A similar unit of log<sub>10</sub> probability, the ''ban'', and its derived unit the [[deciban]] (one tenth of a ban), were introduced by [[Alan Turing]] in [[1940]] as part of the statistical analysis of the breaking of the German second world war [[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma|Enigma]] cyphers. The ''decibannage'' represented the reduction in (the logarithm of) the total number of possibilities (similar to the change in the Hartley information); and also the [[log-likelihood ratio]] (or change in the [[weight of evidence]]) that could be inferred for one hypothesis over another from a set of observations. The expected change in the weight of evidence is equivalent to what was later called the Kullback [[Kullback-Leibler divergence#Discrimination Information|discrimination information]].
But underlying this notion was still the idea of equal a-priori probabilities, rather than the information content of events of unequal probability; nor yet any underlying picture of questions regarding the communication of such varied outcomes.
====Entropy in statistical mechanics====
One area where unequal probabilities were indeed well known was statistical mechanics, where [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] had, in the context of his [[H-theorem]] of [[1872]], first introduced the quantity
: <math>H = - \sum f_i \log f_i </math>
as a measure of the breadth of the spread of states available to a single particle in a gas of like particles, where ''f'' represented the relative [[frequency distribution]] of each possible state. Boltzmann argued mathematically that the effect of collisions between the particles would cause the ''H''-function to inevitably increase from any initial configuration until equilibrium was reached; and identified it as an underlying microscopic rationale for the macroscopic [[thermodynamic entropy]] of [[Clausius]].
(The ''H''-theorem of Boltzmann subsequently led to no end of controversy; and can still cause lively debates to the present day, often aggravated by protagonists not realising that they are arguing at cross-purposes. The theorem relies on a hidden assumption, that useful information is destroyed by the collisions, which can be questioned; also, it relies on a non-equilibrium state being singled out as the initial state (not the final state), which breaks time symmetry; also, strictly it applies only in a statistical sense, namely that an average ''H''-function would be non-decreasing).
Boltzmann's definition was soon reworked by the American mathematical physicist [[J. Willard Gibbs]] into a general formula for the statistical-mechanical entropy, no longer requiring identical and non-interacting particles, but instead based on the probability distribution ''p<sub>i</sub>'' for the complete microstate ''i'' of the total system:
: <math>S = -k_B \sum p_i \ln p_i \,</math>
This (Gibbs) entropy from statistical mechanics can be found to directly correspond to the Clausius's classical thermodynamical definition, as explored further in the article: ''[[Thermodynamic entropy]]''.
Szilard, Lewis.
Shannon himself was apparently not particularly aware of the close similarity between his new quantity and the earlier work in thermodynamics; but [[John von Neumann]] was. The story goes that when Shannon was deciding what to call his new quantity, fearing that 'information' was already over-used, von Neumann told him firmly: "You should call it entropy, for two reasons. In the first place your uncertainty function has been used in statistical mechanics under that name, so it already has a name. In the second place, and more important, no one really knows what entropy really is, so in a debate you will always have the advantage."
<!-- remaining material still to be reworked
This work drew on earlier publications by . At the beginning of his paper, Shannon asserted that
:"The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point, either exactly or approximately, a message selected at another point."
His theory for the first time considered communication as a rigorously stated mathematical problem in [[statistics]] and gave communications engineers a way to determine the [[Shannon limit|capacity]] of a [[communication channel]] in terms of the common currency of [[bit]]s. This problem is called the [[channel coding]] problem. The transmission part of the theory is not concerned with the [[meaning]] ([[semantics]]) of the message conveyed.
Severa |
e paths, and use of radar-absorbent material, its RCS is about 1/50th that of the [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]] (probably about 26&nbsp;ft²), although the Lancer is not substantially smaller in mass than the Stratofortress.
The B-1B has been upgraded since production through the '''Conventional Mission Upgrade Program'''. This multi-stage program added a new [[MIL-STD-1760]] smart-weapons interface that enables the use of the [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|Joint Direct Attack Munition]] and other precision-guided conventional weapons, such as the Wind-Corrected Munitions (WCM) dispenser, and the [[AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon|AGM-154 JSOW]] (Joint Stand-Off Weapon). Later, future precision miniature munitions such as Small Diameter Bomb will be added. These and other improvements are intended to ensure that the B-1 will be viable through approximately 2020.
Ironically, the provision for precision-guided conventional weapons has been accompanied by the deletion of the B-1B's nuclear capability. The Lancer currently is not equipped to carry or drop nuclear weapons due to the agreements signed under the [[Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty]].
==Operational History==
Sometimes criticized as redundant, the B-1B was given new life as the new threats of the 21st century emerged, and now fills an important niche in the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] inventory. It is worth noting that the project finished on budget, and has higher survivability and speed when compared to the older B-52, which it was intended to replace. With the arrival of limited numbers of [[B-2 Spirit|B-2]]s in the 1990s and the continuing use of B-52s, its value has been questioned. However, the capability of a high-speed strike with a large bomb payload for time-sensitive operations is useful, and no new strategic bomber is on the immediate horizon.
Operationally, the B-1B was first used in combat in support of operations against [[Iraq]] during [[Operation Desert Fox]] in December 1998. B-1B Lancers have been subsequently used in [[Operation Allied Force]] (Kosovo) and most notably [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in [[Afghanistan]] and [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]]. During OEF and OIF the B-1 has maintained a 79 percent mission capable rate, a considerable improvement over its previous 57% average rate.
*Date Deployed: June 1985
*Unit Cost: $283.1 million per aircraft
*Inventory:
**active force: 67
**mothballed: 24
The B-1B holds several world records for speed, payload and distance. The [[National Aeronautic Association]] recognized the B-1B for completing one of the 10 most memorable record flights for [[1993 in aviation|1993]].
===Crashes and malfunctions===
*A single B-1B was lost in December of 2001 over the [[Indian Ocean]]; its crew was rescued. The bomber (of the 20th Bomb Wing [http://www.flug-revue.rotor.com/FRNews1/FRNews01/FR011216.htm], designated ICECUBE 44 and bearing the state motto of [[New Hampshire]], "Live Free or Die", on its nosecone [http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/realhistory.html]) was approximately 100 miles north of [[Diego Garcia]], whence it had departed, flying en route to a long-range combat mission over [[Afghanistan]], when the crew declared an in-flight emergency. Details remain classified, but the crash was attributed by the pilot, Capt. William Steele, to "multiple malfunctions" causing the bomber to go "out of control".[http://web.archive.org/web/20041126203356/http://www.dailyherald.com/special/waronterrorism/story.asp?intID=37238140] Further information from maintenance specialists related the aircraft mishap to the aircrew experiencing electrical bus failures that contributed to an instrument blackout affecting both primary and backup instruments. It was also rumored that the aircraft at the time the aircrew ejected was not in level flight but inverted and quickly heading nose down towards the Indian Ocean. With no visual reference available to the aircrew of level flight, the 4 members ejected safely. The bomber carries what is known as a "structural data collector" or an SDC which constantly records the last 30 seconds of flight control positions, engine throttle settings, and other instrument data. Because of the depth of the water in which the aircraft crashed, the SDC or "Black Box" was unable to be recovered from the wreckage and therefore the true nature of the cause was unable to be positively determined. The aircraft had recently come out of "cannibalization" status prior to the flight that brought it to Diego Garcia. Frequently maintenance will remove parts from a good aircraft to fix others that must fly that day. Due to shortages of parts, this practice is a common on many Air Force bases and is not limited to bombers. The aircraft (86-0114) was deemed airworthy prior to flight. Hostile fire was ruled out as a cause for the crash. The crew spent two hours in the water before being resuced by a launch from the ''[[USS Russell (DDG-59)|USS Russell]]''. This was the first B-1B to be lost in combat operations since the model became operational in 1986. [http://multimedia.belointeractive.com/attack/strike/1212planedown.html]
*On [[February 18]], [[1998]], a B-1B flying a training mission out of [[Dyess Air Force Base]] was lost over [[Kentucky]] when a fire in the cockpit instrument panel shut down the plane's power. All four crew members were able to eject and were rescued safely. In response to a warning light on the #3 engine, the crew took action to shut down the fuel pumps to that engine. However, a panel shortout caused a fire, which shut down fuel to ''all'' engines, and prevented them from being restarted. "[T]he uncommanded shutdown of the three engines, in turn, removed all hydraulic and electrical power from the aircraft, rendering the pilots incapable of restarting the engines and controlling the aircraft", noted Col. David A Shunk, with the predictable result that the aircraft crashed into a pasture in [[Marion, Kentucky]]. [http://www.geocities.com/45peter/b1crash.html]
*In September 1997, a B-1B from the 28th Bomb Wing, flying a training mission out of [[Ellsworth Air Force Base]] crashed in [[Montana]]; all four members of the crew were killed. The cause was attributed to the pilot flying too low for the practiced flight maneuver. The maneuver called for a reduction of airspeed and a sharp bank to bring the aircraft around quickly. When the airspeed was lowered, it cause the aircraft to dip even lower so that when the maneuver was executed, the wingtip was driven into the ground destroying the aircraft and killing its crew. [http://www.cnn.com/US/9709/19/b1.crash/]
*17 people have been killed in B-1B crashes since the first production model's maiden flight in [[1984]]. [http://multimedia.belointeractive.com/attack/strike/1212planedown.html]
== B-1R ==
[[Image:Boeing B-1R.jpg|thumb|right|B-1R concept.]]
The B-1R is a proposed replacement for the B-1B fleet.[http://www.boeing.com/ids/allsystemsgo/issues/vol2/num2/story01.html] Boeing's director of global strike integration, Rich Parke, was first quoted about the “B-1R” bomber in ''[[Air Force Magazine]]''. Parke said the B-1R (R stands for “regional”) would be a Lancer with advanced radars, air-to-air missiles, and [[F-22 Raptor|F-22]] engines. Its new top speed—Mach 2.2—would be purchased at the price of a 20 percent reduction of the B-1B’s combat range. The [[FB-22]] is an alternative proposal.
Additional enhancements would include network-centric capabilities, air-to-air engagement, active electronically-scanned array radar, improved defensive systems, and opening up existing external hard points for conventional weapons.
===Units===
* [[7th Bomb Wing]], Dyess AFB, Abilene, Texas
** [[9th Bomb Squadron]]
** [[28th Bomb Squadron]]
* [[28th Bomb Wing]], Ellsworth AFB, Rapid City, South Dakota
** [[34th Bomb Squadron]]
** [[37th Bomb Squadron]]
* [[53d Wing]], Eglin AFB, FL
** [[337th Test and Evaluation Squadron]], Dyess AFB, Texas
==Specifications (B-1B Lancer)==
[[Image:B-1B Lancer.jpg|thumb|300px|B-1B Lancer on takeoff from [[RAF Fairford]]]]
[[Image:RIAT2004-B1B.jpg|thumb|300px|B-1B Lancer|B-1B at [[RIAT|RIAT 2004]]]]
{{airtemp|
<!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft]] -->
<!-- please answer the following questions -->
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet
<!-- Now, fill out the specs. Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses).
If an item doesn't apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your alt units with a right paranthesis ")" and start a new, fully-formatted line -->
|crew=4 (aircraft commander, copilot, offensive systems officer and defensive systems officer)
|length main=146 ft
|length alt=44.5 m
|span main=137 ft extended, 79 ft swept
|span alt=41.8 m / 24.1 m
|height main=34 ft
|height alt=10.4 m
|area main=1,950 ft&sup2;
|area alt=181.2 m&sup2;
|empty weight main=192,000 lb
|empty weight alt=87,100 kg
|loaded weight main=326,000 lb
|loaded weight alt=148,000 kg
|max takeoff weight main=477,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=216,400 kg
|engine (jet)=[[General Electric F101]]-GE-102
|type of jet=augmented turbofans
|number of jets=4
|thrust main=14,600 lbf dry, 30,780 lbf with afterburning
|thrust alt=64.94 kN / 136.92 kN
|max speed main=[[Mach number|Mach]] 1.25, 717 kt
|max speed alt=1,330 km/h
|range main=6,478 nm unrefueled, 2,993 nm with normal weapons load
|range alt=11,998 km / 5,543 km
|ceiling main=60,000 ft
|ceiling alt=18,300 m
|climb rate main=ft/min
|climb rate alt=m/s
|loading main=167 lb/ft&sup2;
|loading alt=816 kg/m&sup2;
|thrust/weight=0.37:1
|armament=
*3 internal bays for 75,000 lb (34,000 kg), options include
**84× [[Mark 82 bomb|Mk-82 general purpose bombs]]
**84× [[Mark 62 naval mine|Mk-62 naval mines] |
and increasingly rarely in the [[Rankine]] scale (Fahrenheit-size degrees). Absolute temperature is uniquely determined up to a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the "degree", so the ''ratios'' of two absolute temperatures, ''T''<sub>2</sub>/''T''<sub>1</sub>, are the same in all scales. The most transparent definition comes from the classical [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]] over energies, or from the quantum analogs: [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] (particles of half-integer [[spin (physics)|spin]]) and [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] (particles of integer spin), all of which give the relative numbers of particles as (decreasing) [[exponential function]]s of energy over ''kT''. On a [[macroscopic]] level, a definition can be given in terms of the efficiencies of "reversible" [[heat engine]]s operating between hotter and colder thermal reservoirs.
==Negative temperatures==
{{main|Negative temperature}}
Certain semi-isolated systems can achieve negative temperatures; however, they are not actually colder than absolute zero.
==References==
* {{cite book | author=Herbert B. Callen | title=Thermodynamics, Chapter 10 | publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | year=1960}} Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 60-5597. The clearest presentation of the logical foundations of the subject.
* {{cite book | author=E.A. Guggenheim | title=Thermodynamics: An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, 5th ed. | publisher=North Holland; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | year=1967}} Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 60-20003. A remarkably astute and comprehensive treatise.
* {{cite book | author=G. S. Rushbrooke | title=Introduction to Statistical Mechanics | publisher=Oxford Univ. Press | year=1949}} The classic, compact introduction to the subject.
==Notes==
{{ent|1|Leanhardt}} Leanhardt, A. ''et al.'' (2003) ''Science'' '''301''' 1513. [http://physicsweb.org/article/news/7/9/8 Physicsweb news report]
{{ent|2|Cauchi}} [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/02/20/1045638427695.html Press report February 21 2003]
{{ent|3|Knuuttila}} The experimental methods and results are presented in detail in T.A. Knuuttila’s Ph.D. thesis which can be downloaded [http://www.hut.fi/Yksikot/Kirjasto/Diss/2000/isbn9512252147/ here]. [http://ltl.hut.fi/Low-Temp-Record.html Low temperature Press release]
[[Category:Temperature]]
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[ar:صفر مطلق]]
[[bg:Абсолютна нула]]
[[ca:Zero absolut]]
[[cs:Absolutní nula]]
[[da:Absolut nulpunkt]]
[[de:Absoluter Nullpunkt]]
[[et:Absoluutne nulltemperatuur]]
[[es:Cero absoluto]]
[[fr:Zéro absolu]]
[[gl:Cero absoluto]]
[[ko:절대 영도]]
[[is:Alkul]]
[[it:Zero assoluto]]
[[he:האפס המוחלט]]
[[lv:Absolūtā nulle]]
[[nl:Absoluut nulpunt]]
[[ja:絶対零度]]
[[no:Det absolutte nullpunkt]]
[[pl:Zero bezwzględne]]
[[pt:Zero absoluto]]
[[ru:Абсолютный нуль температуры]]
[[simple:Absolute zero]]
[[sk:Absolútna nula]]
[[sl:Absolutna ničla]]
[[fi:Absoluuttinen nollapiste]]
[[sv:Absoluta nollpunkten]]
[[th:ศูนย์องศาสัมบูรณ์]]
[[uk:Абсолютний нуль]]
[[zh:绝对零度]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adiabatic process</title>
<id>1419</id>
<revision>
<id>41634537</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:00:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joe Frickin Friday</username>
<id>843319</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed statement about absence of chemical processes (paragraph 2).</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article covers adiabatic processes in [[thermodynamics]]. For adiabatic processes in [[quantum mechanics]], see [[adiabatic process (quantum mechanics)]]. For atmospheric adiabatic processes, see [[adiabatic lapse rate]].''
In [[thermodynamics]], an '''adiabatic process''' is a process in which no [[heat]] is transferred to or from working [[fluid]]. The term "adiabatic" literally means an absence of heat transfer; for example, an '''adiabatic boundary''' is a boundary that is impermeable to heat transfer and the system is said to be adiabatically (or thermally) insulated. An insulated wall approximates an adiabatic boundary.
Another example is the [[adiabatic flame temperature]], which is the temperature that would be achieved by a [[fire|flame]] in the absence of heat loss to the surroundings.
An adiabatic process which is also [[reversible process|reversible]] is called an [[isentropic process]].
The opposite extreme, in which the maximum heat transfer with its surroundings occurs, causing the temperature to remain constant, is known as an [[isothermal process]]. Since temperature is thermodynamically [[conjugate variables (thermodynamics)|conjugate]] to entropy, the isothermal process is conjugate to the adiabatic process for reversible transformations.
A transformation of a thermodynamic system can be considered adiabatic when it is quick enough so that no significant [[heat transfer]] happens between the system and the outside. At the opposite, a transformation of a thermodynamic system can be considered [[isothermal process|isothermal]] if it is slow enough so that the system's temperature can be maintained by [[heat]] exchange with the outside.
== Adiabatic heating and cooling ==
Adiabatic heating and cooling are processes that commonly occur due to a change in the [[pressure]] of a [[gas]]. Adiabatic heating occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased. An example of this is what goes on in a [[bicycle pump]]. After using a bicycle pump to inflate a pneumatic tyre or [[soccer ball]] the barrel of the pump is found to have heated up as a result of adiabatic heating. A common motorized [[air compressor]], operating at pressures up to 150 [[Pound-force per square inch|psi]], can reach outlet temperatures of several hundred degrees Fahrenheit. Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure of a gas is decreased, such as when it expands into a larger volume. An example of this is when the air is released from a pneumatic tire; the outlet air will be noticably cooler than the tire, and after all the air has escaped the valve stem will be cold to the touch. [[Diesel engines]] rely on adiabatic heating during their compression stroke to reach the high temperatures needed to ignite the fuel. Such temperature changes can be quantified using the [[ideal gas law]].
Adiabatic cooling does not have to involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero) is [[adiabatic demagnetization|adiabatic demagnetisation]], where the change in [[magnetic field]] on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic cooling.
==Ideal gas==
[[Image:Adiabatic.png|thumb|341px|For a simple substance, during an adiabatic process in which the volume increases, the [[internal energy]] of the working substance must necessarily decrease]]
The mathematical equation for an [[ideal gas|ideal]] fluid undergoing an adiabatic process is
: <math> P V^{\gamma} = \operatorname{constant} \qquad </math>
where ''P'' is pressure, ''V'' is volume, and
: <math> \gamma = {C_{P} \over C_{V}} = \frac{\alpha + 1}{\alpha}, </math>
<math> C_{P} </math> being the [[molar specific heat]] for constant pressure and
<math> C_{V} </math> being the molar specific heat for constant volume.
<math> \alpha </math> comes from the number of degrees of freedom (3/2 for monatomic gas, 5/2 for diatomic gas, 3 for complex molecules).
For a monatomic ideal gas, <math> \gamma = 5/3 </math>, and for a diatomic gas (such as [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]], the main components of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]) <math> \gamma = 7/5 </math>. Note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases and not Bose-Einstein or Fermi gases.
For adiabatic processes, it is also true that
: <math> VT^\alpha = \operatorname{constant} </math>
''T'' is temperature in kelvins.
===Derivation of formula===
The definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero, <math>\delta Q=0 </math>. Then, according to the [[first law of thermodynamics]],
:<math> d U + \delta W = \delta Q = 0 \qquad \qquad \qquad (1) </math>
where ''dU'' is the change in the internal energy of the system and ''&delta;W'' is work done
''by'' the system. Any work (''&delta;W'') done must be done at the expense of internal energy ''U'', since no heat ''&delta;Q'' is being supplied from the surroundings. Pressure-volume work ''&delta;W'' done ''by'' the system is defined as
:<math> \delta W = P dV. \qquad \qquad \qquad (2)</math>
However, ''P'' does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but
instead changes along with ''V''.
It is desired to know how the values of <math> d P </math> and
<math> d V </math> relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds.
:<math> C_{V} = \alpha R\,</math>
where ''R'' is the [[universal gas constant]].
Given <math> d P </math> and <math> d V </math> then
<math> \delta W = P d V </math> and
: <math> d E = \alpha n R d T
= \alpha d (P V)
= \alpha (P d V + V d P). \qquad (3)</math>
Now substitute equations (2) and (3) into equation (1) to obtain
: <math> -P d V = \alpha P d V + \alpha V d P \,</math>
simplify,
: <math> - (\alpha + 1) P d V = \alpha V d P \,</math>
divide both sides by ''PV'',
: <math> -(\alpha + 1) {d V \over V} = \alpha {d P \over P}. </math>
From the differential calculus it is then known that
: <math> -(\alpha + 1) d (\ln V) = \alpha d (\ln P) \,</math>
which can be expressed as
: <math> {\ln P - \ln P_0 \over \ln V - \ln V_0 } = -{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha} </math>
for certain constants <math> P_0 </math> and <math |
n function to itself recursively. Extending the table further to overcome it is like trying the same with the list of natural numbers.
==Explanation==
To see how the Ackermann function grows so quickly, it helps to expand out some simple expressions using the rules in the original definition. For example, we can fully evaluate ''A''(1,&nbsp;2) in the following way:
<pre>
A(1, 2) = A(0, A(1,1))
= A(0, A(0, A(1,0)))
= A(0, A(0, A(0,1)))
= A(0, A(0, 2))
= A(0, 3)
= 4
</pre>
Now let us attempt the more complex ''A''(4,&nbsp;3), the first value with fairly small ''n'' which cannot be recorded as a decimal expansion in the physical universe:
<pre>
A(4, 3) = A(3, A(4, 2))
= A(3, A(3, A(4, 1)))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(4, 0))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(3, 1))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(3, 0)))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(2, 1)))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(2, 0))))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(1, 1))))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, A(1, 0)))))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, A(0, 1)))))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, 2))))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, 3)))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(1, 2))))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(1, 1)))))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, A(1, 0))))))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, A(0, 1))))))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, 2))))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, 3)))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, 4)))))
= A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, 5))))
= ...
= A(3, A(3, A(3, 13)))
= ...
= A(3, A(3, 65533))
= ...
</pre>
We stop here because ''A''(3,&nbsp;65533) returns 2<sup>65536</sup>&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;3, a number which is much larger than the number of atoms in the visible universe. After this, ''this'' number is itself raised as a power of 2 to obtain the final result.
==Inverse==
Since the function &nbsp;''f''&nbsp;(''n'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;''A''(''n'',&nbsp;''n'') considered above grows very rapidly, its [[inverse function]], ''f''<sup>&minus;1</sup>, grows very slowly. This '''inverse Ackermann function''' ''f''<sup>&minus;1</sup> is usually denoted by &alpha;. In fact, &alpha;(n) is less than 5 for any conceivable input size ''n'', since A(4,&nbsp;4) has a number of digits that cannot itself be written in binary in the physical universe. For all practical purposes, ''f''<sup>&minus;1</sup>(''n'') can be regarded as being a constant.
This inverse appears in the time [[computational complexity theory|complexity]] of some [[algorithm]]s, such as the [[disjoint-set data structure]] and Chazelle's algorithm for [[minimum spanning tree]]s. Sometimes Ackermann's original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates. In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the ''&minus;3'' and similar terms.
A two-parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows:
:<math>\alpha(m,n) = \min\{i \geq 1 : A(i,\lfloor m/n \rfloor) \geq \log_2 n\}.</math>
This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound. In the [[disjoint-set data structure]], ''m'' represents the number of operations while ''n'' represents the number of elements; in the [[minimum spanning tree]] algorithm, ''m'' represents the number of edges while ''n'' represents the number of vertices.
Several slightly different definitions of &alpha;(''m'',&nbsp;''n'') exist; for example, log<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;''n'' is sometimes replaced by ''n'', and the [[floor function]] is sometimes replaced by a [[ceiling function|ceiling]].
==Use as benchmark==
The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep [[recursion]], can be used as a benchmark of a [[compiler]]'s ability to optimize [[recursion]]. The Computer Language Shootout, for example, compares the amount of time required to evaluate this function for fixed arguments in many different programming language implementations[http://shootout.alioth.debian.org/benchmark.php?test=ackermann&lang=all&sort=fullcpu].
For example, a compiler which, in analyzing the computation of ''A''(3,&nbsp;30), is able to save intermediate values like the ''A''(3,&nbsp;''n'') and ''A''(2,&nbsp;''n'') in that calculation rather than recomputing them, can speed up computation of ''A''(3,&nbsp;30) by a factor of hundreds of thousands. Also, if ''A''(2,&nbsp;''n'') is computed directly rather than as a recursive expansion of the form ''A''(1,&nbsp;''A''(1,&nbsp;''A''(1,...''A''(1,&nbsp;0)...))), this will save significant amounts of time. Computing ''A''(1,&nbsp;''n'') takes linear time in ''n''. Computing ''A''(2,&nbsp;''n'') requires quadratic time, since it expands to [[Big O notation|O]](''n'') nested calls to ''A''(1,&nbsp;''i'') for various ''i''. Computing ''A''(3,&nbsp;''n'') requires time proportionate to 4<sup>''n''+1</sup>. The computation of ''A''(3,&nbsp;1) in the example above takes 16 (4<sup>2</sup>) steps.
''A''(4,&nbsp;2), which appears as a decimal expansion in several web pages, cannot possibly be computed by recursive application of the Ackermann function in any even remotely plausible amount of time. Instead, formulas such as ''A''(3,&nbsp;''n'') = 8&times;2<sup>''n''</sup>&minus;3 are used to quickly complete some of the recursive calls.
==See also==
* [[Tetration]]
* [[Busy beaver]]
==References==
* Wilhelm Ackermann, ''Zum Hilbertschen Aufbau der reelen Zahlen'', Math. Annalen 99 (1928), pp. 118-133.
* von Heijenoort. [http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/cebrown/notes/vonHeijenoort.html From Frege To Gödel], 1967. This is an invaluable reference in understanding the context of Ackermann's paper ''On Hilbert’s Construction of the Real Numbers'', containing his paper as well as Hilbert’s ''On The Infinite'' and Gödel’s two papers on the completeness and consistency of mathematics.<div id="van Heijenoort"></div>
* Raphael M. Robinson, ''Recursion and double recursion'', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc., Vol. 54, pp. 987-993.
==External links==
*[http://www.stetson.edu/~efriedma/periodictable/html/Ac.html Erich Friedman's page on Ackermann] at [[Stetson University]]
*Scott Aaronson, ''[http://www.scottaaronson.com/writings/bignumbers.html Who can name the biggest number?]'' (1999)
*[http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~susan/cyc/a/ackermnn.htm Some values of the Ackermann function].
*[http://www.xgc.com/benchmarks/benchmarks.htm Example use of the Ackermann function as a benchmark]. Note the huge number of function calls used in computing low values.
*[http://www.kosara.net/thoughts/ackermann42.html Decimal expansion of A(4,2)]
*[http://forum.wolframscience.com/showthread.php?s=&threadid=579 Hyper-operations] Posting on A New Kind of Science Forum discussing the arithmetic operators of the Ackermann function and their inverse operators with link to an extended article on the subject.
*[http://home.earthlink.net/~mrob/pub/math/ln-2deep.html Robert Munafo's Versions of Ackermann's Function] describes several variations on the definition of ''A''.
*<div id="Hilbert">Zach, Richard,</div> [http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2003/entries/hilbert-program/ "Hilbert's Program"], ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
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<title>Antarctic</title>
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<title>Albanians</title>
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:''This article is about the Albanians as an [[ethnic group]]. For information about the residents or nationals of [[Albania]], see [[demographics of Albania]].''
{{Ethnic group|
|group=Albanians
|image=[[Image:Shqiptare.PNG|300px|]]
|poptime=''c.'' 8,000,000
|popplace=
[[Albania]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 3,385,000 [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html]<br />
[[Kosovo]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 2,112,000 [http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/kosovo/SoE/popullat.htm]<br />
[[Serbia]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 67,000<br />
[[Republic of Macedonia]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 509,000<br />
[[Greece]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 650,000<br />
[[Italy]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 233,000<br />
[[Sweden]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 40,000<br />
[[Denmark]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 8,000<br />
[[United States|USA]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 114,000<br />
[[France]]:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp; 20,000<br />
[[Slovenia]]: |
he world.
In [[Hasselt]], [[Belgium]] is the National Gin Museum.
== Martini in Popular Culture ==
Hawkeye, Trapper and B.J. in [[M*A*S*H]] made their own gin to make martini(s) in a [[still]] in the Swamp.
==Common mixers for gin==
*[[Vermouth]] - in a [[martini cocktail|martini]]
*[[Tonic water]] - in a [[Gin and tonic]]
*[[Soda water]] - in a [[Gin Rickey]]
*[[Ginger ale]]
*[[Orange juice]]
*[[Lemon juice]]
*[[Lime (fruit)|Lime juice]]
*[[Grapefruit|Grapefruit juice]]
*[[Ginger Ale]] or [[Ginger Beer]]
== Cocktails with gin ==
*[[Martini cocktail|Martini]]
*[[Tin roof|Tin Roof]]
*[[Tom Collins]]
*[[Maiden's Prayer]]
*[[Greyhound (cocktail)|Greyhound]]
*[[Salty Dog]]
*[[Singapore Sling]]
*[[Gimlet (cocktail)|Gimlet]]
*[[Gin and Tonic]]
*[[Pimm's]] N°1.
*[[Todd's Frog]]
*[[Apoica]]
*[[Orange Blossom]]
==Premium / Famous gin brands==
[[Image:Bombay-sapphire.jpg|thumb|A bottle of [[Bombay Sapphire]] brand gin.]]
*[[Beefeater]] - first produced in [[1820]]
*Bombay - [[Distillation|distilled]] with eight botanicals
*Booth's
*[[Bombay Sapphire]] - distilled with ten botanicals
*[[Ginebra San Miguel]] - has juniper berries as its main flavor, produced by the company of the same name and is the largest-selling gin in the world although it is mainly sold in the [[Philippines]]
*[[Gordon's gin|Gordon's]]
*[[Greenall]]'s
*[[Hendrick's Gin]] - infused with cucumber, coriander, citrus peel and rose petals
*[[Plymouth gin|Plymouth]] - first distilled in [[1793]]
*[[Seagram]]'s
*[[Tanqueray]]
*[[Tanqueray Ten]]
*[[DH Krahn Gin]]
*[[Blackwood's Superior Nordic Vintage Dry Gin]]
*[[South Gin]] - triple distilled in [[New Zealand]] using nine botanicals, two of which are native: [[manuka]] berries and [[kawakawa (tree)|kawa kawa]] leaves, believed by the indigenous [[Māori]] people to offer medicinal properties
==Other gin brands and variations==
*Gin Bulag - the Philippines' most famous choice of gin. Directly translated as "Blind Gin," this concoction has been aptly named after gin drunkards have been reported to lose their eyesight after three straight days of gin insobriety.
*Anchor Junipero Gin - produced in [[California]] by [[Anchor Steam Brewery]]
*Bafferts Gin - [[Distillation|Triple-distilled]] with four botanicals in England
*Barton Gin
*Bellringer Gin - 94.4 proof English gin.
*Bols Gin
*Bombadier Military Gin
*Boodles British Gin - 90.4 proof gin
*Boomsma Jonge Genevere Gin
*Burnett's Crown Select Gin
*Caballito: Panama's finest export gin
*Cadenhead's Old Raj Gin - 110 proof gin containing a small amount of [[saffron]], which imparts a slight yellowish/greenish tint.
*Citadelle - distilled with nineteen botanicals in [[France]]
*Cork Dry
*Cascade Mountain Gin - uses hand-picked wild juniper berries, distilled in [[Oregon]]
*Demrak Amsterdam - distilled five times with seventeen botanicals
*Dirty Olive - olive-flavored
*Fleischmann's Gin - Marketed as the original American gin, first distilled in 1870
*Gilbey's London Dry Gin
*Gin Llave - Argentina's prime and extra-smooth concoction.
*Gordon's London Gin (By Appointment To Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain)
*Hamptons Gin
*Juniper Green Organic Gin - first gin made from all organic ingredients in England with four botanicals
*Leyden Dry Gin - Distilled three times in small batches, twice in [[column still]]s then in a [[pot still]]
*Quintessential
*Sarticious Gin - Dutch style gin distilled in Santa Cruz, California, orange and cilantro
*[[Steinhäger]]
*Swordsman
*[[Van Gogh]] Gin - Dutch gin produced with ten botanicals in small batches. Triple distilled, twice in column stills then in a traditional pot still
*Gin [[Xoriguer]] - [[Minorca]]n local gin
==External links==
* [http://www.tastings.com/spirits/gin.html] A thorough article about the history and types of gin.
* [http://www.gintime.com Gintime.com]
* [http://www.victorianlondon.org/entertainment/ginpalaces.htm Gin in Victorian London]
* [http://extratasty.com/recipes/tagged/gin Recipes with Gin]
* [http://www.argace.co.nr ARGACÉ's official website] A dynamic student association from Québec that works hard to revitalise the image of Gin (particularly Holland's great jenevers)
==References==
* Patrick Dillon. ''Gin: The Much-Lamented Death of Madam Geneva: The Eighteenth Century Gin Craze''. ISBN 1932112006.
[[Category:Gins|*]]
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[[zh:琴酒]]</text>
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<title>Goa (state)</title>
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<title>Gall-Peters projection</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PetersMap.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Peters map]]
The Peters World Map or '''Gall-Peters projection''' is an [[Orthographic projection (cartography)|orthographic]] equal-area [[map projection]] of the [[earth]]. It was published in 1885 by [[James Gall]] in the ''Scottish Geographical Magazine'' and had been presented by Gall in 1855 at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (the BA). Other projections which are essentially the same (except for the ratio of the vertical to the horizontal axis) are the ''Lambert Cylindrical Equal Area'', ''Behrmann Cylindrical Equal Area'', ''Tristran Edwards'', and ''Balthasart''. They all use the property that the [[surface area]] of a [[sphere]] and the curved surface area of the [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] containing it are the same.
[[Arno Peters]], a historian, first presented his map in 1967 as a 'new invention', and promoted it as a superior alternative to the [[Mercator projection]], which shows areas very much distorted (showing [[Greenland]] somewhat larger than [[Africa]] whereas in reality Africa is 13 times as large), because the Gall-Peters projection shows equal areas equal, thus giving the tropics their rightful place on the map. This argument was picked up by many educational institutes and such, and the Gall-Peters projection is therefore in much use. Opponents of the Peters world map now concede that Peters, who died in 2002, independently reinvented the projection. According to his obituary in The Times, he acknowledged Gall's precedent in the last years of his life, and changed its name from the Peters Projection to the Peters world map.
Professional geographers, while agreeing with Peters's arguments against the Mercator projection, also find much fault with the Gall-Peters projection because to keep the equal-area, it very much distorts shapes, extending anything near the equator in the north-south, near the poles in the east-west direction. They prefer maps that make a compromise between area and shape accuracy, or that are equal-area with less shape distortion.
One obvious distortion of the Gall-Peters projection is that it stretches [[Africa]], which in reality is about as wide east-west as it is long north-south, but in this projection appears to be almost twice as long as it is wide.
Seven North American geographic organizations in 1989 adopted the following resolution that rejected all rectangular world maps, which include both the Mercator and the Gall-Peters projections:
<blockquote>
"WHEREAS, the earth is round with a coordinate system composed entirely of circles, and
WHEREAS, flat world maps are more useful than globe maps, but flattening the globe surface necessarily greatly changes the appearance of Earth's features and coordinate systems, and
WHEREAS, world maps have a powerful and lasting effect on peoples' impressions of the shapes and sizes of lands and seas, their arrangement, and the nature of the coordinate system, and
WHEREAS, frequently seeing a greatly distorted map tends to make it "look right,"
THEREFORE, we strongly urge book and map publishers, the media and government agencies to cease using rectangular world maps for general purposes or artistic displays. Such maps promote serious, erroneous conceptions by severely distorting large sections of the world, by showing the round Earth as having straight edges and sharp corners, by representing most distances and direct routes incorrectly, and by portraying the circular coordinate system as a squared grid. The most widely displayed rectangular world map is the Mercator (in fact a navigational diagram devised for nautical charts), but other rectangular world maps proposed as replacements for the Mercator also display a greatly distorted image of the spherical Earth."
</blockquote>
It should be noted that there are other opinions within geography and cartography about the Peters World Map (its alternative name in some of the literature). First, some map societies, notably the North American Cartographic Information Society [[(NACIS)]] declined to endorse the 1989 resolution. Second, there are a small number of cartographers, including [[Brian Harley]], who have written positively about it. Within geography more generally, some commentators see the cartographic controversy over the Peters world map as a sign of immaturity in the cartographic profession regarding the fact that all maps are political.
Arno Peters was the son of social activists and probably gained his lifelong concern about equality from his parents, Lucy and Bruno Peters. In 1929, when P |
h as [[pizza]] and ''[[al dente]]'' [[pasta]], are eaten. It is said that [[Buenos Aires]] has more pizzerias than [[Rome]]. ''[[noodles|Fideos]]'', ''[[Gnocchi|ñoquis]]'', ''[[Ravioli|ravioles]]'' and [[Cannelloni|canelones]] can be bought freshly-made on every block in [[Buenos Aires]]. Italian-style [[ice cream]] is made in huge parlours, with even drive-thru places offering hundreds of flavors to satisfy this national obsession.
In [[Chubut]], the Welsh community is known for their teahouses, with [[scones]] and ''Torta Galesa'', rather like [[Bara Brith]].
''Sandwiches de miga'' are delicate sandwiches made with crustless buttered white bread, very thinly sliced cured meat and cheese and leaf lettuce. They are often purchased from entrepreneurial home cooks and consumed with a [[Cerveza Quilmes|Quilmes beer]] for a light evening meal.
[[Image:GEM corn.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Maize features in pre-Columbian Argentine cuisine]]
In the provinces, food is less European and more influenced by pre-Columbian and colonial traditions, with [[maize]], beans, [[pumpkin]]s and chilis making more appearances, whereas in Buenos Aires, even [[black pepper]] has been shunned. ''[[Locro]]'' is a spicy [[stew]] of white maize, often with pumpkin and [[sausage]]. ''Pucheros'' (stews) and ''cazuelas'' (casserikes) reflect a blend of [[Amerindian]] and Spanish cuisines.
The sweet paste, ''[[Dulce de leche]]'' is another national obsession, used to fill cakes and pancakes, spread over toasted bread for breakfast or as an ice cream flavour. ''[[Alfajor]]es'' are shortbread cookies sandwiched together with dulce de leche or a fruit paste. The "policeman's" or "truck driver's" sweet is cheese with [[quince]] paste or ''dulce de membrillo''. ''Dulce de batata'' is made of [[sweet potato]] / [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]: this with cheese is the ''[[Martin Fierro]]'''s sweet. Fruits of Argentina are delicious, and their quinces, [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[peach]]es, [[kiwifruit]]s, [[avocado]]s and [[plum]]s are major exports.
A traditional drink of Argentina is a tea-like drink called ''[[yerba mate]]'' or ''mate''. The dried leaves and twigs are placed in a small cup, also called ''mate'', usually made from a gourd, but also bone or horn. The drink is sipped through a metal or cane straw called a ''bombilla''. ''Mate'' can be sweetened with sugar, or flavoured with aromatic herbs or dried orange peel, to hide its strong bitter flavour, although this a less traditional method, looked at unkindly by seasoned drinkers, as the added flavours may remain in the gourd and influence later ''mates''. Hot water is poured into the gourd at near-boiling point so as to not burn the herb and spoil the flavour. This action is called ''cebando el mate'', and is considered an important social ritual. At family or small social gatherings, one mate may be shared by the group, with the host preparing the mate to the preference of each guest. When one guest is finished, the mate is returned to the host, who will then prepare a mate for another guest. ''Mate cocido'' is the same leaf, which rather than brewed, is boiled and served, as coffee or tea, with milk or sugar to taste. Other typical drinks include [[wine]] (occasionally mixed with soda water); tea and coffee are equally important. 'Quilmes' is the national brand of [[lager]], named after the town [[Quilmes]] where it was first produced.
==Regional differences==
Although there exists an Argentine cuisine that is common to the whole country&mdash;[[asado]]s (grilled meats), [[dulce de leche]] (a sweet caramel-like custard), [[empanadas]] and [[mate]]&mdash;there is a cuisine that is specific to each of four regions of Argentina, which follow in order of population (2005):
# Central/[[Pampa|Pampean]]
# North-west/[[Cuyo, Argentina|Cuyo]]
# North-east
# [[Patagonia]]/[[Tierra del Fuego]]
===Central region and las Pampas===
This region comprises of the provinces of [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires]], [[Córdoba Province, Argentina|Córdoba]], [[Santa Fe Province|Santa Fe]], [[La Pampa Province|La Pampa]], part of [[Entre Ríos]], and all of the Autonomos City of [[Buenos Aires]].
This region of Argentina has received the greatest direct European influence, most visibly from [[Italy]] and [[Spain]]. It is also a crucial center of [[cattle]] production for Argentina and is thus the origin of the quintessentially Argentine dishes ''[[carne asada]]'' (roasted beef) and ''[[dulce de leche]]''. It is here that red-meat-based foods are combined with white meat, dairy products and pasta, producing a high-[[protein]] [[diet (nutrition)|diet]].
In addition to the aforementioned ''carne asada'' and ''dulce de leche'', other dishes that typify the region are ''milanesas'', or breaded meats. A common dish of this variety is the ''milanesa napolitana'' (the name comes from [[Naples]], [[Italy]]). ''Milanesa napolitana'' is an Argentine innovation despite its name. In addition to roast beef, ''bifes'', and ''churrascos'', a visitor to the central region will find many dishes of Italian origin that have been incorporated into the Argentine cuisine and heavily modified from their original forms.
[[Pizza]] (locally pronounced ''pisa''), for example, has been wholly subsumed and in its Argentine form more closely resembles Italian [[calzone]]s than it does its Italian ancestor. Typical or exclusively Argentine pizzas include ''pizza canchera'', ''pizza rellena'' (stuffed pizza), ''pizza por metro'' (pizza by the meter), and ''pizza a la parrilla'' (grilled pizza). While Argentine pizza, derives from [[Naples|Neapolitan]] cuisine, the Argentine ''fugaza''/''fugazza'' comes from the ''focaccia xeneise'' ([[Genoa]]n), but in any case its preparation is different from its Italian counterpart, and the addition of cheese to make the dish (fugaza con queso or fugazzeta) is an Argentine invention.
Another Argentine invention is ''[[fainá]]'', a type of fugazza made with [[chickpea]] flour (adopted from Spain). During the [[20th century]], people in pizza shops in Buenos Aires, Rosario or Córdoba have commonly ordered a "combo" of ''moscato'', pizza, and ''fainá''. This is a large glass of a sweet wine called [[moscato]] ([[muscat]]), plus two triangular stacked pieces (the lower one being pizza and the upper one ''fainá'').
Nevertheless, the ''[[pasta]]s'' (pasta, always in the plural) surpass pizzas in consumption levels. Among them are ''tallarines'' ([[fettuccine]]), ''ravioles'' ([[ravioli]]), ''ñoquis'' ([[gnocchi]], and ''canelones'' ([[cannelloni]]). They are usually cooked, served, and consumed in Argentine fashion, called ''al-uso-nostro'', a phrase of Italian origin.
For example, it is common for pasta to be eaten together with white bread ("French bread"), which is unusual in Italy. This can be explained by the low cost of bread and the fact that Argentine pastas tend to come together with a large amount of ''tuco'' sauce (Italian ''suco'' "juice"), and accompanied by ''[[estofado]]'' (stew). Less commonly, pastas are eaten with a dressing of ''[[pesto]]'', a green sauce based on [[basil]], or ''salsa blanca'' ([[Béchamel sauce]]).
The ''sorrentinos'' are also a local dish with a misleading name (they do not come from [[Sorrento]], but were invented in [[Mar del Plata]]). They look like big round ''ravioles'' stuffed with [[mozzarella]], [[cottage cheese]] and [[basil]] in [[tomato sauce]].
''[[Polenta]]'' comes from northern Italy and is very common throughout Argentina. But unlike in Italy, this [[cornmeal]] is eaten as a main dish, with sauce and melted cheese.
Spanish influences are abundant: desserts like the ''[[churros]]'' (cylinders of pastry, usually fried, sometimes filled with [[dulce de leche]]), [[''flan'']],
''ensaimadas'' ([[Catalan]] sweet bread), and ''[[alfajor]]es'' are all descended from Spain. Main dishes such as the ''[[Spanish tortilla|tortillas]]'' ([[omelet]]s of egg, onion and potato, and having no relation to the Mexican dish of the same name), nearly all kinds of stew, ''arroces'' (rice dishes such as [[paella]]), and ''fabada'' ([[Asturian]] bean stew). All of the ''[[guiso]]s'' and ''[[puchero]]s'' ([[stew]]s) are of Spanish origin. Argentine preparations of fish, such as dried salt [[cod]] (''[[Bacalhau|bacalao]]''), calamari, and octopus, originate from the [[Basque]] and [[Galician]] regions.
''[[Empanada]]s'', though typically South American, have a [[Moorish]] origin (they derived from the [[Southwest Asia|Near-Eastern]] ''lahmayim'' and ''[[fatay]]''), and they can be also traced to the [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]n empanada and to certain stuffed ''[[calzoni]]''.
Germanic influence is comparatively small, but appears remarkable in the field of sweet dishes. The pastries known as ''facturas'' are Germanic in origin: [[croissant]]s, known as ''medialunas'', are the most popular of these, and can be found in two varieties: butter- and lard-based. Also German in origin are the "Berlinese" known as ''bolas de fraile'' ("friar's balls"), and the rolls called ''piononos''. The ''facturas'' were re-christened with local names given the difficult phonology of German, and usually Argentinized by the addition of a dulce of leche filling.
Most dishes of the Central/Pampean region are urban, often requiring a gas [[oven]] of a type not found in the countryside. This is not strange considering that more than 80% of the [[demographics of Argentina|Argentine population]] is concentrated in the main cities of this region ([[Buenos Aires City|Buenos Aires]], [[Rosario]], [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]], etc.). Not much is left of the ''gaucho'' food, except ''asado'', ''dulce de leche'', ''mate'' (the yerba mate infusion), ''tortas fritas'', and ''arroz con leche'' ([[rice pudding]]).
The scene was different until the first half of the 19th century. [[Lucio V. Mansilla]] in his ''Memoria |
in the case of pig meat since this is difficult to keep without preservation. Many fruits can also be dried and the process is often applied to [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[banana]]s, [[mango]]s, [[papaya]], [[coconut]] etc. [[Zante currant|Currant]]s, [[sultana]]s and [[raisin]]s are all forms of dried [[Grape]]s. Drying is also the normal means of preservation for cereal grains such as [[wheat]], [[maize]], [[oat]]s, [[barley]], [[rice]], [[millet]] and [[rye]].
===Freezing===
{{seealso|Frozen food}}
Probably as old as drying, many Arctic communities would preserve food in holes or [[larder]]s dug into the ice. There is a tradition in [[Scandinavia]] of preserving [[fish]] and especially [[herring]]s in this way.
Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes commercially and domestically for preserving a very wide range of food stuffs including prepared footstuffs which would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months' storage.
Cold stores provide large volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.
===Vacuum Packing===
[[Vacuum-packing]] stores food in a [[vacuum]] environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle. The [[vacuum]] environment strips [[bacteria]] of oxygen needed for survival, hence preventing the food from spoiling. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing [[nut (fruit)|nuts]].
===Curing===
[[Curing]] draws moisture from the meat through a process of [[osmosis]]. [[Meat]] is [[curing|cured]] with [[edible salt|salt]] or [[sugar]], or a combination of the two. [[Nitrate]]s and [[nitrite]]s are also often used to cure meat.
===Sugar===
[[Sugar]] is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[peach]]es, [[apricot]]s, [[plum]]s or in crystalised form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystralisation and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the skins of [[citrus]] fruit (candied peel), [[angelica]] and [[ginger]]. A modification of this process produces glacé fruit such as glacé [[cherry|cherries]] where the fruit is preserved in sugar but is then extracted from the syrup and sold, the preservation being maintained by the sugar content of the fruit and the superficial coating of syrup.
The use of sugar is often combined with [[ethanol|alcohol]] for preservation of luxury products such as fruit in [[brandy]] or other spirits. These should not be confused with fruit flavoured spirits such as [[Cherry Brandy]] or [[Sloe gin]]
===Pickling===
[[Pickling]] is a method of preserving food by placing it or cooking it in a substance that inhibits or kills bacteria and other micro-organisms, This material must also be fit for human consumption. Typical pickling agents include [[brine]] (high in [[edible salt|salt]]), [[vinegar]], [[ethanol]], and [[vegetable oil]], especially [[olive oil]] but also many other oils. Most pickling processes also involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent.
Frequently pickled items include [[vegetables]] such as [[cabbage]] (to make [[sauerkraut]] and [[curtido]]), [[capsicum|pepper]]s, and some animal products such as [[corned beef]] and [[egg (food)|eggs]].
A less-common form of pickling uses [[sodium hydroxide]] ([[lye]]) to make the food too [[alkaline]] for bacterial growth. Lye will [[saponification|saponify]] fats in the food, which will change its flavor and texture. [[Lutefisk]] and [[hominy]] use lye in their preparation, as do some olive recipes.
===Canning and Bottling===
[[Image:PreservedFood1.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Preserved food]]
[[Canning]] involves cooking [[fruit]]s or [[vegetable]]s, sealing them in sterile cans or jars, and [[boiling]] the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria. Various foods have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require that the final step occur in a [[pressure cooker]]. High-acid fruits like [[strawberry|strawberries]] require no preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as [[tomato]]es require longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Many vegetables require pressure canning. Food preserved by canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened.
===Jellying===
Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such materials include [[gelatine]], [[agar]], [[maize]] flour and [[arrowroot]] flour. Some foods naturally form a [[protein]] gel when cooked such as [[Eel|eels and elvers]], and [[Sipuncula|sipunculid]] worms which are a delicacy in the town of [[Xiamen]] in Fujian province of [[China]]. [[Jellied eels]] are a delicacy in the East End of [[London]] where they are eaten with mashed [[potato]]es.
Potted meats in [[aspic]], (the gel made from arrowroot flour) were a common way of serving meat off-cuts in the UK until the [[1950]]s
===Irradiation===
A [[1950s]] issue of [[Popular Mechanics]] details the impending arrival of "[[food irradiation]]". But the implications of irradiation are not fully understood, and the use of the technology is limited. Irradiation of [[potato]]es, strawberries, and meat is common in many countries where refrigerated facilities and trucks are not. In [[2002]], the [[FDA]] permitted irradiation of meat and poultry to reduce the spread of [[E. coli]] and [[salmonella]].
In the US and most of Europe, irradiation of spices is common, as the only alternative (treatment with gas) is potentially carcinogenic. The process is called "cold pasteurization" because it is feared that the label "irradiation" would hurt sales. Foods may also carry labels saying "Picowaved For Your Protection" as food processors may not want to openly label their foods as being irradiated.
===Modified atmosphere===
[[Modified atmosphere]] is a way to preserve food operating on the atmosphere around it. Salad crops which are notoriously difficult to preserve are now being packaged in sealed bags with an atmosphere modified to reduce the [[oxygen]] concentration and increase the [[carbon dioxide]] concentration. There is concern that although salad vegetables retain their appearance and texture in such conditions, this method of preservation may not retain nutrient content, especially [[vitamin]]s.
Grains may be preserved using [[carbon dioxide]]. A block of [[dry ice]] is placed in the bottom and the can is filled with grain. The can is then "burped" of excess gas. The [[carbon dioxide]] from the sublimation of the dry ice prevents insects, [[mold]], and [[oxidation]] from damaging the grain. Grain stored in this way can survive five years in a moist garage.
===Clamps===
Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation other than storage in cool dark conditions, usually in field [[Storage clamp|clamp]]s.
===Biological processes===
Some foods, such as many traditional [[cheese]]s, will keep for a long time without use of any special procedures. The preservation occurs because of the presence in very high numbers of beneficial bacteria or fungi which use their own biological defences to prevent other organisms gaining a foot-hold.
==See also==
* [[Canning]]
* [[Chutney]]
* [[Food processing]]
* [[Jam]]
* [[Marmalade]]
* [[Pickle]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Food preservation}}
* [http://www.uga.edu/nchfp National Center for Home Food Preservation]
* [[BBC News Online]] - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3915659.stm US army food... just add urine]
* [http://www.rense.com/general10/topten.htm Ten Top Reasons For Opposing Food Irradiation]
[[Category:Food preservation|*]]
[[da:Konservering (madvarer)]]
[[de:Konservierung]]
[[es:Conserva]]
[[fr:Conservation des aliments]]
[[he:שימור מזון]]
[[nl:Conserveren]]
[[ja:保存食]]
[[pl:Konserwacja żywności]]
[[sv:Konservering]]
[[zh:食物保鲜法]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Frequency modulation</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-24T03:10:06Z</timestamp>
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<username>FlaBot</username>
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<comment>robot Adding: eu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|FM}}
'''Frequency modulation''' ('''FM''') is a form of [[modulation]] which represents [[information]] as variations in the instantaneous [[frequency]] of a [[carrier wave]]. (Contrast this with [[amplitude modulation]], in which the [[amplitude]] of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant.)
In [[analog signal|analog]] applications, the carrier frequency is varied in direct proportion to changes in the [[amplitude]] of an input signal. [[Digital]] [[data]] can be represented by shifting the carrier frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as [[frequency-shift keying]].
FM is commonly used at [[VHF]] [[radio frequency|radio frequencies]] for [[high-fidelity]] [[radio broadcasting|broadcasts]] of [[music]] and [[speech]] (see [[FM broadcasting]]). Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. A [[narrowband]] form is used for [[human voice|voice]] communications in commercial and [[amateur radio]] settings. The type of FM used in broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals into space.
FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by most analog [[Video cassette recorder|VCR]] systems, including [[VHS]], to record the [[Luminance (video)|luminance]] (black and white) portion of the video signal. FM is the only feasible method of recording to and retrieving fr |
<username>Falcon Kirtaran</username>
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<comment>Overhaul</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''3 Social sciences'''
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/30|30 Social sciences, sociology & anthropology]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/31|31 Statistics]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/32|32 Political science]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/33|33 Economics]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/34|34 Law]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/35|35 Public administration & military science]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/36|36 Social problems & social services]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/37|37 Education]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/38|38 Commerce, communications & transportation]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/39|39 Customs, etiquette & folklore]]</text>
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<title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/4</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-18T21:31:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marcika</username>
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<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] typo fix: "Portugese"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''4 Language'''
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/40|40 Language]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/41|41 Linguistics]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/42|42 English & Old English languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/43|43 German & related languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/44|44 French & related languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/45|45 Italian, Romanian & related languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/46|46 Spanish & Portuguese languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/47|47 Latin & Italic languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/48|48 Classical & modern Greek languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/49|49 Other languages]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Dewey Decimal System/Natural sciences and mathematics</title>
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<timestamp>2003-01-17T05:46:24Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ellmist</username>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/5]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/5]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/Technology</title>
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<timestamp>2004-03-03T10:07:21Z</timestamp>
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<username>Sfdan</username>
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<comment>Link to meal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Main Categories List]]
:600 [[Technology]] ([[Applied sciences]])
::601 Philosophy & theory
::602 Miscellany
::603 Dictionaries & encyclopedias
::604 Special topics
::605 Serial publications
::606 Organizations
::607 Education, research, related topics
::608 Invention & [[patent]]s
::609 Historical, areas, persons treatment
:610 [[Medical sciences]] [[Medicine]]
::611 [[Human anatomy]], [[Human cytology]],[[Human histology]]
::612 [[Human physiology]]
::613 Promotion of [[health]]
::614 Incidence & prevention of [[disease]]
::615 [[Pharmacology]] & therapeutics
::616 [[Diseases]]
::617 [[Surgery]] & related medical specialities
::618 [[Gynecology]] & other medical specialities
::619 [[Experimental medicine]]
:620 [[Engineering]] & allied operations
::621 [[Applied physics]]
::622 [[Mining]] & related operations
::623 [[Military engineering]] & [[nautical engineering]]
::624 [[Civil engineering]]
::625 Engineering of [[railroad]]s, [[road]]s
::626
::627 [[Hydraulic engineering]]
::628 [[Sanitary engineering]] & [[municipal engineering]]
::629 Other branches of engineering
:630 [[Agriculture]]
::631 Techniques, equipment, materials
::632 [[Plant injuries]], [[Plant diseases]], [[Plant pests]]
::633 Field & plantation crops
::634 [[Orchard]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[forestry]]
::635 [[Garden]] crops ([[Horticulture]])
::636 [[Animal husbandry]]
::637 Processing [[dairy]] & related products
::638 [[Insect culture]]
::639 [[Hunting]], [[fishing]], [[conservation]]
:640 [[Home economics]] & family living
::641 [[Food]] & [[drink]]
::642 [[Meal|Meals]] & table service
::643 Housing & household equipment
::644 [[Household utilities]]
::645 [[Household furnishings]]
::646 [[Sewing]], [[clothing]], personal living
::647 Management of public households
::648 [[Housekeeping]]
::649 [[Child rearing]] & home care of sick
:650 Management & auxiliary services
::651 [[Office services]]
::652 Processes of written communication
::653 [[Shorthand]]
::654
::655
::656
::657 [[Accounting]]
::658 General management
::659 [[Advertising]] & [[public relations]]
:660 [[Chemical engineering]]
::661 Industrial chemicals technology
::662 [[Explosives]], [[fuel]]s technology
::663 [[Beverage]] technology
::664 [[Food]] technology
::665 Industrial [[oil]]s, [[fat]]s, [[wax]]es, [[gas]]es
::666 [[Ceramic]] & allied technologies
::667 Cleaning, color, related technologies
::668 Technology of other organic products
::669 [[Metallurgy]]
:670 [[Manufacturing]]
::671 [[Metalworking]] & metal products
::672 [[Iron]], [[steel]], other iron alloys
::673 [[Nonferrous metals]]
::674 [[Lumber]] processing, [[wood]] products, [[cork (material)|cork]]
::675 [[Leather processing]] & [[fur processing]]
::676 Pulp & [[paper]] technology
::677 [[Textiles]]
::678 [[Elastomer]]s & elastomer products
::679 Other products of specific materials
:680 Manufacture for specific uses
::681 Precision instruments & other devices
::682 Small forge work ([[Blacksmithing]])
::683 Hardware & household appliances
::684 Furnishings & home workshops
::685 [[Leather]], [[fur]], related products
::686 [[Printing]] & related activities
::687 [[Clothing]]
::688 Other final products & packaging
::689
:690 [[Building]]s
::691 Building materials
::692 Auxiliary construction practices
::693 Specific materials & purposes
::694 Wood construction ([[Carpentry]])
::695 Roof covering
::696 [[Utilities]]
::697 [[HVAC|Heating, ventilating, air-conditioning]]
::698 Detail finishing
::699</text>
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<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/The arts</title>
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<timestamp>2006-01-10T06:54:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ganymead</username>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Main Categories List]]
:700 The arts
::701 Philosophy & theory
::702 Miscellany
::703 Dictionaries & encyclopedias
::704 Special topics
::705 Serial publications
::706 Organizations & management
::707 Education, research, related topics
::708 Galleries, museums, private collections
::709 Historical, areas, persons treatment
:710 Civic & landscape art
::711 Area planning ([[Civic art]])
::712 [[Landscape architecture]]
::713 Landscape architecture of trafficways
::714 Water features
::715 [[Woody plant]]s
::716 [[Herbaceous plant]]s
::717 Structures
::718 Landscape design of [[cemetery|cemeteries]]
::719 Natural landscapes
:720 [[Architecture]]
::721 Architectural structure
::722 Architecture to ca. 300
::723 Architecture from ca. 300 to 1399
::724 Architecture from 1400
::725 Public structures
::726 [[Buildings for religious purposes]]
::727 [[Buildings for education]] & research
::728 [[Residential buildings|residential]] & related buildings
::729 Design & decoration
:730 Plastic arts ([[Sculpture]])
::731 Processes, forms, subjects of sculpture
::732 Sculpture to ca. 500
::733 Greek, Etruscan, Roman sculpture
::734 Sculpture from ca. 500 to 1399
::735 Sculpture from 1400
::736 [[Carving]] & carvings
::737 [[Numismatics]] & [[sigillography]]
::738 [[Ceramics|Ceramic arts]]
::739 Art [[metalwork]]
:740 [[Drawing]] & [[decorative arts]]
::741 Drawing & drawings
::742 [[Perspective]]
::743 Drawing & drawings by subject
::744 Not assigned or no longer used
::745 Decorative arts
::745.6 [[Calligraphy]]
::746 [[Textile arts]]
::747 [[Interior decoration]]
::748 [[Glass]]
::749 [[Furniture]] & accessories
:750 [[Painting]] & paintings
::751 Techniques, equipment, forms
::752 [[Color]]
::753 Symbolism, allegory, mythology, legend
::754 Genre paintings
::755 Religion & religious symbolism
::757 Human figures & their parts
::758 Other subjects
::759 Historical, areas, persons treatment
:760 [[Graphic arts]], [[Printmaking]] & prints
::761 Relief processes ([[Block printing]])
::762
::763 [[lithography|Lithographic]] ([[planography|Planographic]]) processes
::764 [[Chromolithography]] & [[serigraphy]]
::765 [[Metal engraving]]
::766 Mezzotinting & related processes
::767 [[Etching]] & [[drypoint]]
::768
::769 Prints
:770 [[Photography]] & photographs
::771 Techniques, equipment, materials
::772 Metallic salt processes
::773 Pigment processes of printing
::774 [[Holography]]
::778 Fields & kinds of [[Photography]]
::779 Photographs
:780 [[Music]]
::781 General principles & musical forms
::782 [[Vocal music]]
::783 Music for single voices, The [[human voice|voice]]
::784 [[Musical instrument|Instruments]] & Instrumental ensembles
::785 [[Chamber music]]
::786 [[Keyboard ins |
scent; but species in other [[genus|genera]] are also used. Commonly used species in northern [[Europe]] (including the [[United Kingdom|UK]]) are:
*[[Silver Fir]] ''Abies alba'' (the original species)
*[[Nordmann Fir]] ''Abies nordmanniana'' (as in the photo)
*[[Noble Fir]] ''Abies procera''
*[[Norway Spruce]] ''Picea abies'' (generally the cheapest)
*[[Serbian Spruce]] ''Picea omorika''
*[[Scots Pine]] ''Pinus sylvestris''
and in [[North America]]:
*[[Balsam Fir]] ''Abies balsamea''
*[[Fraser Fir]] ''Abies fraseri''
*[[Noble Fir]] ''Abies procera''
*[[Red Fir]] ''Abies magnifica''
*[[Coast Douglas-fir|Douglas-fir]] ''Pseudotsuga menziesii''
*[[Scots Pine]] ''Pinus sylvestris''
*[[Stone Pine]] ''Pinus pinea'' (as small table-top trees)
Several other species are used to a lesser extent. Less-traditional conifers are sometimes used, such as [[Giant Sequoia]], [[Leyland Cypress]] and [[Eastern Juniper]]. [[Virginia Pine]] is still available on some tree farms in the southeastern United States, however it has poor winter colour and sharp needles. The long-needled [[Eastern White Pine]] is also used there. [[Araucaria heterophylla|Norfolk Island pine]] is sometimes used, particularly in the [[Oceania]] region, and in [[Australia]] some species of the genera ''[[Casuarina]]'' and ''[[Allocasuarina]]'' are also occasionally used as Christmas trees.
Some trees are sold live with roots and soil, often from a [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery]], to be planted later outdoors and enjoyed (and often decorated) for years or decades. However, the combination of root loss on digging, and the indoor environment of high [[temperature]] and low [[humidity]] is very detrimental to the tree's health, and the survival rate of these trees is low. These trees must be kept inside only for a few days, as the warmth will bring them out of [[dormancy]], leaving them little protection when put back outside into the midwinter cold in most areas. Others are produced in a container and sometimes as [[topiary]] for a porch or patio.
European tradition prefers the open aspect of naturally-grown, unsheared trees, while in North America (outside much of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]]<!--need a source for this-->) there is a preference for close-sheared trees with denser foliage, but less space to hang decorations. The shearing also damages the highly attractive natural [[symmetry]] of unsheared trees. In the past, Christmas trees were often harvested from wild forests, but now almost all are commercially grown on [[tree farm]]s.
In the [[UK]], [[The British Christmas Tree Growers Association]] represents the interests of all those who grow Christmas trees in [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]].
===Artificial trees===
[[Image:TSTNewWorldCentre.jpg|thumb|250px|A huge artificial Christmas tree outside a shopping mall in [[Hong Kong]], [[China]]]]
Artificial trees are very popular, particularly in the U.S., where despite their lack of realism (both in looks and [[odor|scent]]), they are considered more convenient and (if used for several years) less expensive than real trees. Trees come in a number of colours and "species", and some come pre-decorated with coloured lights. At the end of the Christmas season artificial trees can be diassembled and stored compactly, but some artificial-tree owners simply store the whole decorated tree covered in a large bag, ready for the next year. In the U.S., about 70% of trees are now artificial.
Artificial trees are sometimes even a necessity in some rented homes (especially [[apartment]] flats), due to the potential [[fire]] danger from a dried-out real tree, leading to their prohibition by some [[landlord]]s. They may also be necessary for people who have an [[allergy]] to conifers, and are increasingly popular in office settings.
====Feather trees====
The first artificial trees were tabletop ''feather trees'', made from green-[[dye]]d [[goose]] [[feather]]s wound onto sticks drilled into a larger one, like the branches on a tree. Originating in [[Germany]] in the 19th century to prevent further [[deforestation]], these "[[minimalism|minimalist]]" trees show off small ornaments very well. The first feather trees came to the U.S. in 1913, in the [[Sears Holdings Corporation|Sears, Roebuck and Company]] [[catalog]].
====Modern trees====
The first modern artificial Christmas trees were produced by companies which made [[brush]]es. They were made the same way, using animal hair (mainly [[pig]] bristles) and later [[plastic]] bristles, dyed pine-green colour, inserted between twisted wires that form the branches. The bases of the branches were then twisted together to form a large branch, which was then inserted by the user into a wooden pole (now metal with plastic rings) for a trunk. Each row of branches is a different size, colour coded at the base with paint or stickers for ease of assembly.
The first trees looked like long-needled pine trees, but later trees use flat [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] sheets to make the needles. Many also have very short brown "needles" wound in with the longer green ones, to imitate the branch itself or the bases that each group of pine (but not other conifer) needles grows from. These trees have become a little more realistic every year, with a few [[deluxe]] trees containing multiple branch styles. Many trees now come in "slim" versions, to fit in smaller spaces. Most of the better trees have branches hinged to the pole, though the less-expensive ones generally still come separately. Better trees also have more branch tips, the number usually listed on the box.
Around 2003, some trees with molded-plastic branches started selling in the U.S..
====Designer trees====
The first trees which were not green were the [[metallic]] trees of the 1950s and 1960s. They were [[aluminium]]-coated [[paper]], meaning that they also posed a great fire hazard if lights were put directly on them (warnings to this effect are still issued with most christmas tree lights). They were instead lit by a [[searchlight|spotlight]] or [[floodlight]], often with a [[motor]]ised rotating [[color wheel]] in front of it. More recent tinsel trees can be used fairly safely with lights.
Other artificial trees which look nothing like a conifer except for the triangular or conical shape, are also used as tabletop decorations, such as a stack of ornaments.
====Outdoor trees====
Outdoor branched trees made out of heavy white-[[enameled wire|enameled]] [[steel]] wires have become more popular on U.S. [[lawn]]s in the 2000s, along with 1990s [[spiral]] ones that hang from a central pole, both styles being lighted with standard miniature lights. These lights are usually white, but often are green, red, red/green, blue/white, blue, or multicoloured, and sometimes with a small controller to fade colours back and forth.
A few [[hotel]]s and other buildings, both public and private, will string lights up from the roof to the top of a small tower on top of the building, so that at night it appears as a lit Christmas tree, often using green or other coloured lights. Some [[skyscraper]]s will tell certain offices to leave their lights on (and others off) at night during December, creating a Christmas tree pattern.
====Other gimmicks====
[[Image:Fiber-optic Christmas tree.jpg|thumb|A tree with fibre optic lights]]
Since the late 1990s, many indoor artificial trees come pre-strung with lights. Some are instead lit partly or completely by [[fibre optics]], with the light in the base, and a rotating colour wheel causing various colours to shimmer across the tree.
In 2005 inverted trees became popular. They were originally sold as decorations for merchants that allowed customers to get closer to ornaments being sold. Customers then wanted to replicate the inverted tree. Retailers also claimed that the trees were popular because they allowed larger presents to be placed beneath the trees.
Past gimmicks include small talking or singing trees, and trees which blow "snow" (actually small [[styrofoam]] beads) over themselves, collecting them in a decorative [[cardboard]] bin at the bottom and blowing them back up to the top through a tube hidden next to the trunk.
A long-standing and simple gimmick is conifer [[seed]]lings sold with cheap decorations attached by soft [[pipe cleaner]]s. Real potted ones are often sold like this, and artificial ones often come with a "root ball" but only sometimes with decorations.
====Environmental issues====
There is some debate as to whether artificial or real trees are better for the [[environment]]. Artificial trees are usually made out of [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]], a toxic material which is often stabilised with [[lead]]. Some trees have a warning that dust or leaves from the tree should not be eaten or inhaled. A small amount of real-tree material is used in some artificial trees. For instance, the [[bark]] of a real tree can be used to surface an artificial trunk. [[Polyethylene]] trees are less toxic, though more expensive, than PVC trees [http://www.grist.org/advice/ask/2004/12/08/umbra-tree/].
Artificial trees can be used for many years, but are usually non-recyclable, ending up in [[landfill]]s. Real trees are used only for a short time, but can be recycled and used as [[mulch]] or used to prevent [[erosion]] [http://doityourself.com/holiday/realorartificial.htm]. Real trees also help reduce the amount of [[carbon dioxide]] in the [[atmosphere]] while growing.
Live trees are typically grown as a [[crop]] and replanted in rotation after cutting, often providing suitable [[habitat]] for wildlife. In some cases management of Christmas tree crops can result in poor habitat since it involves heavy input of [[pesticide]]s and [[herbicide]]s. [[Organic farming|Organically grown]] Christmas trees are available in some markets, and as with many other crops, are widely held to be better for the environment.
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in Greater London|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Former students of University College, Oxford|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Leaders of the British Labour Party|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Londoners|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Lord Presidents of the Council|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Lords Privy Seal|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Lecturers of the London School of Economics|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Old Haileyburians|Attlee, Clement]]
[[de:Clement Attlee]]
[[es:Clement Attlee]]
[[eo:Clement ATTLEE]]
[[fr:Clement Attlee]]
[[gl:Clement Attlee]]
[[it:Clement Attlee]]
[[he:קלמנט אטלי]]
[[lt:Klementas Etlis]]
[[nl:Clement Attlee]]
[[ja:クレメント・アトリー]]
[[nn:Clement Attlee]]
[[pl:Clement Attlee]]
[[ro:Clement Attlee]]
[[sl:Clement Attlee]]
[[fi:Clement Attlee]]
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[[zh:克莱门特·艾德礼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chickenpox</title>
<id>5767</id>
<revision>
<id>42150350</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:45:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/141.152.168.201|141.152.168.201]] ([[User talk:141.152.168.201|talk]]) to last version by Arcadian</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the episode of [[South Park]] by that name, see [[Chickenpox (South Park)|Chickenpox (South Park)]].}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Chickenpox |
ICD10 = B01 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|052}} |
}}
'''Chickenpox''', also spelled '''chicken pox''', is the common name for ''varicella simplex'', classically one of the childhood infectious diseases caught and survived by most children.
Chickenpox is caused by the [[varicella-zoster virus]] (VZV), also known as human herpes virus 3 (HHV-3), one of the eight [[Herpesviridae | herpes viruses]] known to affect humans. It starts with conjunctival and catarrhal symptoms, moderate [[fever]] and then characteristic spots appearing in two or three waves, mainly on the body and head rather than the hands and becoming itchy raw [[pox]] (pocks), small open sores which heal mostly without scarring.
==Effects==
[[Image:Child with chickenpox.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Child with varicella disease.]]
Chickenpox has a two-week incubation period and is highly contagious by air transmission two days before symptoms appear. Therefore, chickenpox spreads quickly through schools and other places of close contact. Once someone has been infected with the disease, they usually develop protective immunity for life. It is fairly rare to get the chickenpox multiple times, but it is possible for people with irregular immune systems. As the disease is more severe if contracted by an adult, parents have been known to ensure their children become infected before adulthood.
The disease is rarely fatal: if fatality occurs, the actual death is usually from varicella [[pneumonia]], and occurs more frequently in pregnant women. In the US, 55 percent of chickenpox deaths were in the over-20 age group. Doctors advise pregnant women not known to be immune and who come into contact with chickenpox should contact their doctor immediately, as the virus can cause serious problems for the [[fetus]]. In the UK Varicella antibodies are measured as part of the routine of antenatal care, and by 2005 all NHS healthcare personnel had determined their immunity and been immunised if they were non-immune.
Later in life, [[virus]]es remaining in the nerves can develop into the painful disease [[shingles]], particularly in people with compromised immune systems, such as the elderly, and perhaps even those suffering [[sunburn]]. Some of these will develop zoster-associated pain or post-herpetic neuralgia, described usually as "horrible" or "excruciating". A chickenpox [[vaccine]] has been available since [[1995]], and is now required in some countries for children to be admitted into elementary school. In addition, effective medications (e.g., [[aciclovir]]) are available to treat chickenpox in healthy and [[immunocompromised]] persons.
Symptomatic treatment&mdash;[[calamine lotion]] to ease itching and [[paracetamol]] to reduce fever&mdash;is widely used. Aspirin is contraindicated in children with chickenpox, as it can lead to [[Reye's syndrome]].
==History==
One history of medicine book claims [[Giovanni Filippo]] ([[1510]]&ndash;[[1580]]) of [[Palermo]] gave the first description of varicella (chickenpox). Subsequently in the [[1600s]], an [[United Kingdom|English]] physician named Richard Morton described what he thought was a mild form of [[smallpox]] as "chicken pox." Later, in [[1767]], a physician named [[William Heberden]], also from England, was the first physician to clearly demonstrate that chickenpox was different from smallpox. However, it is believed the name chickenpox was commonly used in earlier centuries before doctors identified the disease.
There are many explanations offered for the origin of the name chickenpox:
* the specks that appear looked as though the skin was picked by chickens,
* the disease was named after [[Chickpea|chick pea]]s, from a supposed similarity in size of the seed to the lesions
* [[Samuel Johnson]] suggested that the disease was "no very great danger," thus a "chicken" version of the pox
* the term reflects a corruption of the Old English word, "giccin", which meant "itching"
As "pox" also means curse, in medieval times some believed it was a plague brought on to curse children by the use of black magic.
During the medieval era, oatmeal was discovered to soothe the sores, and oatmeal baths are today still commonly given to relieve itching.
==Infection==
Chickenpox is highly infectious and spreads from person to person by direct contact or through the air from an infected person’s coughing or sneezing. Touching the fluid from a chicken pox blister can also spread the disease. A persons with chickenpox is contagious 1-2 days before the rash appears and until all blisters have formed scabs. This may take between 5-10 days[http://www.dermnetnz.org/viral/varicella.html]. It takes from 10-21 days after contact with an infected person for someone to develop chickenpox.[http://www.cdc.gov/nip/diseases/varicella/faqs-gen-disease.htm]
The chicken pox lesions (blisters) start as a 2-4 mm red papule which develops an irregular outline (rose petal). A thin-walled, clear vesicle (dew drop) develops on top of the area of redness. This "dew drop on a rose petal" lesion is very characteristic for chicken pox. After about 8-12 hours the fluid in the vesicle gets cloudy and the vesicle breaks leaving a crust. The fluid is highly contagious, but once the lesion crusts over, it is not considered contagious. The crust usually falls off after 7 days sometimes leaving a craterlike scar. Although one lesion goes through this complete cycle in about 7 days, another hallmark of chicken pox is the fact that new lesions crop up every day for several days. Therefore, it may take about a week until new lesions stop appearing and existing lesions crust over. Children are not sent back to school until all lesions have crusted over. [http://dermatology.about.com/cs/chickenpox/a/chickenpox.htm]
The contagious period for chickenpox begins about 2 days before the rash appears and lasts until all the blisters are crusted over. A child with chickenpox should be kept out of school until all of the blisters have dried, which is usually about 1 week, but you don't have to wait until all the scabs fall off to let your child get back to a normal schedule.
[http://kidshealth.org/parent/infections/skin/chicken_pox.html]
It is a debated fact as to whether a person, once infected with Chicken Pox can contract the disease again. Although numerous sources claim it is not possible, there have been reported cases of repeat infections.[http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2702][http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/chpox/chpximm.html]
==Vaccination==
Routine vaccination against varicella zoster virus is performed mainly in the [[United States]], and the incidence of chickenpox has been dramatically reduced there (from 4 million cases per year in the pre-vaccine era to approximately 400,000 cases per year as of 2005). In [[Europe]] most countries do not currently vaccinate against varicella, though the vaccine is gaining wider acceptance. Australia, Canada, and other countries have now adopted recommendations for routine immunization of children and susceptible adults against chickenpox. Other countries, such as Germany and The United Kingdom have targeted recommendations for the vaccine, e.g. for susceptible health care workers at risk of varicella exposure.
Chickenpox is most often a mild disease -- especially for children. Prior to the introduction of vaccine, there were around 4,000,000 cases per year in the US, mostly children, yet typically 100 or fewer people died. Though mostly children caught it, the majority of deaths (by as much as 80%) were among adults. Additionally, chickenpox involved the hospitalization of about 10,000 people each year. During 2003 and the first half of 2004, the CDC reported eight deaths from varicella, six of whom were children or adolescents. These deaths and hospitalizations have substantially declined in the US due to vaccination, though the rate of shingles infection has increased for the same reason. The vaccine has more recently been determined to be effective at preventing shingles (zoster) in persons 60 years of age and older, |
[[coral bleaching]] and recovery. Thus the distribution of ''Symbiodinium'' on coral reefs and its role in coral bleaching presents one of the most complex and interesting current problems in reef [[ecology]].
== Bacterial obligate endosymbionts in insects ==
Among bacterial endosymbionts of insects, the best studied are the pea [[aphid]] ''[[Acyrthosiphon pisum]]'' and its endosymbiont ''[[Buchnera]] sp.'' APS, and the [[tsetse fly]] ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'' and its endosymbiont ''[[Wigglesworthia glossinidia brevipalpis]]''. As with endosymbiosis in other insects, the symbiosis is obligate in that neither the bacteria nor the insect is viable without the other. Scientists have been unable to cultivate the bacteria in lab conditions outside of the insect. With special nutritionally-enhanced diets, the insects can survive, but are unhealthy, and at best survive only a few generations.
The endosymbionts live in specialized insect cells called ''bacteriocytes'' (also called ''mycetocytes''), and are maternally-transmitted, i.e. the mother transmits her endosymbionts to her offspring. In some cases, the bacteria are transmitted in the egg, as in ''Buchnera''; in others like ''Wigglesworthia'', they are transmitted via milk to the developing insect embryo.
The bacteria are thought to help the host by either synthesizing nutrients that the host cannot make itself, or by metabolizing insect waste products into safer forms. For example, the primary role of ''Buchnera'' is thought to be to synthesize [[essential amino acid]]s that the aphid cannot acquire from its natural diet of plant sap. The evidence is (1) when aphids' endosymbionts are killed using antibiotics, they appear healthier when their plant sap diet is supplemented with the appropriate [[amino acid]]s, and (2) after the ''Buchnera'' [[genome]] was sequenced, analysis uncovered a large number of genes that likely code for amino acid biosynthesis genes; most bacteria that live inside other organisms do not have such genes, so their existence in ''Buchnera'' is noteworthy. Similarly, the primary role of ''Wigglesworthia'' is probably to synthesize [[vitamin]]s that the tsetse fly does not get from the blood that it eats.
The benefit for the bacteria is that it is protected from the environment outside the insect cell, and presumably receives nutrients from the insect. Genome sequencing reveals that obligate bacterial endosymbionts of insects have among the smallest of known bacterial genomes and have [[genome reduction|lost many genes]] that are commonly found in other bacteria. Presumably these genes are not needed in the environment of the host insect cell. (A complementary theory as to why the bacteria may have lost genes, [[Muller's ratchet]], is that since the endosymbionts are maternally transmitted and have no opportunity to exchange genes with other bacteria, it is more difficult to keep good genes in all individuals in a population of these endosymbionts.) Research in which a parallel [[phylogeny]] of bacteria and insects was inferred supports the belief that the obligate endosymbionts are transferred only vertically (i.e. from the mother), and not horizontally (i.e. by escaping the host and entering a new
host).
Attacking obligate bacterial endosymbionts may present a way to control their insect hosts, many of which are pests or carriers of human disease. For example aphids are crop pests and the tsetse fly carries the organism ([[trypanosome]] [[protozoa]]) that causes African [[sleeping sickness]]. Other motivations for their study is to understand symbiosis, and to understand how bacteria with severely depleted genomes are able to survive, thus improving our knowledge of genetics and molecular biology.
== References ==
====Obligate bacterial endosymbiosis in marine oligochaetes:====
* Endosymbiotic sulphate-reducing and sulphide-oxidizing bacteria in an oligochaete worm. Dubilier N., Mülders C.,Ferdelman T., De Beer D.,Pernthaler A.,Klein M., Wagner M., Erseus C., Thiermann F., Krieger J., Giere O & Amann R. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11357130
====Bacterial endosymbionts in echinoderms:====
* Subcuticular bacteria from the brittle star Ophiactis balli (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) represent a new lineage of extracellular marine symbionts in the alpha subdivision of the class Proteobacteria. Burnett, W J and J D McKenzie http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=168468&rendertype=abstract
====''Symbiodinium'' dinoflagellate endosymbionts in marine metazoa and protists====
* Excellent review paper covering the role of ''Symbiodinium'' in reef ecology and the current state of research: [http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132417?cookieSet=1 FLEXIBILITY AND SPECIFICITY IN CORAL-ALGAL SYMBIOSIS: Diversity, Ecology, and Biogeography of Symbiodinium. Andrew C. Baker, ''Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics'' 2003 34, 661-689]
====Obligate bacterial endosymbionts in insects:====
*PLOS Biology Primer- Endosymbiosis: lessons in conflict resolution http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020068
* A general review of bacterial endosymbionts in insects. P. Baumann, N. A. Moran and L. Baumann, Bacteriocyte-associated endosymbionts of insects in M. Dworkin, ed., ''The prokaryotes'', Springer, New York, 2000. http://link.springer.de/link/service/books/10125/
* An excellent review of insect endosymbionts that focuses on genetic issues. Jennifer J. Wernegreen (2002), Genome evolution in bacterial endosymbionts of insects, ''Nature Reviews Genetics'', 3, pp. 850-861. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12415315&dopt=Abstract
* A review article on aphids and their bacterial endosymbionts. A. E. Douglas (1998), Nutritional interactions in insect-microbial symbioses: Aphids and Their Symbiotic Bacteria ''Buchnera'', ''Annual Reviews of Entomology'', 43, pp. 17-37.
* Describes possible methods to control the human pathogen causing African sleeping sickness, which is transmitted by tsetse flies. Focuses on methods using the primary and secondary endosymbionts of the tsetse fly. Serap Aksoy, Ian Maudlin, Colin Dale, Alan S. Robinsonand and Scott L. O&rsquo;Neill (2001), Prospects for control of African trypanosomiasis by tsetse vector, ''TRENDS in Parasitology'', 17 (1), pp. 29-35. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11137738&dopt=Abstract
* Announces and analyzes the full genome sequence of ''Buchnera sp.'' APS, the endosymbiont of the pea aphid, and the first endosymbiont to have its genome sequenced. S. Shigenobu, H. Watanabe, M. Hattori, Y. Sakaki and H. Ishikawa (2000), Genome sequence of the endocellular bacterial symbiont of aphids ''Buchnera sp.'' APS, ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', 407, pp. 81-86. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10993077&dopt=Abstract
* An article that discusses one theory on how obligate endosymbionts may have their genomes degraded, in a freely-available journal. Nancy A. Moran (1996), Accelerated evolution and Muller&rsquo;s ratchet in endosymbiotic bacteria, ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA]]'', 93, pp. 2873-2878. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8610134&dopt=Abstract
[[Category:Symbiosis]]
[[es:Endosimbiosis]]
[[fr:Endosymbiose]]
[[he:אנדוסימביוזה]]
[[pt:Endossimbiose]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Exponential function</title>
<id>9678</id>
<revision>
<id>41426424</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T06:06:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
<id>153314</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.177.72.23|203.177.72.23]] ([[User talk:203.177.72.23|talk]]) to last version by 24.210.134.243</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''exponential function''' is one of the most important [[function (mathematics)|function]]s in [[mathematics]]. It is written as exp(''x'') or ''e''<sup>''x''</sup>, where ''e'' equals approximately 2.71828183 and is the [[e (mathematical constant)|base of the natural logarithm]].
[[image:exp.png|right|The exponential function is nearly flat (climbing slowly) for negative x's, and climbs quickly for positive x's.]]
As a function of the ''[[real number|real]]'' variable ''x'', the [[graph of a function|graph]] of ''e''<sup>''x''</sup> is always positive (above the ''x'' axis) and increasing (viewed left-to-right). It never touches the ''x'' axis, although it gets arbitrarily close to it (thus, the ''x'' axis is a horizontal [[asymptote]] to the graph). Its [[inverse function]], the [[natural logarithm]], ln(''x''), is defined for all positive ''x''.
Sometimes, especially in the [[science]]s, the term '''exponential function''' is reserved for functions of the form ''ka''<sup>''x''</sup>,
where ''a'', called the ''base'', is any positive real number. This article will focus initially on the exponential function with base ''e''.
In general, the [[variable]] ''x'' can be any real or [[complex number|complex]] number, or even an entirely different kind of mathematical object; see the [[#Formal definition|formal definition below]].
==Properties==
Using the natural logarithm, one can define more general exponential functions. The function
: <math>\!\, a^x=e^{x \ln a}</math>
defined for all ''a'' > 0, and all real numbers ''x'', is called the '''exponential function with base''' '''''a'''''.
Note that the equation above holds for ''a'' = ''e'', since
|
to reality, the mere existence of that legal fact does not impede a rational casuistic response. For example, casuistic reasoning would easily accept that illegally obtained evidence should still be admitted to a legal argument because the illegality of the methods used to obtain the evidence does not negate the value of the evidence itself. The illegal methods themselves should be prosecuted, but that is a separate issue. In contrast, a rigorous theoretical approach might find that such evidence is "not real evidence," and therefore refuse to admit it to permissible reasoning.
Casuistry is successful because it does not require participants in the evaluation to agree about ethical theories or evaluations before making policy. Instead, they can agree that certain [[paradigm]]s should be treated in certain ways, and then agree on the similarities, the so-called [[warrant]]s between a paradigm and the case at hand.
Since most people, and most cultures, substantially agree about most pure ethical situations, casuistry often creates ethical arguments that can persuade people of different ethnic, religious and philosophical beliefs to treat particular cases in the same ways. For this reason, casuistry is the form of reasoning used in [[English law]].
Casuistry is prone to abuses wherever the analogies between cases are false. Often late medieval reasoning applied false analogies in casuistry, through allegorical interpretations, a mode of illogic that found support in the elaborate parallels deduced by Christians between Old Testament Law and New Testament events.
The casuistic method was popular among [[Jewish law|Rabbinic scholars]] and [[Catholicism|Catholic]] thinkers in the early modern period, especially the [[Jesuits]]. It was encouraged by the Catholic practice of [[confession]] of sins to priests, which created a demand for manuals for confessors with detailed advice on cases of [[conscience]]. Casuistry was much mistrusted by early [[Reformation|Protestant theologians]], because it justified many of the abuses that they sought to reform. It was famously attacked by [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]] in his [[Lettres provinciales|Provincial Letters]] as the use of overly complex reasoning to justify moral laxity; hence the everyday use of the term to mean complex reasoning to justify moral laxity.
Casuists have often been mistrusted as too self-serving, and their reasoning thought too inaccessible. The reasoning is often inaccessible because successful casuistry requires a large amount of knowledge about paradigms, and how parallels can be drawn from those paradigms to real life situations. In modern times, there is a similar tremendous resentment against lawyers and law.
In modern times, casuistry has successfully been applied to [[law]], [[bioethics]] and [[business ethics]], and its reputation is somewhat rehabilitated.
A good reference, analysing the methodological structure of casuistic argument is ''The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning'' (1990), by Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin (ISBN 0520069609).
==External links==
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-35 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Casuistry
*[http://www.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/accountancy.html Accountancy as computational casuistics], article on how modern compliance regimes in accountancy and law apply casuistry
== See also ==
* [[Qiyas]]
* [[Blue Laws]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Common law]]
[[da:Kasuistisk ret]]
[[de:Kasuistik]]
[[sv:Kasuistik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Complex ion</title>
<id>5947</id>
<revision>
<id>15904118</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-02T05:02:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Centrx</username>
<id>37878</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect to [[complex (chemistry)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[complex (chemistry)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese input methods for computers</title>
<id>5948</id>
<revision>
<id>40817388</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T05:09:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fuzheado</username>
<id>15130</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Combination of pronunciation and character structure */ - add unicode</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--needs to be higher-->
The [[Chinese language]] uses a [[logogram|logographic]] script&mdash;that is a script where one or two "[[Chinese written language|character]]" corresponds roughly to one "word" or meaning&mdash;there are vastly more characters, or glyphs, than there are keys on a standard [[computer keyboard]]. Many early Chinese computers used keyboards with thousands of keys.
[[Image:Large chinese keyboard.jpg|thumb|200px|right|An experimental Chinese keyboard with many keys.]]
A variety of keyboard [[input method editor]]s or [[IME]]s have been designed to allow the input of Chinese characters using standard keyboards.
Keyboard input methods can be classified in three main types:
* by encoding
* by pronunciation
* by structure of the characters.
The following are just some samples of Chinese input methods. Many of those input methods have variations. ''Full Pinyin'' and ''Double Pinyin'' are variations of the Pinyin input method. In addition, the methods which require the user to select a character from a menu generally have sophisticated methods for guessing which characters the user intends based on context.
Different people are most comfortable with different methods and each standard has its strengths and weaknesses. For example, for someone who is already familiar with Pinyin pronunciation, the Pinyin method can be learned most quickly. However, the maximum typing rate is limited, and learning the system can be difficult for those not already familiar with Pinyin's English-based phonetics. ''Wubi'' takes much effort to learn, but expert typists can enter text much faster than the phonetic methods. Because of these factors, there is very little likelihood of a "standard" method evolving.
Other means of inputting Chinese characters are not widely used but include [[stylus]] and [[tablet]], with hand-writing recognition software, as the most common alternative, and then [[Optical character recognition|OCR]] and voice recognition. As with even the most advanced [[English language]] systems, all these methods suffer from high error rates, though the error rates are an acceptable tradeoff to many users.
Yet some systems allow Chinese characters to be input by typing their equivalent English words.
== Pronunciation ==
* [[Zhuyin]] (&#27880;&#38899;)
* [[Pinyin method]] (&#25340;&#38899;)
* [[Cantonese Pinyin]] (&#31908;&#35821;&#25340;&#38899;)
== Character structure ==
* [[Cangjie method]] (倉頡; 仓颉)
* [[Simplified Cangjie]] (簡易倉頡, known as 速成 on Windows systems)
* [[CKC Chinese Input System]] (縱橫輸入法)
* [[Dayi method]] (大易)
* [[Array method]] (行列)
* [[Four corner method]] (四角碼; 四角码)
* [[Q9 method]] (九方)
* [[Shouwei method]] (首尾字型)
* [[Stroke count method]] (筆畫; 笔画)
* [[Stroke method]] (筆劃; 笔划)
* [[Wubi method]] (五筆字型; 五笔字型)
* [[Wubihua method]] (五筆畫; 五笔画)
* [[Zheng code method]] (鄭碼; 郑码)
== Combination of pronunciation and character structure ==
* [[Boshiamy method]] (嘸蝦米)
* [[Tze-loi method]] (子來; 子来)
* [[Renzhi code method]] (認知碼; 认知码)
* [[Shou-wei Hao-ma method]] (首尾號碼)
== See also ==
===Character encodings ===
''Main article: [[Chinese character encoding]]''
* [[Big5]]
* [[Guobiao code]] (GB)
* [[Neima]] (&#20869;&#30721;)
* [[Unicode]]
* [[Telegraph code]] (&#30005;&#25253;&#30721;)
=== Other ===
* [[Han unification]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.slate.com/id/2136726/ What Does a Chinese Keyboard Look Like? How they type in the PRC - ''Slate.com'']
* [http://www.simo.us/ '''Sino Input Method Online''' (input Chinese without installing Chinese input methods)]
* [http://www.newconcept.com/Reference/how_input_chinese.html '''How to Input Chinese in English Windows''']
*[http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev/handson/user/IME_Paper.mspx A Microsoft article about IME]
*An [http://www.chrissimpson.com/tutorial1.html installation guide] ([[Windows XP]] IME)
*An [http://www.andante.org/ime.html IME Tutorial]
[[Category:Chinese language]]
[[Category:Logographic writing systems]]
[[category:Input methods of Han characters]]
[[fr:Méthodes d'encodage du chinois sur ordinateurs]]
[[zh:&#20013;&#25991;&#36755;&#20837;&#27861;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Columbus, Ohio</title>
<id>5950</id>
<revision>
<id>41941742</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:56:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Areku</username>
<id>517143</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added to Placeopedia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |official_name = Columbus, Ohio
|nickname = The Arch City" "The Discovery City
|website = http://www.cityofcolumbus.org/
|image_skyline = Columbus-ohio-skyline.jpg
|image_flag = ColumbusOH.gif
|image_seal = ColumbusOHseal.gif
|image_map = OHMap-doton-Columbus.png
|map_caption = Location in the state of [[Ohio]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br> [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]<br> [[List of counties in Ohio|Counties]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]<br>[[Ohio]]<br>[[Franklin County, Ohio|Franklin]], [[Delaware County, Ohio|Delaware]], and [[Fairfield County, Ohio|Fairfield]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Michael B. Coleman]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 550.5
|area_land = 544.6
|area_water = 5.9
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_total = 711,470
|population_metro = 1,612,694
|populati |
s its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, next to the main United Nations campus.
The [[international standard]]s that are produced by the ITU are referred to as "''Recommendations''" (with the word ordinarily capitalized to distinguish its meaning from the ordinary sense of the word "recommendation"). Due to its longevity as an international organization and its status as a specialized agency of the United Nations, standards promulgated by the ITU carry a higher degree of formal international recognition than those of most other organizations that publish technical specifications of a similar form.
The work of the ITU is conducted by its ''members''. As part of the United Nations structure, a country can be a member, in which case it is referred to as a ''Member State''. Companies and other such organizations can hold other classes of membership referred to as ''Sector Member'' or ''Associate'' status. Sector and Associate memberships enable direct participation by a company in the development of standards (something not allowed in some other standards bodies such as [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], where formal ballots are processed by a single entity per country and companies participate only indirectly through national delegations). Various parts of the ITU also maintaion ''liaison relationships'' with other organizations.
See also [[ITU-T]] Telecommunications Sector, [[ITU-R]] Radiocommunications Sector, and [[ITU-D]] Development Sector.
==Meetings==
The ITU decides matters between states and private organizations through an extensive series of working parties, study groups, regional meetings, and world meetings.
===Examples===
*[[World Radiocommunications Conference]] (WRC)
*[[World Administrative Radio Conference]]s (WARC)
*[[Regional Radiocommunications Conference]]s (RRC)
==World Summit on the Information Society==
The ITU is serving as the secretariat of the [[World Summit on the Information Society]] (WSIS).
==See also==
*[[Working Group on Internet Governance]] (WGIG)
*[[:Category:ITU-T recommendations|ITU-T Recommendations]]
==External links==
*[http://www.itu.int/ ITU official site]
*[http://www.itu.int/aboutitu/overview/history.html ITU history from the official site]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/telecomm Telecom Resources]
*[http://www.egeneva.ch/ Geneva Telecom 2009 Host City Support Committee Site]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A36852-2003Dec4?language=printer ''U.N. Summit to Focus on Internet''] - [[Washington Post]] article about [[ICANN]] and the United Nations' ITU relationship
[[Category: wireless communications]]
[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Internet governance]]
[[Category:1865 establishments]]
[[ca:Unió Internacional de Telecomunicacions]]
[[da:International Telecommunication Union]]
[[de:Internationale Fernmeldeunion]]
[[es:Unión Internacional de Telecomunicaciones]]
[[fr:Union internationale des télécommunications]]
[[nl:International Telecommunication Union]]
[[ja:国際電気通信連合]]
[[pl:ITU]]
[[ru:Международный союз электросвязи]]
[[sl:Mednarodna telekomunikacijska zveza]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen televiestintäliitto]]
[[sv:ITU]]
[[vi:Liên Minh Viễn Thông Quốc Tế]]
[[zh:国际电信联盟]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet Message Access Protocol</title>
<id>14837</id>
<revision>
<id>42106489</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:43:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thoric</username>
<id>128594</id>
</contributor>
<comment>minor re-arrangement, and added small disadvantages section</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}
<!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack -->
The '''Internet Message Access Protocol''' (commonly known as '''IMAP''', and previously called '''Interactive Mail Access Protocol''') is an [[application layer]] [[Internet]] protocol used for accessing [[e-mail]] on a remote [[mail server|server]] from a local [[e-mail client|client]]. IMAP and POP3 ([[Post Office Protocol]] version 3) are the two most prevalent [[Internet standard]] protocols for e-mail retrieval. Both are supported by virtually all modern e-mail clients and servers, although in some cases in addition to vendor-specific, typically proprietary, interfaces. For example, while proprietary protocols are typically used between [[Microsoft]]'s [[Microsoft Outlook|Outlook]] client and an [[Microsoft Exchange Server|Exchange]] server and between [[IBM]]'s [[Lotus Notes|Notes]] client and a [[Lotus Notes|Domino]] server, all of these products also support IMAP and POP3 allowing interoperability with other servers and clients. The current version of IMAP, IMAP version 4 revision 1 (IMAP4rev1), is defined by '''RFC 3501'''.
IMAP was designed by [[Mark Crispin]] in [[1986]] [http://www.imap.org/about/history.status.html] as a modern alternative to the widely used POP e-mail retrieval protocol.
Fundamentally, both of these protocols allow an e-mail client to access messages stored on an e-mail server.
Whether using POP3 or IMAP4 to retrieve messages, clients use the [[SMTP]] protocol to send messages. E-mail clients are sometimes referred to as either ''POP'' or ''IMAP'' clients, but in both cases SMTP is also used.
Most e-mail programs also use [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] for directory services.
IMAP is often used in large networks; for example, a college campus mail system. IMAP allows users to access new messages instantly on their computers, since the mail is stored on the network. With POP3, users have to either '''download''' the e-mail to their computer or access it via the web. Both ways take longer than IMAP, and you have to either download any new mail or "''refresh''" the page to see the new messages.
Unlike many older Internet protocols, IMAP4 natively supports encrypted login mechanisms. Plain text transmission of passwords in IMAP4 is also possible. Because the encryption mechanism to be used must be agreed between the server and client, plain text passwords are used in some combinations of clients and servers (typically [[Microsoft Windows]] clients and non-Windows servers). It is also possible to encrypt IMAP4 traffic using [[Transport Layer Security|SSL]], either by tunneling IMAP4 communications over SSL on port 993, or by issuing "STARTTLS" within an established IMAP4 session.
IMAP4 works over a [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] connection using network [[port (computing)|port]] 143.
==Advantages over POP3==
* Support for both ''connected'' and ''disconnected'' modes of operation
:When using POP3, clients typically connect to the e-mail server very briefly, only as long as it takes to download any new messages. When using IMAP4, clients often stay connected as long as the user interface is active and download message content on demand. For users with many or large messages, this IMAP4 usage pattern can result in much faster response times.
* Support for multiple clients simultaneously connected to the same mailbox
:The POP3 protocol assumes the currently connected client is the only client connected to the mailbox. In contrast, the IMAP4 protocol specifically allows simultaneous access by multiple clients and provides mechanisms for clients to detect changes made to the mailbox by other, concurrently connected, clients.
* Support for access to [[MIME]] parts of messages and partial fetch
:Nearly all internet e-mail is transmitted in MIME format. MIME allows messages to have a [[tree structure]] where the leaf nodes are any of a variety of ''single part'' content types and the non-leaf nodes are any of a variety of ''multipart'' types. The IMAP4 protocol allows clients to separately retrieve any of the individual MIME parts and also to retrieve portions of either individual parts or the entire message. These mechanisms allow clients to retrieve the text portion of a message without retrieving attached files or to [[streaming media|stream]] content as it is being fetched.
* Support for message state information to be kept on the server
:Through the use of ''flags'' defined in the IMAP4 protocol clients can keep track of message state, for example whether or not the message has been read, replied to, or deleted. These ''flags'' are stored on the server, so multiple clients accessing the same mailbox at different times can detect state changes made by other clients.
* Support for access to multiple mailboxes on the server
:IMAP4 clients can create, rename, and/or delete mailboxes (usually presented to the user as folders) on the server, and move messages between mailboxes. Multiple mailbox support also allows servers to provide access to shared and public folders.
* Support for server-side searches
:IMAP4 provides a mechanism for a client to ask the server to search for messages meeting a variety of criteria. This mechanism avoids requiring clients to download every message in the mailbox in order to perform these searches.
* Support for a well defined extension mechanism
:Reflecting the experience of earlier Internet protocols, IMAP defines an explicit mechanism by which it may be extended. Many [[IMAP4 extension|extension]]s to the base protocol have been proposed and are in common use.
==Disadvantages of IMAP==
* IMAP is a very heavy and complicated protocol. Writing your own custom implementation of an IMAP server is of at least 20 orders of magnitude more complicated than a POP3 implementation. Client implementations are also much more complicated.
* Due to its complexity and exhaustive feature set, it is more subject to security flaws and generation of high server load.
* Most IMAP implementations result in the modification and/or addition of header fields within the message bodies resulting in the rewriting of the mailbox file. A POP3 server accessing a mailbox so modified by IMAP could deem those m |
]
*[http://www.bspd.co.uk/ The British Society of Paediatric Dentistry]
*[[Canadian Dental Association]] [http://www.cda-adc.ca]
*[[Royal College of Dentists|Royal College of Dentists of Canada]]
*[http://www.avdc.org/ American Veterinary Dental College]
*[http://www.evdc.info/ European Veterinary Dental College]
==External links==
{{Commons2|Dentistry}}
*[http://www.ada.org American Dental Association] The national organization of dentists in the United States
*[http://www.foreigntraineddentists.com Foreign Trained Dentists Admission Guide to US and Canadian Dental Schools] The most comprehensive source of information for international dentists who aspire to practice dentistry in North America.
*[http://www.agd.org Academy of General Dentistry] Organization promoting continuing education for general practitioners
*[http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/gdp-uk/ GDP-UK mailing list - the best and largest discussion group for UK dentists about their profession.]
*[http://www.doctorspiller.com/ Ask Dr Spiller - Dental technical information for the public]
*[http://www.dentaltwins.com/dentalchat/ DentalTwins Bulletin Board] Forum for exchange of dental information
*[http://www.allexperts.com/getExpert.asp?Category=966 AllExperts.com] Ask the dental experts
*[http://dmoz.org/Health/Dentistry/ Dentistry Directory]
*[http://www.askthedentist.info/ Ask the Dentist] Free dental advice and common problems
*[http://www.dentalfearcentral.org/ Dental Phobia Self-Help]
*[http://www.dentalcom.net/ Dental Discussion Forum]
*[http://www.onlinedentaldirectory.org/ Online Dental Directory]
*[http://www.dentaltown.com/ DentalTown - Forum for dental professionals]
*[http://www.dentalfearcentral.org/cgi-bin/yabb2/YaBB.pl Dental phobia message board]
*[http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos072.htm Dentists] from the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]]'s *[http://www.bls.gov/oco/home.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook]
*[http://www.denticon.com/ Denticon - Internet Based Dental Practice Management Solution]
*[http://groups.google.com/group/Dentistry GOOGLE Dentistry]
{{dentistry}}
*[http://www.dentistandholiday.hu/ Dentist and Holiday in Hungary] Dental services for foreigners. Service details, prices, and contact information.
[[Category:Dentistry]]
[[Category:Professions|Dentist]]
[[Category:Medical specialties]]
[[Category:Doctoral degrees]]
[[Category:Academic degrees]]
[[de:Zahnmedizin]]
[[it:Odontoiatria]]
[[el:Οδοντιατρική]]
[[es:Odontología]]
[[fr:Chirurgien-dentiste]]
[[he:רפואת שיניים]]
[[hu:Fogászat]]
[[ko:치과]]
[[nl:Tandheelkunde]]
[[ja:歯科学]]
[[no:Odontologi]]
[[pl:Dentystyka]]
[[pt:Odontologia]]
[[ro:Stomatologie]]
[[fi:Hammaslääketiede]]
[[sv:Tandvård]]
[[zh:牙醫學]]
[[zh-min-nan:Gê-i-ha̍k]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diameter</title>
<id>8007</id>
<revision>
<id>40646831</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T01:13:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aaron Jacobs</username>
<id>143464</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Corrected formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For the authentication, authorisation, and accounting protocol, see [[DIAMETER]].''
In [[geometry]], a '''diameter''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] words ''diairo'' = divide and ''metro'' = measure) of a [[circle]] is any straight [[line segment]] that passes through the [[center]] and whose [[endpoints]] are on the circular boundary, or, in more modern usage, the [[length]] of such a line segment. When using the word in the more modern sense, one speaks of ''the'' diameter rather than ''a'' diameter, because all diameters of a [[circle]] have the same length. This length is twice the [[radius]]. The diameter of a circle is also the longest chord that the circle has.
The '''diameter''' of a [[connected graph]] is the distance between the two [[vertex|vertices]] which are furthest from each other. The distance between two vertices ''a'' and ''b'' is the length of the shortest path connecting them (for the length of a path, see [[Graph theory]]).
The two definitions given above are special cases of a more general definition. The '''diameter''' of a [[subset]] of a [[metric space]] is the [[supremum|least upper bound]] of the distances between pairs of points in the subset. So, if ''A'' is the subset, the diameter is
:[[supremum|sup]] { d(''x'', ''y'') | ''x'', ''y'' ∈ ''A'' } .
In medical [[idiom#parlance|parlance]] the diameter of a [[lesion]] is the longest line segment whose endpoints are within the lesion.
==Diameter symbol==
[[Image:Sign diameter.png|thumb|150px|Sign Ø from [[Autocad]] drawing]]
The [[symbol]] or [[variable]] for diameter is similar in size and design to ø, the lowercase letter o with stroke. [[Unicode]] provides character number 8960 ([[hexadecimal]] 2300) for the symbol, which can be encoded in [[HTML]] webpages as <tt>&amp;#8960;</tt> or <tt>&amp;#x2300;</tt>. Proper display of this character, however, is unlikely in most situations, as most [[Typeface|font]]s do not have it included. ''(Your browser displays &#x2300; and &#8960; in the current font.)'' In most situations the letter ø is acceptable, obtained in [[Microsoft Windows]] by holding the <tt>[Alt]</tt> key down while entering<tt> 0 2 4 8 </tt> on the [[numeric keypad]].
It is important not to confuse a diameter symbol (ø) with the [[empty set]] symbol, similar to the uppercase Ø. Diameter is also sometimes called [[phi]] (pronounced the same as "fie"), although this seems to come from the fact that Ø and ø look like &Phi; and &phi;, the letter phi in the [[Greek alphabet]].
See also: [[angular diameter]], [[hydraulic diameter]]
[[Category:Elementary geometry]]
[[Category:Length]]
[[als:Durchmesser]]
[[bg:Диаметър]]
[[ca:Diàmetre]]
[[da:Diameter]]
[[de:Durchmesser]]
[[es:Diámetro]]
[[eo:Diametro]]
[[fa:قطر (ریاضی)]]
[[fr:Diamètre]]
[[is:Þvermál]]
[[it:Diametro]]
[[he:קוטר]]
[[li:Diameter]]
[[nl:Diameter]]
[[ja:径]]
[[no:Diameter]]
[[nn:Diameter]]
[[pl:Średnica]]
[[pt:Diâmetro]]
[[ru:Диаметр]]
[[simple:Diameter]]
[[sr:Пречник]]
[[fi:Halkaisija]]
[[sv:Diameter]]
[[ta:விட்டம்]]
[[uk:Діаметр]]
[[zh:直径]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Direct examination</title>
<id>8008</id>
<revision>
<id>39535759</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T03:39:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BDAbramson</username>
<id>196446</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{EvidenceLaw}}
'''Direct examination''' (also called examination in chief) is the questioning of a witness by the party who called him or her, in a [[trial (law)|trial]] in a [[court of law]]. Direct examination is usually performed to elicit [[evidence (law)|evidence]] in support of facts which will satisfy a required element of a party's claim or defense.
In direct examination, one is generally prohibited from asking [[leading question]]s. This prevents a lawyer from feeding answers to a favorable witness. An exception to this rule occurs if one side has called a witness, but it is either understood, or soon becomes plain, that the witness is hostile to the questioner's side of the controversy. The lawyer may then ask the court to declare the person he or she has called to the stand a [[hostile witness]]. If the court does so, the lawyer may thereafter ply the witness with leading questions during direct examination.
''See also'' [[cross-examination]].
[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Evidence]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dirigible</title>
<id>8009</id>
<revision>
<id>36802628</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T16:03:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yamamoto Ichiro</username>
<id>224287</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.10.123.33|72.10.123.33]] ([[User talk:72.10.123.33|talk]]) to last version by Nickptar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dirigible''' can refer to :
* an [[airship]] -- a lighter-than-air [[aircraft]] that can be steered and propelled through the air. Airships are also known as dirigibles from the French dirigeable, meaning "steerable".
*[[Dirigible (movie)|Dirigible]] a [[1931 in film|1931]] movie by [[Frank Capra]].
{{airlistbox}}
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drunk</title>
<id>8010</id>
<revision>
<id>15906035</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-15T23:46:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sgeo</username>
<id>90273</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drunkenness]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drunkenness</title>
<id>8011</id>
<revision>
<id>40857178</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T13:28:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alxndr</username>
<id>97541</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.25.106.209|62.25.106.209]] to last version by Itai</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Drunkenness''', in its most common usage, is the state of being '''intoxicated''' with [[ethanol|ethyl alcohol]] to a sufficient degree to impair mental and motor functioning. It is part of the [[effects of alcohol on the body]].
A person who is habitually intoxicated in this manner is labeled an [[alcoholism|alcoholic]], often referred to as a "drunk" (a shortened form of the more traditional term "drunkard") or colloquially as a "lush", "alco", "alkie", or "[[jakey]]".
'''Drunkenness''' can also be used to describe the effects of any number of [[illegal drugs]]. (Mor |
tution of a unicameral congress. The Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of foreign (U.S.) ownership of Chile's major [[copper]] mines.
An [[economic depression]] that began in 1967 peaked in 1970, exacerbated by [[capital flight]], plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits by those opposed to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and [[unemployment]] rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, which had the effect of increasing consumer spending and redistributing income downward. Joint public-private [[public works]] projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of the [[banking]] sector was [[nationalization|nationalized]]. Many enterprises within the [[copper]], [[coal]], [[iron]], [[nitrate]], and [[steel]] industries were [[expropriation|expropriated]], nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year.
Other reforms undertaken during the early Allende period included redistribution of millions of hectares of land to landless agricultural workers as part of the agrarian reform program, giving the armed forces an overdue pay increase, and providing free [[milk]] to children. The Indian Peoples Development Corporation and the Mapuche Vocational Institute were founded to address the needs of Chile's indigenous population.
The nationalization of U.S. and other foreign-owned companies led to increased tensions with the [[United States]]. The [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] administration brought international financial pressure to bear in order to restrict economic credit to Chile. Simultaneously, the [[CIA]] funded opposition media, politicians, and organizations, helping to accelerate a campaign of domestic destabilization. By [[1972]], the economic progress of Allende's first year had been reversed and the economy was in crisis. Political polarization increased, and large mobilizations of both pro- and anti-government groups became frequent, often leading to clashes.
By early [[1973]], [[inflation]] was out of control. The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous [[strike action|strikes]] by physicians, teachers, students, truck owners, copper workers, and the small business class. A [[Chilean coup of 1973|military coup]] overthrew Allende on [[September 11]] [[1973]]. As the armed forces bombarded the [[Palacio de La Moneda|presidential palace]] (Palacio de La Moneda), Allende reportedly committed suicide. A military government, led by General [[Augusto Pinochet Ugarte]], took over control of the country. The first years of the regime were marked by serious [[human rights violation]]s. On October 1973, at least 70 persons were murdered by the [[Caravan of Death]]. At least a thousand people were executed during the first six months of Pinochet in office, and at least two thousand more were killed during the next sixteen years, as reported by the [[Valech Report]]. Some 30,000 were forced to flee the country. A new [[Constitution]] was approved by a highly irregular and undemocratic [[plebiscite]] characterized by the absence of registration lists, on [[September 11]] [[1980]], and General Pinochet became President of the Republic for an 8-year term. In the late 1980s, the regime gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, [[Freedom of speech|speech]], and association, to include trade union and limited political activity. The right-wing military government pursued decidedly ''[[laissez-faire]]'' economic policies. During its nearly 17 years in power, Chile moved away from economic statism toward a largely [[free market economy]] that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not returned to foreign ownership. In a plebiscite on [[October 5]], [[1988]], General Pinochet was denied a second 8-year term as president. Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress on [[December 14]], [[1989]]. Christian Democrat [[Patricio Aylwin]], the candidate of a coalition of 16 political parties called the [[Concertation of Parties for Democracy|Concertación]], received an absolute majority of votes. President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period.
In December [[1993]], Christian Democrat [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]], the son of previous president [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]], led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes. President Frei's administration was inaugurated in March 1994.
A presidential election was held on [[December 12]], [[1999]], but none of the six candidates obtained a majority, which led to an unprecedented runoff election on [[January 16]], [[2000]] between [[Ricardo Lagos]] and [[Joaquín Lavín]] of the rightist [[Alliance for Chile]]. [[Ricardo Lagos|Ricardo Lagos Escobar]] of the Socialist Party led the Concertación coalition to a narrow victory, with 51.31% of the votes. He was sworn in [[March 11]], [[2000]], for a 6-year term.
Chile's current president-elect is the former health and later defense minister [[Michelle Bachelet]], daughter of Alberto Bachelet, an air force general who was captured and tortured in the military coup of 1973 and died shortly after. Ms. Bachelet continues the center-left [[Coalition of Parties for Democracy]] government in their fourth term. She is the first and so far the only woman president in the country's history. She won the [[2006]] runoff election against center-right candidate [[Sebastián Piñera]] after none of the four main candidates obtained the necessary 50% of the votes in the first round of voting. Bachelet will be sworn in for a four-year term, instead of a six-year term, following reforms to the Constitution in 2005.
== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Chile}}
Chile's [[Constitution of Chile|Constitution]] was approved in a tightly controlled national plebiscite in September 1980, under the [[military Junta|military]] [[government]] of [[Augusto Pinochet]]. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the Constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution. In 2005 over 50 reforms were approved, which eliminated the remaining undemocratic areas of the text, such as the existence of non-elected Senators (institutional senators, or senators for life) and the inability of the President to remove the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces.
The President is currently elected by the people to a 4-year term, the term was reduced from 6 years in 2005 which was in turn reduced from 8 years in the original 1980 constitution.
Chile's bicameral [[Congress of Chile|Congress]] has a 48-seat [[Senate of Chile|Senate]]—38 elected, 9 appointed, 1 for life—and a 120-member [[Chamber of Deputies of Chile|Chamber of Deputies]]. Deputies are elected every 4 years. Senators serve for 8 years with staggered terms. The current Senate is evenly split 24-24 between pro-government and opposition Senators. Nine institutional senators were appointed in 1999, and two "senators for life," former Presidents Pinochet (who resigned in 2002) and Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle. (Chile's Constitution provided that former presidents who have served at least 6 years shall be entitled to a lifetime senate seat.) The last congressional elections were held in December 2001. The current lower house—the Chamber of Deputies—contains 60 members of the governing center-left coalition and 56 from the center-right opposition. Currently 4 Deputies have their voting rights suspended on legal grounds. The Congress is located in the port city of [[Valparaíso]], about 140 kilometers (84 mi.) west of the capital, [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]].
Chile's congressional elections are governed by a unique binomial system that rewards coalition slates. Each coalition can run two candidates for the two Senate and two lower chamber seats apportioned to each chamber's electoral districts. Typically, the two largest coalitions split the seats in a district. Only if the leading coalition ticket out-polls the second-place coalition by a margin of more than 2-to-1 does the winning coalition gain both seats. In the 2001 congressional elections, the conservative [[Independent Democratic Union]] surpassed the [[Christian Democratic Party of Chile|Christian Democrats]] for the first time to become the largest party in the lower house. The [[Communist Party of Chile|Communist Party]] again failed to gain any seats in the 2001 elections.[[Image:Chile.geohive.gif|thumb|270px|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]
In 2005, both leading parties, the Christian Democrats and the UDI lost representation in favor of their allies Socialist Party (which became the biggest party in the Concertación block) and [[National Renewal (Chile)|National Renewal]] in the right-wing alliance. (''See'' [[Chilean presidential election, 2005]].)
[[Michelle Bachelet]], a Socialist moderate, was elected President on [[January 15]], [[2006]], beating her closest rival [[Sebastián Piñera]].
Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a network of courts of appeals, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the [[Supreme Court of Chile]]. Chile completed in mid-2005 a multi-year overhaul of its criminal justice system. The reform replaced inquisitorial proceedings with an adversarial system more similar to that of the [[United States]].
== Politico-administrative division ==
{{main|Regions of Chile}}
Chile is divided into 13 [[region]]s, each of which is headed by an ''intendente'' appointed by the President. Every region is further divided into [[province]]s with a ''Gobernador Provincial'', also appointed by the President. Finally each province is divided into [[municipality|municipalities]].[http://www.gobier |
uot;nad" (above).
Many of the above prepositions are used in different circumstances. For instance, when motion or a change of position is expressed, prepositions like ''nad, mezi, na, pod'', etc. are used with the accusative case.
The second factor affecting noun declension is the verb used. In Czech grammar, the Accusative case serves as the direct object, and the Dative case serves as the indirect object. Some verbs require the Genitive case to be used. For example the verb to ask "zeptat se" requires that the person being asked the question be in the genitive case (Zeptat se koho/čeho), and that the thing being asked about follow the preposition "na" and be in the accusative case (Zeptat se koho/čeho na koho/co).
The third factor affecting noun declension is number. The Czech language has a very complex counting system, explained as follows with the example masculine animate noun ''muž'' (man):
For the number one, the singular number is of course used: ''jeden muž''.
For the numbers 2, 3, and 4, any case may be used, depending on the function of the noun in the sentence: ''dva muži'' (nominative). "Vidím dva muže" (accusative).
For all numbers from 5 to infinity, the genitive plural is used when the noun would normally be in the nominative, accusative or vocative case: ''pět mužů''. "Pět mužů je tam." Five men are over there. "Vidím pět mužů." I see five men. For other cases, however, the noun is not placed in the genitive. "Nad pěti muži." Above the five men (instrumental).
Numbers also have declension patterns in Czech. The number two, for instance, declines as follows:
Dva/dvě: nominative
Dvou: genitive
Dvěma: dative
Dva/dvě: accusative
(o) dvou: locative
Dvěma: instrumental
The numbers are singular (''jednotné číslo''), plural (''množné číslo''), and remains of [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]]. The dual number is used for only several parts of the human body, of which each person has two: hands, shoulders, eyes, ears, knees, legs, breasts. In all but two of the above body parts (eyes and ears) the dual number is only vestigial and affects very few aspects of declension (mostly the genitive and prepositional cases).
The [[grammatical gender|genders]] are masculine animate, masculine inanimate, feminine, and neuter. Masculine animate is used only to describe living things (note: plants are not considered animate in Czech noun declension!). Strangely enough, there are hundreds of words for living things that are not masculine words (for example ''morče'' is a neuter word, and means "guinea-pig").
===Software===
Coding of Czech letters with diacritical marks (especially those with a ''[[háček]]'', e.g., č, ě, š, ř, and ž) is not uniform and sometimes causes incorrect display and printing of texts. The following sentence is commonly used to test all special characters: '''Příliš žluťoučký kůň úpěl ďábelské ódy''' ("a too yellow horse moaned devilish odes"; needs to be tested with lower- and uppercase).
===See also:===
[[Czech alphabet]], [[hacek|háček]]
== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=cs}}
===Dictionaries===
* [http://www.wordbook.cz Online dictionary]
* [http://www.slovnik.cz Multilingual Dictionary]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Czech-english/ Czech – English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] – the Rosetta Edition.
===Other===
*''UniLang Wiki'':
**[http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki2/index.php/Czech_pronunciation Czech pronunciation]
**[http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki2/index.php/Czech_basic_phrases Czech basic phrases]
**[http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki2/index.php/Czech_months Czech months]
**[http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki2/index.php/Czech_days Czech days]
*[http://forum.wordreference.com/forumdisplay.php?f=44 WordReference - a moderated forum of Slavic languages]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/czech.htm Omniglot page for Czech]: Contains pronunciation and history
* [http://www.bohemica.com Bohemica.com]: Language and culture resource; including
** [http://www.bohemica.com/czechonline/reference/referencetop.htm Yellow Pages of The Czech Language]
* [http://www.czech-language.cz Overview of the Czech language]
* [http://www.locallingo.com LocalLingo.com]: Another useful portal with clear audio
* [http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/Czech.html Czech for Linguists]
* [http://diacritics.typo.cz Diacritics Project – All you need to design a font with correct accents]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/languages/czech.shtml Czech language at BBC]
* [http://czech.typeit.org Type any text with Czech characters] - an online editor
{{Official EU languages}}
[[Category:Languages of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:West Slavic languages]]
[[af:Tsjeggies]]
[[ar:تشيكية (لغة)]]
[[ast:Checu]]
[[id:Bahasa Ceko]]
[[ca:Txec]]
[[cs:Čeština]]
[[da:Tjekkisk (sprog)]]
[[de:Tschechische Sprache]]
[[el:Τσεχική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma checo]]
[[eo:Ĉeĥa lingvo]]
[[fr:Tchèque]]
[[gl:Lingua checa]]
[[ko:체코어]]
[[hy:Չեխերեն]]
[[hr:Češki jezik]]
[[io:Cheka linguo]]
[[is:Tékkneska]]
[[it:Lingua ceca]]
[[he:צ'כית]]
[[ka:ჩეხური ენა]]
[[kw:Chekek]]
[[la:Lingua Cecha]]
[[lv:Čehu valoda]]
[[lt:Čekų kalba]]
[[li:Tsjechisch]]
[[hu:Cseh nyelv]]
[[nl:Tsjechisch]]
[[ja:チェコ語]]
[[nn:Tsjekkisk språk]]
[[oc:Chèc]]
[[pl:Język czeski]]
[[pt:Língua tcheca]]
[[ro:Limba cehă]]
[[ru:Чешский язык]]
[[se:Čeahkagiella]]
[[sk:Čeština]]
[[sl:Češčina]]
[[sr:Чешки језик]]
[[fi:Tšekin kieli]]
[[sv:Tjeckiska]]
[[tr:Çekçe]]
[[wa:Tcheke]]
[[zh:捷克语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Capsid</title>
<id>6344</id>
<revision>
<id>40361975</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:39:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The outer shell of a [[virus (biology)|virus]] is called the '''capsid'''. It consists of several monomeric subunits made of [[protein]]. The capsid serves three main purposes :
* It protects the [[genetic material]] of the virus.
* It determines if a [[cell (biology)|cell]] is suitable for [[infection]].
* It starts the actual infection by attaching and "opening" the target cell and injecting the genetic material of the virus into the cell.
Once the virus has infected the cell, it will sooner or later start replicating itself, using the "infrastructure" of the infected cell. During this process, the capsid subunits are synthesized according to the genetic material of the virus, using the [[protein biosynthesis]] mechanism of the cell. Some viruses will also take a portion of the host cell's [[cell membrane]] with them when they depart, enclosing the proteinaceous capsid with viral proteins projecting through it.
The majority of viruses come in three different structures; [[helical]] capsids, [[icosahedral]] (isometric) capsids, or enveloped. In helical symmetry, the protein subunits are arranged around the [[circumference]] of a circle to form a disk. In icosahedral symmetry, the subunits form a quasi-spherical structure. In enveloped viruses, the protein subunits are exposed to the external environment.
==External links==
[http://www.virology.net/garryfavweb.html] from the ''All the virology on the www'' website.
[[Category:Virology]]
[[ca:Càpsida]]
[[de:Kapsid]]
[[es:Cápside vírica]]
[[fr:Capside]]
[[nl:eiwitmantel]]
[[pl:Kapsyd]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central Dogma Of Genetics</title>
<id>6345</id>
<revision>
<id>15904495</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-13T10:03:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lexor</username>
<id>5364</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Central dogma of molecular biology]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Central dogma of molecular biology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chloramphenicol</title>
<id>6346</id>
<revision>
<id>39335699</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T12:41:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Japanese Searobin</username>
<id>153340</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ja:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Drugbox|
|IUPAC_name =
| image=chloramphenicol.png
| CAS_number=56-75-7
| ATC_prefix=D06
| ATC_suffix=AX02
| PubChem=298
| DrugBank=EXPT00942
| chemical_formula = C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>12</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub>
| molecular_weight = 323.132
| bioavailability= ?
| metabolism = ?
| elimination_half-life=?
| excretion = ?
| pregnancy_category = C (A topical)
| legal_status = POM
| routes_of_administration= IV, O, topical
}}
'''Chloramphenicol''' (or '''2,2-dichlor-N-[(aR,bR)-b-hydroxy-a-hydroxymethyl-4-nitrophenethyl]acetamide''') is an [[antibiotic]] that was derived from the [[bacterium]] ''[[Streptomyces venezuelae]]'' and is now produced synthetically. Chloramphenicol is effective against a wide variety of microorganisms, but due to serious side-effects (e.g., damage to the [[bone marrow]], including [[aplastic anemia]]) in humans, it is usually reserved for the treatment of serious and life-threatening [[infection]]s (e.g., [[typhoid fever]]).
Regardless of serious side-effects, the WHO advocates its use in many third world countries for pediatric treatment in the absence of cheaper alternatives. It is used in treatment of [[cholera]], as it destroys the [[vibrio]]s and decreases the [[diarrhea]]. It is effective against [[tetracycline]]-resistant [[vibrio]]s.
It is also used in [[eye drop]]s or [[ointment]], commonly sold under the name of Chlorsig, to treat bacterial [[conjunctivitis]].
== Mechanism and Resistance ==
Chloramphenicol stops |
e cryogenic engine, contrary to all its competitors, it is unable to deliver payloads directly to [[Geostationary orbit|GEO]].
==Launch history==
[[Image:000nasa.ariane5.gif|thumb|right|200px|Comparison of Ariane 5 to [[Proton rocket|Proton]] and [[Soyuz launch vehicle|Soyuz]] rockets]]
Ariane 5's first test flight ([[Ariane 5 Flight 501]]) on [[4 June]] [[1996]] failed, with the rocket self-destructing 37 seconds after launch because of a malfunction in the control software, which was arguably one of the most expensive [[computer bug]]s in history. A data conversion from 64-[[bit]] [[floating point]] to 16-bit [[signed]] [[integer]] value had caused a processor trap (operand error). The floating point number had a value too large to be represented by a 16-bit signed integer. Efficiency considerations had led to the disabling of the software handler (in [[Ada programming language|Ada]] code) for this trap, although other conversions of comparable variables in the code remained protected.
The second test flight, L502 on [[30 October]] [[1997]] was a partial failure. The Vulcain nozzle caused a roll problem, leading to premature shutdown of the core stage. The upper stage operated successfully but could not reach the intended orbit.
A subsequent test flight on [[21 October]] [[1998]] proved successful and the first commercial launch occurred on [[10 December]] [[1999]] with the launch of the [[XMM-Newton]] X-ray observatory satellite.
Another partial failure occurred on [[12 July]] [[2001]], with the delivery of two satellites into an incorrect orbit, at only half the height of the intended GTO. The ESA Artemis [[telecommunications satellite]] was able to reach its intended orbit on [[31 January]] [[2003]], through the use of its experimental [[ion propulsion]] system.
The next launch did not occur until [[1 March]] [[2002]], when the [[Envisat]] [[environmental satellite]] successfully reached an orbit 800 km above the Earth in the 11th launch. At 8111 kg, it was the heaviest single payload to date.
The first launch of the ECA variant on [[11 December]] 2002 ended in failure when a main booster problem caused the rocket to veer off-course, forcing its self-destruction three minutes into the flight. Its payload of two communications satellites (Stentor and [[Hot Bird]] 7), valued at about EUR 630 million, was lost in the ocean. The fault was determined to have been caused by a leak in coolant pipes allowing the nozzle to overheat. After this failure, Arianespace SA delayed the expected January 2003 launch for the [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta]] mission to [[26 February]] [[2004]], but this was again delayed to early March 2004 due to a minor fault in the foam that protects the cryogenic tanks on the Ariane 5.
On [[27 September]] [[2003]] the last Ariane 5 G boosted three satellites (including the first European lunar probe, [[SMART-1]]), in Flight 162. On [[18 July]] [[2004]] an Ariane 5 G+ boosted what was at the time the heaviest telecommunication satellite ever, [[Anik]] F2, weighing almost 6,000 kg.
The first successful launch of the Ariane 5 ECA took place on [[12 February]] [[2005]]. The payload consisted of the XTAR-EUR military communications satellite, a 'SLOSHSAT' small scientific satellite and a MaqSat B2 payload simulator. The launch had been originally scheduled for October 2004, but additional testing and the military requiring a launch at that time (of an [[Helios 2A]] observation satellite) delayed the attempt.
On [[11 August]] [[2005]], the first Ariane 5GS (featuring the Ariane 5 ECA's improved solid motors) boosted Thaïcom-4/iPStar-1, the heaviest telecommunications satellite to date at 6505 kg [http://www.skyrocket.de/space/index_frame.htm?http://www.skyrocket.de/space/doc_sdat/ipstar-1.htm], into orbit.
On [[13 October]] [[2005]], the second Ariane 5GS boosted a dual payload to orbit. This consisted of Syracuse 3A, a French military satellite, and Galaxy 15 for [[PanAmSat]].
On [[16 November]] [[2005]], the third Ariane 5 ECA launch (the second successful ECA launch) took place. It carried a dual payload consisting of Spaceway-F2 for [[DirecTV]] and Telkom-2 for PT Telekomunikasi of Indonesia. This was the rocket's heaviest dual payload to date, at more than 8000 kg.
On [[21 December]] [[2005]], the third Ariane 5GS boosted another dual payload to orbit. This payload consisted of INSAT 4A for the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), and MSG-2 for the European organization Eumetsat.
==Ariane 5 flights==
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|----- bgcolor="#FFDEAD"
!Date ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]])!! Flight !! Model !! Serial number !! Payload !! Result
|-
|04.06.1996 12:34:06 || V-89 || Ariane-5G || [[Ariane_5_Flight_501|501]] || [[Cluster mission|Cluster]] || Failure
|-
|30.10.1997 13:43:00 || V-101 || Ariane-5G || 502 || MaqSat H & TEAMSAT || Partial failure
|-
| || || || || MaqSat B ||
|-
| || || || || YES ||
|-
|21.10.1998 16:37:21 || V-112 || Ariane-5G || 503 || MaqSat 3 || Success
|-
| || || || || [[ Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator|ARD]] ||
|-
|10.12.1999 14:32:07 || V-119 || Ariane-5G || 504 || [[XMM-Newton]] || Success
|-
|21.03.2000 23:28:19 || V-128 || Ariane-5G || 505 || [[Indian National Satellite System|INSAT]] 3B || Success
|-
| || || || || AsiaStar ||
|-
|14.09.2000 22:54:07 || V-130 || Ariane-5G || 506 || Astra 2B || Success
|-
| || || || || GE 7 ||
|-
|16.11.2000 01:07:07 || V-135 || Ariane-5G || 507 || PAS 1R || Success
|-
| || || || || [[AO-40|Amsat P3D]] ||
|-
| || || || || STRV 1C ||
|-
| || || || || STRV 1D ||
|-
|20.12.2000 00:26:00 || V-138 || Ariane-5G || 508 || Astra 2D || Success
|-
| || || || || GE 8 (Aurora 3) ||
|-
| || || || || LDREX ||
|-
|08.03.2001 22:51:00 || V-140 || Ariane-5G || 509 || Eurobird 1 || Success
|-
| || || || || BSat 2a ||
|-
|12.07.2001 22:58:00 || V-142 || Ariane-5G || 510 || Artemis || Partial failure
|-
| || || || || BSat 2b ||
|-
|01.03.2002 01:07:59 || V-145 || Ariane-5G || 511 || Envisat || Success
|-
|05.07.2002 23:22:00 || V-153 || Ariane-5G || 512 || Stellat 5 || Success
|-
| || || || || N-Star c ||
|-
|28.08.2002 22:45:00 || V-155 || Ariane-5G || 513 || Atlantic Bird 1 || Success
|-
| || || || || MSG 1 ||
|-
| || || || || MFD ||
|-
|11.12.2002 22:22:00 || V-157 || Ariane-5ECA || 517 || Hot Bird 7 || Failure
|-
| || || || || Stentor ||
|-
| || || || || MFD A ||
|-
| || || || || MFD B ||
|-
|09.04.2003 22:52:19 || V-160 || Ariane-5G || 514 || Insat 3A || Success
|-
| || || || || Galaxy 12 ||
|-
|11.06.2003 22:38:15 || V-161 || Ariane-5G || 515 || Optus C1 || Success
|-
| || || || || BSat 2c ||
|-
|27.09.2003 23:14:46 || V-162 || Ariane-5G || 516 || Insat 3E || Success
|-
| || || || || eBird 1 ||
|-
| || || || || [[SMART-1]] ||
|-
|02.03.2004 07:17:44 || V-158 || Ariane-5G+ || 518 || [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta]] || Success
|-
|18.07.2004 00:44:00 || V-163 || Ariane-5G+ || 519 || [[Anik (satellite)|Anik F2]] || Success
|-
|18.12.2004 16:26:00 || V-165 || Ariane-5G+ || 520 || Helios 2A || Success
|-
| || || || || Essaim 1, 2, 3 and 4 ||
|-
| || || || || PARASOL ||
|-
| || || || || Nanosat 01 ||
|-
|12.02.2005 21:03:00 || V-164 || Ariane-5ECA || 521 || XTAR-EUR || Success
|-
| || || || || Maqsat B2 ||
|-
|11.08.2005 08:20:00 || V-166 || Ariane-5GS || 523 || Thaïcom 4-iPStar 1 || Success
|-
|13.10.2005 22:32:00 || V-168 || Ariane-5GS || 524 || Syracuse 3A || Success
|-
| || || || || Galaxy 15 ||
|-
|16.11.2005 23:46:00 || V-167 || Ariane-5ECA || 522 || Spaceway F2 || Success
|-
| || || || || Telkom 2 ||
|-
|21.12.2005 22:33:00 || V-169 || Ariane-5GS || 525 || [[Indian National Satellite System|Insat]] 4A || Success
|-
| || || || || [[EUMETSAT#Meteosat Second Generation|MSG]] 2 ||
|-
| || || || || MFD C||
|}
==Upcoming flight==
The next flight, V-170, will carry the payloads Hotbird 7A / SpainSat 1 into orbit. An Ariane 5 ECA will be used to launch these payloads.
The rocket is set for launch on March 9, 2006.
==External links and references==
*[http://www.esa.int/export/SPECIALS/Launchers_Access_to_Space/ASEVLU0TCNC_0.html ESA description of the Ariane 5]
* Ariane 5 technical notes, available as PDF from http://www.arianespace.com
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4432446.stm BBC News report on the (delayed) successful launch of the Ariane 5 ECA flight on November 16, 2005.]
*[http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Home/SEMJ5L638FE_0.html Vinci Engine development]
[[Category:Space launch vehicles]]
[[Category:European Space Agency]]
[[ca:Ariane 5]]
[[cs:Ariane 5]]
[[de:Ariane 5]]
[[es:Ariane 5]]
[[fr:Ariane 5]]
[[id:Ariane 5]]
[[it:Ariane 5]]
[[hu:Ariane-5]]
[[nl:Ariane V]]
[[pt:Ariane 5]]
[[fi:Ariane 5]]
[[sv:Ariane 5]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arianespace</title>
<id>3112</id>
<revision>
<id>40360205</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arianespace Logo.jpg|right|200px|arianespace logo]]
Founded in [[1980]], '''Arianespace SA''' undertakes the production, operation and marketing of the [[Ariane 4]] and [[Ariane 5]] rocket launchers as part of the [[Ariane (rocket)|Ariane]] programme.
[[As of 2002]] Arianespace held more than 50 percent of the world market for boosting satellites to [[geostationary transfer orbit]] (GTO), although the consortium has had a deteriorating market share due to poor initial performance by the Ariane 5 launch vehicle. More than 130 commercial launches have occurred since [[May 22]], [[1984]].
Arianespace utilises a launch site at [[Kourou]] in [[French Gui |
ompetitions. Breeders continue to use Arabian sires with Thoroughbred mares to enhance the sensitivity of the offspring for use in equestrian sports. An Arabian/Thoroughbred cross is known as an [[Anglo-Arabian]]. Horsed in this group are commonly called 'hotbloods.'
True hotbloods usually offer greater riding challenges and rewards than other horses. Their sensitivity and intelligence enable quick learning, and greater communication and cooperation with their riders. However, they can sometimes also decide that new flowerpot is really a dragon, and you will spend the next five minutes calming them down.
Muscular and heavy draft horses are more or less known as "coldbloods", as they have been bred to be workhorses and carriage horses with calm temperaments. Harnessing a horse to a carriage requires some level of trust in the horse to remain calm when restrained. The best known coldbloods would probably be the Budweiser Clydesdales
[http://images.google.com/images?&q=budweiser+clydesdale&btnG=Search].
[[Warmblood]] breeds began in much the same way as the Thoroughbred. The best of their carriage or cavalry horses were bred to Arabian, Anglo-Arabian and Thoroughbred sires. The term "[[warmblood]]s" is sometimes used to mean any draft/Thoroughbred cross although this is becoming less common. The warmblood name has become the term to specifically refer to the sporthorse breed registries than began in Europe, although now worldwide. These registries, or societies, such as the [[Hanoverian_(horse)|Hanoverian]], [[Oldenburg]], [[Trakkhener]], and [[Holsteiner]] have dominated the Olympics and World Equestrian Games in [[Dressage]] and [[Show Jumping]] since the 1950s.
The [[list of horse breeds]] provides a partial alphabetical list of breeds of horse extant today, plus a discussion of rare breeds' conservation.
==Horses in sport today==
===Racing in all its forms===
Humans have always had a desire to know which horse (or horses) could move the fastest, [[horse-racing]] has ancient roots. Today, several categories of racing exist:
====Races subject to formal [[gambling]] ====
Under saddle:
# Thoroughbred [[flat racing]]; (under the aegis of the [[Jockey Club]] in the United Kingdom and the Jockey Club of North America)
# Thoroughbred [[National Hunt]] racing or [[steeplechasing]] in the UK
# Quarter Horse Racing--mostly in the United States, and sanctioned there by the American Quarter Horse Association.
# Appaloosa Horse Racing
# Arabian Horse Racing
In harness:
# The United States Trotting Association organizes harness Racing in the United States (although the horses may also pace)
# Harness Racing in Europe, New Zealand and Australia
====Amateur races without [[gambling]]====
# [[Endurance riding]], a sport in which the Arabian dominates at the top level, has become very popular in the United States and in Europe. The American Endurance Ride Conference organizes the sport in North America. Endurance races take place over a given, measured distance and the horses have an even start. Races begin at 20 miles and peak at 100 miles. Note especially the [[Tevis Cup]].
# Ride and Tie (in North America, organized by Ride and Tie Association). Ride and Tie involves three equal partners: two humans and one horse. The humans alternately run and ride.
Thoroughbreds have a pre-eminent reputation as a racing breed, but Arabians, Quarter Horses, and Appaloosas also race on the flat in the United States. Quarter Horses traditionally raced for a quarter mile, hence the name. [[Steeplechasing]] involves racing on a track where the horses also jump over obstacles. It occurs most commonly in the United Kingdom. Standardbred trotters and pacers race in harness with a [[sulky]] or racing bike. In France they also race under saddle.
===Show Sports===
====The traditional competitions of Europe====
The three following count as [[Olympic Games | Olympic]] disciplines:
* [[Dressage]] ("training" in [[French language | French]]) involves the progressive training of the horse to a high level of impulsion, collection, and obedience. Competitive dressage has the goal of showing the horse carrying out, on request, the natural movements that it performs without thinking while running loose. One dressage master has defined it as "returning the freedom of the horse while carrying the rider."
* [[Show jumping]] comprises a timed event judged on the ability of the horse and rider to jump over a series of obstacles, in a given order and with the fewest refusals or knockdowns of portions of the obstacles. At the [[Grand Prix horse racing|Grand Prix]] level fences may reach a height of as much as 6 feet.
* [[Eventing]], combined training, horse trials, "the Military," or "the complete test" as its [[French language | French]] name translates, puts together the obedience of dressage with the athletic ability of show jumping, the fitness demands of a long endurance phase (a.k.a. "roads and tracks") and the "cross-country" jumping phase. In the last-named, the horses jump over fixed obstacles, unlike show jumping, where the majority of the obstacles will fall down or apart if hit by the horse.
====Found in the United States====
* [[Huntseat]] classes these days judge the movement and the form of the horse over fences. A typical hunter division would include a flat class, or hack class, in which the horse is judged on its movement. A typical "hack winner" would be known for its flat kneed trot and "daisy cutter" movement, a phrase coined since a good hunter could slice daisies in a field when it flicks its toes out. The over fences portion of the class is judged on the form of the horse and the smoothness of the course. A horse with good jumping form snaps its knees up and jumps with a good bascule. It should also be able to canter slowly but have a step large enough to make it down the lines.
* [[Saddleseat]] (also known as Park or English Pleasure riding), a uniquely American discipline, developed to show to best advantage the extravagantly animated movement of high-stepping gaited breeds such as the [[American Saddlebred]] and the Tennessee Walker. Riders also commonly show Arabians and Morgans saddleseat in the United States.
* [[Equitation]] refers to those classes where the position of the rider is judged rather than the form or movement of the horse.
====Western riding====
Dressage, jumping and cross-country offer forms of what [[United States of America | America]]ns refer to as 'English riding' (although the United States has a strong following of riders in those disciplines). Western riding evolved stylistically from traditions brought to the Americas by the [[Spain | Spanish]], and its skills stem from the working needs of the [[cowboy]] in the [[American West]]. A main differentiating factor comes from the need of the cowboy to rope cattle with a [[lariat]] (or [[lasso]]). The cowboy must control the horse with one hand and use the lariat with the other hand. That means that horses must learn to [[neck rein]], that is, to respond to light pressure of the slack rein against the horse's neck. Once the cowboy has twirled the lariat and thrown its loop over a cow's head, he must snub the rope to the horn of his saddle. For roping calves, the horse learns to pull back against the [[calf]], which falls to the ground, while the cowboy dismounts and ties the calf's feet together so that he can be [[brand]] it, treat it for disease, and so on. Working with half-wild cattle, frequently in terrain where one cannot see what lurks behind the next bush, means the ever-present very great danger of becoming unseated in an accident miles from home and friends.
These multiple work needs mean that cowboys require different tack, most notably a [[curb bit]] (usually with longer bars than an English equitation curb or [[pelham bit]] would have) which works by leverage, long split reins (the ends of which can serve as an impromptu [[quirt]]) and a special kind of saddle. The Western saddle has a very much more substantial frame (traditionally made of wood) to absorb the shock of roping, a prominent pommel surmounted by a horn (a big knob for snubbing the lasso after roping an animal), and, frequently, tapaderos ("taps") covering the front of the stirrups to prevent the cowboy's foot from slipping through the stirrup in an accident and resulting in a frightened horse dragging him behind it. The cowboy's boots, which have high heels of an uncommon shape, also feature a specific design to prevent the cowboy's foot from slipping through the stirrup.
Technically, fewer differences between 'English' and Western riding exist than most people think.
The outfit of the competition Western rider differs from that of the dressage or 'English' rider. In dressage all riders wear the same to prevent distraction from the riding itself. But show -- in the form of outfit (and silver ornaments on saddle and tack) -- forms part of Western riding. The riders must wear [[cowboy boot]]s, [[jeans]], a shirt with long sleeves, and a [[cowboy hat]]. Riders can choose any color, and optionally accoutrements such as chaps, [[bolo tie]]s, belt buckles, and (shiny) [[spur]]s.
Competitions exist in the following forms:
* Western pleasure - the rider must show the horse in walk, jog (a slow, controlled trot), trot and lope (a slow, controlled canter). The horse must remain under control, with the rider directing minimal force through the reins and otherwise using minimal interference.
*[[ Reining]] - considered by some the "dressage" of the western riding world, reining requires horse and rider to perform a precise pattern consisting of canter circles, rapid "spins" (a particularly athletic turn on the haunches), and the sliding stop (executed from a full gallop).
* [[Cutting (sport)|Cutting]]: more |
2z} \approx 1</math>. The same approximation holds for <math>e^\frac{-ikx^2}{2z}</math>. Thus, taking <math>C = \Psi^\prime \sqrt{\frac{i}{z\lambda}}</math>, this results in:
{|
|-
|<math>\Psi\, </math>
|<math>= C \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}}e^\frac{ikxx^\prime}{z} \,dx^\prime</math>
|-
|
|<math>=C \frac{\left(e^\frac{ikax}{2z} - e^\frac{-ikax}{2z}\right)}{\frac{2ikax}{2z}}</math>
|}
It can be noted through [[Euler's formula]] and its derivatives that <math>\sin x = \frac{e^{ix} - e^{-ix}}{2i}</math> and <math>\sin \theta = \frac{x}{z}</math>.
<math>\Psi = C \frac{\sin\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}{\frac{ika\sin\theta}{2}}</math>
Now, substituting in <math>\frac{2\pi}{\lambda} = k</math>, the intensity ''I'' of the diffracted waves at an angle &theta; is given by:
{|
|-
|<math>I(\theta)\, </math>
|<math>= \frac{c}{8\pi}\big|\Psi(\theta)\big|^2 </math>
|-
|
|<math>= I_0 \langle \Psi \Big|\Psi \rangle \,</math>
|-
|
|<math>= I_0 {\left[ \operatorname{sinc} \left( \frac{\pi a}{\lambda} \sin \theta \right) \right] }^2 </math>
|}
where the sinc function is given by sinc(''x'') = sin(''x'')/''x''.
===Quantitative analysis of ''n''-slit diffraction===
Let us again start with the mathematical representation of [[Huygens' principle]].
:<math>\Psi = \int_{slit} \frac{i}{r\lambda} \Psi^\prime e^{-ikr}\,dslit</math>
Consider ''n'' slits in the prime plane of the equal size (''a'', <math>\infty</math>, 0) and spacing ''d'' spread along the x&prime; axis. As above, the distance ''r'' from the slit 1 is:
:<math>r = z \left(1 + \frac{\left(x - x^\prime\right)^2 + y^{\prime2}}{z^2}\right)^\frac{1}{2}</math>
To generalize this to ''n'' slits, we make the observation that while ''z'' and ''y'' remain constant, x&prime; shifts by
:<math>x_{j=0 \cdots n-1}^{\prime} = x_0^\prime - j d </math>
Thus
:<math>r_j = z \left(1 + \frac{\left(x - x^\prime - j d \right)^2 + y^{\prime2}}{z^2}\right)^\frac{1}{2}</math>
and the sum of all n contributions to the wave function is:
:<math>\Psi = \sum_{j=0}^{N-1} C \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}} e^\frac{ikx\left(x^\prime - jd\right)}{z} e^\frac{-ik\left(x^\prime - jd\right)^2}{2z} \,dx^\prime</math>
Again noting that <math>\frac{k\left(x^\prime -jd\right)^2}{z}</math> is small, so <math>e^\frac{-ik\left(x^\prime -jd\right)^2}{2z} \approx 1</math>, we have:
{|
|-
|<math>\Psi\, </math>
|<math>= C\sum_{j=0}^{N-1} \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}} e^\frac{ikx\left(x^\prime - jd\right)}{z} \,dx^\prime</math>
|-
|
|<math>= C \sum_{j=0}^{N-1} \frac{\left(e^{\frac{ikax}{2z} - \frac{ijkxd}{z}} - e^{\frac{-ikax}{2z}-\frac{ijkxd}{z}}\right)}{\frac{2ikax}{2z}}</math>
|-
|
|<math>= C \sum_{j=0}^{N-1} e^\frac{ijkxd}{z} \frac{\left(e^\frac{ikax}{2z} - e^\frac{-ikax}{2z}\right)}{\frac{2ikax}{2z}}</math>
|-
|
|<math>= C \frac{\sin\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}{\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}} \sum_{j=1}^{N-1} e^{ijkd\sin\theta}</math>
|}
Now, we can use the following identity
<math>\sum_{j=0}^{N-1} e^{x j} = \frac{1 - e^{Nx}}{1 - e^x}.</math>
Substituting into our equation, we find:
{|
|-
|<math>\Psi\, </math>
|<math>= C \frac{\sin\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}{\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}\left(\frac{1 - e^{iNkd\sin\theta}}{1 - e^{ikd\sin\theta}}\right)</math>
|-
|
|<math>= C \frac{\sin\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}{\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}\left(\frac{e^{-iNkd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}-e^{iNkd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}{e^{-ikd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}-e^{ikd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}\right)\left(\frac{e^{iNkd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}{e^{ikd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}\right)</math>
|-
|
|<math>= C \frac{\sin\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}{\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}\frac{\frac{e^{-iNkd \frac{\sin\theta}{2}} - e^{iNkd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}{2i}}{\frac{e^{-ikd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}} - e^{ikd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}{2i}} \left(e^{i(N-1)kd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}\right)</math>
|-
|
|<math>= C \frac{\sin\left(\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}\right)}{\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}} \frac{\sin\left(\frac{Nkd\sin\theta}{2}\right)} {\sin\left(\frac{kd\sin\theta}{2}\right)}e^{i\left(N-1\right)kd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}} </math>
|}
We now make our ''k'' substitution as before and represent all non-oscillating constants by the <math>I_0</math> variable as in the 1-slit diffraction and bracket the result. Remember that
:<math>\langle e^{ix} \Big| e^{ix}\rangle\ = e^0 = 1</math>
This allows us to discard the tailing exponent and we have our answer:
:<math>I\left(\theta\right)\, </math>
:<math>=I_0 \left[ \operatorname{sinc} \left( \frac{\pi a}{\lambda} \sin \theta \right) \right]^2 </math>
:<math>\left[\frac{\sin\left(\frac{N\pi d}{\lambda}\sin\theta\right)}{\sin\left(\frac{\pi d}{\lambda}\sin\theta\right)}\right]^2</math>
==Other cases==
===Bragg diffraction===
Diffraction from multiple slits, as described above, is similar to what occurs when waves are scattered from a periodic structure, such as atoms in a [[crystal]] or rulings on a [[diffraction grating]]. Each scattering center (e.g., each atom) acts as a point source of spherical wavefronts; these wavefronts undergo constructive [[interference]] to form a number of diffracted beams. The direction of these beams is described by ''Bragg's law'':
:<math> m \lambda = 2 d \sin \theta,\, </math>
where &lambda; is the [[wavelength]], ''d'' is the distance between scattering centers, &theta; is the angle of diffraction and ''m'' is an integer known as the ''order'' of the diffracted beam. '''[[Bragg diffraction]]''' is used in [[X-ray crystallography]] to deduce the structure of a [[crystal]] from the angles at which [[X-ray]]s are diffracted from it. Since the diffraction angle &theta; is dependent on the wavelength &lambda;, diffaction gratings impart angular [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] on a beam of light.
The most common demonstration of Bragg diffraction is the [[optical spectrum|spectrum]] of [[color]]s seen reflected from a [[compact disc]]: the closely-spaced tracks on the surface of the disc form a diffraction grating, and the individual wavelengths of white light are diffracted at different angles from it, in accordance with Bragg's law.
===Diffraction limit of telescopes===
[[Image:zboo_lucky_image_1pc.png|thumb|The [[Airy disc]] around each of the stars from the 2.56m telescope aperture can be seen in this [[lucky imaging|''lucky image'']] of the binary star [[zeta Boötis]].]]
For diffraction through a circular aperture, there is a series of concentric rings surrounding a central [[Airy disc]]. The mathematical result is similar to a radially symmetric version of the equation given above in the case of single-slit diffraction.
A wave does not have to pass through an aperture to diffract; for example, a beam of light of a finite size also undergoes diffraction and spreads in diameter. This effect limits the minimum size ''d'' of spot of light formed at the focus of a [[lens (optics)|lens]], known as the ''diffraction limit'':
:<math> d = 2.44 \lambda \frac{f}{a},\, </math>
where &lambda; is the wavelength of the light, ''f'' is the focal length of the lens, and ''a'' is the diameter of the beam of light, or (if the beam is filling the lens) the diameter of the lens. (See [[Rayleigh criterion]]).
By use of [[Huygens' principle]], it is possible to compute the diffraction pattern of a wave from any arbitrarily shaped aperture. If the pattern is observed at a sufficient distance from the aperture, it will appear as the two-dimensional [[Fourier transform]] of the function representing the aperture.
== See also ==
* [[Atmospheric diffraction]]
* [[Diffraction grating]]
* [[Electron diffraction]]
* [[Neutron diffraction]]
* [[X-ray_diffraction|X-ray diffraction]]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Diffraction}}
* [http://www.falstad.com/wave2d/ 2-D wave java applet] displays diffraction patterns of various slit configurations.
* [http://www.falstad.com/diffraction/ Diffraction java applet] displays diffraction patterns of various 2-D apertures.
* [http://www.mit.edu/~birge/fraunhofer/ Diffraction approximations illustrated] MIT site that illustrates the various approximations in diffraction and intuitively explains the Fraunhofer regime.
* [http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/diffraction-photography.htm Diffraction Limited Photography] understanding how airy disks, lens aperture and pixel size limit the absolute resolution of any camera.
[[category:Diffraction| ]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]
[[ca:Difracció]]
[[da:Diffraktion]]
[[de:Beugung (Physik)]]
[[es:Difracción]]
[[eo:Difrakto]]
[[fa:پراش]]
[[fr:Diffraction]]
[[gl:Difracción]]
[[nl:Diffractie]]
[[ja:回折]]
[[pl:Dyfrakcja]]
[[pt:Difração]]
[[ru:Дифракция]]
[[sv:Diffraktion]]
[[uk:Дифракція]]
[[zh:衍射]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dakini</title>
<id>8604</id>
<revision>
<id>40748044</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T19:36:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TheNeon</username>
<id>785184</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Buddhism}}
A '''dakini''' ([[Sanskrit]]: "sky dancer"; [[Chinese language]]: 空行女) is a [[Tantra|Tantric]] [[priest]]ess of ancient [[India]] who "carried the [[soul]]s of the [[dead]] to the sky". This [[Buddhist]] figure is particularly upheld in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. The dakini is a female being of generally volatile temperament, who acts as a muse for spiritual practice. Dakinis can be likened to [[elves]], [[angels]], or other such supernatural beings, and are symbolically representative of testing one's awareness |
lso be constructed on [[star polygon]]s: {''n''/''m''} = {5/2}, {7/3}, {7/4}, {8/3}, {9/2}, {9/4}, {10/3}...
For any [[coprime]] pair of integers ''n,m'' such that 2''m'' < ''n'', there are two forms:
* a normal '''antiprism''' with vertex configuration ''3.3.3.n/m'';
* a '''crossed antiprism''' with vertex configuration ''3.3.3.n/(n-m)''.
{|
|align=center|[[Image:Pentagrammic antiprism.png|100px]]<BR>[[Pentagrammic antiprism|''3.3.3.5/2'']]
|align=center|[[Image:Pentagrammic crossed antiprism.png|100px]]<BR>[[Pentagrammic crossed-antiprism|''3.3.3.5/3'']]
|}
==External links==
*[http://www.software3d.com/Prisms.html Paper models of prisms and antiprisms]
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
** [[VRML]] models [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/alphabetic-list.html (George Hart)] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/octahedron.wrl <3>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/square_antiprism.wrl <4>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/pentagonal_antiprism.wrl <5>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/hexagonal_antiprism.wrl <6>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/heptagonal_antiprism.wrl <7>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/octagonal_antiprism.wrl <8>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/enneagonal_antiprism.wrl <9>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/decagonal_antiprism.wrl <10>]
[[Category:Polyhedra]]
[[Category:Uniform polyhedra]]
[[Category:Prismatoid polyhedra]]
[[pl:Antygraniastos&#322;up]]
[[pt:Antiprisma]]
[[ru:&#1040;&#1085;&#1090;&#1080;&#1087;&#1088;&#1080;&#1079;&#1084;&#1072;]]
[[ja:反角柱]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ancient Greeks</title>
<id>1852</id>
<revision>
<id>15900314</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-18T17:33:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Didactohedron</username>
<id>71041</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ancient Greece]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ecology of Africa</title>
<id>1853</id>
<revision>
<id>40587451</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:27:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Xerocs</username>
<id>757355</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">===Flora===
The vegetation of [[Africa]] follows very closely the distribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the [[Mediterranean]] are groves of [[orange (fruit)|orange]]s and [[olive]] trees, evergreen [[oak]]s, [[cork oak|cork]] trees and [[pine]]s, intermixed with [[cupressus|cypresses]], [[myrtle]]s, [[arbutus]] and fragrant [[Erica|tree-heaths]].
South of the [[Atlas mountains|Atlas]] range the conditions alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Characteristic of the [[Sahara]] is the [[date palm]], which flourishes where other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the semidesert regions the [[acacia]] (whence is obtained gum-arabic) is abundant.
The more humid regions have a richer vegetation; dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension towards the upper [[Nile]]; and [[savanna]] interspersed with trees on the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, etc. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions the typical tree is the [[mangrove]], which flourishes wherever the soil is of a [[swamp]] character.
The dense [[forest]]s of West Africa contain, in addition to a great variety of [[hardwood]]s, two [[Arecaceae|palms]], ''Elaeis guincensis'' ([[oil palm]]) and ''Raphia vinifera'' ([[bamboo palm]]), not found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. ''[[Bombax]]'' or silk-cotton trees attain gigantic proportions in the forests, which are the home of the india rubber-producing plants and of many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as [[odum]] (''Chlorophora excelsa''), [[ebony]], [[mahogany]] (''Khaya senegalensis''), [[Oldfieldia]] (''Oldfieldia africana'') and [[camwood]] (''Baphia nitida''). The climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant and the undergrowth or "bush" is extremely dense.
In the savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey bread tree or [[baobab]] (''Adanisonia digitata''), [[doom palm]] (''Hyphaene'') and [[euphorbia]]s. The [[coffee]] plant grows wild in such widely separated places as [[Liberia]] and southern [[Abyssinia]]. The higher mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain flora of the eastern [[Mediterranean]], the [[Himalaya]] and [[Indo-China]].
In the swamp regions of north-east Africa [[papyrus]] and associated plants, including the soft-wooded [[ambach]], flourish in immense quantities, and little else is found in the way of vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest save in the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted species of [[kapsia]]s, [[mesembryanthemum]]s, [[aloe]]s and other succulent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable timber trees, such as the [[Podocarpus|Yellow-wood]] (''Podocarpus elongatus''), [[stinkwood]] (''Ocotea''), [[sneezewood]] or [[Cape ebony]] (''Pteroxylon utile'') and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa alfa is very abundant in the plateaus of the Atlas range.
===Fauna===
The fauna again shows the effect of the characteristics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of large [[ungulate]]s, especially [[antelope]]s, the [[giraffe]] (peculiar to Africa), [[zebra]], [[Cape_buffalo|buffalo]], wild [[donkey|ass]] and four species of [[rhinoceros]]; and of carnivores, such as the [[lion]], [[leopard]], [[hyena]], etc. The [[okapi]] (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense forests of the [[Congo River|Congo]] basin. [[Bear]]s are confined to the Atlas region, [[wolf|wolves]] and [[fox]]es to North Africa. The [[elephant]] (though its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters) is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the [[chimpanzee]] and [[gorilla]]. [[Baboon]]s and [[mandrill]]s, with few exceptions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped [[camel]], as a domestic animal, is
especially characteristic of the northern deserts and steppes.
The rivers in the tropical zone abound with [[hippopotamus|hippopotami]] and [[crocodile]]s, the former entirely confined to Africa. The vast herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in [[South Africa]], [[British Central Africa]], [[British East Africa]], [[Somahland]], etc., while measures for the protection of wild animals were laid down in an international convention signed in May 1900.
The [[ornithology]] of northern Africa presents a close resemblance to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediterranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the [[ostrich]] and the [[secretary-bird]]. The ostrich is widely dispersed, but is found chiefly in the [[desert]] and [[steppe]] regions. The secretary-bird is common in the south. The [[weaver bird]]s and their allies, including the [[long-tailed whydah]]s, are abundant, as are, among game-birds, the [[francolin]] and [[guineafowl]]. Many of the smaller birds, such as the [[sunbird]]s, [[bee-eater]]s, the [[parrot]]s and [[kingfisher]]s, as well as the larger [[plantain-eater]]s, are noted for the brilliance of their plumage.
Of [[reptile]]s the [[lizard]] and [[chameleon]] are common, and there are a number of venomous [[snake]]s, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical countries.
The [[scorpion]] is abundant. Of [[insect]]s Africa has many thousand different kinds; of these the [[locust]] is the proverbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the [[termite]]s are almost incredible. The spread of [[malaria]] by means of [[mosquito]]es is common. The [[tsetse fly]], whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many districts of South and East Africa. Fortunately it is found nowhere outside Africa.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Africa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Africa</title>
<id>1854</id>
<revision>
<id>38566653</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T03:51:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cdc</username>
<id>132820</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.101.215.25|71.101.215.25]] ([[User talk:71.101.215.25|talk]]) to last version by LeonardoGregianin</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LocationAfrica.png|300px|right] |
orm of sexuality have varied, usually reflecting their culture's views. [[Ancient Greece]] among others, as well as [[history of Japan|pre-modern]] [[Japan]]'s military traditions openly encouraged pederastic sexual relationships among males to foster [[male bonding]] and education ''(see [[pederasty]] and [[shudo]])''. Many modern countries (such as the [[United Kingdom]], [[The Netherlands]], and [[Israel]]) welcome homosexuals in the armed services and officially support soldiers' participation in [[pride parade]]s. {{ref|army_pride}} Others, such as the [[United States]], purge them from the force in the belief that they are a threat ''(see [[Don't ask, don't tell]])''. This negative attitude was common in the [[Europe]]an [[Middle Ages]] when the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]], a prominent [[Christianity|Christian]] brotherhood of knights during the [[Crusades]] was destroyed on accusations of homosexuality.
Militaries have been known to use [[sexuality]] in abusive manners such as [[rape]], frequently based on a [[sexism|sexist]] view of [[gender role]]s. [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Romans]] viewed [[masculinity]] as being associated with a penetrative sexual role, regardless of the sex of the receptive partner, and used it as a form of dominance. [[T. E. Lawrence]], during [[World War I]], claimed to have been raped by his male [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] captors.
* See also: [[Sacred Band of Thebes]]
===Youth groups===
[[Scouting]], a worldwide group of youth organisations, often emulate the attitude of their home country's military. Thus [[the Scout Association]] in the UK welcomes gay members both as members and as leaders, while the [[Boy Scouts of America]] expel them. However, the Scout Association of Malta, embraces gay members as members and leaders, even though the military does not have an official policy. (It should be noted that [[The Scout Association]] UK claims that it welcomes gay members on the basis of diversity, as it no longer emulates the military.)
===Religion===
{{main|Religion and sexual orientation}}
[[Religion]] has played a significant role in forming a culture's views towards homosexuality.
Historically the negative views of homosexuality have been limited to the [[Abrahamic religion]]s. Groups not influenced by the Abrahamic religions have commonly regarded homosexuality as sacred or neutral. In the wake of [[colonialism]] and [[imperialism]] undertaken by countries of the Abrahamic faiths some non-Abrahamic religious groups have adopted new attitudes antagonistic towards homosexuality. For example, when [[India]] became part of the [[British Empire]], [[sodomy laws]] were introduced; while there was no basis for them in [[Hindu]] faith, this led to [[persecution]] of their society and religion. India still retains portions of these laws due to this past foreign influence [[as of 2006]]. This experience was also repeated by other Abrahamic religious nations upon their acquisitions throughout [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and the [[Americas]].
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] requires homosexuals to practice [[chastity]] in the understanding that homosexual acts are "intrinsically disordered", and "contrary to the [[natural law]]". It insists that all are expected to only have heterosexual relations and only in the context of a marriage, describing homosexual tendencies as "a trial", and stressing that people with such tendencies "must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity." {{ref|catechism}} Distinguishing between "deep-seated homosexual tendencies" and those that are "only the expression of a transitory problem", the Vatican requires that any homosexual tendencies "must be clearly overcome at least three years before ordination to the diaconate." {{ref|criteria}}
In brief, [[Hinduism]] has taken various positions, ranging from positive to neutral or antagonistic. [[Sikhism]] teaches that Homosexuality is unnatural, and therefore, sinful. [[Confucianism]] has allowed homosexual sex with the precondition of procreation. [[Abrahamic religions]] have held varied views of homosexuality, depending on place, time and form of same-sex desire. [[Islam]] regards homosexual love and desire as natural but sexual relations as a transgression negatory of the natural role and aim of sexual activity. {{ref|islam}} [[Buddhism]] is divided, with contemporary Western Buddhists and many Japanese and Chinese schools holding very accepting views, something that is traditionally allowed when the relationship does not impede the birth of a child, while other Eastern Buddhists since colonial times have adopted attitudes that scorn the practice. [[Christianity]] has traditionally condemned deliberately non-procreative sex, and while attitudes have in some sectors been liberalised, the majority of denominations still view homosexual relationships as sinful. [[Judaism]], depending on the movement, is either liberal, conservative, or neutral on the subject. The Orthodox tradition generally views homosexual sex as sinful, and homosexual attraction as out of the norm, while Reform and Reconstructionism are fully accepting of gay attraction and sex. Conservative Judaism doesn't view attraction as sinful. Homosexual acts are just thought of as being equal to breaking any other of the mitzvot. This movement, however, does not admit openly gay Jews as rabbis, nor does it perform commitment ceremonies. It is very open to it, and because of the movement's belief in an evolving Torah, the issue is very big in the movement today. [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] religions generally grant gender-variant individuals honoured status for their perceived [[two-spirit|spiritual powers]]. [[Greek religion|Greek]], [[Shinto|Japanese]], [[Melanesian]], [[Roman religion]], and [[Taoism]] take a positive outlook.
===Polemic===
{{main|Anti-gay slogan}}
Same-sex love practices have been the subject of a continuing debate dating back at least to Classical Greece. In antiquity, and in countries not under the sway of Abrahamic beliefs, the debates usually took the form of debating which love is best, the love of women or the love of boys, unlike more recent discussions which frame the question in terms of "right" and "wrong."
Each camp has made use of a relatively circumscribed arsenal of arguments, some of which have not changed greatly over the past two and a half thousand years. Recent advances in [[sociology|sociological studies]] and other [[discourse]] such as [[queer theory]] have brought a measure of scientific rigour to what had been mostly a philosophical debate.
====Con====
* "Same-sex love is against nature" This charge dates back to Classical Greece, where it was first articulated by [[Plato]] in his ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]''. Of course, Plato also portrayed many homosexual and homoerotic scenes in his dialogues, most notably in the Lysis, Charmindes, and Symposium.
* "It is condemned by God." Expressed by early Christian exegetes (claimed to be the moral of the [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] story), and also in the [[Qur'an]]. There are scriptures throughout all the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), at least apparently condemning the practice.
* "It leads to plagues and natural disasters." Advanced by Christian authorities from late Antiquity through the Renaissance.
* "It is abuse of the young." Encountered in "Erotes," a dialogue of the early Christian era by "[[Lucian]]."
* "It is a dissipation of one's reproductive force." Plato, ''Laws,'' 838
====Pro====
* "It is commonplace in nature." Based on zoologists' observations of many different species. {{ref_label|Bagemihl|3|a}}
* "Suppressing it alters the balance of nature." A Melanesian belief. {{ref_label|Bagemihl|3|b}}
* "It foments close friendships and independent thinking." Also in Lucian
* "It [male homosexuality] is a mark of true masculinity." Claimed by [[Sufism|Indian Sufi]] [[Akhi Jamshed Rajgiri]] in self defense before the Sultan of Jaunpur for his love of youths. (In Vanita & Kidwai, 2000, p.139)
* "Suppression is irrational" [[Jeremy Bentham]], in his 1785 essay on "Paederasty" (first English language text on homosexuality) states: "It is wonderful that nobody has ever yet fancied it to be sinful to scratch where it itches, and that it has never been determined that the only natural way of scratching is with such or such a finger and that it is unnatural to scratch with any other."
* "The male form is superior to the female form" (implication for male homosexuality). Medieval Arabic text included in the [[Arabian Nights]] (The Debate Between the Wise Woman and the Sage).
==Historical and geographical practices==
{{main|History of sexuality}}
Sexual customs have varied greatly over time and from one region to another. These, as well as the orientation of particular pre-contemporary figures continue to be studied. Modern Western gay culture, largely a product of [[19th century|19th-century]] [[psychology]] as well as the years of post-[[Stonewall riots|Stonewall]] [[gay liberation]], is a relatively novel manifestation of same-sex love. It is generally not applicable as a standard when investigating same-gender sex and historical opinions and beliefs held by other people.
It is generally accepted that the lives of historical figures such as [[Socrates]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Hadrian]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Donatello]] and [[Christopher Marlowe]] included or were centred upon love and sexual relationships with people of their own gender. Terms such as ''gay'' or ''bisexual'' have been applied to them, but many regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a modern social construction of sexuality fore |
{portal}}
* [[Aesthetics]], the philosophy of [[beauty]]
* [[Art criticism]]
* [[Art groups]]
* [[Art history]]
* [[Art sale]]
* [[Art school]]
* [[Art styles, periods and movements]]
* [[Art techniques and materials]]
* [[Art theft]]
* [[Artist]]
* [[Definition of music]]
* [[Applied art]]
* [[Fine art]]
* [[Modern art]]
* [[Psychedelic art]]
* [[:Category:Aesthetics|Philosophy of art]]
* ''[[What Is Art?]]''
== Further reading ==
* [[Peter Magyar]], ''Thought palaces.'' Amsterdam: Architectura & Natura Press, 1999
* [[Aristotle]], ''Metaphysics''
* [[Plato]], ''Theory of forms''
* [[Carl Jung]], ''Man and his Symbols''
* [[Gyorgy Doczi]], ''The Power of Limits''.
* [[Benedetto Croce]], ''Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic, 1902''
* [[Louis Torres & Michelle Marder Kamhi]], ''What Art Is: The Esthetic Theory of Ayn Rand,'' Open Court, 2000
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Arts}}
'''Resources'''
* [http://www.deviantart.com] - Online Arts
* [http://www.artlex.com ArtLex.com] - Dictionary of art terms
* [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/ Artcyclopedia.com] - Reference site
* [http://art.on-topic.net/art_terms_by_name/ Art.on-topic.net] Art Topic Reference site
* [http://www.art-atlas.net Art-Atlas.Net] The International Art Directory
* [http://www.nelepets.com/art The Art Millennium] - Comprehensive Art Encyclopedia
* [http://www.all-art.org History of Art] - World History of Art
* [http://www.hamiltonelectronics.com/hma/ Hamilton Museum of Art] - Online Educational Art Museum
==Professional Links==
*[http://www.TheDirectorsForum.Org/ The Art Museum Partnership]
*[http://www.aam-us.org/ American Association of Museums]
[[Category:Art|*Art]]
[[Category:Top 10| Art]]
[[an:Arte]]
[[ar:فن]]
[[ast:Arte]]
[[bg:Изкуство]]
[[br:Arz]]
[[ca:Art]]
[[co:Arti]]
[[cs:Umění]]
[[da:Kunst]]
[[de:Kunst]]
[[el:Τέχνη]]
[[eo:Arto]]
[[es:Arte]]
[[et:Kunst]]
[[eu:Arte]]
[[fa:هنر]]
[[fi:Taide]]
[[fr:Art]]
[[fy:Keunst]]
[[gl:Arte]]
[[he:אמנות]]
[[hi:कला]]
[[hr:Umjetnost]]
[[hu:Művészet]]
[[ia:Arte]]
[[id:Seni]]
[[io:Arto]]
[[it:Arte]]
[[ja:芸術]]
[[ka:ხელოვნება]]
[[ku:Huner]]
[[kw:Art]]
[[la:Ars]]
[[lad:Arte]]
[[lb:Konscht]]
[[li:Kuns]]
[[lt:Menas]]
[[mi:Toi]]
[[mk:Уметност]]
[[ms:Seni]]
[[nah:Toltecayotl]]
[[nap:Arte]]
[[nds:Kunst]]
[[nl:Kunst]]
[[nn:Kunst]]
[[no:Kunst]]
[[os:Аивад]]
[[pl:Sztuka]]
[[pt:Arte]]
[[ro:Artă]]
[[ru:Искусство]]
[[scn:Arti]]
[[simple:Art]]
[[sl:Umetnost]]
[[sr:Уметност]]
[[sv:Konst]]
[[sw:Usanifu]]
[[tr:Sanat]]
[[vi:Nghệ thuật]]
[[yi:קונסט]]
[[zh:艺术]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Actor</title>
<id>753</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:47:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{unsourced}}
[[Image:ActorsOffSetLaughing.jpg|thumb|right|Actors in period costume sharing a joke whilst waiting between takes during location filming.]]
An '''actor''' is a person who [[acting|acts]], or plays a role, in an artistic production. The term commonly refers to someone working in [[film|movies]], [[television]], live [[Theater|theatre]], or [[radio programming|radio]], and can occasionally denote a street entertainer. Besides playing dramatic roles, actors may also sing or dance or work only on radio or as a [[voice artist]]. A [[female]] actor may be known as an '''actress''', although the term "actor", is also used as a gender-neutral term.
An actor usually plays a [[fictional character]]. In the case of a true story (or a fictional story that portrays real people) an actor may play a real person (or a fictional version of the same). Occasionally, actors appear as themselves.
==Etymology==
"Actor" is directly from the masculine [[Latin]] noun ''actor'' (feminine, ''actrix'') from the [[Latin verbs|verb]] ''agere'' "'''to do''', to drive, to pass time" + the suffix ''-or'' "so./st. who performs the action indicated by the stem". Alternatively from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|ἂκτωρ}} ''(aktor)'', leader, from the [[verb]] {{polytonic|ἂγω}} ''(agō)'', to lead or carry, to convey, to bring.
==History==
The first recorded case of an actor performing took place in [[530s BC|534 BC]] (probably on [[23 November]], though the changes in calendar over the years make it hard to determine exactly) when the [[Greece|Greek]] performer [[Thespis]] stepped on to the stage at the ''Theatre Dionysus'' and became the first person to speak words as a character in a play. The machinations of storytelling were immediately revolutionized. Prior to Thespis' act, stories were told in [[song]] and dance and in [[Perspective (storytelling)|third person]] narrative, but no one had assumed the role of a character in a story. In honour of Thespis, actors are commonly called ''Thespians''. Theatrical [[Mythology|myth]] to this day maintains that Thespis exists as a mischievous spirit, and disasters in the theatre are sometimes blamed on his ghostly intervention.
Actors were traditionally not people of high status, and in the [[Early Middle Ages]] travelling acting troupes were often viewed with distrust. However, this negative perception dramaticaly changed in 20th Century as acting became an honored and popular profession and art. Part of the reason is due to the rise of the popular appeal and access to dramatic [[film]] entertainment and the resulting rise of the [[movie star]] in social status and the large salaries they commanded. The combination of public presence and wealth had a profound rehabilitation to the image.
In the past, only men could become actors. In the ancient and [[middle ages|medieval world]], it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on the stage, and this belief continued right up until the 17th century, when in [[Venice]] it was broken. In the time of [[William Shakespeare]], women's roles were played by men or boys, though there is some evidence to suggest that women disguised as men also (illegally) performed.
==Actors playing the opposite sex==
Women sometimes play the roles of [[prepubescent]] boys, because in some regards a woman has a closer resemblance to a boy than does a man. The role of [[Peter Pan]], for example, is traditionally played by a woman. The tradition of the [[principal boy]] in [[pantomime]] may be compared. An adult playing a child occurs more in theater than in film. The exception to this is voice actors in [[animated]] films, where boys are generally voiced by women, as heard in ''[[The Simpsons]]''. [[Opera]] has several '[[pants role]]s' traditionally sung by women, usually [[mezzo-soprano]]s. Examples are Hansel in ''[[Hänsel und Gretel]]'', and [[The Marriage of Figaro#Characters|Cherubino]] in ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]]''.
[[Mary Pickford]] played the part of [[Little Lord Fauntleroy]] in the first film version of the book. [[Linda Hunt]] won an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]] in ''[[The Year of Living Dangerously]]'', in which she played the part of a man.
Having an actor play the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long standing tradition in comic theatre and film. Most of Shakespeare's comedies include instances of cross dressing, and both [[Dustin Hoffman]] and [[Robin Williams]] appeared in hit comedy films where they were required to play most scenes dressed as women. [[Tony Curtis]] and [[Jack Lemmon]] famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the [[Billy Wilder]] film ''[[Some Like It Hot]]''.
==Techniques of acting==
Actors employ a variety of techniques that are learned through training and experience. Some of these are:
#The rigorous use of the voice to communicate a character's lines and express emotion. This is achieved through attention to diction and projection through correct breathing and articulation. It is also achieved through the tone and emphasis that an actor puts on words
#Physicalisation of a role in order to create a believable character for the audience and to use the acting space appropriately and correctly
#Use of gesture to complement the voice, interact with other actors and to bring emphasis to the words in a play, as well as having symbolic meaning
[[Shakespeare]] is believed to have been commenting on the acting style and techniques of his era when [[Hamlet]] gives his famous advice to the players:
<blockquote>Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue: but if you mouth it, as many of your players do, I had as lief the town-crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus, but use all gently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, the whirlwind of passion, you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness. O, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumbshows and noise: I would have such a fellow whipped for o'erdoing Termagant; it out-herods Herod: pray you, avoid it.</blockquote>
<blockquote>Be not too tame neither, but let your own discretion be your tutor: suit the action to the word, the word to the action; with this special observance: o'erstep not the modesty of nature: for any thing so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as 'twere, the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure. Now this overdone, or come tardy off, though it make the unskilful laugh, cannot but make the judicious grieve; the censure of the which one must in your allowance o'erweigh a whole theatre of others. O, there be pla |
zen]]
[[pl:List do Kolosan]]
[[pt:Epístola aos Colossenses]]
[[fi:Kirje kolossalaisille]]
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[[zh:歌羅西書]]</text>
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<page>
<title>First Epistle to the Thessalonians</title>
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<comment>[[zh:帖撒羅尼加前書]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''First Epistle to the Thessalonians''', also known as the '''First Letter to the Thessalonians''', is a book from the [[New Testament]] of the Christian [[Bible]].
The first letter to the Thessalonians was likely the first of all [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s [[Pauline epistles|letters]], most like written by the end of A.D. [[52]]. It was written after Timothy had returned from [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], relating the state of the church in [[Thessalonica]] (Acts 18:1-5; 1 Thess. 3:6). While, on the whole, the report of Timothy was encouraging, it also showed that many errors and misunderstandings regarding Paul's teaching of [[Christianity]] had crept in among them. Paul addresses them in this letter in order to correct the church and exhorts the Thessalonians to purity of life, reminding them that their sanctification was God's will for their lives.
{{eastons}}
Paul addresses them in this letter to encourage and reassure the Christians there. He gives thanks for the news about their faith and love; he reminds them of the kind of life he had lived while he was with them, and then answers questions that had arisen in the church about the return of Christ: Could a believer who died before Christ's return still share in the eternal life that his return will bring? And when will Christ come again? Paul writes this letter to the Church at Thessalonica and encourages them to go on working quietly while waiting in hope for the return of Christ.
==See also==
*[[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]]
==External links==
Online translations of the First Epistle to the Thessalonians:
* {{biblegateway|1|Thessalonians}}
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|<Center>Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|<Center>Followed by:<br><Center>[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|2 Thessalonians]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:New Testament books|Thessalonians 1]]
[[cs:1. Tesalonickým]]
[[de:1. Brief des Paulus an die Thessalonicher]]
[[es:Primera Epístola a los Tesalonicenses]]
[[fr:Première épître aux Thessaloniciens]]
[[id:Surat Paulus yang Pertama kepada Jemaat di Tesalonika]]
[[ko:데살로니가전서]]
[[nl:Brieven van Paulus aan de Tessalonicenzen]]
[[pl:1 List do Tesaloniczan]]
[[pt:Primeira Epístola aos Tessalonicenses]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen kirje tessalonikalaisille]]
[[sv:Första Thessalonikerbrevet]]
[[zh:帖撒羅尼加前書]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Epistle to Titus</title>
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<comment>robot Adding: la, ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
:''The [[Pastoral Epistles]] are often considered together, as each throws light upon the others.''
The '''Epistle to Titus''' is a book of the [[biblical canon|canonic]] [[New Testament]], one of the three so-called "pastoral epistles" (with ''[[First Epistle to Timothy|1 Timothy]]'' and ''[[Second Epistle to Timothy|2 Timothy]]''). It is offered as a letter from [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] to the [[Apostle Titus]].
==Authorship and date==
===Traditional view===
According to ''[[Easton's Bible Dictionary]]'' (1897), "Paul's Authorship was undisputed in antiquity, as far as known, but is frequently doubted today. It was probably written about the same time as the [[First Epistle to Timothy]], with which it has many affinities."
[[William Paley]] wrote in ''Horae Paulinae'' (1785), "Both letters were addressed to persons left by the writer to preside in their respective churches during his absence. Both letters are principally occupied in describing the qualifications to be sought for in those whom they should appoint to offices in the church; and the ingredients of this description are in both letters nearly the same. Timothy and Titus are likewise cautioned against the same prevailing corruptions, and in particular against the same misdirection of their cares and studies.
"This affinity obtains not only in the subject of the letters, which from the similarity of situation in the persons to whom they were addressed might be expected to be somewhat alike, but extends in a great variety of instances to the phrases and expressions. The writer accosts his two friends with the same salutation, and passes on to the business of his letter by the same transition (comp. 1 Tim. 1:2, 3 with Titus 1:4, 5; 1
Tim.1:4 with Titus 1:13, 14; 3:9; 1 Tim. 4:12 with Titus 2:7, 15)."
Traditionalists date its composition from the circumstance that it was written after Paul's visit to Crete
(Titus 1:5). That visit could not be the one referred to in ''Acts'' 27:7, when Paul was on his voyage to Rome as a prisoner, and where he continued a prisoner for two years. Thus traditional [[exegesis]] supposes that after his release Paul sailed from Rome into Asia, passing Crete by the way, and that there he left Titus "to set
in order the things that were wanting." Thence he would have gone to [[Ephesus]], where he left Timothy, and from Ephesus to [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], where he wrote the ''First Epistle to Timothy'', and thence, according to the superscription of this epistle, to Nicopolis in [[Epirus]], from which place he wrote to Titus, about A.D. 66 or 67.
===Critical view===
Since none of the pastoral epistles were included in [[Marcion]]'s canon of ten epistles, which was assembled ''ca'' 140 CE, and since there is no certain quotation of any of these epistles before [[Irenaeus]], '' ca'' 170 CE, the critical view is that they were written about the middle of the 2nd century CE. Critics examining the text fail to find its vocabulary and literary style similar to Paul's unquestionably authentic letters, fail to fit the situation of Paul in the epistle into Paul's reconstructed biography, and identify principles of the emerged Christian church rather than those of the apostolic generation.
In the subscription to the epistle it is said to have been written from "Nicopolis of Macedonia" rather than Nicopolis in Epirus. Even the most traditional apologists agree that the subscriptions to the epistles are not authentic.
== See also ==
*[[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]]
==External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle to Titus]]:
*{{biblegateway||Titus}}
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/titus.html Early Christian Writings:] ''Titus''
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|<Center>Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Second Epistle to Timothy|2 Timothy]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|<Center>Followed by:<br><Center>[[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:New Testament books|Titus]]
[[de:Brief des Paulus an Titus]]
[[es:Epístola a Tito]]
[[fr:Épître à Tite]]
[[ko:디도에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat Paulus kepada Titus]]
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[[la:Epistula ad Titum]]
[[nl:Brief van Paulus aan Titus]]
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[[pl:List do Tytusa]]
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<page>
<title>Eurovision Song Contest</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:32:29Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* =Miscellaneous Links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:{{redirect|Eurovision}}
[[Image:escgeneric.gif|right|thumb|right|Eurovision Song Contest logo.]]
Running since [[Eurovision Song Contest 1956|1956]], the '''Eurovision Song Contest''' is an annual televised song contest with participants from numerous countries whose national television broadcasters are members of the [[European Broadcasting Union]] (EBU). The Contest is broadcast on [[television]] and [[radio]] throughout [[Europe]], in selected countries around the world, and on the [[internet]].
==Overview==
The Contest's name comes from the EBU's [[Eurovision Network|Eurovision]] TV distribution network. Because it is the highest-profile event distributed by the network, the Song Contest itself is often simply called "Eurovision".
The structure of the Contest is as follows:
* Each country, through a variety of means, chooses an artist and song to represent them.
* Each song from every country is then performed once on the night, vocally live.
* After all songs have been performed, viewers have ten minutes to vote for their favourite song. Viewers can not vote for their own country e.g. voters in Ireland can not vote for the Irish entry.
* All the votes are added up per country (e.g. all of the votes from Irish televoters, from French voters etc.)
* Each country, via satellite link, reveals its votes. The top ten songs voted for in each country receive points, from 1-8, then 10 and 12 points. Points are announced per country in reverse order.
* In the end, the winner is the country with the most point |
read and permanent return to their homeland.
Bosnia’s current educational system—with seven universities, one in every major city, plus satellite campuses—continues to turn out highly-educated graduates in math, science and literature. However, they have not been modernized in last 15 years due to the war and various political and economic reasons and as a result do not meet [[Western]] educational standards which are part of [[criteria]] for [[Enlargement of the European Union#Bosnia and Herzegovina|EU membership]]. The need for reform of the current Bosnian education system is generally acknowledged although specific methods for its change have still not been formulated.
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
See also:
*[[Bosnian Cyrillic]]
*[[Comedy in Bosnia and Hercegovina]]
*[[Council of Scout Associations in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Holidays of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[List of national parks of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Music of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Bosnian architecture]]
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Pocitelj.PNG|Počitelj - Old town
Image:Day in Sarajevo.jpg|Sarajevo - Baščaršija
Image:Gradacac.PNG|Gradačac - City castle
Image:Kazandziluk.PNG|Mostar - Kazandžiluk
Image:NeumCoastBH.jpg|Neum - Coastline
Image:StariMost2005.PNG|Mostar - Stari Most
Image:Sarajevopanoramaview.PNG|Sarajevo - View from east.
Image:Fojnica.PNG|Fojnica - The Franciscan monastery
</gallery>
== External links ==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
*[http://www.bhtourism.ba/eng/ Great site about Bosnia and Herzegovina-Tourism]
*[http://www.bih-x.com/ Bosnia and Herzegovina Tourism]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bk.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Bosnia and Herzegovina]
*[http://www.hirhome.com/yugo/ihralija1.htm What really happened in Bosnia?]
*[http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/reports.html Human Rights Archives on the Genocide in Bosnia]
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/1995_hr/genocideinbosnia.html Genocide in Bosnia: US&nbsp;Congress testimonies]
*[http://www.unitedhumanrights.org/bosnia.htm Bosnia-Herzegovina – 1992–1995 – 200,000&nbsp;Deaths ]
*[http://www.women.it/quarta/workshops/politics6/ikajosevic.htm Rape in Bosnia]
*[http://www.urban-resources.net/gallery/mostar/mostar.html Photographs of Mostar during winter 1994]
* [http://www.balkanforums.com Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Balkans] Discussion Forum
* [http://www.ohr.int/ Office of the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://www.predsjednistvobih.ba/index.aspx?lang=en Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://bosnia.europe-countries.com Bosnia & Herzegovina Economy]
* [http://www.europe-atlas.com/bosnia-herzegovina.htm Bosnia and Herzegovina Map]
* [http://www.oscebih.org/ OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://www.bosnia.org.uk Bosnian Institute, London]
* [http://www.gimnastika.tuzla.nu Gymnastics club Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://zeal.com/category/preview.jhtml?cid=560058 About 300 categorised and profiled websites about Bosnia & Herzegovina]
* [http://www.iwpr.net/index.pl?archive/bcr3/bcr3_200303_415_3_eng.txt# Bosnia: Sex Slave Recounts Her Ordeal – Institute for War & Peace Reporting]
*[http://www.rulers.org/rulb1.html#bosnia_and_hercegovina Rulers.org — Bosnia and Hercegovina] List of rulers for Bosnia and Hercegovina
* [http://www.balkanbaby.blogspot.com/ Balkan Baby: English Language blog about a students real experiences in the Balkans]
* [http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=602361 A precarious peace], [[The Economist]], [[22 January]] [[1998]]
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<center>[[Countries of the world]] &nbsp;|&nbsp; [[Council of Europe]]</center>
{{Europe}}
{{Mediterranean}}
[[Category:Bosnia and Herzegovina| ]]
[[ar:البوسنة و الهرسك]]
[[an:Bosnia y Erzegobina]]
[[ast:Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
[[bg:Босна и Херцеговина]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bosna kap Hercegovina]]
[[be:Босьнія і Герцагавіна]]
[[bn:বসনিয়া ও হার্জেগোভিনা]]
[[bs:Bosna i Hercegovina]]
[[ca:Bòsnia i Hercegovina]]
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[[da:Bosnien og Hercegovina]]
[[de:Bosnien und Herzegowina]]
[[et:Bosnia ja Hertsegoviina]]
[[el:Βοσνία και Ερζεγοβίνη]]
[[es:Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
[[eo:Bosnio kaj Hercegovino]]
[[eu:Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
[[fa:بوسنی هرزگووین]]
[[fr:Bosnie-Herzégovine]]
[[fy:Bosnje]]
[[gl:Bosnia - Hercegovina - Босна и Херцеговина]]
[[ko:보스니아 헤르체고비나]]
[[hr:Bosna i Hercegovina]]
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[[id:Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
[[is:Bosnía og Hersegóvína]]
[[it:Bosnia e Erzegovina]]
[[he:בוסניה והרצגובינה]]
[[ka:ბოსნია და ჰერცეგოვინა]]
[[ks:बास्निया]]
[[kw:Bosni–Hertsegovina]]
[[ku:Bosna Hersek]]
[[lv:Bosnija un Hercegovina]]
[[lt:Bosnija ir Hercegovina]]
[[li:Bosnië-Hercegovina]]
[[hu:Bosznia és Hercegovina]]
[[mk:Босна и Херцеговина]]
[[ms:Bosnia dan Herzegovina]]
[[na:Bosnia me Herzegowina]]
[[nl:Bosnië en Herzegovina]]
[[nds:Bosnien-Herzegowina]]
[[ja:ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナ]]
[[no:Bosnia-Hercegovina]]
[[nn:Bosnia-Hercegovina]]
[[oc:Bòsnia e Ercegovina]]
[[pl:Bośnia i Hercegowina]]
[[pt:Bósnia-Herzegovina]]
[[ro:Bosnia şi Herţegovina]]
[[ru:Босния и Герцеговина]]
[[se:Bosnia-Hercegovina]]
[[sa:बास्निया]]
[[sq:Bosnja dhe Hercegovina]]
[[sh:Bosna i Hercegovina]]
[[scn:Bosnia-Erzegovina]]
[[sk:Bosna a Hercegovina]]
[[sl:Bosna in Hercegovina]]
[[sr:Босна и Херцеговина]]
[[fi:Bosnia ja Hertsegovina]]
[[sv:Bosnien och Hercegovina]]
[[tl:Bosnia at Herzegovina]]
[[th:ประเทศบอสเนียและเฮอร์เซโกวีนา]]
[[tr:Bosna ve Hersek]]
[[uk:Боснія і Герцеговина]]
[[zh:波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那]]
[[fiu-vro:Bosnia ja Hertsegoviina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Botswana</title>
<id>3464</id>
<revision>
<id>42020908</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:02:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DDD DDD</username>
<id>947170</id>
</contributor>
<comment>image added</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = Lefatshe la Botswana
|common_name = Botswana
|image_flag = Flag of Botswana.svg
|image_coat = Bostwanaarms22.PNG
|image_map = LocationBotswana.png
|national_motto = Pula (Rain)''</big>
|national_anthem = ''[[Fatshe leno la rona]]'' <br> (Blessed Be This Noble Land)
|official_languages = [[English language|English]] (official), [[Setswana]]
|capital = [[Gaborone]]
|latd=24 |latm=40 |latNS=S |longd=25 |longm=55 |longEW=E
|largest_city =
|government_type = Parliamentary Republic <!-- cia.gov -->
|leader_titles = [[President of Botswana|President]]
|leader_names = [[Festus Mogae]]
|area_rank = 44th
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area= 600,370
|areami²= 231,804 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|percent_water = 2.5%
|population_estimate = 1,573,267
|population_estimate_rank = 144th
|population_estimate_year = 2003
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 2.7
|population_densitymi² = 7.0
|population_density_rank = 189
|GDP_PPP = 16,640 <!-- cia.gov -->
|GDP_PPP_rank = 120th <!-- cia.gov -->
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005 <!-- cia.gov -->
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = 10,169
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 64th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From [[United Kingdom|UK]]
|established_dates = [[September 30]], [[1966]]
|HDI = 0.565
|HDI_rank = 131st
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>
|currency = [[Pula (currency)|Pula]]
|currency_code = BWP
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = +2
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.bw]]
|calling_code = 267
|footnotes =
}}
The '''Republic of Botswana''' (''Lefatshe la Botswana'') is a [[landlocked]] nation in [[Southern Africa]]. Formerly the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[protectorate]] of [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]], Botswana adopted its new name after becoming [[Independence|independent]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] on [[September 30]], [[1966]]. It is bordered by [[South Africa]] to the south, [[Namibia]] to the west, [[Zambia]] to the north, and [[Zimbabwe]] to the northeast. The economy, closely tied to South Africa's, is predominated by [[mining]], especially [[diamond|diamonds]]; [[cattle]]; and [[tourism]]. The country is named after its largest ethnic group, the [[Tswana]].
==History==
{{main|History of Botswana}}
== Districts ==
[[Image:Botswana.geohive.gif|thumb|220px|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]
{{main|Districts of Botswana}}
Botswana is divided into 9 districts:
#[[Central District (Botswana)|Central]]
#[[Ghanzi District|Ghanzi]]
#[[Kgalagadi District|Kgalagadi]]
#[[Kgatleng District|Kgatleng]]
#[[Kweneng District|Kweneng]]
#[[North-East District (Botswana)|North-East]]
#[[North-West District (Botswana)|North-West]]
#[[South-East District (Botswana)|South-East]]
#[[Southern District (Botswana)|Southern]]
== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Botswana}}
Botswana is dominated by the [[Kalahari Desert]], which covers up to 70% of the land surface of the country. The [[Okavango Delta]], the world's largest inland delta, is in the Northwest. The [[Makgadikgadi Pan]], a large [[salt pan]] lies in the North.[[Image:Botswana map.png|thumb|right|200px|Map of Botswana]]
[[Image:Onkovango delta Botswana Afrika november 2004.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Okavango Delta]], Botswana]]
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Botswana}}
Since independence, Botswana has had the fastest growth in [[per capita income]] in the world. [[Economic growth]] averaged over 9% per year from 1966 to 1999. The [[government]] has maintained a sound [[fiscal policy]], despite consecutive [[Deficit|budget deficits]] in 2002 and 2003, and a negligible level of [[External debt|foreign debt]]. It earned the highest sovereign [[credit rating]] in [[Af |
articular [[attraction]] between the two. The Greeks noted that the amber buttons could attract light objects such as [[hair]] and that if they rubbed the amber for long enough they could even get a [[spark]] to jump.
An object found in Iraq in [[1938]], dated to about [[250 BC]] and called the [[Baghdad Battery]], resembles a [[galvanic cell]] and is believed by some to have been used for [[electroplating]].
There has been speculation that an object shown in carved reliefs at the temple of [[Dendera]] was an electrical device - the so-called [[Dendera light]] - although there is no archaeological evidence to support this.
===Modern===
In [[1600]] the English scientist [[William Gilbert]] returned to the subject in ''De Magnete'', and coined the [[modern Latin]] word ''electricus'' from ''&eta;&lambda;&epsilon;&kappa;&tau;&rho;&omicron;&nu;'' (''elektron''), the Greek word for "amber", which soon gave rise to the English words ''electric'' and ''electricity''. He was followed in [[1660]] by [[Otto von Guericke]], who is regarded as having invented an early [[electrostatic]] generator. Other European pioneers were [[Robert Boyle]], who in [[1675]] stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum; [[Stephen Gray (scientist)|Stephen Gray]], who in [[1729]] classified materials as [[conductor (material)|conductor]]s and [[insulator]]s; and [[C. F. Du Fay]], who first identified the two types of electricity that would later be called ''positive'' and ''negative''.
[[Image:Leidse_flessen_Museum_Boerhave_december_2003.jpg|thumb|left|222px|Leyden jars, Museum Boerhaave, Leiden [http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/].]]
The [[Leyden jar]], a type of [[capacitor]] for electrical energy in large quantities, was invented at [[Leiden University]] by [[Pieter van Musschenbroek]] in [[1745]]. [[William Watson (scientist)|William Watson]], experimenting with the Leyden jar, discovered in [[1747]] that a discharge of static electricity was equivalent to an [[electric current]].
In June, [[1752]], [[Benjamin Franklin]] promoted his investigations of electricity and theories through the famous, though extremely dangerous, [[experiment]] of flying a [[Kite flying|kite]] during a [[thunderstorm]]. Following these experiments he invented a [[lightning rod]] and established the link between [[lightning]] and electricity. If Franklin did fly a kite in a storm, he did not do it the way it is often described (as it would have been dramatic but fatal). It was either Franklin (more frequently) or [[Ebenezer Kinnersley]] of [[Philadelphia]] (less frequently) who created the convention of positive and negative electricity.
Franklin's observations aided later scientists such as [[Michael Faraday]], [[Luigi Galvani]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Andre Marie Ampere|André-Marie Ampère]], and [[Georg Ohm|Georg Simon Ohm]] whose work provided the basis for modern electrical technology. The work of Faraday, Volta, Ampere, and Ohm is honored by society, in that fundamental units of electrical measurement are named after them.
Volta worked with [[chemicals]] and discovered that chemical reactions could be used to create positively charged [[anode]]s and negatively charged [[cathode]]s. When a conductor was attached between these, the [[voltage|difference in the electrical potential]] (also known as voltage) drives a [[current (electricity)|current]] between them through the conductor. The [[potential difference]] between two points is measured in units of [[volt]]s in recognition of Volta's work.
[[Image:Thomas Edison.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Thomas Alva Edison]]
The invention of the [[electric telegraph]] showed that commercial and practical use could be made of electrical phenomena. By the end of the 19th century [[electrical engineering]] became a distinct profession, separate from the physicist or inventor. The late 19th and early 20th century produced such giants of electrical engineering as [[Nikola Tesla]], inventor of the polyphase [[induction motor]]; [[Samuel Morse]], inventor of the telegraph; [[Antonio Meucci]], an inventor of the telephone; [[Thomas Edison]] inventor of the [[phonograph]]; [[George Westinghouse]], inventor of the electric [[locomotive]]; [[Charles Steinmetz]], theoretician of alternating current; [[Alexander Graham Bell]], another inventor of the telephone and founder of a successful telephone business.
The rapid advance of electrical technology in the latter 19th and early 20th centuries led to commercial rivalries, such as the so-called [[War of Currents|War of the Currents]], between Edison's direct-current system and Westinghouse's alternating-current method. Often, concurrent research in widely scattered locations lead to multiple claims to the invention of a device or system.
== Electric charge ==
{{main|Electric charge}}
Electric charge is a property of certain [[subatomic particle]]s (e.g., [[electron]]s and [[proton]]s) which interacts with [[electromagnetic fields]] and causes attractive and repulsive [[force]]s between them.
Electric charge gives rise to one of the four [[fundamental force]]s of nature, and is a conserved property of [[matter]] that can be quantified. In this sense, the phrase "[[quantity of electricity]]" is used interchangeably with the phrases "[[electric charge|charge of electricity]]" and "quantity of charge." There are two types of charge: we call one kind of charge positive and the other negative. Through experimentation, we find that like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract one another. The magnitude of the force of attraction or repulsion is given by [[Coulomb's law]].
== Electric field ==
{{main|Electric field}}
[[Image:Faraday.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Michael Faraday]]
The concept of electric field was introduced by [[Michael Faraday]]. The electrical field force acts between two charges, in the same way that the [[gravitational field]] force acts between two [[mass]]es. However, electric field is a little bit different. Gravitational force depends on the masses of two bodies, whereas electric force depends on the electric charges of two bodies. While gravity can only pull two masses together, the electric force can be an attractive ''or'' repulsive force. The criteria for the direction of the forces between two charged bodies are generally proposed as follows:
# Both charges are of same sign (e.g. both charges are positive), in which case there will be a repulsive force between the two.
# The charges are opposite, in which case there will be an attractive force between the two bodies.
# The magnitude of the force varies inversely with the square of the distance between the two bodies, and is also directly proportional to the product of the unsigned magnitudes of the two charges.
== Electric potential ==
{{Main|Electric potential}}
The electric potential difference between two [[point]]s is defined as the [[work]] done per unit charge (against electrical forces) in moving a positive [[point charge]] slowly between two points. If one of the points is taken to be a [[reference point]] with zero potential, then the electric potential at any point can be defined in terms of the work done per unit charge in moving a positive point charge from that reference point to the point at which the potential is to be determined. For isolated charges, the reference point is usually taken to be [[infinity]]. The potential is measured in volts. (1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb) The electric potential is analogous to [[temperature]]: there is a different temperature at every point in space, and the [[temperature gradient]]s indicate the direction of heat flows. Similarly, there is an electric potential at every point in space, and its [[gradient]] in the electric field indicates where charges move.
== Electric current ==
{{Main|Current (electricity)}}
An [[electric current]] is a flow of [[electric charge]], and its intensity is measured in [[ampere]]s. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where [[electron]]s flow through a [[conductor (material)|conductor]] such as a metal [[wire]], and [[electrolysis]], where [[ion]]s (charged [[atom]]s) flow through liquids. The particles themselves often move quite slowly, while the [[electric field]] that drives them propagates at close to the [[speed of light]]. See ''[[electrical conduction]]'' for more information.
Devices that use charge flow principles in materials are called [[electronics|electronic devices]].
A [[direct current]] (DC) is a unidirectional flow, while an [[alternating current]] (AC) reverses direction repeatedly. The time average of an alternating current is zero, but its energy capability ([[root mean square|RMS]] value) is not zero.
[[Ohm's Law]] is an important relationship describing the behaviour of electric currents, relating them to [[voltage]].
For historical reasons, electric [[Current (electricity)|current]] is said to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part. The electric current thus defined is called ''[[conventional current]]''. It is now known that, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction, or even in both directions at once. The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation. If another definition is used - for example, "electron current" - it should be explicitly stated.
== Electrical energy ==
{{main|Electrical energy}}
Electrical energy is energy stored in an [[electric field]] or transported by an [[electric current]]. Energy is defined as the ability to do [[work (physics)|work]], and electrical energy is simply one of the many types of energy. Examples of electrical energy include:
* the energy that is constantly stored in the Earth's [[atmosphere]], and is partly released during a [[thunderstorm]] in the form of [[lightning] |
y were a creation of those who were very holy and close to [[God]]. A very holy person was one who strove to approach God, and in that pursuit would gain some of God's wisdom and power. One of these powers was the creation of life. No matter how holy a person became, however, the being they created would be but a shadow of one created by God.
Early on, the notion developed that the main disability of the golem was its inability to speak. In [[Sanhedrin]] 65b, it describes how [[Rabba]] created a golem using the [[Sefer Yetzirah]]. He sent the golem to Rabbi [[Zeira]]. Rabbi Zeira spoke to the golem, but he did not answer. Said Rabbi Zeira, "I see that you were created by one of our colleagues; return to your dust."
===Owning and activating golems===
Having a golem servant was seen as the ultimate symbol of wisdom and holiness, and there are many tales of golems connected to prominent rabbis throughout the [[Middle Ages]].
Other attributes of the golem were gradually added over time. In many tales the Golem is inscribed with magic or religious words that keep it animated. Writing one of the [[Names of God in Judaism|names of God]] on its forehead, a slip of paper attached to its forehead, or on a clay tablet under its tongue, or writing the word ''Emet'' (אמת, 'truth' in the [[Hebrew language]]) on its forehead are examples of such words. By erasing the first letter in ''Emet'' to form ''Meit'' (מת, 'death' in Hebrew) the golem could be deactivated.
===The classic narrative===
The most famous golem narrative involves [[Judah Low ben Bezalel|the Maharal]] of [[Prague]], a [[16th century]] [[rabbi]]. He is reported to have created a golem to defend the Prague [[ghetto]] from [[Anti-Semitism|Anti-Semitic]] attacks. The story of the Golem first appeared in print in 1847 in a collection of Jewish tales entitled ''Galerie der Sippurim'', published by Wolf Pascheles of Prague. About sixty years later, a fictional account was published by Yudl Rosenberg (1909). According to the legend, Golem could be made of clay from the banks of the [[Vltava]] river in Prague. Following the prescribed rituals, the Rabbi built the Golem and made him come to life by reciting special incantations in Hebrew. As Rabbi Loew's Golem grew bigger, he also became more violent and started killing people and spreading fear. Rabbi Loew was promised that the violence against the Jews would stop if the Golem was destroyed. The Rabbi agreed. To destroy the Golem, he rubbed out the first letter of the word "emet" from the golem's forehead to make the Hebrew word "met", meaning death.
The existence of a golem is sometimes a mixed blessing. Golems are not intelligent - if commanded to perform a task, they will take the instructions perfectly literally.
===The hubris theme===
In all Jewish kabbalistic descriptions of Golems, they are incapable of disobeying the one who created them, but in one version of the story, Rabbi Eliyahu of Chelm created a Golem that grew bigger and bigger until it tore the name of God from its forehead, whereupon it fell over its creator. The [[hubris]] theme in this version is similar to that in the stories of the monster of [[Frankenstein]] and of the broomstick in [[The Sorcerer's Apprentice]]. It remains a standard feature of golems in popular culture.
===The golem in European culture===
In the late nineteenth century the golem was adopted by mainstream European society. Most notably [[Gustav Meyrink]]'s [[1915]] novel ''[[The Golem (Meyrink)|Der Golem]]'' based on the tales of the golem created by [[Judah Low ben Bezalel]]. This book inspired a classic set of [[Expressionism (film)|expressionistic]] [[silent movies]], [[Paul Wegener]]'s Golem series, of which especially ''Golem: How He Came Into the World'' (also released as ''The Golem'', 1920, USA 1921) is famous. Another famous treatment from the same era is [[H. Leivick]]'s 1921 Yiddish-language "dramatic poem in eight sections" ''[[The Golem (Leivick)|The Golem]]''. Also notable is [[Julien Duvivier]]'s "Le Golem" (1936), a sequel to the Wegener film.
These tales saw a dramatic change, and some would argue a Christianization, of the golem. Christianity, far more than Judaism, has long had a deep concern with humanity getting too close to God. The golem thus became a creation of overambitious and overreaching mystics, who would inevitably be punished for their blasphemy, very similar to [[Mary Shelley]]'s ''[[Frankenstein]]'' and the [[alchemy|alchemical]] [[homunculus]]. In [[Norse mythology]], Mökkurkálfi (or Mistcalfa) was a clay giant, built to help the [[troll]] [[Hrungnir]] in a battle with [[Thor]]. The Golem has also been considered by some to be an early [[android]], further divorcing it from its roots.
In America, the opera "'The Golem' by Abraham Ellstein retells in 20th-century harmonic language the centuries-old tale of a creature fashioned from clay and brought to life by kabbalistic spells who ultimately threatens the very people he was intended to serve." (quote from Milken website) Selections are available on disc from the Milken Archive of American Jewish music.
==In popular culture==
<!--Please only insert notable examples here, as this list is potentially endless-->
===Books, films and TV===
Probably as a result of the popularity of Meyrink's work, the golem concept has found its way into various elements of popular culture. Examples include:
* The Golem of Prague has appeared in stories across many media, including the novels ''[[The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay]]'', ''[[A Calculus of Angels]]'', ''[[He, She and It]]'', [[Pete Hamill]]'s ''Snow in August'', the 1990s cartoons ''[[The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest]]'' and ''[[Gargoyles (animated series)|Gargoyles]]'', and the computer games [[Vampire: The Masquerade - Redemption]] and [[Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb]].
* Edward Einhorn's ''Golem Stories'' appearing in his book of plays entitled ''[http://www.untitledtheater.com/GMS.htm The Golem, Methuselah, and Shylock]'' includes a golem that has the soul of a young man who was the fiance of the Rabbi's daughter.
* Also inspired in part by the story of the Golem of Prague, [[Ted Chiang]] wrote a short story "[[Seventy-Two Letters]]" which explores the role of language in the creation of golems. The story won the [[Sidewise Award for Alternate History]] in 2000. It can be found in the collection ''[[Stories of Your Life and Others]]''.
* [[Karel Capek|Karel Čapek]]'s [[1921]] play ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'' included robots which are not machines, but synthetic humans made from a claylike goo.
* The science-fiction novel ''[[Kiln People]]'' by [[David Brin]] features short-lived duplicates of people created from mud, and a character named Maharal.
* [[Golem XIV]] is name of a hyper-intelligent computer from a sci-fi novel written by [[Stanisław Lem]] in [[1981]]
* [[Stel Pavlou]] uses multiple golems created from carbon based nanotechnology as the guardians of Atlantis in the novel ''[[Decipher (novel)|Decipher]]'' [[2001]].
* [[Roger Zelazny]] uses the golem metaphorically as an android sparring partner, literally called a golem, in the novel ''[[This Immortal]]''.
* The ''[[Discworld]]'' novel ''[[Feet of Clay]]'' by [[Terry Pratchett]] satirizes many of the cliches of the golem genre. Another Discworld novel, ''[[Going Postal]]'' sees golems trained as postmen, and compares them to the robots of [[Isaac Asimov]]. The oldest of these golems carries clay tablets on his arm and in his head, alluding to Jewish mythology.
* The television program ''[[The X-Files]]'' aired an episode "[[Kaddish]]", in which a young [[Hasidic]] woman creates a Golem who avenges her husband's murder by [[neo-nazi]]s.
* In the [[anime]] series ''[[RahXephon]]'', the main weapons are called "Dolems". Like golems, they are made from clay and may be difficult to control. The D in "Dolem" is a pun on "[[solfege|Do-Re-Mi]]".
* The [[DC Comics]] [[superhero]] [[Ragman]] was created using the same formula required to make a golem, though it substituted rags instead of clay and required a human host to function. Another DC hero, the [[Monolith (comics)|Monolith]], is a golem.
* A golem which is eventually destroyed by changing the word 'emet' on its forehead to 'met' is used in both an early issue of the ''[[Swamp Thing]]'' and ''[[The Invaders]]'' [[comic books]].
* In the [[Bartimaeus Trilogy]] book ''[[The Golem's Eye]]'' by [[Jonathan Stroud]] a golem is loose in London.
* In [[2005]], the story of the Golem was returned to its Jewish roots, as a new [[comic strip]] in [[Israel|Israeli]] newspaper [[Yedioth Ahronoth]] depicted the Golem as a government-funded [[superhero]] protecting Israel from its domestic and existential difficulties.
* In the ''[[Dreamhunter Duet]]'' by [[Elizabeth Knox]] a young dreamhunter replaces her missing father with a golem.
* In the novel [[Iron Council]] by [[China Mieville]] a [[Thaumaturge]] named Judah Low learns how to create powerful golems from almost any material. These are used to assist a group of rebels
* In an episode of the animated television series [[Batman Beyond]], the young Batman fights a human controlled robot with the acronym G.L.M.
===Golems in modern games===
Golems also appear as a popular feature of the [[Dungeons & Dragons]] [[role-playing game| role-playing games]] (including a playable race in the [[Ebberon]] supplement called Warforged) and are almost ubiquitous in the many fantasy computer and card games inspired by it, such as [[NetHack]], the [[Final Fantasy]] series, the [[Ogre Battle]] series, and [[Magic: The Gathering]]. In these games the word is generally used as an [[umbrella term]] to refer to [[automata]] and [[simulacra]] from many mythologies. The convention is that they are named after the material of construc |
correction is independent of the motion of Earth. ''Planetary aberration'' (of solar system objects) is the combination of the aberration of light (due to Earth's velocity) and light-time correction (due to a planet's displacement). Both are determined at the instant when the object's light reaches Earth.
== Explanation ==
[[image:Aberration1.gif|frame|right|Diagram illustrating stellar aberration]]
Stellar aberration causes the apparent position of a star to be displaced, and occurs when the observer's motion has a component that is [[perpendicular]] to a line between the star and observer. In the diagram to the right, '''S''' represents the position of the star, and '''E''' the position of the observer on Earth. The true direction of the star relative to the observer is thus '''ES''', whose length represents the speed of light. However, Earth has a velocity in the direction represented by the line '''EE’''', whose length represents that velocity. The ''Law of Aberration'' states that the star will therefore appear to lie in the direction '''ES’''', instead of '''ES''', where '''SS’''' is parallel and equal in length to '''EE’'''. The star's apparent position is hence displaced from its true position by the angle '''SES’'''.
===Moving in the rain===
Many find aberration to be counter-intuitive, and a simple thought experiment based on everyday experience can help in its understanding. Imagine you are standing in the rain. There is no wind, so the rain is falling vertically. To protect yourself from the rain you hold an umbrella directly above you.
Now imagine that you start to walk. Although the rain is still falling vertically (relative to a stationary observer), you find that you have to hold the umbrella slightly in front of you to keep off the rain. Because of your forward motion relative to the falling rain, the rain now appears to be falling not from directly above you, but from a point in the sky somewhat in front of you.
The deflection of the falling rain is greatly increased at higher speeds. When you drive a [[car]] at night through falling rain, the rain drops illuminated by your car's [[headlight]]s appear to fall from a position in the sky well in front of your car.
===Types of aberration===
There are a number of types of stellar aberration, caused by the differing components of the Earth's motion:
* '''Annual Aberration''' is due to the [[Orbital revolution|revolution]] of the Earth around the [[Sun]].
* '''Diurnal Aberration''' is due to the [[rotation]] of the Earth about its own axis.
* '''Secular Aberration''' is due to the motion of the Sun and solar system relative to other stars in the [[galaxy]].
Annual and diurnal aberration cause stars to appear to vary in position on a periodic basis, and their effect must be included when computing the apparent position of a star at any given time. Secular aberration can be regarded as constant for all practical purposes, and so is usually ignored.
===Annual aberration===
As the Earth revolves around the Sun, it is moving at a velocity of approximately 30 km/s. The speed of light is approximately 300,000 km/s. In the special case where the earth is moving perpendicularly to the direction of the star (i.e. if '''SEE’''' in the diagram is 90 degrees), the angle of displacement, '''SES’''', would therefore be (in [[radian]]s) the ratio of the two velocities, i.e. 1/10000 or about 20.5 [[arcsecond]]s.
This quantity is known as the ''constant of aberration'', and is conventionally represented by ''&kappa;''. Its precise accepted value is 20".49552 (at [[J2000]]).
The plane of the Earth's orbit is known as the [[ecliptic]]. Annual aberration causes stars exactly on the ecliptic to appear to move back and forth along a straight line, varying by ''&kappa;'' either side of their true position. A star that is precisely at one of the ecliptic poles will appear to move in a circle of radius ''&kappa;'' about its true position, and stars at intermediate ecliptic latitudes will appear to move along a small [[ellipse]].
A special case of annual aberration is the nearly constant deflection of the Sun from its true position by ''&kappa;'' towards the ''west'' (as viewed from Earth), opposite to the apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic. This constant deflection is often erroneously explained as the motion of the Earth during the 8.3 minutes that it takes light to travel from the Sun to Earth. The latter is a type of ''parallax'', and actually causes the apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic towards the ''east'' relative to the fixed stars. (8.316746 minutes divided by one sidereal year (365.25636 days) is 20".49265, very close to ''&kappa;'', but of opposite sign, east vs. west.) Nor is this the Sun's light-time correction because the Sun is almost motionless, moving around the [[barycenter]] (center of mass) of the solar system by usually much less than 0".03 (as viewed from Earth) during 8.3 minutes.
Aberration can be resolved into an east-west and north-south component on the [[celestial sphere]]. The former is larger, but the latter, present because of the 23.4° tilt of the Earth's axis ([[obliquity of the ecliptic]]), was the first to be detected. This is because accurate clocks are needed to measure the East-West component, but only a good plumb line is needed for the north-south component.
===Diurnal aberration===
Diurnal aberration is caused by the velocity of the observer on the surface of the rotating Earth. It is therefore dependent not only on the time of the observation, but also the location of the observer. Its effect is much smaller than that of annual aberration, and is only 0".32 in the case of an observer at the equator, where the rotational velocity is greatest.
==Historical background==
The discovery of the aberration of light in [[1725]] by [[James Bradley]] was one of the most important in astronomy. It was totally unexpected, and it was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity that Bradley was able to explain it in [[1727]]. Its origin is based on attempts made to discover whether the stars possessed appreciable [[parallax]]es. The [[Copernicus|Copernican]] theory of the [[solar system]] &ndash; that the Earth revolved annually about the Sun &ndash; had received confirmation by the observations of [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Tycho Brahe]] (who, however, never accepted [[Heliocentrism|heliocentrism]]), and the mathematical investigations of [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]] and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]].
===Search for stellar parallax===
As early as [[1573]], [[Thomas Digges]] had suggested that this theory should necessitate a parallactic shifting of the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar parallaxes existed, then the Copernican theory would receive additional confirmation. Many observers claimed to have determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and [[Giovanni Battista Riccioli]] concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers, and were due to instrumental and personal errors. In [[1680]] [[Jean Picard]], in his ''Voyage d'[[Uraniborg|Uranibourg]],'' stated, as a result of ten [[year]]s' observations, that [[Polaris]], or the [[Pole Star]], exhibited variations in its position amounting to 40" annually. Some astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these attempts were futile, for the motion was at variance with that which parallax would produce.
[[John Flamsteed]], from measurements made in [[1689]] and succeeding years with his mural quadrant, similarly concluded that the declination of the Pole Star was 40" less in July than in September. [[Robert Hooke]], in [[1674]], published his observations of &gamma; [[Draco (constellation)|Draconis]], a star with of [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] 2<sup>m</sup> which passes practically overhead at the latitude of [[London]], and whose observations are therefore free from the complex corrections due to astronomical [[refraction]], and concluded that this star was 23" more northerly in July than in October.
===Bradley's observations===
When James Bradley and [[Samuel Molyneux]] entered this sphere of astronomical research in [[1725]], there consequently prevailed much uncertainty whether stellar parallaxes had been observed or not; and it was with the intention of definitely answering this question that these astronomers erected a large telescope at the house of the latter at [[Kew]]. They determined to reinvestigate the motion of &gamma; Draconis; the telescope, constructed by [[George Graham (clockmaker)|George Graham]] (1675-1751), a celebrated instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimney stack, in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the eyepiece, the amount of which, i.e. the deviation from the vertical, was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and a [[plumb line|plumb-line]].
The instrument was set up in November 1725, and observations on &gamma; Draconis were made on the [[December 3|3rd]], [[December 5|5th]], [[December 11|11th]], and [[December 12|12th of December]]. There was apparently no shifting of the star, which was therefore thought to be at its most southerly point. On [[December 17]], however, Bradley observed that the star was moving southwards, a motion further shown by observations on the [[December 20|20th]]. These results were unexpected and inexplicable by existing theories. However, an examination of the telescope showed that the observed anomalies were not due to instrumental errors.
The observations were continued, and the star was seen to continue its southerly course until March, when it took up a position some 20" more southerly than its December position. After March it began to pass northwards, a motion quite apparent by the middle of April; in June it passed at the same distance from the [[zenith]] as it did in December; and in September it passed through |
an, Greek, and Etruscan mythologies]]
===Greek Cosmology===
* [[Elysium]]
* [[Hades]]
* [[Helicon]]
* [[Hyperborea]] (Hyperboria)
* [[Lethe]]
* [[Mount Olympus]] (Olýmpos)
* [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]]
* [[Tartarus]] (Tartaros)
===Related Subjects===
* [[List of movies based on Greco-Roman mythology]]
* [[Mythology of same-sex love]]
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Roman mythology]]
* [[Roman religion]]
==External links==
* [http://www.theoi.com/ A Guide to Greek Gods, Spirits and Monsters] a guide to the Ancient Greek Pantheon of Gods (''Theoi''), Spirits (''Daimones'') and Monsters (''Theres'') from various classical texts and illustrations from ancient greek vase painting.
* [http://www.timelessmyths.com/classical Timeless Myths: Classical Mythology] provides information and tales from classical literature.
* [http://www.greekmythology.com/ Greek Mythology] provides a complete overview of Greek myths.
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cache/perscoll_Greco-Roman.html Perseus Digital Library] contains full-text documents of classical sources and modern commentaries on Greek, Roman, and Modern literature, philosophy and history. It has also images of ancient objects.
* [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/GreekMythology.htm The Androphile Library Greek mythology section] presents brief renditions of the Greek myths of male love.
* [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/ Greek Mythology Link]
==Sources==
The main sources for Greek myth are [[Homer]], [[Hesiod]], the Greek dramatists, [[Pindar]], [[Apollonius of Rhodes]], [[Apollodorus]], and the Latins [[Ovid]], [[Hyginus]] and [[Nonnus]].
Standard secondary sources in English include:
*[[Walter Burkert]] (1985) ''Greek Religion,'' Harvard University Press, 1985.
*[[Robert Graves|Graves, Robert]], ''The Greek Myths'' 1955.
* Lenardon, R. and M. Morford, ''Classical Mythology: Seventh Edition'', Oxford 2002.
* Carl Ruck and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth,'' 1994.
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'' 1951.
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]], ''The Heroes of the Greeks'' 1959.
*[[Edith Hamilton]], ''[[Mythology (book)|Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes]].'' 1942.
Influential, more specialized studies include:
*Nagy, Gregory, ''The Best of the Achaeans'', Johns Hopkins, 1979.
*[[Jane Ellen Harrison]], ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion,'' 1903
*[[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Eleusis: archetypal image of mother and daughter,'' 1967.
*[[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life,'' 1976
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[[Category:Greek religion]]
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[[af:Griekse mitologie]]
[[als:Griechische Mythologie]]
[[ar:ميثولوجيا إغريقية]]
[[ast:Mitoloxía Griega]]
[[bg:Древногръцка митология]]
[[ca:Mitologia grega]]
[[cv:Авалхи грек мифологиĕ]]
[[cs:Řecká mytologie]]
[[da:Græsk mytologi]]
[[de:Griechische Mythologie]]
[[et:Vanakreeka mütoloogia]]
[[el:Ελληνική μυθολογία]]
[[es:Mitología griega]]
[[eo:Helena mitologio]]
[[fr:Mythologie grecque]]
[[gl:Mitoloxía grega]]
[[ko:그리스 신화]]
[[hi:यूनानी धर्म]]
[[hr:Grčka mitologija]]
[[id:Mitologi Yunani]]
[[it:Mitologia greca]]
[[he:מיתולוגיה יוונית]]
[[la:Mythologia Graeca]]
[[lt:Graikų mitologija]]
[[lb:Griichesch Mythologie]]
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[[ja:ギリシア神話]]
[[no:Gresk mytologi]]
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[[pl:Mitologia grecka]]
[[pt:Mitologia grega]]
[[ro:Mitologie greacă]]
[[ru:Древнегреческая мифология]]
[[sl:Grška mitologija]]
[[sr:Грчка митологија]]
[[fi:Kreikkalainen mytologia]]
[[sv:Grekisk mytologi]]
[[vi:Thần thoại Hy Lạp]]
[[tr:Yunan mitolojisi]]
[[uk:Давньогрецька релігія]]
[[zh:希腊神话]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gods</title>
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<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Deity]]</text>
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<title>Gottleib Fichte</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]</text>
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<title>Genus-differentia definition</title>
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<comment>[[Category:Definition]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''genus-differentia [[definition]]''' is one in which a word or concept that indicates a ''species'' -- a specific type of item, not necessarily a biological category -- is described first by a broader category, the ''genus,'' then distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.'' The differentiae of a species are the species' properties that ''other'' members of the genus do not have. In short, the genus is the broad category, the species is a type within that category, and the differentiae are the distinguishing characteristics of the species. This is a type of [[intensional definition]].
Under the "genus" and "species" description, this sort of definition is used to categorize different plants, animals and other things into biological categories. See also [[genus]] and [[species]] and [[Linnaean taxonomy]].
This can be clarified with a hackneyed example. Suppose we wanted to define the phrase '''human being'''. Following the ancient Greeks (Socrates and his successors) and modern biologists, we say that human beings are members of a ''species''. So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; the Greeks (but not the biologists) would say that the genus is ''animal''. The genus, then, is animal and the species is human being. What are the ''differentia'' of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals do not have? The Greeks said it is ''rationality'': the things that humans have that other animals do not is ''rationality''. So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the ancient Greeks; thus Aristotle said, "Man is the rational animal." By this he meant to be giving a ''definition'' of "man," or of "human being."
However, the use of the genus-differentia definition is by no means restricted to science. Rather, it is the natural thing to do if you are to explain the meaning of a particular word to someone. With this, the "classical" type of definition (''Definitio fit per genus proximum et differentiam specificam.''), you use the ''copula'' (''is'', ''are'') after the ''definiendum'' (just as if you were using an equals sign in a mathematical equation) and then go on to explain the definiendum by using the appropriate ''generic term'' plus those characteristics specific to the thing you are describing which consecutively narrow down the meaning until the definiendum can no longer be confused with anything else.
Some examples from everyday life:
*A '''[[paperweight]]''' is a small, heavy object which is placed on papers to prevent them from being scattered.
:paperweight -- definiendum
:object -- generic term
:small but heavy, placed on papers, reason why -- differentiae specificae
*'''[[Homesickness]]''' is the feeling of unhappiness you may experience when you are away from home and miss your home and your family very much.
*'''[[Subtitles]]''' are the printed translation that you can read at the bottom of the screen when you are watching a foreign film.
*In film and broadcasting, a '''[[soundbite]]''' is a very short piece of footage taken from a longer speech or interview in which someone with authority says something which is considered by those who edit the speech or interview to be a most important point.
*A '''[[mosque]]''' is a building, often with high towers and domes, where Muslims go to worship.
[[Category:Definition]]</text>
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<title>Firearm</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:firearms.jpg|thumb|An assortment of modern firearms using fixed ammunition, including military assault rifles, a sporting shotgun (fourth from bottom), and a tactical shotgun (third from bottom).]]
A '''firearm''' is a [[weapon]] that fires either single or multiple [[projectile]]s propelled at high velocity by the [[gas]]es produced through rapid, confined [[combustion|burning]] of a [[propellant]]. This process of rapid burning is technically known as [[deflagration]]. In older firearms, this propellant was typically [[black powder]], but modern firearms use [[smokeless powder]] or other propellants.
The term '''[[gun]]''' is often used as a synonym for firearm, but in specialist use has a restricted sense&mdash;referring only to an [[artillery]] piece with a relatively high muzzle velocity and a relatively flat trajectory, such as a [[field gun]], a [[tank gun]], an [[anti-tank gun]], or a gun used in the delivery of [[naval gunfire]]. Guns are distinct from [[howitzers]] and [[mortar (weapon)|mortars]], which have lower muzzle velocities and higher trajectories. Hand-held firearms, like [[rifles]], [[carbines]], [[pistols]] and other small firearms are never called "guns" in the restricted s |
ere worth 9.77 billion RMB, 210.05 billion RMB, and 461.63 billion RMB. Urban [[disposable income]] per capita was 17,653 yuan, a [[real price|real]] increase of 12.9% from the previous year. Per capita pure income of rural residents was 7,860 RMB, a real increase of 9.6%. Per capita disposable income of the 20% low-income residents increased 16.7%, 11.4 percentage points higher than the growth rate of the 20% high-income residents. The [[Engel's coefficient]] of Beijing's urban residents reached 31.8% in 2005 and that of the rural residents was 32.8%, declining 4.5 percentage points and 3.9 percentage points, respectively, compared with 2000. [respectively [http://www.bjstats.gov.cn/tjyl/tjgb/200601240023.htm]
Beijing's [[real estate]] and [[automobile]] sectors continue to bloom in recent years. In 2005, a total of 28.032 million [[square metre]]s of housing real estate was sold, for a total of 175.88 billion [[Renminbi|RMB]]. The total number of automobiles registered in Beijing in 2004 was 2,146,000, of which 1,540,000 were privately-owned (a year-on-year increase of 18.7%). [http://www.bjstats.gov.cn/tjyl/tjgb/200601240023.htm]
The [[Beijing CBD]], centered at the [[Guomao]] area, has been identified as the city's new [[central business district]], and is home to a variety of corporate regional headquarters, shopping malls, and high-end housing. The [[Beijing Financial Street]], in the [[Fuxingmen]] and [[Fuchengmen]] area, is a traditional financial center. The [[Wangfujing]] and [[Xidan]] areas are major shopping districts. [[Zhongguancun]], dubbed "China's Silicon Valley", continues to be a major center in [[electronics]]- and [[computer]]-related industries, as well as [[pharmaceuticals]]-related research. Meanwhile, [[Yizhuang]], located to the southeast of the urban area, is becoming a new center in pharmaceuticals, IT, and materials engineering. [http://www.beijing.gov.cn/bjgm/jjjs/t20030925_2414.htm] Urban Beijing is also known for being a center of pirated goods and anything from the latest designer clothing to the latest DVDs can be found in markets all over the city, often marketed to expatriates and international visitors.
Major industrial areas include [[Shijingshan]], located on the western outskirts of the city. <!-- More information on Beijing's heavy and light industries please!-->[[Agriculture]] is carried out outside the urban area of Beijing, with [[wheat]] and [[maize]] (corn) being the main crops. [[Vegetable]]s are also grown in the regions closer to the urban area in order to supply the city.
The development of Beijing continues to proceed at a rapid pace, and the vast expansion of Bejing has created a multitude of problems for the city. Beijing is known for its [[smog]] as well as the frequent "power-saving" programs instituted by the government. Citizens of Beijing as well as tourists frequently complain about the quality of the water supply and the cost of the basic services such as electricity and natural gas. The major industrial areas outside of Beijing were ordered to clean their operations or leave the Beijing area in an effort to alleviate the smog that covers the city. Most factories, unable to update, have moved and relocated to other cities such as [[Xi'an]], China.
== Architecture ==
Three styles of architecture predominate in urban Beijing. First, the traditional architecture of imperial China, perhaps best exemplified by the massive [[Tian'anmen]] (Gate of Heavenly Peace), which remains the PRC's trademark edifice, the [[Forbidden City]], and the [[Temple of Heaven]]. Next there is what is sometimes referred to as the "Sino-Sov" style, built between the [[1950s]] and the [[1970s]], which tend to be boxy, bland, and poorly made. Finally, there are much more modern architectural forms &mdash; most noticeably in the area of the [[Beijing CBD]]. Pictured below are some images of Beijing architecture &mdash; blending the old and the new.
<gallery>
Image:Ancient Beijing Skyline.jpg|The ancient Beijing skyline.
Image:70s_Architecture_Beijing.jpg|The boxy look of buildings made in the [[1970s]].
Image:Architecture_Beijing_Modern.jpg|The very modern contrast.
Image:Old_Roof_Architecture_Beijing.jpg|Details of traditional architecture.
Image:BeijingArchitectureCombo70s90s.jpg|A mix of 70s and 90s styles.
Image:Blend Architecture Beijing.jpg|Mix and match of the old and the new.
Image:TianGuard.jpg|Tian'anmen Square
Image:Wangfujing.jpg|Wangfujing, a major commercial street.
</gallery>
A bizarre and striking mix of both old and new styles of architecture can be seen at the [[Dashanzi]] [[Dashanzi Art District|Art District]], which mixes [[1950s]]-design with a blend of the new. The influence of American urban form and social values in manifest in the creation of [[Orange County, China]], a suburban development about one hour north of the city.
== Demographics ==
[[Image:Beijing wangjing 1.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Wangjing]] neighbourhood, in [[Chaoyang District, Beijing]], is known for its high concentration of [[South Korea]]n expatriates.]]
[[Image:WangfujingCathedral.jpg|thumb|250px|Wangfujing Cathedral]]
The population of Beijing Municipality, defined as the total number of people who reside in Beijing for 6 months or more per year, was 15.38 million in 2005. 11.870 million people in Beijing Municipality had Beijing ''[[hukou]]'' (permanent residence) and the remainder were on temporary residence permits. [http://www.bjstats.gov.cn/tjyl/tjgb/200601240023.htm] In addition, there is a large but unknown number of [[migrant worker]]s (''min gong'') who live illegally in Beijing without any official residence permit (also termed ''hei ren''which means "black people" or unregistered people). The population of Beijing's urban core (city proper) is around 7.5 million.
Over 95% of Beijing's residents belong to the [[Han Chinese]] majority. Smaller populations consisting of members of the [[Manchu]], [[Hui people|Hui]], and [[Mongol]] [[Ethnic groups of China|ethnic groups]] also call the city home. In recent years there has been an influx of [[South Korea]]n expatriates, who live in Beijing predominantly for business and study, and are concentrated in the [[Wangjing]] and [[Wudaokou]] areas. A Tibetan [[high school]] exists for youth of Tibetan ancestry, nearly all of whom have come to Beijing from [[Tibet]] expressly for their studies.
A sizable international or expatriate community exists in Beijing, mostly attracted by the highly growing foreign business and trade sector, and many members live in the Beijing urban area's densely populated northern, northeastern and eastern sections. The southwest and southern parts of the Beijing urban area are less densely populated.
{| class="wikitable"
! align=center colspan=3 | Ethnic groups in Beijing, 2000 census
|-
! [[Nationalities of China|Nationality]] !! Population !! Percentage
|-
| [[Han Chinese]] || 12,983,696 || 95.69%
|-
| [[Manchu]] || 250,286 || 1.84%
|-
| [[Hui people|Hui]] || 235,837 || 1.74%
|-
| [[Mongol]] || 37,464 || 0.28%
|-
| [[Korean people|Korean]] || 20,369 || 0.15%
|-
| [[Tujia]] || 8372 || 0.062%
|-
| [[Zhuang]] || 7322 || 0.054%
|-
| [[Hmong|Miao]] || 5291 || 0.039%
|-
| [[Uyghur]] || 3129 || 0.023%
|-
| [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] || 2920 || 0.022%
|}
Excludes members of the [[People's Liberation Army]] in active service.<br/>
Source: Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau of Statistics of China (国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司) and Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of China (国家民族事务委员会经济发展司), eds. ''Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of China'' (《2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料》). 2 vols. Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House (民族出版社), 2003. (ISBN 7105054255)
== Culture ==
People native to urban Beijing speak the [[Beijing dialect]], which belongs to the Mandarin subdivision of [[Chinese spoken language|spoken Chinese]]. [[Beijing dialect]] provides the basis for [[Standard Mandarin]], the standard Chinese language used in the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]], and [[Singapore]]. Rural areas of Beijing Municipality have their own dialects akin to those of [[Hebei]] province, which surrounds Beijing Municipality.
[[Beijing Opera]], or Peking Opera (''Jingju''), is well-known throughout the national capital. Commonly lauded as one of the highest achievements of Chinese culture, Beijing Opera is performed through a combination of song, spoken dialogue, and codified action sequences, such as gestures, movement, fighting and acrobatics. Much of Beijing Opera is carried out in an archaic [[stage dialect]] quite different from modern Standard Mandarin and from the [[Beijing dialect]]; this makes the dialogue somewhat hard to understand, and the problem is compounded if one is not familiar with Chinese. As a result, modern theaters often have electronic titles in Chinese and English.
[[Image:BejingOperaProduction.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A Beijing performance of the well-known opera ''Farewell my Concubine'' (September 2002).]]
[[Image:Beijing Hutongs Mar2003.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A '''hutong'''（胡同） in eastern urban Beijing near [[Dongsishitiao]]. When photographed in [[March 2003]], the left side was still standing; it has since given way to a new construction project.]]
The [[Siheyuan]] (四合院) is a traditional architectural style of Beijing. A siheyuan consists of a square housing compound, with rooms enclosing a central courtyard. This courtyard often contains a [[pomegranate]] or other type of tree, as well as potted flowers or a [[fish tank]]. Siheyuans line [[Hutong]]s (胡同), or alleys, which connect the interior of Beijing's old city. They are usually straight and run east-to-west so that doorways can face north and south for [[Feng Shui]] reasons. They vary in width &mdash; some are very narrow, enough |
ven if we assume that our hash function outputs random indices [[Uniform_distribution_(discrete)|uniformly distributed]] over the array, and even for an array with 1 million entries, there is a 95% chance of at least one collision occurring before it contains 2500 records.
There are a number of collision resolution techniques, but the most popular are ''chaining'' and ''open addressing''.
===Chaining===
[[Image:HASHTB32.svg|thumb|362px|right|Hash collision resolved by chaining.]]
In the simplest chained hash table technique, each slot in the array references a [[linked list]] of inserted records that collide to the same slot. Insertion requires finding the correct slot, and appending to either end of the list in that slot; deletion requires searching the list and removal.
Chaining hash tables have advantages over open addressed hash tables in that the removal operation is simple and resizing the table can be postponed for a much longer time because performance degrades more gracefully even when every slot is used. Indeed, many chaining hash tables may not require resizing at all since performance degradation is linear as the table fills. For example, a chaining hash table containing twice its recommended capacity of data would only be about twice as slow on average as the same table at its recommended capacity.
Chained hash tables inherit the disadvantages of linked lists. When storing small records, the overhead of the linked list can be significant. An additional disadvantage is that traversing a linked list has poor [[Locality_of_reference|cache performance]].
Alternative data structures can be used for chains instead of linked lists. By using a [[Self-balancing_binary_search_tree|self-balancing tree]], for example, the theoretical worst-case time of a hash table can be brought down to O(log ''n'') rather than O(''n''). However, since each list is intended to be short, this approach is usually inefficient unless the hash table is designed to run at full capacity or there are unusually high collision rates, as might occur in input designed to cause collisions. [[Dynamic array]]s can also be used to decrease space overhead and improve cache performance when records are small.
Some chaining implementations use an optimization where the first record of each chain is stored in the table. Although this can increase performance, it is generally not recommended: chaining tables with reasonable load factors contain a large proportion of empty slots, and the larger slot size causes them to waste large amounts of space.
===Open addressing===
[[Image:HASHTB12.svg|thumb|362px|right|Hash collision resolved by linear probing (interval=1).]]
Open addressing hash tables can store the records directly within the array. A hash collision is resolved by ''probing'', or searching through alternate locations in the array (the ''probe sequence'') until either the target record is found, or an unused array slot is found, which indicates that there is no such key in the table. Well known probe sequences include:
; [[linear probing]] : in which the interval between probes is fixed--often at 1,
; [[quadratic probing]] : in which the interval between probes increases linearly (hence, the indices are described by a quadratic function), and
; [[double hashing]] : in which the interval between probes is fixed for each record but is computed by another hash function.
The main tradeoffs between these methods is that linear probing has the best cache performance but is most sensitive to clustering, while double hashing has poor cache performance but exhibits virtually no clustering; quadratic hashing falls in-between in both areas. Double hashing can also require more computation than other forms of probing. Some open addressing methods, such as
[[last-come-first-served hashing]] and [[cuckoo hashing]] move existing keys around in the array to make room for the new key. This gives better maximum search times than the methods based on probing.
A critical influence on performance of an open addressing hash table is the ''load factor''; that is, the proportion of the slots in the array that are used. As the load factor increases towards 100%, the number of probes that may be required to find or insert a given key rises dramatically. Once the table becomes full, probing algorithms may even fail to terminate. Even with good hash functions, load factors are normally limited to 80%. A poor hash function can exhibit poor performance even at very low load factors by generating significant clustering. What causes hash functions to cluster is not well understood, and it is easy to unintentionally write a hash function which causes severe clustering.
==== Example pseudocode ====
The following [[pseudocode]] is an implementation of an open addressing hash table with linear probing and single-slot stepping, a common approach that is effective if the hash function is good. Each of the '''lookup''', '''set''' and '''remove''' functions use a common internal function '''findSlot''' to locate the array slot that either does or should contain a given key.
'''record''' pair { key, value }
'''var''' ''pair array'' slot[0..numSlots-1]
'''function''' findSlot(key)
i := hash(key) modulus numSlots
'''loop'''
'''if''' slot[i] is not occupied '''or''' slot[i].key = key
'''return''' i
i := (i + 1) modulus numSlots
'''function''' lookup(key)
i := findSlot(key)
'''if''' slot[i] is occupied ''// key is in table''
'''return''' slot[i].value
'''else''' ''// key is not in table''
'''return''' not found
'''function''' set(key, value)
i := findSlot(key)
'''if''' slot[i] is occupied
slot[i].value := value
'''else'''
'''if''' the table is almost full
rebuild the table larger ''(note 1)''
i := findSlot(key)
slot[i].key := key
slot[i].value := value
; note 1 : Rebuilding the table requires allocating a larger array and recursively using the '''set''' operation to insert all the elements of the old array into the new larger array. It is common to increase the array size [[exponential growth|exponentially]], for example by doubling the old array size.
'''function''' remove(key)
i := findSlot(key)
'''if''' slot[i] is unoccupied
return ''// key is not in the table''
j := i
'''loop'''
j := (j+1) modulus numSlots
'''if''' slot[j] is unoccupied
'''exit loop'''
k := hash(slot[j].key) modulus numSlots
'''if''' (j > i '''and''' (k <= i '''or''' k > j)) '''or'''
(j < i '''and''' (k <= i '''and''' k > j)) ''(note 2)''
slot[i] := slot[j]
i := j
mark slot[i] as unoccupied
; note 2 : For all records in a cluster, there must be no vacant slots between their natural hash position and their current position (else lookups will terminate before finding the record). At this point in the pseudocode, ''i'' is a vacant slot that might be invalidating this property for subsequent records in the cluster. ''j'' is such as subsequent record. ''k'' is the raw hash where the record at ''j'' would naturally land in the hash table if there were no collisions. This test is asking if the record at ''j'' is invalidly positioned with respect to the required properties of a cluster now that ''i'' is vacant.
Another technique for removal is simply to mark the slot as deleted. However this eventually requires rebuilding the table simply to remove deleted records. The methods above provide O(1) updating and removal of existing records, with occasional rebuilding if the high water mark of the table size grows.
The O(1) remove method above is only possible in linearly probed hash tables with single-slot stepping. In the case where many records are to be deleted in one operation, marking the slots for deletion and later rebuilding may be more efficient.
=== Open addressing versus chaining ===
Chained hash tables have the following benefits over open addressing:
* They are simple to implement effectively and only require basic data structures.
* From the point of view of writing suitable hash functions, chained hash tables are insensitive to clustering, only requiring minimization of collisions. Open addressing depends upon better hash functions to avoid clustering. This is particularly important if novice programmers can add their own hash functions, but even experienced programmers can be caught out by unexpected clustering effects.
* They degrade in performance more gracefully. Although chains grow longer as the table fills, a chained hash table cannot "fill up" and does not exhibit the sudden increases in lookup times that occur in a near-full table with open addressing. (''see right'')
* If the hash table stores large records, about 5 or more words per record, chaining uses less memory than open addressing.
* If the hash table is sparse (that is, it has a big array with many free array slots), chaining uses less memory than open addressing even for small records of 2 to 4 words per record due to its external storage.
[[Image:Hash table average insertion time.png|thumb|right|362px|This graph compares the average number of cache misses required to lookup elements in tables with chaining and linear probing. As the table passes the 80%-full mark, linear probing's performance drastically degrades.]]
For small record sizes (a few words or less) the benefits of in-place open addressing compared to chaining are:
* They can be more space-efficient than chaining since they don't need to store any pointers or allocate any additional space outside the hash table. Simple linked lists require a word of overhead per element.
* Insertions avoid the time overhead of memory allocation, and can even be implemented in the |
1998]] speech on [http://www.ny.frb.org/research/epr/98v04n3/9810gree.pdf The Role of Capital in Optimal Banking Supervision and Regulation].
===Long-Term Capital Management===
{{main|Long-Term Capital Management}}
[[Long-Term Capital Management]] (LTCM) lost U.S. dollars 4.6 billion in [[fixed income arbitrage]] in September [[1998]]. LTCM had attempted to make money on the price difference between different [[bond]]s. For example, it would buy [[Treasury security|U.S. Treasury securities]] and sell Italian bond futures. The concept was that because Italian bond futures had a less liquid market, in the short term Italian bond futures would have a higher return than U.S. bonds, but in the long term, the prices would converge. Because the difference was small, a large amount of money had to be borrowed to make the buying and selling profitable.
The downfall in this system began on [[August 17]], [[1998]], when [[Russia]] defaulted on its [[ruble]] debt and domestic dollar debt. Since the markets were already nervous due to the [[Asian financial crisis]], investors began selling non-U.S. treasury debt and buying U.S. treasuries, which were considered a safe investment. As a result the return on U.S. treasuries began decreasing because there were many buyers, and the return on other bonds began to increase because there were many sellers. This caused the difference between the returns of U.S. treasuries and other bonds to increase, rather than to decrease as LTCM was expecting. Eventually this caused LTCM to fold, and their creditors had to arrange a bail-out. More controversially, officials of the [[Federal Reserve]] assisted in the negotiations that led to this bail-out, on the grounds that so many companies and deals were intertwined with LTCM that if LTCM went down, they would as well, causing a collapse in confidence in the economic system.
== See also ==
* [[Arbitrage betting]]
* [[Covered interest arbitrage]]
* [[Immunization (finance)]]
* [[Interest Rate Parity]]
* [[Political arbitrage]]
* [[TANSTAAFL]]
* [[Triangle arbitrage]]
* [[Volatility arbitrage]]
== References ==
*Greider, William (1997). ''One World, Ready or Not''. Penguin Press. ISBN 0-713-99211-5.
== External links ==
*[http://economics.about.com/cs/finance/a/arbitrage.htm What is Arbitrage? (About.com)]
*[http://www.disklectures.com/freebies.php Disk Lectures] MBA level audio lecture with slideshow showing spot-forward arbitrage in the foreign exchange market
[[Category:Financial markets]]
[[Category:Markets]]
[[de:Arbitrage]]
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[[nl:Arbitrage]]
[[ru:Арбитражная сделка]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anthrosophy</title>
<id>3163</id>
<revision>
<id>15901525</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dreamyshade</username>
<id>32</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect to Anthroposophy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anthroposophy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argument from evolution</title>
<id>3164</id>
<revision>
<id>41713662</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:09:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.97.232.240</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Conclusion from evolutionary arguments */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The argument from [[evolution]] is that [[intelligent design]] is not a verifiable scientific theory and is, in fact, [[pseudoscience]]{{ref|openA}}, with evolutionists noting that "IDers" have theological rather than scientific objectives. This argument is based upon the premises that:
# [[Science]], via evolution, provides sound explanations for the [[origin of life|origin]] and [[diversity of life]], and the [[Universe|origin of the Universe]].
# Evolution is commonly accepted by biologists because of extensive testing of its premises and predictions, whereas ID has not been and cannot be tested because of its theistic basis and reliance on a supernatural causer/[[prime mover]]. Thus, ID is neither provable nor falsifiable, two of the key requirements for any truly scientific theory.{{ref|openB}}
# Using the concept of [[Occam's Razor|parsimony]], scientists note that it is far more likely that the universe is a result of naturalistic processes rather than of creation.{{ref|openC}}
# ID lacks consistency except internally, i.e., it is only consistent and logical within the framework in which it operates. ID at its foundation relies upon an unsupported, unjustified assumption: That complexity and improbability must entail design, but the identity and characteristics of the designer is not identified or quantified, nor need they be.{{ref|openD}}
A common misconception is that evolution is an argument against the existence of God, but evolution does not conflict with a belief in God, in fact, evolution does not deal in any way with the existence or non-existence of a god or gods.{{ref|open1}} Two examples that illustrate this follow. Many people believe that evolution occurred as scientists theorize, while maintaining a belief in a deity. Evolutionary creationists accept the scientific theories of evolution, but see it as having been guided by a deity.{{ref|open2}}
== Overview ==
The theory of evolution states that due to [[natural selection]] and genetic variation, populations and species undergo genetic change over time. According to intelligent design, life is too complex to have been a result of evolution, and must have been designed by an intelligent agent, who most supporters believe to be the God of [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic religions]]. In other words, intelligent design claims to be a [[scientific theory]],that stands on equal footing with, or is superior to, current scientific theories regarding the [[origin of life]]{{ref|ov_meyer}}, that can be used to explain the origins of life on Earth.
The validity of the scientific claims regarding ID have been dismissed by an overwhelming majority of scientists{{ref|ov_over}}, as the theory was proposed by people with religious rather than scientific objectives. This opinion was clearly articulated in Judge [[John E. Jones III|John E. Jones III's]] decision in the ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' (2005).{{ref|ov_kitz}}
==Evolutionary Arguments Against Intelligent Design==
===Intelligent Design is Not Science===
The term ‘[[science]]’ refers to the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical world, especially by observing, measuring and experimenting. Being that intelligent design relies on [[supernatural]] phenomena, it does not fit under this category. A scientific theory must undergo what is known as the “[[scientific method]]” to be scientifically acceptable. The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate representation of the world. It involves a number of important steps. These are, in proper order:
#observation and description
#formulation of a hypothesis
#experimentation to test the hypothesis
#acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis {{ref|idnot_SM1}}
Rather than following these steps, intelligent design has instead reversed them. Supporters of intelligent design began with a conclusion and are currently working to prove it. This presents a number of problems:
* Beginning with a conclusion has a tendency to skew data and results in an effort to support the conclusion;
* Were students to be taught ID in school, their understanding of the necessity of using the scientific method might be compromised;
* Performing "research" in this manner has led mainstream scientists to refer to the IDers as "[[apologetics|apologists]]," thus the relegation of ID to a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] non-theory.{{ref|idnot_SM2}}{{ref|idnot_SM3}}
===The Definition of "Theory" and "Evolution"===
Intelligent design proponents, argue that evolution should not be the only "theory" taught in public schools. They propose an argument based on semantics, claiming that evolution is “only a theory,” and it should not be favored over other theories. In addition, the [[Wedge strategy]] of the [[Discovery Institute]], has begun calling evolution a "theory in crisis" as part of its [[Teach the controversy]] campaign.{{ref|theory_wedge1}}
While it is correct to say that evolution is a theory and not indisputable fact (no ''scientific'' theory makes any claim to be fact), scientists take exception to DI's assertion that it is a theory in crisis, noting that with additional fossil finds, and [[DNA]] and [[Genome|genome-mapping]], evolution is far better supported today than it was even twenty years ago.
The second problem is that of the common definition of "theory", rather than the scientific, is often used to imply that evolution is just an idea. While "theory" in this sense refers to abstract reasoning and conjecture, the scientific definition of is much more rigorous.
According to the scientific definition, a scientific theory must be repeatedly tested through the scientific method and accepted by the scientific community.{{ref|theory_def}} While evolution has passed repeated testing thus rendering it a true scientific theory, intelligent design has not. In fact it has not, and ''cannot'', be scientifically tested as its central argument, that life forms on Earth were created by an unknown intelligent agent, introduces supernatural phenomena that can be neither proven nor disproven.{{ref|theory_behe}}
However, the problem lies not just with the definition of theory, but also with that of evolution, which, like so many other words has more than one meaning. Its strict biological definition is "a change in [[allele]] frequencies over time." By that definition, evolution is an indisputable fact. Most people seem to as |
ces that hold geckos to surfaces are [[van der Waals force|van der Waals interactions]] between the finely divided setae and the surfaces themselves. That these kinds of interactions involve no liquids (or no gases) is important; in theory, a boot made of [[synthetic setae]] would adhere as easily to the surface of the [[International Space Station]] as it would to a living room wall.
The [[family (biology)|family]] Gekkonidae is divided into five different subfamilies, containing numerous different [[genus|genera]] of gecko [[species]]. Many geckos are kept as pets and will eat various kinds of [[insect]]s and sometimes [[fruit]].
==Common species of geckos==
[[Image:Gecko_Rockwall_TX_US.jpg|thumb|200px|A Mediterranean gecko in [[Texas]], [[USA]]]]
* '''Golden gecko''', ''Gekko ulikovski''&mdash;
* '''House gecko''', ''Hemidactylus frenatus''&mdash;A species that thrives around man and human habitation structures in the tropics and subtropics world wide.
* '''Indo-Pacific gecko''', ''Hemidactylus garnoti''&mdash;Also known as a '''fox gecko''' because of its long, narrow snout. This species is found in houses throughout the tropics. This gecko may eat [[leafcutter ant]]s.
* '''Mediterranean gecko''', ''Hemidactylus turcicus''&mdash;residential and wild, introduced species (USA).
* '''[[Leopard gecko]]''', ''Eublepharis macularius ''&mdash;The most common gecko kept as a pet is the leopard gecko, which does not have toe pads with setae, but rather claws. These enable it to more easily climb on rough surfaces like tree bark. This gecko cannot climb the glass of a terrarium. The leopard gecko tends to be docile and calm. This gecko can eat [[cockroaches]], [[crickets]], [[mealworm]]s, [[waxworm]]s, and superworms.
*'''Mourning gecko''', ''Lepidodactylus lugubris''&mdash;This species is equally at home in the wild as in residential neighborhoods. Found in [[Hawaiian Islands|Hawaii]], it may have been an early Polynesian introduction. A parthenogenic species.
*'''Stump-toed gecko''', ''Gehyra mutilata'' (=''Peropus mutilatus'')&mdash;This gecko can vary its color from very light to very dark to blend into a background. At home in the wild as well as in residential neighborhoods.
* '''[[Tokay gecko]]''', ''Gekko gecko''&mdash;This is the lizard for which geckos were named. It is one of the relatively few lizards that vocalizes, and its mating call has variously been described as a loud ''gek-gek-gek-gekkkk'' or as ''tok-eh tok-eh''. The Tokay, an attractive but very aggressive species native to Southeast Asia, was in the past popular in the pet trade (apartment-dwellers in New York are sometimes advised by pet-shop owners to let Tokays run free to control [[cockroaches]], though one might expect the vocalizations to be disconcerting!) and the species has naturalized in southern [[Florida]] and [[Hawaii]].
* '''Tree gecko''', ''Hemiphyllodactylus typus''&mdash;Tree geckos are forest dwellers.
* '''[[New Caledonian crested gecko|Crested Gecko]]''', ''Rhacodactylus ciliatus''&mdash; Until recently believed extinct. Gaining in popularity as a pet.
* '''[[New Caledonian bumpy gecko|Gargoyle Gecko]]''', ''Rhacodactylus auriculatus''&mdash; commonly known as the New Caledonian bumpy gecko or Gargoyle gecko.
* '''[[New Caledonian Giant Gecko|Leachianus Giant Gecko]]''', ''Rhacodactylus leachianus''&mdash; first described by Cuvier in 1829, is the largest of the Rhacodactylus geckos.
* '''Crocodile or [[Moorish gecko]]''', ''Tarentola mauritanica''&mdash;Crocodile geckos are very strong and heavily built for thier size usually growing up to 6 inches. They are commonly found in the Mediterranean region from southern France to Greece and northern Africa. Their most distinguishing characteristic is their pointed head and spiked skin with their tail resembling that of a crocodile's.
==External links==
*[http://images.zacharoo.com/animals/gecko/gecko.html Gecko Photos] Photos of Australian Marbled Velvet Gecko, ''(Oedura marmorata)''
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[[jv:Tekek]]
[[lt:Gekonai]]
[[nl:Gekko's]]
[[pl:Gekony]]
[[pt:Gekkonidae]]
[[sv:Geckoödlor]]
[[tr:Gekogiller]]
[[zh:壁虎]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Game show</title>
<id>13135</id>
<revision>
<id>42124486</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:58:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.205.161.120</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''"Quiz show" redirects here; for the movie, see [[Quiz Show]]. For the scandals of that name, see [[Quiz show scandals]]. For the Turkish computer games magazine, see [[Gameshow (Magazine)]].''
A '''game show''' involves members of the public or [[celebrity|celebrities]], sometimes as part of a team, playing a [[game]], perhaps involving answering quiz questions, for points or prizes. In some shows contestants compete against other players or another team whilst other shows involve contestants striving alone for a good outcome or high score. Game shows often reward players with prizes such as cash, or holidays and goods and services provided by the show's sponsors. Early television game shows descended from similar programs on broadcast [[radio]].
==Types==
There are several basic genres of game shows with a great deal of crossover between the different types.
*The simplest form of game show is a ''quiz show'' whereby people compete against each other by answering quiz questions or solving puzzles. Quiz shows usually involves members of the public, but sometimes special shows are aired in which celebrities take part and the prizes are given to charity. ''[[Wheel of Fortune]]'' and ''[[Jeopardy!]]'' are examples. Some quiz shows, such as the word games ''[[Password (game)|Password]]'' and ''[[Pyramid (game show)|Pyramid]]'', pair celebrities and non-notable citizens.
*A ''[[panel game]]'' usually involves a celebrity panel answering questions about a specialist field such as [[sport]] or [[music]] and is often played for laughs as much as points. ''[[Match Game]]'', a [[CBS]] daytime show from the 1970's is one such example. Other examples include ''[[What's My Line]]'' and ''[[To Tell The Truth]]''.
*The third kind of game show involves contestants completing stunts or playing a game that involves an element of chance or strategy in addition to, or instead of, a test of general knowledge.
*''Reality game shows'' have become popular in recent years. In a reality show the competition usually lasts several days or even weeks and a competitor's progress through the game is based on some form of popularity contest, usually a kind of [[disapproval voting]] by their fellow competitors or members of the public.
*''[[Dating game show]]s'', the original reality games, in which the prize is typically a well-funded [[dating]] opportunity that one can only pursue with the individual one has 'won' on the show. They are also a type of [[date auction]] where competitors compete for dates not with money but with seductive powers or attractiveness or the promise of an enjoyable date or even ultimately marriage.
==History==
In the US, television game shows fell out of favor in the 1950s after it was revealed that favored contestants on ''[[The $64,000 Question]]'', ''[[Twenty One (game show)|Twenty One]]'' and other shows had been given answers and coached by the producers ''(see: [[Quiz show scandals]])''. They came back into favor in the 1960s by adopting merchandise prizes of far less value and by emphasizing larger numbers of simple questions, or physical contests without an advantage.
In the middle of the 1960s, [[Chuck Barris]] conceived a new genre in which the competitor's personal life became part of the show. They were the forerunners of today's reality game show. The prize was typically romantic opportunity (''[[The Dating Game]]'' — the first [[dating game show]]) or fame (''[[The Gong Show]]'') rather than cash. One of his famous shows, ''[[The Newlywed Game]]'', actually led to some divorces. This genre virtually disappeared from US screens in the [[1990s]]. ''[[Blind Date]]'', the British version of ''The Dating Game'', remained popular in the United Kingdom.
The height of the game show era began in the early 1970s, thanks in part to the success of popular game shows like ''[[The Price Is Right]]'', ''[[Match Game]]'', ''[[The Joker's Wild]]'' and ''[[The $10,000 Pyramid]]''. Many of these game shows provided amazing game show sets filled with flashing chase lights and sometimes flashing neon lights. This era of game shows officially ended in the 1990s, leaving ''The Price Is Right'' as the only daytime network game show remaining on U.S. television. In syndication, however, a handful of game shows continue to be popular, including ''Wheel of Fortune'' and ''Jeopardy!'', and to a lesser extent, ''[[Who Wants to be a Millionaire]]'' and ''[[Family Feud]]''. (All of those shows were originally network daytime shows except for ''Millionaire,'' which was a nighttime summer limited-run series that became an unexpected breakout hit.)
Another major element in a game show is score displays. The most famous of these displays is the "eggcrate", which consists of seven rows of five bulbs each per digit. The eggcrate display has been used on more game shows than any other score display in history, and is still used today on ''The Price Is Right''. In recent years, however, video displays have replaced the eggcrate, especially from Sony shows. ''Wheel of Fortune'' adopted the look in 2001, followed the next by ''Jeopardy!''. CBS also adopted video screens in 2001 for ''Hollywood Squares'', a show produced by its King World division. Of the major quiz producers, [[RTL Television]] has been the major holdout from this change, as its two US game shows use eggcr |
in support of [[infantry]] when attacking other infantry or fortified positions.
Historically the custom-built fully armored assault guns usually mounted the gun or howitzer in a fully enclosed casemate on a tank chassis. The use of a casemate instead of a turret limited these weapons' field of fire, but provided a simpler construction that was cheaper to build and less prone to mechanical breakdowns. The increased space and reduced weight of the turretless design also allowed mounting a larger weapon and providing heavier frontal armor on any given chassis, and in most cases these turretless vehicles also presented a lower profile as a target for the enemy.
==History==
===World War II===
[[Image:KW-2 1940.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Soviet [[KV-2]] "Heavy Assault Tank" was really an assault gun, 1940.]]
Assault guns were primarily used during [[World War II]], in the hands of the [[Germany|Germans]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviets]]. Early in the war the Germans began to create makeshift assault guns by mounting their infantry support weapons on the bed of a truck or on obsolete [[tank]]s with the turret removed. Later in the war both the Germans and the Soviets introduced fully armored purpose-built assault guns into their arsenals.
Early on the Soviets built the KV-2, a variant of the [[KV-1]] heavy tank with a short-barreled 152mm howitzer mounted in an oversized turret. They later produced a very successful series of increasingly powerful turretless assault guns on the KV, the [[SU-76]], [[SU-122]], and the heavy [[SU-152]], which were followed by the [[ISU-122]] and [[ISU-152]] on the newer [[Iosif Stalin tank|IS]] heavy tank chassis.
[[Image:StugIII at Kursk.jpg|thumb|right|250px|German [[StuG III]] with high-velocity 75mm gun, 1943.]]
The primary German assault gun was the [[Sturmgeschütz III]] (StuG III). Armed with a high-velocity dual-purpose 75mm gun, late production StuG III variants blurred the line between assault guns and [[tank destroyer]]s. The Germans also built a number of other fully armored turretless assault guns, including the [[StuG IV]], [[Sturmgeschütz_III#Variants|StuH 42]], [[Brummbär]], [[Sturmtiger]]. The latter two were very heavy vehicles, built only in small quantities.
Battalions of assault guns, usually StuG IIIs, commonly replaced the intended panzer battalion in the German [[Panzergrenadier|panzergrenadier divisions]] due to the chronic shortage of tanks, and were sometimes used as makeshifts even in the [[panzer division]]s. Independent battalions were also deployed as 'stiffeners' for infantry divisions, and the StuG III's anti-tank capabilities contributed much to the German's ability to draw out the war long after they had lost the strategic initiative.
=== Postwar use ===
In the post-[[World War II|WWII]] era a second use was envisioned for the assault gun, as a light-weight air-deployable direct fire weapon for use with airborne troops. Current weapons were either based on [[jeep]]s or small [[Caterpillar track|tracked]] vehicles and the airborne troops thus always fought at a distinct disadvantage in terms of heavy weapons.
The US was the first to build an assault gun in this category, the 152mm armed [[M551 Sheridan]]. The Sheridan's gun was a low-velocity weapon suitable in the assault role, but with the addition of the [[Shillelagh missile]] could double in the anti-tank role as well. The Sheridan was generally considered a failure however, and largely detested by its crews.
An attempt to address the Sheridan's problems and provide the airborne divisions with a modern weapon system developed into the [[M8 Armored Gun System]] (or ''AGS''). However the AGS was continually stung with budget cuts and program changes, and was never produced. Instead a wheeled vehicle based on the standard LAV III wheeled chassis is being deployed with the 105mm gun as the [[Stryker]], with similar characteristics as the [[Centauro]] Wheeled Tank Destroyer of the [[Italian army|Italian Army]] and the French [[AMX 10 RC]].
Another country to 'retry' the assault gun after [[World War II]] was Sweden with the [[Stridsvagn_103|Stridsvagn 103]], developped in the 50's. After minor modifications, it came into service in 1966 and was used untill phased it in 1997 with the arrival of the [[Leopard II]].
== See also ==
* [[Tank destroyer]]
* [[Armored fighting vehicle]]
[[Category:Assault guns]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">A self-propelled anti-tank gun, or '''tank destroyer''', is a type of [[armoured fighting vehicle]]. Tank destroyers are used primarily to provide [[antitank]] support for [[infantry]] or [[tank]] units, in [[defence (military) | defensive]] or [[withdrawal (military) |withdrawal]] operations. They may mount a high-velocity anti-tank gun or sometimes an [[antitank guided missile]] launcher, or ATGM.
Tank destroyers cannot fulfil the many roles of tanks; they are much less flexible, and usually lack a strong anti-infantry capability. But they are much less expensive to manufacture, maintain, and resupply than tanks.
Gun-armed tank destroyers have been largely supplanted by the more general-purpose tanks since Second World War, but lightly-armoured ATGM carriers are used for supplementary long-range antitank capabilities.
== World War II ==
[[Image:ISU-122 skos RB.jpg|thumb|350px|Soviet [[ISU-122]] tank destroyer with Polish Army markings]]
Dedicated antitank vehicles made their first major appearance in [[the Second World War]], as combatants developed effective armoured vehicles and tactics.
These tank destroyers fell broadly into two categories. Some were designed to be faster and cheaper than medium tanks while still able to destroy heavy armour at long range. Some of these designs were clearly expedients rushed into production. The second design strategy was to create heavily-armoured vehicles that were more effective tank destroyers than enemy tanks.
[[Nazi Germany|German]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] designs mounted anti-tank guns, with limited traverse in turretless hulls. The results were smaller, lighter, and simpler to build than tanks, but could carry larger guns. This design methodology was used by both forces to provide heavier anti-tank capability at lower cost, during the rapid up-armoring of all AFVs that took place during the war.
For instance, the German [[Panzer I]] light tank was obsolete before the war even started, with thin armor and only machine guns for armament. Yet it was forced into battle during the invasion of [[Poland]], where it was found to be a death trap. Before the invasion of [[France]], 202 were rebuilt as [[Panzerjäger I]] self-propelled 47mm anti-tank guns. Soon the same sort of thing happened to [[Panzer II]] tanks during [[Operation Barbarossa]]: captured Soviet 76.2mm anti-tank guns were mounted on [[Panzer II]] chassis, producing [[Marder II]] anti-tank guns. The most common mounting was a German 75mm antitiank gun on the Czech [[Panzer 38(t)]] chassis to produce the [[Marder III]].
Whereas the [[Panzerjäger]]s ("tank hunters") were based on the rebuilt chassis of obsolescent tanks, dedicated [[Jagdpanzer]] ("hunting tank") versions of tanks were developed later in the war. The [[Jagdpanther]] on the [[Panther tank]]'s chassis is considered the best of the Jagdpanzers. This vehicle mounted the L/71 version of the [[88mm gun]] on a reliable, highly mobile, well-armored chassis. The Soviets produced the 85mm [[SU-85]] and 100mm [[SU-100]] self-propelled guns based on the same chassis as the [[T-34]] medium tank, as well as the 122mm [[ISU-122]] and 152mm [[ISU-152]] which shared components with the [[IS-2]] heavy tank. In 1943, the Soviets also shifted all production of light tanks like the [[T-70]] to much simpler and better-armed [[SU-76]] self-propelled guns, which used the same drive train.
The Germans became side-tracked into production of large numbers of tank-destroyers because they could be produced more cheaply than full tanks.
=== US Army tank destroyer doctrine ===
[[U.S.]] and derivative [[United Kingdom|British]] designs were very different in conception. U.S. doctrine was based on the need to defeat German [[blitzkrieg]] tactics. U.S. units expected to be faced with large numbers of German tanks attacking on relatively narrow fronts. In actual practice, such attacks rarely happened. In pre–Second World War planning, U.S. tanks were not intended to fight enemy tanks directly. Instead they were dedicated to the roles of infantry support and exploitation in a fast moving battle. In order to deal with the enemy tanks U.S. forces would instead rely on separate tank destroyer units, which could deal with armor at long range.
The U.S. tank destroyer designs were intended to be very mobile and heavily armed. Most retained a turret, but left it open on top both to save weight and to accommodate a larger gun. The earliest expedient design was an |
s a prolific [[England|English]] author of both general fiction and [[science fiction]]. His byline reads either '''Brian W. Aldiss''' or simply '''Brian Aldiss'''.
== Biography ==
In [[1943]], he joined the Royal Signals regiment, and saw action in [[Myanmar|Burma]]; his encounters with tropical rainforests at that time may have been at least a partial inspiration for ''[[Hothouse (book by Aldiss)|Hothouse]]'', as his Army experience inspired the Horatio Stubbs second and third books.
After [[World War II]], he worked as a bookseller in [[Oxford]]. Besides short science fiction for various magazines, he wrote a number of short pieces for a booksellers trade journal about life in a fictitious bookshop, and this attracted the attention of Charles Monteith, an editor at the British publishers [[Faber and Faber]]. As a result of this, Aldiss's first book was ''The Brightfount Diaries'' (1955), a collection of the bookshop pieces.
In 1955, ''[[The Observer]]'' newspaper ran a competition for a short story set in the year 2500, which Aldiss won with a story entitled "Not For An Age". The Brightfount Diaries had been a minor success, and Faber asked Aldiss if he had any more writing that they could look at with a view to publishing. Aldiss confessed to being a science fiction author, to the delight of the publishers, who had a number of science fiction fans in high places, and so his first science fiction book, ''Space, Time and Nathaniel'' was published. By this time, his earnings from writing equalled the wages he got in the bookshop, so he made the decision to become a full-time writer.
He was voted the Most Promising New Author at the [[Worldcon|World Science Fiction Convention]] in 1958, and elected President of the [[British Science Fiction Association]] in 1960. He was the literary editor of the ''Oxford Mail'' newspaper during the 1960s. Around 1964 he and his long-time collaborator [[Harry Harrison]] started the first ever journal of science fiction criticism, ''Science Fiction Horizons'', which during its brief span of two issues published articles and reviews by such authors as [[James Blish]], and featured a discussion among Aldiss, [[C.S. Lewis]], and [[Kingsley Amis]] in the first issues, and an interview with [[William S. Burroughs]] in the second.
Besides his own writings, he has had great success as an anthologist. For Faber he edited ''Introducing SF'', a collection of stories typifying various themes of science fiction, and ''Best Fantasy Stories''. In 1961 he edited an anthology of reprinted short science fiction for the British paperback publisher [[Penguin Books]] under the title ''Penguin Science Fiction''. This was remarkably successful, going into numerous reprints, and was followed up by two further anthologies, ''More Penguin Science Fiction'' (1963), and ''Yet More Penguin Science Fiction'' (1964). The later anthologies enjoyed the same success as the first, and all three were eventually published together as ''The Penguin Science Fiction Omnibus'' (1973), which also went into a number of reprints. In the 1970s, he produced several large collections of classic grand-scale science fiction, under the titles ''Space Opera'' (1974), ''Space Odysseys'' (1975), ''Galactic Empires'' (1976), ''Evil Earths'' (1976), and ''Perilous Planets'' (1978) which were quite successful. Around this time, he edited a large format volume ''Science Fiction Art'' (1975), with selections of artwork from the magazines and [[pulp magazines|pulps]].
In response to the results from the [[Unmanned space mission|planetary probes]] of the 1960s and 1970s, which showed that [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] was completely unlike the hot, tropical jungle usually depicted in science fiction, he and Harry Harrison edited an anthology ''Farewell, Fantastic Venus!'', reprinting stories based on the pre-probe ideas of Venus. He also edited, with Harrison, a series of anthologies ''The Year's Best Science Fiction'' (1968-1976?)
He was awarded the title of Officer of the [[Order of the British Empire]] (OBE) for services to literature in HRH [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom | Queen Elizabeth II's]] Birthday Honours list, announced on [[11 June]] [[2005]].
== Books ==
=== Fiction ===
* ''The Brightfount Diaries'' (1955)
* ''Space, Time and Nathaniel'' (1957) Short story collection; all his published science fiction to that date, including "T", his first published story, and "Not For an Age". Aldiss had only had thirteen stories published at that time, and a fourteenth was hurriedly written to make up the numbers.
* ''[[Non-stop]]'' (1958) A story of a small tribe in a very strange jungle, who make unsettling discoveries about the nature of their world. This was published in the US under a different title, which gives away the basic plot premise, so that title will not be quoted here...
* ''Equator'' (1958)
* ''The Canopy of Time'' (1959) Short story collection: published in slightly different format in the US as ''Galaxies like Grains of Sand''
* ''The Interpreter'' (1960; US title ''Bow down to Nul'') A short novel about the huge, old galactic empire of Nuls, a giant, three-limbed, civilized alien race. Earth is just a lesser-than-third-class colony ruled by a Nul tyrant whose deceiving devices together with good willing but ineffective attempts of a Nul signatory to clarify the abuses and with the disorganized earthling resistance reflect the complex relationship existing between imperialists and subject races which Aldiss himself had the chance of seeing at first hand when serving in India and Indonesia in the forties.
* ''The Male Response'' (US: 1959, UK 1961)
* ''The Primal Urge'' (1961)
* ''[[Hothouse (novel)|Hothouse]]'' (1962) Set in a far future Earth, where the earth has stopped rotating, the Sun has increased output, and plants are engaged in a constant frenzy of growth and decay, like a tropical forest enhanced a thousandfold; a few small groups of humans still live, on the edge of extinction, beneath the giant [[banyan]] tree that covers the day side of the earth. Originally published in the [[Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]], the magazine editor actually sought scientific advice about one aspect of the book. He was told that the [[Orbit|orbital]] dynamics involved meant that it was nonsense, but the image of the earth and moon side by side in orbit, shrouded with cobwebs woven by giant vegetable spiders, was so outrageous and appealing that he published it anyway. Science fiction fans endorsed this decision, voting it a [[Hugo Award]] The original (and substantially abridged) American edition was titled ''The Long Afternoon of Earth''; according to Aldiss's account, the publisher insisted on this so that the book wouldn't be put amongst the horticulture books in bookshops.
* ''The Airs of Earth'' (1963 - short story collection; American title ''Starswarm'')
* ''[[The Dark Light Years]]'' (1964): the encounter of humans with the utods, gentle aliens whose physical and mental health requires wallowing in mud and flith, who are not even recognised as intelligent by the humans.
* ''[[Greybeard]]'' (1964) Set decades after the Earth's population has been sterilised by a burst of radiation from an astronomical event, the book shows an emptying world, occupied by an ageing, childless population.
* ''Best SF stories of Brian Aldiss'' (1965); Published in the US as ''But who can replace a Man?''
* ''[[Earthworks (novel)|Earthworks]]'' (1965)
* ''The Impossible Smile'' (1965); Serial in ''Science Fantasy'' magazine, under the pseudonym "Jael Cracken"
* ''The Saliva Tree and other strange growths'' (1966) Story collection. The title story of the collection, ''The Saliva Tree'' was written to mark the centenary of [[H.G. Wells]]'s birth, and received the 1965 [[Nebula award]] for the best short novel
* ''An Age'' (1967: also published in the US as ''Cryptozoic!'')
* ''Report On Probability A'' (1968) Described by Aldiss as an 'anti-novel', this book had its origins some years earlier, before being serialised in [[New Worlds]] under [[Michael Moorcock]]'s editorship. The bulk of the book is the Report, describing in minute, obsessive and often repetitive detail, three characters G, S, and C as they secretly watch a house, each from a separate outbuilding with peripheral views of the house's windows, catching occasional glimpses of its occupant, Mrs Mary. As the Report is being read by a character called "Domoladossa'", he is secretly being observed from other universes, and these observers in their turn are being observed, all of them engaged in futile speculation about the exact nature of Probability A, and the exact meaning of the Victorian [[painting]], ''[[The Hireling Shepherd]]'' (by [[Pre-Raphaelite]] [[William Holman Hunt]]), which occurs in the Report. Later we learn that Mrs. Mary is watching a screen of her own, although this may just be a [[television]] set, and it is suggested that the painting may be a window into a world where time is standing still.
: note: Holman Hunt's paintings also feature in Aldiss's short story ''The Secret of Holman Hunt and the Crude Death Rate'' (1975).
* ''Barefoot in the Head'' (1969) Perhaps Aldiss's most experimental work, this first appeared in several parts as the 'Acid Head War' series in New Worlds. Set in a Europe some years after a flare-up in the Middle East led to Europe being attacked with bombs releasing huge quantities of long-lived hallucinogenic drugs. Into an England with a population barely maintaining a grip on reality comes a young [[Serbs|Serb]], who himself starts coming under the influence of the ambient aerosols, and finds himself leading a messianic [[crusade]]. The narration and dialogue reflects the shattering of language under the influence of the drugs, in mutating phrases and puns and allusions, in a deliberate echo of [[Finnegans Wake]].
* The Horatio Stubbs saga
** ''[[The Hand-Reare |
ll Bahá'ís accepted him as Bahá'u'lláh's successor.
His [[`Abdu'l-Bahá#Journeys to the West|Journeys to the West]], and his [[Tablets of the Divine Plan]] spread the Bahá'í message beyond its [[Iran|Persian]] roots, and his [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá|Will and Testament]] laid the foundation for the current [[Bahá'í administration|Bahá'í administrative order]].
==Life of `Abdu'l-Bahá==
===Early life===
`Abdu'l-Bahá was born in [[Tehran]], [[Iran|Persia]] on [[May 23]], [[1844]], the eldest son of [[Bahá'u'lláh]] and [[Ásiyih Khánum, Navváb]]. He was born on the very same night on which the [[Báb]] declared his mission (Esslemont). During his youth, `Abdu'l-Bahá was shaped by his father's station as a prominent member of the [[Bábís]]. One event that affected `Abdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father, when `Abdu'l-Bahá was nine years old, which led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children. Esslemont records that "A mob sacked their house, and the family were stripped of their possessions and left in destitution" (pp 64).
===Years in exile with his father===
Bahá'u'lláh was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and `Abdu'l-Bahá joined his father on the journey to [[Baghdad]] in the winter of [[1853]]. During the journey Abdu'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. During his years in Baghdad, Abdu'l-Bahá spent much of his time reading the writings of the Báb. He followed his father through exile to [[Constantinople]], [[Adrianople]] and finally [[Akko|Akka]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and during this time he increasingly assumed the role of Bahá'u'lláh's chief steward.
In Akka he also gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'i]] exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of Akka that, according to the Bahá'ís, they recognized the innocence of the Bahá'ís, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Eventually, Bahá'u'lláh was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places.
===Family Life===
`Abdu'l-Bahá married Munirih Khanum in 1873 and they had nine children, four of whom, all daughters survived infancy. Munirih was daughter of Mirza Muhammad Ali, who died some years prior to the marriage. After his death Munirih Khanum came and lived with Bahá'u'lláh and his wife Navváb and they expressed an interest that she should become `Abdu'l-Bahá's wife. They were married in the house of `Abbud.
The eldest daughter Díyá'íyyih Khánum would become the mother of `Abdu'l-Bahá's heir, his eldest grandson [[Shoghi Effendi]]. The other three daughters were Tuba Khanum, Ruha Khanum and Munavvar Khanum, the three younger daughters.
===Early years of his ministry===
After Bahá'u'lláh passed away on [[May 29]], [[1892]], the [[Tablets_of_Baha%27u%27llah#Kit.C3.A1b-i-.27Ahd_.28Book_of_the_Covenant.29|Will and Testament of Bahá'u'lláh]] named `Abdu'l-Bahá as Centre of the Covenent, and successor. In the Will and Testament, it was stated that `Abdu'l-Bahá's half-brother, [[Mírzá Muhammad `Alí]] should be the leader of the Faith after `Abdu'l-Bahá's death.
While most Bahá'ís followed `Abdu'l-Bahá, a handful did not and followed Mírzá Muhammad `Alí. Maulana notes:
:"Many prominent followers of Bahá'u'lláh repudiated his claims. Among the latter were such important leaders as [[Mirza Jawad]], [[Ibrahim Khairulla]], the famous Bahá'í missionary to American, and [[Janab-i-Khadim-ullah]]."
::(Maulana, p 44, Also 'Material for the Study' p 145).
Muhammad `Alí and Mirza Jawad began to accuse `Abdu'l-Bahá of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Bahá'u'lláh. ('Material for the Study', p 77). `Abdu'l-Bahá in many tablets to the West, however, clearly stated that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that he was only a servent to Bahá'u'lláh.
Muhammad `Alí began to make accusations against him to the Ottoman authorities, causing them to re-introduce stricter terms to `Abdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in [[August]] [[1901]]. It was as a result of this breakdown in relations between the half-brothers that when `Abdu'l-Bahá passed away, instead of appointing Muhammad `Alí, he left a [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá|Will and Testament]] which set up the framework of an administration. The two highest instituions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed [[Shoghi Effendi]] as the Guardian.
===Journeys to the West===
[[Image:Abdulbaha2.jpg|thumb|Smiling `Abdu'l-Bahá during trip to US]]
The [[1908]] [[Young Turks]] revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire. `Abdu'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment.
With the freedom to leave the country, in [[1910]] he embark on a three year journey to [[Egypt]], [[Europe]], and [[North America]], spreading the Bahá'í message.
From August to December of [[1911]], `Abdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including [[London]], [[Bristol]], and [[Paris]]. The purpose of these trips was to support the Bahá'í communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in [[New York City]] on [[April 11]], [[1912]], and while he spent most of his time there, he visited [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]. In August of the same year he started a more extensive journey to places including [[New Hampshire]], the [[Green Acre]] school in [[Maine]], and [[Montreal]] (his only visit to Canada). He then travelled west to [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[Stanford University|Stanford]], and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] before starting to return east at the end of October. On [[December 5]], [[1912]] he set sail back to Europe.
Back in Europe, he visited [[London]], [[Paris]] (where he stayed for two months), [[Stuttgart]], [[Budapest]], and [[Vienna]]. Finally on [[June 12]], [[1913]] he returnd to [[Egypt]], where he stayed for six months before returnig to [[Haifa]].
===Final years===
During [[World War I]] `Abdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander. As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to `Abdu'l-Bahá. During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgims came to see him in [[Haifa]].
On [[April 27]], [[1920]], he gained the title of "sir" when he was awarded a [[knighthood]] by the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] for his humanitarian efforts during the war. `Abdu'l-Bahá died on [[November 28]], [[1921]]. On his funeral, Esslemont notes:
:"... a funeral the like of which Haifa, nay Palestine itself, had surely never seen... so deep was the feeling that brought so many thousands of mourners together, representative of so many religions, races and tongues."
::(p 77, quoting 'The Passing of `Abdu'l-Bahá", by Lady Blomfield and Shoghi Effendi, pp 11, 12)
He is buried in the front room of the [[Shrine of the Báb]] on [[Mount Carmel]]. Plans are in place to one day build a [[Shrine of `Abdu'l-Bahá]]. In his Will and Testament he appointed His grandson [[Shoghi Effendi|Shoghi Effendi Rabbani]] as the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith.
==Titles of `Abdu'l-Bahá==
While many titles were given to `Abdu'l-Bahá, he preferred the title `Abdu'l-Bahá (Servant of Bahá).
Other titles include:
*Sir `Abdu’l-Bahá Abbas Effendi
*The "Centre of the Covenant"
*The "Mystery of God"
*The "Perfect Exemplar" of Bahá'u'lláh's teachings
*Bahá'ís frequently refer to Him as the Master
==Writings of `Abdu'l-Bahá==
The following includes some of `Abdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks:
*Some Answered Questions
*Divine Philosophy
*[[Tablets of the Divine Plan]]
*Foundations of World Unity
*The Promulgation of Universal Peace
*[[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá]]
*[[Secret of Divine Civilization|The Secret of Divine Civilization]]
*[[Paris Talks]]
==References==
*Browne, E.G. (1891), [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~bahai/diglib/books/A-E/B/browne/tn/tnfrnt.htm <i>A Traveller’s Narrative</i>], Cambridge. Includes introduction, agenda, and corrigenda.
*[http://arthursclassicnovels.com/arthurs/bahai/choshw10.html ''The Chosen Highway''], Lady Blomfield.
*{{cite book|author=Esslemont, J.E.|year=1980|edition=5th edition|title=Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era, An Introduction to the Bahá'í Faith|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Illinois, USA.|id=ISBN 0877431604}}
*{{cite book|author=Effendi, Shoghi|authorlink=Shoghi Effendi|year=1995 |title=God Passes By|publisher=US Bahá'í Publishing Trust |id=ISBN 0877430209 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/GPB/}}
==External links==
*[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAB/ Selections from the Writings of `Abdu'l-Bahá]
*[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/TAB/ Tablets of `Abdu'l-Bahá Abbas]
*[http://www.littlepond.org/page0012.htm A play about Munirih Khanum, includes her picture on this page]
*[http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/books/K-O/M/Moneereh/ELMK.htm ''Episodes in the Life of Moneerah Khanum''] (1924, reprinted 2004)
*[http://thumb3.webshots.com/s/thumb2/5/80/35/185758035oWLCCF_th.jpg Grave of Manirih Khanum]
==See also==
*[[Bábís]]
*[[Bahá'u'lláh's family]]
*[[Mírzá Mihdí]]
*[[Shoghi Effendi]]
*[[Bahá'í World Centre buildings#The House of `Abdu'l-Bahá|House of `Abdu'l-Bahá]]
[[Category:Bahá'í central figures|Abdul-Baha]]
[[Category:Bahá'í holy family|Abdul-Baha]]
[[ar:عبد البهاء عباس]]
[[ |
the possible exception of [[francium]], astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element with the total amount in Earth's crust estimated to be less than 1 [[ounce|oz]] (28 g) at any one time; this amounts to less than one teaspoon of the element. The [[Guinness Book of Records]], however, has dubbed the element the rarest on Earth, stating: "Only around 0.9 oz (25 [[gram|g]]) of the element astatine (At) occurs naturally in the Earth's crust."
== History ==
Astatine ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''astatos'' meaning "unstable") was first synthesized in [[1940]] by [[Dale R. Corson]], [[K. R. MacKenzie]], and [[Emilio Segrè]] of the [[University of California, Berkeley]] by barraging [[bismuth]] with [[alpha particle]]s. An earlier name for the element was ''alabamine'' (Ab).
== Occurrence ==
Astatine is produced by bombarding bismuth with energetic alpha particles to obtain relatively long-lived At-209 - At-211, which can then be [[distillation|distilled]] from the target by heating in the presence of air.
== Isotopes ==
Astatine has 41 known [[isotope]]s, all of which are [[radioactive]]; the longest-lived isotope is <sup>210</sup>At which has a [[half-life]] of 8.1 hours. The shortest-lived isotope is <sup>213</sup>At which has a half-life of 125 [[nanoseconds]].
== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/85.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Astatine]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Astatine}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/At/index.html WebElements.com - Astatine]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Halogens]]
[[bs:Astatin]]
[[ca:Àstat]]
[[cs:Astat]]
[[da:Astat]]
[[de:Astat]]
[[et:Astaat]]
[[es:Astato]]
[[eo:Astato]]
[[fr:Astate]]
[[ko:아스타틴]]
[[io:Astatino]]
[[is:Astat]]
[[it:Astato]]
[[he:אסטטין]]
[[lv:Astats]]
[[lt:Astatas]]
[[hu:Asztácium]]
[[nl:Astatium]]
[[ja:アスタチン]]
[[no:Astat]]
[[nn:Astat]]
[[oc:Astat]]
[[pl:Astat]]
[[pt:Astato]]
[[ru:Астат]]
[[sl:Astat]]
[[sr:Астат]]
[[fi:Astatiini]]
[[sv:Astat]]
[[th:แอสทาทีน]]
[[uk:Астат]]
[[zh:砹]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atom</title>
<id>902</id>
<revision>
<id>42039966</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:17:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Iorek85</username>
<id>432424</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ remove bad link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect2|Atom|Atomic}} {{for|[[Atom (standard)|Atom feeds]] from Wikipedia|Wikipedia:Syndication}}
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpadding="2" style="margin-left:1em"
|-
! bgcolor=gray | Atom
|-
| align="center" | [[image:Helium_atom_with_charge-smaller.jpg | align center | Model of the atom - 3-D Helium atom - ground state]]
|-
| align="center" | '''Helium atom model'''<br>Showing nucleus with two protons (blue) <br>and two neutrons (red), <br>orbited by two electrons (waves).
|-
! bgcolor=gray | Classification
|-
|
{| align="center"
|-
| Smallest recognised division of a [[chemical element]]
|}
|-
|
|-
! bgcolor=gray | Properties
|-
|
|-
|
{| align="center"
|-
| [[atomic mass|Mass]]: || &asymp; 1.66 &times; 10{{smsup|−27}} to 4.52 &times; 10{{smsup|−25}} [[kg]]
|-
| [[Electric charge]]: || zero
|-
| Diameter:
| [[1_E-11_m|10 pm]] to [[1_E-10_m|100 pm]]
|}
|}
In [[chemistry]] and [[physics]], an '''atom''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''&#940;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#957;'' meaning "indivisible") is the smallest possible particle of a [[chemical element]] that retains its chemical properties. The word ''atom'' may also refer to the smallest possible indivisible [[fundamental particle]]. This definition must not be confused with that of chemical atoms, since chemical atoms (hereafter "atoms") are composed of smaller [[subatomic particle]]s.
Most atoms are composed of three types of [[subatomic particle]]s which govern their external properties:
* [[electron]]s, which have a negative [[electric charge|charge]] and are the least massive of the three;
* [[proton]]s, which have a positive [[electric charge|charge]] and are about 1836 times more massive than electrons; and
* [[neutron]]s, which have no [[electric charge|charge]] and are about 1838 times more massive than electrons.
Protons and neutrons are both [[nucleon]]s and make up the dense, massive [[atomic nucleus]]. The electrons form the much larger [[electron cloud]] surrounding the nucleus.
Atoms differ in the number of each of the subatomic particles they contain. The number of protons in an atom (called the [[atomic number]]) determines the [[chemical element|element]] of the atom. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may also vary, determining the [[isotope]] of that element. Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Electrons that are furthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or even shared between atoms. Atoms which have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called [[ions]]. The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus may also change, via [[nuclear fusion]], [[nuclear fission]] or [[radioactive decay]].
Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of [[chemistry]], and are [[Law of Conservation of Matter|conserved]] in [[chemical reaction]]s. Atoms are able to [[chemical bond|bond]] into [[molecule]]s and other types of [[chemical compound]]s. Molecules are made up of multiple atoms; for example, a molecule of [[water]] is a combination of two [[hydrogen]] atoms and one [[oxygen]] atom.
==Properties of the atom==
===Subatomic particles===
:''see main article [[subatomic particle]]s
Although the name "atom" was applied at a time when atoms were thought to be indivisible, it is now known that the atom can be broken down into a number of smaller components. The first of these to be discovered was the negatively charged [[electron]], which is easily ejected from atoms during [[ionization]]. The electrons orbit a small, dense body containing all of the positive charge in the atom, called the [[atomic nucleus]]. This nucleus is itself made up of [[nucleon]]s: positively charged [[proton]]s and chargeless [[neutron]]s.
Before 1961, the subatomic particles were thought to consist of only protons, neutrons and electrons. However, protons and neutrons themselves are now known to consist of still smaller particles called [[quark]]s. In addition, the electron is known to have a nearly massless neutral partner called a [[neutrino]]. Together, the electron and neutrino are both [[lepton]]s.
Ordinary atoms are composed only of quarks and leptons of the first [[generation (particle physics)|generation]]. The proton is composed of two [[up quark]]s and one [[down quark]], whereas the neutron is composed of one up quark and two down quarks. Although they do not occur in ordinary matter, two other heavier generations of quarks and leptons may be generated in [[high-energy physics|high-energy collisions]].
The subatomic [[force carrier|force carrying]] particles (called [[gauge boson]]s) are also important to atoms. Electrons are bound to the nucleus by [[photon]]s carrying the [[electromagnetic force]]. Protons and neutrons are bound together in the nucleus by [[gluon]]s carrying the [[strong nuclear force]].
====Electron configuration====
:''see main article [[electron configuration]]''
The [[chemistry|chemical behavior]] of atoms is due to interactions between electrons. Electrons of an atom remain within certain, predictable [[electron configurations]]. These configurations are determined by the [[quantum mechanics]] of electrons in the [[electric potential]] of the atom; the [[principal quantum number]] determines particular [[electron shell]]s with distinct [[energy level]]s. Generally, the higher the energy level of a shell, the further away it is from the nucleus. The electrons in the outermost shell, called the [[valence electron]]s, have the greatest influence on chemical behavior. Core electrons (those not in the outer shell) play a role, but it is usually in terms of a secondary effect due to screening of the positive charge in the atomic nucleus.
[[Image:HAtomOrbitals.png|frame|right|The [[atomic orbital]] [[wavefunction]]s of a [[hydrogen atom]]. The [[principal quantum number]] is at the right of each row and the [[azimuthal quantum number]] is denoted by letter at top of each column.]]
An electron shell can hold up to 2''n''<sup>2</sup> electrons, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number of the shell. The occupied shell of greatest ''n'' is the valence shell, even if it only has one electron. In the most stable [[ground state]], an atom's electrons will fill up its shells in order of increasing energy. Under some circumstances an electron may be [[excited state|excited]] to a higher energy level (that is, it absorbs energy from an external source and leaps to a higher shell), leaving a space in a lower shell. An excited atom's electrons will [[spontaneous emission|spontaneously fall]] into lower levels, emitting excess energy as a [[photon]]s, until it returns to the ground state.
In addition to its principal quantum number ''n'', an electron is distinguished by three other quantum numbers: the [[azimuthal quantum number]] ''l'' (describing the [[orbital angular momentum]] of the electron), the [[magnetic quantum number]] ''m'' (describing the direction of the angular momentum vector), and the [[spin quantum number]] ''s'' (describing the direction of the electron's [[spin (physics)|intrinsic angular momentum]]). Electrons with varying ''l'' and ''m'' have distinctive shapes denoted by [[spectroscopic notation]]. In the illustration, the letters '''s''', '''p''', '''d''' and '''f''' (corresponding to ''l''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0, |
.
==Professional career==
Following his victory in Calgary as well as another gold medal at the World Championships in [[Budapest]], Boitano turned professional. He went on to dominate competitions in the professional ranks, winning 10 straight professional competitions, including 5 consecutive World Professional Championship titles and 4 consecutive wins at the Challenge of Champions. During this five-year stretch, Boitano did not make a single technical error in his programs. In June 1993, the International Skating Union (ISU) introduced a clause, known as the "Boitano rule", which allowed professionals to reinstate as 'amateur' or 'eligible' skaters. This had been the result of Boitano's active involvement during the early [[1990s]], which saw professionals being allowed in the Olympic Games in the sports of tennis and basketball. Boitano reinstated to have a crack at the [[1994 Winter Olympics]] in [[Lillehammer]], [[Norway]]. Going into the Olympics as a gold medal favorite among a star-studded field, Boitano uncharacteristically missed his triple axel combination during the short program&mdash;for the first time ever, according to Scott Hamilton&mdash;and this proved extremely costly, knocking Boitano completely out of medal contention. He fought back to finish 6th.
==Records and Achievements==
===Amateur===
* Olympic Champion (1988).
* Two-time World Champion (1986, 1988).
* Four-time United States National Champion (1985-1988).
===Professional===
* Six-time World Professional Championships Champion (1988-1992, 1994).
===Awards===
* Inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame (1996).
* Inducted into the United States Figure Skating Hall of Fame (1996).
==External link==
*[http://www.usolympicteam.com/26_595.htm Brian Boitano's U.S. Olympic Team bio] - with a photo gallery, Q&A
== Trivia ==
* A [[caricature]] of Brian Boitano as a [[superhero]] appears as a recurring character in the [[cartoon]] series ''[[South Park]]''. The movie ''[[South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]), features a musical number titled "[[What Would Brian Boitano Do?]]" to which Mr. Boitano has skated. Mr. Boitano also appears in a 1995 Christmas cartoon that was a prototype of South Park, entitled [[The Spirit of Christmas]].
* Boitano is a graduate of [[Peterson High School]] [http://www.scu.k12.ca.us/news_and_events/hall_of_fame.htm] [http://www.petersonhigh.com/] in Sunnyvale, California
==Navigation==
{{NavigationOlympicChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}
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[[Category:Figure skaters at the 1988 Winter Olympics|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:Figure skaters at the 1994 Winter Olympics|Boitano, Brian]]
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[[Category:Living people|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:Olympic competitors for the United States|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:People from California|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:South Park characters|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:Winter Olympics medalists|Boitano, Brian]]
[[de:Brian Boitano]]
[[pl:Brian Boitano]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Queen</title>
<id>4632</id>
<revision>
<id>15902892</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-26T08:37:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mintguy</username>
<id>3295</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[British monarchy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of British political scandals</title>
<id>4633</id>
<revision>
<id>42130249</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:43:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jrleighton</username>
<id>140144</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Bernie Ecclestone</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of '''British [[political scandal]]s''' which have resulted from verified or alleged events.
*[[1700s]]
** [[South Sea Bubble]] ([[1720]])
*[[1910s]]
** [[Marconi scandal]] of insider trading by [[Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading|Rufus Isaacs]] and others ([[1912]])
**[[Shell Crisis of 1915]], which led to the fall of [[Herbert Henry Asquith]]'s government during the [[Great War]].
*[[1920s]]
** [[Zinoviev Letter]] ([[1924]])
*[[1930s]]
** [[James Henry Thomas|Jimmy Thomas]] budget leak ([[1936]])
*[[1940s]]
** [[Hugh Dalton]] budget leak ([[1947]])
** [[John Belcher]] corruptly influenced - led to [[Lynskey Tribunal]]
*[[1950s]]
** [[Crichel Down]] and the resignation of [[Thomas Dugdale]] ([[1954]])
** [[Suez Crisis]] ([[1956]])
*[[1960s]]
** Soviet agent [[John Vassall]] working for Minister [[Thomas Galbraith]] ([[1962]])
** [[Profumo Affair]] ([[1963]])
*[[1970s]]
** Corrupt Architect [[John Poulson]] and links to [[Reginald Maudling]], [[T. Dan Smith]] and others ([[1972]]-[[1974|4]])
** [[George Patrick John Rushworth Jellicoe, 2nd Earl Jellicoe|Earl Jellicoe]] and [[Antony Lambton|Lord Lambton]] sex scandal ([[1973]])
** [[John Stonehouse]]'s faked suicide ([[1974]])
** Liberal Party leader [[Jeremy Thorpe]]'s affair with Norman Scott and shooting of Scott's dog ([[1976]]) and later acquittal on charges of conspiracy to murder ([[1979]])
*[[1980s]]
** [[Cecil Parkinson]] and Flora Keays ([[1983]])
** [[Al Yamamah]] contract alleged to have been obtained by bribery ([[1985]])
** [[Westland affair]] ([[1986]])
** [[Jeffrey Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare|Jeffrey Archer]] and the prostitute allegations ([[1986]]), and his subsequent conviction for [[perjury]] (2001)
** [[Edwina Currie]] resigns as a junior Health minister for claiming that millions of British [[eggs]] were infected with [[salmonella]] ([[1988]])
** Dame [[Shirley Porter]]'s "homes-for-votes" [[gerrymander]]ing scandal ([[1987]]-[[1989]])
** [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]] ([[1989]])
*[[1990s]]
** [[Nicholas_Ridley_(politician)|Nicholas Ridley]] comparing the [[European Union|EU]] to the [[Third Reich]] ([[1990]])
** [[Arms-to-Iraq]] and the closely connected [[Iraqi Supergun affair]] ([[1990]])
** [[David Mellor]] resignation after press disclose his affair with [[Antonia de Sancha]] ([[1992]])
** [[Squidgygate]], the covert leaking of a bugged phone call between the Princess of Wales and a male admirer, although the phrase originally referred to the exposure of the Princess's extra-marital affair (1992)
** [[Michael Mates]] gift of watch to [[Asil Nadir]] ([[1993]])
** "Back to Basics", a succession of sex scandals in [[John Major]]'s government which led to the resignation of [[Tim Yeo]] and the [[Malcolm Ian Sinclair, 20th Earl of Caithness|Earl of Caithness]], among others ([[1994]])
** [[Cash-for-questions affair]] involving [[Neil Hamilton (politician)|Neil Hamilton]], [[Tim Smith]] and [[Mohamed Al-Fayed]] ([[1994]])
** [[Jonathan Aitken]] and the hotel bill allegations, and subsequent conviction for perjury ([[1995]])
** [[Bernie Ecclestone]] was involved in a political scandal when it transpired he had given the [[Labour Party]] a million pound donation - which raised eyebrows when the Labour government changed its policy to allow Formula 1 to continue being sponsored by tobacco manufacturers. The Labour Party returned the donation when the scandal came to light. ([[1997]])
** Double resignation rocks government. [[Peter Mandelson]], Trade and Industry Secretary, resigns after failing to disclose £373,000 loan from [[Paymaster General]] [[Geoffrey Robinson]]. ([[1998]])
** [[Ron Davies]] resigns from the cabinet after being robbed by a man he met at [[Clapham Common]] and then lying about it ([[1998]])
*[[2000s]]
** [[Officegate]] ([[2001]]). [[Henry McLeish]], Labour [[First Minister of Scotland]], failed to refund the [[House of Commons]] for income he had received from the sub-let of his [[constituency]] office in [[Glenrothes]] while still a Westminster MP.
** [[Keith Vaz]], Peter Mandelson and the [[Hinduja brothers]]. Mandelson forced to resign again due to misleading statements. (2001)
** In [[2002]] [[Edwina Currie]] revealed that she had had an affair, beginning in [[1984]], with [[John Major]] before he became [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]. This was criticised more harshly than may otherwise have been the case as Major had frequently pushed his ''Back To Basics'' agenda, which was taken by the media as a form of [[moral absolutism]].
** The [[Burrell affair]] - allegations about the behavior of the [[British Royal Family]] and their servants with possible constitutional implications. ([[2002]])
** [[Ron Davies]] stands down from Welsh assembly after he goes "badger-watching". ([[2003]])
** The suicide of Dr [[David Kelly]] and the ''[[Hutton Inquiry]]''. On [[17 July]] [[2003]], Kelly, an employee of the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]], committed suicide after being misquoted by [[BBC]] journalist [[Andrew Gilligan]] as saying that [[Tony Blair]]'s [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government had knowingly "sexed up" the "[[September Dossier]]", a report into [[Iraq and weapons of mass destruction]]. The government was cleared of wrongdoing, while the BBC was strongly criticised by the subsequent inquiry, leading to the resignation of the BBC's chairman and director-general.
**[[Taxigate]] ([[2005]]). [[David McLetchie]], leader of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] & [[Scottish Unionist Party|Unionist Party]] is forced to resign after claiming taxi expenses for personal journeys, journeys related solely with his second job as a solicitor, and on Conservative Party business, for example travel to Conservative conferences. Conservative backbench [[MSP]] [[Brian Monteith]] has the [[whip (politics)|whip]] withdrawn for briefing against his leade |
ies including the tropical hardwood [[Greenheart]] (''Chlorocardium rodiei'').
==Landmarks==
*St. George's Anglican Church - Was the tallest wooden building in the world at the time of construction. Now dwarfed by other structures such as the [[Todaiji Temple]] in Japan.
*Demerara Harbour Bridge - Was the longest floating bridge in the world. Now the fourth longest floating bridge in the world.
*[[Kaieteur Falls]] one of the most spectacular waterfalls in the world.
*Caribbean Community (CARICOM) International Headquarters Building - houses the largest and most powerful political union in the Caribbean.
*[[Providence Stadium]]-to be built on the east bank of the [[Demerara River]] for the ICC World Cup 2007. Construction has started. When completed it will be a major spot for leisure in Guyana. It will also be near the Providence Mall which, when completed, will be the largest mall in Guyana.
* Guyana International Conference Center - presented as a gift from the People's Republic of China to the Government of Guyana . It is the only one of its kind in the country .
*Water Walls- is an main attraction in Guyana that is viewed by many tourists that visit Guyana.
==Military==
'''Military branches:'''
[[Guyana Defence Force]] (GDF; includes Ground Forces, Coast Guard, and Air Corps), Guyana People's Militia (GPM), Guyana National Service (GNS), Guyana Police Force
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
206,199 (2002 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
155,058 (2002 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$7 million (FY94)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.7% (FY94)
==Trivia==
* The 1856 [[British Guiana 1c magenta]] stamp is considered the rarest in the world, with only one copy known to exist.
* The [[1959]] film ''[[Green Mansions]]'', starring [[Audrey Hepburn]] and [[Anthony Perkins]], was filmed in Guyana (then British Guiana).
* Guyana is the only South American country where the [[death penalty]] is still in use for serious crimes and where [[homosexuality]] remains illegal.
* On [[November 18]] [[1978]], the [[Jonestown Massacre]] took place in the [[jungle]] of Northwest Guyana; 912 members of the [[cult]] died in a [[mass suicide]]. To date most people have only heard of Guyana because of this incident.
* ''The Guinness Book of Records'' (1990 ed) lists the Guyanese born [[Sir Lionel Luckhoo]] as "the world's most successful lawyer" because he obtained 245 consecutive acquittals for his clients that were accused of murder.
* Guyanese people say that if you visit Guyana and "Eat Labba and Drink Black Water", you are bound to return to Guyana. (Labba is a small [[agouti]] or South American rodent that is eaten in a dark stew called "pepper pot", "Black water" is the water found in the many creeks in the interior of Guyana, made black by tanin found in rotting vegetation).
==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Communications in Guyana]]
* [[Foreign relations of Guyana]]
* [[Military of Guyana]]
* [[Music of Guyana]]
* [[Transportation in Guyana]]
* [[Islam in Guyana]]
==See also==
* [[French Guiana]]
* [[Suriname|Suriname (formerly Dutch Guiana)]]
==Further reading==
* ''All the Cowboys Were Indians'' Stanley E. Brock
* ''Bush Pilot In Diamond Country'' Donald Haack
* ''The Cycle of Racial Oppression in Guyana'' Kean Gibson
* ''Georgetown Journal'' Andrew Salkey, 1970
* ''Guyana'' (Enchantment of the World Series) Marion Morrison
* ''Guyana'' Bob Temple
* ''Guyana Farewell: A Recollection of Childhood in a Faraway Place'' Noel C. Bacchus
* ''Guyana: Fragile Frontier'' Marcus Colchester
* ''Guyana: The Lost Eldorado, My Fifty Years in the Guyanese Wilds'' Matthew French Young
* ''Journey To Guyana'' Margaret Bacon
* ''Jungle Cowboy'' Stanley E. Brock
* ''The Making of Guyana'' Vere T. Daly
* ''Masters of All They Surveyed : Exploration, Geography and a British El Dorado'' D. Graham Burnett
* ''Metegee: The History and Culture of Guyana'' Ovid Abrams
* ''Ninety-Two Days'' [[Evelyn Waugh]]
* ''Three Singles To Adventure'' [[Gerald Durrell]]
* ''Through Indian Eyes: A Journey Among the Indian Tribes of Guiana'' Colin Henfrey
* ''U.S. Intervention in British Guiana : A Cold War Story'' Stephen G. Rabe
* ''Wanderings in South America'' [[Charles Waterton]]
* ''Zoo Quest to Guiana'' [[David Attenborough]], 1956 (Lutterworth Press, London)
''For books specifically about the Jonestown massacre, see Further Reading on the [[Jonestown]] page''
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Guyana}}
'''Government'''
* [http://www.op.gov.gy President of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana - Official Website]
*[http://www.parliament.gov.gy National Assembly]
*[http://www.guyana-tourism.com/ Official Website of the Guyana Tourism Authority] (GTA)
*[http://www.goinvest.gov.gy/ Official Website of the Guyana Office for Investment] - GO-Invest
*[http://www.hiv.gov.gy/ Government of Guyana National HIV/AIDS Programme] - National website providing HIV/AIDS information to health professionals, general public and partners.
*[http://www.guyana.org/govt/US-declassifed-documents-1964-1968.html] - Declassified US State Department documents detailing covert action from the start of postwar independence.
'''General'''
* [http://www.sdnp.org.gy SDNP Guyana] - Guyanese directory and host to ministerial sites
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Guyana Open Directory Project - Guyana] directory category
* [http://www.blackmagic-lounge.com The Black Magic Lounge] - Fresh content and unique design like no other Guyanese site
* [http://www.guyanaoutpost.com Guyana Outpost] - One of the premier web sites on Guyana and Guyanese
* [http://www.guyanainfoline.net Guyana] - On Guyana and its people
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1211325.stm BBC profile of Guyana]
*[http://www.guyanaundersiege.com/Cultural/Hindus%20of%20South%20America.htm Hinduism in Guyana and Suriname]
'''News media'''
*[http://www.guyana.org - Guyana News and Information]One of the most popular websites for current news and information, this site also hosts an email directory of people from the Guyanese Community and Discussion Forum.
*[http://www.gina.gov.gy/ GINA] - Government Information Agency. Updated daily.
*[http://www.guyanachronicle.com/ The Guyana Chronicle] - Local daily government run newspaper.
*[http://www.kaieteurnewsgy.com/ Kaieteur news] - Local daily independent newspaper.
*[http://www.stabroeknews.com/ Stabroek News] - Local daily independent newspaper. Updated daily and maintains archives for 7 days.
* Get an overview of [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=6.446318,-58.436279&spn=4.593018,8.172180&t=h&hl=en Guyana on Google Maps].
{{South America}}
{{Caricom}}
[[Category:CARICOM member states]]
[[Category:Guyana]]
[[Category:Guyana|*]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:South American countries]]
[[ar:غيانا]]
[[bg:Гаяна]]
[[ca:Guyana]]
[[cs:Guyana]]
[[da:Guyana]]
[[de:Guyana]]
[[eo:Gujano]]
[[es:Guyana]]
[[et:Guyana]]
[[eu:Guyana]]
[[fi:Guyana]]
[[fr:Guyana]]
[[gl:Güiana - Guyana]]
[[he:גיאנה]]
[[ht:Giyàn]]
[[hu:Guyana]]
[[id:Guyana]]
[[io:Guyana]]
[[it:Guyana]]
[[ja:ガイアナ]]
[[ko:가이아나]]
[[la:Guiana]]
[[lt:Gajana]]
[[lv:Gajāna]]
[[mk:Гвајана]]
[[ms:Guyana]]
[[na:Guyana]]
[[nds:Guyana]]
[[nl:Guyana]]
[[nn:Guyana]]
[[no:Guyana]]
[[pl:Gujana]]
[[pt:Guiana]]
[[ro:Guyana]]
[[ru:Гайана]]
[[simple:Guyana]]
[[sk:Guyana]]
[[sl:Gvajana]]
[[sq:Guiana]]
[[sr:Гвајана]]
[[sv:Guyana]]
[[th:ประเทศกายอานา]]
[[tl:Guyana]]
[[tr:Guyana]]
[[uk:Гайана]]
[[yi:גויאַנע]]
[[zh:圭亚那]]
[[zh-min-nan:Guyana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Berkeley</title>
<id>11958</id>
<revision>
<id>41078054</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:30:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Picapica</username>
<id>71798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:BishBerk.jpg|right|framed|Bishop George Berkeley]]
'''George Berkeley''' ([[British English]]:/{{IPA|ˈbɑː.kli}}/; [[Irish English]]: /{{IPA|ˈbɑɹ.kli}}/) ([[12 March]] [[1685]] &ndash; [[14 January]] [[1753]]), also known as '''Bishop Berkeley''', was an influential [[Ireland|Irish]] [[philosopher]] whose primary philosophical achievement is the advancement of what has come to be called [[subjective idealism]], summed up in his dictum, ''"Esse est percipi"'' ("To be is to be perceived"). Basically, the theory is that we can only directly know sensations and ideas of objects, not abstractions such as "matter". He wrote a number of works, the most widely-read of which are his ''[[Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge]]'' ([[1710]]) and ''[[Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous]]'' ([[1713]]) (Philonous, the "lover of the mind", representing Berkeley himself). In [[1734]] he published ''[[The Analyst]]'', a critique of the foundations of science, which was very influential in the subsequent development of mathematics.
The city of [[Berkeley, California]] is named after him, but the pronunciation of its name has evolved to suit [[American English]].
A residential college in [[Yale University]] also bears his name.
==Life==
George Berkeley was born in Dysert Castle, near [[Thomastown]], [[Ireland]], the eldest son of William Berkeley, a cadet of the noble family of Berkeley. He was educated at Kilkenny College and attended [[Trinity College, Dublin]] completing a masters degree in [[1707]]. He remained at Trinity College after completion of his degree as a tutor and Greek lecturer. His earliest publication was a mathematical one; but the first which brought him into notice was his ''Essay towards a New Theory of Vision'', published in [[1709]]. Though giving rise to much controversy at the time, its conclusions are now accepted as an established part of the theory of optics. Ther |
eir collection of returned specimens included an 25 pound (11 kg) chunk that was the largest single rock returned by the Apollo astronauts (nicknamed ''Big Muley''). The Apollo 16 astronauts also conducted performance tests with the lunar rover, at one time getting up to a top speed of 11 miles per hour (18 kilometers per hour), which still stands as the record speed for any wheeled vehicle on the Moon (listed as such in the [[Guinness Book of Records]]).
===Relics===
The command module is currently at the [[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]], in [[Huntsville, Alabama]]. The lunar module ascent stage separated [[24 April]] [[1972]] but a loss of attitude control rendered it out of control. It orbited the Moon for about a year. Its impact site on the Moon is unknown.
<br clear="all">
==Media==
{{video|filename=Ap16 rover.ogg|title=The Lunar Rover in use|description=An Apollo 16 astronaut driving the [[Lunar Rover]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
==See also==
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
* [[Google Moon]]
==References==
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.44.htm Apollo 16 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]
==External links==
* [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo16.htm Apollo 16 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
* [http://www.spacecamp.com/museum/ U.S. Space & Rocket Center Museum] (location of Apollo 16 command module)
* [http://www.archive.org/details/NothingSoHiddenApollo16 (Part 1)NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission downloadable from www.archive.org The Internet Archive)
* [http://www.archive.org/details/NothingSoHidden (Part 2)NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission downloadable from www.archive.org The Internet Archive)
{{commons|Apollo 16}}
{{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 15]] | after=[[Apollo 17]]}}
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[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Apollo 17</title>
<id>1971</id>
<revision>
<id>42108098</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:53:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Quotes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
|+<font size="+1">'''Apollo 17'''</font>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Insignia
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Ap17recon.jpg|200px|Apollo 17 insignia]]
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Statistics
|-
|'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 17
|-
|'''Call Sign:'''||Command module: ''America''<br />Lunar module: ''Challenger''
|-
|'''Number of<br />Crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[December 7]], [[1972]]<br />05:33:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar Landing:'''||[[December 11]], 1972<br />19:54:57 UTC<br />20° 11' 26.88" N - 30° 46' 18.05" E<br />Taurus-Littrow
|-
|'''Lunar EVA<br />length:'''||1st: 7 h 11 min 53 s<br />2nd: 7 h 36 min 56 s<br />3rd: 7 h 15 min 8 s<br />Total: 22 h 3 min 57 s
|-
|'''CMP EVA:'''||1 h 5 min 44 s
|-
|'''Lunar surface<br />time:'''||74 h 59 min 40 s
|-
|'''[[Lunar sample]]<br />mass:'''|| 110.52 kg (243.65 lb)
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[December 19]], [[1972]]<br />19:24:59 UTC<br />17° 53' S - 166° 7' W
|-
|'''Duration:'''||12 d 13 h 51 min 59 s
|-
|'''Number of<br />Lunar orbits:'''||75
|-
|'''Time in<br />Lunar orbit:'''||147 h 43 min 37.11 s
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 30,369 kg;<br />LM 16,456 kg
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001151.jpg|300px|Apollo 17 crew portrait (L-R: Schmitt, Cernan (seated) and Evans)]] <br/>Apollo 17 crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Schmitt, Cernan (seated) and Evans)
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Night View
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo 17 The Last Moon Shot Edit1.jpg|300px|Apollo 17 - The Last Moon Shot]] <br/>Apollo 17 &mdash; ''The Last Moon Shot''
|}
'''Apollo 17''' was the eleventh [[manned space mission]] in the [[NASA]] [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and was the sixth and last mission to date to land on the [[Moon]]. It was the first night launch, and the final mission, of the Apollo program.
==Crew==
*[[Eugene Cernan]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', & ''Apollo 17''), commander
*[[Ron Evans]] (flew on ''Apollo 17''), [[Apollo_Command/Service_Module|command module]] pilot
*[[Harrison Schmitt|Harrison "Jack" Schmitt]] (flew on ''Apollo 17''), [[lunar module]] pilot
===Backup crew===
*[[John_W._Young|John Young]], commander
*[[Stuart Roosa]], command module pilot
*[[Charles Duke]], lunar module pilot
===Support Crew===
*[[Robert Overmyer]]
*[[Robert A. Parker|Bob Parker]]
*[[Gordon Fullerton]]
==Mission parameters==
*'''Mass:'''
**Launch mass: 6,445,000 lb (2,923,400 kg)
**Total spacecraft: 102,900 lb (46,700 kg)
***CSM mass: 66,840 lb (30,320 kg), of which CM was 13,140 lb (5960 kg), SM 53,700 lb (24,360 kg)
***LM mass: transposition and docking stage 36,274 lb (16,454 kg), separation for lunar landing 36,771 lb (16,679 kg), ascent stage at liftoff 10,997 lb (4,988 kg)
*'''Earth orbits:''' 2 before leaving for Moon, about one on return
*'''Lunar orbits:''' 75
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 104.9 mi (168.9 km)
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 106.4 mi (171.3 km)
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 28.526°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 87.83 min
*'''[[Perilune]]:''' 60.5 mi (97.4 km)
*'''[[Apolune]]:''' 195.6 mi (314.8 km)
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 159.9°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' min
*'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 20.19080° N - 30.77168° E] or <br /> 20° 11' 26.88" N - 30° 46' 18.05" E
===Docking===
*'''Undocked''': [[December 11]], [[1972]] - 17:20:56 UTC
*'''Docked''': [[December 15]], [[1972]] - 01:10:15 UTC
===EVAs===
* '''''Cernan and Schmitt''''' - EVA 1
*'''EVA 1 Start''': [[December 11]], [[1972]], 23:54:49 [[Coordinated Universal Time |UTC]]
*'''EVA 1 End''': [[12 December]] 07:06:42 UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 11 minutes, 53 seconds
* '''''Cernan and Schmitt''''' - EVA 2
*'''EVA 2 Start''': [[December 12]], [[1972]], 23:28:06 UTC
*'''EVA 2 End''': [[13 December]] 07:05:02 UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 36 minutes, 56 seconds
* '''''Cernan and Schmitt''''' - EVA 3
*'''EVA 3 Start''': [[December 13]], [[1972]], 22:25:48 UTC
*'''EVA 3 End''': [[14 December]] 05:40:56 UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 15 minutes, 08 seconds
* ''''' Evans ''''' - Transearth EVA 4
*'''EVA 4 Start''': [[December 17]], [[1972]], 20:27:40 UTC
*'''EVA 4 End''': [[17 December]] 21:33:24 UTC
*'''Duration''': 1 hour, 05 minutes, 44 seconds
===See also===
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
* [[Google Moon]]
The splashdown point was 17° 53&prime; S, 166° 7&prime; W, 350 nautical miles (650 km) SE of the Samoan Islands and 6.5 km (4 mi) from the recovery ship [[USS Ticonderoga (CV-14)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']]. Apollo 17 landed approximately 640 meters from its target point.
==Mission highlights==
[[Image:As17-140-21391c1.jpg|thumb|left|Schmitt took this picture of Cernan flanked by an American flag and their [[lunar rover]]'s umbrella-shaped high-gain antenna near the beginning of their third and final excursion across the lunar surface. The prominent Sculptured Hills lie in the background while Schmitt's reflection can just be made out in Cernan's helmet.]]
[[Image:Apollo_17_Trans-Earth_EVA.jpg|thumb|Command Module pilot Ron Evans performs a trans-earth EVA to retrieve film from the Apollo 17 SIM Bay camera. (NASA)]]
[[Image:Ap17-S72-55974.jpg|thumb|Apollo 17 recovery operations. (NASA)]]
[[Image:a17-plaque.gif|right|thumb|depiction of the plaque left on the moon by Apollo 17]]
One of the last two men to set foot on the Moon was also the first scientist-astronaut, geologist Harrison Schmitt. While Evans circled in "America," Schmitt and Cernan collected a record 240 pounds (109 kilograms) of rocks during three Moonwalks. The crew roamed for 21 miles (34 kilometers) through the Taurus-Littrow valley in their rover, discovered orange-colored soil, and left the most comprehensive set of instruments in the ALSEP on the lunar surface. Their mission was the last in the Apollo lunar program.
===Introduction===
Crew members were [[Gene Cernan]], commander; [[Ron Evans]], command module pilot; and [[Harrison Schmitt]], lunar module pilot.
The landing site for this mission was on the southeastern rim of the [[Mare Serenitatis]], in the southwestern [[Montes Taurus]]. This was a dark mantle between three high, steep [[massif]]s, in an area known as the Taurus-Littrow region. P |
s
As a rule, genealogists nearly always start with the present and work backward in time rather than forward. Written records have the property of hindsight in that they only tell where a person might have lived and who their parents are, not where they and their descendants will be living in the future. Two exceptions are when a genealogist might interview living relatives as to who and where their children and grandchildren are, or tries to locate long-lost cousins who have already traced their families backward to one of his ancestors (which is forward in time from his point of view).
==Reliability of sources==
Experience shows that genealogical "facts" can be unreliable. The top five classes of genealogical information &mdash; place names, occupations, family names, first names, and dates &mdash; differ in their degree of reliability. Additionally, the popularity of the hobby has encouraged a few organizations to exploit it by mass-marketing what most people regard as [[scam genealogical books]] and websites.
===Place names===
Place names are normally the most accurate because they tend to be long lasting. Nevertheless, place name data may be occasionally inaccurate or confusing. Inaccurate place names in records may be caused by a number of factors. First, place names may be subject to variable spellings by partially literate scribes. Second, small places in neighbouring counties may have the same or substantially similar names. For example, the name [[Brocton]] for villages occurs six times in the border area between the English counties of [[Shropshire]] and [[Staffordshire]]). Third, place names may be confusing or deceptive due to changes in political borders. For instance, county borders in the C17th-C19th England were frequently modified, with outlying and detached areas being reassigned to other counties. Old records may contain references to Middle Age villages that have ceased to exist due to disease or famine. Finally, census returns may simply have recorded inaccurate information.
Individual recollections also provide a source of place names, and sometimes inaccurate place names. The place where someone describes growing up may not be the place of birth or where the records are eventually found. For instance, while an ancestor may recall growing up in one location, records documenting that ancestor may only be found in other locations. There is a good likelihood that the place (parish) of a birth for a girl is the place she marries (unless 'sent abroad' as a servant), and that the place of residence for a man is where he is buried; certainly a neighbouring parish.
Additionally, records may be found in many different locations due to family mobility
Genealogists may rely on several references for place names: Maps (online), especially detailed maps such as the British [[Ordnance Survey]] (OS) maps and OS [http://www.old-maps.co.uk/ Old Map] website; gazetteers (place name dictionary); [[census]] returns; birth, death & marriage records; and historical records such as the [[Domesday Book]].
===Occupations===
Reported occupations may be semi-accurate. Many unskilled ancestors had a variety of jobs depending on the season and local trade requirements. Occasionally skilled trades pass from father to son. Census returns may contain some embellishment; e.g., from [[Labourer]] to [[Mason]], or from [[journeyman]] to [[Master craftsman]]. Workmen no longer fit for their primary trade often take less glamorous jobs later in life. Names for old or unfamiliar local occupations may cause confusion if poorly legible. For example, an ostler (a keeper of horses) and a hostler (an innkeeper) could easily be confused for one another. Likewise, descriptions of such occupations may also be problematic. The perplexing description "ironer of rabbit burrows" may turn out to describe an ironer (profession) in the [[Bristol]] district named Rabbit Burrows. Several trades have regional preferences, for example, shoemaker or cordwainer. Finally, many apparently obscure jobs are part of a larger trade community, such as watchmaking, framework knitting or gunmaking.
Occupational data may be reported in trade directories, census returns, birth, death & marriage records.
===Family Names===
Family names are simultaneously one of the most important pieces of genealogical information, and a source of significant confusion for researchers.
In most cultures, the name of a person references the family to which he or she belongs. This is called the ''[[family name]]'', or ''surname''. It is often also called the ''last name'' because, for most speakers of [[English language|English]], the family name comes after the given name (or names). However, this is not the case in other cultures, e.g., Chinese family names precede the given name.
[[Patronymic]]s are names which allow identification of an individual based on the father's name, e.g., Marga Olafsdottir or Olfa Thorsson. Many cultures used patronymics before surnames were adopted or came into use. The Dutch in New York, for example, used the patronymic system of names until 1687 when the advent of English rule mandated surname usage. See the article "Dutch Patronymics in New York in the 1600s" at [http://olivetreegenealogy.com/nn/pat.shtml Olive Tree Genealogy] for a beginner tutorial on the patronymic system.
As with place names, surname and personal name data may be subject to variant spellings. Older records may include greater variation in spelling than modern records. Phonetic spelling may be the only link variantly spelled names; e.g., "Quilter" and "Kieltagh". Records may also include completely different variants of names, such as MORT for MORDECAI.
The transmission of names across generations, marriages and other relationships, and immigrations also causes significant inaccuracy in genealogical data. For instance, children may sometimes take or be given step-parent, foster parent, or adoptive parent names. Women in many cultures have routinely used their spouse's surnames. When a woman remarried, she may have changed her name and the names of her children; only her name; or changed no names. Her birth ([[maiden name|"maiden"]]) name may be reflected in her children's middle names; her own middle name; or dropped entirely.
Official records do not capture many kinds of surname changes. For example, fostering, [[common-law marriage]], love affairs, changes in career or location may all result in name changes which are not reflected as such in official records.
Surname data may be found in trade directories, census returns, birth, death & marriage records.
===First Names===
Genealogical data regarding first names is subject to many of the same problems of family names and place names.
Additionally, nicknames for personal names are very common &mdash; Beth, Lizzie or Betty is common for Elizabeth, which can be confused with Eliza. Patty has been used as a diminutive form for Martha. There is Amy used for Alice, Nancy/Ann, and Polly used for a number of feminine names including Mary Ann and Elizabeth. While the feminine names are the most confusing, masculine names can also interchange: Jack, John & Jonathan, Joseph & Josiah, Edward & Edwin, etc.
Middle names provide additional information. Middle names may be inherited, or follow naming customs. Middle names may sometimes be treated as part of the family name. For instance, in some Latin cultures, both the mother's family name and the father's family name are used by the children. Official records may record full names in a variety of ways: First, Middle, Last; Last, Middle, First; Last, First Middle; Last, First, M.
The same personal name can also be given to several children, especially where an older child has died.
Personal names go through periods of popularity, so it is not uncommon to find many similarly-named people in a generation, and even similarly-named families; e.g., "William and Mary and their children David, Mary, and John".
Many names may be identified strongly with a particular gender; e.g., William for boys, and Mary for girls. Other names may be [[unisex names|ambiguous]], e.g., Lee, or have only slightly variant spellings based on gender, e.g., Frances (usually female) and Francis (usually male).
For a search engine designed for researching your family by unique first names, visit "[http://www.genealogytoday.com/names/first/basis.html First Name Basis]" at Genealogy Today.
===Dates===
The general rule is to never trust a date! Accurate dates of birth may be given for modern registrations and in a few church records at baptism. Family Bibles may be a help, but can be written from memory long after the event - beware of the same ink and handwriting for all entries; a sure sign the dates were written at the same time and therefore will be less reliable. Women will commonly reduce their age on marriage, and perhaps those under "full age" may increase their age upon marriage or joining the armed forces. [[Census]] returns are notoriously unreliable, particularly when looking for a date for a husband's death - if the woman is at home while the husband is away, she could be given as Head of household or assumed a widow. The [[UK_Census|1841 census in the UK]] is rounded down to the next lower multiple of five years. Dates around birth may be confused between birth and baptism. Some families wait 3-5 years before baptising children, and adult baptisms are not unheard of. Both birth and marriage dates can be adjusted to cover for pre-wedding pregnancies. It is very common for the first child to be born before or within a few months of a marriage and sometimes baptised in the mother's name, later adopting the father's name after the parents' marriage. The father's name can be used even if no marriage has occurred.
In 1752 the date of the new year was changed in |
e parts of the world, and includes some of the most endangered ecological communities. California's diverse geography, geology, soils and climate have generated a tremendous diversity of plant and animal life. The State of California is part of the [[Nearctic]] [[ecozone]], and spans a number of [[terrestrial ecoregions]], and is perhaps the most ecologically diverse state in the United States.
California has a rather high percentage of [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] species. California endemics include relict species that have died out elsewhere, including the redwoods and the Catalina Ironwood (''Lyonothamnus floribundus''). Many other endemics originated through differentiation or [[adaptive radiation]], whereby multiple species develop from a common ancestor to take advantage of diverse ecological conditions. California's great abundance of species of California lilac (''[[Ceanothus]]'') is an example of adaptive radiation. Many California endemics have become endangered, as urbanization, logging, overgrazing, and the introduction of exotic species have encroached on their habitat. Furthermore, California is home to the largest trees in the world, the [[Giant Sequoias]].
California's native grasses were [[perennial|perennials]], which stayed green year-round in most of the state's subclimates{{ref|native_grasses}}. After European contact, these were generally replaced by [[invasive species]] of European annual grasses; and, in modern times, California's hills turn a characteristic golden brown in summer and fall. California's nickname ''The Golden State'' is in reference to the [[California Gold Rush]], and not to the golden brown summer hillsides as is sometimes stated.{{ref_label|origin_of_nickname|1|a}}
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of California}}
[[Image:Hollywood Sign close up 2006.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Hollywood Sign]] is the most well-known symbol of California's huge entertainment industry.]]
[[Image:SanJoseDowntownIMG016elf wb.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Silicon Valley]] is the center of California's computer industry.]]
As of 2005, California has the fifth largest economy in the world. It is responsible for 13% of the United States' [[gross domestic product]] (GDP). The [[gross state product]] (GSP) is about $1.4 [[trillion]] ($1,400,000,000,000, as of 2005), making it greater than that of every other [[U.S. state]], and most [[countries of the world|countries in the world]] (by [[Purchasing Power Parity]]).
The predominant industry, more than twice as large as the next, is [[agriculture]], (including [[fruit]], [[vegetable]]s, [[dairy]], and [[wine]]). This is followed by [[aerospace]]; [[entertainment]], primarily [[television]] by dollar volume, although many [[film|movies]] are still made in California; and light manufacturing including [[computer hardware]] and [[software]], and the [[mining]] of [[borax]].
Per capita personal income was $33,403 as of 2003, ranking 12<sup>th</sup> in the nation. Per capita income varies widely by geographic region and profession. The Central Valley has the most extreme contrasts of income, with [[migrant worker|migrant farm workers]] making less than [[minimum wage]]. Recently, the San Joaquin Valley was characterized [http://www.centralvalleybusinesstimes.com/links/CRS%20San%20Joaquin%20Valley%20Report.pdf] as one of the most economically depressed regions in the U.S., on par with the region of [[Appalachia]].
While some coastal cities include some of the wealthiest per-capita areas in the U.S., notably [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] and [[Marin County, California|Marin County]], the non-agricultural central counties have some of the highest poverty rates in the U.S. The high-technology sectors in Northern California, specifically [[Silicon Valley]], in [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara]] and [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo counties]], are currently emerging from economic downturn caused by the [[dot.com bust]], which caused the loss of over 250,000 jobs in Northern California alone. Recent (Spring 2005) [http://uclaforecast.com economic data] indicate that economic growth has resumed in California, although still slightly below the national annualized forecast of 3.9%. The international boom in housing prices has been most pronounced in California, with the median property price in the state rising to about the half-million dollar mark in April 2005.
{{seealso|California unemployment statistics}}
== Important cities and towns ==
<gallery>
Image:Sacramento from Riverwalk.jpg|Sacramento
Image:DowntownLosAngeles.jpg|Los Angeles
Image:Sandiego.arp.750pix.jpg|San Diego
Image:Lightmatter sanfrancisco.jpg|San Francisco
Image:SanJoseDowntownIMG016elf wb.jpg|San Jose
Image:Long Beach, CA at night.jpg|Long Beach
Image:La2-oakland.jpg|Oakland
Image:Anaheimdland.jpg|Anaheim
</gallery>
The state of California has 478 cities, the majority of which are within one of the large [[metropolitan area]]s. 68% of California's population lives in its two largest metropolitan areas, [[Greater Los Angeles Area|Greater Los Angeles]] and the [[San Francisco Bay Area]].
{|
|-
|valign=top|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; margin-left:60px"
|-
! Rank !! align=center |City !! Population<br><small> within<br>city limits</small> !! Land Area<br><small> sq. miles</small> !! Population<br>Density<br><small> per sq mi</small> !! County
|-
| 1 ||align=left | [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] || '''3,957,875''' || 469.1 || 7,876.8 || [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]]
|-
| 2 ||align=left | [[San Diego, California|San Diego]] || '''1,305,736''' || 324.3 || 3,771.9 || [[San Diego County, California|San Diego]]
|-
| 3 ||align=left | [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] || '''944,857''' || 174.9 || 5,117.9 || [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara]]
|-
| 4 ||align=left | [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] || '''799,263''' || 46.7 || 16,634.4 || [[San Francisco County, California|San Francisco]]
|-
| 5 ||align=left | [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]] || '''491,564''' || 50.5 || 9,149.8 || [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]]
|-
| 6 ||align=left | [[Fresno, California|Fresno]] || '''464,727''' || 104.4 || 4,097.7 || [[Fresno County, California|Fresno]]
|-
| 7 ||align=left | [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] || '''452,959''' || 97.2 || 4,189.2 || [[Sacramento County, California|Sacramento]]
|-
| 8 ||align=left | [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] || '''412,318''' || 56.1 || 7,126.6 || [[Alameda County, California|Alameda]]
|-
| 9 ||align=left | [[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana]] || '''351,697''' || 27.1 || 12,451.9 || [[Orange County, California|Orange]]
|-
|10 ||align=left | [[Anaheim, California|Anaheim]] || '''345,317''' || 48.9 || 6,702.0 || [[Orange County, California|Orange]]
|}
<br clear=left>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; margin-left:60px"
|-
! Rank !! align=center |County !! Population<br><small> within<br>county limits</small> !! Land Area<br><small> sq. miles</small> !! Population<br>Density<br><small> per sq mi</small> !! Largest city
|-
| 1 ||align=left | [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]] || '''10,226,506''' || 4,061 || 2,344 || [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]
|-
| 2 ||align=left | [[Orange County, California|Orange]] || '''3,056,865''' || 789 || 3,606 || [[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana]]
|-
| 3 ||align=left | [[San Diego County, California|San Diego]] || '''3,051,280''' || 4,200 || 670 || [[San Diego, California|San Diego]]
|-
| 4 ||align=left | [[San Bernardino County, California|San Bernardino]] || '''1,946,202''' || 20,052 || 85 || [[San Bernardino, California|San Bernardino]]
|-
| 5 ||align=left | [[Riverside County, California|Riverside]] || '''1,877,000''' || 7,207 || 214 || [[Riverside, California|Riverside]]
|-
| 6 ||align=left | [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara]] || '''1,759,585''' || 1,291 || 1,304 || [[San Jose, California|San Jose]]
|-
| 7 ||align=left | [[Alameda County, California|Alameda]] || '''1,507,500''' || 738 || 732 || [[Oakland, California|Oakland]]
|-
| 8 ||align=left | [[Sacramento County, California|Sacramento]] || '''1,369,855''' || 966 || 1,267 || [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]
|-
| 9 ||align=left | [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa]] || '''1,020,898''' || 720 || 492 || [[Concord, California|Concord]]
|-
|10 ||align=left | [[Fresno County, California|Fresno]] || '''883,537''' || 5,963 || 134 || [[Fresno, California|Fresno]]
|}
<br clear=left>
<small>'''Note: table was compiled using California State estimates from [http://www.dof.ca.gov/HTML/DEMOGRAP/e-1press.pdf 2005] for population and [[United States Census, 2000|Census 2000]] for area and density''' </small>
For a list of important suburbs within the above areas, see [[List of urbanized areas in California (by population)]].
{{see also|List of cities in California|List of cities in California (by population) }}
===25 wealthiest places in California===
Thanks to the state's powerful economy, certain California cities are among the wealthiest on the planet. The following list is ranked by [[per capita income]]:
# [[Belvedere, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Marin County, California|Marin County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $113,595
# [[Rancho Santa Fe, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[San Diego County, California|San Diego County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $113,132
# [[Atherton, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $112,408
# [[Rolling Hills, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]]&nbsp;&ndash; $111,031
# [[Woodside, California]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[San Mateo County, Ca |
owns one or more poetry collection of some sort, even if it is not read often.
The Afghan dialect of the Persian language [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]] derives from "Farsi-e Darbari", meaning 'Persian of the royal courts'. It is regarded by some scholars as the more original version of the language. Iran, having a larger population, a stronger economy and closer ties to the rest of the world has developed its language further in the course of history. Afghanistan took a more conservative approach mainly due to lack of resources. As a result, Dari has not changed much over the last few centuries.
Many of the famous Persian language poets of 10th to 15th centuries stem from what is now known as Afghanistan. They were mostly also scholars in many disciplines like languages, natural sciences, medicine, religion and astronomy. Examples are Mawlvi Balkhi ([[Rumi]]), born and educated in the Balkh province in the 13th century and moved to today’s Istanbul, [[Sanaayi]] Ghaznavi (12th century, native of Ghazni provice), [[Jami]] Heravi (15th century, native of Jam-e-Herat in western Afghanistan), [[Alisher Navoi|Nizam ud-Din Ali Sher Heravi Nava'i,]] (15th century, Heart province). Also, some of the contemporary Persian language poets and writers, who are relatively well-know in both Iran and Afghanistan includes [[Ustad Behtab]], [[Khalilullah Khalili]] [http://www.afghanmagazine.com/arts/khalili/khalili.html], Sufi Ghulam Nabi Ashqari [http://www.afghanmagazine.com/jan2000/music/kharaabat/], [[Parwin Pazwak]] and others.
In addition to poets, the region of Afghanistan produced numerous scientists as well including [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina Balkhi) who hailed from [[Balkh]]. Avicenna, who travelled to [[Isfahan]] later in life to establish a medical school there, is known by some scholars as "the father of modern medicine". George Sarton called Ibn Sina "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." His most famous works are ''The Book of Healing'' and ''The Canon of Medicine'', also known as the Qanun. Avicenna's story even found way to the contemporary English literature through Noah Gordon's The Physician [http://www.noahgordonbooks.com/index.html], now published in many languages.
Before the Taliban gained power, the city of Kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the [[Nauroz]]-celebration. Kabul in the middle part of the 20th century has been likened to [[Vienna]] during the 18th and 19th centuries.
The tribal system, which orders the life of most people outside metropolitan areas, is certainly as potent in political terms as the national state system of Europe 1914. Men feel a fierce loyalty to their own tribe, such that, if called upon, assemble in arms under the tribal chiefs and local clan leaders (Khans) in the same way that men throughout Europe "flocked to the colours" in 1914, forming up in regional divisions and battalions under the command of the local nobility and gentry. In theory, under Islamic law, every believer has an obligation to bear arms at the ruler's call ([[Ulul-Amr]]), but this was no more needed than was enforced conscription to fill the ranks of the British Army in 1914. The Afghan shepherd or peasant went to war for much the same mixture of reasons as the more "civilised" European clerk or factory worker - a desire for adventure, a desire not to be left out or lose esteem in the eyes of his fellows, a contempt for invading foreigners, revenge against those that ruined his family life or threatened his faith, perhaps even the chance of extra cash or enhanced personal prospects.
The tribal system is not something particularly backward or warlike. It is simply the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that has an uncomplicated lifestyle - from a materialistic point of view (Heathcote, 2003).
Reference:
Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839 - 1919", Sellmount Staplehurst
See also: [[Radio Kabul]], [[music of Afghanistan]], [[Islam in Afghanistan]]
==Education==
''Main article: [[Education in Afghanistan]]''
In the spring of 2003, it was estimated that 30% of Afghanistan's 7,000 schools had been seriously damaged during more than two decades of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] occupation and civil war. Only half of the schools were reported to have clean water, while fewer than an estimated 40% had adequate sanitation. Education for boys was not a priority during the [[Taliban]] regime, and girls were banished from schools outright.
In regards to the poverty and violence of their surroundings, a study in 2002 by the [[Save the Children]] aid group said Afghan children were resilient and courageous. The study credited the strong institutions of family and community.
Up to four million Afghan children, possibly the largest number ever, are believed to have enrolled for class for the school year beginning in March of 2003. Education is available for both girls and boys.
Literacy of the entire population is estimated at 36%, Male Literacy rate is 51% and female literacy is 21%. The male literacy rate is higher because previous Taliban laws prohibited the education of women.
Higher Education - The American University of Afghanistan
Another aspect of education that is rapidly changing in Afghanistan is the face of Higher Education. In 2006 the American University of Afghanistan [http://www.auaf.edu.af] opens it's doors, with support from USAID [http://usinfo.state.gov/sa/Archive/2005/Apr/06-83303.html] and other donors. With the aim of providing a world-class, English-language, co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan, the university will take students from Afghanistan and the region.
==See also==
{{sisterlinks|Afghanistan}}
*[[Afghan Scout Association]]
*[[Communications in Afghanistan]]
*[[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]]
*[[List of sovereign states]]
*[[Military of Afghanistan]]
*[[Transportation in Afghanistan]]
*[[Stamps and postal history of Afghanistan]]
**[[List of birds on stamps of Afghanistan]]
**[[List of fish on stamps of Afghanistan]]
*[[Golden Needle Sewing School]]
*[[Taliban treatment of women]]
*[[Taliban]]
*[[List of leaders of Afghanistan]]
==Additional references==
* Ghobar, Mit Gholam Mohammad. Afghanistan in the Cource of History, 1999, All Prints Inc.
* Griffiths, John C. 1981. ''Afghanistan: A History of Conflict''. André Deutsch, London. Updated edition, 2001. Andre Deutsch Ltd, 2002, ISBN 0233050531.
* Levi, Peter. 1972. ''The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan''. Collins, 1972, ISBN 0002110423. Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1973, Indianapolis/New York, ISBN 0672512521.
* Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. ''Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825'', Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. Oxford University Press, 1979, ISBN 0195771990.
* Rashid, Ahmed (2000) "Taliban - Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia", Yale University Press
*Toynbee, Arnold J. 1961. ''Between Oxus and Jumna''. Oxford University Press, London. ISBN B0006DBR44.
* Wood, John. 1872. ''A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus''. New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the "Geography of the Valley of the Oxus" by Henry Yule. John Murray, London. Gregg Division McGraw-Hill, 1971, ISBN 0576033227.
* Heathcote, T.A. The Afghan Wars 1839-1999, 1980,2003, Spellmount Staplehurst
==External links==
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.afghanplace.com - Afghanistan Directory]
*[http://www.afghanchat.com - Large Website on Afghanistan Culture & News]
*[http://www.afghan2.com - Online dating Service for Afghans]
*[http://www.afghanzone.com/ Afganistan Online News source].
*[http://www.afghanunited.com/ Afghanistan Entertainment center].
*[http://www.afgha.com Afgha.com - News, Discussions, and more about Afghanistan]
*[http://www.kabuli.org/ Daily reports from Kabul in Farsi]
*[http://afghanlord.blogspot.com/ Afghan LORD]
*[http://www.afghanistan.sc/ Afghanistan Service Center with daily news]
*[http://www.aims.org.af/ Afghanistan Information Management Service] - provided by joint UN projects
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1162668.stm BBC News Country Profile - Afghanistan]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook - Afghanistan]
* [http://www.state.gov/p/sa/ci/af/ US State Department - Afghanistan] includes Background Notes, Country Study (1997), Rebuilding, USAID and NATO
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Afghanistan/ Open Directory Project - Afghanistan] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/regional/countries/afghanistan/ Yahoo! - Afghanistan] directory category
*[http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/afghanis.pdf 2002 UN map of Afghanistan] (PDF)
*[http://www.ArianaNet.com/ News Service latest News about Afghanistan, Discussion board]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/asia/centralasia/afghanistan/returntoafghanistan/returntoafghanistan.htm Return to Afghanistan] - A series of short films by the Washington Post on the New Afghanistan
*[http://www.mod.uk/rcds/bashir.htm British Royal College for Defense Studies analyses and proposes a war in August 2001]
* [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia (Afghanistan and Burma)]
* [http://topics.developmentgateway.org/afghanistan Development Gateway's Afghanistan Reconstruction Portal]
* [http://www.afghanan.net/index.php Afghanan Dot Net]
* [http://www.AfghanMania.com Afghanistan Portal]
* [http://www.sabawoon.com Sabawoon Online]
* [http://www.afghan-web.com/index.html Afghanistan Online]
* [http://www.afghanischerkulturverein.de/en/wirUeberUns_en.php Informative links |
ly common for products to offer support for more than one model. For any one [[logical model]] various physical implementations may be possible, and most products will offer the user some level of control in [[tuning]] the [[physical implementation]], since the choices that are made have a significant effect on performance. An example of this is the [[relational model]]: all serious implementations of the relational model allow the creation of indexes which provide fast access to rows in a table if the values of certain columns are known.
A [[data model]] is not just a way of structuring data: it also defines a set of operations that can be performed on the data. The relational model, for example, defines operations such as [[selection]], [[projection]], and [[Join (SQL)|join]]. Although these operations may not be explicit in a particular [[query language]], they provide the foundation on which a query language is built.
===Flat model===
''This may not strictly qualify as a data model, as defined above.''
The [[flat file database|flat (or table) model]] consists of a single, two-dimensional array of [[data]] elements, where all members of a given column are assumed to be similar values, and all members of a row are assumed to be related to one another. For instance, columns for name and password that might be used as a part of a system security database. Each row would have the specific password associated with an individual user. Columns of the table often have a type associated with them, defining them as character data, date or time information, integers, or floating point numbers. This model is, incidentally, a basis of the [[spreadsheet]].
===Network model===
The [[network database|network model]] (defined by the [[CODASYL]] specification) organizes data using two fundamental constructs, called ''records'' and ''sets''. Records contain fields (which may be organized hierarchically, as in [[COBOL]]). Sets (not to be confused with mathematical sets) define one-to-many relationships between records: one owner, many members. A record may be an owner in any number of sets, and a member in any number of sets.
The operations of the network model are navigational in style: a program maintains a current position, and navigates from one record to another by following the relationships in which the record participates. Records can also be located by supplying key values.
Although it is not an essential feature of the model, network databases generally implement the set [[relationship]]s by means of [[pointer]]s that directly address the location of a record on disk. This gives excellent retrieval performance, at the expense of operations such as database loading and reorganization.
===Relational model===
The [[relational model]] was introduced in an [http://www.acm.org/classics/nov95/toc.html academic paper] by [[E. F. Codd]] in [[1970]] as a way to make database management systems more independent of any particular application. It is a mathematical model defined in terms of [[predicate logic]] and [[set theory]].
The products that are generally referred to as [[relational database|relational databases]] (for example, [[Ingres]], [[Oracle database|Oracle]], [[DB2]], and [[SQL Server]]) in fact implement a model that is only an approximation to the mathematical model defined by Codd. The data structures in these products
are tables, rather than relations: the main differences being that tables can contain duplicate rows, and that the rows (and columns) can be treated as being ordered. The same criticism applies to the [[SQL]] language which is the primary interface to these products. There has been considerable controversy, mainly due to Codd himself, as to whether it is correct to describe SQL implementations as "relational": but the fact is that the world does so, and the following description uses the term in its popular sense.
A relational database contains multiple tables, each similar to the one in the "flat" [[database model]]. Relationships between tables are not defined explicitly; instead, ''keys'' are used to match up rows of data in different tables. A key is a collection of one or more columns in one table whose values match corresponding columns in other tables: for example, an ''Employee'' table may contain a column named ''Location'' which contains a value that matches the key of a ''Location'' table. Any column can be a key, or multiple columns can be grouped together into a single key. It is not necessary to define all the keys in advance; a column can be used as a key even if it was not originally intended to be one.
A key that can be used to uniquely identify a row in a table is called a ''unique key''. Typically one of the unique keys is the preferred way to refer to row; this is defined as the table's ''primary key''.
A key that has an external, real-world meaning (such as a person's name, a book's [[ISBN]], or a car's serial number), is sometimes called a "natural" key. If no natural key is suitable (think of the many people named ''Brown''), an arbitrary key can be assigned (such as by giving employees ID numbers). In practice, most databases have both generated and natural keys, because generated keys can be used internally to create links between rows that cannot break, while natural keys can be used, less reliably, for searches and for integration with other databases. (For example, records in two independently developed databases could be matched up by [[social security number]], except when the social security numbers are incorrect, missing, or have changed.)
====Relational operations====
Users (or programs) request data from a relational database by sending it a [[query]] that is written in a special language, usually a dialect of [[SQL]]. Although SQL was originally intended for end-users, it is much more common for SQL queries to be embedded into software that provides an easier user interface. Many web sites perform SQL queries when generating pages.
In response to a query, the database returns a result set, which is just a list of rows containing the answers. The simplest query is just to return all the rows from a table, but more often, the rows are filtered in some way to return just the answer wanted.
Often, data from multiple tables gets combined into one, by doing a [[Join (SQL)|join]]. Conceptually, this is done by taking all possible combinations of rows (the "cross-product"), and then filtering out everything except the answer. In practice, relational database management systems rewrite ("[[Query optimizer|optimize]]") queries to perform faster, using a variety of techniques.
The flexibility of relational databases allows programmers to write queries that were not anticipated by the database designers. As a result, relational databases can be used by multiple applications in ways the original designers did not foresee, which is especially important for databases that might be used for decades. This has made the idea and implementation of relational databases very popular with businesses.
===Dimensional model===
The [[dimensional database|dimensional model]] is a specialized adaptation of the relational model used to represent data in [[data warehouse]]s in a way that data can be easily summarized using [[OLAP]] queries. In the dimensional model, a database consists of a single large table of facts that are described using dimensions and measures. A dimension provides the context of a fact (such as who participated, when and where it happened, and its type) and is used in queries to group related facts together. Dimensions tend to be discrete and are often hierarchical; for example, the location might include the building, state, and country. A measure is a quantity describing the fact, such as revenue. It's important that measures can be meaningfully aggregated - for example, the revenue from different locations can be added together.
In an OLAP query, dimensions are chosen and the facts are grouped and added together to create a summary.
The dimensional model is often implemented on top of the relational model using a [[Star schema|star schema]], consisting of one table containing the facts and surrounding tables containing the dimensions. Particularly complicated dimensions might be represented using multiple tables, resulting in a [[snowflake schema]].
A data warehouse can contain multiple star schemas that share dimension tables, allowing them to be used together. Coming up with a standard set of dimensions is an important part of dimensional modeling.
===Object database models===
In recent years, the [[object-oriented]] paradigm has been applied to database technology, creating a new programming model known as [[object database]]s. These databases attempt to bring the database world and the application programming world closer together, in particular by ensuring that the database uses the same [[type system]] as the application program. This aims to avoid the overhead (sometimes referred to as the ''[[Object-Relational impedance mismatch|impedance mismatch]]'') of converting information between its representation in the database (for example as rows in tables) and its representation in the application program (typically as objects). At the same time object databases attempt to introduce the key ideas of object programming, such as [[encapsulation]] and [[polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]], into the world of databases.
A variety of these ways have been tried for storing objects in a database. Some products have approached the problem from the application programming end, by making the objects manipulated by the program [[persistence|persistent]]. This also typically requires the addition of some kind of query language, since conventional programming languages do not have the ability to find objects based on their information content. Others have attacked the pro |
s|Visigothic]] and [[Franks|Frankish]] kingdoms. The Basque Country became a strategically important territory desired by both sides.
At the same time, the Basques lost their lifestyle, which was dependent on trade with the Roman Empire. These two changes transformed the Basques from being one of the most docile people in Europe into a group of dedicated warriors bent on survival. An important Basque king of approximately this time was [[Iñigo Arista]] (Iñigo (Eneko) the Oak) (c.781–852) first King of Pamplona. There are scattered reports from this period of presumed Basque brigands (in Latin, ''[[bagaudae]]'') in [[Aquitaine]] and Spain stealing those things which they used to be able to trade for. Most of the confrontations with the Basques were, however, instigated by outsiders. Both the Franks and Visigoths sent armies through the Basque Country repeatedly.
The rugged Basque territory is ideal for banditry and it is not surprising that the Basques could still survive despite oppressive neighbours. Just as in every time of persecution in their history, the Basques simply moved to the hills and held out there until the threat had gone.
The Basques also proved during this period that despite the lack of central authority, they could protect their homeland when the need arose. After [[Charlemagne]]'s Franks invaded northern Spain, they returned home and ''en route'' pillaged the Basque Country. The Basques, however, intercepted the Frankish army while it made its way through a [[mountain pass]]. Despite poor weaponry and fewer fighters the Basques destroyed much of the Frankish force. The [[Battle of the Roncesvalles Pass]] was the only major defeat Charlemagne suffered in his long career. These events were immortalized in the French-language ''[[Chanson de Roland]]'' ([[Song of Roland]]), an important piece of medieval verse which in at least some versions refuses to mention the Basques but instead refers to them as Moors and demons.
The Basques did not similarly mobilise against the [[Islam|Islamic]] invaders who, just a few years earlier, had seized most of the Iberian peninsula. Although Christians, Basques did not resist the Muslim advance; it was stopped only by Frankish troops in [[Poitiers]]. Later, the Christian kingdom of Pamplona (later the [[Kingdom of Navarre]]) and the short-lived Muslim kingdom of the Banu-Qasi [[Muladi]]s (indigenous converts), with its capital in [[Tudela]], had an alliance with cross-marriages. However. the Basques did take part in the ''[[Reconquista]]''. The frontier land of Alava was secured and the neighbouring kingdoms called Basques to colonize the new territories, mainly in [[La Rioja]] and parts of Castile. At one point, the kingdom of Navarre extended southwards beyond the [[Ebro]] river. In a later age, Basque mariners were to take part in the sea battles of the Castilian conquest of Andalusia.
Most of the western part of the present Basque Country (Guipúzcoa, Vizcaya and Álava) became from time to time part of the Kingdom of Navarre or the kingdom of [[Castile]], in each case so long as the king pledged allegiance to their local laws or ''[[fueros]]''.
Basques began hunting whales in the Bay of Biscay as early as the [[9th century]]. At least six Basque towns incorporated whales or whaling into their [[coat of arms]].
During the [[Late Middle Ages]], the Basque towns were divided in clashes among families, later polarized in two bands ([[Agramont]] and [[Beaumont]] in Navarre, Oñaz and Gamboa in Biscay).
Local nobility built towerhouses, nowadays razed by fires and kingly decrees.
(Compare with the earlier Italian [[Guelphs]] and [[Ghibellines]]).
===From the Renaissance Era to the 19th Century===
[[Image:GernikakoArbola.jpg|200px|thumb|The [[Gernika oak]] is a symbol of Basque freedoms.]]
As the [[Middle Ages]] came to an end, the Basque lands came to be divided between France and Spain. Most of the Basque population ended up in Spain, a situation which persists to this day. The Navarrese and the Basques from Guipúzcoa, Vizcaya and Álava were able to keep a large degree of self-government of their provinces in Spain and France, functioning practically as separate nation-states: the ''fueros'' gave each Basque province separate local laws, taxes and law courts. The Basques, serving under the Spanish flag, were renowned mariners, and at the end of the [[16th century]], taught Dutch sailors how to use the [[harpoon]] for [[whaling]]. Spanish ships with many Basque sailors were some of the first Europeans to reach North America, and many early European settlers in Canada and the United States were of Basque origin.
The [[Protestant Reformation]] made some inroads, supported by [[Jeanne d'Albret]], queen of [[Lower Navarre]].
In the 16th century, around [[Bayonne, France|Bayonne]], a Basque-speaking [[bourgeois]]ie induced the printing of Basque-language books, mostly with Christian themes. Protestantism was however persecuted by the [[Spanish Inquisition]], and, in the Northeast, the Protestant Navarrese king converted to Roman Catholicism and became king [[Henry IV of France]].
The self-government of the northern Basque provinces came to an end with the [[French Revolution]], which centralized government and abolished all of the various local privileges granted by the ''[[ancien régime]]''. Some Basques were pushed to counter-revolutionary positions while others actively participated, even writing a Basque constitutional project by Basque revolutionary [[Garat]]. It brought the Basque Country to the [[Convention War]] ([[1793]]), with all Basque territories being nominally French for a time. Later on, when the [[Napoleon]]ic Army invaded Spain, it had almost no trouble in keeping the southern Basque provinces loyal to the occupier, and the southern Basque Country was the last part of Spain kept by the French because of this lack of resistance (see [[Battle of Vitoria]]). It all ended with the [[August 31]], [[1813]] [[burning of San Sebastian]];
[[Image:1850espanya.jpg|thumb|left|Political Spain in 1854, after the first [[Carlist]] War]]In Spain, with some irony, through the various civil wars of the [[19th century]] the [[Fueros|''fueros'']] were upheld by the traditionalist and nominally [[absolute monarchy|absolutist]] [[Carlism|Carlists]] and opposed by the victorious constitutional forces. The southern Basque provinces and Navarre made up the backbone of the ([[Carlism|Carlist]]) upheavals, which sought to give the crown of Spain to the male heir Carlos (and, later, to the heirs of his line), who promised to defend the [[Fueros|Basque foral System]].
Very much Christianized at that time, and fearing that, under modern liberal uniformizing constitutions they would lose their self-government or ''Fueros'', Spanish Basques massively joined the traditionalist army, which was mostly paid by the provincial governments of the Basque provinces. The forces of the [[Isabeline Army]] on the other hand had a vital participation of British (whose Irish legion (''Tercio'') was virtually annihilated by the Basques on the [[Battle of Oriamendi]]), French (also with an important [[Algeria|Algerian]] legion), and Portuguese legions and those governments support against the Basques. During the [[First Carlist War]], as the differences between the Apostolic (official) and the Navarrese (Basque basis) parties inside the Carlist rebel band grew, the latter signed an armistice which included the promise by the Spaniards of keeping Basque self-government. As this promise was not accomplished fully, there was a further upheaval, the [[Second Carlist War]], which ended in a similar way. Ultimately, the Basque provinces and Navarre lost most of their autonomous power, but retained control over fiscal laws and collections with [[Ley Paccionada]], a power they still retain in modern day Spain in the form of fiscal ''[[conciertos]]'' with the national government in Madrid.
Thus the same wars that brought relative liberty to most of Spain abolished most (but not all) of the traditional liberties of the Basques. However, the Spanish Basque provinces retained the widest autonomy in peninsular Spain, but far less than they had previously experienced.
However, the advance of Spanish customs from the Basque borders to the French border formed a new protected market in Spain for the incipient Basque industry.
*[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World'', 1984
===Modern history===
The new markets encouraged the replacement of the old forges by modern [[blast furnace]]s, that processed the local iron ore instead of sending it to Britain. The mining and the iron industry required workers, first among Basque peasants, later from the surrounding Navarre, Castile, Rioja, and farther away in Galicia and Andalusia. The awful conditions of these workers (Biscay had one of the highest mortality rates in Europe) prompted the diffusion of leftist ideologies.
The end of the 19th century witnessed the appearance of the new [[Basque nationalism]] which came with the foundation of the Basque Nationalist Party ([[EAJ-PNV]]), in which [[Christian-Democratic]] ideas were mixed with racism against Spanish immigrant workers who were seen as perverting the purity of the mythical Basque race. The party asked for independence or at least autonomy.
In [[1931]] Spain became a Republic and soon [[Catalonia]] (the next most ethnically distinct region inside Spain, also with a strong independence movement) was given self-government. However, the Basques had to wait until the [[Spanish Civil War]] was already under way to be granted the same rights.
Basques fought on both sides in the Spanish Civil War, with [[Basque nationalist]]s and [[left-wing politics|leftists]] from Biscay and Guipúzcoa siding with the [[Second Spanish Republic]], and the Navarrese Carlists siding with General [[Francisco Franco]]'s insurgent forces (who were known in the rest of Spai |
&ndash;[[January 21]], [[1949]]}}
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[[Category:1887 births|Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[Category:1975 deaths|Chiang Kai-shek]]
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[[Category:Politicians of the Republic of China]]
[[Category:Revolutionaries]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chiúⁿ Kài-se̍k]]
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[[fr:Tchang Kaï-chek]]
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[[zh:蔣中正]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chopsticks</title>
<id>6861</id>
<revision>
<id>42071971</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:01:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.124.103.178</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Names */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''"Chopsticks"''' is also the name of a simple piece of music for [[piano]]. See [[Chopsticks (music)]].''
:''"Hashi" redirects here. For the Japanese puzzle game, see [[Hashiwokakero]].''
{| border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style="margin: 10px;"
|-
! colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#CCCCCC | '''Chopsticks'''
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | [[Image:Wooden and plastic chopsticks.jpeg|300px|Wood and plastic chopsticks]]
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Chinese language|Chinese]] name'''
|-
| [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]
| 筷子 (kuàizi <sup>[[Pinyin|?]]</sup> )
|-
|width=150 | [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]]
|width=150 | 筷子 (faai3 zi2 <sup>[[Jyutping|?]]</sup> )
|-
|width=150 | [[Min Nan|Min Nan]]
|width=150 | 箸 (tī <sup>[[POJ|?]]</sup> )
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Japanese language|Japanese]] name'''
|-
| [[Kanji]]
| 箸
|-
| [[Hepburn]] [[Romaji]]
| hashi
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Korean language|Korean]] name'''
|-
| [[Hangul]]
| 젓가락
|-
| width=150 | [[Revised Romanization of Korean|Revised Romanization]]
| width=150 | jeotgarak
|-
| width=150 | [[McCune-Reischauer]]
| width=150 | chŏtkarak
|-
! colspan="2" align="center"|'''[[Thai language|Thai]] name'''
|-
| width="150"| [[Thai alphabet|Thai script]]
| width="150"|ตะเกียบ
|-
| width="150"| [[Royal Thai General System of Transcription|RTGS]]
| width="150"| takiap
|-
! colspan="2" align="center"|'''[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] name'''
|-
| width="150"|''[[Quoc ngu|Quốc ngữ]]''
| width="150"|đũa
|}
'''Chopsticks''', a pair of small even-length tapered sticks, are the traditional [[eating]] utensils of [[East Asia]] ([[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]], the four "chopstick countries") as well as [[Thailand]], where they are now restricted to just soup and noodles since the introduction of [[Western world|Western]] utensils by King [[Rama V]] in the 19th century. Chopsticks are commonly made of [[wood]], [[bamboo]], [[metal]], [[bone]], [[ivory]], and in modern times, [[plastic]] as well. It is believed that [[silver]] chopsticks were used in the Chinese royal palace to detect poison (possibly metallic oxides) in the royalty's meals; if poison was present, the chopsticks would become blackened owing to [[Single displacement reaction|displacement]].
==Names==
"Chopstick" is the [[pidgin]]-English and [[English language|English]] name for the tools. "Chop" is pidgin-English for "quick", which remains in the English word "chop chop". The [[Standard Chinese]] word for chopsticks is ''kuàizi'' (筷子) or ''kuài'er'' (筷兒), literally meaning "the [[bamboo]]-objects for [[eat]]ing quickly", but actually "筷" is [[Chinese character classification|radical-phonetic compounds]], "快" is phonetic part, which does not have meaning ''quick'' here. However, originally in [[Classical Chinese]] and some dialects, like [[Min Nan]], the word 箸 ([[Pinyin]]:''zhù'', [[Min Nan]]: ''tī''), was used, possibly just a [[phonetic]] [[Chinese character|character]] that merely indicates that the object is made of bamboo, "箸" (zhu). Since the word is similar in sound as the word for stop (住 駐) or to rot, the word is considered a taboo on ships, because it would imply delay or misfortune on the voyage. As such, the Chinese began to refer chopsticks as "筷" which has the same root and sound as "快" meaning fast.
In [[Japanese language|Japanese]] chopsticks are called ''hashi'', written 箸. They are also known as {{nihongo|''otemoto''|おてもと|}}, a phrase commonly printed on the wrappers of disposable chopsticks.
In [[Korea]], 箸 (''jeo'') is used in the compound ''jeotgarak'' (젓가락) which is composed of ''jeo'' (chopsticks) and ''garak'' (stick). ''Jeo'' cannot be used alone.
The [[Vietnamese language]] uses the word ''đũa''<!--, which means "__"-->.
The [[Thai language]] uses the word "ตะเกียบ" (roughly pronounced dta-gee-yap)<!-- can it be broken down / analysed / etc? -->.
==History==
Chopsticks were developed in China about 3,000 to 5,000 years ago, although the exact date is unknown.
Tools resembling chopsticks were unearthed in the archeological site [[Megiddo (place)|Meggido]] in [[Israel]], belonging to [[Scythian]] invaders of [[Canaan]] before and contemporary to [[Moses]] and [[Joshua]]. This discovery may reveal the existence of a trade relationship between the Middle East and the Far East in early antiquity, or may be an independent parallel development. Chopsticks were also common household items of civilized [[Uyghur]]s on the [[Mongolian]] [[Steppes]] during the 6-8th centuries. [http://www.uglychinese.org/hun.htm]
==Usage==
Held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, they are used as [[tongs]] to take up portions of the food, which is brought to the table cut up into small and convenient pieces, or (except in Korea) as means for sweeping the rice and small particles of food into the mouth from the bowl. Many rules of [[etiquette]] govern the proper conduct of the chopsticks.
Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Biases against [[left-handed]] eating are becoming less severe. Chopsticks may now be found in either hand, although some still consider left-handed chopstick use as improper etiquette.
Chopsticks are simple in design: merely two thin rods (top and bottom area smaller than one square centimeter, length varies), each slightly tapered. The smaller, round ends come in contact with the food. Mastery requires some practice. In chopstick-using cultures, food is generally made into small pieces. Also, [[rice]] in East Asia is often prepared to be sticky, which leads to "clumping" of the rice condusive to eating with chopsticks, while rice prepared using [[Western World|Western]] methods tend to be "fluffy", and is particularly difficult to eat with chopsticks. The stickyness also depends on the cultivar of rice; the cultivar used in the chopstick countries tends to be ''japonica'', which is stickier than ''indica'', which is used in curries.
==Types==
There are several styles of chopsticks that vary in respect to:
* '''Length''': Very long chopsticks, sometimes upwards of a meter in length, but usually about thirty or forty centimeters, tend to be used for cooking, especially for deep frying foods. In Japan they are called saibashi (菜箸). Shorter chopsticks are generally used as eating utensils but are nevertheless used in the kitchen for cooking.
* '''Tapering''': The end of the chopsticks for picking up food are tapered to a blunt or a pointed end. Blunt tapered chopsticks provide more surface area for holding food and for shoveling rice. Pointed tapered chopsticks allow for easier manipulation of food and for picking out bones from whole cooked fish.
* '''Material''': Chopsticks can be made from a variety of materials: [[metal]]s, [[jade]], [[plastic]]s, [[wood]] and [[bamboo]], [[bone]] and [[ivory]].
::*''Wood and bamboo'' chopsticks are cheap, low in temperature conduction and provide good grip for holding food due to their matte surfaces. However, they can warp and deteriorate with continued use, and can harbor bacteria if not properly cleaned. Almost all cooking and disposable chopsticks are made of either wood or bamboo. Disposable unlacquered chopsticks are used especially in restaurants. These come as a piece of wood which is partially cut, and then must be broken into two chopsticks by the user.
::*''Plastic'' chopsticks are cheap and low in temperature conduction. Furthemore they do not harbor bacteria or deteriorate much with continued use. Plastic chopsticks however, cannot be used for cooking since high temperatures may damage the chopsticks and produce toxic compounds.
::*''Metal'' chopsticks are durable and are easy to clean. However, due to their smooth surfaces, metal chopsticks do not hold food as well as wood, plastic or bone chopsticks, and furthermore they tend to be more expensive. Their higher heat conduction also means that they are not as comfortable to use in cooking.
::*Materials such as ivory, jade, gold, and silver are typically chosen for luxury reasons.
* '''Embellishments''': Wooden or bamboo chopsticks can be painted or lacquered to decorate them and make them waterproof. Metal chopsticks are sometimes roughened or scribed on the tapered end in order to make them less |
directly issue [[patent]] and [[copyright]] protections &mdash; often revealing the [[trade secret]]s &mdash; the guilds' power faded. After the [[French Revolution]] they fell in most European nations through the [[1800s]], as the guild system was disbanded and replaced by free trade laws. By that time, many former handicraft workers had been forced to seek employment in the emerging manufacturing industries, using not closely-guarded techniques but standardized methods controlled by [[corporation]]s.
This was not uniformly viewed as a [[public good]]: [[Karl Marx]] criticized the [[Marx's_theory_of_alienation|alienation]] of the worker from the products of work that this created, and the [[exploitation]] possible since materials and hours of work were closely controlled by the owners of the new, large scale [[means of production]].
==Influence of guilds==
Guilds are sometimes said to be the precursors of modern [[trade union]]s, and also, paradoxically, of some aspects of the modern [[corporation]]. Guilds, however, were groups of self-employed skilled craftsmen with ownership and control over the materials and tools they needed to produce their goods. Guilds were, in other words, small business associations and thus had very little in common with trade unions. However, the journeymen organizations, which were at the time illegal, may have been influential.
The exclusive privilege of a guild to produce certain goods or provide certain services was similar in spirit and character with the original [[patent]] systems that surfaced in England in [[1624]]. These systems played a role in ending the guilds' dominance, as [[trade secret]] methods were superseded by modern firms directly revealing their techniques, and counting on the state to enforce their legal [[monopoly]].
Some guild traditions still remain in a few handicrafts, in Europe especially among [[shoemaker]]s and [[barber]]s. Some of the [[ritual]] traditions of the guilds were conserved in [[order (religious)|order]] organizations such as the [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]]. These are, however, not very important economically except as reminders of the responsibilities of some trades toward the public.
Modern [[antitrust]] law could be said to be derived in some ways from the original statutes by which the guilds were abolished in Europe.
== Modern guilds ==
Modern guilds exist in different forms around the world. In many European countries guilds have had a revival as local organisations for craftsmen, primarily in traditional skills. They may function as fora for developing competence and are often the local units of a national employers organization.
In the [[United States]] guilds exist in several fields. The [[Screen Actors Guild]] and [[Writers Guild of America]] are capable of exercising very strong control in [[Hollywood]] because a very strong and rigid system of intellectual property respect exists (as with some medieval trades). These guilds exclude other actors and writers who do not abide by the strict rules for competing within the film and television industry in America.
Real estate brokerage is an excellent example of a modern American guild. Telltale signs of guild behavior are on display in real estate brokerage: standard pricing (6% of the home price), strong affiliation among all practicioners, self-regulation (see [[National Association of Realtors]]), strong cultural identity (see [[Realtor]]), little price variation with quality differences, and traditional methods in use by all practicioners. In September 2005, the U.S. Department of Justice filed an antitrust lawsuit against the National Association of Realtors challenging NAR practices that, DOJ asserts, prevent competition from practicioners who use different methods. The DOJ and the Federal Trade Commission in 2005 advocated against state laws, supported by NAR, that disadvantage new kinds of brokers. For a description of the DOJ action, see [http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/nar.htm]. U.S. v. National Assoc. of Realtors, U.S. District Court Norther District Illinois, Eastern Division, September 7, 2005, Civil Action No. 05C-5140.
Scholars from the [[history of ideas]] have noticed that [[consultant]]s play a part similar to that of the journeymen of the guild systems: they often travel a lot, work at many different companies and spread new practices and knowledge between companies and corporations.
Many professional organizations similarly resemble the guild structure. Professions such as architecture, engineering, and land surveying require varying lengths of apprenticeships before one can be granted a 'professional' certification. These certifications hold great legal weight and are required in most states as a prerequisite to doing business there.
[[Thomas Malone]] of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] champions a modern variant of the guild structure for modern "e-lancers", professionals who do mostly [[telework]] for multiple employers. [[Insurance]] including any [[professional liability]], [[intellectual capital]] protections, an [[ethical code]] perhaps enforced by peer pressure and software, and other benefits of a strong association of producers of knowledge, benefit from [[economies of scale]], and may prevent cut-throat competition that leads to inferior services undercutting prices. And, as with historical guilds, resist foreign competition.
The [[free software]] community has from time to time explored a guild-like structure to unite against competition from [[Microsoft]], e.g. [[Advogato]] assigns journeyer and master ranks to those committing to work only or mostly on free software. [[Debian]] also publishes a list of what constitutes [[free software]].
In the [[City of London]], the ancient guilds survive as [[Livery Company|Livery Companies]], most of which play a ceremonial role.
In [[MMORPG|online computer games]] players form groups called [[Player guild]]s who perform some of the functions of ancient guilds. They organize group activities, regulate member behavior, exclude non-conforming individuals, and react as a group when member safety or some aspect of guild life is threatened. In games where fictional "building" is possible they may cooperate on projects in their online world. The practice was taken from the Guilds in the quasi-medieval settings of the [[role-playing game]] [[Dungeons and Dragons]]. The first computer implementation was in the ground-breaking [[MUD]] [[Avalon, the Legend Lives|Avalon]]. The first graphical online RPG to provide guilds was ''[[Neverwinter Nights#History|Neverwinter Nights]]'', which ran from [[1991]] to [[1997]] on [[AOL]].
==References==
* Dolven, Arne S.: ''Vocational Education in Europe'' in Dolven, Arne S. and Gunnar Pedersen (eds): Fagopplaeringsboka 2004, Oslo: Kommuneforlaget 2004 (in Norwegian)
* Eggerer, Elmar W.: ''Sworn Brethren and Sistren — Britische Gilden und Zünfte von der normannischen Eroberung bis 1603'', München 1993 (in German)
* Söderlund, Ernst: ''Den svenska arbetarklassens historia — Hantverkarna II frihetstiden och den gustavianska tiden'' Stockholm 1949 (in [[Swedish language|Swedish]])
* Rouche, Michel, "Private life conquers state and society," in ''A History of Private Life'' vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987 ISBN 0-674-39974-9
* [http://www.takver.com/history/benefit/ctormys.htm Craft, Trade or Mystery: Part One — Britain from Gothic Cathedrals to the Tolpuddle Conspirators] By Dr Bob James (revised 2002)
== External links ==
* [http://eh.net/encyclopedia/?article=richardson.guilds Medieval guilds] (EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic History)
* [http://www.public.iastate.edu/~gbetcher/373/guilds.htm Medieval guilds] (Medieval guilds)
[[Category:Crafts]]
[[Category:Economic history]]
[[Category:Labor]]
[[ca:Gremi]]
[[da:Lav (organisation)]]
[[de:Zunft]]
[[es:Gremio]]
[[fi:Kiltalaitos]]
[[fr:Corporation]]
[[he:גילדה]]
[[ja:ギルド]]
[[nl:Gilde (beroepsgroep)]]
[[no:Laug]]
[[pl:Gildia]]
[[sv:Skråväsen]]
[[uk:Цехи]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Googolgon</title>
<id>12370</id>
<revision>
<id>15910063</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-30T20:49:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eric119</username>
<id>7110</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Googol]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Googol]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gas Laws</title>
<id>12371</id>
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<id>15910064</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-26T14:18:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tarquin</username>
<id>83</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge & #REDIRECT [[Gas laws]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gas laws]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gradius</title>
<id>12372</id>
<revision>
<id>41668687</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:22:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Larsinio</username>
<id>324978</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Weapon system */ formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Arcade Game| title = Gradius
|image = [[Image:gradius_01.png|Gradius title screen]]
|developer = [[Konami]]
|publisher = [[Konami]]
|designer =
|engine =
|release = [[1985]]
|genre = [[Scrolling shooter]]
|modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]]
|cabinet = Standard
|monitor = [[Raster graphics|Raster]], standard resolution (Used: 256 x 224)<br />horizontal orientation
|arcade system = [[Konami GX400]]
|ports = [[MSX]], [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]], [[PC Engine]], [[Commodore 64]], [[X68000]], [[NEC PC-8801]], [[Sharp X1]], [[PlayStation]], [[Sega Saturn]], [[PlayStation Portable]], [[Microsoft Windows]]
|media =
|input = 8-way [[joystick]], 3 buttons
}}
'''''Gradius''''' ([[Europe|EU]]:'''Nemesis''') is a [[scroll |
<id>39727342</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T12:29:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.204.77.23</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gustav Radbruch''', born [[November 21]], [[1878]] in [[Lübeck]]; died [[November 23]], [[1949]] in [[Heidelberg]], was a [[Germany|German]] [[law]] professor and political figure.
==Life==
Radbruch studied law in Munich, Leipzig and Berlin. He passed his first bar exam ("[[Staatsexamen]]") in Berlin in 1901, and the following year he received his doctorate with a disseration on "The lessons of adequate Causation." This was followed in 1903 by his qualification to teach criminal law in Heidelberg. In 1904, he was appointed Professor of Criminal and Trial Law and Legal Philosophy in Heidelberg. In 1914 he accepted a call to a professorship in [[Königsberg]] (today's [[Kaliningrad]]), and in 1914 he accepted one at [[Kiel]].
Radbruch was a member of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (SPD), and held a seat in the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] from 1920 to 1924. In 1921-22 and throughout 1923, he was Justice Minister in the cabinets of [[Joseph Wirth]] and [[Gustav Stresemann]]. During his time in office, a number of important laws were implemented, such as those giving women access to the justice system, and, after the assassination of [[Walter Rathenau]], the Law for the Protection of the Republic.
In 1926, Radbruch accepted a renewed call to lecture at Heidelberg. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Radbruch was dismissed from his civil service post, as the universities were public entities. During the Nazi period, he devoted himself primarily to cultural-historical work. Immediately after the end of the [[World War II|Second World War]] in 1945, he resumed his teaching activities, but died in 1949 without being able to complete his planned updated edition of his textbook on legal philosophy.
==Work==
Radbruch's legal philosophy derived from [[Neokantianism]], which assumes that a categorical cleavage exists between Being (''Sein'') and Should (''Sollen''). According to this view, "Should" can never be derived from "Being." Indicative of the Heidelberg school of Neokantianism to which Radbruch subscribed was that it interpolated the value-related cultural studies between the explanatory sciences (Being) and philosophical teachings of values (Should).
In relation to the law, this [[triadism]] shows itself in the subfields of legal sociology, legal philosophy and legal dogma. Legal dogma assumes a place in between. It posits itself in opposition to positive law, as the latter depicts itself in social reality and methodologically in the objective "should-have" sense of law, which reveals itself through value-related interpretation.
The core of Radbruch's legal philosophy consists of his tenets the concept of law and the idea of law. The idea of law is defined through a triad of justice, utility and security. Radbruch thereby had the idea of utility or usefuleness spring forth from an analysis of the idea of justice. Upon this notion was based the Radsbrucian formula, which is still vigorously debated today. The concept of law, for Radbruch, is "nothing other than the given fact, which has the sense to serve the idea of law."
Hotly disputed is the question whether Radbruch was a legal positivist before 1933 and executed an about-face in his thinking due to the advent of Nazism, or whether he continuned to develop, under the impression of Nazi crimes, the relativistic values-teaching he had already been advocating before 1933.
The problem of the controversy between the spirit and the letter of the law, in Germany, has been brought back to public attention due to the trials of former East German soldiers who guarded the Berlin Wall--the so-called necessity of following orders. Radbruch's theories are posited against the positivist "pure legal tenets" represented by [[Hans Kelsen]] and, to some extent, also from [[Georg Jellinek]].
In sum, Radbruch's formula argues that where [[statutory law]] is incompatible with the requirements of [[justice]] "to an intolerable degree", or where statutory law was obviously designed in a way that deliberately negates "the equality that is the core of all justice", statutory law must be disregarded by a judge in favour of the justice principle. Since its first publication in [[1946]] the principle has been accepted by Germany's Federal Constitutional Court in a variety of cases. Many people partially blame the older German legal tradition of [[legal positivism]] for the ease with which Hitler obtain power in an outwardly "legal" manner, rather than by means of a coup. Arguably, the shift to a concept of [[natural law]] ought to act as a safeguard against dictatorship, an untrammeled State power and the abrogation of civil rights.
[[Category:1878 births|Radbruch, Gustav]]
[[Category:1949 deaths|Radbruch, Gustav]]
[[Category:German jurists|Radbruch, Gustav]]
[[Category:German ministers|Radbruch, Gustav]]
[[Category:German politicians|Radbruch, Gustav]]
[[de:Gustav Radbruch]]
[[pl:Gustav Radbruch]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Great programmer</title>
<id>12817</id>
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<timestamp>2003-02-20T12:34:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Egil</username>
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<comment>Double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of programmers]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Greenlandic language</title>
<id>12818</id>
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<timestamp>2004-12-02T02:36:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eequor</username>
<id>49577</id>
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<comment>Redirect.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Kalaallisut language]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gospels</title>
<id>12819</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gospel]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gate</title>
<id>12821</id>
<revision>
<id>42110725</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:12:35Z</timestamp>
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<ip>62.183.50.164</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For alternate meanings see [[Gate (disambiguation)]]''
A '''gate''' (Ворота) is a point of entry to a space enclosed by [[wall]]s, or an opening in a fence. Gates may prevent or control entry or exit, or they may be merely decorative.
Larger gates can be used for a whole building, such as a [[castle]] or [[fortified town]], or the actual [[door]]s that block entry through the gatehouse.
In ancient and [[medieval times]], gatehouses of cities and castles were heavily defended and [[fortified]] to prevent breaching of the gates. Often the gate would consist of several pairs of doors and [[iron]] [[grate]]s along a [[tunnel]] through the gatehouse. The top of the tunnel commonly had [[murder hole]]s to allow defenders to attack [[invader]]s trying to breach the inner doors. [[Drawbridge]]s were common in conjuction with gates to facilitate passing the [[moat]]; moats were often used to increase the effective height of the walls.
See also: [[City gate]], [[Triumphal arch]], [[Torii]], [[Turnstile]], [[domotics]].
<gallery>
Image:Gate ajar.jpg|Gates may prevent entry, or they may be merely decorative.
Image:Gate at Stevens-Coolidge Place, Andover, Massachusetts.JPG|A small but elegant gate to a meadow path.
Image:Pergamonmuseum Babylon Ischtar-Tor.jpg|[[Ishtar Gate]] is the oldest [[city gate]] in existence.
Image:Sankt Petersburg Winterpalast 2005 e.jpg|Gates to official residences often feature elaborate [[ironwork]].
</gallery>
[[Category:Fortification]]
[[Category:Architectural elements]]
[[Category:Gates]]
[[de:Tor (Architektur)]]
[[pl:Brama (architektura)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Greek fire</title>
<id>12822</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:42:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeffrey O. Gustafson</username>
<id>158658</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/134.174.248.151|134.174.248.151]] ([[User talk:134.174.248.151|talk]]) to last version by Tom harrison</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Depiction of Greek fire in the [[John Skylitzes|Madrid Skylitzes manuscript]].]]
'''Greek fire''' (also called '''Byzantine fire''', '''wildfire''' and '''[[liquid fire]]''', [[Greek language|Greek]] '''Υγρό Πυρ''', ''igró pir'') was a weapon used by the [[Byzantine Empire]], said to have been invented by a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] (Syria), probably about [[673]]. Some people believe that he acquired this knowledge from the chemists of [[Alexandria]]. It was capable of discharging a stream of burning [[fluid]], and was very effective both on sea and land. However, it was used primarily at sea. It is rumored that the key to Greek fire's effectiveness was that it could continue burning under almost any conditions, even under water. It was known to the Byzantines' enemies as a "wet, dark, sticky fire" because it stuck to the unfortunate object it hit and was impossible to extinguish. Enemy ships were often afraid to come too near to the [[Byzantine navy|Byzantine fleet]], because, once within range, the [[fire]] gave the Byzantines |
ction of many sites is now believed to be much later than had formerly been thought. Many buildings changed use, but were not destroyed. There were growing barbarian attacks, but these were focused on vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as [[Great Casterton]] in [[Rutland]] and [[Hucclecote]] in [[Gloucestershire]] had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy, although many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the fifth century; the story of [[Saint Patrick]] indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. New buildings were still going up in this period in [[Verulamium]] and [[Cirencester]]. Some urban centres, for example [[Canterbury]], [[Cirencester]], [[Wroxeter]], [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]] and [[Gloucester]], remained active during the fifth and sixth centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the fourth century, and [[coin]]s minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, and problems with the payment of soldiers and officials. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, although it never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, although minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were no new Roman coins going into circulation and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Pottery mass production probably ended a decade or two previously; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor probably adopted leather or wooden ones.
==Religion==
Religion in Roman Britain consisted originally of [[Paganism|pagan]] worship. A common element was the conflation of Roman gods and local Iron Age deities such as Mars Rigonemetos at [[Nettleham]]. The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain northern European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record but the differences in the [[votive offering]]s made at Bath before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial.
Worship of the emperor himself is widely recorded, especially at military sites.
Oriental cults such as [[Mithraism]] and [[Christianity]] grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The [[Temple of Mithras, London|Temple of Mithras]] is one example of the popularity of [[mystery religion]]s amongst the rich urban classes and by the fourth century there is archaeological evidence of Christian worship; small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and fonts have been found at [[Icklingham]] and the [[Saxon Shore|Saxon Shore Fort]] at [[Richborough]]. The [[Water Newton Treasure]] is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early fourth century and the Roman villas at [[Lullingstone]] and [[Hinton St Mary]] contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. Amongst the ordinary Romano-Britons it is difficult to determine the adoption of Christianity although a large fourth century cemetery at [[Poundbury]] with its east-west oriented burials and lack of [[grave goods]] has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground. Such burial rites were becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period as well however.
It is not clear when Christianity came to Britain, or how. Some ancient texts seem to suggest that Christianity came early though by no means achieved anything approaching religious supremacy until after the Roman conquest due in part to the continued influx of pagan influences from the continent. Early Roman writers, and pre-reformation scholars certainly believed that Celtic Britain may have been Christianized early. [[Tertullian]] (155-222) wrote in '''[http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-19.htm#P2021_691723 Adversus Judaeos]''' that Britain had already received and accepted the Gospel in his lifetime:
:''[...] Hispaniarum omnes termini et Galliarum diversae nationes et Britannorum inaccessa Romanis loca Christo [...]''
:[...] all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ [...]
According to archaeological record, Christianity seems to have been slower to spread in Britain than in some other parts of the Roman Empire, although there were British martyrs in the periods of persecution: St [[Alban]] of [[Verulamium]] and SS [[Aaron]] and [[Julius]] of [[Isca Silurum]]. By the fifth century, however, the new religion appears to have become established. The evidence for this process is complex, and described in [[Celtic Christianity]]. What evidence there is, is sketchy, however there is evidence to suggest that what Christian community that did exist in early Britain had already established some orthodoxy by 363, as evidenced by a letter found in Bath, Somerset from a Christian man, Vinisius, who writes from the Roman city of Wroxeter (near present-day Shrewsbury) to a Christian lady named Nigra, living in Bath. Vinisius warns Nigra of the arrival of one Bilonicus, whom he calls a ''canem Arii'', that is, a follower (dog) of the heretic Arios. The early Church in Roman Britain seems to have also developed the customary diocesan system as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul, 314. These contain the earliest references to bishops in Britain. Represented at the Council were bishops from thirty-five sees from North Africa, Gaul, Britain, Spain, Italy and Dalmatia. Signatories include three bishops from Britain. These were Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius.
==Sub-Roman Britain==
{{main|Sub-Roman Britain}}
Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attack on all sides towards the end of the 4th century, and troops were too few to mount an effective defence. The army rebelled and, after elevating two disappointing usurpers, chose a soldier, [[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine III]], to become Emperor in 407. He soon crossed to Gaul with an army, to be defeated by [[Theodosius I]]; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, nor whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons themselves, and in 409 [[Zosimus]] records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. A later appeal for help by the British communities was rejected by the emperor [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]] in 410. This apparent contradiction has been explained by EA Thompson as a peasant revolt against the landowning classes, with the latter group asking for Roman help; an uprising certainly occurred in Gaul at the time. With the higher levels of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and small warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still aspiring to Roman ideals and conventions.
By tradition, the pagan Saxons were invited by [[Vortigern]] to assist in fighting the Picts and Irish, though archaeology has suggested some official settlement as landed mercenaries as early as the third century. The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time many Britons fled to [[Brittany]] (whence its name). Similar orders were sent out in the 490s but met with no response. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the famous [[Groans of the Britons]], an unanswered appeal to [[Flavius_Aëtius|Aëtius]], leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446; another is the [[Battle of Dyrham]] in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.
Most scholars reject the historicity of the later [[legend]]s of [[King Arthur]], which seem to be set in this period, but some such as John Morris see it as evidence behind which may lie a plausible grain of truth.
==The legacy==
During their occupation of Britain, the Romans built an extensive network of [[Roman road|roads]], many of which are still in use today. The Romans also built water and [[sewage]] systems.
The prestige of the empire influenced Britons' views of themselves for generations to come.
Britain is also noteworthy as having the largest European region of the former Roman Empire which currently speaks neither (as a majority language):
*A [[Romance language]] (for example, [[Romania]], where territory was under Roman control about half as long as Britain), nor
*A language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants (such as [[Greek language|Greek]]), though [[Welsh language|Welsh]] exists as a [[minority language]], with many borrowings from Latin, such as ''llaeth'' ("milk"), ''ffenestr'' ("window").
For what is known of the process that introduced English to much of this former province, see the article [[Anglo-Saxons]].
==See also==
*[[Britannia (disambiguation)]]
*[[Roman departure from Britain]]
*[[List of Roman governors of Britain]]
*[[Roman client kingdoms in Britain]]
*[[History of Britain]]
*[[Romano-British]]
*[[Sub-Roman Britain]]
*[[Roman sites in the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]
==Literature==
Britannia: A History of Roman Britain
==External links==
*[http://www.roman-britain.org/overview.htm Roman Britain, by Kevan&nbsp;W. White]
*[http://www.morgue.demon.co.uk/ The Roman Army and Navy in Britain, by Peter Green]
*[http://www.romanbritain.freeserve.co.uk/ Roman Britain: Quentin de la Bedoyere]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gaz |
t; [http://www.themallathens.gr] located in the classy northern suburb of [[Maroussi]] also offer an enormous variety of international selections that can totally satisfy even the most demanding customer. Some central areas (mostly just south of [[Omonoia Square]]) are mainly peopled by immigrants and are therefore full of colorful ethnic restaurants and shops. [[Image:Lykavittos uncropped.jpg|thumb|right|A panoramic view of Athens from the Lykavittos Hill.]]
Casinos operate on both Mount Parnitha, some 30 km from downtown Athens (accessible by car or cable car) and the nearby town of [[Loutraki]] (accessible by car via the Athens - Corinth National Highway or the suburban railway). An entirely new attraction is the massively upgraded main Olympic Complex (known by its Greek acronym OAKA). The whole area has been redeveloped under designs by the Spanish architect [[Santiago Calatrava]] with steel arches, lanscaped gardens, fountains, futuristic passages and a landmark new blue glass roof which was added to the main Stadium. A second olympic complex, next to the sea at the beach of [[Kallithea]] (Faliron), also boasts futuristic stadiums, shops and an elevated esplanade.
Many of Athens' southern suburbs (such as [[Alimos]], [[Palaio Faliro]], [[Elliniko]], [[Voula]], [[Vouliagmeni]] and [[Vari]]) host a number of beautiful, sandy beaches, most of which are operated by the Hellenic Tourism Organization [http://www.gnto.gr]. This means that one has to pay a fee in order to get in. None the less, this fee is not expensive in most cases and it includes a number of related, convenient services like parking facilities, coctail drinks and umbrellas. These beaches are extremely popular in the summer by both Athenians and foreign tourists. The city is also surrounded by four easily accessible mountains (Parnitha and Penteli to the north, Hemmettus to the southeast and Egaleo to the west). Mount Parnitha, in particular, is the tallest of all (1,453 m) and it has been declared a protected National Park. It has tens of well-marked paths, gorges, springs, torrents and caves and you may even meet deer or bears while exploring its dense forests. Hiking and mountain biking in all four mountains have been and still remain popular outdoor activities for many Athenians. What is more, [[Lykavittos]] is the tallest hill of the city that, according to an ancient legend, was actually a boulder thrown down by Goddess Athena. Located in the city center, near Alexandras' and Vassilisis Sofia's Avenues, it offers magnificent, literally breathtaking views of sprawling Athens that lies underneath. On top of it, stands the picturesque St. George's church which is definitely a must-see. The nearby islands of [[Salamis Island|Salamina]], [[Aegina|Aigina]], [[Poros]], [[Hydra, Saronic Islands|Hydra]] and [[Spetses]] are also sites of spectacular natural beauty and historical architecture. Work is underway to transform the grounds of the old Athens Airport - named [[Ellinikon International Airport|Hellinikon]] - in the southern suburbs into a massive landscaped park (considered to be the largest in Europe when ready). The Athens municipality maintains a site of tourist interest: http://www.cityofathens.gr/
=== 20th century architecture in Athens ===
*East terminal by [[Eero Saarinen]], at former Hellenikon airport, 1960-63
*American embassy by [[Walter Gropius]], at Vassilis Sophias Avenue, 1961
*[[Athens Olympic Sports Complex]], by [[Santiago Calatrava]] ([[2001]]-[[2004]]) ([http://users.auth.gr/~lvorgias/ sketches and models])
*National Bank at Aiolou Str./Sopholeous Str. by [[Mario Botta]] in 2002
*Bridge at Metro-station Katehaki by [[Santiago Calatrava]] ([[2004]])
*New Acropolis Museum by [[Bernard Tschumi]] ([[2001]]-[[2006]])
==Transportation==
[[Image:Athens-Transport-Map-All.png|thumb|right|A Greek map of the greater Athens area shows the metro, tram, and suburban railway lines as well as the Eleftherios Venizelos Airport and the various Olympic facilities.]]
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Athens_airport_new.jpg|right|thumb|200px|New Athens Airport named after the politician [[Eleftherios Venizelos]]]] -->
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Attiki_odos_flyover.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Attiki Odos Motorway]] -->
The [[public transport]] system in Athens consists of [[bus]][http://www.oasa.gr], [[metro]][http://www.ametro.gr/], [[tram]][http://linuxweb.internet.gr/tramsa/html/gr/index.php] and suburban railway [http://www.proastiakos.gr] services.
The [[Athens Metro]] is one of the most modern and efficient systems in the world. It has four lines, three of which are distinguished by the colours used in maps and signs (green, blue and red). The green line, which is the oldest and for the most part runs on the ground, connects [[Piraeus]] to [[Kifissia]]. The other two lines were constructed mainly during the 1990s and the first sections opened in [[January]] [[2000]]. They run entirely underground. The blue line runs from [[Monastiraki]] to [[Doukissis Plakentias]] and the [[Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport]], and the red line from [[Aghios Antonios]] to [[Aghios Dimitrios]]. Extensions to both lines are under construction, most notably westwards to Egaleo and eastwards to the Old Hellinikon Airport East Terminal (future Metropolitan Park). The fourth line is the Proastiakos (suburban) which runs from the [[Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport]] to Athens Central train station. The whole network is managed by three different companies (ISAP line 1)[http://www.isap.gr], Attiko Metro (lines 2 & 3) and Proastiakos (line 4).
The whole Metro system of Athens is currently 91 km long. The mass transport system in Athens has been drastically improved and expanded in the recent years, up until [[1999]] the length of the system was of just 25 km (23 stations) and comprised of only one line. It's expected that by 2009 it will reach 124 km (72 stations), after the construction of the current phase of expansions is completed.
The bus service consists of a network of lines on which normal buses, [[trolley bus|electric buses]], and natural gas buses run (the largest fleet of natural gas run buses in Europe). There are plenty of bus lines serving Athens and the suburbs, and they link the centre of the city with most of the suburbs and neighborhoods.
The tram runs from Syntagma Square to [[Palaio Faliro]], where the line splits in two branches, towards [[Glyfada]] and Neo Faliro. Both Syntagma - Palaio Faliro - Neo Faliro and the Glyfada branch opened on [[19 July]] [[2004]]. Further extensions are planned towards [[Piraeus]] and Vouliagmeni.
There are many [[taxicab|taxis]] in Athens, which can be recognised by the yellow colour of the vehicles. They are quite cheap and during rush hours it is considered normal to hail a taxi even when it is in service (although, strictly speaking, this is forbidden); in that case, if the one halting it happens to go to the same direction as the customer and the customer does not mind (although this is never brought up or an issue), he is also allowed in, and each one pays normally as if they were the only customer.
Athens is served, since [[March]] [[2001]], by the [[Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport]] at [[Spata]], east of the city, about a 45-minute taxi ride from the city centre. There is also an express bus service connecting the airport to the metro system and 2 express bus services connecting the airport to [[Piraeus]] port and the city centre respectively. Athens is also the hub of the Greek National Railway System, and ferries from [[Piraeus]] Port travel to all Greek islands.
There are two motorways that travel to the west towards [[Patra]]: ([[Greece Interstate 8A|GR-8A]], [[E94]]) and to the north towards [[Thessaloniki]] ([[Greece Interstate 1|GR-1]], [[E75]]). In [[2001]]-[[2004]] a ring road toll-motorway ([[Attiki Odos]]) was gradually completed, which extends from [[Eleusis|Elefsina]] on the west to the airport after circling the city from the north, plus another from [[Kaisariani]] to [[Glyka Nera]] where it meets the main road for [[Eleusis]] and the airport. Its total length is now about 70 km, up from 18 km in March 2001 when the first section opened to traffic. There are about 21 exits and 4 junctions, up from 8.
See [[Athens Mass Transit System]] for more on this topic.
==Municipality==
[[Image:Athens_seal.jpg|thumb|100px||right|'''Municipality of Athens''' Seal]]
The modern city of Athens consists of what were formerly distinct towns and villages which gradually expanded and merged into a single large metropolis; most of this expansion occurred in the second half of the 20th century. Greater Athens is now divided into 54 municipalities, the largest of which is the '''Municipality of Athens''' or ''Dimos Athinaion'', with about 750,000 people (the next largest are [[Piraeus|Municipality of Piraeus]], [[Peristeri|Municipality of Peristeri]] and [[Peristeri|Municipality of Kallithea]]). ''Athens'' can therefore refer either to the entire metropolitan area or to the Municipality of Athens. Each of the municipalities of Athens has an elected district council and a directly elected mayor. Mrs. [[Dora Bakoyanni]] of the conservative [[New Democracy]] party was [[Mayor of Athens]] from [[1 January]] [[2003]] until [[15 February]] [[2006]], when she joined Greek Cabinet as Minister of Foreign affairs. She was the 76th Mayor of Athens and the first female to hold the post in the history of the city. She was replaced by Theodoros Mpehrakis.
The Municipality of Athens is divided into 7 ''municipal districts'' or ''demotika diamerismata''. The 7-district division however is mainly used for administrative purposes , while for Athenians the most popular way of dividing the city proper is through its ''neighborhoods'' (usually referred to as areas in English), each with its own distinct history a |
they pick up their arrows.
'''Roving Marks'''
A number of marks or flags are set out in an area. Archers shoot from a start point at an elected mark attempting to drop arrows as close as possible. The archer coming closest to the elected mark scores that shot and selects the next mark. Ranges vary. The furthest 'Finsbury' mark is 13 score and 5 (265) yards. When England was a less crowded, country roving marks was a popular pastime and military training. Marks would have been artificial markers or natural features such as tussocks of grass or tree stumps. Roving marks are normally shot with English Longbows.
'''Flight Archery.'''
Flight Archery can only take place where space permits since archers compete by shooting for sheer distance. Archers shoot a number of arrows and then search for the one which has been shot the farthest, marking it with an identifiable marker. At the end of the round, archers stand or sit by their furthest arrows while judges measure the distances they were shot.There are many classes that one can shoot in, depending on the type of bow and its draw force.
'''Popinjay (or Papingo).'''
A form of archery originally derived from shooting birds on church steeples. It is almost unheard of outside of Belgium. Archers stand within 12 feet (3.7 m) of the bottom of a 90 ft (27 m) mast and shoot almost vertically upwards with 'blunts' (arrows with rubber caps on the front instead of a pile), the object being to dislodge any one of a number of wooden 'birds'. These birds must be one Cock, four Hens, and a minimum of twenty-four Chicks. A Cock scores 5 points when hit and knocked off its perch; a Hen, 3; and a Chick, 1 point.
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.hybridhunter.com/ HybridHunter.com] - A Bowhunting Enthusiast's Website
*[http://www.archerytalk.com/ ArcheryTalk.com] - The largest Archery Community online
*[http://www.archery.org/ International Archery Association (FITA)]
*[http://www.archeryassociationofindia.org Archery Association of India]
*[http://www.archery.org.au/ Archery Australia]
*[http://www.usarchery.org/ United States National Archery Association]
*[http://www.booneman.com/ Michigan Hunting and Archery Forum]
*[http://www.koreanarchery.org/ Korean Traditional Archery]
*[http://www.yabusame.com/ Takeda school Kyubadou Yabusame - horseback archery]
*[http://www.gnas.org/ Grand National Archery Society - UK national]
*[http://www.irishfieldarchery.com/ Irish Field Archery Federation]
*[http://www.atarn.org/ Asian Traditional Archery Research Network]
*[http://www.nfaa-archery.org/ United States National Field Archery Association]
*[http://www.scottisharchery.org.uk/ Scottish Archery Association]
*[http://www.archersreference.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/ The Archers Reference]
*[http://www.ibo.net/ International Bowhunting Organization]
*[http://www.archery.org.hk/ Hong Kong Archery Association]
*[http://ozhanozturk.com/content/view/396/1/ Traditional Turkish Sports]
*[http://www.howardbowmen.org.uk/ The Howard Bowmen]
*[http://www.netherhallarchers.org/ Netherhall Archers] - the first Wiki-based website for an archery club?
*[http://museum.man.ac.uk/collections/archery/archery.htm Simon Archery Collection]
*[http://www.freeonlinegames.com/play/322.html Online Archery Game]
*[http://www.archery-interchange.com/forum/ Archery Interchange UK discussion forum]
*[http://www.aasinfo.demon.co.uk/ Association for Archery in Schools]
*[http://www.archery-forum.com/ Archery-Forum.com Australia's #1 Archery Website]
*[http://www.fca.ca/ Federation of Canadian Archers]
*[http://www.bowhunters.ca/ Alberta Bowhunters Association]
*[http://www.archerslog.com/ Archers Log Online logbook for archery scores]
*[http://www.seventharrow.com/ Traditional Archery in the SCA Kingdom of Caid (Southern California)]
*[http://www.k-orb.gr/accuShot/ AccuShot] Free archery analysis software for PC, PocketPC & UIQ
*[http://www.archery-forum.gr/ archery-forum.gr] Forum of archers in Greece
[[Category:Archery]]
[[Category:Hunting]]
[[Category:Medieval warfare]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Precision sports]]
[[Category:Summer Olympic events]]
[[ca:Tir amb arc]]
[[cs:Lukostřelba]]
[[de:Bogenschießen]]
[[es:Tiro con arco]]
[[eo:Arkpafado]]
[[fa:تیراندازی]]
[[fr:Tir à l'arc]]
[[it:Tiro con l'arco]]
[[nl:Boogschieten]]
[[ja:アーチェリー]]
[[no:Bueskyting]]
[[pl:Łucznictwo]]
[[pt:Tiro com arco]]
[[sv:Bågskytte]]
[[zh:射箭]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Al Qaeda</title>
<id>2008</id>
<revision>
<id>15900462</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-13T17:43:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neutrality</username>
<id>68411</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al-Qaeda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alvar Aalto</title>
<id>2009</id>
<revision>
<id>41017434</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T14:41:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Petri Krohn</username>
<id>382847</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Significant buildings */ cleared up Viipuri mess</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto''' ([[February 3]], [[1898]] - [[May 11]], [[1976]]) was a [[Finland|Finnish]] [[architect]] and [[designer]]. He was generally known as '''Alvar Aalto'''.
He was noted for his humanistic approach and for being one of the first and the most influential architects of [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] [[modernism]], so much so that he is sometimes known as the "Father of Modernism" in Scandinavia. His work includes [[architecture]], [[furniture]] and [[glassware]].
He was a member of the [[Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne]]. Major works include the [[Finlandia Hall]] in [[Helsinki]], Finland, and the campus of [[Helsinki University of Technology]]. Aalto's glassware includes the world-famous [[Aalto Vase]].
He is the [[eponym]] of the [[Alvar Aalto Medal]], now considered one of world architecture’s most prestigious awards.
== Life and works ==
<!-- This page badly needs more material. The London Design Museum article might provide some starting points. http://www.designmuseum.org/designerex/alvar-aalto.htm -->
Alvar Aalto was born in [[Kuortane]], [[Finland]]. He studied architecture at the [[Helsinki University of Technology]] from [[1916]] to [[1921]]. He returned to [[Jyväskylä]], where he opened his first architectural office in [[1923]]. The following year he married architect [[Aino Aalto|Aino Marsio]]. Their honeymoon journey to [[Italy]] sealed an intellectual bond with the culture of the [[Mediterranean]] region that was to remain important to Aalto for the rest of his life.
Aalto's wide field of activity ranged from [[furniture]] and [[glassware]] designs to [[architecture]] and [[painting]]. His vase designs are world-famous. Aalto furniture is manufactured by [[Artek (company)|Artek]], a company Aalto co-founded. Aalto glassware (Aino as well as Alvar) is manufactured by [[iittala]].
<!-- and for gods sake discuss his design work. some diagrams would be in order -->
=== Significant buildings ===
[[Image:Baker House, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Detail of Baker House facade onto the [[Charles River]].]]
[[Image:Aalto-Theater 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|
The Aalto-Theater opera house in [[Essen]], [[Germany]].]]
* [[1921]] - [[1923]]: Bell tower, [[Kauhajärvi]], [[Finland]]
* [[1924]] - [[1928]]: Municipal hospital, [[Alajärvi]], [[Finland]]
* [[1926]] - [[1929]]: Defence Corps Building, [[Jyväskylä]], [[Finland]]
* [[1927]] - [[1935]]: Municipal library, [[Viipuri]], Finland ([[Winter War|now]] Vyborg, [[Russia]]), new drawings, [[1928]], [[1929]], [[1933]], built according to last drawings 1934 - 1935.
* [[1928]] - [[1929]], [[1930]]: ''Turun Sanomat'' newspaper offices, [[Turku]], [[Finland]]
* [[1928]] - [[1929]]: Tuberculosis sanatorium and staff housing, [[Paimio]], [[Finland]]
* [[1931]]: Central University Hospital, [[Zagreb]], [[Croatia]] ([[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]])
* [[1934]]: Corso theatre, restaurant interior, [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]
* [[1937]]: Finnish Pavilion, [[1937]] [[World's Fair]]
* [[1937]]-[[1939]]: Ville Mairea [[Finland]]
* [[1939]]: Finnish Pavilion, [[1939]] [[World's Fair]]
* [[1947]] - [[1948]]: [[Baker House]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
* [[1949]] - [[1966]]: [[Helsinki University of Technology]], [[Espoo]], [[Finland]]
* [[1950]] - [[1957]]: [[Kansaneläkelaitos]] (National Pension Institution) office building, [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]]
* [[1952]] - [[1958]]: [[Kulttuuritalo|House of Culture]], [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]]
* [[1958]] - [[1987]]: Town centre, [[Seinäjoki]], [[Finland]]
* [[1958]] - [[1972]]: North Jutland Art Museum, [[Aalborg]], [[Denmark]]
* ?? - [[1965]]: Regional Library of [[Lapland]], [[Rovaniemi]], [[Finland]]
* [[1962]] - [[1971]]: [[Finlandia Hall]], [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]]
* [[1963]] - [[1965]]: Building for [[Westmannia-Dalecarlia Nation]], [[Uppsala]], [[Sweden]]
* ?? - [[1968]]: [[Nordic House]] , [[Reykjavik]], [[Iceland]]
* [[1970]]: [[Mount Angel Abbey]] Library, [[Mount Angel]], [[Oregon]]
* [[1959]] - [[1988]]: Essen opera house, [[Essen]], [[Germany]]
[[Image:Aalto vase.jpg|thumb|left|160px|The Savoy Vase, also known as the [[Aalto Vase]].]]
===Furniture and glassware===
* [[1932]]: Paimio Chair [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=41]
* Furniture collection for the [[Viipuri]] library
** [[1933]] Three-legged stacking Stool 60 [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=60]
** [[1933]] Four-legged Stool E60 [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=E60]
* [[1939]] Armchair 406 [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=406]
* Lamps
** [[1954]] Floor lamp A805 [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=A805]
** [[1959]] Floor lamp A810 [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=A810]
* [[1936]]: [[Savoy Vas |
ay still be drawn from / without ever needing to be filled"). Indeed, parallels may be drawn between the fundamental concepts of the ''logos'' (as it was understood during Heraclitus's time) and the ''Tao''.
Heraclitus is described as having a melancholy disposition, and is sometimes referred to as the "weeping philosopher," as opposed to [[Democritus]], who is known as the "laughing philosopher."
==References==
*Heraclitus, ''Herakleitos and Diogenes'', translated by Guy Davenport, Bolinas: Grey Fox Press, 1979. ISBN 0912516364 (Complete fragments of Heraclitus translated into English)
* Heraclitus, ''Fragments: The Collected Wisdom of Heraclitus'', translated by Brooks Haxton, forward by [[James Hillman]], (parallel English & Greek), Viking Penguin 2001 ISBN 0-670-89195-9.
*[[Martin Heidegger]] and Eugen Fink, ''Heraclitus Seminar'', translated by Charles H. Seibert (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1993). ISBN 0810110679. (Transcript of seminar in which two major German philosophers engage in detailed analysis and discussion of Heraclitus texts)
==See also==
*[[Dialectical monism]]
*[[Pantheism]]
*[[Panentheism]]
*[[Process philosophy]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/heraclit.htm Heraclitus] at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/HERAC.HTM Heraclitus] at Washington State University
* [http://www.thebigview.com/greeks/heraclitus.html The Flux and Fire Philosophy of Heraclitus]
* [http://philoctetes.free.fr/heraclitus.htm Fragments of Heraclitus]
* [http://plato.evansville.edu/public/burnet/ch3a.htm John Burnet ''Early Greek Philosophy:'' brief analysis; the fragments]
* [http://www.cheniere.org/books/aids/appendixIII.htm Tom Bearden ''Fourth Law of Logic''] an approach to Heraclitus's change paradox
{{Presocratics}}
[[Category:535 BC births]]
[[Category:475 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[bg:Хераклит]]
[[ca:Heràclit d'Efés]]
[[cs:Hérakleitos]]
[[da:Heraklit]]
[[de:Heraklit]]
[[el:Ηράκλειτος]]
[[es:Heráclito]]
[[eo:Heraklito]]
[[eu:Herakleitos]]
[[fr:Héraclite d'Éphèse]]
[[ko:헤라클레이토스]]
[[hr:Heraklit]]
[[id:Herakleitos]]
[[it:Eraclito]]
[[he:הרקליטוס]]
[[la:Heraclitus]]
[[nl:Heraclitus]]
[[ja:ヘラクレイトス]]
[[no:Heraklit]]
[[nn:Heraklit]]
[[pl:Heraklit]]
[[pt:Heráclito de Éfeso]]
[[ro:Heraclit]]
[[ru:Гераклит Эфесский]]
[[sk:Herakleitos]]
[[sl:Heraklit Mračni]]
[[fi:Herakleitos]]
[[sv:Herakleitos]]
[[tr:Herakleitos]]
[[zh:赫拉克利特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harrison Schmitt</title>
<id>13793</id>
<revision>
<id>42030513</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:06:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bradcooper</username>
<id>1010416</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GPN-2000-001151.jpg|thumb|250px|Harrison "Jack" Schmitt (left) poses with [[Gene Cernan]] (seated) and [[Ronald Evans]] (right)]]
Dr. '''Harrison Hagan "Jack" Schmitt''' (born [[July 3]], [[1935]]) is a [[geologist]], [[astronaut]] and former [[senate|senator]]. He was the [[List of lunar astronauts|twelfth man to walk on the]] [[Moon]].
==Early life and education==
Born in [[Santa Rita, New Mexico]], Schmitt grew up in nearby [[Silver City, New Mexico|Silver City]]. He received a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in [[science]] from the [[California Institute of Technology]] in [[1957]] and then spent a year studying [[geology]] at the [[University of Oslo]] in [[Norway]]. [[Doctor of Philosophy|Doctorate of Philosophy]] in geology from [[Harvard University]] in [[1964]].
==NASA career==
[[Image:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[The Blue Marble]], a famous photograph of the Earth as seen by the [[Apollo 17]] crew traveling toward the moon, was probably taken by Schmitt.]]
Before joining [[NASA]] as a member of the [[Astronaut Group 4|first group of scientist-astronauts]] in June [[1965]], he worked at the U.S. Geological Survey's Astrogeology Center at [[Flagstaff, Arizona]], developing geological field techniques that would be used by the Apollo crews. Following his selection, Schmitt played a key role in training Apollo crews to be geologic observers when they were in lunar orbit and competent geologic field workers when they were on the lunar surface. After each of the landing missions, he participated in the examination and evaluation of the returned lunar samples and helped the crews with the scientific aspects of their mission reports.
[[Image:schmittonmoon.jpg|thumb|Harrison Schmitt collects lunar specimens during the Apollo 17 mission]]
Because Schmitt was the only geologist in the astronaut corps and, as well, had spent considerable time becoming proficient in the CSM and LM systems, it came as no surprise when, in March [[1970]], he became the first of the scientist-astronauts to receive a crew assignment. He joined [[Richard Gordon]] (Commander) and [[Vance Brand]] (Command Module Pilot) on the backup crew for [[Apollo 15]] and was clearly in line to fly as Lunar Module Pilot on [[Apollo 18]]. After the cancellation of Apollo 18 in September [[1970]], many people expected that he would be assigned to fly on [[Apollo 17]], the last lunar mission. That assignment was announced in August [[1971]]. During the Apollo 17 flight, Schmitt probably took a photograph of the Earth called [[The Blue Marble]], one of the most widely distributed photographic images in existence (NASA officially credits the image to the entire Apollo 17 crew, and Schmitt claims that he personally took the image). After the completion of Apollo 17, Schmitt played an active role in documenting the Apollo geologic results and also took on the task of organizing NASA's Energy Program Office.
==Post-NASA career==
In August [[1975]], Schmitt resigned from NASA to seek election as a [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] to the [[United States Senate]] representing [[New Mexico]]. Schmitt faced two-term Democratic incumbent, [[Joseph Montoya]], whom he defeated 57%-42%. He served one term and, notably, was the ranking Republican member of the [[Science, Technology, and Space Subcommittee]]. He was defeated in a re-election bid in [[1982]] by [[Jeff Bingaman]] and, since then, has kept very busy as a consultant in business, geology, space, and public policy. He was awarded the [[Penrose Medal]] for his efforts in [[geoscience]] in [[1984]].
He currently lives in [[Silver City, New Mexico]], and enjoys spending a portion of his summer at his Northern [[Minnesota]] lake cabin.
==Schmitt in the movies==
Schmitt was portrayed by [[Tom Amandes]] in the 1998 miniseries ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (HBO)|From the Earth to the Moon]]''.
==Schmitt in Pop Culture==
Schmitt was referenced in an episode of [[FOX]]'s animated television show [[King of the Hill]]. In the epidose [[Kahn Souphanousinphone]] fends off romantic interest in his mother by [[Bill Dauterive]] by convincing him that she is dating Schmitt and therefore unavailiable.
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Ap17 schmitt falls.ogg|title=Schmitt falls|description=Schmitt falls while on a moonwalk during [[Apollo 17]]|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Ap17 strolling.ogg|title=Schmitt sings|description=Schmitt sings ''I was strolling on the Moon one day'' during [[Apollo 17]]|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video end}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Joseph Montoya]] | title=[[List of United States Senators from New Mexico|Senator from New Mexico]] | years=[[1975]]&ndash;[[1982]] | after=[[Jeff Bingaman]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1935 births|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:American astronauts|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:American geologists|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:Astronauts|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:Living people|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:Penrose Medal winners|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:People from New Mexico|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:People who have walked on the moon|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:United States Senators from New Mexico|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[de:Harrison Hagan Schmitt]]
[[fi:Harrison Schmitt]]
[[fr:Harrison Schmitt]]
[[he:האריסון שמיט]]
[[it:Harrison Schmitt]]
[[pl:Harrison Schmitt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homelessness</title>
<id>13794</id>
<revision>
<id>41844347</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Viriditas</username>
<id>101805</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41694474 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{NPOV}}
[[Image:Homeless_-_American_Flag.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A 'homeless' American.]]
[[Image:Lightmatter homeless walker.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A 'homeless' man pushes a cart down the street.]]
[[Image:P7032101 small2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A 'homeless' Frenchman.]]
'''Homelessness''' is a situation in which a person does not have a long term place of ongoing residence. This is distinguished from [[nomad]]ic cultures in which that condition is considered normal. The 'problem' of homelessness is most visible in the poor sections of large [[cities]] and [[suburb]]s, though the homeless frequently co-exist less visibly within communities where most residents are not poor. The term '(of) No Fixed Abode' (NFA) is often used officially as an alternative to 'homeless'.
==Grades of homelessness==
Please note that this list could have many gradients; it is meant to highlight the downward mobility of homelessness.
===Most secure===
Those who always have shelter due to kindness of friends, and receive a government check or limited wages.
===Less secure===
Those who exist only on the kindness of friends with both food and shelter, no government help.
===Less secure, still===
Those who live in |
cted in only two films and is the only actor in each of them, disproving the '''Theory of [[Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon]]''' that everyone who has ever appeared in any movie has a finite Bacon number.
However, the majority of actors do have a Bacon number of 2 or 3. The higher the Bacon number of an actor, the less connected they are to other actors. Using one of the actors with the highest known finite Bacon number (8), [[William Rufus Shafter]] as the centre of the acting universe instead of Bacon, we can find two actors with a Rufus Shafter number of 15.
The Bacon number is an application of the same idea as the [[Erd&#337;s number]] in mathematics to the movie industry. [[Paul Erd&#337;s]] was himself believed to have a Bacon number of 4, due to his appearance as himself in the 1993 film ''N Is a Number'', but this is now believed to be in error due to a conflation of similarly named persons.
Notably, Bacon is not the most linkable actor. That honour (as of [[December 30]], [[2004]]) goes to [[Rod Steiger]]. The average Steiger number in the acting community is 2.679. By contrast, the average Bacon number is 2.955.
<center>
'''Actors with record largest finite Bacon number by year'''
{|
! '''Year''' !!'''Record'''
|-
| 1996 || 7
|-
| 1997 || 7
|-
| 1998 || all 7s
|-
| 1999 || 8
|-
| 2000 || all 8s
|-
| Dec 2000 || 9, 10
|-
| Jul 2003 || all 8s
|}
</center>
But note: according to the Oracle of Bacon at Virginia,
:"About 12% of all actors cannot be linked to the rest of the movie universe, either because they have appeared only in TV features or straight-to-video releases that the Oracle doesn't count, or because they have not appeared in any features with actors from the Hollywood mainstream."
A further extension of the idea is the [[Erdős-Bacon number]].
==External links==
* The [http://oracleofbacon.org/ Oracle of Bacon at Virginia] computes the Bacon number of any actor or actress from IMDb data
* [http://www.cinfn.com/ Cinema FreeNet Movie Connector] finds links between stars, but can also use directors and producers.
* [http://pro.imdb.com/help/general/bacon IMDb Pro.com's "What Is a Bacon Number?"] - Bacon Number is automatically calculated for each actor on his/her trivia page on IMDb Pro.
[[Category:Social networking]]
[[de:Bacon-Zahl]]
[[pl:Liczba Bacona]]
[[th:หมายเลขเบคอน]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barge</title>
<id>4177</id>
<revision>
<id>41741323</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T12:09:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.245.45.51</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ More precise</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:CrushedStoneBarge.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Self-propelled barge carrying bulk crushed stone]]
A '''barge''' is a flat-bottomed [[boat]], built mainly for [[river]] and [[canal]] transport of heavy goods. Most barges are not self-propelled and need to be moved by [[tugboat]]s towing or [[towboats]] pushing them. Barges on canals (towed by draft animals on an adjacent [[towpath]]) contended with the [[railway]] in the early [[industrial revolution]] but [[History of the British canal system|were outcompeted]] in the carriage of high value items due to the higher speed, falling costs, and route flexibility of [[rail transport]]. Barges are still used today for low value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods by barge is very low.
Self propelled barges may be used as such when traveling downstream or upstream in placid waters and operated as an unpowered barge with the assistance of a tugboat when traveling upstream in faster waters.
Types of barges:
*[[Barracks barge]] (living quarters)
*[[Dry bulk cargo barge]] (coal, rock, grain, etc.)
*[[Liquid cargo barge]] (fresh water, finished petroleum products)
*[[Railcar barge]] (with tracks and using special loading/offloading facilities such as a [[Ferry slip|barge slip]])
*[[Vehicular barge]], often used to transport vehicles to natural shorelines such as [[Beach|beaches]]
*[[Royal barge]] (ceremonial)
*[[Lighter (barge)|Lighter]]
*[[Jackup Barge]], mainly used inshore for a stationary stable platform for civils diving or drilling operations.
On the [[Canals of the United Kingdom|UK canal system]], the term '''barge''' is used to describe a boat wider than a [[narrowboat]].
The people who move barges are often known as '''[[lightermen]]'''.
In the U.S. deckhands perform the labor and are supervised by a leadman and or the mate. The Captain and Pilot steer the towboat. The towboat pushes one or more barges that are held together with rigging and is called collectively the tow. The crew live aboard the towboat as it travels along the inland river system and or the intracoastal waterways. These towboats travel between ports and are also called line haul boats.
A '''barge pole''' is used by lightermen to fend off the barge as it nears other vessels or a wharf. These long poles have given rise to the saying, "I wouldn't touch that (subject/thing) with a barge pole." The meaning is that something is so unseemly or contentious that the person wants to avoid it or being associated with it at all costs. A common variation is to say, "I wouldn't touch that with a ''(insert length)'' barge pole." Typically the length for small avoidance is "ten foot": The greater the length, the more the sayer feels it is to be avoided, but the expression "I wouldn't touch it with a [[ten foot pole]]" is by now the most common one by far.
The barge pole mentioned above is properly called a "pike pole."
==Etymology==
''barge'' is attested from [[1300]], from [[Old French]] ''barge'', from [[Vulgar Latin]] ''barga''. The word originally could refer to any small boat, the modern meaning arose around [[1480]].
''[[barque|bark]]'' "small ship" is attested from [[1420]], from Old French ''barque'', from Vulgar Latin ''barca'' ([[400]] AD). The more precise meaning "three-masted ship" arose in the [[17th century]], and often takes the French spelling for disambiguation.
Both are probably derived from a [[Latin]] ''*barica'', from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''baris'' "Egyptian boat", ultimately from m [[Coptic language|Coptic]] ''bari'' "small boat."
==See also==
[[Thames sailing barge]]
==External links==
* [http://www.barges.org DBA - Dutch Barge Association] Living aboard ex-commercial barges or any other type of broad-beam inland waterways craft
{{Wiktionary|Barge}}
[[Category:Barges|*]]
[[Category:Boat types]]
[[de:Schute]]
[[nl:aak (schip)]]
[[pl:Barka]]
[[ru:Аак]]
[[zh:&#39539;&#33337;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bill Schelter</title>
<id>4178</id>
<revision>
<id>28222252</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-13T17:39:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marudubshinki</username>
<id>190816</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''William Frederick Schelter''' (died [[July 30]], [[2001]]) was a professor of [[mathematics]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] and a [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] [[developer]] and [[programmer]]. Schelter is credited with the development of [[GNU Common Lisp]] (gcl) implementation of [[Common Lisp]] and the GPL'd version of the [[computer algebra system]] [[Macsyma]] called [[Maxima|GNU Maxima]]. He is also credited with the first port of the GNU C [[compiler]] to the INTEL 386 architecture, used in the original implementation of the [[Linux]] kernel [http://alamos.math.arizona.edu/symcomp/announcement.txt].
Schelter obtained his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] at [[McGill University]] in [[1972]]. His mathematical specialty was [[computational algebra]] and its applications, including [[automated theorem proving]] in geometry.
In the summer of [[2001]] he died suddenly of a [[heart attack]] while travelling in [[Russia]].
==References==
* S. Chou and W. Schelter. ''Proving Geometry Theorems with Rewrite Rules'' Journal of Automated Reasoning, 1986.
==External links==
*{{MathGenealogy|id=13017}}
*[http://www.ma.utexas.edu/maxima.html Maxima homepage. Maxima is now available under GPL].
[[Category:2001 deaths|Schelter, Bill]]
[[Category:Lisp programming language|Schelter, Bill]]
[[Category:Mathematicians|Schelter, Bill]]
[[Category:Programmers|Schelter, Bill]]
[[pl:William Schelter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British English</title>
<id>4179</id>
<revision>
<id>41913306</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:01:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.43.0.140</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
'''British English''' ('''BrE''') is a term used to differentiate between the form of the [[English language]] used in the [[United Kingdom]] and those used elsewhere. It includes all the varieties of English used within the [[UK]], including [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Northern Ireland]] and [[Wales]].
==Definition==
There is no formal definition of '''British English''' other than that it is a term used (especially by Americans) to describe English as used in the United Kingdom. As with many other aspects of British culture, the language is governed by convention rather than formal code: there is no equivalent body to the [[Académie française]], and the authoritative dictionaries (e.g. [[Oxford English Dictionary]], [[Chambers Dictionary]], [[Collins Dictionary]]) record usage rather than prescribe it. As a result there is significant variation in grammar, usage, spelling, and vocabulary within English as used in the UK, and lively, idiomatic uses of the language are commonplace. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other strains of English, and [[neologisms]] are frequent.
While there |
ds (words that can be broken in two parts and separated in regular usage, for example, [[separable verb]]s in German and Dutch) - in those cases, the prefix is stressed.
Examples: (with comparable words from modern Germanic languages)
* Non-compound words: ''marka'' {{IPA|['marka]}} "border, borderlands" (English "march" as in the [[Marches|Spanish Marches]]); ''aftra'' {{IPA|['aftra]}} "after"; ''bidjan'' {{IPA|['bidjan]}} "pray" (German ''beten'', Swedish ''bedja'').
* Compound words:
** Noun second element: ''guda-láus'' {{IPA|['guðalaus]}} "godless".
** Verb second element: ''ga-láubjan'' {{IPA|[ga'lauβjan]}} "believe" (German ''glauben'' < [[Old High German]] ''g(i)louben'' by [[syncope]] of the atonic ''i'').
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Gothic preserves many archaic Indo-European features that are not always present in modern Germanic languages, in particular the rich Indo-European [[declension]] system. Gothic had [[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]] and [[dative]] cases, as well as vestiges of a [[vocative case]] that was sometimes identical to the nominative and sometimes to the accusative. The three [[grammatical gender|genders]] of Indo-European were all present, including the neuter gender of modern German and Icelandic and to some extent modern Dutch, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, in opposition to the "common gender" (''genus commune'') which applies to both masculine and feminine nouns. Nouns and adjectives were inflected according to one of two [[grammatical number]]s: the singular and the plural.
One of the most striking characteristics of the [[East Germanic languages]] is the division of nouns between those with ''weak declensions'' (generally those where the [[root (linguistics)|root word]] ends in an ''n'') and those with ''strong declensions'' (those whose roots end in a vowel or an inflexional suffix indicative of a pronoun). This separation is particularly important in Gothic. While a noun can only belong to one class of declensions, depending on the end of the root word, some adjectives can be either strongly or weakly declined, depending on their meaning. An adjective employed with a particular meaning and accompanied by a [[deixis|deictic]] article, like the [[demonstrative pronoun]]s ''sa'', ''þata'', or ''so'' which act as definite articles, took a weak declension, while adjectives used with indefinite articles had a strong declension.
This process is still sometimes found in German, where adjectives are declined:
* weak declension: ''d'''er''' gut'''e''' Wein'' ("the good wine") ;
* strong declension: ''gut'''er''' Wein'' ("good wine"), ''ein gut'''er''' Wein'' ("a good wine")
Descriptive adjectives in Gothic (as well as superlatives ending in ''-ist'' and ''-ost'') and the [[past participle]] may take either declension. Some pronouns only take the weak declension; for example: ''sama'' (English "same"), adjectives like ''un&#405;eila'' ("constantly", from the root ''&#405;eila'', "time"; compare to the English "while"), comparative adjectives, and [[present participle]]s. Others, such as ''áins'' ("some"), take only the strong declension.
The table below displays the declension of the Gothic adjective ''blind'' (English: "blind") with a weak noun (''guma'' - "man") and a strong one (''dags'' - "day"):
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"
|-----
! Case
! colspan="5" | Weak declension
! colspan="5" | Strong declension
|-----
! rowspan="2" | Singular
! rowspan="2" | Noun
! colspan="4" | Adjective
! rowspan="2" | Noun
! colspan="4" | Adjective
|-----
! height="58" | root
! M.
! N.
! F.
! root
! M.
! N.
! F.
|-----
| ''Nom.'' || guma
| rowspan="4" align="right" valign="middle" | blind-
| -a || -o || -o || dags
| rowspan="4" align="right" valign="middle" | blind-
| -s || -ø || -a
|-----
| ''Acc.'' || guman || -an || -o || -on
| dag || -ana || -ø || -a
|-----
| ''Gen.'' || gumins || colspan="2" align="center" | -ins
| -ons || dagis
| colspan="2" align="center" | -is || -áizos
|-----
| ''Dat.'' || gumin || colspan="2" align="center" | -in
| -on || daga
| colspan="2" align="center" | -amma || ái
|-----
! Plural
| colspan="5" | &nbsp; || colspan="5" | &nbsp;
|-----
| ''Nom.'' || gumans
| rowspan="4" align="right" valign="middle" | blind-
| -ans || -ona || -ons || dagos
| rowspan="4" align="right" valign="middle" | blind-
| -ái || -a || -os
|-----
| ''Acc.'' || gumans || -ans || -ona || -ons
| dagans || -ans || -a || -os
|-----
| ''Gen.'' || gumane || colspan="2" align="center" | -ane
| -ono || dage
| colspan="2" align="center" | -áize || -áizo
|-----
| ''Dat.'' || gumam || colspan="2" align="center" | -am
| -om || dagam || colspan="3" align="center" | -áim
|}
This table is, of course, not exhaustive. (There are secondary inflexions, particularly for the strong neuter singular and irregular nouns among other contexts, which are not described here.) An exhaustive table of only the ''types'' of endings Gothic took is presented below.
* '''strong declension''' :
** roots ending in ''-a'', ''-ja'', ''-wa'' (masculine and neuter): equivalent to the Greek and Latin second declension in ''&#8209;us'' / ''&#8209;i'' and &#8209;&#959;&#962; / &#8209;&#959;&#965;;
** roots ending in ''-o'', ''-jo'' and ''-wo'' (feminine): equivalent to the Greek and Latin first declension in ''&#8209;a'' / ''&#8209;æ'' and &#8209;&#945; / &#8209;&#945;&#962; (&#8209;&#951; / &#8209;&#951;&#962;);
** roots ending in ''-i'' (masculine et feminine): equivalent to the Greek and Latin third declension in ''&#8209;is'' (acc. ''&#8209;im'') and &#8209;&#953;&#962; / &#8209;&#949;&#969;&#962;;
** roots ending in ''-u'' (all three genders) : equivalent to the Latin fourth declension in ''&#8209;us'' / ''&#8209;us'' and the Greek third declension in &#8209;&#965;&#962; / &#8209;&#949;&#969;&#962;;
* '''weak declension''' (all roots ending in ''-n''), equivalent to the Greek and Latin third declension in ''&#8209;o'' / ''&#8209;onis'' and &#8209;&#969;&#957; / &#8209;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#962; or &#8209;&#951;&#957; / &#8209;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#962;:
** roots ending in ''-an'', ''-jan'', ''-wan'' (masculine);
** roots ending in ''-on'' et ''-ein'' (feminine);
** roots ending in ''-n'' (neuter): equivalent to the Greek and Latin third declension in ''&#8209;men'' / ''&#8209;minis'' and &#8209;&#956;&#945; / &#8209;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#962;;
* '''minor declensions''' : roots ending in ''-r'', en ''-nd'' and vestigial endings in other consonants, equivalent to other third declensions in Greek and Latin.
Gothic adjectives follow noun declensions closely - they take same types of inflexion.
===Pronouns===
Gothic inherited the full set of Indo-European pronouns: [[personal pronoun]]s (including [[reflexive pronoun]]s for each of the three [[grammatical person]]s), [[possessive pronoun]]s, both simple and compound [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstratives]], [[relative pronoun]]s, [[interrogative pronoun|interrogatives]] and [[indefinite pronoun]]s. Each follows a particular pattern of inflexion (partially mirroring the noun declension), much like other Indo-European languages. One particularly noteworthy characteristic is the preservation of the [[dual number]], refering to two people or things while the plural was only used for quantities greater than two. Thus, "the two of us" and "we" for numbers greater than two were expressed as ''wit'' and ''weis'' respectively. While [[Proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] used the dual for all grammatical categories that took a number (as did classical [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Sanskrit]]), Gothic is unusual among Indo-European languages in only preserving it for pronouns.
The simple demonstrative pronoun ''sa'' (neuter: ''þata'', feminine: ''so'', from the Indo-European root ''*so'', ''*seh<sub>2</sub>'', ''*tod''; cognate to the [[Greek language|Greek]] article &#8001;, &#964;&#972;, &#7969; and the [[Latin]] ''is'''tud''''') can be used as an article, allowing constructions of the type ''definite article + weak adjective + noun''.
The interrogative pronouns are also noteworthy for all beginning in ''&#405;-'', which derives from the proto-Indo-European consonant ''*k<sup><small>w</small></sup>'' that was present at the beginning of all interrogratives in proto-Indo-European. This is cognate to the ''wh-'' at the beginning of many English interrogatives which, like in Gothic, are pronounced with [&#653;] in some dialects. This same etymology is present in the interrogratives of many other Indo-European languages" ''w-'' [v] in [[German language|German]], ''v-'' in [[Swedish language|Swedish]], the [[Latin]] ''qu-'' (which persists in modern [[Romance languages]]), the [[Greek language|Greek]] &#964; or &#960; (a derivation of ''*k<sup><small>w</small></sup>'' that is unique to Greek), and the [[Sanskrit]] ''k-'' as well as many others.
===Verbs===
The bulk of Gothic verbs follow the type of Indo-European conjugation called [[Athematic|"th |
ropped a flag."
The ironic part was afterwards the Bills began to employ the no-huddle (with [[Jim Kelly]]) and used it to near-perfection, winning the AFC title four years straight.
===West Coast Offense/Paul Brown's Offense===
The [[West Coast Offense]], which is commonly employed by many teams (most notably, it was used by San Francisco during their dynasty, and the Buffalo Bills during their domination of the AFC) is the popular name for the high-percentage passing scheme designed by Paul Brown and Bill Walsh. This play scheme was used by Ken Anderson during the Bengals' initial Super Bowl run.
==Season-by-season records==
{{Start NFL SBS|#F04A1E}}
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Cincinnati Bengals (AFL)'''
|-
|1968 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 5th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1969 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 5th West (AFL) || --
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Merged into NFL'''
|-
|1970 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1970-71|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|1971 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1972 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1973 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1973-74|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|1974 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1975 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1975-76|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1976 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1977 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1978 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1979 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1980 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1981 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[Super Bowl XVI]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1982 || 7 || 2 || 0 || 3rd AFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|First Round]] ([[New York Jets|Jets]])
|-
|1983 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1984 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1985 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1986 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1987 || 4 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1988 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[Super Bowl XXIII]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1989 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1990 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1990-91|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1991 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1992 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1993 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1994 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1995 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1996 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1997 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1998 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC Central || --
|-
|1999 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC Central || --
|-
|2000 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC Central || --
|-
|2001 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 6th AFC Central || --
|-
|2002 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 4th AFC North || --
|-
|2003 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC North || --
|-
|2004 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC North || --
|-
|2005 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC North || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2005-06|Wild Card playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
{{end box}}
^As of the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Bengals All-Time Record is 258-334-1 (including playoffs).
==Players of note==
===Current roster===
{{Template:Cincinnati Bengals roster}}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
*[[Anthony Muñoz]], Mutliple Pro-Bowl offensive tackle from 1980 - 1992
*[[Paul Brown]], Innovative head coach and owner. Mostly enshrined due to career with the [[Cleveland Browns]].
===Retired numbers===
54 [[Bob Johnson (football)|Bob Johnson]] Offensive lineman, 1st ever draft pick of the Bengals.
===Reserved numbers===
Although these jersey numbers were not officially retired, they are not used in the regular season as an unofficial tribute to the former players.
* 7 [[Boomer Esiason]]
:After Esiason left the Bengals following the 1992 season, David Klingler wore #7. Boomer wore #7 after returning to the Bengals in 1997. No Bengal player has worn #7 since 1997.
* 13 [[Ken Riley]]
:Worn by punter Dan Pope later in Bengals history, but no other players since
* 14 [[Ken Anderson]]
* 69 [[Tim Krumrie]]
* 78 [[Anthony Muñoz]]
===Current Staff===
*General Manager - [[Mike Brown (football team owner)|Mike Brown]]
*Head Coach - [[Marvin Lewis]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Bob Bratkowski]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Chuck Bresnahan]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Darrin Simmons]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Ken Zempese]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Jim Anderson (football coach)|Jim Anderson]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Hugh Jackson]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Jonathan Hayes (football coach)|Janathan Hayes]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Paul Alexander]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[Bob Surace]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Jay Hayes]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Ricky Hunley]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Kevin Coyle]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Ray Oliver]]
==External links==
*[http://www.bengals.com/ Cincinnati Bengals official web site]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/cincy/bengals.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
{{NFL}}
[[Category:1968 establishments]]
[[Category:American Football League]]
[[Category:Cincinnati Bengals|Cincinnati Bengals]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[da:Cincinnati Bengals]]
[[de:Cincinnati Bengals]]
[[es:Cincinnati Bengals]]
[[fr:Bengals de Cincinnati]]
[[it:Cincinnati Bengals]]
[[pt:Cincinnati Bengals]]
[[sv:Cincinnati Bengals]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Yangtze River</title>
<id>6613</id>
<revision>
<id>41576922</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T06:40:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AjaxSmack</username>
<id>353866</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Trivia */ copy edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_river | river_name = Yangtze River
| image_name = Yangtze_River_Map.png
| caption = The course of the Yangtze River through China
| origin = [[Qinghai Province]] and [[Tibet]]
| mouth = [[East China Sea]]
| basin_countries = [[China]]
| length = 6,380 km (3,965 mi)
| elevation = 6,548 m (21,484 ft)
| discharge = 31,900 m&sup3;/s (1,126,708 ft&sup3;/s)
| watershed = 1,800,000 km&sup2; (694,980 mi&sup2;)
}}
[[Image:Yangzi River gorge.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Afternoon light on the jagged grey mountains rising from the Yangtze River gorge]]
The ''Yangtze River'' or ''Chang Jiang'' is the longest [[river]] in [[Asia]] and the third longest in the world after the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] in [[South America]] and the [[Nile]] in [[Africa]]. The name 'Yangtze River', also spelt ''Yangtse River'', ''Yangtze Kiang'', etc. is derived from ''Yangzi Jiang'' ({{zh-stp|s=扬子江|t=揚子江|p=Yángzǐ Jiāng}}), the Chinese name for the river in its lower reaches. The modern Chinese name, 'Chang Jiang' ({{zh-stp|t=長江 |s=长江|p=Cháng Jiāng}}), literally means 'Long River' and is increasingly being adopted as the standard name in English.
The river is about 6,380 [[Kilometre|km]] long and flows from its source in the western part of China ([[Qinghai Province]]) eastwards into the [[East China Sea]]. It has traditionally been considered a dividing point between [[northern and southern China]], although the [[Huai River]] also shares the claim.
== Names ==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Origin of Yangzi River.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Bird's eye view of the origin of Yangtze river]] -->
Like many rivers, the Yangtze / Chang Jiang is known by different names over different parts of its course. At its source the river is known in Chinese as the '''Dangqu''' (当曲/當曲). Downstream it is called the '''Tuotuo''' River (沱沱河) and then the '''Tongtian''' River (通天河). Where it runs through deep gorges in parallel to the [[Mekong]] and the [[Salween]] before emerging onto the plains of [[Sichuan]] it is famous as the '''Jinsha''' River (&#37329;&#27801;&#27743; J&#299;nsh&#257;-ji&#257;ng or 'Golden Sands River'). The name '''Yangzi''' was originally used by local people in the river's lower reaches. Because it was the name first heard by missionaries and traders, it was applied in English to the entire river. In Chinese ''Yangzi Jiang'' is considered a historical or poetic name for the river.
The Yangtze was earlier known to the Chinese as the '''Da Jiang''' (大江, Dà Jiāng) or 'Great River'. The Tibetan name for the river is '''Vbri-chu''' (འབྲི་ཆུ་ 'river of the female yak'). The Yangtze is sometimes referred to as the ''Golden Waterway''.
== Geography ==
The river originates in a glacier in the Dangla mountains on the eastern part of [[Tibetan plateau]]. It then runs through the eastern part of [[Qinghai]], turning southward down a deep valley at the border of [[Sichuan]] and [[Tibet]] to reach [[Yunnan]]. In the course of this valley, the river's elevation drops from above 5000 m to less than 1000 m. It enters the basin of [[Sichuan]] at [[Yibin]]. While in the Sichuan basin it receives several mighty tributaries, increasing its water volume significantly. The river then cuts through [[Mount Wushan]] bordering [[Chongqing]] and [[Hubei]] to create the famous [[Three Gorges]]. Eastward of the Three Gorges, [[Yichang]] is the first city on the Yangtze Plain. In [[Hubei]], the Yangtze receives more water from thousands of lakes. The largest of these is [[Dongting Lake]], which is mainly located in [[Hunan]] province and is the outlet for most of the rivers in [[Hunan]]. At [[Wuhan]] it receives its biggest tributary, the [[Han River (Hanshui)|Han River]], bringing water from its northern basin as far as [[Shanxi]]. At the northern tip of Jiangxi, another lake, [[Lake Boyang]] flows into the river. The river then runs through [[Anhui]] and [[Jiangsu]] provinces, receiving more water from smaller l |
tine"
|align="center" valign="top"|53
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|26
|align="left" valign="top"|''Amarantine''
|-
|}
===Note===
<sup>1</sup> "I Don't Wanna Know", a song by [[R&B]]/[[hip-hop music|hip-hop]] musician Winans, contained a [[sampling (music)|sample]] from Enya's 1987 track "Boadicea", thus crediting her as a featured artist.
== See also ==
* [[Best selling music artists]]
== References ==
* [http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/retrieve_chart_history.do?model.chartFormatGroupName=Albums&model.vnuArtistId=4557&model.vnuAlbumId=744731 Billboard Album Rankings - Enya]
* [http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/retrieve_chart_history.do?model.vnuArtistId=4557&model.vnuAlbumId=744731 Billboard Singles Rankings - Enya]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* Official Aigle Music Website by Lee Tobin and Peter Pehrson: [http://www.enya.com/ www.enya.com]
* [http://discography.enya.com/ The Enya Discography]
* [http://unity.enya.com/ Unity - the Official Enya Forum]
* [http://enyanet.com/ enyanet.com] unofficial Enya website
* [http://www.pathname.com/enya/ Enya - Translations and Lyrics]
* [http://enya.szm.com Enya - Out of the Blue] - an unofficial website
* [http://www.lunaestas.com/enya/ Moonshadows] - unofficial fansite (no longer updated)
* [http://imdb.com/name/nm0258216/ Enya] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Composers]]
[[Category:Female singers]]
[[Category:Irish musicians]]
[[Category:New Age musicians]]
[[Category:Natives of County Donegal]]
[[Category:Celts]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic musicians|Enya]]
[[bg:Еня]]
[[de:Enya]]
[[es:Enya]]
[[eo:Enya]]
[[fi:Enya]]
[[fr:Enya]]
[[gd:Eithne]]
[[gl:Enya]]
[[hu:Enya]]
[[id:Enya]]
[[it:Enya]]
[[ja:エンヤ]]
[[nl:Enya]]
[[pl:Enya]]
[[pt:Enya]]
[[ru:Enya]]
[[sv:Enya]]
[[zh:恩雅]]
{{Persondata
|NAME= Bhraonáin, Eithne Ní
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Enya
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Musician
|DATE OF BIRTH= [[17 May]] [[1961]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Gaoth Dobhair, Donegal, Ireland]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>East Berlin</title>
<id>9483</id>
<revision>
<id>39250861</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T21:29:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.157.98.93</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align="right"
| [[image:Flag East Berlin.gif|thumb|200px|none|Flag of East Berlin]]
|-
| [[Image:EastBerlinBoroughs.png|thumb|200px|none|Boroughs of East Berlin]]
|-
| [[Image:Occupiedberlin.png|thumb|200px|none|Occupied Berlin]]
<!--[[image:Marx-engels-platz.jpg|thumb|200px|none|East Berlin in Summer [[1989]]]]-->
|}
'''East Berlin''' was the name given to the eastern part of [[Berlin]] between [[1949]] and [[1990]]. It consisted of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] sector of [[Berlin]] that was established in [[1945]]. The American, British and French sectors became [[West Berlin]], a ''de facto'' part of [[West Germany]].
East Berlin was the [[capital (government)|capital]] of [[East Germany]]. From [[August 13]], [[1961]] until [[November 9]], [[1989]] it was separated from [[West Berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]]. The official East German lexicon referred to East Berlin as just "Berlin" or often "Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR" (Berlin, capital of the GDR). The term "Democratic Sector" was also used until the early - mid 1960s.
The Western Allies (the USA, Great Britain and France) never formally acknowledged the authority of the East German government to govern East Berlin; the official Allied protocol recognized only the authority of the Soviet Union in East Berlin in accordance with the occupation status of Berlin as a whole. In fact, the three Western commandants regularly protested the presence of the East German [[National People's Army]] in East Berlin, particularly on the occasion of military parades. Nevertheless, the three Western Allies eventually established embassies in East Berlin in the 1970s.
East Berlin comprised the [[Boroughs of Berlin|boroughs]] of
* [[Friedrichshain]]
* [[Hellersdorf]]
* [[Hohenschönhausen]]
* [[Köpenick]]
* [[Lichtenberg]]
* [[Marzahn]]
* [[Mitte]]
* [[Pankow]]
* [[Prenzlauer Berg]]
* [[Treptow]]
* [[Weißensee]]
On [[October 3]], [[1990]] [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]] [[German reunification|were united]], thus formally ending the existence of East Berlin.
==See also==
* [[Berlin]]
* [[Bonn]]
* [[East Germany]]
* [[Germany]]
* [[History of Germany since 1945]]
* [[West Berlin]]
* [[West Germany]]
==External links==
*[http://www.berlinphotos.co.uk Berlin Photos 1989-1999]
{{germany-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Special territories|Berlin, East]]
[[Category:History of Berlin]]
[[Category:Cold War|Berlin, East]]
[[Category:Divided cities|Berlin, East]]
[[als:Ostberlin]]
[[cs:Východní Berlín]]
[[da:Østberlin]]
[[de:Ost-Berlin]]
[[es:Berlín Este]]
[[eo:Orienta Berlino]]
[[fr:Berlin-Est]]
[[ko:동베를린]]
[[id:Berlin Timur]]
[[it:Berlino Est]]
[[jv:Berlin Wetan]]
[[nl:Oost-Berlijn]]
[[ja:東ベルリン]]
[[pl:Berlin Wschodni]]
[[ru:Восточный Берлин]]
[[sk:Východný Berlín]]
[[sr:Источни Берлин]]
[[fi:Itä-Berliini]]
[[sv:Östberlin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic instruments</title>
<id>9485</id>
<revision>
<id>15907374</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-10T03:04:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rjstott</username>
<id>182</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic musical instrument]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Environmental agreement</title>
<id>9486</id>
<revision>
<id>27663451</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-07T23:27:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alan Liefting</username>
<id>36352</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat sorty</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There are numerous international '''environmental agreements''' made to protect the environment in different ways. Many of these are legally binding.
International environmental agreements include:
*[[Alpine Convention]] together with its nine protocols
*[[ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution]]
*[[Antarctic Treaty]]
**[[Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora]] [http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/antarctic1964.htm]
**[[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals]] [http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/seals.htm]
**[[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]] [http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/ccamlr.htm]
**[[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]]
*[[Basel Convention]]
*[[Carpathian Convention]] Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians [http://www.carpathianconvention.org]
*[[Convention on Biological Diversity]]
*[[Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas]]
*[[Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution]]
**[[Nitrogen Oxide Protocol]]
**[[POP Air Pollution Protocol]]
**[[Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol]]
**[[Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol]]
*[[Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats]]
*[[Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals]]
*[[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna]]
*[[Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter]]
*[[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques]]
*[[Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat]]
*[[MARPOL 73/78|International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships]]
*[[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]]
*[[International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture]]
*[[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983]] (expired)
*[[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994]]
*[[Kyoto Protocol]] - greenhouse gas emission reductions
*[[Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer]]
*[[North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation]]
*[[Stockholm Convention]] on persistent organic pollutants.
*[[Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water]]
*[[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]]
*[[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]]
*[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]
== See also ==
* [[List of treaties]]
* [[Kyoto Protocol]]
* [[Environmental organizations]]
* [[International environmental law]]
[[Category:Treaties on the environment| ]]
[[Category:Treaties| ]]
[[Category:Environment]]
[[de:Liste internationaler Umweltabkommen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epsilon</title>
<id>9487</id>
<revision>
<id>40143826</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T13:33:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Greekletters|letter=epsilon}}
:''For the 2005 hurricane, see [[Hurricane Epsilon]].''
'''Epsilon''' (upper case &Epsilon;, lower case &epsilon;) is the fifth letter of the [[Greek alphabet]]. In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 5. "E psilon" ("simple e") was coined to distinguish the letter from &alpha;&iota;, which by the medieval period was pronounced the same way.
The lower-case letter &epsilon; is used as the symbol for:
* In mathematics, a small positive quantity, usually denoted &epsilon;; see [[limit (mathematics)|l |
day]]
*[[Anabaptist]]
*[[Chrismation]]
*[[Christifideles]]
*[[Consolamentum]]
*[[Jesus-Name doctrine]]
===People and ritual objects===
*[[Baptismal font]]
*[[Mikvah]]
*[[Holy water]]
*[[Church]]
*[[Godfather]]
*[[John the Baptist]]
==Resources==
*''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'' (Faith and order paper). [[World Council of Churches]], 1982. ISBN 2825407097
*Jungkuntz, Richard. ''The Gospel of Baptism.'' St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1968.
*Kolb, Robert. ''Make Disciples Baptizing: God's Gift of New Life and Christian Witness.'' Fascicle Series, Number 1. St. Louis: Concordia Seminary Publications, 1997. ISBN 0-911770-66-6
*Scaer, David P. ''Baptism.'' Confessional Lutheran Dogmatics, Vol. XI. St. Louis: The Luther Academy, 1999. ISBN 0-9622791-2-1
*Schlink, Edmund. ''The Doctrine of Baptism.'' Herbert J. A. Bouman, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1972. ISBN 0-570-03726-3
*Stookey, L.H. ''Baptism: Christ's Act in the Church''. Nashville: Abingdon, 1982. ISBN 0687023645
*Ware, Timothy (Bishop Kallistos of Diokleia). ''The Orthodox Church'' (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books, 1993, pp 277-278. ISBN 0140146563
*[[William Willimon|Willimon, William]]. ''Remember Who You Are: Baptism and the Christian Life''. Nashville: Upper Room, 1980. ISBN 0835803996
== External links ==
===Jewish===
*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=222&letter=B&search=baptism Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism]
===Orthodox===
*[http://www.stsophia.org/sacraments_baptism.pdf The Sacrament of Baptism in Eastern Orthodoxy] (PDF)
*[http://www.orthodox.net/articles/baptism.html The Holy Mystery (orthodox.net)]
===Catholic===
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Baptism]
*[http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/Baptism.asp Baptism - Catholic Sacrament of Initiation - Christening]
===Lutheran===
*[http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=2590 Frequently Asked Questions Concerning Baptism] from [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]]
===Calvinist===
*[http://www.gotquestions.org/baptism.html Christian Baptism] by GotQuestions.org (Calvinist perspective)
===Anglican===
*[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/lifeevents/baptismconfirm/ Baptism, Confirmation & Affirmation of Baptismal Faith – An Introduction] (Church of England)
===Methodist===
*[http://www.gbod.org/worship/articles/water_spirit/ "By Water & the Spirit"] (Official [[United Methodist Church|UMC]] Statement on Baptism)
*[http://www.gbod.org/worship/default.asp?act=reader&item_id=2258 FAQs about Baptism, Membership, & Salvation] (United Methodist Church General Board of Discipleship)
===Other groups===
*[http://www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,859-84,00.html Mormon Baptism]
*[http://www.upci.org/doctrine/baptism.asp "Jesus Only" baptism]
*[http://www.biblicaladvancedbasics.com/Baptism.pdf Dispensationalist Baptism (PDF)]
*[http://www.bebaptized.org/ Baptism according to the Church of Christ]
[[Category:Baptism|Baptism]]
[[Category:Rites of passage]]
[[cs:Křest]]
[[da:Dåb]]
[[de:Taufe]]
[[es:Bautismo]]
[[eo:Bapto]]
[[fr:Baptême]]
[[he:בפטיזם]]
[[ia:Baptismo]]
[[it:Battesimo]]
[[ko:세례]]
[[la:Baptismus]]
[[ml:മാമോദീസ]]
[[nl:Doop]]
[[nds:Dööp]]
[[ja:洗礼]]
[[no:Dåp]]
[[pl:Chrzest]]
[[pt:Baptismo]]
[[ro:Botez]]
[[ru:Крещение (таинство)]]
[[fi:Kaste]]
[[sv:Dop]]
[[tl:Binyag]]
[[vi:Báp têm]]
[[uk:Хрестини]]
[[zh:洗禮]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bocce</title>
<id>4300</id>
<revision>
<id>39939172</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T23:29:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.247.204.232</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Players */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bocce_set.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A set of Bocce balls]]
'''Bocce''' is a precision [[sport]] closely related to [[bowls]] and [[pétanque]] with a common ancestry from ancient games played in the [[Roman Empire]]. Developed into its present form in [[Italy]], it is played around [[Europe]] and also in overseas countries that have received Italian migrants, including the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Argentina]] and [[Brazil]], initially amongst the migrants themselves but slowly becoming more popular with their descendants and the wider community.
==Rules==
Unlike bowls, bocce is played on dirt courts of approximately 20 to 30 metres in length and approximately 2.5 to 4 metres wide, and has wooden boards of approximately 15 centimetres in height surrounding the court. Bocce balls can be made of [[brass]], compressed [[wood]], or various kinds of plastic (including [[PhenoTech]]). Unlike lawn bowls, bocce balls are spherical and have no inbuilt bias (they will roll a straight course).
Like bowls, a game can be contested between two players, or two teams of two or four. A match is started by a randomly chosen side being given the opportunity to throw a smaller ball, the '''jack''' (called a '''pallino''' or '''boccino''' in some areas), from one end of the court into a zone near the other end of the court of about 5 metres in length, ending 2 metres from the end of the court. If they miss twice, the other team is awarded the opportunity to place the jack anywhere they choose within the zone.
The side that places the jack is given the opportunity to bowl the first bocce ball. Once the first bowl has taken place, the other side has the opportunity to bowl. From then on, the side which does ''not'' have the ball closest to the jack has a chance to bowl, up until one side or the other has used their four balls. At that point, the other side bowls its remaining bocce balls. Like lawn bowls, the team with the closest ball or balls to the jack is awarded one point for each ball that is closer to the jack than the other side's closest ball. The contest continues until one team scores 13 points (though this can vary regionally).
[[Image:Bocce score detail.PNG|framed|center|Red gets 2 points]]
As well as the standard rolling bowl, in which the ball is rolled all the way along the court, players are permitted to throw the ball in the air using an underarm action. This is generally used to knock either the jack or another ball into a more favourable position. Tactics can get quite complex when players have sufficient control over the bocce bowl to land or roll it accurately.
As well as the traditional game, there are several variations that are essentially solo accuracy contests of bowling and throwing.
==Players==
The greatest bocce player of all time is widely considered to be Umberto Granaglia of Italy who was awarded the honor of "Player of the Twentieth Century" by the Confederation Mondiale des Sport de Boules, the world's official governing body of bocce. Granaglia strictly excelled in Volo, the most technically skilled form of the game.
==Organizations==
The Confederation Mondiale des Sports de Boules, http://www.cmsboules.com/ , is the international organization for the sport of bocce, based in France.
At the élite level, there are world championships held regularly, and Bocce is part of the quadrennial [[World Games]], a [[multi-sport event]] for lesser-known sports.
There exist several University-level Bocce organizations. The most notable of which is the Order of the Bocce, based out of the College of William and Mary, found online at http://www.wm.edu/so/bocce/ and http://orderoftheboccewm.blogspot.com/.
==See also==
[[boccia]] - a closely related sport designed to be played by people with disabilities.
==External links==
* [http://www.boccevolo.com/ BocceVolo.com - World Class Bocce]
* [http://www.bocce.com/ United States Bocce Federation]
* [http://www.palazzodibocce.com/ Palazzo di Bocce]
* [http://www.boccemon.com/ Boccemon]
{{Bowling}}
[[Category:Precision sports]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[pt:Bocha]]
[[it:Bocce]]
[[fi:Bocce]]
[[nl:Bocce]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beatmatching</title>
<id>4301</id>
<revision>
<id>40449642</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:12:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mushin</username>
<id>271938</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Step by step process of beatmatching */ left out a bar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Beatmatching''' is a technique employed by [[DJs]] to transition between two songs while performing either [[live]] at a [[club]] or [[event]], for [[radio]] broadcast or for distribution on prerecorded [[Mixtape|mix tapes/cds]], achieved by changing the [[tempo]] of a new track to match that of the currently playing track, then [[audio mixing|mixing]] between the two so there is no pause between songs. This is used to keep the flow of the music constant for the pleasure of the listner, both through appreciation of the quality of the mix between records and the lack of time between tracks played back to backs prodiving more [[melody]] and [[rhythm]] to dance to.
This technique became status quo on the [[turntable]], and many DJs continue to use vinyl records for their high quality analog sound, manipulability, as well as their history and allure. Other DJs have switched to [[CD]] mixing technology that allows digital controls to mimic common techniques for physically manipulating records, due to the greater ease of finding and transporting a CD collection. More recently, technology has been developed that allows DJs to use actual vinyl records to manipulate [[mp3s]] and other digital tracks stored on their computer hard drives to produce the same effects.
==History==
Beatmatching was originally employed by DJs by [[Francis Grasso]] in the late 60's/early 70's. Originally the technique involved counting the tempo with a [[metronome]] and finding a record with the same tempo, today it involves changing the speed at which a recording is played back so that its tempo matches that of the song currently playing. In this way, the DJ ca |
ctoral triumph, with two-thirds of the vote in the second round, gave him a claim to a mandate from the people to carry out his reform program.
President Portillo pledged to maintain strong ties to the [[United States]], further enhance Guatemala's growing cooperation with [[Mexico]], and participate actively in the integration process in Central America and the Western Hemisphere. Domestically, he vowed to support continued liberalization of the economy, increase investment in human capital and infrastructure, establish an independent central bank, and increase revenue by stricter enforcement of tax collections rather than increasing taxation. Portillo also promised to continue the peace process, appoint a civilian defense minister, reform the armed forces, replace the military presidential security service with a civilian one, and strengthen protection of human rights. He appointed a pluralist cabinet, including indigenous members and others not affiliated with the FRG ruling party.
== The 21st Century ==
Progress in carrying out Portillo's reform agenda during his first year in office was slow. As a result, public support for the government sank to nearly record lows by early [[2001]]. Although the administration made progress on such issues as taking state responsibility for past human rights cases and supporting human rights in international fora, it failed to show significant advances on combating impunity in past human rights cases, military reforms, a fiscal pact to help finance peace implementation, and legislation to increase political participation.
Faced with a high crime rate, a public corruption problem, often violent harassment and intimidation by unknown assailants of human rights activists, judicial workers, journalists, and witnesses in human rights trials, the government began serious attempts in 2001 to open a national dialogue to discuss the considerable challenges facing the country.
In [[July 2003]], demonstrations rocked the capital, forcing the closing of the US Embassy, as supporters of Ríos Montt called for his return to power. His supporters demanded that the nation's courts to overturn a ban against former coup leaders so that he could run as a presidential candidate in the 2003 elections. The supporters were given meals by FRG in return for protesting.
On [[November 9]], [[2003]], [[Óscar Berger]], the ex-mayor of Guatemala city, won the presidential election with 38.8% of the vote. However, because he failed to achieve a fifty percent majority, he fought and won an additional [[December 28]] runoff election between him and the center-left candidate Álvaro Colom. Ríos Montt trailed a distant third with just 11%.
In early [[October]] [[2005]], Guatemala was devastated by [[Hurricane Stan]], a relatively weak storm that triggered a flooding disaster that has left hundreds, and possibly thousands, of people dead.
==Resources==
===External links===
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2045.htm Background Note: Guatemala] - Information from the US State Department
*[http://www.historyofnations.net/northamerica/guatemala.html History of Guatemala] - A general overview to the history of Guatemala.
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07054a.htm Santiago de Guatemala]
===Notes===
* <cite id="fn_1">[[#fn_1_back|Note 1:]] </cite> {{cite book | author=Cullather, Nick | title=Secret History: The CIA's classified account of its operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954 | publisher=Standform University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0804733112}}, pg 17, quoting [[Allen Dulles]]
* <cite id="fn_2">[[#fn_2_back|Note 2:]] </cite> {{cite book | author=Cullather, Nick | title=Secret History: The CIA's classified account of its operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954 | publisher=Standform University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0804733112}}, pg 106
* <cite id="fn_3">[[#fn_3_back|Note 3:]] </cite> - http://www.coha.org/NEW_PRESS_RELEASES/Matt%20Ward/MW_Appendix_A.htm
===Further reading===
*Paul J. Dosal, ''Doing Business with the Dictators: A Political History of United Fruit in Guatemala 1899-1944'', Wilmington, De., Scholarly Resources 1993
*Greg Grandin, ''The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War'', Chicago 2004
*Immerman, R. H., ''The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention'', University of Texas Press: Austin, 1982.
*Walter LaFeber, ''Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America''. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1993.
*Piero Gleijeses, ''Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944-1954''. Princeton University Press, 1991
*Victoria Sanford, ''Buried secrets : truth and human rights in Guatemala'', New York [u.a.] : Palgrave Macmillan, 2003
*Stephen Schlesinger, Stephen Kinzer, ''Bitter Fruit: The Untold Story of the American Coup in Guatemala'', Garden City, NY : Doubleday, 1982
* {{cite book | author=Cullather, Nick | title=Secret History: The CIA's classified account of its operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954 | publisher=Standform University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0804733112}}
[[Category:History of Guatemala|*]]
[[de:Geschichte Guatemalas]]
[[es:Historia de Guatemala]]
[[fr:Histoire du Guatemala]]
[[pt:História da Guatemala]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guatemala/Geography</title>
<id>12158</id>
<revision>
<id>15909862</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-16T22:24:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Danny</username>
<id>584</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Guatemala]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Guatemala</title>
<id>12159</id>
<revision>
<id>41587529</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:07:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CJLL Wright</username>
<id>259138</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab Xinca-->Xinca language</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">According to the CIA World Fact Book, Mestizos (mixed Amerindian-Spanish - in local Spanish called Ladino) and Europeans comprise 59.4% of the population and Amerindians comprise 40.5% of the population (K'iche 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9%, Q'eqchi 6.3%, other Mayan 8.6%, indigenous non-Mayan 0.2%, other 0.1%).
CIA World Fact Book - http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gt.html
Most of Guatemala's population is rural, though [[urbanization]] is accelerating. The predominant religion is [[Roman Catholicism]], into which many indigenous Guatemalans have incorporated traditional forms of worship. [[Protestantism]] and traditional [[Maya mythology|Maya religions]] are practiced by an estimated 40% and 1% of the population, respectively.
Though the official language is [[Spanish language|Spanish]], it is not universally understood among the indigenous population. However, the Peace Accords signed in December 1996 provide for the translation of some official documents and voting materials into several indigenous languages (see summary of main substantive accords).
[[Image:Guatemala demography.png|thumb|450px|right|Population growth 1961-2003, as reported by [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[2005]]. Population numbers are in thousands.]]
'''[[Population]]:'''
12,639,939 (July 2000 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
42% (male 2,735,107; female 2,622,412)
<br>''15-64 years:''
54% (male 3,411,575; female 3,413,932)
<br>''65 years and over:''
4% (male 213,791; female 243,122) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
2.63% (2000 est.)
'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
35.05 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''[[Death]] rate:'''
6.92 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-1.89 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.88 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
47.03 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
66.18 years
<br>''male:''
63.53 years
<br>''female:''
68.96 years (2000 est.)
'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
4.66 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''[[Nationality]]:'''
<br>''noun:''
Guatemalan(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Guatemalan
'''[[Ethnic group]]s:'''
Mestizo (mixed Amerindian-Spanish - in local Spanish called Ladino) and European 59.4%, K'iche 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9%, Q'eqchi 6.3%, other Mayan 8.6%, indigenous non-Mayan 0.2%, other 0.1% (2001 census)
'''[[Religion]]s:'''
Roman Catholic, Protestant, indigenous Mayan beliefs
'''[[Language]]s:'''
Spanish 60%, Amerindian languages 40% (more than 20 Amerindian languages, including [[Quiché]], [[Cakchiquel]], [[Kekchi]], [[Mam language|Mam]], [[Garifuna]], and [[Xinca language|Xinca]])
'''[[Literacy]]:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
55.6%
<br>''male:''
62.5%
<br>''female:''
48.6% (1995 est.)
[[Category:Guatemalan society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Guatemala]]
[[es:Demografía de Guatemala]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Guatemala</title>
<id>12160</id>
<revision>
<id>39961097</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T02:55:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JerryFriedman</username>
<id>35055</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Flag description */ Resplendent Quetzal now has a separate page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Guatemala}}
__TOC__
(See [[Guatemala election, 2003]])
== Government ==
[[Guatemala]]'s [[1985]] constitution provides for a separation of powers among the exec |
n cat]]
*[[pheasant]]
*[[pig]]
*[[pigeon]]
*[[pike (fish)|pike]]
*[[pilot whale]]
*[[piranha]]
*[[platypus]]
*[[polar bear]]
*[[poodle]]
*[[porcupine]]
*[[porpoise]]
*[[portuguese man o' war]]
*[[possum]]
*[[prairie dog]]
*[[prawn]]
*[[praying mantis]]
*[[primate]]
*[[puffin]]
*[[puma]]
*[[python]]
*[[quail]]
*[[rabbit]]
*[[raccoon]]
*[[rainbow trout]]
*[[rat]]
*[[rattlesnake]]
*[[raven]]
*[[reindeer]]
*[[rhinoceros]]
*[[right whale]]
*[[roadrunner]]
*[[robin]]
*[[rodent]]
*[[rook (bird)|rook]]
*[[roundworm]]
*[[sailfish]]
*[[St. Bernard (dog)|saint bernard]]
*[[salamander]]
*[[salmon]]
*[[sawfish]]
*[[scallop]]
*[[scorpion]]
*[[hippocampus (fish)|seahorse]]
*[[sea lion]]
*[[sea slug]]
*[[sea urchin]]
*[[setter]]
*[[shark]]
*[[sheep]]
*[[sheepdog]]
*[[shrew]]
*[[shrimp]]
*[[siamese (cat)|siamese cat]]
*[[silkworm]]
{{col-5}}
*[[silverfish]]
*[[skink]]
*[[skunk]]
*[[sloth]]
*[[slug]]
*[[smelt]]
*[[snail]]
*[[snake]]
*[[snipe]]
*[[snow leopard]]
*[[sockeye salmon]]
*[[sole]]
*[[spaniel]]
*[[sperm whale]]
*[[spider]]
*[[spider monkey]]
*[[spoonbill]]
*[[squid]]
*[[squirrel]]
*[[starfish]]
*[[Star-nosed Mole|star-nosed mole]]
*[[steelhead trout]]
*[[stoat]]
*[[stork]]
*[[sturgeon]]
*[[swallow]]
*[[swan]]
*[[swift]]
*[[swordfish]]
*[[swordtail]]
*[[tabby cat]]
*[[tahr]]
*[[takin]]
*[[tapeworm]]
*[[tapir]]
*[[tarantula]]
*[[tasmanian devil]]
*[[termite]]
*[[tern]]
*[[terrier]]
*[[thrush]]
*[[tiger]]
*[[tiger shark]]
*[[tigon]]
*[[toad]]
*[[tortoise]]
*[[toucan]]
*[[Toy Poodle|toy poodle]]
*[[trapdoor spider]]
*[[tree frog]]
*[[trout]]
*[[tuna]]
*[[turkey]]
*[[turtle]]
*[[tyrannosaurus]]
*[[urial]]
*[[vampire bat]]
*[[viper]]
*[[vole]]
*[[vulture]]
*[[wallaby]]
*[[walrus]]
*[[wasp]]
*[[warbler]]
*[[water buffalo]]
*[[weasel]]
*[[whale]]
*[[whitefish]]
*[[whooping crane]]
*[[wild cat]]
*[[wildebeest]]
*[[wildfowl]]
*[[wolf]]
*[[wolverine]]
*[[wombat]]
*[[woodpecker]]
*[[worm]]
*[[wren]]
*[[yak]]
*[[zebra]]
{{col-end}}
==References==
*Klaus Nielsen. ''Animal Evolution: Interrelationships of the Living Phyla'' (2nd edition). Oxford Univ. Press, 2001.
*Knut Schmidt-Nielsen. ''Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment''. (5th edition). Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997.
==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|Animalia}}
{{wikispecies| Animalia}}
* [http://tolweb.org/ Tree of Life Project]
* [http://www.arkive.org ARKive] - multimedia database of worldwide endangered/protected species and of UK common species
* [http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/ballc/animals/animals.html Sounds of the World's Animals] - animal sounds in many languages
[[Category:Animals]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[af:Animalia]]
[[als:Tiere]]
[[an:Animal]]
[[ast:Animal]]
[[bg:Животно]]
[[bm:Bagan]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tōng-bu̍t]]
[[ca:Animal]]
[[cs:Živočichové]]
[[cy:Anifail]]
[[da:Dyr]]
[[de:Tiere]]
[[et:Loomad]]
[[el:Ζώα]]
[[es:Animal]]
[[eo:Animalo]]
[[fr:Animal]]
[[fy:Dier]]
[[ga:Ainmhí]]
[[he:בעלי חיים]]
[[hr:%C5%BDivotinje]]
[[ko:동물]]
[[io:Animalo]]
[[id:Hewan]]
[[ia:Animal]]
[[it:Animali]]
[[kw:Enyval]]
[[ku:Ajal]]
[[la:Animalia]]
[[lv:Dzīvnieki]]
[[lt:Gyvūnų karalystė]]
[[lb:Déiereräich]]
[[li:Diere]]
[[mk:Животни]]
[[ms:Haiwan]]
[[nah:Yolkatl]]
[[nl:Dieren (rijk)]]
[[nds:Beest]]
[[ja:動物]]
[[no:Dyr]]
[[pl:Zwierzęta]]
[[pt:Animalia]]
[[ru:Животные]]
[[scn:Armali]]
[[simple:Animal]]
[[sl:Živali]]
[[sr:Животиња]]
[[fi:Eläinkunta]]
[[sv:Djur]]
[[th:สัตว์]]
[[uk:Тварини]]
[[zh:动物]]
[[vi:Động vật]]
[[chy:Hova]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia</title>
<id>724</id>
<revision>
<id>15899247</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-17T11:02:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MyRedDice</username>
<id>5862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]] (moved to meta)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astronomy/History</title>
<id>727</id>
<revision>
<id>15899249</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T17:24:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>bypassing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of anthropologists</title>
<id>728</id>
<revision>
<id>42101343</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:07:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nigosh</username>
<id>221949</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* F */ + [[Raymond Firth]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">See [[Anthropology]].
A '''list of notable anthropologists'''.
{{compactTOC}} __NOTOC__
==A==
*[[John Adair (anthropologist)|John Adair]]
*[[Timothy Asch]]
==B==
*[[Nigel Barley]]
*[[Fredrik Barth]]
*[[Vasily Bartold]]
*[[Keith H. Basso]]
*[[Ruth Behar]]
*[[Ruth Benedict]]
*[[Theodore C. Bestor]]
*[[Wilhelm Bleek]]
*[[Franz Boas]]
*[[Pere Bosch-Gimpera]]
*[[Paul Pierre Broca]]
==C==
*[[Mauro Campagnoli]]
*[[Joseph Campbell]]
*[[Napoléon Chagnon]]
*[[Pierre Clastres]]
*[[Carleton Coon]]
*[[Frank Hamilton Cushing]]
==D==
*[[Raymond Dart]]
*[[Ella Cara Deloria]]
*[[Mary Douglas]]
*[[Eugene Dubois]]
==E==
*[[Mircea Eliade]]
*[[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]]
==F==
*[[Raymond Firth]]
*[[Dian Fossey]]
*[[James Frazer]]
==G==
*[[Clifford Geertz]]
*[[Alfred Gell]]
*[[Ernest Gellner]]
*[[Max Gluckman]]
*[[Jane Goodall]]
*[[Robert J Gorden]]
*[[Hilma Granqvist]]
*[[Marcel Griaule]]
*[[Jacob Grimm]]
*[[Wilhelm Grimm]]
==H==
*[[Marvin Harris]]
*[[Cassidy Hendrickson]]
*[[Arthur Maurice Hocart]]
*[[Earnest Hooton]]
*[[Ales Hrdlicka|Aleš Hrdli&#269;ka]]
==I==
==J==
*[[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]]
==K==
*[[Richard G. Klein]]
*[[Dorinne K. Kondo]]
*[[Conrad Kottak]]
*[[Grover Krantz]]
*[[Charles H. Kraft]]
*[[Alfred L. Kroeber]]
*[[Hilda Kuper]]
==L==
*[[William Labov]]
*[[George Lakoff]]
*[[Bruno Latour]]
*[[Edmund Leach]]
*[[Louis Leakey]]
*[[Mary Leakey]]
*[[Richard Leakey]]
*[[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[[Robert Lowie]]
==M==
*[[Bronislaw Malinowski]]
*[[Marcel Mauss]]
*[[Grant McCracken]]
*[[Margaret Mead]]
*[[Mervyn Meggitt]]
*[[Nikolay Miklukho-Maklay]]
*[[Sidney Mintz]]
*[[Ashley Montagu]]
*[[James Mooney]]
*[[John H. Moore]]
*[[Lewis H. Morgan]]
*[[George Murdock]]
==N==
*[[Laura Nader]]
*[[Raoul Naroll]]
==O==
*[[Gananath Obeyesekere]]
*[[Marvin Opler]]
*[[Morris Opler]]
==P==
*[[Glenn Petersen]]
*[[Bronislav Pilsudski]]
*[[Hortense Powdermaker]]
==Q==
==R==
*[[Wilhelm Radloff]]
*[[Hans Ras]]
*[[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]]
*[[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]]
*[[W. H. R. Rivers]]
*[[Eric Ross]]
==S==
*[[Marshall Sahlins]]
*[[Roger Sandall]]
*[[Edward Sapir]]
*[[Wilhelm Schmidt]]
*[[Tobias Schneebaum]]
*[[Afanasy Shchapov]]
*[[Marilyn Strathern]]
==T==
*[[Edward Burnett Tylor]]
*[[Colin Turnbull]]
*[[Victor Turner]]
==U==
==V==
*[[Christine VanPool]]
*[[Karl Verner]]
==W==
*[[Camilla Wedgwood]]
*[[Hank Wesselman]]
*[[Leslie White]]
*[[Ben White]]
*[[Tim White]]
*[[Benjamin Whorf]]
*[[Clark Wissler]]
*[[Eric Wolf]]
*[[Sol Worth]]
==X==
==Y==
==Z==
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Anthropologists]]
[[Category:Anthropologists|*]]
[[es:Lista de antropólogos]]
[[pl:Znani antropolodzy]]
[[pt:Lista_de_antropólogos]]
[[simple:Anthropologist]]
[[sl:seznam antropologov]]
[[zh:人类学家列表]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astronomy and Astrophysics</title>
<id>730</id>
<revision>
<id>36862446</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T23:25:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Astronomy and Astrophysics''''' (abbreviated as ''A&A'' in the astronomical literature, or else ''Astron. Astrophys.'') is a European Journal, publishing papers on theoretical, observational and instrumental [[astronomy]] and [[astrophysics]]. It was published by [[Springer-Verlag]] from [[1969]]-[[2000]], while [[EDP Sciences]] published the companion ''A&A Supplement Series''. In 2000, the two journals merged, with the combined journal known simply as ''Astronomy and Astrophysics'', and published by EDP Sciences.
''A&A'' is one of the major journals of astronomy, alongside the ''[[Astrophysical Journal]]'', ''[[Astronomical Journal]]'' and the ''[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]''. While the first two are often the preferred journal of US-based researchers and the MNRAS is often the favoured journal for UK- and Commonwealth-based astronomers, A&A tends to be the preferred journal of astronomers based in [[Europe]] (excluding the UK), particularly since page charges are waived for astronomers working in member countries.
''A&A'' was created from the merger in 1969 of six major European astronomical journals
* ''Annales d'Astrophysique'' (France), founded in 1938
* ''Arkiv for Astronomi'' (Sweden), founded in 1948
* ''Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands'', founded in 1921
* ''Bulletin Astronomique'' (France), founded in 1884
* ''Journal des Observateurs'' (France), founded in 1915
* ''Zeitschrift fur Astrophysik'' (Germany), founded in 1930
and extended in 1992 by the incorporation of:
* ''Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of Czechoslovakia'', founded in 1947
==External links==
*[http://www.aanda.org/ A&A home page]
*[http://www.edpsciences.org/journal/index.cfm?edpsname=aa A&A Publisher's home page]
[[Category:Astronomy journals]]
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<title>Astronomy and Astrophysics/History</title>
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Rather than be confined in the clubs ambitious promoters took the music to large temporary sites such as fields, handling up to 30,000 people in a single illegal event, called a [[rave party|rave]]. Promoters like Sunrise, Energy, Biology, Fantasia and World Dance held massive events in defiance of the police and music industry. Unlike many [[nightclub]]s they were open to all ages and people.
The press led the general public to believe that the events were shaped solely by the consumption of [[ecstasy (drug)|ecstasy]], but others pointed out the music was refreshing and intoxicating enough without consumption of drugs. The British tabloid press helped publicize the scene, generally portraying rave parties in a negative light, which tended to alarm institutions such as the government and the police. Many tunes became hits from these events such as "Everything Starts with a E" by the E-Zee Possee," which was created by a savvy music producer rather than a band, "The Trip" by [[S'Express]] and "NRG" by [[Adamski]] who became the first rave superstar.
The publicity and the knowledge that these events could make significant amounts of money led more professionally criminal groups to take an interest in raves. The police became more active in preventing or closing down raves. As the second "Summer of Love" arrived in [[1989]] the police became even more oppressive, culminating in a [[1990]] Act of Parliament. This was counter-productive, it both forced raves back underground and increased the criminal presence in organising raves. But the music continued, one of the longest lasting and influential groups grew out of the rave scene, named [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]] after the [[M25 motorway]]. Their British hit "Chime" was snapped up by [[Pete Tong]]'s FFRR label. By the end of 1989 House was mainstream music in Britain, it charted regularly with "Ride on Time" from [[Black Box]] being at number one for six weeks.
Although some venues in [[Wales]] (such as Wentwood Forrest near Newport) were still successfully holding outdoor raves well into the early [[1990s]], the majority of outdoor raves from the Midlands, the North West and South East were gradually closed down by the police, this did not deter the events organisers and new indoor venues were once again sought. Large country venues that were used to entertain many hundreds of revellers and smaller (up until then) weaker commercial inner city nightclubs were exploited to fill the House scene gap. These events were fueled by illegal [[pirate radio]] stations, the mass production of [[flyer]]s and word of mouth.
The most significant revolution in house music took place in the very early 1990s with bedroom musicians like [[Unique 3]], [[LFO]], [[Nightmares on Wax]], [[N-Joi]], [[4-Hero]], [[Shut Up 'N' Dance]], [[Ryhmatic]] and [[Altern8]]. These Rave musicians were counted by their hundreds due to the way sampling had become affordable to the masses (thanks to [[Akai]]), hundreds of other one-off white label artists enjoyed instant fame like [[The Prodigy]] and [[Zero 7]], this unusual version of house steered away from the monotonous Balearic beats that prevailed at the time and eventually [[jungle music]], [[drum and bass]] and [[breakbeat]] eventuated by musicians who experimented with live breakbeats as opposed to the usual [[Roland 909 Drum Machine]] kick and snare.
===Developments in the United States in late 1980s to early 1990s===
Back in America the scene had still not progressed beyond a small number of clubs in Chicago and New York, Paradise Garage was still the top club, although they now had [[Todd Terry]], his tune "Weekend" demonstrated a new House sound with hip-hop influences evident in the quicker sampling and the more rugged bass-line. While [[hip-hop]] had made it onto radio play-lists, the only other choices were Rock, Country & Western or R & B.
Other influences from New York came from the hip-hop, raggae, and Latin community, and many of the New York City super producers/DJ's began surfacing for the first time (Erick Morillo, Roger Sanchez, Junior Sanchez, Danny Tenaglia, Jonathan Peters) with unique sounds that would evolve into other genres (tribal house, progressive house, funky house).
Influential [[gospel music|gospel]]/[[R&B]]-influenced Aly-us released "Time Passes On" in 1993 ([[Strictly Rhythm]]), then later, "Follow Me" which received radio airplay as well as being extensively played in clubs. Another US hit which received radioplay was the single "Time for the Perculator" by [[Cajmere]], which became the prototye of [[Ghettohouse]] sub-genre. Although these are generally grouped in with classic house now, the early 1990s sound was different from the early 1980s [[Chicago house]] [[WBMX]] sound - due at least in part to digital audio improvements, as well as influences from the Italian House scene led by [[Daniele Davoli]] of [[Black Box]] fame.
===After the "Summer of Love": early 1990s to mid 1990s===
In Britain, further experiments in the genre boosted its appeal (and gave the opportunity for new names to be made up).
House and rave clubs like [[Lakota]], Miss Moneypenny's and the original [[C.R.E.A.M.]] began to emerge across Britain, hosting regular events for people who would otherwise have had no place to enjoy the mutating house and dance scene.
The idea of 'chilling out' was born in Britain with [[ambient house]] albums like the [[KLF]]'s ''Chill Out''. However, this album is not house strictly speaking, because it's prominent lack of percussion on most tracks. Another example would be the song "Analogue BubbleBath" by [[Aphex Twin]]. In fact, [[Chill Out]] electronic music is often defined as a totally different genres, such as [[Ambient]], or even [[downtempo]] (later on) or [[New Age]] (older). The unifying feature of Chill Out electronica is long sustained tones and a more tonal than percussive-noisey quality compared to other styles. Nevertheless, lots of compilation albums sprung up, no doubt, each one redefining the terminology along the way.
At the same time, a new indie dance scene full of variety was being forged by bands like the [[Happy Mondays]], [[The Shamen]], [[New Order]], [[Meat Beat Manifesto]], [[Renegade Soundwave]], [[EMF (band)|EMF]], [[The Grid]] and [[The Beloved]]. In New York, bands such as [[Deee-Lite]] furthered house music's international and multi-era cultural influence. Two distinctive tracks from this era were [[the Orb|the Orb's]] "Little Fluffy Clouds" (with a distinctive vocal sample from [[Rickie Lee Jones]]) and the Happy Mondays' "Wrote for Luck" ("WFL") which was transformed into a dance hit by [[Paul Oakenfold]].
The [[Criminal Justice Bill of 1994]] was a government attempt to ban large events featuring music with "repetitive beats". There were a number of abortive "Kill the Bill" demonstrations. Although the bill did become law in November 1994, it had little effect. The music continued to grow and change, as typified by the emergence of acts like [[Leftfield]] with "Release the Pressure", which introduced dub and [[reggae]] into the house sound. In more commercial areas a mix of R&B with stronger bass-lines gained favour.
The music was being moulded, not just by drugs, but also the mixed cultural and racial groups involved in the house music scene. Tunes like "The Bouncer" from Kicks Like a Mule used sped-up hip-hop [[breakbeat]]s. With SL2's "On A [[Ragga]] Trip" they gave the foundations to what would become [[drum and bass]] and [[jungle (music)|jungle]]. Initially called [[breakbeat hardcore]], it found popularity in London clubs like Rage as a "inner city" music. Labels like [[Moving Shadow]] and [[Reinforced]] became underground favorites. One label, [[Moonshine]], featured impressive compilation albums entitled, "140 BPM: The Speed Limit" which showcased what was termed "London Hardcore [[Techno]]". Showing an increased tempo around 160 [[beats per minute|bpm]], tunes like "Terminator" from [[Goldie]] marked a distinct change from house with heavier, faster and more complex bass-lines: [[drum and bass]] ([[dnb]]. Goldie's early work culminated in the twenty-two minute epic "Inner City Life" a hit from his debut album ''Timeless''.
[[UK Garage]] developed later, growing in the underground club scene from drum and bass ideas. Aimed more for dancing than listening, it produced distinctive tunes like "Double 99" from Ripgroove in [[1997]]. Gaining popularity amongst clubbers in Ibiza, it was re-imported to the UK and in a softened form had chart success: soon it was being applied to mainstream acts like [[Liberty X]] and [[Victoria Beckham]].
[[4 Hero]] went in the opposite direction - from brutal [[Breakbeat]]s they adopted more soul and jazz influences, and even a full orchestral section in their quest for sophistication. Later, this led directly to the West London scene known as [[Brokenbeat]] or [[Breakbeat]]. This style is also not strictly "house", but as with all electronic music genres, there is overlap.
===Mid to late-1990s===
Back in the US some artists were finding it difficult to gain recognition. Another import into Europe of not only a style but also the creator himself was [[Joey Beltram]]. From Brooklyn his "Energy Flash" had proved rather too much for American House enthusiasts and he need a move to find success. The American industry threw its weight behind DJs like [[Junior Vasquez]], [[Armand van Helden]] or even [[Masters at Work]] who appeared to churn out endless remixes of mainstream pop music. Some argued that many of the formulaic remixes of Madonna, Kylie Minogue, U2, Britney Spears, the Spi |
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<title>Alph</title>
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<comment>[[Category:Fictional rivers]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alph''' is supposedly an "underground river" of [[Esotericism]] in [[Europe]], symbolising the [[secret knowledge]] held in that Continent.
Alph or Alpheus features in concepts of [[Arcadia]], as well as in the famous poem by [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], ''[[Kubla Khan]]'' and the song [[Xanadu]] by the Canadian rock band [[Rush (band)|Rush]].
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<page>
<title>Arbroath Abbey</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arbroath_Abbey1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Arbroath Abbey, showing distinctive [[sandstone]] colouring.]]
'''Arbroath Abbey''' was founded in [[1178]] by [[William I of Scotland|King William the Lion]] for a group of [[Tironesian]] [[Benedictine]] monks from [[Kelso Abbey]]. It was [[consecration|consecrated]] in [[1197]] with a dedication to the deceased [[Thomas Becket|Saint Thomas Becket]], whom the king had met at the [[England|English]] court. It was William's only personal foundation &mdash; he was buried within its precincts in [[1214]].
The last Abbot was [[Cardinal]] [[David Beaton]], who in [[1522]] succeeded his uncle James to become Archbishop of [[St Andrews]]. The Abbey is cared for by [[Historic Scotland]] and is open to the public throughout the year. The distinctive red [[sandstone]] ruins stand at the top of the High Street in Arbroath.
==History==
King William gave the Abbey independence from its [[mother church]] and endowed it generously, including income from 24 parishes, land in every royal burgh and more. The Abbey's monks were allowed to run a market and build a harbour. King [[John of England]] gave the Abbey permission to buy and sell goods anywhere in [[England]] (except [[London]]) toll-free.
The Abbey, which was the richest in [[Scotland]], is most famous for its association with the [[1320]] [[Declaration of Arbroath]], believed to have been drafted by Abbot [[Bernard de Linton]], who was the Chancellor of Scotland under King [[Robert I]].
Since [[1947]], a pageant commemorating the Declaration's signing has been held within the roofless remains of the Abbey church. The celebration is run by the local [[Arbroath Abbey Pageant Society]], and tells the story of the events which led up to the signing. The Pageant is not an annual event (most recent performance 2005).
The Abbey fell into ruin after the [[Reformation]]. From [[1590]] onward, its stones were raided for buildings in the town of [[Arbroath]]. This continued until [[1815]] when steps were taken to preserve the remaining ruins.
On [[Christmas]] Day [[1950]], the [[Stone of Destiny]] was stolen from [[Westminster Abbey]]. On [[April 11]], [[1951]], the missing stone was found lying on the site of the Abbey's altar.
==Architectural Description==
[[Image:Arbroath_Abbey2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Arbroath Abbey, showing The Round 'O'.]]
The Abbey was built over some sixty years using local red sandstone, but gives the impression of a single coherent, mainly '[[Early English]]' architectural design, though the round-arched processional doorway in the western front looks back to late [[Normans|Norman]] or transitional work. The [[triforium]] (open arcade) above the door is unique in Scottish medieval architecture. It is flanked by twin towers decorated with blind arcading. The [[cruciform]] church measured 276 feet long by 160 feet wide. What remains of it today are the [[sacristy]], added by Abbot Paniter in the 15th century, the southern [[transept]], which features Scotland's largest lancet windows, part of the [[choir]] and [[presbytery]], the southern half of the [[nave]], parts of the western towers and the western doorway.
The church originally had a central tower and (probably) a spire. These would once have been visible for many miles over the surrounding countryside, and no doubt once acted as a sea-mark for ships. The soft sandstone of the walls was originally protected by plaster internally and render externally. These coatings are long gone and much of the architectural detail is sadly eroded, though detached fragments found in the ruins during consolidation give an impression of the original refined, rather austere, architectural effect.
The distinctive round window high in the south transept was originally lit up at night as a [[beacon]] for mariners. It is known locally as the 'Round O', and from this tradition inhabitants of [[Arbroath]] are colloquially known as 'Reid Lichties' (Scots reid = red).
Little remains of the claustral buildings of the Abbey except for the impressive gatehouse, which stretches between the south-west corner of the church and a defensive tower on the High Street, and the still complete Abbot's House, a building of the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, which is the best-preserved of its type in [[Scotland]].
In the summer of [[2001]] a new visitors' centre was opened to the public beside the Abbey's west front. This red sandstone-clad building, with its distinctive 'wave-shaped' organic roof, planted with sedum, houses displays on the history of the Abbey and some of the best surviving stonework and other relics. The upper storey features a scale model of the Abbey complex, a computer-generated 'fly-through' reconstruction of the church as it was when complete, and a viewing gallery with excellent views of the ruins. The centre won the [[2002]] Angus Design Award. An archaeological investigation of the site of the visitors' centre before building started revealed the foundations of the medieval precinct wall, with a gateway, and stonework discarded during manufacture, showing that the area was the site of the masons' yard while the Abbey was being built.
==External links==
*{{historic-scotland-link|013}}
* [http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/arbroath/arbroathabbey/ ''Undiscovered Scotland's'' detailed history]
* http://www.angus.gov.uk/history/features/buildings/arbabbey.htm
* http://mysite.freeserve.com/arbroathabbeypageant/
* [http://www.angus.gov.uk/new/releases-archive/2003/2003-02-07a.html 2002 Angus Design Award]
[[Category:Monasteries in Scotland]]
[[Category:History of Angus]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
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ogs in a fan formation (and not bound together in a line like horse teams) would pull a sled made of animal bones and skins, and in some southern areas a bit of wood, over the snow and ice. They used landmarks to navigate, and possessed a comprehensive native system of [[toponymy]]. Where natural landmarks were insufficient, the Inuit would erect an ''[[inukshuk]]'' to compensate.
Inuit industry relied almost exclusively on animal hides and bones, although some tools were also made out of worked stones, particularly the easily-worked mineral known as ''[[soapstone]]''. Walrus ivory was a particularly essential material, used to make knives. Some Inuit who lived near the [[tree-line]] also had native woodworking traditions.
Inuit made clothes and footwear from animal skins, sewn together using needles made from animal bones and threads made from other animal products. The ''[[parka]]'' is, in essence, the same garment across the Arctic - made in a similar fashion by Arctic peoples from Europe through Asia and the Americas, including by the Inuit. The hoods of Inuit women's parkas - ''amautiit'' (singular ''amauti'', ''amaut'' or ''amautik'') in Inuktitut - were traditionally made extra large, to protect the baby from the harsh wind when snuggled against the mother's back. Styles vary from region to region, from shape of the hood to length of the tails. Boots (Inuktitut: ''kamik'' or ''[[mukluk]]'') could be made of caribou or sealskin, and designs varied for men and women. Inuit also lived in temporary shelters made from snow in winter (the famous ''[[igloo]]''), and during the few months of the year when temperatures were above freezing, they lived in tents made of animal skins and bones.
The division of labour in traditional society had a strong gender component. The men were traditionally hunters and fishermen. The women took care of the children, cleaned huts, sewed and cooked. However, there are numerous examples of women who learned to hunt out of necessity and more recently as a personal choice.
The marital customs among the Inuit were not strictly monogamous, many Inuit relationships were implicitly or explicitly sexually open, and polygamy, divorce and remarriage were fairly common. Formal marriage and divorce required the approval of the community, and particularly the agreement of the elders. Marriages were often arranged, sometimes in infancy, and occasionally forced on the couple by the community. Marriage was expected for a man as soon as he could hunt for himself, and for women at puberty. Family structure was flexible - a household might consist of a man and his wife or wives and children; it might include his parents or his wife's parents as well as adopted children; or it might be a larger formation of several siblings with their parents, wives and children; or even more than one family sharing dwellings and resources. Every household had a head of household - an elder or a particularly respected man.
There was also a larger notion of community, generally several families who shared a place where they wintered. Goods were shared within a household, and to a lesser extent within a whole community in winter. As with most nomadic people, there was no real conception of ownership of land - if a spot was unoccupied, all were free to hunt or camp there. Animals belonged first to the hunter or trapper, then to his household.
Nearly all Inuit cultures have oral traditions of raids by Indians and fellow Inuit, and of taking vengeance on them in return. Although these tales are generally regarded not as accurate historical accounts but as self-serving myths - violence against outsiders as justified revenge - it does make clear that there was a history of hostile contact between Inuit and other cultures. In Alaska, the Inuit became accomplished raiders through constant feuding. Given the narrow margins of survival, the advantages of supplementing one's hunt by stealing from one's neighbours seem obvious. Even within an Inuit band, breaching traditional justice and wronging another Inuit was routinely punished by murderous vengeance, as the story of [[Atanarjuat]] shows. Within a community, punishments were meted out by community decision, or by the elders, and a breach meant that the victim and his or her relatives could seek out restitution or revenge.
There is a pervasive belief that the Inuit left their elderly on the ice to die. This is not genuinely true. It is true that sometimes elderly Inuit who could no longer hunt or do other useful work might choose, or be convinced to choose, a form of assisted suicide when food was very scarce. They were not left to die on the ice, but rather were more directly dispatched. This practice was not universal among the Inuit - some bands never had such practices - and was only tolerated under truly desperate conditions. Inuit communities were largely ruled by respected elders, and routine geronticide did not take place. A far more common response to desperate conditions and the threat of starvation was [[infanticide]], which did sometimes entail abandoning an infant in hopes that someone less desperate might find and adopt it before the cold or the wildlife finished it off.
==Traditional Inuit beliefs==
:''See also [[Inuit mythology]]''
===Synopsis===
[[Image:Auroraborealissm.jpg|thumb|right|The Inuit believed that the spirits of their ancestors could be seen in the northern lights]]
The Eskimo, or Inuit, people inhabit the land stretching from southeast [[Alaska]] to [[Greenland]], an environment that heavily influenced a [[mythology]] filled with adventure tales of [[whale]] and [[walrus]] hunts. Long [[winter]] months of waiting for [[caribou]] herds or sitting near blowholes [[hunt]]ing [[fish]] and [[seal (mammal)|seals]] gave birth to stories of mysterious and sudden appearance of [[ghosts]] and fantastic creatures. The Inuit looked into the ''[[aurora borealis]]'', or [[northern lights]], to find images of their family and friends dancing in the next [[life]], and they relied upon the [[shaman]], while the nearest thing to a central deity was the Old Woman ([[Sedna (deity)|Sedna]]), who lived beneath the sea. The [[water]]s, a central food source, were believed to contain great spirits.
===Analysis===
The Inuit traditionally practiced a form of [[shamanism]] based basically on [[animist]] principles. They believed that all things had a form of spirit, just like humans, and that to some extent these spirits could be influenced by a pantheon of supernatural entities that could be appeased when one required some animal or inanimate thing to act in a certain way. The shaman (Inuktitut: ''angakuq'', sometimes spelled ''angakok'') of a community of Inuit was not the leader, but rather a sort of healer and psychotherapist, who tended wounds and offered advice, as well as invoking the spirits to assist people in their lives. His or her role was to see, interpret and exhort the subtle and unseen. Shamans were not trained, they were held to be born with the ability.
Inuit religion was closely tied to a system of rituals that were integrated into the daily life of the people. These rituals were not terribly complicated, but they were held to be absolutely necessary. According to a customary Inuit saying ''"The great peril of our existence lies in the fact that our diet consists entirely of souls."'' By believing that all things - including animals - have souls like those of humans, any hunt that fails to show appropriate respect and customary supplication would only give the liberated spirits cause to avenge themselves.
The harshness and randomness of life in the Arctic ensured that Inuit lived constantly in fear of the uncontrollable, where a streak of bad luck could kill an entire community. To offend a spirit was to run the risk of having them interfere with an already marginal existence. The Inuit plead with supernatural powers to provide them with the necessities of day-to-day survival. As [[Knud Rasmussen]]'s Inuit guide told him when asked about Inuit religious beliefs ''"We don't believe. We fear!."''
==Early history of the Inuit==
The Inuit are the descendents of what [[anthropologist]]s call the [[Thule people|Thule culture]], a nomadic people who emerged from western [[Alaska]] around [[1000]] and spread eastwards across the Arctic, displacing the related [[Dorset (culture)|Dorset culture]] (in Inuktitut, the ''Tuniit''). Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as "giants", people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit, but who were easily scared off and retreated from the advancing Inuit. Researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, boats and other technologies that gave the expanding Inuit society a large advantage over them. By [[1300]], the Inuit had settled west [[Greenland]], and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century.
The Tuniit survived in [[Aivilik]] - [[Southampton Island|Southampton]] and [[Coats Island]]s - until the beginning of the [[20th century]]. They were known as ''Sadlermiut'' (''Sallirmiut'' in the modern spelling). Their population had been decimated by diseases brought by contact with Europeans, and the last of them fell in a flu epidemic caught from a passing whaler in [[1902]]. The area has since been resettled by Inuit. Genetic research suggests that there was little or no intermarriage between the Tuniit and the Inuit over the thousand years of contact in the Canadian Arctic.
The Inuit were a nomadic culture that circulated almost exclusively north of the [[tree-line|timberline]], the ''de facto'' southern border of Inuit society. To the south, [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] Indian cultures were well established, and the culture and technology of Inuit society that served them so well in the Arctic was ill-suited to the sub-Arctic, so they did not displace their southern neighbour |
wing the processor to process other work while the event is pending.
Interrupts may be implemented in hardware as a distinct system with control lines, or they may be integrated into the memory subsystem. If implemented in hardware, a [[Programmable Interrupt Controller]] (PIC) or [[Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller]] (APIC) is connected to both the interrupting device and to the processor's interrupt pin. If implemented as part of the memory controller, interrupts are mapped into the system's memory address space.
<!-- Expand on how memory mapped interrupts work. e.g. PowerPC -->
Interrupts can be categorized into the following types: software interrupt, maskable interrupt, [[non-maskable interrupt]] (NMI), [[interprocessor interrupt]] (IPI), and spurious interrupt. A software interrupt is an interrupt generated within a processor by executing an instruction. Examples of software interrupts are [[system call]]s. A ''maskable interrupt'' is essentially a hardware interrupt which may be ignored by setting a bit in an interrupt mask register's (IMR) bit-mask. Likewise, a ''non-maskable interrupt'' is a hardware interrupt which typically does not have a bit-mask associated with it allowing it to be ignored. An ''interprocessor interrupt'' is a special type of interrupt which is generated by one processor to interrupt another processor in a multiprocessor system. A ''spurious interrupt'' is a hardware interrupt which is generated by system errors, such as electrical noise on one of the PICs interrupt lines.
Processors typically have an internal ''interrupt mask'' which allows software to ignore all external hardware interrupts while it is set. This mask may offer faster access than accessing an IMR in a PIC, or disabling interrupts in the device itself. In some cases, such as the [[x86]] architecture, disabling and enabling interrupts on the processor itself acts as a [[memory barrier]], in which case it may actually be slower.
The phenomenon where the overall system performance is severely hindered by excessive amounts of processing time spent handling interrupts is called an [[interrupt storm]] or ''live lock''.
== Typical uses ==
Typical interrupt uses include the following: system timers, disks IO, power-off signals, and [[trap]]s. Other interrupts exist to transfer data bytes using [[UART]]s or [[Ethernet]]; sense key-presses; control motors; or anything else the equipment must do.
A classic system timer interrupt interrupts periodically from a counter or the power-line. The interrupt handler counts the interrupts to keep time. The timer interrupt may also be used by the OS's [[task scheduler]] to reschedule the priorities of running [[process]]es. Counters are popular, but some older computers used the power line frequency instead, because power companies in most Western countries control the power-line frequency with an [[atomic clock]].
A disk interrupt signals the completion of a data transfer from or to the disk peripheral. A process waiting to read or write a file starts up again.
A power-off interrupt predicts or requests a loss of power. It allows the computer equipment to perform an orderly shutdown.
Interrupts are also used in [[typeahead]] features for buffering events like keystrokes.
== See also ==
* [[Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[Inter-Processor Interrupt]]
* [[Interrupt Handler]]
* [[Interrupt Latency]]
* [[Non-Maskable Interrupt]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.atarimagazines.com/compute/issue149/60_Interrupts_made_easy.php Interrupts Made Easy]
[[Category:Interrupts| ]]
[[de:Interrupt]]
[[es:Interrupción]]
[[fr:Interruption (informatique)]]
[[it:Interrupt (informatica)]]
[[lt:Pertraukimas]]
[[nl:Interrupt]]
[[ja:割り込み]]
[[pl:Przerwanie]]
[[pt:Interrupção de hardware]]
[[ru:Прерывание]]
[[fi:Keskeytyssignaali]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intercalation</title>
<id>15290</id>
<revision>
<id>33043217</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-28T21:54:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Squell</username>
<id>403965</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of "Intercalation", see [[Intercalation (disambiguation)]]''
The solar [[year]] does not have whole number of days, but a [[calendar year]] must have a whole number of days. The only way to reconcile the two is to vary the number of days in the calendar year.
In many calendars, this is done by adding to a [[common year]] of 365 days, an extra day ('''leap day''' or '''intercalary day'''): this makes a [[leap year]] of 366 days. In the [[Gregorian calendar]], the intercalary day is [[February 29]].
The solar [[year]] does not have a whole number of [[lunar month]]s either, so a [[lunisolar calendar]] must have a variable number of [[month]]s in a year. This is usually 12 months, but sometimes a 13th month (an '''intercalary''' or '''embolismic''' month) is added to the year.
[[ISO 8601]] includes a specification for a 52-week year. Any year that has 53 Thursdays has 53 weeks; this extra week may be regarded as intercalary.
The determination of whether a year has intercalation may be calculated ([[Julian calendar|Julian]], [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] and [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]] calendars), or determined by observation ([[Iranian calendar]]).
==See also==
*[[Calendar]]
*[[Bahá'í calendar]]
*[[Julian calendar]]
*[[Gregorian calendar]]
*[[Iranian calendar]]
*[[Hebrew calendar]]
*[[Hindu calendar]]
*[[Chinese calendar]]
*[[Leap second]]
[[Category:Calendars]]
[[fr:Intercalation (mesure du temps)]]
[[pl:Interkalacja]]
[[vi:Nhuận]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intercourse</title>
<id>15291</id>
<revision>
<id>37812787</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T07:28:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Radgeek</username>
<id>14878</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>italicize title</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''intercourse''' refers to:
{{Wiktionarypar|intercourse}}
*Any kind of [[human communication]] and interaction.
** Most popularly, however, it is used to refer to [[sexual intercourse]], whether [[intromission]] or [[outercourse]], including [[Vaginal sex|vaginal intercourse]], [[anal sex|anal intercourse]], and [[interfemoral intercourse]].
'''''[[Intercourse (book)|Intercourse]]''''' is the title of a [[1987]] book by [[radical feminism|radical feminist]] author [[Andrea Dworkin]], which discusses [[sexual intercourse]] in art and society.
'''Intercourse''' is also the name of two communities in the United States:
*[[Intercourse, Alabama]]
*[[Intercourse, Pennsylvania]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ink</title>
<id>15292</id>
<revision>
<id>40651021</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T01:49:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kuru</username>
<id>764407</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert: odd addition</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
An '''ink''' is a [[liquid]] containing various [[pigment]]s and/or [[dye]]s used for colouring a surface to render an [[image]] or [[text]]. Common perceptions consider ink for use in drawing or writing with a [[pen]] or [[brush]].
However ink can be of a paste form, this kind of ink is used most extensively in letterpress and lithographic [[printing]].
[[Image:Tinte1.JPG|thumb|Inkpots with penholder]]
==Types of ink==
Early varieties of ink include [[Indian ink]], various natural dyes made from metals, the husk or outer covering of nuts or seeds, and sea creatures like the [[squid]] (known as [[sepia]] ). India ink is black and originated in [[Asia]]. [[Walnut ink]] and [[iron-gall nut ink]] were made and used by many of the early masters to obtain the golden brown ink used for drawing.
===Pigmented inks===
Pigmented inks contain other agents that ensure adhesion of the pigment to the surface and prevent it from being removed by mechanical abrasion. These materials are typically referred to as resins (in solvent-based inks) or binding agents (in water-based inks).
Pigmented inks are advantageous when printing on paper because the pigment stays on the surface of the paper. This is desirable because more ink on the surface of the paper means less ink needs to be used to create the same intensity of color.
===Dyes in inks===
Dyes, however, are generally much stronger and can produce more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are dissolved in the liquid phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, thus making the ink less efficient and also potentially allowing for the ink to bleed at the edges, producing poor quality printing.
To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, such as blowing hot air on the fresh print. Other methods to resolve this include harder paper [[sizing]] and more specialized paper coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks that are used in non-industrial settings (and thus must conform to tighter toxicity and emission controls), such as [[inkjet printer]] inks, include coating the paper with a charged coating. If the dye has the opposite charge, then it is attracted to and retained by this coating, while the solvent soaks into the paper. [[Cellulose]], the material that paper is made of, is also naturally charged, and so a compound that complexes with both the dye and the paper surface aids retention at the surface. Such a compound in common use in ink-jet printing inks is [[poly vinyl pyrrolidone|polyvinyl pyrrolidone]].
An additional advantage of dye-based ink systems is that the dye [[molecule]]s interact chemically with other ink ingredients. This means that they can benefit more than pigmented ink from [[optical br |
iopia, the area that would later be [[Eritrea]] and part of the province of [[Tigray]] in return for the promise of 30,000 rifles, ammunition, and cannons (Pakenham, ''The [[Scramble for Africa]]'' p. 472-3). The Italians notified the European powers that this treaty gave them a protectorate over all of Ethiopia. Menelik protested and showed that the Amharic version of the treaty said no such thing.
The conflict with the Italians came to head with their defeat at the [[Battle of Adowa]] on March 1, 1896. On [[October 26]], [[1896]] a provisional treaty of peace was concluded at Adis Ababa, recognizing the absolute independence of Ethiopia.
Regarding the question of railways, the first concession for a railway from the coast at [[Djibouti]] (French Somaliland) to the interior was granted by [[Menelik II|Menelik]], to a French company in 1894. The railway was completed to [[Dire Dawa]], 28 miles from [[Harrar]], by the last day of 1902.
When [[Menelik II]] died, his grandson, [[Lij Iyassu]], succeeded to the throne but soon lost support because of his Muslim ties. He was deposed in [[1916]] by the Christian nobility, and Menelik's daughter, [[Zauditu]], was made empress. Her cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen, was made regent and successor to the throne.
==Modern History==
In 1930, after the empress died, Ras Tafari Makonnen, adopting the throne name [[Haile Selassie]], was crowned emperor. His reign was interrupted in [[1936]] when Italian Fascist forces [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|invaded and occupied]] Ethiopia (they first invaded on [[October 2]], [[1935]], took the capital [[Addis Ababa]] on [[May 5]] and formally annexed Ethiopia on [[May 9]]). The emperor was forced into exile in England despite his plea to the [[League of Nations]] for intervention. Five years later, the Italians were [[East African Campaign|defeated by British and Ethiopian forces]], and the emperor returned to the throne.
Over the following decades, Emperor Haile Selassie exerted numerous efforts to promote the modernization of his nation. The country's first important school of higher education, [[Addis Ababa University|University College of Addis Ababa]], was founded in [[1950]]. The Constitution of 1931 was replaced with a new one in 1955, which expanded the powers of the Parliament. While improving diplomatic ties with the [[United States]], he also sought to improve the nations' relationship with other African nations in helping to found the [[Organisation of African Unity]] in [[1963]].
Despite these attempts at modernization, by the early 1970s the advanced age of Emperor Haile Selassie was becoming a major problem for the future of his nation. As Paul B. Henze explains, "most Ethiopians thought in terms of personalities, not ideology, and out of long habit still looked to Haile Selassie as the initiator of change, the source of status and privilege, and the arbiter of demands for resources and attention among competing groups."<sup>[[#References|6]]</sup> Ethiopians worried for their future following his impending death, and whether his successors would continue his campaigns for modernization and economic development.
After a period of civil unrest which began in February 1974, the aging Haile Selassie I was deposed on [[September 12]], [[1974]], and a provisional administrative council of soldiers, known as the [[Derg]] ("committee") seized power from the emperor and installed a government which was socialist in name and military in style. The Derg summarily executed 59 members of the former government, including the two former Prime Ministers, Crown Councilors, Court officials, ministers, and generals; Emperor Haile Selassie died on [[August 22]], [[1975]], allegedly strangled in the basement of his palace.
Lt. Col. [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] assumed power as head of state and Derg chairman, after having his two predecessors killed. Mengistu's years in office were marked by a totalitarian-style government and the country's massive militarization, financed by the [[Soviet Union]] and the Eastern Bloc, and assisted by [[Cuba]]. In December 1976, an Ethiopian delegation in [[Moscow]] signed a military assistance agreement with the [[Soviet Union]]. The following April, Ethiopia abrogated its military assistance agreement with the [[United States]] and expelled the American military missions.
In July 1977, sensing the disarray in Ethiopia, [[Somalia]] attacked across the [[Ogaden]] in pursuit of its [[Irredentism|irredentist]] claims to the ethnic Somali areas of Ethiopia (''see'' [[Ogaden War]]). They were assisted in this invasion by the armed [[Western Somali Liberation Front]]. Ethiopian forces were driven back far inside their own frontiers but, with the assistance of a massive Soviet airlift of arms and Cuban combat forces, they stemmed the attack. The last major Somali regular units left the Ogaden [[March 15]], [[1978]]. Twenty years later, the Somali region of Ethiopia remains under-developed and insecure.
From 1977 through early 1978, thousands of suspected enemies of the Derg were tortured and/or killed in a purge called the "red terror." Communism was officially adopted during the late 1970s and early 1980s; in [[1984]], the [[Workers' Party of Ethiopia]] (WPE) was established, and on [[February 1]], [[1987]], a new Soviet-style civilian constitution was submitted to a popular referendum. It was officially endorsed by 81% of voters, and in accordance with this new constitution, the country was renamed the [[People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia]] on [[September 10]], 1987, and Mengistu became president.
The regime's collapse was hastened by droughts and [[1984 - 1985 famine in Ethiopia|famine]], as well as by insurrections, particularly in the northern regions of Tigray and Eritrea. In 1989, the [[Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front]] (TPLF) merged with other ethnically-based opposition movements to form the [[Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF). In May 1991, EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa. Mengistu fled the country and was granted asylum in [[Zimbabwe]], where he still resides.
In July 1991, the EPRDF, the [[Oromo Liberation Front]] (OLF), and others established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) which was comprised of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution. In June 1992, the OLF withdrew from the government; in March 1993, members of the [[Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition]] also left the government.
A [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War|border war]] with [[Eritrea]] (which separated from Ethiopia following the fall of the Derg in 1992) erupted in May 1998, lasting until June 2000. While this has hurt the nation's economy, it has also strengthened the ruling coalition.
:''See also :'' [[Ethiopia]]
[[Subdivisions of Ethiopia]]
{{1911}}
==Additional Reading==
* Sergew Hable Sellassie. ''Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270'' (Addis Ababa: United Printers, 1972).
* ''African Zion, the Sacred Art of Ethiopia'', (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
== Notes ==
# Yuri M. Kobishchanov, ''Axum'', Joseph W. Michels, editor; Lorraine T. Kapitanoff, translator, (University Park, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, 1979), pp.54-59.
# As expressed, for example, in his ''The Historical Geography of Ethiopia'' (London: the British Academy, 1989), p.39.
# Stuart Munro-Hay, ''Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity'' (Edinburgh: University Press, 1991), p.56.
# Kobishchanov, ''Axum'', p.116.
# Stuart Munro-Hay, ''Aksum'', pp.95-98.
# Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (New York: Palgrave, 2000.), p. 282.
== External links==
{{commonscat|History of Ethiopia}}
* {{cite web
| last = Pankhurst
| first = Dr. Richard
| title = History of Northern Ethiopia - and the Establishment of the Italian Colony or Eritrea
| work = Civic Webs Virtual Library
| url = http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/ethiopia/pankhurst/history_of_northern_ethiopia.htm
| accessdate = March 25
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* [http://tezeta.org/14/prince-alamayou-of-ethiopia Prince Alamayou of Ethiopia, by Lord Amulree]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
[[Category:History of Ethiopia| ]]
[[de:Geschichte Äthiopiens]]
[[es:Historia de Etiopía]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Éthiopie]]
[[he:היסטוריה של אתיופיה]]
[[pt:História da Etiópia]]
[[sl:Zgodovina Etiopije]]
[[zh:衣索比亞歷史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethiopia/Geography</title>
<id>9399</id>
<revision>
<id>15907294</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-14T21:28:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Ethiopia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Ethiopia</title>
<id>9400</id>
<revision>
<id>41812361</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:33:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Llywrch</username>
<id>5094</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ census info, link to CSA</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Ethiopia]]'s population is highly diverse. Most of its people speak a [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] or [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic language]]. The [[Oromo]], [[Amhara people|Amhara]], and [[Tigrean]]s make up more than three-fourths of the population, but there are more than 80 different ethnic groups within Ethiopia. Some of these have as few as 10,000 members. In general, most of the Christians live in the highlands, while Muslims and adherents of traditional African religions tend to inhabit lowland regions. English is the most widely spoken foreign language and is taught in all secondary schools. [[Amharic]] was the language of primary school instruction but has been replaced in many areas by local languages such as [[Or |
text xml:space="preserve">'''Crown copyright''' is a form of [[copyright]] claim used by the governments of the [[United Kingdom]] and a number of other [[Commonwealth realms]].
==In the United Kingdom==
Crown copyright applies to all works produced by the [[British Government]], subject to the condition that the qualification "Where a work is made by Her Majesty or by an officer or servant of the Crown in the course of his duties" is met. The Crown can also have copyrights assigned to it. There is also a small class of materials where the Crown claims the right to control reproduction outside normal copyright law due to [[Letters patent|Letters Patent]] issued under the [[royal prerogative]]. This material includes the [[King James Bible]], and the [[Book of Common Prayer]].
Prior to the [[17th century]], the [[Executive (government)|executive]] - acting on behalf of the [[monarch]], under the royal prerogative - controlled all printing, and the granting of licences to printers. During the [[17th century]], the Crown lost most of its rights, except with regard to the King James Bible, the Book of Common Prayer, [[Acts of Parliament]] and similar. Until [[1911]], there was no special status for the Crown, excepting those texts.
The Copyright Act 1911 (the [[1911]] [[Act of parliament|Act]]), removed the concept of common law copyright protection from [[British law]], and it also provided specific protection for government works for the first time. Crown copyright was defined to extend to any work prepared or published by or under the direction or control of [[George V of the United Kingdom|His Majesty]] or any Government department. The Copyright Act 1956 (the [[1956]] Act) further extended Crown copyright protection by extending the definition to include every original literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work made by or under the direction or control of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Her Majesty]] or a Government department; sound recordings or cinematograph films made by or under the direction or control of Her Majesty or a Government department and works first published in the UK, if first published by or under the direction or control of Her Majesty or a Government department.
When the Copyrights Designs and Patents Act 1988 (the [[1988]] Act) came into force, the scope of the definition of Crown copyright was considerably reduced. Crown copyright was defined as subsisting when a "work is made by Her Majesty or by an officer or servant of the Crown in the course of his duties". Crown copyright was also defined as subsisting "in every Act of Parliament, Act of the [[Scottish Parliament]], Act of the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] or Measure of the General Synod of the [[Church of England]]". All existing works in Crown copyright were continued as such.
However, some documents have Crown Copyright waived by the government, subject to certain conditions. This was introduced in a [[white paper]] in [[2000]] in order to improve access to government publications. There are 11 classes of copyrights for which waivers are granted. The document concerned, from [[Her Majesty's Stationery Office]] (HMSO), is [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/archives/copyright/future_management_cc.doc Future Management of Crown Copyright]. Which documents are subject to waivers varies from time to time. [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/advice/crown-copyright/copyright-guidance/index.htm The current list] may be found on the official site.
Websites are reproducible unless otherwise indicated, but HMSO has stated in correspondence that they do not consider material under Crown Copyright redistributable under such licenses as the [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]]. For example, documents on the website of the [http://www.pro.gov.uk/default.htm Public Records Office]" are subject to the following conditions:
<blockquote>The material featured on this site is subject to Crown copyright protection unless otherwise indicated. The Crown copyright protected material (other than the Royal Arms and departmental or agency logos) may be reproduced free of charge in any format or medium provided it is reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. Where any of the Crown copyright items on this site are being republished or copied to others, the source of the material must be identified and the copyright status acknowledged.</blockquote>
<blockquote>Images on this site may not be reproduced without payment of a fee to the Image Library.</blockquote>
<blockquote>The permission to reproduce Crown protected material does not extend to any material on this site which is identified as being the copyright of a third party. Authorisation to reproduce such material must be obtained from the copyright holders concerned.</blockquote>
The duration of Crown copyright varies depending whether material is published or unpublished. Unpublished material was originally subject to copyright protection in perpetuity. However, the 1988 Act removed this concept from British law. Transitional provisions apply for 50 years after the entry into force of the 1988 Act which mean that no unpublished material will lose its copyright protection until [[January 1]], [[2040]]. New Crown copyright material that is unpublished has copyright protection for 125 years from date of creation. Published Crown copyright material has protection for 50 years from date of publication. Those works protected under Letters Patent have perpetual copyright claimed over them despite being published. Works where copyright is assigned to the Crown by an author are subject to the normal term of protection for that particular type of work, for example life of the author plus 70 years for a literary work.
==In Australia==
Pursuant to part VII of the ''[[Copyright Act 1968]]'', the [[Australian Government]] owns copyright in any work, film or sound recording made by or under the direction or control of the Government, and any work first published by or under the direction or control of the Government.
An extensive review was carried out in 2004 and the fidings were published in 2005 in the [http://www.clrc.gov.au/agd/WWW/clrHome.nsf/AllDocs/4F25A124B6E6F1A4CA256FDB0015D5A7?OpenDocument Copyright Law Review Committee's report]. The chief recommendation was to end the distinction between the Crown and other copyright holders. In particular, the Committee was "emphatic" that the Crown lose its unique position of gaining copyright over material whenever it is the first publisher of such material. (For example, a previously unpublished short story, upon being published in a government work, would cease to belong to the author and would instead become Crown copyright, denying the author any future royalties.)
==In Canada==
Under section 12 of the [[Copyright Act of Canada|Copyright Act]], the government reserves its rights with respect to all documents produced by the [[Government of Canada]].
:''12. Without prejudice to any rights or privileges of the Crown, where any work is, or has been, prepared or published by or under the direction or control of Her Majesty or any government department, the copyright in the work shall ... belong to Her Majesty and ... shall continue for the remainder of the calendar year of the first publication of the work and for a period of fifty years following the end of that calendar year''
The Crown's ownership in its works is no more limited than those of any private persons. In practice, government materials are often licensed to the public for non-commercial use under the conditions that 1) due diligence is taken to ensure accuracy, 2) the source is identified, and 3) the material is not represented as an official version. Absent any licence available from the source of the material, there is no presumption that any government material is subject to such a licence.
Enforcement of this right has been relatively infrequent and so its effectiveness remains uncertain for certain materials. However, this is not true for some material. In the past few years the Crown has exercised its rights with respect to nautical maps which have been used for commercial companies for oil and gas exploration. This suggests that their right in crown copyright is likely enforceable.
In Canada, leaving aside the question of Crown prerogative, the federal government has legislative authority for copyright in the law. Section 12 of the Copyright Act is the provision dealing with Crown copyright. This section gives copyright to the Crown in works that are “prepared or published by or under the direction or control of Her Majesty or any government department.”
===Exceptions===
In [[1996]] the "Reproduction of Federal Law Order"[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/otherreg/SI-97-5/189099.html] was introduced by the federal government which gave permission for the public to reproduce federal legislation and regulations, as well as decisions by federally-enacted court and tribunals (eg. the Supreme Court, appellate courts). The only condition is that [[due diligence]] be taken to ensure accuracy and the document is not represented as an official version. Nevertheless, the order is only a [[licence]] to copy, thus the government can revoke future copying at its own discretion. Furthermore, the government still reserves its [[moral rights]].
None of the provinces have introduced such a licencing scheme for their government documents. Instead, some provinces, such as [[Ontario]], allow copying only under the condition that the document clearly acknowledges its unofficial nature and that it is labeled with the year of publication such as:
:''© Queen's Printer for Ontario, 20—. This is an unofficial version of Government of Ontario legal materials.''
The Information Highway Advisory Council, in its 1995 Final Report, recommended that Crown copyright generally, and not specifically in relation t |
51</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,615,459</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,871,509</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,854,571</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,855,827</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,611,304</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">961,719</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Scandinavia</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,267,818</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,328,426</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,380,413</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,134,733</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">933,249</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">440,262</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">241,685</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">72,582</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,075</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Denmark</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">179,474</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">189,154</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">181,649</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">153,690</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">132,543</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64,196</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">30,107</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,962</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,838</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">16</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Finland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">142,478</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">149,824</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">129,680</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62,641</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">17</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Iceland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,764</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">19</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Norway</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">347,852</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">363,863</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">403,877</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">336,388</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">322,665</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">181,729</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">114,246</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">43,995</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,678</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">19</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sweden</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">595,250</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">625,585</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">665,207</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">582,014</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">478,041</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">194,337</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">97,332</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,625</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,559</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">20</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">21</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Western Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,434,705</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,740,767</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,352,378</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,286,834</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,232,757</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,287,458</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,977,753</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,501,686</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">663,308</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">21</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Low countries</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">206,375</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">207,038</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">172,534</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">127,719</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">107,349</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">86,461</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">65,157</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">37,353</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,161</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">23</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Belgium</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64,194</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">62,687</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">49,400</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">29,757</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">22,639</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">15,535</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">12,553</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,072</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,3 |
ved as Acting Chief Executive until [[25 May]], when he, too, resigned from his post to take part in the campaign for the new Chief Executive election. Following an interim government headed by [[Henry Tang]], Tsang was eventually elected as Chief Executive.
==Politics and government==
[[Image:HongKongLegcoBuilding2.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Legislative Council of Hong Kong|Legislative Council Building]] in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]].]]
[[Image:DSCN2167.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Leung Kwok-hung]], a prominent [[political activist]], and other protesters demand release of [[Aung San Suu Kyi]]. The Public Order Ordinance requires police permission to hold a demonstration of more than 30 participants.]]
{{main articles|[[Politics of Hong Kong]] and [[Hong Kong Government]]}}
The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region is headed by its [[Chief Executive of Hong Kong|Chief Executive]], the [[head of government]]. This office is currently held by [[Donald Tsang]], who was elected {{ref|elected}} on [[16 June]] [[2005]]. Tsang had held the post of [[Chief Secretary for Administration of Hong Kong|Chief Secretary for Administration]] prior. Donald Tsang assumed his post on [[24 June]] 2005 in [[Beijing]], China; he will finish the remaining portion of [[Tung Chee Hwa]]'s last term which ends on [[30 June]] [[2007]], according to the interpretation of [[Hong Kong Basic Law Annex One|Annex I]] and [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 46|Article 46]] by the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]].
The election of a new Chief Executive by the 800-member [[Election Committee]] was expected to be held on [[10 July]] [[2005]]. On [[16 June]] [[2005]], [[Donald Tsang]] was acclaimed the winner, as the only candidate securing the required 100 nominations from members of the election committee. Tung Chee Hwa, the first Chief Executive, assumed office on [[1 July]] [[1997]], following his election by a 400-member [[Election Committee|electoral college]]. For the second five-year term of the Chief Executive which began in July 2002, Tung was the only nominated candidate and therefore acclaimed.
The PRC set up a Provisional Legislative Council (PLC) just before the handover, and moved to Hong Kong to have its meetings after the handover. It reverted some laws passed by the original Legislative Council, which was formed by means of universal suffrage. The PLC passed some of its own laws, such as the Public Order Ordinance {{ref|POO}}, which required permission from police to hold a demonstration where the number of people who participates exceeds 30. [[Legislative Council of Hong Kong| Legislative Council]] [[Hong Kong legislative election|elections]] were held on [[24 May]] [[1998]], [[10 September]] [[2000]], and again on [[12 September]] [[2004]], with the next election scheduled for 2008. According to the [[Hong Kong Basic Law|Basic Law]], Hong Kong's "mini-[[constitution]]", the present third term of the Legislative Council has 30 seats directly elected from geographical constituencies, and 30 seats elected from [[Functional constituency|functional constituencies]]. The 1998, 2000 and [[Hong Kong legislative election, 2004|2004]] Legislative Council elections were seen as free, open, and widely contested, despite discontent among mainly 'pro-democratic' politicians, who contended that the functional constituency elections and the Election Committee elections (for 1998 and 2000) were undemocratic, as they consider that the electorate for these seats is too narrow.
The civil service of Hong Kong maintains its quality and neutrality, operating without discernible direction from [[Beijing]]. Many government and administrative operations are located in Central on Hong Kong Island near the historical location of [[Victoria City]], the site of the original British settlements.
The [[Right of abode issue, Hong Kong|Right of abode issue]] sparked debates in 1999, while the controversy over [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23]] was the focus of politics in Hong Kong between 2002 and 2003, culminating in a peaceful mass demonstration (over 500,000 demonstrators) on [[1 July]] [[2003]], after which the government still tried to pass the law to the Legislative Council. But one of the major pro-government parties refused to vote for passing the bill. Thus the government found that the bill could not be passed. So it shelved {{ref|shelved}} the drafted law {{ref|draftedlaw}} brought forth by Article 23. The focus of controversies {{ref|controversies}} shifted {{ref|shifted}} to the issue {{ref|issue}} of [[universal suffrage]] towards the end of 2003 and in 2004, which was the slogan of another peaceful mass demonstration on 1 July 2004.
On [[24 September]] [[2005]], twenty-five Hong Kong pro-democracy Legco members, some of whom were previously labelled as traitors by Beijing after the 1989 [[Tiananmen Square]] crackdown and barred from entering the mainland, crossed the border into the southern province of [[Guangdong]], following an unprecedented invitation by the PRC {{ref|visit}}. The invitation was generally regarded as one of the greatest goodwill gestures from the PRC to the Hong Kong democrats since the Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989.
On [[4 December]] [[2005]], a [[124 March|demonstration]] was organised by the [[Civil Human Rights Front]] and [[pro-democracy]] lawmakers to express concerns about the lack of a working timetable that will allow for universal suffrage in the 2007 and 2008 elections for the Chief Executive and the Legistlative Council respectively. The turnout was reported to be 63,000 by the police, and at least 250,000 by the organisers.
On [[22 December]] [[2005]], the [[Chief Executive]] of Hong Kong, Donald Tsang, faced a political challenge. The electoral reform of members of the Legislative Council and the Chief Executive in the future were voted down by the [[pro-democracy camp]].
==Legal system and judiciary==
[[Image:Final appeal.gif|thumb|250px|right|The [[Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal|Court of Final Appeal]] building located in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]].]]
{{main articles|[[Legal system of Hong Kong]] and [[Judiciary of Hong Kong]]}}
In contrast to mainland China's [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system, Hong Kong continues to follow the [[common law]] tradition established by British colonial rule. Article 84 of the [[Basic Law of Hong Kong]] allows Hong Kong's courts to refer to decisions ([[precedents]]) rendered by courts of foreign jurisdictions and to invite foreign judges to participate in proceedings of Hong Kong's [[Court of Final Appeal]].
Structurally, Hong Kong's court system consists of the [[Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal|Court of Final Appeal]] which replaced the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], the [[High Court of Hong Kong|High Court]], which is made up of the [[Court of Appeal of Hong Kong|Court of Appeal]] and the [[Court of First Instance of Hong Kong|Court of First Instance]], and the [[District Court of Hong Kong|District Court]], which includes the [[Family Court of Hong Kong|Family Court]]. Other adjudicative bodies include the Lands Tribunal, the Magistrates' Courts, the Juvenile Court, the Coroner's Court, the Labour Tribunal, the Small Claims Tribunal, and the Obscene Articles Tribunal, which is responsible for classifying non-video pornography to be circulated in Hong Kong. Justices of the [[Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal|Court of Final Appeal]] are appointed by Hong Kong's Chief Executive. The [[Basic Law of Hong Kong]] is subject to interpretation by the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]] and this power has been invoked three times: the [[Right of abode issue, Hong Kong|right of abode issue]], an interpretation regarding post-2008 election procedures, and an interpretation regarding the length of the term of the Chief Executive.
As in [[England]], [[lawyer|lawyers]] in Hong Kong are classified as [[barrister|barristers]] and [[solicitor|solicitors]], where one can choose to practice as either one but not both (but it is possible to switch from one to the other). The vast majority of [[lawyer|lawyers]] are [[solicitor|solicitors]] who are licensed and regulated by [[the Law Society of Hong Kong]]. [[Barristers]], on the other hand, are licensed and regulated by the [[Hong Kong Bar Association]]. Only [[barristers]] are allowed to appear in the [[Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal|Court of Final Appeal]] and the [[High Court of Hong Kong|High Court]]. Just as the [[common law system]] is maintained, so are British courtroom customs such as the wearing of robes and wigs by both [[judges]] and [[lawyers]].
==Geography==
[[Image:Hong Kong relief map with geographic labels.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A relief map of Hong Kong and the southern part of [[Shenzhen]] (circa 2000). ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Hong+Kong&ll=22.285284,114.147949&spn=0.592723,0.951073&t=k&hl=en])]]
{{main articles|[[Geography of Hong Kong]] and [[Ecology of Hong Kong]]}}
Hong Kong consists of [[Hong Kong Island]], [[Kowloon]], and the [[New Territories]]. The [[Kowloon Peninsula]] is attached to the New Territories in the north, and the New Territories are in turn connected to [[mainland China]] across the [[Sham Chun River]] (Shenzhen River). In total, Hong Kong has [[Islands of Hong Kong|236 islands]] in the [[South China Sea]], of which [[Lantau Island|Lantau]] is the largest. Hong Kong Island itself is the second largest and also the most populated. [[Ap Lei Chau]] is the most densely populated island in the world.
The name "Hong Kong", literally meaning "fragrant harbour", is derived from the area around present-day [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong|Aberdeen]] and [[Wong Chuk Hang]] on Hong Kong Island, where fragrant trees were once abundant and exported from. The body of water between Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula is [[Victoria Harbour]], one of the deepest natural maritime [[po |
[[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]].]]
#The poetry of the Archaic and Classical eras &mdash; composed primarily for performance at cultic festivals or aristocratic banquets, and thus part of ''muthos'' in the Homeric sense. This includes:
#*the [[Homer]]ic [[Odyssey]], [[Iliad]] and [[Homeric Hymns|Hymns]]
#*the [[Hesiod]]ic [[Theogony]].
#*the dramatic works of [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], [[Euripides]] and [[Aristophanes]]
#*the choral hymns of [[Pindar]] and [[Bacchylides]].
#The work of historians, like [[Herodotus]] and [[Diodorus Siculus]], and geographers, like [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] and [[Strabo]], who made travels around the Greek world and noted down the stories they heard at various cities.
#The work of mythographers, who wrote prose treatises based on learned research attempting to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets. The [[Bibliotheke]] by [[Apollodorus of Athens]] is the largest extant example of this genre.
#The poetry of the [[Hellenistic]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ages, which although composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise, nevertheless contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This category includes the works of:
#*The Hellenistic poets [[Apollonius of Rhodes]] and [[Callimachus]].
#*The Roman poets [[Hyginus]], [[Ovid]], [[Statius]], [[Valerius Flaccus]] and [[Virgil]].
#*The [[Late Antiquity|Late Antique]] Greek poets [[Nonnus]] and [[Quintus Smyrnaeus]].
#The ancient novels of [[Apuleius]], [[Petronius]], [[Lollianus]] and [[Heliodorus]].
==An Overview==
The span of stories and characters in Greek mythology ranges from the atrocities of the [[Titan (mythology)|early gods]] to the brutal wars of [[Trojan War|Troy]] and [[Seven Against Thebes|Thebes]], from the youthful pranks of [[Hermes]] to the heartfelt grief of [[Demeter]] for [[Persephone]], all depicted in minute detail. The cast of characters includes many [[gods]], [[goddess]]es, [[hero]]es, [[heroine]]s, [[monster]]s, [[Daemon (mythology)|daemon]]s, [[nymph]]s, [[satyr]]s, and [[centaur]]s.
While self-contradictions in the stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. Firstly there is an '''age of gods''', then comes an '''age when men and gods mingled freely''', and this is followed by an '''age of heroes ''', where divine activity was more limited.
While the age of gods has often been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes. For example, the heroic [[Iliad]] and [[Odyssey]] dwarfed the divine-focused [[Theogony]] and [[Homeric Hymns]] in both size and popularity.
[[image:Delphi temple-650px.jpg|thumb|250px|Temple of Apollo at [[Delphi]].]]
===The Age of Gods===
Like their neighbors, the Greeks believed in a [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] of [[deity|god]]s and [[goddess]]es who were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, [[Aphrodite]] was the goddess of sexual desire, while [[Ares]] was the god of war and [[Hades]] the god of the dead. Some deities like [[Apollo]] and [[Dionysus]] revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others like [[Hestia]] (literally "hearth") and [[Helios]] (literally "sun"), were little more than personifications. There were also site-specific deities, such as river gods and nymphs of springs and caves, and venerated tombs of local heroes and heroines.
Many beings described in Greek myths could be considered "gods" or "heroes," but some were recognized only in [[folklore]] or were worshipped locally in certain places (e.g. [[Trophonius]]) or at specific festivals (e.g. [[Adonis]]). The most impressive [[Temple (Greek)|temple]]s were for the most part dedicated to a limited number of gods, mainly the [[twelve Olympians]], [[Heracles]] and [[Asclepius]] and occasionally [[Helios]]. These gods were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to [[nymph]]s, minor gods, or local heroes. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere.
====The First Gods====
One type of narrative about the age of gods tells the story of the birth and conflicts of the [[Greek primordial gods|first divinities]]: [[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]], [[Nyx]] (Night), [[Eros (god)|Eros]] (Love), [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] (the Sky), [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (the Earth), the [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]] and the triumph of [[Zeus]] and the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympians]]. [[Hesiod]]'s [[Theogony]] is an example of this type. It was also the subject of many lost poems, including ones attributed to [[Orpheus]], [[Musaeus]], [[Epimenides]], [[Abaris]] and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications and [[mystery religion|mystery-rites]]. A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] philosophers and recently unearthed [[papyrus]] scraps.
The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the ''theogony'', or song about the birth of the gods, to be the prototypical poetic genre&mdash;the prototypical ''muthos''&mdash;and imputed almost magical powers to it. [[Orpheus]], the archetypal poet, was also the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in the ''[[Argonautica]]'', and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to [[Hades]]. When [[Hermes]] invents the [[lyre]] in the ''Homeric Hymn to Hermes'', the first thing he does is to sing the birth of the gods. [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'' is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods, but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to the [[Muse]]s.
====New Gods====
Another type tells the story of the birth, struggles and exploits, and eventual ascent into [[Olympus]] of one of the younger generation of gods: [[Apollo]], [[Hermes]], [[Athena]], etc. The [[Homeric Hymns]] are the oldest source of this kind of story. They are often closely associated with cult-centers of the god in question: the ''Homeric Hymn to Apollo'' is a compound of two earlier narratives: one telling of his birth at [[Delos]], the other of his establishment of the oracle at [[Delphi]]. Similarly, the ''Homeric Hymn to [[Demeter]]'', with its tale of the abduction of [[Persephone]] by [[Hades]], narrates the back-story of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]].
===The Age of Gods and Men===
Bridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and men moved freely together.
The most popular type of narrative that confronts gods with early men involves the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god (most often [[Zeus]]), resulting in heroic offspring. In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in the ''Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite'', where the goddess lies with [[Anchises]] to produce [[Aeneas]]. The marriage of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]], which yielded [[Achilles]], is another such myth.
Another type involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as when [[Prometheus]] steals fire from the gods, when [[Tantalus]] steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus' table and gives it to his own subjects - revealing to them the secrets of the gods, when [[Prometheus]] or [[Lycaon]] invents sacrifice, when [[Demeter]] teaches [[agriculture]] and the [[Eleusinian mysteries|Mysteries]] to [[Triptolemus]], or when [[Marsyas]] invents the [[aulos]] and enters into a musical contest with [[Apollo]].
Yet another type belongs to [[Dionysus]] alone: the god wanders through Greece from foreign lands to spread his cult. He is confronted by a king, [[Lycurgus (Thrace)|Lycurgus]] or [[Pentheus]], who opposes him, and whom he punishes terribly in return.
===The Age of Heroes===
The age of heroes can be broken down around the monumental events of the [[Argonauts|Argonautic]] expedition and the [[Trojan War]]. The Trojan War marks roughly the end of the Heroic Age.
====Early Heroes====
[[Image:Perseus-slays-medusa.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|Perseus with the Head of [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]].]]
Among heroes, [[Heracles]] is practically in a class by himself. His fantastic solitary exploits, with their many [[folk tale]] themes, provided much material for popular legend. His enormous appetite and rustic character also made him a popular figure of comedy, while his pitiful end provided much material for tragedy.
The other members of the earliest generation of heroes, such as [[Perseus]], [[Theseus]] and [[Bellerophon]], have many traits in common with Heracles. Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border on [[fairy tale]], as they slay monsters like [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]] and the [[Chimera (mythology)|Chimera]]. This generation was not as popular a subject for poets; we know of them mostly through mythographers and passing remarks in prose writers. They were, however, favorite subjects of visual [[art]].
====The Generation of the Argonauts====
Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as [[Heracles]], went with [[Jason]] on the expedition to fetch the [[Golden Fleece]]. This generation also included [[Theseus]], who went to [[Crete]] to slay the [[Minotaur]]; [[Atalanta]], the female heroine; and [[Meleager]], who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey''.
====Royal Crimes====
In between the [[Argo]] and the [[Trojan War]], there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes. This includes the doings of [[Atreus]] and [[Thyestes]] at [[Argos]]; also those of [[Laius]] and [[Oedipus]] at [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], leading to the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of |
source of both Matthew and Mark, and Q source used by Matthew.
==A Hebrew Gospel of Matthew?==
There are numerous testimonies, starting from [[Papias]] and [[Irenaeus]], that Matthew originally wrote in the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] tongue, which could also refer to [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]. The sixteenth-century [[Erasmus]] was the first to express doubts on the subject of an original Hebrew version of the Gospel of Matthew: "It does not seem probable to me that Matthew wrote in Hebrew, since no one testifies that he has seen any trace of such a volume." Here Erasmus distinguishes between a Gospel of Matthew in Hebrew and the lost apocryphal ''[[Gospel of the Hebrews]]'' and ''[[Gospel of the Nazoraeans]]'', from which patristic writers do quote. The vast majority of contemporary scholars, based on analysis of the Greek of canonical Gospel of Matthew and use of sources such as the Greek Gospel of Mark, conclude that the book we have today was written originally in Greek and is not a translation from Hebrew or Aramaic (per Rev. [[Raymond E. Brown]], ''An Introduction to the New Testament'', p. 210). If they are correct, then writers such as [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Origen]], and [[Jerome]] referred to a document or documents distinct from the present Gospel of Matthew, as confirmed by the fact that [[Nicephorus]] lists the Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of the Hebrews separately in his ''Stichometry''. All of the aforementioned texts are distinct from the ''[[Gospel of the Ebionites]]'', ''[[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]]'', and ''[[Shem-Tov Matthew]]''.
An alternative to this conclusion is at [[Aramaic primacy]].
Biblical scholar Stephen L. Harris mentions that the claims of Matthew Levi being the author could actually be references to “an early Christian, perhaps named Matthew, who assembled a list of messianic prophecies in the Hebrew Bible, a collection that the creator of our present gospel may have used” (Stephen L. Harris, ''Understanding the Bible''. 6th ed. Boston/Toronto: McGraw Hill, 2003, p. 424). The Jesus narrative would then have been assembled around these Tanakh verses. <!--[[Ron Miller]], of [[Lake Forest College]], retranslated and wrote an extensive commentary on ''Matthew'', ''The [[Hidden Gospel of Matthew]]: Annotated and Explained'' (2004). relevance to this section?-->
==Theology of canonical ''Matthew''==
According to R.T. France:
"Matthew's gospel, more clearly than the others, presents the view of Jesus as himself the true Israel, and of those who have responded to his mission as the true remnant of the people of God . . . to be the true people of God is thus no longer a matter of nationality but of relationship to Jesus" (''New Bible Commentary'', Inter Varsity Press).
Of note is the phrase "Kingdom of Heaven" (βασιλεια ουρανος) used so often in the gospel of Matthew, as opposed to the phrase "Kingdom of God" used in other synoptic gospels such as Luke. The phrase "Kingdom of Heaven" is used 32 times in 31 verses in the Gospel of Matthew. It is speculated that this indicates that this particular Gospel was written to a primarily Jewish audience, as many Jewish people of the time felt the name of God was too holy to be written. Matthew's abundance of Old Testament references also supports this theory.
The theme "Kingdom of Heaven" as discussed in Matthew seems to be at odds with what was a circulating Jewish expectation -- that the Messiah would overthrow Roman rulership and establish a new reign as the new King of the Jews. Christian scholars, including [[N. T. Wright]], ''The Challenge of Jesus'', have long discussed the ways in which certain 1st century Jews (including Zealots) misunderstood the sayings of Jesus -- that while Jesus had been discussing a spiritual kingdom, certain Jews expected a physical kingdom.
The relationship between Jesus Christ and the "Kingdom" is also mentioned in the other gospels. Jesus had said, "My kingdom is not of this world. If My kingdom were of this world, then My servants would be fighting so that I would not be handed over to the Jews; but My kingdom is not of this realm." (John 18:36 NASB)
==See also==
*[[Sermon on the Mount]]
*[[Great Commission]]
==External links==
{{wikisourcepar|Bible, King James, Matthew}}
Online translations of the [[Gospel of Matthew]]:
* {{biblegateway||Matthew}}
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ Early Christian Writings]: texts and introductions
*[http://www.tjresearch.info/mksecond.htm James W.Deardorff, "Dependence of Mark upon Matthew"] a synopsis of the evidence
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10057a.htm Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia]
Related articles:
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-Matthew.pdf A textual commentary on the Gospel of Matthew] Detailed text-critical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 438 pages)
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/ch_matthew_1.asp Commentary on the Gospel of Saint Matthew] An interpretation of the inner, practical meaning of the Gospel, by Swami Nirmalananda Giri.
==References==
*Deardorff, James W. ''The Problems of New Testament Gospel Origins'' (1992) ISBN 0-7734-9807-9
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|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|Preceded by:<br><Center>[[2 Maccabees]]
|'''[[Gospels]]'''
|Followed by:<br><Center>[[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]
|}
</center>
[[category:New Testament books|Matthew]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative|Matthew]]
[[ast:Evanxeliu de Matéu]]
[[zh-min-nan:Má-thài Hok-im]]
[[cs:Evangelium podle Matouše]]
[[da:Matthæusevangeliet]]
[[de:Evangelium nach Matthäus]]
[[es:Evangelio de Mateo]]
[[eo:La Evangelio laŭ Sankta Mateo]]
[[fr:Évangile selon Matthieu]]
[[ko:마태오 복음서]]
[[id:Injil Matius]]
[[ia:Evangelio secundo Mattheo]]
[[it:Vangelo secondo Matteo]]
[[jv:Injil Matius]]
[[la:Evangelium secundum Matthaeum]]
[[nl:Evangelie naar Matteüs]]
[[nds:Matthäusevangelium]]
[[ja:マタイによる福音書]]
[[no:Evangeliet etter Matteus]]
[[pl:Ewangelia Mateusza]]
[[pt:Evangelho segundo Mateus]]
[[ru:Евангелие от Матфея]]
[[sk:Evanjelium podľa Matúša]]
[[sr:Свето Јеванђеље по Матеју]]
[[fi:Evankeliumi Matteuksen mukaan]]
[[sv:Matteusevangeliet]]
[[zh:瑪竇福音]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gospel of John</title>
<id>12493</id>
<revision>
<id>42072150</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:03:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.6.208.121</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Chapters in the Gospel of John}}
The '''''Gospel according to John''''' is the fourth [[gospel]] document in the sequence of the [[Biblical canon|canon]] of the [[New Testament]], and scholars agree it was the fourth to be written down. Like the other three [[synoptic]] gospels, it contains an account of some of the actions and sayings of [[Jesus]], but is quite different from them in [[ethos]] and [[theology]].
The [[Church Fathers]] believed only ''The Gospel of John'' and ''The [[Gospel of Matthew]]'' to be written by apostles of Jesus. While the "[[beloved disciple]]," who is traditionally identified with [[John the Apostle]], had traditionally been regarded as the author, this is now disputed by scholars of the "[[Higher Criticism]]" based on historical context and close textual analysis.
==Authorship, date, and place==
''Main article'': [[Authorship of the Johannine works]]
Though most scholars agree in placing the gospel of ''John'' somewhere between [[Anno Domini|AD]] 65 and 85, some place it later, in the first or early second century. The text itself states only that the Gospel was written by an anonymous follower of Jesus referred to as the ''Beloved Disciple'', traditionally identified with [[John the Apostle]], believed to have lived at the end of his life at [[Ephesus]]. The dating is important since ''John'' is agreed to be the last of the canonical Gospels to have been written down and thus marks the end-date of their composition.
Externally: In 125 A.D., the early Christian writer Papias named John the Apostle as the author of the Gospel of John. Internally: John 21:24 explicitly states that it is the disciple whom Jesus loved (the beloved disciple) who wrote this. Westcott cites this and much more, also quoting John. 1:14 and 14:35. (Westcott, B. “The Gospel According to St. John.” Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980. pp. ix-lxvii, li-ff.) However, scholarly research starting in the 19th century has questioned the apostle John's authorship, arguing that the work was written decades after the events it describes. Some attack John’s authorship based on differences of Greek style within the Gospel: breaks and inconsistencies in sequence, repetitions in the discourse, as well as passages that clearly do not belong to their context. Most critical scholars are of the opinion that ''John'' was composed in stages (probably two or three), beginning at an unknown time ([[50]]-[[70]]?) and culminating in a final text around [[95]]-[[100]]. This date is assumed in large part because [[John 21]], the so-called "[[John 21|appendix" to ''John'']], is largely concerned with explaining the death of the "beloved disciple," probably the leader of the Johannine community that produced the text. If this leader had been a follower of Jesus, or a disciple of one of Jesus' followers, then a death around 90-100 is reasonable. This claim is, of course, rejected by conservative commentators. Conservative commentators note that the author was an eye-witness to Christ, privy to information only an eye-witness could have had (John 13:23ff, 18:10, 18:15, 19:26-27, 19:34, 20:8, 20:24-29). They suggest that perhaps an introduction (John 1:1-1 |
gence Unit's Quality of Life Index ([http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf]) placed Ireland in 1st place in its World in Review 2005 survey.
Poverty figures show that 10% of Ireland's population live below the [[poverty line]]
(1997 [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ie.html]). [[UNICEF]] figures show Ireland has the 6th highest child poverty rate in the developed world at 16.8% ([http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/eco_chi_pov]).
==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of the Republic of Ireland]]''
The Irish people are mainly of indigenous origin, with the country's only significant minorities having descended from the Vikings and Anglo-Normans. An indigenous minority group is the [[Irish Traveller|Irish Traveller]], while some of the population are also of English, Scottish, and Welsh descent.
[[Image:Stpatrickcathedral dublin.jpg|thumb|St. Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin<br><small>The National Cathedral of the Church of Ireland.</small>]]
The official languages are [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[English language|English]]. Teaching of the Irish language is compulsory in primary and secondary level schools which receive money and recognition from the state. Some students may be exempt from the requirement to receive instruction in the language. [[English language|English]] is by far the predominant language spoken throughout the country. People living in predominantly Irish-speaking communities (the [[Gaeltacht]]) are limited to the low tens of thousands in isolated pockets largely on the western seaboard. Roads signs are usually bilingual, except in the [[Gaeltacht]], where they are in Irish only. The legal status of place names has recently been the subject of controversy, with an order made in [[2005]] under the [[Official Languages Act 2003|Official Languages Act]] changing the official name of certain locations from English to Irish (e.g. [[Dingle]] is now officially named ''An Daingean''). Most public notices are only in [[English language|English]], as is most of the print media. National media in Irish exists on TV and radio.
The Republic of Ireland is 92% nominally [[Roman Catholic]], but there has been a massive decline in full adherence among [[Irish Catholic]]s. Between [[1996]] and [[2001]], regular [[Roman Catholic Mass|Mass]] attendance, already previously in decline, declined from 60% to 48% (it had been 90%+ in [[1973]]), and all but two of its seminaries have closed.
The second largest Christian denomination, the [[Church of Ireland]] ([[Anglicanism]]), having been in decline for most of the twentieth century, has now experienced an increase in membership, according to the 2002 census, as have other small Christian denominations, and [[Islam]]. The largest other Protestant denominations are the [[Presbyterian Church in Ireland]] , followed by the [[Methodist Church in Ireland]]. The very small [[Judaism|Jewish]] community in the state has continued to decline in numbers (See [[History of the Jews in Ireland|Judaism in Ireland]])
Ireland is also home to a variety of small immigrant populations. According to the 2002 census, conducted by the Central Statistics Office, the largest EU groups are from: Britain, [[Germany]] and [[France]]; the largest non-EU groups are from: the [[USA]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Romania]]. However, since the joining of Eastern European countries into the E.U., Ireland has received over 300,000 immigrants from mainly Poland, Latvia and Lithuania in two short years alone. {{fact}}
==Culture==
[[Image:U2photo.jpg|thumb|200px|[[U2]]<br><small>The most successful Irish band of all time and one of the biggest bands internationally in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s.<small>]]
''Main article: [[Culture of Ireland]]''
The island of Ireland has produced the [[Book of Kells]], [[Irish traditional music]], and writers such as [[George Berkeley]], [[Jonathan Swift]], [[James Joyce]], [[George Bernard Shaw|George
Bernard Shaw]], [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan]], [[Oliver Goldsmith]], [[Oscar Wilde]], [[W.B. Yeats]], [[Samuel Beckett]], [[John Millington Synge]], [[Seán O'Casey]], [[Séamus Heaney]], [[Bram Stoker]] and others. Shaw, Yeats, Beckett and Heaney are [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Literature]] laureates. Other prominent writers include [[Roddy Doyle]], [[Dermot Bolger]], [[Maeve Binchy]], [[Frank McCourt]], [[Edna O'Brien]], [[Joseph O'Connor]], [[John McGahern]] and [[Colm Tóibín]].
[[Ernest Walton]] of [[Trinity College Dublin]] shared the [[1951]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for "splitting the atom". [[William Rowan Hamilton]] was a significant mathematician.
[[Image:Rory Munich 75.jpg|thumb|200px|Rory Gallagher<br><small>Gallagher's musical skills won plaudits from [[Eric Clapton]] and were credited with influencing many top guitarists in the rock idiom.</small>]]
Figures influential in music included [[Blues]] [[guitar]]ist [[Rory Gallagher]], folk singer [[Christy Moore]], [[Shane MacGowan]] with his band [[The Pogues]] and singer [[Sinéad O'Connor]]. The Irish [[punk rock]] band [[Stiff Little Fingers]] is known to have influenced such popular singers as [[Green Day]]. Successful entertainment exports in the late twentieth century include acts such as [[U2]], [[Thin Lizzy]], [[Bob Geldof]], [[The Corrs]], [[The Cranberries]] and [[Enya]], and the internationally acclaimed dance shows ''[[Riverdance]]'' and ''[[Lord of the Dance]]''. In [[Classical music]], the Island of Ireland was also the birthplace of the notable composers [[Turlough O'Carolan]], [[John Field (composer)|John Field]] (inventer of the [[Nocturne]]), [[Michael William Balfe]], ''Sir'' [[Charles Villiers Stanford]] and [[Charles Wood (composer)|Charles Wood]].
==Miscellaneous topics==
* Cellular frequency: GSM 900, GSM 1800, UMTS 2100
* Cellular technology: [[Global System for Mobile Communications|GSM]]/[[General Packet Radio Service|GPRS]]/[[Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution|EDGE]]/[[Universal Mobile Telecommunications System|UMTS]]
* [[Calendar date|Date]] format: DD/MM/YYYY (ex. 29/2/2004 or 29/02/2004) or DD/MM/YY (ex. 29/2/04 or 29/02/04), other styles are DD.MM.YY or DD-MM-YY
* [[Decimal]] separator is a full stop: 123.45
* Thousands are separated (formal) by a comma: 10,000, but younger people sometimes use: 10 000.
* [[Voltage]]: 220V , 50 Hz; [[Domestic AC power plugs and sockets|Power connector]]: [[Domestic AC power plugs and sockets#Type G .28British 3-pin.29|3 rectangle pins ]]
* [[Postal code]]: Ireland is one of the few countries in the world that doesn't have postal codes, expect for Dublin where a number is used to indicate the district. See [[Dublin postal districts]]. However Ireland is planning to have postal codes by 2008.
==References==
* ''Bunreacht na hÉireann'' (the 1937 constitution) ([http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/upload/static/256.pdf PDF version])
* ''The Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922''
* J. Anthony Foley and Stephen Lalor (ed), ''Gill & Macmillan Annotated Constitution of Ireland'' (Gill & Macmillan, 1995) (ISBN 071712276X)
* FSL Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine''
* Alan J. Ward, ''The Irish Constitutional Tradition: Responsible Government and Modern Ireland 1782–1992'' (Irish Academic Press, 1994) (ISBN 0716525283)
* ''Some of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
* ''[[OECD]] Information Technology Outlook 2004''
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Ireland}}
* [http://www.gov.ie/aras Áras an Uachtaráin] - Official presidential site
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1038581.stm BBC country profile]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ BBC Nations] Irish History
* [http://www.browseireland.com/ Browse Ireland] - Directory of Irish Websites
* [http://www.irlgov.ie/ Information on the Irish State] - Governmental portal
* [http://www.irelandstory.com/ Ireland Story] - History, geography and current affairs
* [http://www.walkingtree.com/ Mercator Atlas of Europe] Map of Ireland ("Irlandia") circa 1564
* [http://taoiseach.gov.ie/ Taoiseach] - Official prime ministerial site
* [http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/britishisles/ The British Isles] Independent view of Ireland and the UK
* [http://www.gov.ie/oireachtas/frame.htm Tithe an Oireachtais] - Houses of Parliament, official parliamentary site
* [http://www.eu2004.ie/templates/homepage.asp?sNavlocator=1 2004 Presidency of the Council of the European Union]
{{EU_countries}}
{{Europe}}
{{Irish states}}
[[Category:European Union member states|Ireland, Republic of]]
[[Category:Island nations|Ireland, Republic of]]
[[Category:Republic of Ireland| ]]
[[Category:Republics|Ireland, Republic of]]
[[ar:ايرلندا]]
[[be:Рэспубліка Ірляндыя]]
[[bg:Република Ирландия]]
[[bs:Irska]]
[[ca:República d'Irlanda]]
[[cs:Irská republika]]
[[cy:Gweriniaeth Iwerddon]]
[[da:Irske republik]]
[[de:Republik Irland]]
[[eo:Respubliko de Irlando]]
[[es:Irlanda]]
[[et:Iirimaa]]
[[fi:Irlanti]]
[[fiu-vro:Iirimaa]]
[[fo:Írland]]
[[fr:République d'Irlande]]
[[ga:Poblacht na hÉireann]]
[[gd:Poblachd na h-Eireann]]
[[gl:Irlanda]]
[[he:אירלנד]]
[[hr:Irska]]
[[hu:Írország]]
[[id:Republik Irlandia]]
[[io:Irlando]]
[[is:Írska lýðveldið]]
[[it:Repubblica d'Irlanda]]
[[ja:アイルランド]]
[[ko:아일랜드]]
[[kw:Repoblek Iwerdhon]]
[[la:Irlandia]]
[[lb:Irland (Land)]]
[[li:Ierland]]
[[lt:Airija]]
[[lv:Īrija]]
[[ms:Ireland]]
[[nl:Ierland (land)]]
[[nn:Republikken Irland]]
[[no:Republikken Irland]]
[[pl:Irlandia (państwo)]]
[[pt:Irlanda]]
[[rm:Republica da l'Irlanda]]
[[ro:Irlanda]]
[[ru:Ирландия]]
[[sco:Republic o Ireland]]
[[simple:Republic of Ireland]]
[[sk:Írsko (štát)]]
[[sl:Irska (država)]]
[[sr:Ирска]]
[[sv:Irland]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐไอร์แลนด์]]
[[tl:Ayrland (bansa)]]
[[tr:İrlanda]]
[[vi:Cộng hòa Ireland]]
[[zh:爱尔兰共和国]]
[[zh-min-nan:Éire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irish diaspora</title>
<id> |
of the public records of the Hebrew state. They were the basis on which not only the land was distributed and held, but the public services of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|temple]] were arranged and conducted, the [[Levite]]s and their descendants alone, as is well known, being entitled and first fruits set apart for that purpose." The Chronicles are an epitome of the sacred history from the days of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] down to the return from Babylonian Exile, a period of about 3,500 years. The writer gathers up "the threads of the old national life broken by the Captivity." In the Hebrew bible, where the book of Chronicles is usually the last book, it can be said to fulfil a role similar to the end credits of a modern movie: To mention all those also-rans without whom the preceding wouldn't have been possible.
The sources whence the chronicler compiled his work were public records, registers, and genealogical tables belonging to the Jews. These are referred to in the course of the book (1 Chr. 27:24; 29:29; 2 Chr. 9:29; 12:15; 13:22; 20:34; 24:27; 26:22; 32:32; 33:18, 19; 27:7; 35:25). There are in Chronicles, and the books of Samuel and Kings, forty parallels, often verbal, proving that the writer of Chronicles both knew and used those other books (1 Chr. 17:18; comp. [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]] 7:18-20; 1 Chr. 19; comp. [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]] 10, etc.).
As compared with Samuel and Kings, the Book of Chronicles omits many particulars there recorded (2 Sam. 6:20-23; 9; 11; 14-19, etc.), and includes many things peculiar to itself (1 Chr. 12; 22; 23-26; 27; 28; 29, etc.). Often the Chronicles paint a somewhat more positive picture of the same events, in comparison to the (compared to other books of their time) unusually critical books of Samuel and Kings. This corresponds to their time of composition: Samuel and Kings were probably completed during the exile, at a time when the history of the freshly wiped out Hebrew kingdoms was still fresh in the mind of the writers, and it was largely considered a colossal failure. The Chronicles, on the other hand, were written much later, after the restitution of the Jewish community in Palestine, at a time when the kingdoms were beginning to be regarded as the nostalgic, rosy-coloured past, something to be at least partially imitated, not something to be avoided.
In general, modern scholars consider Samuel and Kings, which were written earlier, to provide more reliable history than Chronicles.
Twenty whole chapters of the Chronicles, and twenty-four parts of chapters, are occupied with matters not found elsewhere. It also records many things in fuller detail, as (e.g.) the list of David's heroes (1 Chr. 12:1-37), the removal of the [[ark of the covenant|ark]] from Kirjath-jearim to [[Mount Zion]] (1 Chr. 13; 15:2-24; 16:4-43; comp. 2 Sam. 6), [[Uzziah]]'s ''[[tzaraas]]'' (commonly translated as "[[leprosy]]") and its cause (2 Chr. 26:16-21; comp. 2 Kings 15:5), etc.
It has also been observed that another peculiarity of the book is that it substitutes more modern and more common expressions for those that had then become unusual or obsolete. This is seen particularly in the substitution of modern names of places, such as were in use in the writer's day, for the old names; thus [[Gezer]] (1 Chr. 20:4) is used instead of [[Gob]] (2 Sam. 21:18), etc.
The Books of Chronicles are ranked among the ''Kethubim'', the third section of the [[Tanach]], and they usually occupy the final position in Hebrew bibles, although some Hebrew bibles place Chronicles at the first of the Kethubim. They are alluded to, though not directly quoted, in the [[New Testament]] ([[Epistle to Hebrews|Hebrews]] 5:4; [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 12:42; 23:35; [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:5; 11:31, 51).
==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15776 Divrei Hayamim I - Chronicles I (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15777 Divrei Hayamim II - Chronicles II (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/13_1chronicles.htm ''1 Chronicles'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/14_2chronicles.htm ''2 Chronicles'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway|1|Chronicles}}
** {{biblegateway|2|Chronicles}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_1_Chronicles ''1 Chronicles'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_2_Chronicles ''2 Chronicles'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11472a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
----
{{eastons}}
[[Category:Ketuvim|Chronicles, Books of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Chronicles]]
[[de:1. Buch der Chronik]]
[[fr:Premier livre des Chroniques]]
[[ko:역대기 상]]
[[id:1 Tawarikh]]
[[he:דברי הימים]]
[[jv:I Babad]]
[[nl:I en II Kronieken]]
[[ja:歴代誌]]
[[sk:Knihy kroník]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen aikakirja]]
[[sv:Första Krönikeboken]]
[[zh:歷代志]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Binary search tree</title>
<id>4320</id>
<revision>
<id>42120552</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:26:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.160.215.92</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Searching */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Binary_search_tree.svg|right|150px|thumb|A binary search tree of size 9 and depth 3, with root 7 and leaves 1, 4, 7 and 13. ]]
In [[computer science]], a '''binary search tree''' ('''BST''') is a [[binary tree]](each node can have up to two successor nodes ), where every node has a value, every [[node (computer science)|node]]'s left subtree contains only values less than or equal to the node's value, and every node's right subtree contains only values that are greater than or equal. The major advantage of binary search trees is that the related [[Sort algorithm]]s and [[search algorithm]]s can be very efficient, like [[in-order traversal]].
Binary search trees are a fundamental data structure used to construct more abstract data structures such as [[set data structure|set]]s, [[multiset]]s, and [[associative array]]s.
We may or may not choose to allow duplicate values in a BST; if we do, it represents a multiset, and inequalities for the left and right subtrees above are non-strict (they have ''or equal to''). If we do not, the inequalities can be taken as strict, and insertion operations must be modified to fail if the value being inserted is already present; in this case the BST represents a set with unique values, like the mathematical [[set]]. Yet other definitions use a non-strict inequality on only one side, which allows duplicate values but limits how well a tree with many duplicate values can be balanced.
== Operations ==
=== Searching ===
Searching a binary tree for a specific value is a recursive process that we can perform due to the ordering it imposes. We begin by examining the root. If the value equals the root, the value exists in the tree. If it is less than the root, then it must be in the left subtree, so we recursively search the left subtree in the same manner. Similarly, if it is greater than the root, then it must be in the right subtree, so we recursively search the right subtree in the same manner. If we reach an external node, then the item is not where it would be if it were present, so it does not lie in the tree at all. A comparison may be made with [[binary search]], which operates in nearly the same way but using random access on an array instead of following links.
Here is the search algorithm in the [[Python programming language]]:
'''def''' search_binary_tree(node, key):
'''if''' node '''is''' None:
'''return''' None # failure
'''if''' key < node.key:
'''return''' search_binary_tree(node.left, key)
'''elif''' key > node.key:
'''return''' search_binary_tree(node.right, key)
'''else''':
'''return''' node.value
This operation requires [[Big O notation|O]](log ''n'') time in the average case, but needs [[Big O notation|O]](''n'') time in the worst-case, when the unbalanced tree resembles a linked list.
=== Insertion ===
Insertion begins with a search; we search for the value, but if we do not find it, we search the left or right subtrees as before. Eventually, we will reach an external node, and we add the value at that position. In other words, we examine the root and recursively insert the new node to the left subtree if the new value is less than or equal the root, or the right subtree if the new value is greater than the root.
Here's how a typical binary search tree insertion might be performed in C++:
'''void''' InsertNode(struct node*& node, struct node* newNode) {
'''if''' (node == '''NULL''')
node = newNode;
'''else if''' (newNode->value <= node->value)
InsertNode(node->left, newNode);
'''else if''' (newNode->value > node->value)
InsertNode(node->right, newNode);
}
The above "destructive" procedural variant modifies the tree in place. It uses only constant space, but the previous version of the tree is lost. Alternatively, as in the following Python example, we can reconstruct all ancestors of the inserted node; any reference to the original tree root remains valid, making the tree a [[persistent data structure]]:
'''def''' binary_tree_insert(node, key, value):
'''if''' node '''is''' None:
'''return''' TreeNode(None, key, value, None)
'''if''' key == node.key:
'''return''' TreeNode(node.left, key, value, None)
'''if''' key < node.key:
'''return''' TreeNode(binary_tre |
English mathematician (d. [[1947]])
*[[1883]] - [[Eubie Blake]], American musician and composer (d. [[1983]])
*[[1885]] - [[Sinclair Lewis]], American writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1951]])
*[[1895]] - [[Anita Stewart]], American film actress (d. [[1961]])
*[[1898]] - [[Dock Boggs]], American musician (d. [[1971]])
*[[1905]] - [[Ulf von Euler]], Swedish physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1983]])
*1905 - [[Paul Nizan]], French author (d. [[1940]])
*[[1906]] - [[Oleg Antonov]], Soviet aircraft designer (d. [[1984]])
*1906 - [[Puyi]], Emperor of China (d. [[1967]])
*[[1908]] - [[Buster Crabbe]], American swimmer and actor (d. [[1983]])
*[[1914]] - [[Ramón Mercader]], Spanish assassin of [[Leon Trotsky]] (d. [[1978]])
*[[1915]] - [[Eddie Bracken]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1918]] - [[Markey Robinson]], Northern Irish painter (d. [[1999]])
*[[1920]] - [[An Wang]], Chinese-born computer pioneer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1922]] - [[Hattie Jacques]], English actress (d. [[1980]])
*[[1926]] - [[Konstantin Feoktistov]], cosmonaut
*[[1927]] - [[Juliette Greco]], French singer and actor
*1927 - [[Vladimir Kuts]], Russian runner
*[[1932]] - [[Gay Talese]], American author
*1932 - [[Al Worden]], American astronaut
*[[1934]] - [[Earl King]], American musician (d. [[2003]])
*[[1938]] - [[S. Ramachandran Pillai]], Indian communist leader
*[[1943]] - [[Gareth Hunt]], English actor
*[[1945]] - [[Gerald Davies]], Welsh rugby player
*1945 - [[Pete Postlethwaite]], English actor
*[[1949]] - [[Paulo César Carpegiani]], Brazilian footballer and coach
*[[1953]] - [[Dan Quisenberry]], baseball player (d. [[1998]])
*[[1954]] - [[Dieter Bohlen]] German composer
*[[1955]] - [[Rolf Benirschke]], American football player
*1955 - [[Mario Coutinho]] Brazilian physician
*1955 - [[Miguel Ferrer]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Carney Lansford]], American baseball player
*[[1960]] - [[James Spader]], American actor
*[[1962]] - [[Garth Brooks]], American singer
*1962 - [[Eddie Izzard]], British actor and comedian
*1962 - [[David Bryan]], American musician ([[Bon Jovi]])
*[[1965]] - [[Jason Gedrick]], American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Chris Rock]], American comedian and actor
*[[1968]] - [[Peter Bondra]], Ukrainian-born hockey player
*1968 - [[Sully Erna]], American singer ([[Godsmack]])
*[[1972]] - [[Alex Bassi]], American Race Car Driver
*[[1974]]- [[Steve Nash]], Canadian basketball player
*1974 - [[J Dilla]], also known as Jay-Dee, American hip-hop producer (d. [[2006]])
*[[1975]] - [[Wes Borland]], American guitarist ([[Limp Bizkit]])
*[[1978]] - [[Ashton Kutcher]], American actor
*[[1985]] - [[Kitura Lewis]], Canadian Singer also Ashtons ^ biggest fan
*[[1985]] - [[Tina Majorino]], American actress
*[[1988]] - [[Ai Kago]], Japanese singer ([[W (Double You)]], [[Morning Musume]], and [[MiniMoni]])
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1045]] - [[Emperor Go-Suzaku]] of Japan (b. [[1009]])
*[[1317]] - [[Robert, Count of Clermont]], French founder of the House of Bourbon (b. [[1256]])
*[[1560]] - [[Bartolommeo Bandinelli]], Italian sculptor (b. [[1493]])
*[[1626]] - [[William V, Duke of Bavaria]] (b. [[1548]])
*[[1642]] - [[William Bedell]], English clergyman (b. [[1571]])
*[[1652]] - [[Gregorio Allegri]], Italian composer (b. [[1582]])
*[[1690]] - [[William Morice]], English royalist statesman
*[[1693]] - [[Paul Pellisson]], French writer (b. [[1624]])
*[[1736]] - [[Stephen Gray (scientist)|Stephen Gray]], English astronomer and scientist (b. [[1666]])
*[[1779]] - [[William Boyce]], English composer (b. [[1711]])
*[[1799]] - [[Qianlong]], Emperor of China (b. [[1711]])
*[[1801]] - [[Daniel Chodowiecki]], Polish painter (b. [[1726]])
*[[1823]] - [[Ann Radcliffe]], English novelist (b. [[1764]])
*[[1837]] - King [[Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden]] (b. [[1778]])
*[[1873]] - [[Sheridan Le Fanu]], Irish writer (b. [[1814]])
*[[1878]] - [[Pope Pius IX]] (b. [[1792]])
*[[1897]] - [[Galileo Ferraris]], Italian physicist (b. [[1847]])
*[[1898]] - [[John Reily Knox]], Founder of Beta Theta Pi (b. [[1820]])
*[[1919]] - [[William Halford]], American naval officer and [[Medal of Honor]] recipient
*[[1920]] - [[Aleksandr Vasilevich Kolchak]], Russian military commander (b. [[1874]])
*[[1937]] - [[Elihu Root]], American statesman and diplomat, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1845]])
*[[1938]] - [[Harvey Firestone]], American manufacturer (b. [[1868]])
*[[1960]] - [[Igor Kurchatov]], Russian phsycist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1968]] - [[Nick Adams]], American actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[1979]] - [[Josef Mengele]], Nazi war criminal (b. [[1911]])
*[[1980]] - [[Secondo Campini]], Italian jet pioneer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1985]] - [[Matt Monro]], English singer (b. [[1932]])
*[[1986]] - [[Cheikh Anta Diop]], Senegalese historian (b. [[1923]])
*[[1990]] - [[Jimmy Van Heusen]], American songwriter (b. [[1913]])
*[[1993]] - [[Lillian Gish]], American actress (b. [[1893]])
*[[1994]] - [[Witold Lutosławski]], Polish composer (b. [[1913]])
*1994 - [[Stephen Milligan]], British journalist and politician (b. [[1948]])
*[[1996]] - [[Phillip Davidson]], US Army general (b. [[1915]])
*[[1998]] - [[Lawrence Sanders]], American author (b. [[1920]])
*[[1999]] - King [[Hussein of Jordan]] (b. [[1935]])
*1999 - [[José Silva (parapsychologist)|José Silva]], author of [[Silva Method]] and the Silva UltraMind ESP System (b. [[1914]])
*1999 - [[Bobby Troup]], American musician and actor (b. [[1918]])
*[[2000]] - [[Big Pun]], Puerto Rican rapper (b. [[1971]])
*2000 - [[Doug Henning]], Canadian magician (b. [[1947]])
*[[2001]] - [[Dale Evans]], American actress and singer (b. [[1912]])
*2001 - [[Anne Morrow Lindbergh]], American author and aviator (b. [[1906]])
*[[2002]] - [[Elisa Bridges]], American model (b. [[1973]])
*[[2003]] - [[Augusto Monterroso]], Guatemalan author (b. [[1921]])
*2003 - [[John Reading]], Mayor of Oakland, California (b. [[1917]])
*[[2004]] - [[John Hench]], American animator (b. [[1908]])
*[[2006]] - Princess [[Hadice Hayriye Ayshe Dürrühsehvar]] (b. [[1914]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Independence Day]] in [[Grenada]] ([[1974]]).
* [[Bahá'í Faith]] - [[Feast of Mulk]] ([[Dominion]]) - First day of the 18th month of the [[Bahá'í Calendar]].
* [[Sapporo Snow Festival]] in [[Sapporo]], [[Japan]] ([[2005]]).
==Notes==
<references/>
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=07 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060207.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/7 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 6]] - [[February 8]] - [[January 7]] - [[March 7]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[Category:Days|February 07]]
[[af:7 Februarie]]
[[ar:7 فبراير]]
[[an:7 de frebero]]
[[ast:7 de febreru]]
[[bg:7 февруари]]
[[be:7 лютага]]
[[bs:7. februar]]
[[ca:7 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 7]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 7]]
[[co:7 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:7. únor]]
[[cy:7 Chwefror]]
[[da:7. februar]]
[[de:7. Februar]]
[[et:7. veebruar]]
[[el:7 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:7 de febrero]]
[[eo:7-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 7]]
[[fo:7. februar]]
[[fr:7 février]]
[[fy:7 febrewaris]]
[[ga:7 Feabhra]]
[[gl:7 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 7일]]
[[hr:7. veljače]]
[[io:7 di februaro]]
[[id:7 Februari]]
[[ia:7 de februario]]
[[is:7. febrúar]]
[[it:7 febbraio]]
[[he:7 בפברואר]]
[[jv:7 Februari]]
[[ka:7 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:7 gromicznika]]
[[ku:7'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 7]]
[[lb:7. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 7]]
[[mk:7 февруари]]
[[ms:7 Februari]]
[[nap:7 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:7 februari]]
[[ja:2月7日]]
[[no:7. februar]]
[[nn:7. februar]]
[[oc:7 de febrièr]]
[[os:7 февралы]]
[[pl:7 lutego]]
[[pt:7 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:7 februarie]]
[[ru:7 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 7.]]
[[sco:7 Februar]]
[[sq:7 Shkurt]]
[[scn:7 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 7]]
[[sk:7. február]]
[[sl:7. februar]]
[[sr:7. фебруар]]
[[fi:7. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:7 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 7]]
[[tt:7. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 7]]
[[th:7 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:7 tháng 2]]
[[tr:7 Şubat]]
[[uk:7 лютого]]
[[wa:7 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 7]]
[[zh:2月7日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 7]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Faith</title>
<id>11064</id>
<revision>
<id>41923906</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:28:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ArpadGabor</username>
<id>158189</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Restored</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
The word '''''faith''''' has various uses; its central meaning is similar to "[[belief]]", "[[Trust (sociology)|trust]]" or "[[confidence]]", but unlike these terms, "faith" tends to imply a [[transpersonal]] rather than [[interpersonal]] relationship – with [[God]] or a [[Higher power|higher power]]. The object of faith can be a person (or even an inanimate object or [[state of affairs]]) or a [[proposition]] (or body of propositions, such as a [[Creed|religious credo]]). In each case, however, the faithful subject's faith is in an aspect of the object that cannot be rationally proven or objectively known. Faith can also be defined as accepting as true something which one has been told by someone who is believed to be trustworthy. In its proper sense faith means trusting the word of another.
Believing in what you hope for and certain of what you do not see.
==Religious Faith==
In religious contexts, "faith" has several different meanings. Sometimes, it means loyalty to one's [[religion]]. It is in the latter sense in which one can speak of, for example, "the [[Catholicism|Catholic faith]]" or "the [[Islam|Islamic faith]]." For [[creed]]al religio |
gether in an electrically neutral molecule.
<br style="clear:both" />
[[Image:atmosphere.gif|frame|left|Relationship of the atmosphere and ionosphere]]
<br style="clear:both" />
[[Solar radiation]] at [[ultraviolet]] (UV) and shorter [[X-Ray]] [[wavelength]]s is considered to be ''ionizing'' since [[photon]]s at these frequencies are capable of dislodging an [[electron]] from a neutral gas [[atom]] or [[molecule]] during a collision. At the same time, however, an opposing process called [[recombination]] begins to take place in which a free electron is "captured" by a positive ion if it moves close enough to it. As the gas density increases at lower altitudes, the recombination process accelerates since the gas molecules and ions are closer together. The point of balance between these two processes determines the degree of ionization present at any given time.
The ionization depends primarily on the [[Sun]] and its [[solar variation|activity]]. The amount of ionization in the ionosphere varies greatly with the amount of radiation received from the sun. Thus there is a [[diel|diurnal]] (time of day) effect and a seasonal effect. The local winter [[Earth|hemisphere]] is tipped away from the Sun, thus there is less received solar radiation. The activity of the sun is associated with the [[sunspot cycle]], with more radiation occurring with more sunspots. Radiation received also varies with geographical location (polar, auroral zones, mid-latitudes, and equatorial regions). There are also mechanisms that disturb the ionosphere and decrease the ionization. There are disturbances such as [[solar flare]]s and the associated release of charged particles into the [[solar wind]] which reaches the Earth and interacts with its [[geomagnetic]] field.
==The Ionospheric Layers==
Solar radiation, acting on the different compositions of the atmosphere with height, generates layers of ionization:
===D Layer===
The [[D region|D layer]] is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth. Ionization here is due to [[Lyman series]]-alpha hydrogen radiation at a [[wavelength]] of 121.5 [[nanometre]] (nm) ionizing [[nitric oxide]] (NO). In addition, when the sun is active with 50 or more sunspots, hard [[X-ray]]s (wavelength < 1 nm) ionize the air (N<sub>2</sub>, O<sub>2</sub>). During the night [[cosmic rays]] produce a residual amount of ionization. Recombination is high in this layer, thus the net ionization effect is very low and as a result high-frequency (HF) [[radio wave]]s aren't reflected by the D layer. The frequency of collision between electrons and other particles in this region during the day is about 10 million collisions per second. The D layer is mainly responsible for absorption of HF radio waves, particularly at 10 MHz and below, with progressively smaller absorption as the frequency gets higher. The absorption is small at night and greatest about midday. The layer reduces greatly after sunset, but remains due to [[galactic cosmic ray]]s. A common example of the D layer in action is the disappearance of distant AM [[broadcast band]] stations in the daytime.
===E Layer===
The [[Kennelly-Heaviside Layer|E layer]] is the middle layer, 90km to 120km above the surface of the Earth. Ionization is due to soft X-ray (1-10 nm) and far ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation ionization of molecular [[oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>). This layer can only reflect radio waves having frequencies less than about 10 MHz. It has a negative effect on frequencies above 10 MHz due to its partial absorption of these waves. The vertical structure of the E layer is primarily determined by the competing effects of ionization and recombination. At night the E layer begins to disappear because the primary source of ionization is no longer present. This results in an increase in the height where the layer maximizes because recombination is faster in the lower layers. Diurnal changes in the high altitude neutral winds also plays a role. The increase in the height of the E layer maximum increases the range to which radio waves can travel by reflection from the layer.
===E<sub>S</sub>===
The E<sub>s</sub> layer or sporadic E-layer. [[Sporadic E propagation]] is characterized by small clouds of intense ionization, which can support radio wave reflections from 25 – 225 MHz. Sporadic-E events may last for just a few minutes to several hours. There are multiple causes of sporadic-E that are still being pursued by researchers. This propagation occurs most frequently during the summer months with major occurrences during the summer, and minor occurrences during the winter. During the summer, this mode is popular due to its high signal levels. The skip distances are generally around 1000km (620 miles).
===F Layer===
The [[F region|F layer]] or region, also known as the Appleton layer, is 120km to 400km above the surface of the Earth. Here extreme ultraviolet (UV) (10-100 nm) solar radiation ionizes atomic [[oxygen]] (O). The F region is the most important part of the ionosphere in terms of HF communications. The F layer combines into one layer at night, and in the presence of sunlight (during daytime), it divides into two layers, the F<sub>1</sub> and F<sub>2</sub>. The F layers are responsible for most [[skywave]] propagation of [[radio]] waves, and are thickest and most reflective of radio on the side of the Earth facing the sun.
==Anomalies to the Ideal Model==
The statements above assumed that each layer was smooth and uniform. In reality the ionosphere is a lumpy, cloudy layer with irregular patches of ionization.
===Winter Anomaly===
At mid-latitudes, the F<sub>2</sub> layer daytime ion production is higher in the summer, as expected, since the sun shines more directly on the earth. However, there are seasonal changes in the molecular-to-atomic ratio of the neutral atmosphere that cause the summer ion loss rate to be even higher. The result is that the increase in the summertime loss overwhelms the increase in summertime production, and total F<sub>2</sub> ionization is actually lower, not higher, in the local summer months. This effect is known as the winter anomaly. The anomaly is always present in the northern hemisphere, but is usually absent in the southern hemisphere during periods of low solar activity.
===Equatorial Anomaly===
<br style="clear:both" />
[[Image:Diurnal ionospheric current.jpg|frame|left|Electric currents created in sunward ionosphere.]]
<br style="clear:both" />
Within approximately ± 20 degrees of the ''magnetic equator'', is the '''[[Equator]]ial Anomaly'''. It is the occurrence of a trough of concentrated ionization in the F<sub>2</sub> layer. The Earth's [[magnetic field]] lines are horizontal at the equator. Solar heating and [[tidal]] oscillations in the lower ionosphere move plasma up and across the magnetic field lines. This sets up a sheet of electric current in the E region which, with the [[horizontal]] magnetic field, forces ionization up into the F layer, concentrating at ± 20 degrees from the magnetic equator. This phenomenon is known as the ''equatorial fountain''.
==Ionospheric Perturbations==
===X-rays: Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SID)===
When the sun is active, strong [[solar flare]]s can occur that will hit the Earth with hard X-rays on the sunlit side of the Earth. They will penetrate to the D-region, release electrons which will rapidly increase absorption causing a High Frequency (3-30 MHz) radio blackout. During this time Very Low Frequency (3 - 30 kHz) signals will become reflected by the D layer instead of the E layer, avoiding the signal loss through the D layer. As soon as the X-rays end, the sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) or radio black-out ends as the electrons in the D-region recombine rapidly and signal strengths return to normal.
===Protons: Polar Cap Absorption (PCA)===
Associated with solar flares is a release of high-energy protons. These particles can hit the earth within 15 minutes to 2 hours of the solar flare. The protons spiral around and down the magnetic field lines of the Earth and penetrate into the atmosphere near the magnetic poles increasing the ionization of the D and E layers. PCA's typically last anywhere from about an hour to several days, with an average of around 24 to 36 hours.
===Geomagnetic Storms===
A [[geomagnetic storm]] is a temporary intense disturbance of the Earth's [[magnetosphere]].
* During a geomagnetic storm the F<sub>2</sub> layer will become unstable, fragment, and may even disappear completely.
* In the Northern and Southern pole regions of the Earth [[polar aurora|aurora]] will be observable in the sky.
==Radio Application==
[[DX communication]], popular among [[amateur radio]] enthusiasts, is a term given to communication over great distances. When using High-Frequency bands, the ionosphere is utilized to reflect the transmitted radio beam. The beam returns to the Earth's surface, and may then be reflected back into the ionosphere for a second bounce.
[[Radio]] waves "[[Hop (telecommunications)|hop]]" from the Earth to the ionosphere and back to the Earth. When a radio wave reaches the ionosphere, the [[electric field]] in the wave forces the electrons in the ionosphere into [[oscillation]] at the same frequency as the radio wave. Some of the radio wave energy is given up to this mechanical oscillation. The oscillating electron will then either be lost to recombination or will re-radiate the original wave energy back downward again. Total reflection can occur when the collision frequency of the ionosphere is less than the radio frequency, and if the electron density in the ionosphere is great enough.
The [[critical frequency]] is the limiting frequency at or below wh |
Enlightenment]] |
main_interests = [[Metaphysics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Mind]], [[Ethics]], [[Political philosophy|Politics]], [[Aesthetics]], [[Philosophy of religion|Religion]] |
influences = [[John Locke|Locke]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Hutcheson]], [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] |
influenced = [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Jeremy Bentham|Bentham]], [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], [[T. H. Huxley]], [[J. S. Mill]], [[Alfred Jules Ayer|Ayer]] |
notable_ideas = [[Causality|Problem of causation]], [[Induction]], [[Is-ought problem]] |
}}
'''David Hume''' ([[April 26]], [[1711]] &ndash; [[August 25]], [[1776]]*) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[philosopher]] and [[historian]]. Hume was one of the most important figures in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]], along with friends [[Adam Smith]] and [[Thomas Reid]]. Many regard Hume as the third and most radical of the so-called [[British Empiricists]], after the [[England|English]] [[John Locke]] and the [[Anglo-Irish]] [[George Berkeley]].
Historians most famously see Humean philosophy as a thoroughgoing form of [[skepticism]], but many commentators have argued that the element of [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] has no less importance in Hume's philosophy. Hume scholarship has tended to oscillate over time between those who emphasize the sceptical side of Hume (such as Reid, [[Greene]], and the [[logical positivists]]), and those who emphasize the naturalist side (such as [[Don Garrett]], [[Norman Kemp Smith]], [[Kerri Skinner]], [[Barry Stroud]], and [[Galen Strawson]]).
Hume was heavily influenced by [[empiricist]]s [[John Locke]] and [[George Berkeley]], along with various [[French language|Francophone]] writers such as [[Pierre Bayle]], and various figures on the [[English language|Anglophone]] intellectual landscape such as [[Isaac Newton]], [[Samuel Clarke]], [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]], and [[Joseph Butler]].
The attempts to categorise Hume have reflected many of the current philosophical interests of their periods. They included "''perhaps … only a very clever man"'' ([[Taylor]], 1927*) , "''positivist"'' ([[Russell]], 1946*; [[Kolakowski]], 1968*), "''cynical conservative"'' ([[Stephen]], 1962*), "''materialist"'' ([[Anderson]], 1966*), "''realist"'' ([[Popper]], 1970*), "''phenomenologist"'' ([[Husserl]], 1970*), "''naturalist"'' ([[Stroud]], 1977*), "''idealist"'' ([[Ayer]], 1980*), "''empiricist"'' ([[Gregory]], 1981*; [[Livingston]], 1989*), "''Pyrrhonian sceptic"'' ([[Flew]], 1986*), "''the prophet of the Wittgensteinian revolution"'' ([[Phillipson]], 1989*), "''neo-Hellenist"'', ([[Penelhum]], 1993*), "''the first post-sceptical philosopher of the early modern period"'' ([[Norton]], 1993*), "''radical perspectivalist"'' ([[Fogelin]], 1993*). Hume’s own description of his position is one of "''mitigated scepticism"'' (Hume, 1777, 162*).
*''(N.B. The birthdate is [[May 7]] by the [[Gregorian calendar]] of his time; this date being used by the [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]] when celebrating his birthday)''
==Career==
By his own account, Hume ''"was born the 26th&nbsp;April 1711, old style, at [[Edinburgh]]"''. From time to time throughout his life, he repaired to the family home at Ninewells by [[Chirnside]], [[Berwickshire]], [[Scotland]]. He was sent to the [[University of Edinburgh]] at the unusually early age of twelve, fourteen would have been more normal. At first he considered a career in [[Scots law|law]], but came to have, in his words, ''"an insurmountable aversion to everything but the pursuits of Philosophy and general Learning; and while (my family) fanceyed I was poring over Voet and Vinnius, Cicero and Vergil were the Authors which I was secretly devouring."'' He had little respect for professors telling a friend in [[1735]] "''there is nothing to be learned from a Professor, which is not to be met with in Books."''
At the age of eighteen, in [[1729]], Hume made a philosophical discovery that opened up to him "''a new scene of thought"''. He did not recount what this was, but it seems likely to have been his theory of [[causality]] - that our beliefs about cause and effect depend on sentiment, custom and habit, and not upon [[reason]] or abstract, timeless, general [[Laws of Nature]].
In [[1734]], after a few months in commerce in Bristol, he retreated to do [[self-study]] and conduct [[thought experiments]] on himself at [[La Fleche]] in [[Anjou]], [[France]]. During his four years there, he laid out his life plan, as he wrote in ''[[My Own Life]]'', resolving "''to make a very rigid frugality supply my deficiency of fortune, to maintain unimpaired my independency, and to regard every object as contemptible except the improvements of my talents in literature."'' While there, he completed ''[[A Treatise of Human Nature]]'' at the age of twenty-six. Although many scholars today consider the ''Treatise'' to be Hume's most important work and one of the most important books in the history of philosophy, the public in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] did not at first agree. Hume himself described the (lack of) public reaction to the publication of the ''Treatise'' in 1739&ndash;40 by writing that it ''"fell dead-born from the press, without reaching such distinction as even to excite a murmur among the zealots. But being naturally of a cheerful and sanguine temper, I soon recovered from the blow and prosecuted with great ardour my studies in the country"''.There he wrote ''An Abstract Of A book lately published; Entituled, A Treatise Of human nature, &c. Wherein The chief argument of that Book is farther illustrated and Explained''. Without revealing his authorship, he aimed to make his larger work more intelligible by shortening it. Even this advertisement failed to enliven interest in the ''Treatise''.
After the publication of ''[[Essays Moral and Political]]'', in [[1744]] he applied for the Chair of Ethics and Pneumatics (psychology) at [[Edinburgh University]] but was rejected. During the [[Jacobite Rebellion]] of [[1745]] he tutored the Marquise of Annandale. It was then that he started his great historical work ''[[The History of Great Britain]]'' which would take fifteen years and run to over a million words, to be published in six volumes in the period [[1754]] to [[1762]]. In [[1748]] he served, in uniform, for three years as Secretary to [[General St Clair]] writing his ''Philosophical Essays concerning Human Understanding'' later published as ''[[An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding]]''.This did not prove much more successful than the ''Treatise''.
Hume was charged with [[heresy]] but he was defended by his young clerical friends who argued that as an [[atheist]] he lay outside the jurisdiction of the [[Church of Scotland|Church]]. Despite his acquittal, and, possibly, due to the opposition of [[Thomas Reid]] of [[Aberdeen]] who, that year, launched a telling Christian critique of his metaphysics, Hume failed to gain the Chair of Philosophy at [[University of Glasgow | Glasgow]]. It was in [[1752]], as he wrote in ''My Own Life'', that ''"the Faculty of Advocates chose me their Librarian, an office from which I received little or no emolument, but which gave me the command of a large library."'' It was this resource that enabled him to continue his historical research for his ''History''.
Hume achieved great literary fame as an essayist and historian. His enormous ''[[History of Great Britain]]'' from the [[Saxon]] kingdoms to the [[Glorious Revolution]] was a best-seller in its day. In it, Hume presented political man as a creature of habit, with a disposition to submit quietly to established government unless confronted by uncertain circumstances. In his view, only religious difference could deflect men from their everyday lives to think about political matters.
Hume's early essay ''[[Of Superstition and Religion]]'' laid the foundations for nearly all secular thinking about the history of religion. Critics of religion during Hume's time needed to express themselves cautiously. Less than 15 years before Hume was born, 18-year-old college student [[Thomas Aikenhead]] was put on trial for saying openly that he thought Christianity was nonsense, was convicted and hanged for [[blasphemy]]. Hume followed the common practice of expressing his views obliquely, through characters in dialogues. Hume did not acknowledge authorship of ''Treatise'' until the year of his death, in 1776. His essays ''[[Of Suicide]]'', and ''[[Of the Immortality of the Soul]]'' and his ''[[Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion]]'' were held from publication until after his death (published 1778 and 1779, respectively), and they still bore neither author's nor publisher's name. So masterful was Hume in disguising his own views that debate continues to this day over whether Hume was actually a [[deism|deist]] or an [[atheism|atheist]]. Regardless, in his own time Hume's alleged atheism caused him to be passed over for many positions.
There is an old (and probably false) story about David Hume and his supposed atheism. In the story, Hume falls off his horse into a pool of mud and is slipping in it, when an old and pious lady walks past. When she sees the renowned atheist flapping about for his life, she walks to the edge and looks at him. Hume urges the lady to pass him a stick to pull him out, but she refuses unless he declare his devotion to [[God]] Almighty. Hume accedes and the lady helps him out.
From [[1763]] to [[1765]] Hume was Secretary to [[Lord Hertford]] in [[Paris]], where he was admired by Voltaire and lionised by the ladies in society. He made friends |
|Tinfoil Barb]]
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****[[Carassius auratus|Goldfish]]
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****[[Brachydanio kerri|Turquoise Danio]]
****[[Brachydanio rerio|Zebra Danio]]
***[[Rasbora]]s
****[[Harlequin rasbora|Harlequin Rasbora]]
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***[[Apteronotus albifrons|Black Ghost Knifefish]]
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**Bonytongues ([[arowana]]s)
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== See also ==
*[[List of fish common names]]
*[http://www.fishdeals.com/view_fish.shtml Aquarium Fish Photo Galleries]
[[de:Süßwasserzierfische]]
[[it:Pesci d'acquario d'acqua dolce]]
[[nl:Lijst van tropische zoetwateraquariumvissen]]
[[pl:Słodkowodne ryby akwariowe]]
[[zh:热带鱼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of notable chess players</title>
<id>11749</id>
<revision>
<id>41492043</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:57:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Giftlite</username>
<id>37986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* B */ +Gideon Barcza</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of [[chess]] players.
==Chess players by vocation==
The people in this list are men and women who are primarily known as chess players.
=== A ===
*[[Gerald Abrahams]] (England, [[1907]]&ndash;[[1980]])
*[[Michael Adams]] (England, [[1971]]&#8211; )
*[[Utut Adianto]] (Indonesia, [[1965]]&ndash; )
*[[Andras Adorjan]] (Hungary, [[1950]]&ndash; )
*[[Simen Agdestein]] (Norway, [[1967]]&#8211; )
*[[Vladimir Akopian]] (Armenia, [[1971]]&#8211; )
*[[Semyon Alapin]], (Lithuania [[1856]]&ndash;[[1923]])
*[[Adolf Albin]] (Romania, [[1848]]&ndash;[[1920]])
*[[Lev Alburt]] (Russia, USA, [[1945]]&ndash; )
*[[Alexander Alekhine]] (Russia, [[1892]]&#8211;[[1946]])
*[[Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander|Hugh Alexander]] (England, [[1899]]&#8211;[[1974]])
*[[Boris Alterman]] (Israel, [[1970]]&ndash; )
*[[Friedrich Amelung]] (Latvia, [[1842]]&ndash;[[1909]])
*[[Viswanathan Anand]] (India, [[1969]]&#8211; )
*[[Adolf Anderssen]] (Germany, [[1818]]&#8211;[[1879]])
*[[Ulf Andersson]] (Sweden, [[1951]]&#8211; )
*[[Levon Aronian]] (Armenia, [[1982]]&ndash; )
*[[Konstantin Aseev]] (Russia, [[1960]]&#8211; [[2004]])
*[[Maurice Ashley]] (Jamaica, USA, [[1966]]&#8211; )
*[[As-Suli]] (Abbasid Caliphate, circa [[880]]&#8211;[[946]])
*[[Henry Atkins]] (England, [[1872]]&ndash;[[1955]])
*[[Yuri Averbakh]] (Russia, [[1922]]&ndash; )
*[[Zurab Azmaiparashvili]] (Georgia, [[1960]]&ndash; )
*[[Hipólito Asis Gargatagli]] (Spain, [[1986]]&ndash; )
=== B ===
*[[Etienne Bacrot]] (France, [[1983]]&#8211; )
*[[Gerardo Barbero]] (Argentina, Hungary, [[1961]]&#8211;[[2001]])
*[[Gideon Barcza]] (Hungary, [[1911]]&#8211;[[1986]])
*[[Curt von Bardeleben]] (Germany, [[1861]]&#8211;[[1924]])
*[[Leonard Barden]] (England, [[1929]]&ndash; )
*[[Evgeny Bareev]] (Russia, [[1966]]&ndash; )
*[[Thomas Wilson Barnes]] (England, [[1825]]&#8211;[[1874]])
*[[Anjelina Belakovskaia]] (Ukraine, USA, [[1969]]&ndash; )
*[[Alexander Beliavsky]] (Ukraine, Slovenia, [[1953]]&#8211; )
*[[Joel Benjamin]] (USA, [[1964]]&ndash; )
*[[Pal Benko]] (Hungary, USA, [[1928]]&#8211; )
*[[Hans Berliner]] (USA, [[1929]]&ndash; )
*[[Ivar Bern]] (Norway, [[1967]]&ndash; )
*[[Ossip Bernstein]] (Ukraine, France, [[1882]]&#8211;[[1962]])
*[[Istvan Bilek]] (Hungary, [[1932]]&#8211; )
*[[Henry Bird]] (England, [[1830]]&#8211;[[1908]])
*[[Arthur Bisguier]] (USA, [[1929]]&#8211; )
*[[Roy Turnbull Black]] (USA)
*[[Joseph Henry Blackburne]] (England, [[1841]]&#8211;[[1924]])
*[[Ludwig Bledow|Dr Ludwig E Bledow]] (Germany, [[1795]]&ndash;[[1846]])
*[[Claude Bloodgood]] (USA, [[1937]]&#8211;[[2001]])
*[[Samuel Boden]], (England, [[1826]]&#8211;[[1882]])
*[[Efim Bogoljubov]] (Ukraine, Germany, [[1889]]&#8211;[[1952]])
*[[Paolo Boi]] (Italy, [[1528]]&#8211;[[1598]])
*[[Julio Bolbochan]] (Argentina, [[1920]]&#8211;[[1996]])
*[[Isaac Boleslavsky]] (Soviet Union, [[1919]]&#8211;[[1977]])
*[[Igor Bondaresky]] (Russia, [[1913]]&#8211;[[1979]])
*[[Eero Böök]] (Finland, [[1910]]&#8211;[[1990]])
*[[Mikhail Botvinnik]] (Russia, [[1911]]&#8211;[[1995]])
*[[Louis de la Bourdonnais|Louis Charles de la Bourdonnais]] (France, [[1795]]&#8211;[[1840]])
*[[Gyula Breyer]] (Hungary, [[1893]]&#8211;[[1921]])
*[[David Bronstein]] (Russia, [[1924]]&#8211; )
*[[Walter Browne]] (Australia, USA, [[1949]]&#8211; )
*[[Bu Xiangzhi|Xiangzhi Bu]] (China, [[1985]]&#8211; )
*[[Amos Burn]] (England, [[1848]]&#8211;[[1925]])
*[[Donald Byrne]] (USA, [[1930]]&#8211;[[1976]])
*[[Robert Byrne]] (USA, [[1928]]&#8211; )
*[[Elizaveta Ivanovna Bykova]] (Russia, [[1913]]&#8211;[[1989]])
=== C ===
*[[Esteban Canal]] (Peru, Italy, [[1896]]&#8211;[[1981]])
*[[José Raúl Capablanca]] (Cuba, [[1888]]&#8211;[[1942]])
*[[Magnus Carlsen]] (Norway, [[1990]]&#8211; )
*[[Pietro Carrera]] (Sicily, [[1573]]&#8211;[[1647]])
*[[Murray Chandler]] (New Zealand, England [[1960]]&ndash; )
*[[Rudolf Charousek]] (Hungary, [[1873]]&#8211;[[1900]])
*[[Zhu Chen]] (China, [[1976]]&#8211; )
*[[Irving Chernev]] (USA, [[1900]]&#8211;[[1981]])
*[[Maia Chiburdanidze]] (Georgia, USSR, [[1961]]&#8211; )
*[[Mikhail Chigorin]] (Russia, [[1850]] - [[1908]])
*[[Larry Christiansen]] (USA, [[1956]]&#8211; )
*[[John Cochrane]] (England, [[1798]]&#8211;[[1878]])
*[[Edgard Colle]] (Belgium, [[1897]]&#8211;[[1932]])
*[[Juan Corzo]] (Cuba, [[1873]]&#8211;[[1941]])
*[[Pia Cramling]] (Sweden, [[1963]]&#8211; )
=== D ===
*[[Arthur Dake]] (USA, [[1910]]&ndash; )
*[[Pedro Damiano]] (Portugal, &ndash;[[1544]])
*[[Klaus Darga]] (Germany)
*[[Nigel Davies]] (England, [[1960]]&#8211; )
*[[Nick de Firmian]] (USA, [[1957]]&#8211; )
*[[Boris De Greiff]] (Colombia, [[1930]]&ndash; )
*[[Adriaan de Groot]] (Netherlands, [[1914]]&ndash; )
*[[Arnold Denker]] (USA, [[1914]]&ndash;2005)
*[[Alexandre Deschapelles]] (France, [[1780]]&#8211;[[1847]])
*[[Rune Djurhuus]] (Norway, [[1970]]&#8211; )
*[[Sergey Dolmatov]] (USSR, [[1959]]&ndash; )
*[[Hein Donner|"Jan Hein" Donner]] (Netherlands, [[1927]]&ndash;[[1988]])
*[[Alexey Dreev]] (Russia, [[1969]]&#8211; )
*[[Serafino Dubois]] (Italy, [[1817]]&#8211;[[1899]])
*[[Jean Dufresne]] (Germany, [[1829]]&#8211;[[1893]])
*[[Oldrich Duras]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1882]]&#8211;[[1957]])
*[[Mark Dvoretsky]] (Russia, )
*[[Nana Dzagnidze]] (Georgia, [[1987]]&ndash; )
*[[Roman Dzindzichashvili]] (Georgia, USA, [[1944]]&ndash; )
=== E ===
*[[Jaan Ehlvest]] (Estonia, [[1962]]&ndash; )
*[[Erich Eliskases]] (Austria, Germany, Argentina, [[1913]]&#8211;[[1997]])
*[[John Emms]] (England, [[1967]]&ndash; )
*[[Berthold Englisch]] (Austria, [[1851]]&ndash;[[1897]])
*[[Yakov Estrin]] (USSR, [[1923]]&ndash;[[1987]])
*[[Max Euwe]] (Netherlands, [[1901]]&#8211;[[1981]])
*[[Larry Evans]] (USA, [[1932]]&#8211; )
*[[William Davies Evans|Captain William Davies Evans]] (Wales, [[1790]]&ndash;[[1872]])
=== F ===
*[[Ernst Falkbeer]] (Austria, [[1819]]&ndash;[[1885]])
*[[John Fedorowicz]] (USA, [[1958]]&ndash; )
*[[Miroslav Filip]] (Czech Republic, [[1928]]&ndash; )
*[[Reuben Fine]] (USA, [[1914]]&#8211;[[1993]])
*[[Bobby Fischer]] (USA, [[1943]]&#8211; )
*[[Salo Flohr]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1908]]&#8211;[[1983]])
*[[Gyozo Forintos]] (Hungary, [[1935]]&ndash; )
*[[Lubomir Ftacnik]] (Slovakia, [[1957]]&ndash; )
*[[Semen Abramovich Furman|Semen Furman]] (USSR, [[1920]]&ndash;[[1978]])
=== G ===
*[[Joseph Gallagher]] (England, Switzerland, [[1964]]&#8211; )
*[[Nona Gaprindashvili]] (Georgia, USSR, [[1941]]&#8211; )
*[[Timur Gareev]] (Uzbekistan, [[1988]]&ndash; )
*[[Einar Gausel]] (Norway, [[1963]]&#8211; )
*[[Boris Gelfand]] (Belarus, USSR, Israel, [[1968]]&#8211; )
*[[Efim Geller]] (Ukraine, USSR, [[1925]]&#8211;[[1998]])
*[[Kiril Georgiev]] (Bulgaria, [[1965]]&ndash; )
*[[Ehsan Ghaemmaghami]] (Iran, [[1981]]&#8211; )
*[[Florin Gheorghiu]] (Romania, [[1944]]&ndash; )
*[[Ellen E Strong Gilbert]] (USA)
*[[Aivars Gipslis]] (Latvia, [[1937]]&ndash;[[2000]])
*[[Svetozar Gligoric]] (Yugoslavia, [[1923]]&#8211; )
*[[Harry Golombek]] (England, [[1911]]&ndash;[[1995]])
*[[Sonja Graf]] (Germany, Argentina, USA, [[1908]]&ndash;[[1965]])
*[[Gioacchino Greco]] (Italy, [[1600]]&#8211;c.[[1634]])
*[[Gisela Kahn Gresser]] (USA, [[1906]]&ndash;[[2000]])
*[[Alexander Grischuk]] (Russia, [[1983]]&ndash; )
*[[Richard Griffith]] (England, [[1872]]&ndash;[[1955]])
*[[Ernst Grünfeld]] (Austria, [[1893]]&#8211;[[1962]])
*[[Eduard Gufeld]] (Ukraine, USA, [[1936]]&ndash;[[2002]])
*[[Boris Gulko]] (USSR, USA, [[1947]]&#8211;)
*[[Isidor Gunsberg]] (Hungary, England, [[1854]]& |
However, State Security is reported able to confiscate this money from individuals when it deems that appropriate [http://www.bitacoracubana.com/desdecuba/portada2.php?id=1126]. In 1993 the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] was made legal tender (the country operated under a dual-currency system); this arrangement was, however, revoked on [[25 October]] [[2004]]. At that time, use of the dollar in business was officially banned, and a 10% surcharge was introduced for the conversion of dollars (in cash) to convertible pesos, the island's new official currency. Other currencies, including the [[euro]], were not affected. See details at [http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/dollar/2004/1026cubadollar.htm the Ludwig Van Mises Institute].
The Cuban economy was hit hard in the early 1990s following the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Comecon]] economic bloc, with which it had traded predominantly. For several decades, Cuba received what was effectively a [[Soviet]] [[subsidy]], whereby Cuba provided the Soviet Union with [[sugar]] and the Soviets provided Cuba with [[petroleum]] at below market prices. In response, Cuba opened up to tourism, which is now a major source of income. Since 2003, both tourism levels and nickel prices increased. One other factor in the proclaimed recovery of the Cuban economy were the remittances from Cuban-Americans, now much diminished, which for a while constituted a large part of the external inputs into the Cuban Economy.
Cuba currently trades with almost every nation in the world, albeit with restrictions from the [[United States embargo against Cuba|U.S. embargo]]. Trade with the United States is restricted to cash-only transactions for food and medicine. Any company that deals with Cuba risks problems dealing with the United States, so internationally operating companies may be forced to choose between Cuba and the United States, which is a far larger market. This extraterritorial U.S. legislation is considered highly controversial, and the U.S. embargo was condemned for the 13th time in 2004 by the [[General Assembly]] of the [[United Nations]], by 179 countries (out of 183 voting). The main current trading partners of Cuba are: [[Venezuela]], [[China]], [[Spain]], [[Canada]] and, the [[Netherlands]].
Cuba owes approximately $5.4 billion in foreign debt to [[Paris Club]] nations such as France, Japan and Germany. Cuba also has other sources of debt including approximately $25 billion in debt disputed with Russia dating from the era of the Soviet Union. [http://www.mosnews.com/money/2005/09/15/cubadebt.shtml] The lack of domestic sources of capital financing, an inherent by-product of its socialist economic system, makes Cuba's debt extremely vulnerable to disruptions in trade.
Although U.S. citizens are not officially banned from travelling to Cuba, they are generally prohibited from spending money there (exceptions are made for students studying in Cuba, diplomats, certain business people, and people with family members in Cuba), which amounts to a ''[[de facto]]'' travel ban, as Cuba requires that foreign visitors spend a minimum of three nights in a hotel; moreover, the only direct flights from the United States are strictly for those with family members in Cuba, or others with licences from OFAC. Nevertheless, U.S. citizens can visit Cuba by travelling through other countries (like [[Mexico]], [[Canada]] or the [[Bahamas]]) because Cuban immigration does not stamp the passports (the visum is a separate leaflet). However, U.S. citizens are liable to fines and imprisonment if discovered and prosecuted by the U.S. government. Several Americans have been caught by US pre-clearance agents getting off flights in [[Toronto]] and [[Nassau]], so Cuban travel agents advise Americans to avoid these routes.
Although struggling with its economy since the fall of the Soviet Union, Cuba has seen substantial improvements since the early 1990s. The economy has been helped in recent years by strong tourism, international investment in nickel production and oil exploration as well as beneficial oil purchases from Venezuela, in exchange for medical services.
A major problem is damage from [[hurricanes]]. All [[Caribbean]] islands suffer from hurricanes and the Cuban government uses this as an argument to urge the islands to cooperate, promoting an agreement of mutual self-insurance, so that if one island gets hit, the other islands will help it out. He says that if the United States get hit, the economy of the rest of the country will take the blow, but if a Caribbean island gets hit, that may devastate the entire economy.
Over 7,300 homes have been completed in 2005; thus it is expected (estimating five people per residence) that in about three hundred years all housing will be replaced. Plans to repair the majority of homes partially affected by [[Hurricane Dennis]] and others [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/hurricanes/] are said underway. The Cuban government predicts that no less than 10,000 of the homes destroyed will be built again as new and the plans to finish and construct new homes to cover the most urgent requirements will continue, up to at least 30,000 additional housing.
Cuba is notable for its national [[organic farming|organic agriculture]] initiative. However, it is wise to keep in mind that Cuban government is said by some to be less than open about agricultural abuses [http://www.cubanet.org/opi/03020401.htm]. In the early 1990s, post-Soviet Union, Cuba lost over 70% of agricultural chemical imports, over 50% of food imports, and an equally significant amount of oil. Its agricultural sector, built on a large-scale, mechanized, chemical-based model, was instantly crippled. By restructuring its agricultural industry, and focusing scientific efforts on organic solutions, Cuba managed to rapidly and successfully convert the country to entirely organic production. Currently, only organic agriculture is permitted by law, which while having the effect of reducing the need for imports, has also led to lower yields. Combined with the removal of marginal land from sugar farming, this led to a reduction in total sugar production of over 70% from around 7 millions tons anually in the late 1980s to around 3 million tons annually in the late 1990s [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/asce/cuba5/FILE30.PDF] [http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/IATR/cubaiatr.pdf]; to 1.6 million tons in 2004 [http://hotdocs.usitc.gov/docs/pubs/701_731/pub3793.PDF]. Today, Cuba is a leading nation in [[biotechnology]], and Cuban expertise is exported to Iran [http://www.granma.cu/ingles/2005/enero/lun17/04iran.html]; however some claim that this relates to biowar potential [http://www.netforcuba.org/Columnists/Cereijo/001en-CubaandTerrorism.htm]. More than 100 million USD are currently being invested in the pharmaceutical industry.
On a total population of 11 million, Cuba has 250,000 educators, 67,500 medical doctors, and 34,000 physical education and sports professionals and technicians.[http://www.embacubalebanon.com/discurso05apr2001e.html]
==Infrastructure==
[[Image:Camello.JPG|thumb|275px|right|A ''Camello'' (camel) bus. Public transportation costs 20 centavos [[Cuban Peso|CUC]] per ride.]]
Cuban infrastructure is significant and includes: massive Spanish fortifications built in principal ports [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=204] (e.g. [[El Morro]] [http://www.regiments.org/special/essays/cuba/1762/morro.htm] castles in Havana (1589) and Santiago; [[Castillo San Salvador de la Punta]] [http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-2769840-castillo_san_salvador_de_la_punta_havana-i]; (finished by 1630); [[La Fuerza]][http://www.oldhavanaweb.com/fortresses/castillo_de_la_real_fuerza_castle_of_the_royal_force.html] (finished 1577); San Carlos de [[La Cabaña]] the largest in the Americas; [[El Principe]] [http://www.geocities.com/naforts/atlantic.html]; [[Atares]] [http://www.geocities.com/naforts/atlantic.html#cuba] around Havana Bay) [http://www.carilat.de/havannacoast.htm]. Railroads were first built in the late colonial period and finished in the first part of the 20th Century. Vital sanitation facilities were constructed in the US period. The Presidential Palace [http://www.abellaweb.com/books/tga/book-frameset.html] was built between 1913 and 1919 under presidents Gómez y de Menocal, and designed by a group that included architect Rodolfo Maruri. The central highway was constructed during the [[Gerardo Machado]] administration. There are tunnels in Havana under the bay and under the Almendares River, and some highways in the old Oriente Province, Via Azul and Via Mulata, and Havana-Matanzas Via Blanca were completed in the second [[Fulgencio Batista]] period. A complex network of massive dams [http://webcutc.org/documentos/notinoticias14.htm] and complex semi-secret underground fortifications [http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y96/sep96/9eco2.html] were built in the present [[Fidel Castro]] period. In addition there are significant numbers of historic buildings and reinforced concrete high rises built in the Republican period. Statues and other monuments dot the Island. Each construction has its own particular story that often relate to important events in the history of the island. For instance some of the cobblestones that surround the Havana docks were brought in from Sweden, on the return trips of ships smuggling sugar into Britain during WWI.
== See also ==
{{Topics related to Cuba}}
== Notes ==
==External links==
<div style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: solid #aaa 1px; background: #f9f9f9; padding: 1ex; font-size: 90%;" class="thumb tright">
{|
|| [[Image:Portal.gif|Portal]]
|| '''''[[Portal:Caribbean|Caribbean portal]]'''''
|}
</div>
{{sisterlinks|Cuba}}
===Official===
*''[http://www.granma.cu/ingles/index.html Granma]'' &mdash; Communist Party of Cuba Newspaper (in English)
*[http://www.cub |
ray|Murray, Margaret]], ''God of the Witches'' 1933.
*Murray, Margaret, ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'' 1921.
==Associations==
The Horned God is associated with [[woods]], [[wild animal]]s, and [[hunting]]. He is often also associated with [[sexuality]] or [[virility|male virility]]. As a symbol of sexuality, the Horned God represents one of the most elemental forces in Nature, and is therefore complementary to female fertility deities known collectively as the [[goddess|Great Mother]].
Another name for the Horned God is The Hunter. He is a symbol not only of the giving of life, but the taking of life too, in what is seen as a great and eternal cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. He sometimes carries a bow.
==Image==
The Horned God is always portrayed with [[horn (anatomy)|horns]] or [[antler]]s, which are of course his distinguishing feature. The God's horns are considered symbols of male potency, strength and protection. Sometimes they are seen in a sense as [[phallic symbol]]s. The horn has been a religious symbol for thousands of years. An altar made entirely of [[stag]] horns was built in the temple of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] at [[Delos]], and temples to the Goddess [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] usually contained horns as well. The horn is also seen as a symbol of fruitfulness and bounty, as in the [[Horn of Plenty]].
He is often portrayed with an erect [[phallus]]. The phallus is itself a symbol of the power to create life. Another symbol of his sexual prowess and virility is the occasional presence of cloven hoofs or the hindquarters of a [[goat]]. The goat itself is considered a symbol of sexuality.
==Satan==
During the rise of [[Christianity]], a depiction of [[Satan]] as a horned and hoofed goat-like monster holding a [[trident]], adopted from Greek [[Pan (god)|Pan]], became popular. By adopting the image of the Horned God and transforming it into an image of the [[Devil]], the Christian church convinced people that [[paganism]] was [[evil]]. The similarity does not extend beyond the image, of course; while [[Judeo-Christian]] Satan is described as a fallen angel and essentially Evil, the pagan Horned God is believed to be a force of nature, neither entirely benevolent nor entirely malevolent: In his role as Father, he is said to give life, but in his role as Hunter, he is also said to take life. Positive aspects of the Horned God are re-attributed to Satan by the [[Church of Satan]] and similar branches of modern [[Satanism]].
==Post Christian depictions==
Belief in and worship of the Horned God waned almost to extinction by the [[19th century]], although vestiges remained in local customs, particularly in the countryside. Ghost stories of [[Herne the Hunter]] and reverence of [[St. Cornus]] would be the strongest pre-wiccan remnants of the Horned God. He makes a late appearance in art referred to in the moonlit last act of [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]]'s final opera, ''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]''.
==Wicca==
[[Gerald Gardner]] began [[Wicca]] in [[England]] as what he saw as a revival of ancient [[Paganism|Pagan]] worship, focused on the duality of the Great God and the Great Mother. It should be noted, however, that Wicca is little based on historical findings and is mixture of many influences from Gardner's time, instead of being a reconstruction of any one culture or religion. Today [[Wicca]] and other [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] religions claim about 1,000,000 adherents.
In modern [[Wicca]], "The Horned God" can refer to any of these individually, or to the universal archetype Wiccans believe they represent. In this context, he is sometimes referred to as the "Great God" or the "Great Father". He impregnates the Goddess, and then dies during the autumn and winter months and is reborn in spring, while the Goddess lives on always as Mother Earth, giving life to the Horned God as he goes through the eternal cycle of life, death, and rebirth.
==See also==
*[[Horned helmet]]
*[[Gundestrup cauldron]]
==References==
*Juliette Wood, "The Celtic Tarot and the Secret Traditions: A Study in Modern Legend Making": ''Folklore'', Vol. 109, 1998
*[[Walter Burkert]], ''Greek Religion'' 1977 (1985) Cambridge:Harvard University Press)
[[Category:Hunting gods]]
[[Category:Nature gods]]
[[da:Den Hornede Gud]]
[[fr:Dieu cornu]]
[[pt:Deus Cornífero]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Haggis</title>
<id>14320</id>
<revision>
<id>41978395</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:30:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bunchofgrapes</username>
<id>198074</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.255.207.19|207.255.207.19]] ([[User talk:207.255.207.19|talk]]) to last version by Mais oui!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HaggisUncooked_CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|an uncooked small haggis]]
[[Image:HaggisCooked_CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|a cooked small haggis]]
[[Image:HaggisContent_CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|content of a haggis]]
'''Haggis''' is a traditional [[Scotland|Scottish]] dish. Although there are many recipes, it is normally made with the following ingredients: [[sheep]]'s '[[Offal|pluck]]' ([[heart]], [[liver]], [[trachea|windpipe]] and [[lung]]s), minced with [[onion]], [[oatmeal]], [[suet]], [[spice]]s, and [[edible salt|salt]], mixed with [[Stock (food)|stock]], and traditionally [[boil]]ed in the animal's [[stomach]] for approximately an hour. It somewhat resembles other stuffed [[intestine]]s (otherwise known as [[sausage]]s) of which it is among the largest types. There are also meat-free recipes specifically for [[vegetarian]]s which supposedly taste similar to the meat-based recipes.
Haggis is traditionally served with "neeps and tatties" ([[Scots language|Scots]]: ''[[turnip]] and [[potatoes]]''). Both the turnip (equivalent of a 'swede' in [[England]] or 'rutabaga' in the [[United States]]) and the potatoes are [[Mashed potato|mash]]ed, separately.
==Etymology==
The [[etymology]] of the word ''haggis'' is unclear, although ''haggis'' was a more common word in [[Middle English]], from which the [[Scots language]] (and the [[English language]]) evolved. Most theories trace it to words meaning "to chop" or "to hew", but there is no agreement whether the word was borrowed from [[Old English]] ''haggen'' [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=haggis], [[French language|French]] ''hachis''[http://www.standrews.com/burns/HERALDWRITINGS/feature13.html], or a [[Norse language|Norse]] root, such as [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] ''hoggva-'' and ''haggw-'' (Dickson-Wright 9). Along a different line, it may derive from [[Old French]] ''agace'', "magpie"&mdash; the [[magpie]] is known for collecting odds and ends, and a haggis is made up of odds and ends.[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=haggis]
==History and popularity==
It is unknown when or where the first haggis was consumed. The most likely origin of the dish is from the days of the old Scottish [[cattle drovers]]. When the men left the [[Scottish Highlands|highlands]] to drive their cattle to [[market]] in [[Edinburgh]] the women would prepare rations for them to eat during the long journey down through the [[glen]]s. They used the ingredients that were most readily available in their homes and conveniently packaged them in a sheeps stomach allowing for easy transportation during the journey.
Another theory, put forward by food historian [[Clarissa Dickson-Wright]], is that haggis was invented as a way of cooking quick-spoiling offal near the site of a hunt, without the need to carry along an additional cooking vessel. The liver and kidneys could be [[grill]]ed directly over a fire, but this treatment was unsuitable for the stomach, intestines, or lungs. Chopping up the lungs and stuffing the stomach with them and whatever fillers might have been on hand, then boiling the assembly &mdash; likely in a vessel made from the [[animal's hide]] &mdash; was one way to make sure these parts did not go to waste. (Dickson-Wright 12).
==Modern usage==
[[Image:BobPurdieAddressingHaggis20040124CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|right|thumb|Recitation of the poem '[[Address to a Haggis]]' by [[Robert Burns]] is an important part of the [[Burns supper]].]]
Haggis is traditionally served with the [[Burns supper]] on [[January 25]]th, when [[Scotland]]'s [[national poet]], [[Robert Burns]], is commemorated. He wrote the poem [[Wikisource:Address to a Haggis|Address to a Haggis]], which starts "Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face, Great chieftain o' the puddin-race!" During Burns' lifetime haggis was a popular dish for [[Poverty|the poor]], since it made use of parts of a sheep that would otherwise have been wasted.
Haggis is widely available in supermarkets in Scotland all the year round, and the cheaper brands are normally packed in artificial casings, rather than stomachs, just as the cheaper brands of sausages are no longer stuffed into animal intestines. Sometimes it is sold in tins and you can simply microwave it or oven-bake it. Some supermarket haggis is largely made from pig's, rather than sheep's, offal. In addition, practically all Scottish [[fish and chip shops]] will sell their customers a 'haggis supper'. This consists of a small single portion haggis dipped in batter and deep fried, with chips; it provides a hot, filling, high-energy meal for a cold winter's day. There are also fast-food shops that sell haggis burgers, with a patty of fried haggis on a bun.
==Odd Facts and pop culture==
Since many countries' food safety laws outlaw some of the ingredients in haggis (for example, [[United States]] law forbids the sale of any animal's lungs for human consumption), [[expatriate]] Scots and [[Scots descendants]] overseas have been known to engage in 'haggis [[smuggling]]' to obtain true Scottish haggis |
et addresses. A reference theme is required to [[Geocoding|geocode]] individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges. The individual address locations are interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment. These are usually provided in the form of a table or database. The GIS will then place a dot approximately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline. For example, an address point of 500 will be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends with address 1000. Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated point.
It should be noted that there are several (potentially dangerous) caveats that are often overlooked when using interpolation. See the full entry for [[Geocoding|Geocoding]] for more information.
Various algorithms are used to help with address matching when the spellings of addresses differ. Address information that a particular entity or organization has data on, such as the post office, may not entirely match the reference theme. There could be variations in street name spelling, community name, etc. Consequently, the user generally has the ability to make matching criteria more stringent, or to relax those parameters so that more addresses will be mapped. Care must be taken to review the results so as not to erroneously map addresses incorrectly due to overzealous matching parameters.
====Reverse geocoding====
Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated street address number as it relates to a given coordinate. For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number. This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment. If the user clicks at the midpoint of a segment that starts with address 1 and ends with 100, the returned value will be somewhere near 50. Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range.
===Data output and cartography===
[[Cartography]] is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using a GIS. Most GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data.
Cartographic work serves two major functions:
First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential events. [[Web Map Server]]s facilitate distribution of generated maps via the [[web technology]].
Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use. A list of all addresses within 1 mile of a toxic spill for instance.
===Graphic display techniques===
Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols. [[Topographic map]]s show the shape of land surface with [[contour line]]s; the actual shape of the land can be seen only in the mind's eye.
Today, graphic display techniques such as [[shading]] based on [[altitude]] in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze information. For example, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion of [[San Mateo County]], [[California]].
*The [[digital elevation model]], consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black.
*The accompanying [[Landsat]] Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color infrared image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the elevation information.
A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to [[render]] the three-dimensional [[perspective view]] looking down the [[San Andreas Fault]], using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the [[landform]]s. The GIS display depends on the viewing point of the [[observer]] and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows created by the sun's rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day.
==GIS software==
See the [[List of GIS software]].
==The future of GIS==
Many disciplines can benefit from GIS techniques. An active GIS market has resulted in lower costs and continual improvements in the hardware and software components of GIS. These developments will, in turn, result in a much wider use of the technology throughout science, government, [[business]], and [[industry]], with applications including [[real estate]], [[public health]], [[crime mapping]], [[national defense]], [[sustainable development]], [[natural resources]], transportation &amp; logistics.
GIS is also developing into Location Based Services (nearest convenience store, restaurant, bar). These services are having a second birth with the switch on of the European GPS service; bringing cheaper and smaller GPS devices integrated with everyday objects (Cell phones, PDA's, Laptops).
GIS has also been given mass-market appeal by the emergence of [[Google Earth]] and Street Map sites. Suddenly a persons life travels can be plotted and studied by friends and family. Holidays can be planned with information such as shops, restaurants, local interest sites and even where to find a US Warship in a hurry!
===OGC standards===
[[Open Geospatial Consortium]] (OGC) in short is an international industry consortium of 257 companies, government agencies and universities participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that "geo-enable" the Web, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications.
''Compliant Products'', that is, software products that comply to OGC's OpenGIS® Specifications. When a product has been tested and certified as compliant through the OGC Testing Program, the product is automatically registered as "compliant" on this site.
''Implementing Products'', that is, software products that implement OpenGIS Specifications but have not yet passed a compliance test. (Compliance tests are not available for all specifications.) Developers can register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications. (OGC reserves the right to review and verify each entry.)
{{sect-stub}}
===Open Source GIS Software===
The use of [[open-source software]] is not new, and for a time provided arguably the best GIS available. [[GRASS GIS]] is probably the most well-known of these systems. Originally developed by the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories (USA-CERL, 1982-1995), a branch of the US Army Corp of Engineers, as a tool for land management and environmental planning by the military, GRASS has evolved into a powerful utility with a wide range of applications in many different areas of scientific research. GRASS is currently used in academic and commercial settings around the world, as well as many governmental agencies including NASA, NOAA, USDA, DLR, CSIRO, the National Park Service, the U.S. Census Bureau, USGS, and many environmental consulting companies.
With the broad use of non-proprietary data formats such as the Shape File format for vector data and the Geotiff format for raster data, as well as the adoption of Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) protocols such as Web Mapping Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service (WFS), development of open source software continues to evolve, especially for web and [[web service]] oriented applications.
[[Google Maps]] is different from other [[Web map server|web map servers]] (like [[MapQuest]], [[Yahoo! Maps]], or [http://www.randmcnally.com/ Rand McNally]) because Google Maps exposes an [[Application programming interface|API]] that enables users to associate attributes with interactive maps. This is in effect a GIS. However Google Maps is largely "point" oriented and other than using different point markers, you have to click on the markers to get the metadata.
===Global change and [[climate]] history program===
Maps have traditionally been used to explore the Earth and to exploit its resources. GIS technology, as an expansion of cartographic science, has enhanced the efficiency and analytic power of traditional mapping. Now, as the scientific community recognizes the environmental consequences of human activity, GIS technology is becoming an essential tool in the effort to understand the process of global change. Various map and satellite information sources can combine in modes that simulate the interactions of complex natural systems.
Through a function known as visualization, a GIS can be used to produce images - not just maps, but drawings, animations, and other cartographic products. These images allow researchers to view their subjects in ways that literally never have been seen before. The images often are equally helpful in conveying the technical concepts of GIS study-subjects to non-scientists.
===Adding the dimension of time===
The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the var |
confirmed this designation in 1965 [http://www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm 2]. In 1974, the United States National Institute of Health called a conference to standardize the naming of diseases and disorders. They recommended eliminating the possessive form ("The possessive form of an eponym should be discontinued, since the author neither had nor owned the disorder."). ''Down syndrome'' is the accepted term in the USA, Canada and other countries, and the possessive form is used in the United Kingdom and other countries.
== Genetics ==
Down syndrome is a chromosomal abnormality characterized by the presence of an extra copy of genetic material on the [[Chromosome 21|21]]st chromosome, either in whole ([[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]]) or part (such as due to [[Chromosomal translocation|translocations]]). The effects of the extra copy varies greatly from individual to individual, depending on the extent of the extra copy, genetic background, environmental factors, and random chance. Down syndrome can occur in all human populations, and analogous effects have been found in other species, such as chimpanzees and mice.
Down syndrome has four root causes:
* Trisomy 21 is caused by a meiotic nondisjunction event. In this case the child has three copies of every gene on [[Chromosome 21|chromosome 21]]. This is the cause of 95% of observed Down syndromes.
* The extra material is due to a [[Robertsonian translocation]]. The long arm of [[Chromosome 21|21]] is attached to another chromosome (often [[Chromosome 14|chromosome 14]] or itself). The parent with the translocation is missing information on the short arm of 21, but this does not have apparent effects. Through normal disjunction during meiosis, gametes are produced with extra copies of the long arm of [[Chromosome 21|chromosome 21]]. There is variability in the extra region. This is the cause of 2-3% of the observed Down syndromes, and is often referred to as 'familial Down syndrome'.
* The individual is a mosaic of normal chromosomal arrangements and trisomy 21. This can occur in one of two ways: A [[nondisjunction]] event during an early cell division leads to a fraction of the cells with [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]]; or A Down syndrome embryo undergoes [[nondisjunction]] and some of the cells in the embryo revert back to the normal chromosomal arrangement. There is considerable variability in the fraction of [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]], both as a whole and tissue-by-tissue. This is the cause of 1-2% of the observed Down syndromes. Is it likely that all people have an extremely small fraction of their cells that are [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]].
* Rarely, a region of the [[Chromosome 21|21]]<sup>st</sup> chromosome will undergo a duplication event. This will lead to extra copies of some, but not all, of the genes on [[Chromosome 21|chromosome 21]].
Most Down syndrome cases occur spontaneously. There is no known prevention, although some factors, such as increased maternal age, can increase the chance of occurrence. The genetic basis itself cannot be treated, and the variety of expression requires targeting treatment to each individual.
== Prenatal screening ==
Pregnant women can be screened for various complications in their pregnancy. Some screens are designed to indicate [[neural tube defect]]s (such as [[spina bifida]]), [[Edward's syndrome|Trisomy 18]], or Down syndrome, and other possible problems. There are two common non-invasive screens that can indicate an increased chance for a Down syndrome fetus.
* Triple Screen. This test measures the maternal serum [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]] (a fetal liver protein), [[estriol]] (a pregnancy hormone), and [[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG, a pregnancy hormone). This screen is done at the 15<sup>th</sup> - 20<sup>th</sup> week. It can detect about 60% of Down syndrome pregnancies. However, it has a 6.5% Initial Positive Rate (IPR) for Down syndrome. Compare this to the 0.1% chance for Down syndrome birth. As with most screens, the chance of a [[False positive|false positive]] is great. The majority of women with a positive result will not have a Down syndrome birth.
* AFP/Free Beta Screen. This test measures the [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]], produced by the fetus, and free beta hCG, produced by the [[placenta]]. It can be done somewhat earlier than the triple screen (13<sup>th</sup> to 22<sup>nd</sup> week). It has an IPR of 2.8% and a detection rate of about 80%. It is not as common as the triple screen.
Even with the best non-invasive screens, the detection rate is only 80% and the rate of false positive is nearly 3%. [[False positive]]s can be caused by undetected multiple fetuses, incorrect date of pregnancy, or normal variation in the proteins.
Confirmation of the test is normally accomplished with [[amniocentesis]]. This is an invasive procedure and involves taking [[amniotic fluid]] from the mother and identifying fetal cells. The risk of [[spontaneous abortion]] is approximately 1 in 200 to 1 in 300. The lab work can take a couple of weeks. It will detect over 99.8% of all numerical chromosomal problems, and has a very low false positive rate.
== Education ==
Cognitive development in children with Down syndrome is quite variable. Many can be successful in school, while others struggle. Because of this variability in expression of Down syndrome, it is important to evaluate children individually. The cognitive problems that are found among children with Down syndrome are also found among children without Down syndrome. This means that parents can take advantage of general programs that are offered through the schools or other means.
Children with Down syndrome have a wide range of abilities. It is not possible at birth to predict their capabilities. The identification of the best methods of teaching each particular child ideally begins soon after birth, through early intervention programs.
Most children with Down syndrome are in the mild to moderate range of mental retardation. Emotional and social abilities follow a more normal path, moderated by whatever cognitive disability the child may have. Very early social and emotional development show about a one to three month delay on average.
Language skills show a difference between understanding speech and expressing speech. It is common for children with Down syndrome to need speech therapy to help with expressive language.
Fine motor skills often lag behind gross motor skills and can interfere with cognitive development. Occupational therapy can address these issues.
Mainstreaming of children with Down syndrome is controversial. Mainstreaming is when students of differing abilities are placed in classes with their chronological peers. Children with Down syndrome do not age emotionally/socially and intellectually at the same rates as children without Down syndrome, so eventually the intellectual and emotional gap between children with and without Down syndrome widens. Complex thinking as required in sciences but also in history, the arts, and other subjects is often beyond their abilities, or achieved much later than in most children. Therefore, if they are to benefit from mainstreaming without feeling inferior most of the time, special adjustments must be made to the curriculum.
Children with Down syndrome can also be placed in classes with cognitive peers. After preschool, the difference in age makes this problematic.
A danger in not mainstreaming is underestimating their abilities. This was more common in institutions, where Down syndrome children often failed to reach their potential despite being capable of much more, but this issue is very real and present in the modern school system as well.
Some European countries such as Germany and Denmark advise a two-teacher system, whereby the second teacher takes over a group of disabled children within the class. A popular alternative is cooperation between special education schools and mainstream schools. In cooperation, the core subjects are taught in separate classes, which neither slows down the non-disabled students nor neglects the disabled ones. Social activities, outings, and many sports and arts activities are performed together, as are all breaks and meals.
'''Alternative treatment'''
[[The Institutes for The Achievement of Human Potential|The Institutes for The Achievement of Human Potential]] (IAHP [http://www.iahp.org]) is a non-profit organization which treats children who have, as the IAHP terms it, "some form of brain injury," including children with Down syndrome. The IAHP offers a number of intellectual, physical, and physiological programs for children with neurological challenges. The approach of "Psychomotor Patterning" is not proven (see [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/patterning.html Psychomotor Patterning] for a negative viewpoint), and is considered [[Alternative medicine|alternative medicine]].
== Health ==
Individuals with Down syndrome are at risk for various medical conditions. There is no way to predict what conditions they will have, if any. In addition, all these medical conditions can be exhibited by individuals without Down syndrome. It is important to keep these medical risks in mind while undergoing wellness checkups. The following links point to health flowcharts that can help parents with normal checkups [http://www.ds-health.com/ 6].
* [http://www.ds-health.com/recordsheet1.htm Children Birth to Age 12]
* [http://www.ds-health.com/recordsheet2.htm Children Age 13 to Adulthood]
A partial list of risks is given below. Risks run from 80% (hearing deficits) to 50% (congenital heart defects) to 20% (hypothyroidism) to rare but significantly increased risks (Le |
]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1952]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1956]]
* [[History of the United States (1945-1964)|History of the United States (1945&ndash;1964)]]
* [[Military-industrial complex]], a term coined by Eisenhower
* [[Atoms for Peace]], a speech to the UN General Assembly in December, 1953
* [[People to People Student Ambassador Program]]
* [[Mount Eisenhower]]
* [[Kay Summersby]]
* [[Eisenhower Presidential Center]]
* [[Eisenhower National Historic Site]]
* [[Eisenhower and German POWs]]
==References==
===Secondary sources===
* Albertson, Dean. ed. ''Eisenhower as President'' (1963)
* Alexander, Charles C. ''Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952-1961'' (1975)
* Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Eisenhower: Soldier and President'' (2003)
* Damms, Richard V. ''The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953-1961'' (2002)
* Divine, Robert A. ''Eisenhower and the Cold War'' (1981)
* Greenstein, Fred I. ''The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader'' (1991)
* Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 27, 1997.
* Harris, Seymour E. ''The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy'' (1962)
* Krieg, Joann P. ed. ''Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman'' (1987)
* Olson, James S. ''Historical Dictionary of the 1950s'' (2000)
* Pach, Chester J. And Elmo Richardson. ''Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower'' (1991)
* Parmet, Herbert S. ''Eisenhower and the American Crusades'' (1972). Biography of post 1945 years.
* Pogue; Forrest C. ''The Supreme Command'' (1996)
* Sixsmith, E. K.G. ''Eisenhower, His Life and Campaigns'' (1973)
===Primary sources===
* Eisenhower, Dwight D. ''Mandate for Change, 1953-1956'' (1963)
* [http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/reference/papers/eisenhower.html ''Eisenhower Papers''] 21 volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940-61.
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
{{commons|Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Dwight+D.+Eisenhower | name=Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
* [http://www.badley.info/history/Eisenhower-Dwight-David-USA.biog.html Eisenhower Chronology World History Database]
* [http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/ The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum]
*[http://www.heraldrysociety.us/presidents/index.php?page=Eisenhower Armigerous American Presidents Series]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/de34.html White House biography]
* [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/tapes_dde.htm Eisenhower Tapes @ University of Virginia's Miller Center of Public Affairs] (Oval Office recordings)
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/eisen1.htm First Inaugural Address]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/eisen2.htm Second Inaugural Address]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=EisenhowerD Audio clips of Eisenhower's speeches]
* [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military-Industrial_Complex_Speech Farewell Address], Wikisource
* [http://www.jan.vandercrabben.name/unidocs/kcl/Eisenhower_and_Nukes.pdf Essay: Why the Eisenhower administration embraced nuclear weapons (PDF)]
* [http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/index.html The Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission]
* [http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/index.htm The Presidential Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower (Searchable Online)]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone in Germany]]| before=''(none)''|after=Gen. [[Joseph T. McNarney]]| years=1945}}
{{succession box|title=[[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]]|before=Gen. [[George C. Marshall]]|after=Gen. [[Omar N. Bradley]]|years=1945 &ndash; 1948}}
{{succession box|title=[[Columbia University|President of Columbia University]]|before=[[Frank D. Fackenthal]]|after=[[Grayson L. Kirk]]|years=1948 &ndash; 1953}}
{{succession box|title=[[Supreme Allied Commander Europe]] ([[NATO]]) | before=''(none)''|after=[[Matthew B. Ridgway]]|years=1951 &ndash; 1952}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party presidential candidate]]|before=[[Thomas Dewey]]|after=[[Richard Nixon]]|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1956|1956]] (won)}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Harry S. Truman]]|after=[[John F. Kennedy]]|years=[[January 20]], [[1953]] &ndash; [[January 20]], [[1961]]}}
{{end box}}
{{USRepPresNominees}}
{{USpresidents}}
[[Category:1890 births|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:1969 deaths|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Alpha Phi Omega honorary brothers|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:American World War I veterans|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:American World War II people|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Army Black Knights football players|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Korean War people|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Legion of Honor recipients|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Ordre de la Libération|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:People from Kansas|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Presbyterians|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Recipients of Virtuti Militari|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Order of Léopold recipients]]
[[Category:United States Army generals|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:West Point graduates|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
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</revision>
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<page>
<title>Dwight Eisenhower</title>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<comment>moved to "Dwight_D._Eisenhower"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dwight_D._Eisenhower]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Digital micromirror device</title>
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<timestamp>2006-01-30T04:47:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hooperbloob</username>
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<comment>+cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''Digital Micromirror Device''', or '''DMD''' is an [[optical]] [[semiconductor]] that is the core of [[DLP]] projection [[technology]], and was [[invent]]ed by [[Dr. Larry Hornbeck]] and [[Dr. William E. Nelson|Dr. William E. "Ed" Nelson]] of [[Texas Instruments]] (TI) in [[1987]].
The DMD project began as the Deformable Mirror Device in 1977, using micromechanical, analog light modulators. The first analog DMD product was the TI DMD2000 airline ticket printer that used a DMD instead of a laser scanner.
A DMD chip has on its surface several hundred thousand microscopic [[mirror]]s arranged in a [[rectangular]] [[array]] that corresponds to the [[pixel]]s in the image to be displayed. The mirrors can be individually rotated plus or minus 10-12&deg;, to an on or off state. In the on state, light from the bulb is reflected onto the lens making the pixel appear bright on the screen. In the off state, the light is directed somewhere else (usually onto a heatsink), making the pixel appear dark.
To produce [[greyscale]]s, the mirror is toggled on and off very quickly, and the ratio of on time to off time determines the shade produced (binary [[PWM|pulsewidth modulation]]). Contemporary DMD chips can produce up to 1024 shades of gray. See [[DLP]] for discussion of how color images are produced in DMD-based systems.
The mirrors themselves are made out of [[aluminum]] and are around 16 [[micrometre]]s across. Each one is mounted on a yoke which in turn is connected to two support posts by compliant [[torsion spring|torsion hinge]]s. In this type of hinge, the axle is fixed at both ends and literally twists in the middle. Because of the small scale, hinge fatigue is not a problem and tests have shown that even 1 trillion operations does not cause noticeable damage. Tests have also shown that the hinges cannot be damaged by normal shock and vibration, since it is absorbed by the DMD superstructure.
Two pairs of electrodes on either side of the hinge control the position of the mirror by electrostatic attraction. One pair acts on the yoke and the other acts on the mirror directly. The majority of the time, equal bias charges are applied to both sides simultaneously. Instead of flipping to a central position as one might expect, this actually holds the mirror in its current position. This is because attraction force on the |
</tr>
<tr><th colspan="2">'''Electricity - production by source:'''</th></tr>
<tr><td>''fossil fuel:''</td>
<td>49.32%</td></tr>
<tr><td>''hydro:''</td>
<td>36.46%</td></tr>
<tr><td>''nuclear:''</td>
<td>0%</td></tr>
<tr><td>''other:''</td>
<td>14.22% (1998)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Electricity - consumption:'''</td>
<td>4,170 GWh (1999)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Electricity - exports:'''</td>
<td>30 GWh (1999)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Electricity - imports:'''</td>
<td>65 GWh (1999)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>'''Agriculture - products:'''</td>
<td>[[coffee]], [[sugar cane]], [[maize]], [[rice]], [[bean]]s, [[oilseed]], [[cotton]], [[sorghum]]; [[beef]], [[dairy]] products; [[shrimp]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>'''Exports:'''</td>
<td>$2.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Exports - commodities:'''</td>
<td>offshore assembly exports, [[coffee]], [[sugar]], [[shrimp]], textiles, chemicals, electricity</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Exports - partners:'''</td>
<td>[[United States|US]] 59%, [[Guatemala]] 12%, [[Germany]] 6%, [[Costa Rica]] 4%, [[Honduras]] (1998)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Imports:'''</td>
<td>$4.15 billion (c.i.f., 1999)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Imports - commodities:'''</td>
<td>raw materials, consumer goods, capital goods, fuels, foodstuffs, petroleum, electricity</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Imports - partners:'''</td>
<td>US 51%, Guatemala 9%, Mexico 6%, Japan 3%, Costa Rica (1999)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Debt - external:'''</td>
<td>$3.3 billion (1999 est.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Economic aid - recipient:'''</td>
<td>total $252 million; $57 million from US (1999 est.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Currency:'''</td>
<td>1 Salvadoran [[Colón (currency)|colón]] (¢) = 100 centavos;
US dollar circulates as legal tender since [[January 1]], [[2001]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Exchange rates:'''</td><td>
Salvadoran colones (¢) per USD 1 (end of period) - 8.75 fixed rate since 2001</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Fiscal year:'''</td>
<td>calendar year</td></tr>
</table>
==Overview==
The [[El Salvador|Salvadoran]] [[economics|economy]] continues to benefit from a commitment to [[free market]]s and careful fiscal management. The impact of the civil war on El Salvador's economy was devastating; from [[1979]]-[[1992]], losses from damage to infrastructure and means of production due to [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] sabotage as well as from reduced export earnings totaled about [[United States dollar|USD]] $2.2 billion. But since attacks on economic targets ended in 1992, improved investor confidence has led to increased private investment.
Rich [[soil]], moderate [[climate]], and a hard-working and enterprising [[labour (economics)|labor]] pool comprise El Salvador's greatest assets. Much of the improvement in El Salvador's economy is due to free market policy initiatives carried out by the [[Alfredo Cristiani|Cristiani]] and [[Armando Calderón Sol|Calderón Sol]] governments, including the privatization of the [[banking]] system, [[telecommunications]], public [[pension]]s, [[Electricity distribution|electrical distribution]] and some [[electrical generation]], reduction of import duties, elimination of price controls on virtually all consumer products, and enhancing the investment climate through measures such as improved enforcement of [[intellectual property]] rights.
The post-war boom in the Salvadoran economy began to fade in [[July]] [[1995]] after an abrupt shift in monetary policy was followed by a June increase in the value added tax (VAT) and price hikes in basic public services. The slowdown lingered into 1996. Growth in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in 1996 was a mere 2.1%, but by 1997 it had picked up to 4%. In 1998, El Salvador's economy grew by 3.2% compared to the 4.2% growth posted in 1997. The damage caused by [[Hurricane Mitch]] to infrastructure and to agricultural production reduced 1998 growth by an estimated 0.5%. Growth weakened further (to 2.6%) in 1999 due to poor international prices for El Salvador's principal export commodities, weak exports to [[Central America|Central American]] neighbors recovering from Hurricane Mitch, and an investment slowdown caused by the March 1999 presidential elections and delays in legislative approval of a national budget. It picked up slightly to 3% in 2000. Because of the earthquakes that struck the country in January and February, prospects for any growth in 2001 are dim. Inflation for 1998 was 4%, and remained stable in 1999-2000.
Fiscal policy has been the biggest challenge for the Salvadoran Government. The 1992 peace accords committed the government to heavy expenditures for transition programs and [[social services]]. Although [[international aid]] was generous, the government has focused on improving the collection of its current revenues. A 10% value-added tax, implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995. The VAT is estimated to have contributed 51% of total tax revenues in 1999, due mainly to improved collection techniques. A multiple exchange rate regime that had been used to conserve foreign exchange was phased out during 1990 and replaced by a free-floating rate. The [[Colón (currency)|colón]] depreciated from five to the US dollar in 1989 to eight in 1991, and in 1993, was informally pegged at 8.73 colones to the dollar, later adjusted to 8.79. Large inflows of dollars in the form of family remittances from Salvadorans working in the United States offset a substantial trade deficit and support the exchange rate. The monthly average of remittances reported by the Central Bank is around $117 million, with the total estimated at more than $1.4 billion for 1999. As of December 1999, net international reserves equaled $1.8 billion or roughly 5 months of imports. Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran Government undertook a "monetary integration plan" beginning [[January 1]], [[2001]], by which the dollar became legal tender alongside the colón. No more colones are to be printed, the economy is expected to be, in practice, fully [[Dollarization|dollarized]], and the Central Reserve Bank dissolved, by late 2003. The FMLN is strongly opposed to the plan, regarding it as unconstitutional, and plans to make it an issue in the 2003 legislative elections.
===Foreign Debt and Assistance===
El Salvador's external [[debt]] decreased sharply in 1993, chiefly as a result of an agreement under which the [[United States]] forgave about $461 million of official debt. As a result, total debt service decreased by 16% over 1992. External debt stood at $2.8 billion at the end of 1999. Debt service amounted to 2.5% of GDP in 1998 and is considered moderate. The Government of El Salvador has been successful in obtaining significant new credits from the international financial institutions. Among the most significant loans are a second structural adjustment loan from the World Bank for $52.5 million, another [[World Bank]] loan of $40 million for agricultural reform, a $20 million loan from the [[Central American Bank for Economic Integration]] to be used to repair roads, and a $60 million [[Inter-American Development Bank]] loan for poverty alleviation projects. Total non-U.S. Government aid, excluding [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]] assistance and bilateral loan programs, reached $38 million in 1999. Although official figures show relatively small and diminishing aid flows, the total is probably larger. Significant amounts come in through nongovernmental organizations and are channeled to groups not generally included in official statistics, such as political parties, unions, and churches. Some $300 million has been contracted from international institutions and governments for infrastructure works and social programs to be undertaken. The debt profile is expected to increase over the next several years as the international donor community has pledged $1.26 billion to finance El Salvador's reconstruction and modernization. Large loans now being sought to finance reconstruction from the 2001 earthquakes will further alter the country?s debt profile.
=='''Natural Disasters: [[Hurricane Mitch]] (1998) and the Earthquakes (2001)'''==
Hurricane Mitch hit El Salvador in late October 1998, generating extreme rainfall of which caused widespread [[flood]]ing and landslides. Roughly 650 km&sup2; were flooded, and the Salvadoran Government pronounced 374 people dead or missing. In addition, approximately 55,900 people were rendered [[homeless]]. The areas that suffered the most were the low-lying coastal zones, particularly in the floodplain of the [[Lempa River|Lempa]] and [[Sam Miguel Grande River]]s. Three major bridges that cross the Lempa were swept away, restricting access to the eastern third of the country and forcing the emergency evacuation of many communities. The heavy rainfall, flooding, and mudslides caused by Hurricane Mitch also severely damaged El Salvador's road network. Along with the three major bridges over the Lempa River, 12 other bridges were damaged or destroyed by the Mitch flooding.
The largest single-affected sector was El Salvador's [[agriculture]]. Nearly 18% of the total 1998-99 basic [[cereal|grain]] harvest was lost. [[Coffee]] production was hit particularly hard; 3% of the harvest was lost in addition to 8.2% that was |
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