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vid E., Sergei A. Kondrashev, and George Bailey. ''Battleground Berlin: CIA vs. KGB in the Cold War'' (1997).
* Persico, Joseph. ''Casey: The Lives and Secrets of William J. Casey-From the OSS to the CIA'' (1991)
* Prados, John. ''Presidents' Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations Since World War II'' (1996)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82295474 Rositzke, Harry. ''The CIA's Secret Operations: Espionage, Counterespionage, and Covert Action'' (1988)]
* Srodes, James. ''Allen Dulles'' (2000), CIA head to 1961
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106805285 Trahair, Richard C. S. ''Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations'' (2004)], by an Australian scholar; contains excellent historiographical introduction
* Weinstein, Allen, and Alexander Vassiliev. ''The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America—The Stalin Era'' (1999).
==Pop culture==
Common espionage in today's world has been dubbed snitching(other variations included ratting and tattle-tale). What seperates it from other forms of espionage is that it involves a traitor or victim rather than a spy. Snitching received a
bad reputation as it goes against the [[golden rule]]. Also the informers are often used as the [[scapegoat]] for a person or groups mistakes and failures.The video [[Stop Snitchin']] was created to show that people who informed authorities on crimes should(or would)be murdered.This resulted in major controversity.
==See also==
* [[Classified information]]
* [[Numbers station]]
* [[List of cryptographers]]
* [[List of alleged secret agents]]
* [[Military intelligence]]
* [[Motives for spying]]
* [[Security clearance]]
* [[Treason]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ispy.ws Spy Forum and Spying Discussions]
[[Category:Espionage|*]]
[[da:Spion]]
[[de:Spionage]]
[[es:Espionaje]]
[[eo:Spionado]]
[[fr:Espionnage]]
[[ko:간첩]]
[[he:ריגול]]
[[nl:Spion]]
[[ja:スパイ]]
[[no:Spionasje]]
[[nn:Spionasje]]
[[pl:Szpieg]]
[[ru:Разведка]]
[[th:จารกรรม]]
[[zh:间谍]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Exile the RPG Games</title>
<id>10502</id>
<revision>
<id>15908312</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-08T12:19:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Exile (computer game)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Exile (computer game)</title>
<id>10503</id>
<revision>
<id>40091774</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T01:50:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nickshanks</username>
<id>20152</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">::''For the [[BBC Micro]], [[Acorn Electron]], [[Commodore 64]], [[Commodore Amiga]], [[Amiga CD32|CD32]] and [[Atari ST]] computer game, see [[Exile (BBC computer game)]].''
::''For the [[Turbo CD]] action/role-playing games see [[Exile (video game)]].''
The '''''Exile''''' series of [[Role-playing game (video games)|roleplaying game]]s were created by [[Jeff Vogel]] of [[Spiderweb Software]]. They are released as [[shareware]] titles for [[Apple Macintosh|Apple Macintosh]] and [[Microsoft Windows|Microsoft Windows]] systems. Exile III was also ported to [[Linux]] by a third party, although it does not seem to work as well as the Windows version run in WINE. The series consists of four games:
* ''Exile: Escape from the Pit''
* ''Exile II: Crystal Souls''
* ''Exile III: Ruined World''
* ''Blades of Exile''
The first three of these games form a trilogy covering the exploits of the inhabitants of Exile, a vast series of underground caves populated by those banished by the Empire, rulers of the surface world, culminating in their eventually gaining the ability to return to the surface.
''Blades of Exile'' consists of three short "scenarios" set after the main trilogy as well as an editor that allows players to create their own scenarios, which need not be set in the Exile game world at all. Several hundred custom-made scenarios have been designed since the release of the game in 1997, attracting so many prolific scenario designers that a whole community has evolved around it. The most prominent meeting places on the web of the Blades of Exile community are the official company-hosted [[internet forum]] and the site ''[http://www.geocities.com/blyceum The Lyceum]'', founded in 1998 by the designer calling himself Alcritas. These forums offer support for beginning designers and players, reviews of new scenarios and general discussions about the use of the scenario editor. Since many designers have also set up their own ''Blades of Exile''-related websites, a [[webring]] has been established to allow easy navigation between the numerous fan pages. Fan sites also include a number of archives from which custom graphics can be downloaded to be used by other scenario designers.
Common to all Spiderweb Software games, the ''Exile'' series have very limited graphics and sound, which is
balanced by a large and detailed game world as well as a generally deep storyline and well-developed plots.
More recently the ''Exile'' games have been remade as the [[Avernum]] series, which replaced the two-dimensional tile-based graphics system with an [[isometric projection|isometric]] one and made numerous changes to the RPG system and some changes to the content. A fourth title in the series is available under the Avernum moniker and engine.
==See also==
*[[List of computer and video games by name]]
*[[Jeff Vogel]]
*[[Spiderweb Software]]
==External links==
*[http://www.spiderwebsoftware.com Spiderweb Software]
*[http://p080.ezboard.com/bthelyceum The Lyceum]
*[http://www.personal.psu.edu/staff/b/x/bxb11/boe/alexandriajs/index.htm the Blades of Exile scenario database]
*[http://w.webring.com/hub?ring=boe The Blades of Exile Webring]
[[Category:Computer and video role-playing games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:Spiderweb Software games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Reizei</title>
<id>10504</id>
<revision>
<id>32842648</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-27T05:01:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marudubshinki</username>
<id>190816</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Reizei''' can refer to:
*[[Emperor Reizei]], [[emperor of Japan]].
*The [[Reizei family]], a branch of the [[Fujiwara family]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Enyu of Japan</title>
<id>10505</id>
<revision>
<id>22558147</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-04T17:48:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dbl redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Emperor En'yu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Kazan</title>
<id>10506</id>
<revision>
<id>34653877</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T20:24:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.208.12.213</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kazan.jpg|right]]
'''Emperor Kazan''' (花山天皇 ''Kazan Tennō'') ([[968]]-[[1008]]) was the 65th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from [[984]] to [[986]].
{{japan-bio-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor En'yu|Emperor En'yū]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Ichijo|Emperor Ichijō]] | years=984-986}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:968 births|Kazan]]
[[Category:1008 deaths|Kazan]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kazan of Japan, Emperor]]
[[cs:Kazan]]
[[de:Kazan (Kaiser)]]
[[ja:花山天皇]]
[[pl:Kazan]]
[[zh:花山天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ichijo</title>
<id>10507</id>
<revision>
<id>22973191</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-10T13:34:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jefu</username>
<id>256366</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ichijo''' can refer to:
#[[Emperor Ichijo|Emperor Ichijō]], [[emperor of Japan]] ([[980]]-[[1011]])
#[[Ichijo (Kyoto)]], one of main streets in [[Kyoto]].
#[[Ichijo family]], a branch of [[Fujiwara family]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Sanjo</title>
<id>10508</id>
<revision>
<id>25632428</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-16T03:19:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tallasse</username>
<id>380410</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>remove personal attack that has been in for last 10-15 edits?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Sanjo''' can refer to:
*[[Sanjo Sobiak]], the CEO of [[JKCinema.com]].
*[[Emperor Sanjo|Sanjo Emperor]], the 67th [[Emperor of Japan]].
*[[Sanjo, Niigata]], a city in [[Niigata prefecture]], [[Japan]].
*[[Sanjo Station (Kyoto)|Sanjo Station]], the main [[Keihan Electric Railway]] station in [[Kyoto]], Japan.
*[[Sanjo (music)|Sanjo]], traditional style of [[Korean music]].
*[[Sanjo (Sarker)|Sanjo]], an Indian composer of contemporary fusion music.
*[[Sanji (One Piece)|Sanji]], a fictional character from the [[Japan|Japanese]] [[anime]] series [[One Piece]].
{{disambig}}
[[es:Sanji]]
[[pt:Sanjo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elements</title>
<id>10509</id>
<revision>
<id>15908319</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-03T08:21:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gtrmp</username>
<id>38984</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to [[element]] due to duplicate content</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect: [[element]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elvis Costello</title>
<id>105 |
sexually sensitive in many cases. Bare female breasts can elicit heightened sexual desires from men and women. Since they are associated with sex, in many cultures bare breasts are considered indecent, and they are not commonly displayed in public, in contrast to male chests. Other cultures view the baring of breasts as acceptable, and in some countries women have never been forbidden to bare their chests. Opinions on the exposure of breasts is often dependent on the place and context, and in some [[Western World|Western societies]], exposure of breasts on a beach may be considered acceptable, although in town centres, for example, it is usually considered indecent. In some areas, the prohibition against the display of a woman's breasts generally only restricts exposure of the [[nipples]].
Certain types of work may also require that a woman expose her breasts, and in these contexts it is considered acceptable even if it would not be in another context. Female university students working as [[Model (art)|art models]] for [[fine arts]] classes generally have to work bare breasted. [[Actresses]] sometimes need to go bare breasted for particular scenes. Many women have bared their breasts on the Internet, and such displays are generally considered legal and acceptable.
In some cases, their display may be interpreted as indecent or sexual, even when they are being used for their primary purpose of nursing offspring. This has led, in several cases, to women being arrested for [[indecent exposure]] for [[breastfeeding]] their children in public.
Women in some areas and cultures are approaching the issue of breast exposure as one of [[sexual equality]], since men (and pre-pubescent children) may bare their [[chest]]s, but women and teenage girls are forbidden. In the [[United States]], the [[Topfree]] equality movement seeks to redress this imbalance; this movement has won a decision in [[1992]] in a [[New York (state)|New York]] Court of Appeals which seems to substantially support their assertions. A similar movement succeeded in most parts of [[Canada]] in the [[1990s]]. In [[Australia]] it is acceptable for women and teenage girls to sunbathe topless on some public beaches, but these are generally the only public areas where exposing breasts is acceptable.
In some religions, breasts must always remain covered for, for example: Certain denominations of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] forbid public exposure of the female breasts except when [[breastfeeding]].
In addition to the above references, see also [[modesty]], [[nudism]] and [[exhibitionism]].
===Cultural Status in Ancient history===
In ancient paintings women are sometimes shown with their breasts in their hands on in a platter. This signifies that they died as a martyr by having their breasts severed. One example of this is [[Saint Agatha]].
==Disorders of the breasts==
===Infections and inflammations===
[[Image:Grudi.jpg|thumb|200px|A 1930 Soviet poster promoting breast care.]]
*[[Mastitis]]
** [[bacterial mastitis]]
** [[mastitis from milk engorgement]]
** [[mastitis of mumps]]
** [[subareolar mastitis]]
*Other infections
** [[chronic intramammary abscess]]
** [[chronic subareolar abscess]]
** [[tuberculosis of the breast]]
** [[syphilis of the breast]]
** [[retromammary abscess]]
** [[actinomycosis of the breast]]
*Inflammations
** [[Mondor's disease]]
** [[duct ectasia]]/[[periductal masbreastis]]
** [[Breast engorgement]]
===Benign breast disease===
*[[Congenital disorder]]s
** [[inverted nipple]]
** [[supernumerary nipples]]/[[supernumerary breasts]]
*Aberrations of normal development and involution
** [[fibroadenomatosis]]
** [[cyclical nodularity]]
** [[cyst]]s
** [[fibroadenoma]] - benign tumor
*[[Duct ectasia]]/[[Periductal masbreastis]]
** [[nipple discharge]]
** [[abscesses]]
** [[mammary fistula]]
*[[Epithelial hyperplasia]]
*[[Pregnancy]]-related
** [[galactocoele]]
** [[puerperal abscess]]
===Malignant breast disease===
* [[Breast cancer]] (mammary carcinoma)
* [[Carcinoma in situ]]
* Paget's disease of the nipple, also known as [[Paget's disease of the breast]]
==See also==
*[[Breastfeeding]]
*[[Breast fetishism]]
*[[Breast implant]]
*[[Breast reconstruction]]
*[[Gynecomastia]]
*[[intimate parts]]
*[[Topfree equality]]
*[[Mammary intercourse]]
*[[Puberty]]
== External links ==
{{commonscat|Breasts}}
*[http://www.puberty101.com/p_stages_breasts.shtml Stages of breast development, from Puberty101]
*[http://www.007b.com/ 007 Breasts] — a website promoting the view that breasts should not be considered sexual
[[Category:Breast|*]]
[[Category:Integumentary system]]
[[Category:Secondary sexual characteristics]]
[[ar:ثدي]]
[[cs:Prs]]
[[da:Bryst]]
[[de:Weibliche Brüste]]
[[es:Pecho]]
[[eo:Mamo]]
[[fr:Sein]]
[[io:Mamo]]
[[ilo:Suso]]
[[it:Mammella]]
[[he:שד (איבר)]]
[[lt:Krūtis]]
[[ln:Ntólo]]
[[nl:Borst]]
[[ja:乳房]]
[[pl:Sutek]]
[[pt:Seios]]
[[sk:Prsná žľaza]]
[[simple:Breast]]
[[fi:Rinnat]]
[[sv:Bröst]]
[[th:เต้านม]]
[[zh:乳房]]
[[pam:Susu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle Creek, Michigan</title>
<id>4491</id>
<revision>
<id>41080345</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:49:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bkonrad</username>
<id>44062</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm what appears to be self-promtional links (improperly placed as well)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = Battle Creek, Michigan |
nickname = The Cereal City |
image_map = MIMap-doton-BattleCreek.PNG |
map_caption = Location of Battle Creek within [[Michigan]] |
subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] |
subdivision_name = [[Calhoun County, Michigan|Calhoun County]] |
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = John Godfrey |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 43.7 mi&sup2; / 113.1 |
area_land = 42.8 mi&sup2; / 110.9 |
area_water = 0.8 mi&sup2; / 2.2 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_total = 53,364 ([[city limits|city proper]]) |
population_density = 1,246.0 mi&sup2; / 481.1 |
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] |
utc_offset = -5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] |
utc_offset_DST = -4 |
website = [http://ci.battle-creek.mi.us ci.battle-creek.mi.us] |
footnotes =
}}
{{Redirect|Battle Creek}}
'''Battle Creek''' is a city in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Michigan]], in northwest [[Calhoun County, Michigan|Calhoun County]]. As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 53,364.
It is the world headquarters of [[Kellogg Company]] (cereal), manufacturer of [[corn flakes]] and other breakfast cereals. It is also the home of [[Post Cereals]], which was part of [[General Foods Corporation]] and is now part of [[Kraft Foods]].
Battle Creek was featured in the [[T.C. Boyle]] [[the novel|novel]] ''[[The Road to Wellville]]'' and the movie of the same name.
== Geography ==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 113.1 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (43.7 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 110.9 km&sup2; (42.8 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 2.2 km&sup2; (0.8 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.92% water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|<sup>2</sup>]] of [[2000]], there are 53,364 people, 21,348 households, and 13,363 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 481.1/km&sup2; (1,246.0/mi&sup2;). There are 23,525 housing units at an average density of 212.1/km&sup2; (549.3/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 74.65% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 17.80% [[African American (U.S. Census)|black or African American]], 1.94% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.77% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.01% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.11% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.72% from two or more races. 4.64% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 21,348 households out of which 32.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 16.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% are non-families. 31.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.43 and the average family size is 3.04.
In the city the population is spread out with 27.2% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 35 years. For every 100 females there are 91.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $35,491, and the median income for a family is $43,564. Males have a median income of $36,838 versus $26,429 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,424. 14.4% of the population and 10.7% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 17.5% of those under the age of 18 and 11.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== Education ==
=== Colleges and universities ===
*[[Kellogg Community College]], a 2-year college founded in 1956.
*[[Miller College]], a 4-year institution which shares KCC's facilities
*[[Western Michigan University|Western Michigan University's]] Battle Creek Branch - The Kendall Center
== Public School Districts==
ʈ Battle Creek Public Schools<br>
ʈ Harper Creek Schools<br>
ʈ Lakeview School District<br>
ʈ Pennfield Schools [http://www.pennfield.k12.mi.us]<br>
=== High schools (Public) ===
*[[Battle Creek Area Mathematics and Science Center]]
*[[Battle Creek Central High School]]
*[[Harper Creek High School]]
*[[Lakeview Alternative Edu |
/2003/april/041603.html Remembering Maurice Rapf]
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hop/0304_pages/dfs-description.html Dartmouth Film Society]
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/alumni/leadership/constit.htm Dartmouth's Alumni Association]
*[http://web.dartmouth.edu/~webcams/tower/ Dartmouth webcam]
*[http://www.buzzflood.org/books.php Books] &mdash; Faculty book publication list
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~skiway Dartmouth Skiway]
*[http://www.dartreview.com/issues/2.7.00/carnival.html The Mardi Gras of the North] History of the Winter Carnival
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~carnival/ 2004 Winter Carnival Celebration]: "Oh! The Places It Snows: A Seussentennial"
*{{imdb title|id=0032132|title=Winter Carnival}}
*[http://hop.dartmouth.edu Dartmouth's Hopkins Center for the Arts]
*[http://www.dartmo.com/index.html Dartmo.: The Buildings of Dartmouth College]
*[http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_010702_dartmouthcol.htm Encyclopedia of North American Indians]
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~nas/html/napmain.html Native American Programs at Dartmouth]
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~nap/powwow/ The Dartmouth Pow-Wow]
*[http://www.marksverylarge.com/people/miller.html Chris Miller] Bio of Chris Miller, Dartmouth '63, cowriter of ''[[Animal House]]''
*[http://www.thedartmouth.com/article.php?aid=2004051401080&action=print Alpha Delta Lawn Party], cites Chris Miller
*[http://cnnstudentnews.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0308/29/se.09.html John Landis interview], ''Animal House'' based on Dartmouth
*[http://www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/young/dartmouth_murders/1.html All about the Dartmouth Murders (Half and Suzanne Zantop)(www.crimelibrary.com)]
*{{google video|-6227362341282113891|Video on the Construction of the Ravine Lodge}}
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/comp/resources/network/wireless/focus/press.html Dartmouth Wireless Network Press Coverage]
{{Mapit-US-buildingscale|43.703654|-72.289867}}
{{Ivy_League}}
{{ECAC Hockey League}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Ivy League]]
[[Category:Dartmouth College| ]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 18th century]]
[[Category:Colonial colleges]]
[[Category:1769 establishments]]
[[de:Dartmouth College]]
[[fr:Collège de Dartmouth]]
[[ja:ダートマス大学]]
[[ru:Дартмутский колледж]]
[[sv:Dartmouth College]]
[[zh:达特茅斯学院]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dartmouth, Devon</title>
<id>8419</id>
<revision>
<id>36548302</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T21:20:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NekoDaemon</username>
<id>239574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:English seaside resorts]] → [[Category:Seaside resorts in England]]. Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{GBmap|Dartmouth - Devon|SX877514}}
[[image:dartmouth.town.750pix.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The town seen from the River Dart]]
'''Dartmouth''' is a town in [[Devon]] in the south-west of [[England]]. It is a major [[tourist destination]] set on the banks of the estuary of the [[River Dart]], which is a long narrow tidal [[ria]] that runs inland as far as [[Totnes]].
Historically, Dartmouth was of great strategic importance as a deep-water port for sailing vessels. It was a home of the English navy since the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] and was twice surprised and sacked during the [[Hundred Years War]], after which the mouth of the estuary was closed every night with a great chain.
The narrow mouth of the Dart is protected by two fortified castles, [[Dartmouth Castle]] and [[Kingswear Castle]].
[[image:dartmouth.front.750pix.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Part of the town's river front]]
The town is dominated by the [[Royal Navy]] Officer Training college ([[Britannia Royal Naval College]]) and all officers of the Royal Navy, as well as many foreign navies, are trained there.
[[Henry Hudson]] put into Dartmouth on his return from America, and was promptly arrested for sailing under foreign flag.The [[Pilgrim Fathers]] put into Dartmouth's Bayard's Cove, en-route from [[Southampton]] to America. They rested a while before setting off on their journey in the ''[[Mayflower]]'' and the ''[[Speedwell (ship)|Speedwell]]'' on the 20th August [[1620]]. About 300 miles west of [[Land's End]], they realised that the ''Speedwell'' was unseaworthy and returned to [[Plymouth]]. The ''Mayflower'' departed alone to complete the crossing to Cape Cod.
[[Thomas Newcomen]], the inventor of the [[Newcomen steam engine|steam pumping engine]] was born in Dartmouth in [[1663]].
The town was an ancient borough, granted by [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], known formally as '''Clifton-Dartmouth-Hardness''', and consisting of the three parishes of ''St Petrox'', ''St Saviour'' and ''Townstall''. [http://genuki.cs.ncl.ac.uk/DEV/Dartmouth/Dartmouth1830.html] It was reformed under the [[Municipal Corporations Act 1835]]. It remained a [[municipal borough]] until [[1974]], when it was merged into the [[South Hams]] district, and became a [[civil parish]] with a town council.
[[image:dartmouth.boats.750pix.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Kingswear seen from Dartmouth]]
==External links==
*[http://www.dartmouth.org.uk/ Dartmouth Directory]
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Devon/Dartmouth/ Dartmouth (DMOZ.org)]
*[http://britannia.com/tours/westcountry/dartmouth.html Dartmouth]
*[http://www.britannia.com/history/devon/castles/dartmouthcast.html Charles Oman, "Dartmouth and Kingswear Castles: Twin Dart estuary defenders"]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of England]]
[[Category:Seaside resorts in England]]
[[Category:Towns in Devon]]
[[ang:Dærentamūða]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dodo</title>
<id>8420</id>
<revision>
<id>41814327</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:46:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.75.55.132</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the extinct bird. For other uses, see [[Dodo (disambiguation)]]''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Dodo
| status = {{StatusExtinct|when=[[1681]]}}
| image = igdodo.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Columbiformes]]
| familia = [[Raphidae]]
| genus = '''''Raphus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson|Brisson]], 1760
| species = '''''R. cucullatus'''''
| binomial = ''Raphus cucullatus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}
The '''Mauritius Dodo''' (''Raphus cucullatus'', called ''Didus ineptus'' by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]), more commonly just '''Dodo''', was a metre-high flightless bird of the island of [[Mauritius]]. The Dodo, which is now [[extinct birds|extinct]], lived on fruit and nested on the ground.
==Description==
In December, 2005, an important site of Dodo remains was found in Mauritius, including birds of various stages of maturity. Before this find, few Dodo specimens were known. [[Dublin]]'s [[Natural History Museum (Ireland)|Natural History Museum]] had an assembled specimen, while the most intact remains from a single bird are a skeletal foot and a head, which contains the only known soft tissue remains of the species. The decaying remnants of the last complete stuffed Dodo, in [[Oxford]]'s [[Ashmolean Museum]], were burned in 1755; the foot and head were salvaged from this specimen, and are currently on display. Nevertheless, from artists' renditions we know that the Dodo had blue-grey [[plumage]], a 23-centimetre (9-inch) blackish hooked [[Beak|bill]] with a reddish point, very small useless [[wing]]s, stout yellow legs, and a tuft of curly [[feather]]s high on its rear end. Dodos were very large birds, weighing about 23 kg (50 pounds).
The breast structure was insufficient to have ever supported flight. These ground-bound birds evolved to take advantage of an island [[ecology]] with no predators.
The traditional image of the Dodo is of a fat, clumsy bird, but this view has been challenged by Andrew Kitchener, a biologist at the [[Royal Museum of Scotland]] (reported in ''National Geographic News'', February 2002), who believes that the old drawings showed overfed captive specimens. As Mauritius has marked dry and wet seasons, the Dodo probably fattened itself on ripe fruits at the end of the wet season to live through the dry season where food was scarce; contemporary reports speak of the birds' "greedy" appetite. Thus, in captivity with its ready availability of food, the birds would become overfed very easily. It had lived for thousands of years on Mauritius without any predators, being the largest animal then on the island (including humans - Mauritius had no native people).
==Extinction==
The Dodo was entirely fearless of people, and this, in combination with its flightlessness, made it easy prey. The name ''dodo'' comes from the archaic [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word ''doudo'', meaning "simpleton", ''doido'' in modern Portuguese meaning fool or mad. (The island was first visited by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in [[1505]], but the Dutch were the first permanent settlers on the island.)
There is a persistent myth that Dodos were eaten as food for the long voyages between the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and [[Asia]], but neither historical nor archeological findings corroborate this. Dodos were hardly ever eaten by the Portuguese, who found the birds hard to eat and very messy. Dutch records concur. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] settlers called it the ''Walgvogel'' ("disgusting bird") for the unpleasant taste and texture of the meat. No Dodo bones have been found in the old [[midden]]s of the Dutch fort Frederik Hendrik.
However, when humans first arrived on Mauritius, they also brought wit |
iad]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]''.
Around the [[17th century BC|17th]] and [[16th century BC|16th]] centuries BC most of the older centres had been overrun. Babylonia was conquered by the Kassites, and the civilization of the Indus Valley was annihilated by the [[Indo-Aryans]]. Their kin, the [[Mitanni]], subjugated Assyria and for a time menaced the Hittite kingdom, but were defeated by the two around the middle of the [[14th century BC|14th]]. Various Achaean kingdoms developed in Greece, most notably that of [[Mycenae]], and by the [[15th century BC]] were dominant over the older Minoan cities. And the Semitic [[Hyksos]] used the new technologies to occupy Egypt, but were expelled, leaving the empire of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] to develop in their wake.
In the [[13th century BC]] all of these powers suddenly collapsed. Cities all around the eastern Mediterranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders. The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed. Egypt repelled its attackers with only a major effort, and over the next century shrank to its territorial core, its central authority permanently weakened. Only Assyria escaped significant damage.
==The [[Iron age]]==
The destruction at the end of the bronze age left a number of tiny kingdoms and City-states behind. A few [[Hittites|Hittite]] centres remained in northern [[Syria]], along with some [[Phoenicia]]n ports in [[Canaan]] that escaped destruction and developed into great commercial powers. In the [[12th century BC]] most of the interior, as well as [[Babylonia]], was overrun by [[Aramean]]s, while the shoreline around today's [[Gaza Strip]] fell to the [[Philistine]]s. By the late [[11th century BC|11th]]-early [[10th century BC]], Canaan had been conquered by the [[Hebrews]], also known as [[Israelite]]s who [[United Monarchy|united]] under one king, [[David]]. David made [[Jerusalem]] the capital of the [[Kingdom of Israel]]. See [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]] for details.
In this period a number of technological innovations spread, most notably iron working and the [[Phoenician alphabet]], developed by the Phoenicians or the Canaanites around the [[16th century BC]]. Also around this time, the first major [[Monotheism|monotheist]] religion developed, [[Judaism]], which is still being practiced by [[Jew]]s.
During the [[9th century BC]] the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] began to reassert themselves against the incursions of the Aramaeans, and over the next few centuries developed into a powerful and well-organised empire. Their armies were among the first to employ cavalry, which took the place of chariots, and had a reputation for both prowess and brutality. At their height, the Assyrians dominated all of Syria-Israel, Egypt, and Babylonia. However, the empire began to collapse toward the end of the [[7th century BC]], and was obliterated by an alliance between a resurgent [[New Kingdom of Babylonia]] and the Iranian [[Medes]].
The subsequent balance of power was short-lived, though. In the [[550s BC]] the [[Persians]] revolted against the Medes and gained control of their empire, and over the next few decades annexed to it the realms of [[Lydia]] in [[Anatolia]], [[Babylonia]], and [[Egypt]], as well as consolidating their control over the Iranian plateau nearly as far as [[India]]. This vast kingdom was divided up into various [[satrap]]ies and governed roughly according to the Assyrian model, but with a far lighter hand. Around this time [[Zoroastrianism]] became the predominant religion in [[Iran|Persia]].
==The Classical empires==
From [[492 BC|492]]-[[449 BC]] the [[Persians]] made a series of unsuccessful attempts to conquer [[Greece]]. The civilisation that had developed there since the end of the bronze age was organised along entirely different lines than those of the [[Middle East]], consisting of numerous small City-States fielding citizen [[militia]]s. Nonetheless they banded together and proved quite capable of dealing with the massive armies of their foe.
By the fourth century BC [[Iran|Persia]] had fallen into decline. The campaigns of [[Xenophon]] illustrated how very vulnerable it had become to attack by an army organised along [[ancient Greece|Greek]] lines, but the Greek city-states had weakened each other irreparably through in-fighting. However, in [[338 BC]] the rising power of [[Macedon]] overcame Greece, and under [[Alexander the Great]] turned its attention eastward. Alexander conquered Persia in little more than a decade.
Alexander did not live long enough to consolidate his realm, and in the half-century following his death ([[323 BC]]) it was carved up by his feuding generals. The [[Antigonid dynasty|Antigonids]] established themselves in Macedon, the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] in Egypt, and various small principalities appeared in northern Anatolia. The greater share of the east went to the descendants of [[Seleucus I Nicator]]. This period saw great innovations in mathematics, science, architecture, and the like, and Greeks founded cities throughout the east, some of which grew to be the world's first major metropolises. Their culture did not, however, reach very far into the countryside.
The [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucids]] adopted a pro-western stance that alienated both the powerful eastern satraps and the Greeks who had migrated to the east. During the [[2nd century BC]] Greek culture lost ground there, and the empire began to break apart. The province of [[Bactria]] revolted, and [[Parthia]] was conquered by the semi-nomadic [[Parni]]. By [[141 BC]] the Parthians had established themselves as an empire, after the Seleucid model, and had conquered all of Iran and Mesopotamia. The Seleucid kingdom continued to decline and its remaining provinces were annexed by the [[Roman Republic]] in [[64 BC]].
The [[Parthian]] nobility reacted against growing Roman influences around the turn of the millennium. Throughout the next century there was a strong expansion of national culture and a dissolution in central authority. In AD [[114]] [[Trajan]] temporarily occupied [[Mesopotamia]], and with the end of [[Hadrian]]'s 40-year peace the two powers were at almost constant hostilities. Mesopotamia was occupied again, but the Parthians recovered and pillaged the Roman provinces. Shortly thereafter, though, the province of Persia rose up in revolt, and defeated the last Parthian emperor in [[224]].
The new Persian dynasty, the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanids]], restored central authority. In this period [[Zoroastrianism]] developed into an organised religion with close ties to the new state. Various sects of [[Christianity]] also spread throughout [[Iran]], and [[Manichaeism]] developed from the two religions; these were initially tolerated but later persecuted as the Romans followed the opposite route. Conflicts with [[Roman Empire|Rome]], and later with the [[Byzantine Empire]], continued intermittently.
In [[391]] CE, the Byzantine era began with the permanent division of the Roman Empire into East and Western halves. The last true Roman Emperor in the West was unseated in [[476]], by which time it had been completely overrun by Germanic nations; however, the Eastern half, known as the [[Byzantine Empire]], lasted much longer, persevering in one form or another until [[1453]]. Byzantine control over the sites of Israel and Judah and other parts of the Levant lasted until [[636]], when it was conquered by [[Arabs]] and became a part of the Caliphate.
The [[Byzantium|Byzantine]]s reached their lowest point under [[Phocas]], with the Sassanids occupying the whole of the eastern Mediterranean. In [[610]], though, [[Heraclius]] took the throne of Constantinople and began a successful counter-attack, expelling the [[Persians]] and invading [[Medes|Media]] and [[Assyria]]. Unable to stop his advance, [[Khosrau II of Persia]] was assassinated and the Sassanid empire fell into anarchy. Weakened by their quarrels, neither empire was prepared to deal with the onslaught of the [[Arabs]], newly unified under the banners of [[Islam]] and anxious to expand their faith. By [[650]] Arab forces had conquered all of [[Iran|Persia]], [[Syria]], and [[Egypt]].
== The Islamic era ==
{{main|History of Islam}}
== The Ottoman period and the 20th century ==
{{main|History of the Middle East}}
== See also ==
*[[Ancient Near East]]
*[[Egypt]]
*[[Israel]]
*[[Jordan]]
*[[Lebanon]]
*[[Palestine]]
*[[Syria]]
*[[History of ancient Israel and Judah]]
*[[History of Egypt]]
*[[History of Israel]]
*[[History of Jordan]]
*[[History of Lebanon]]
*[[History of Palestine]]
*[[History of Syria]]
==External links==
* [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Levant.html The History of the Ancient Near East]
[[Category:Levant]]
[[Category:Ancient Near East]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[Category:History of the Levant|*]]
[[pt:História da Mesopotâmia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Horror Film</title>
<id>13211</id>
<revision>
<id>15910836</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Horror film]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Europe</title>
<id>13212</id>
<revision>
<id>42118630</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:10:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Xihix</username>
<id>928854</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">Unce Unce Unce Unce Unce Unce Unce
{| cellpadding="1" style="float: right; border: 1px solid #8888aa; background: #f7f8ff; padding: 5px; font-size: 85%; margin: 0 15px 0 15px;"
| style="background: #ccf; text-align: center;" | '''[[History of Europ |
board (usually a [[printed circuit board]]) that connects several [[electrical connector|connectors]] in parallel to each other, so that each [[pin]] of each connector is linked to the same relative pin of all the other connectors, forming a [[computer bus]]. It is used as a backbone to connect several printed circuit board cards together to make up a complete [[computer system]]. One popular early computer system that used this approach was called the [[S-100 bus]] because the connectors used had one hundred pins. Some computers like the [[Apple II family | Apple II]] and the [[IBM PC]] integrated an internal backplane for [[expansion card]]s.
Backplanes are normally used in preference to cables because of their greater [[reliability]]. In a cabled system, the cables need to be flexed every time that a card is added to or removed from the system; and this flexing eventually causes mechanical failures. A backplane does not suffer from this problem, so its service life is limited only by the longevity of its connectors. For example, the [[DIN 41612]] connectors used in the [[VME]] bus system can withstand 50 to 500 insertions and removals (called ''mating cycles''), depending on their quality.
==Active vs. passive==
Backplanes have grown in complexity from the simple ISA (Industry Standard Architecture used in the original [[IBM PC]]) or [[S-100 bus|S-100]] style where all the connectors were connected to a common bus. Because of limitations inherent in the [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] specification for driving slots, backplanes are now offered as '''passive''' and '''active'''. Passive backplanes offer no active bus driving circuitry. Active backplanes include chips which [[buffer]] the various signals to the slots.
In any case, a backplane is generally differentiated from a [[motherboard]] by the lack of on-board processing power where the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] is on a plug-in card.
==Backplanes in Storage==
Backplanes have also become common place for connecting multiple [[hard drive]]s to a single [[disk controller]]. Backplanes are commonly found in [[disk enclosure]]s, [[disk array]]s, and even in some [[server]]s.
[[Category:Computer hardware]]
[[de:Backplane]]
[[es:Backplane]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baldric</title>
<id>4353</id>
<revision>
<id>40436007</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T15:07:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Belt]] to [[belt (clothing)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''baldric''' is a wide, usually ornamental [[belt (clothing)|belt]] worn around the [[waist]] and over one [[shoulder]] that is typically used to carry [[weapon]]s (such as [[sword]]s). Baldrics are well-suited toward carrying larger weapons of this nature due to the support system offered by its unique design. The word baldric can also refer to any belt in general, but this usage is less popular.
Historically, baldrics were used to confer the rank of the one wearing it. They are still used to this day, but typically only with formal [[military]] wear.
{{clothing-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BBC Micro</title>
<id>4355</id>
<revision>
<id>42145534</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:00:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Plugwash</username>
<id>90028</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Specifications */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''BBC Micro''', affectionately known as the ''Beeb'', was an early [[home computer]]. It was designed and built by [[Acorn Computers Ltd]] for the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)]].
In the early [[1980s]], the BBC started what became known as the ''BBC Computer Literacy Project''. The project was initiated largely in response to an extremely influential BBC documentary ''The Mighty Micro'', in which Dr. [[Christopher Evans]] from the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK|National Physical Laboratory]] predicted the coming [[computer|(micro)computer]] revolution and its impact on the economy, industry and lifestyle of the [[United Kingdom]].
[[Image:BBC Micro.jpeg|right|300px|The '''BBC Micro'''.]]
==Background==
The BBC wanted to base its project on a [[microcomputer]] capable of performing various tasks which they could then demonstrate in their TV series ''The Computer Programme'' ([[1981]]). The list of topics included [[computer programming|programming]], [[computer graphics|graphics]], sound and music, [[Teletext]], controlling external hardware, [[artificial intelligence]] etc. It decided to badge a micro, then drew up a fairly ambitious (for its time) specification and asked for takers.
The BBC discussed the issue with [[Clive Sinclair|Sir Clive Sinclair]], who tried to offer the unsuccessful [[Grundy NewBrain]] micro to them, but it came nowhere near the specification the BBC had drawn up, and was rejected. The BBC made appointments to see several other British computer manufacturers, including [[Dragon Data, Ltd.|Dragon]] and [[Acorn Computers Ltd|Acorn]].
The Acorn team had been working on an upgrade to their existing '''[[Acorn Atom|Atom]]''' microcomputer. Known as the '''Proton''' it included better graphics and a faster 2 MHz [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. The machine was only in prototype form at the time, but the Acorn team, which relied largely on [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] students (such as the legendary [[Sophie Wilson|Roger Wilson]] and [[Steve Furber]]) worked through the night to get a working Proton together to show the BBC. The Acorn Proton was not only the only machine that came up to the BBC's specification, it also exceeded it in nearly every field. It was a clear winner.
It is rumoured that the BBC originally rejected the Proton, claiming that it did not portray the modern computer age correctly. Acorn countered this by submitting the Proton again, this time with the function keys painted a bright orange, and no other changes. It was accepted.
==Market impact==
The machine was released as the BBC Microcomputer in late [[1981]]. The machine was wildly popular in the UK; as with Sinclair's [[ZX Spectrum]], also released around that time, demand greatly exceeded supply and for some months there were long delays before customers received the machines they had ordered. A brief attempt to market the machine in the United States failed, due largely to the dominance of the [[Apple II family]]. The success of the machine in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] was largely due to its acceptance as an "educational" computer &ndash; the vast majority of UK schools used BBC Micros to teach [[computer literacy]] and [[information technology]] skills. [[Research Machines]] had, until this time, been one of the leaders in UK educational computer market. The BBC Micro was also a far more reliable and durable machine than Sinclair's ZX Spectrum, being able to cope with all the abuse that schoolchildren could throw at it.
The "Beeb", as it soon became known by its users, initially came in two models: the '''Model A''' and the '''Model B''', initially priced at £235 and £335 respectively but rising almost immediately to £299 and £399 due to increased costs ([http://www.stairwaytohell.com/hardware/cr-BBCMicro-CToday.html]). Acorn anticipated the total sales to be around 12,000 units, but eventually more than 1 million BBC Micros were sold.
==Description==
===Hardware features, Models A and B===
The Model A had 16 [[kilobyte|KB]] of user [[random access memory|RAM]]; the Model B had 32 KB of user RAM. A particularly nice feature of the hardware was that the RAM was clocked at 4 [[megahertz|MHz]] with alternating accesses given to the CPU and the video display circuits, giving a fully unified memory address structure with no speed penalties. Most competing micros with memory mapped display incured CPU speed penalties depending on the actions of the video circuits (e.g. the [[Amstrad CPC]] and to a lesser extent the [[ZX Spectrum]]) or kept video memory completely separate from the CPU address pool (e.g. the [[MSX]]).
[[Image:BBC_Micro_rear.jpeg|right|thumb|320px|Rear of the '''BBC Micro'''. Ports from left to right: UHF Out, Video Out, RGB, RS423, Cassette, Analogue In and Econet.]]
The machine included a number of extra [[Input/output|I/O]] interfaces: serial and parallel printer ports, an 8-bit I/O port, four analogue inputs and an expansion connector that enabled other hardware to be connected. Also an interface called the Tube allowed a second processor to be added; this was soon used in third-party add-ons, including a [[Zilog Z80]] board and disk drive that allowed the BBC machine to run [[CP/M operating system|CP/M]] programs. Possibly the most well known software to run on the Tube was an enhanced version of ''[[Elite (computer game)|Elite]]'' (see below). The Model A and the Model B were built on the same [[Printed circuit board|PCB]] and a Model A could be upgraded to a Model B without too much difficulty. Users wishing to run Model B software needed only to add the extra RAM and the user/printer [[MOS Technology 6522|6522]] VIA (which many games used for timers etc) and snip a link, a task which could be achieved without soldering. To do a full upgrade with all the external ports did however require soldering the connectors to the motherboard.
An apparent oversight in the manufacturing process resulted in a significant number of Model Bs producing a constant buzzing noise from the built-in speaker. This fault could be partly rectified by a [[soldering]]-capable person by carrying out certain amendments to the hardware.
===Software and expandability===
[[Image:MrMephisto_1_BBCMicro.png|thum |
ri]] 6.5%, [[Ossetia]]ns 0.9%, other 1.6%
'''Religions:''' [[Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church]] 78.0%, [[Islam|Muslim]] 9.9%, [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolic]] 3.9%, [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] and other orthodox groups (f. i. [[Holy Orthodox Church in North America|"Holy Orthodox Church in Georgia"]] and [[Greek Old Calendarists|"Greek Old Calendarists"]] ) 4.0%, [[Catholics]] ([[Georgian Catholic Church|Latin Georgian Catholics]] and [[Armenian Catholics|Armenian Catholics]]) 2.2, [[Jews]] 0,1% and other 1.9% (August 2005 est.)
'''Languages:''' [[Georgian language|Georgian]] 90% (official), Russian,Armenian,Azeri and other 10% ''note:'' [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] is the official language in [[Abkhazia]]
'''Literacy:''', age 15 and over can read and write
*total population: 99%
*male: 100%
*female: 98% (1999 est.)
''Information apart from updated "Religions" from ''[[The World Factbook]]''.''
:''See also:'' [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
:''See also:'' [[Assyrians in Georgia]]
[[Category:Georgian society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Georgia]]
[[he:דמוגרפיה של גאורגיה]]
[[ka:საქართველოს დემოგრაფია]]
[[ru:Население Грузии]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Georgia</title>
<id>12061</id>
<revision>
<id>41310549</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T13:20:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pichvi</username>
<id>990425</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Georgia}}
'''Politics of Georgia''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Georgia|President]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Federal [[legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. Since the [[Rose Revolution]], the party system is dominated by the [[National Movement - Democrats]].
[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] ('''საქართველო''' (''Sakartvelo'') in [[Georgian language|Georgian]]) has been a [[democratic republic]] since the first [[multi-party system|multiparty]], democratic [[parliament]]ary elections of [[October 28]], [[1990]].
The Georgian state is highly centralized, except for the [[Autonomy|autonomous]] regions of [[Abkhazia]], [[Ajaria]] and South Ossetia, which are to be given autonomous status once Georgia's territorial integrity is restored. Those regions had an autonomous status within [[Georgian SSR]] during [[Soviet Union|Soviet rule]]. Abkhazia seceded unilateraly from Georgia.
==Political conditions==
The Abkhaz separatist dispute absorbs much of the government's attention. While a [[cease-fire]] is in effect, about 300,000 [[internally displaced person]]s (IDPs), who were driven from their homes during the conflict, constitute a vocal [[Lobbying|lobby]]. The government has offered the region considerable autonomy in order to encourage a settlement that would allow the IDPs, the majority of whom are ethnic Georgians from the [[Gali]] district, to return home. The Abkhaz refused to this solution, as in the case of IDP's return, Georgians would be the majority of population in the region, as it was during more than a century before they were driven from their homes.
Currently, [[Russia]]n [[Peacekeeping|peacekeepers]][https://unp.un.org/details.aspx?entry=E03020&title=Regional+Peacekeepers%3a+The+Paradox+of+Russian+Peacekeeping], under the authority of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], are stationed in Abkhazia, along with [[United Nations|UN observer]]s, but both groups have recently had to restrict their activities due to increased [[land mine|mining]] and [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] activity. Negotiations have not resulted in movement toward a settlement. [[France]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], Russia and the [[United States]], through the United Nations and the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], continue to encourage a comprehensive settlement consistent with Georgian independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity. The UN observer force and other organizations are quietly encouraging [[grassroots]] cooperative and confidence-building measures in the region.
The parliament has instituted wideranging political reforms supportive of higher [[human rights]] standards, because between [[1992]] and [[2003]] (before the [[Rose Revolution]] of [[November 23]], [[2003]]) the Georgian human rights situation had been complicated.
==Executive branch==
The head of government is the [[President of Georgia|President]], who is elected for a term of five years. His constitutional successor is the Chairman of the Parliament. The president appoints a prime minister.
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Georgia|President]]
|[[Mikhail Saakashvili]]
|[[National Movement - Democrats|NM-D]]
|[[January 25]] [[2004]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Georgia|Prime Minister]]
|[[Zurab Nogaideli]]
|[[National Movement - Democrats|NM-D]]
|[[February 3]] [[2005]]
|}
''See also the [[List of Georgian rulers]]
==Legislative branch==
The [[Supreme Council of Georgia|Parliament of Georgia]] (Sak'art'velos Parlamenti), also know as the Umaghiesi Sabcho (Supreme Council) has 235 members, elected for a four year term, 150 seats by [[proportional representation]] and 75 in single-seat constituencies and 10 members represent displaced persons from the separatist region of Abkhazia.
The speaker of the Parliament is [[Nino Burjanadze]].
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Georgia|Elections in Georgia (country)}}
{{Georgian presidential election, 2004}}
{{main|Georgia presidential election, 2004}}
{{Georgia legislative election, 2004}}
{{main|Georgian presidential election, 2004}}
==Judicial branch==
Georgia has a Supreme Court, with judges elected by the Parliament on the president's recommendation and a Constitutional Court.
==Administrative divisions==
Georgia is divided into 53 districts (''raions), 11 cities*, and 2 autonomous republics** (''avtonomiuri respublika'').
**Autonomous republics: [[Abkhazia]], [[Ajaria]].
**Cities: [[Batumi]], [[Chiatura]], [[Gori]], [[Kutaisi]], [[Poti]], [[Rustavi]], [[Sokhumi]], [[Tbilisi]], [[Tkibuli]], [[Tskhinvali]], [[Tskaltubo]].
**Districts: [[Abasha]], [[Adigeni]], [[Akhalgori]], [[Akhalkalaki]], [[Akhaltsikhe]], [[Akhmeta]], [[Ambrolauri]], [[Aspindza]], [[Baghdati]], [[Bolnisi]], [[Borjomi]], [[Chkhorotsku]], [[Chokhatauri]], [[Dedoplistskaro]], [[Dmanisi]], [[Dusheti]], [[Gardabani]], [[Gurjaani]], [[Java, Georgia|Java]], [[Kareli]], [[Kaspi]], [[Kharagauli]], [[Khashuri]], [[Khobi]], [[Khoni]], [[Lagodekhi]], [[Lanchkhuti]], [[Lentekhi]], [[Marneuli]], [[Martvili]], [[Mestia]], [[Mtskheta]], [[Ninotsminda]], [[Oni, Georgia|Oni]], [[Ozurgeti]], [[Kazbegi]], [[Kvareli]], [[Sachkhere]], [[Sagarejo]], [[Samtredia]], [[Senaki]], [[Sighnaghi]], [[Telavi]], [[Terjola]], [[Tetritskaro]], [[Tianeti]], [[Tsageri]], [[Tsalenjikha]], [[Tsalka]], [[Vani]], [[Zestaponi]], [[Zugdidi]]*
;''note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses)''
==International organization participation==
[[BSEC]], [[Council of Europe]], [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[FAO]], [[GUUAM]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Chamber of Commerce]], [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC), [[ICFTU]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] (correspondent), [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[OAS]] (observer), [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCO]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WTO]]
{{Asia in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Georgia (country)| ]]
[[de:Politik Georgiens]]
[[ro:Politica Georgiei]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Georgia</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:32:42Z</timestamp>
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<username>Berkut</username>
<id>86399</id>
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<comment>/* Other statistics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{update}}
{{Economy of Georgia table}}
==Overview==
Georgia's economy has traditionally revolved around [[Black Sea]] [[tourism]], cultivation of [[citrus fruit]]s, [[tea]] and [[grape]]s; mining of [[manganese]] and [[copper]]; and output of a small industrial sector producing [[wine]], metals, machinery, chemicals, and textiles. The country imports the bulk of its energy needs, including natural [[gas]] and [[petroleum|oil]] products. Its only sizable internal energy resource is [[hydropower]]. Despite the severe damage the economy has suffered due to civil strife, Georgia, with the help of the [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]], made substantial economic gains since [[1995]], increasing [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth and slashing inflation. The Georgian economy continues to experience large budget deficits due to a failure to collect tax revenues. Georgia also still suffers from energy shortages; it privatized the [[electricity distribution|distribution ]] network in 1998, and deliveries are steadily improving. Georgia is pinning its hopes for long-term recovery on the development of an international transportation corridor throu |
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<comment>#redirect [[Fermat's last theorem]]</comment>
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<page>
<title>Fiddle and violin</title>
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<timestamp>2004-07-18T23:30:20Z</timestamp>
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<username>Secretlondon</username>
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<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[violin]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Fullerene</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:53:43Z</timestamp>
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<username>Emre D.</username>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41801830 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fullerene c540.png|thumb|right|250px|The Icosahedral Fullerene C<sub>540</sub>]]
The '''fullerenes''' are recently-discovered [[allotropes of carbon|allotropes of carbon]]. They are [[molecule|molecules]] composed entirely of [[carbon]], in form of a hollow [[sphere]], [[ellipsoid]], or [[cylinder (geometry)|tube]]. Spherical fullerenes are sometimes called '''buckyballs''', and cylindrical fullerenes are called '''buckytubes''' or '''[[Carbon nanotube|nanotubes]]'''.
==Naming==
Buckminsterfullerene (C<sub>60</sub>) was named for [[Richard Buckminster Fuller]], a noted architect who popularized the [[geodesic dome]]. Since buckminsterfullerenes have a similar shape to that sort of dome, the name was thought to be appropriate.
Fullerenes are similar in structure to [[graphite]], which is composed of a sheet of linked hexagonal rings, but they contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings that prevent the sheet from being planar.
==Buckminsterfullerene==
[[Image:C60a.png|thumb|right|250px|Buckminsterfullerene (C<sub>60</sub>)]]
The smallest fullerene in which no two pentagons share an edge (which is destabilizing &#8212; see [[pentalene]]) is C<sub>60</sub> ('''buckminsterfullerene'''), and this is also the most common.
The structure of C<sub>60</sub> is a [[truncated icosahedron]], which resembles a round [[football (ball)|soccer ball]] of the type made of hexagons and pentagons, with a carbon atom at the corners of each hexagon and a bond along each edge. A [[polymer]]ized single-walled nanotubule ([[P-SWNT]]) is a substance composed of polymerized fullerenes in which carbon atoms from one buckytube bond with carbons in other buckytubes.
==Prediction and discovery==
In molecular beam experiments, discrete peaks were observed corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of 60 or 70 or more carbon atoms. [[Harold Kroto]], from the [[University of Sussex]], James Heath, Sean O'Brien, [[Robert Curl]] and [[Richard Smalley]], from [[Rice University]], discovered C<sub>60</sub> and the fullerenes in 1985. Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for their roles in the discovery of this class of compounds. C<sub>60</sub> and other fullerenes were later noticed occurring outside of a laboratory environment (e.g. in normal [[candle]] soot). By [[1991]], it was relatively easy to produce grams of fullerene powder using the techniques of [[Donald Huffman]] and [[Wolfgang Krätschmer]]. [[Fullerene purification]] remains a challenge to chemists and determines fullerene prices to a large extent. So called [[endohedral fullerenes]] have ions or small molecules incorporated inside the cage atoms. Fullerene is an unusual reactant in many [[organic reaction]]s such as the [[Bingel reaction]] discovered in 1993.
==Properties==
As of the early 21st century, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes are still under heavy study, in both pure and applied research labs. In April 2003, fullerenes were under study for potential medicinal use: binding specific [[antibiotic]]s to the structure to target resistant [[bacterium|bacteria]] and even target certain [[cancer]] cells such as [[melanoma]]. The October 2005 issue of [[Chemistry and Biology]] contains an article [http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1074-5521(05)00270-X] describing the use of fullerenes as light-activated [[antimicrobial]] agents.
Fullerenes are not very reactive due to the stability of the graphite-like bonds, and are also sparingly soluble in many [[solvent]]s. Common solvents for the fullerenes include [[toluene]] and [[carbon disulfide]]. Solutions of pure Buckminsterfullerene have a deep purple color. Fullerenes are the only known [[allotrope]] of carbon that can be dissolved.
Other atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes, and indeed recent evidence for a meteor impact at the end of the [[Permian]] period was found by analysing [[noble gas]]es so preserved.
In the field of [[nanotechnology]], heat resistance and [[superconductivity]] are some of the more heavily studied properties.
A common method used to produce fullerenes is to send a large current between two nearby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere. The resulting [[carbon]] [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] arc between the electrodes cools into sooty residue from which many fullerenes can be isolated.
===Quantum mechanics of fullerenes===
Researchers have been able to increase the reactivity by attaching active groups to the surfaces of fullerenes. Buckminsterfullerene does not exhibit "[[superaromaticity]]": that is, the electrons in the hexagonal rings do not [[delocalize]] over the whole molecule.
A spherical fullerene of ''n'' carbon atoms has ''n'' [[pi-bond]]ing electrons. These should try to delocalize over the whole molecule. The quantum mechanics of such an arrangement should be like one shell only of the well-known quantum mechanical structure of a single atom, with a stable filled shell for ''n'' = 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 98, 128, etc, i.e. twice a perfect square; but this series does not include 60. As a result, C<sub>60</sub> in water tends to pick up two more electrons and become an [[anion]]. The nC<sub>60</sub> described below may be the result of C<sub>60</sub>'s trying to form a [[metallic bonding]] type loose combination.
== Possible dangers ==
Although buckyballs have been thought in theory to be relatively inert, a presentation given to the [[American Chemical Society]] in March [[2004]] and described in an article in [[New Scientist]] on [[April 3]] [[2004]], suggests the molecule is injurious to organisms. An experiment by Eva Oberdörster at [[Southern Methodist University]], which introduced fullerenes into water at concentrations of 0.5 parts per million, found that [[largemouth bass]] suffered a 17-fold increase in cellular damage in the brain tissue after 48 hours. The damage was of the type [[lipid peroxidation]], which is known to impair the functioning of [[cell membrane]]s. There were also inflammatory changes in the liver and activation of genes related to the making of repair enzymes. At the time of presentation, the SMU work had not been [[peer review]]ed.
Pristine C<sub>60</sub> can be suspended in water at low concentrations as large clusters often termed nC<sub>60</sub>. These clusters are spherical clumps of C<sub>60</sub> between 250-350 nm in diameter. Thus, nC<sub>60</sub> represents a different chemical entity than solutions of C<sub>60</sub> in which the fullerenes exist as individual molecules. Recently, results presented at the ACS meeting in Anaheim, CA suggest that nC<sub>60</sub> is moderately toxic to water fleas and juvenile largemouth bass at concentrations in water of around 800 ppb. The first study of its kind on marine life, these preliminary results quickly spread across the scientific community. However, the overwhelming evidence of the essential non-toxicity of C<sub>60</sub> (not nC<sub>60</sub>) in previously peer-reviewed articles of C<sub>60</sub> and many of its derivatives indicates that our compounds are likely to have little (if any) toxicity, especially at the very low concentration at which it is used (~1-10 µM).
==Fullerene extract mixture (C<sub>60</sub>/C<sub>70</sub>) solubility==
Solvents that dissolve fullerenes are listed below in order from highest solubility. The value in parentheses is the approximate saturated concentration.
# [[1,2,4-trichlorobenzene]] (20mg/ml)
# [[carbon disulfide]] (12mg/ml)
# [[toluene]] (3.2mg/ml)
# [[benzene]] (1.8mg/ml)
# [[chloroform]] (0.5mg/ml)
# [[carbon tetrachloride]] (0.4mg/ml)
# [[cyclohexane]] (0.054mg/ml)
# [[n-hexane]] (0.046mg/ml)
# [[THF]] (0.037mg/ml)
# [[acetonitrile]] (0.02mg/ml)
# [[methanol]] (0.0009mg/ml)
== Diffraction of fullerene ==
In [[1999]], researchers from the [[University]] of [[Vienna]] {{an|Arndt}} demonstrated that the [[wave-particle duality]] applied to macro-molecules such as fullerene.
==Notes==
# {{anb|Arndt}} ''Wave-particle duality of C60'', M. Arndt , O. Nairz, J. Voss-Andreae, C. Keller, G. van der Zouw, [[Anton Zeilinger|A. Zeilinger]], ''Nature'' 401, 680-682, [[14 October]] [[1999]]
==Mathematics of fullerenes==
In [[mathematics|mathematical]] terms, the structure of a '''fullerene''' is a trivalent convex polyhedron with pentagonal and hexagonal faces. In [[Graph theory|graph theory]], the term '''fullerene''' refers to any 3-[[Regular graph|regular]], [[Planar graph|planar]] graph with all faces of size 5 or 6 (including the external face). Using |
the cirque to [[Carn Mor Dearg]] via the CMD arête is also popular with strong walkers, (see photo 2) though the steep descent from Ben Nevis summit can require very great care in winter conditions.
==The summit==
Controversy continues to rage about the placing of navigation poles near the summit. The poles were placed upon the advice of Lochaber [[Mountain rescue|Mountain Rescue]], as an aid for climbers or walkers in bad weather&mdash;the descent from the summit plateau having proven deadly in foggy conditions. Currently they have been cut down by environmentally conscious climbers who object to the aesthetic intrusion.
A meteorological observatory on the summit was established by [[Clement Lindley Wragge]] in [[1881]] and permanently manned between October 1883 and October 1904. In September 1894, [[Charles Wilson (physicist)| CTR Wilson]] was employed for a couple of weeks as temporary relief for one of the permanent staff. It was during this sojourn that his attention was caught by the [[Brocken bow|Brocken Spectre]]. His subsequent experimental work aimed at understanding this optical phenomenon eventually led to his invention of the [[cloud chamber]].
===The view===
Being the highest ground in Britain, the [[panorama]] from the summit is extremely extensive. The view includes such hills as the [[Cuillin|Skye Cuillin]], [[Sgurr na Ciche]], [[Liathach]], [[Carn Eige]], [[Morven, Caithness|Morven]], the [[Cairngorms]], [[Lochnagar]], [[Ben Lawers]], [[Ben Lomond]], the [[Isle of Arran]], the [[Paps of Jura]] and [[Barra Head]], with the views extending up to 120 miles in good conditions. See the 'External links' section for the full view.
[[Image:BenNevisruins.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ruins of the observatory on the summit of Ben Nevis]]
==Other facts==
[[Image:Ben nevis 2004.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ben Nevis: the summit is out of sight to the left, the neighbouring peak of [[Carn Mor Dearg]] is visible to the right]]
Ben Nevis consists of [[igneous]] rock dating from the [[Devonian period]] of [[geology|geological]] history.
The north face attains a maximum height of 2,000&nbsp;feet (600&nbsp;m) and extends for 2&nbsp;miles (3&nbsp;km) and has many famous mountaineering routes, from Tower Ridge (grade II) to Centurion (grade VIII.8). This face holds snow until quite late in the year, and in a good year routes may remain in winter condition until mid-spring.
There is an annual Grade A [[fell running|fell race]] [http://www.mhrrc.org/199803kop.html] to the summit of Ben Nevis from Fort William and back again. The fastest recorded time for men is 1 hour and 25 minutes, and 1 hour 43 minutes for women.
A peak in [[New Zealand]]'s [[The Remarkables|Remarkables]] range of mountains is named after Ben Nevis.
[[Ben Nevis distillery|Ben Nevis]] is also a brand name of a [[whisky]] distillery in the nearby town of Fort William.
Ben Nevis is also the name of the ship that carried a congregation of [[Wendish]] settlers to Texas in 1854 [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/WW/plw1.html].
==See also==
*[[Geology of the United Kingdom]]
*[[John Muir Trust]]
==External links==
*Computer generated digital panoramas from Ben Nevis: [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/GRW/NEVIS-North.gif North] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/GRW/Nevis-South.gif South] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas.html index]
*[http://www.mountainside.co.uk/mountains.asp?MountainID=1 Details and route plan for Ben Nevis]
*[http://www.nevispartnership.co.uk/ Nevis Partnership] - Environmental and visitor management in the Nevis area
==References==
#{{note|Miller}} Suzanne Miller (2004), "Ben Nevis Geology", ''The Edinburgh Geologist'', Autumn, No. 43. Online, accessed April 12, 2005. http://www.edinburghgeolsoc.org/z_43_02.html
#{{note|Langmuir}} Eric Langmuir (1995), "Mountaincraft and Leadership (Third edition)", SportScotland, Edinburgh.
#{{note|BBC}} BBC News (2002), "Appeal to tidy up Ben Nevis". Online, accessed April 12, 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/2315729.stm
#{{note|mcos}}The Mountaineering Council of Scotland (1997) "Ben Nevis &mdash; The Future" ''Newsletter'' No. 33, August. Online, accessed April 12, 2005. http://www.mountaineering-scotland.org.uk/nl/33b.html
#{{note|Crocket}} Ken Crocket (1986), "Ben Nevis - Britain's Highest Mountain", The Scottish Mountaineering Trust, ISBN 0 907521 16 9
[[Category:Munros]]
[[Category:Marilyns of Scotland]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of the Central Highlands]]
[[Category:National Scenic Areas (Scotland)]]
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<page>
<title>Bipolar I</title>
<id>4918</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bipolar disorder]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>Bipolar II</title>
<id>4919</id>
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<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bipolar disorder]]
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<page>
<title>Bolshevik Revolution</title>
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<username>Big Jim Fae Scotland</username>
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<comment>The Bolshevik Revolution is that which took place in October 1917, and not the Russian Revolution as a whole which refers to both the "liberal" February Revolution and the Bolshevik October Revolution</comment>
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<title>Bacardi</title>
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<ip>82.54.203.232</ip>
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<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bacardi.Logo.jpg|thumb|The Bacardi logo]]
'''Bacardi''' is the world's largest privately held, family-owned [[spirits]] company; a producer of [[rum]]s, including [[Bacardi Superior]] and [[Bacardi 151]]. The company sells in excess of 240 million bottles per year in 170 countries. The business is the fourth largest spirits company in the world: sales in 2000 were $2.7 billion [[United States Dollar|USD]]. A number of planned stock market flotations have collapsed, the last in 2000.
==History==
[[Image:PR BacardiCathedralOfRum.jpg|thumb|The "Cathedral Of [[Rum]]" at the Distillery in [[Puerto Rico]] near [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]].]]
[[Image:Bacardi factory in Catano.JPG|thumb|Aerial view of Bacardi's factory in Cataňo, near San Juan.]]
Originally founded by [[Don Facundo Bacardi Masso]] in [[1862]] in [[Santiago de Cuba]], Bacardi is headquartered today in Hamilton, [[Bermuda]], with most production in [[Puerto Rico]]. The distillery is part of the [[American Whiskey Trail]].
Don Facundo, a wine merchant, emigrated from [[Catalonia]] to [[Cuba]] in the early [[19th century]]. During this period, rum was cheaply made and not considered a refined drink, one rarely sold in upscale taverns. Don Facundo began attempting to "tame" rum. After experimenting with several techniques he hit upon filtering the rum through charcoal, which removed impurities. In addition to this Facundo aged the rum in oak barrels, which had the effect of "mellowing" the drink.
Moving from the experimental stage to a more commercial endeavor, he and his brother José set up shop in a small distillery on [[February 4]], [[1862]]. Their first copper and [[cast iron]] [[still]] produced 35 barrels of fermented [[molasses]] per day. In the rafters of this building lived [[fruit bat]]s. Hence, the Bacardi bat logo[http://www.bacardi.com/learn/Heritage.aspx?target=bat].
The [[1890s]] were turbulent times for the company. [[Emilio Bacardi]], eldest son of Don Facundo, was exiled from Cuba for anti-colonial activities and his eldest son was fighting as a [[Cuban Independence]] fighter in the rebel army. Emilio's brothers Facundo and José, and his brother-in-law Henri Schueg, remained in Cuba with the difficult task of sustaining the company during a period of war. The women in the family were refugees in Kingston, [[Jamaica]]. After the [[Cuban War of Independence]], and the [[American occupation of Cuba]], "The Original [[Cuba Libre]]" and the [[Daiquiri]] [[cocktail]] were both born with Bacardi rum. In [[1899]], [[United States|America]]n General [[Leonard Wood]] appointed Emilio Bacardi Mayor of Santiago de Cuba.
In [[1912]], Emilio Bacardi traveled to [[Egypt]] where he purchased a mummy for the future Emilio Bacardi Moreau Municipal Museum in Santiago de Cuba. In Santiago, his brother [[Facundo M. Bacardi]] continued to meticulously supervise the training of the third generation of Family Master Blenders. Henri Schueg, meanwhile, began to expand the company, opening new bottling plants in [[Barcelona]] and [[New York City]]. The New York plant was soon shut down due to [[Prohibition]], yet during this time Cuba became a hotspot for American tourists.
In the [[1920s]], Emilio opened a new distillery in Santiago. During this decade, the [[art deco]] Bacardi building was built in [[Havana]] and the third generation of the Bacardi family was entering the business. [[Facundito Bacardi]] was known to |
ing complete restoration in the [[de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre]] in [[Hertfordshire]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]. It was designed to carry four 250 lb bombs but tests with 500 lb bombs with shortened fins indicated that four 500 lb bombs could be carried.
A beautifully restored example is currently on display at the [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]]. The aircraft is a British-built B. Mk. 35 manufactured in 1946 and was later converted for towing targets. It is similar to the P.R. Mk. XVIs used by the AAF. The aircraft was flown to the Museum in February 1985, suffering several break downs along the way and taking many months to arrive. This Mosquito has been restored to a Mk. XVI configuration and painted to represent a weather reconnaissance aircraft of the 653rd Bomb Squadron, 25th Bomb Group, based in England in 1944-45. It is currently displayed in the Museum's WWII gallery.
Another Mosquito is currently under restoration in a hangar at the RAAF Museum at Point Cook, Australia.
The last Mosquito known to be airworthy (designated ''RR299''), a T Mk.III built sometime between October 1944 and July 1945, crashed on [[21 July]], [[1996]] with the loss of both crew after stalling during a banked turn at an airshow in Barton, England. Several potential restorations to airworthy status exist, although the wooden construction makes this difficult. A replica is under construction in New Zealand.
==Related content==
{{Template:RAF WWII Strategic Bombing}}
{{aircontent|
|sequence=
[[de Havilland Don | DH.93]] -
[[de Havilland Moth Minor | DH.94]] -
[[de Havilland Flamingo | DH.95]] -
'''DH.98''' -
'''DH.99''' -
[[de Havilland Vampire | DH.100]] -
'''DH.101''' -
'''DH.102''' -
[[de Havilland Hornet | DH.103]] -
[[de Havilland Dove | DH.104]] -
[[de Havilland Comet | DH.106]] -
[[de Havilland Sea Vixen | DH.110]]
|related=
* [[de Havilland Hornet]]
|similar aircraft=
* [[Bristol Beaufighter]]
* [[Westland Whirlwind (fixed wing)|Westland Whirlwind]]
* [[Junkers Ju 88]]
|lists=
* [[List of aircraft of the RAF]]
* [[List of bomber aircraft]]
|see also=
}}
[[Category:British bomber aircraft 1940-1949]]
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<comment>redirect to official name</comment>
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<title>Devangari alphabet</title>
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<comment>fix dbl redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Devanāgarī]]{{R from misspelling}}</text>
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<title>Devanaagarii</title>
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<comment>fix dbl redirect</comment>
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<title>Dave Thomas</title>
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<comment>rv v</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the founder of [[Wendy's]]. See the [[David Thomas]] disambiguation page for other people with this name.''
[[Image:DaveOffice.jpg|thumb|250px|Dave Thomas]]
'''Rex David "Dave" Thomas''' ([[July 2]], [[1932]] &ndash; [[January 8]], [[2002]]) was an American [[businessman]] and [[philanthropist]]. Thomas was the founder and [[chief executive officer]] of [[Wendy's|Wendy's Old Fashioned Hamburgers]], a [[fast food restaurant]] chain specializing in [[hamburger]]s. He is also known for personally appearing in over 800 commercial advertisements for the chain from 1989 to 2002 &ndash; more than any other person in television history.
Thomas was born in [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]], [[New Jersey]]. He never knew or met either of his birth parents. He was adopted by a [[Lebanese]] (this is disputed) family in Michigan as an infant; he would become a well-known advocate for [[adoption]], founding the [[Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption]] in 1992. His adoptive mother's name was Minnie Sinclair. She called herself his "adoptive grandmother" because she was an elderly woman by the time of his adoption.
He dropped out of high school at age 15. He moved in with the family that owned the Hobby House Restaurant and focused on ways to promote the restaurant.
During the [[Korean War]], he volunteered for the army to avoid the draft and to have some choice in assignments. Having experience in overseeing the feeding of others, Thomas chose Cook and Bakers School at [[Fort Benning, Georgia]]. He was sent overseas to Germany as a mess sergeant and was responsible for feeding 2000 soldiers daily. He later attributed his success in fast food to this experience in mass feedings. Thomas was discharged in 1953 as a [[staff sergeant]].
He was then offered a chance to turn around a failing [[KFC|Kentucky Fried Chicken]] restaurant. Working with KFC founder [[Colonel Sanders|Col. Harland Sanders]], Dave turned four ailing stores into million-dollar successes. He later sold his KFC franchises and opened his first Wendy's in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], [[Ohio]], in 1969.
Thomas, realizing that his success as a high school dropout might convince other teenagers to leave school (something he later admitted was a mistake), studied for and finally earned his [[GED]] in 1993.
Thomas died in 2002 at his home in [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]], [[Florida]], after a decade-long struggle with [[liver cancer]]. He was buried in Union Cemetery in Columbus, OH. At the time of his death, there were over 6,000 Wendy's restaurants operating in [[North America]].
==References==
* ''wendys.com'' ([[7 January]] [[2003]]). [http://www.wendys.com/dave/davethomas_biography.pdf "Dave Thomas Biography"]. Retrieved [[1 June]] [[2005]]
==External links==
* [http://www.wendys.com/dave/ Wendy's tribute to Dave Thomas]
[[Category:Fast-food chain founders|Thomas, Dave]]
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<page>
<title>Druid</title>
<id>9100</id>
<revision>
<id>41864018</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:39:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ogambear</username>
<id>152250</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
In [[Celtic polytheism]] the word '''Druid''' denotes the priestly class in ancient [[Celts|Celtic]] societies, which existed through much of [[Western Europe]] north of the Alps and in the [[British Isles]]. Druidic practices were part of the culture of all the tribal peoples called "Keltoi" and "[[Galatia|Galatai]]" by Greeks and "Celtae" and "[[Gauls|Galli]]" by Romans, which evolved into modern English "Celtic" and "[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]]".
Modern attempts at reconstructing or reinventing Druidism are called [[Neo-druidism]].
==Etymology==
The word ''Druid'' (reconstructed as ''*druwis'' or ''*druwids'' in Old [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]) is probably derived from [[Indo-European]] roots meaning "oak/strong" and "knowledge," although some believe that it may be [[pre-Indo-European]]. By [[Ancient Greek]] writers, the earliest to discuss the Celts, the word is spelled ''&#916;&#961;&#965;&#943;&#948;&#951;&#962;'' (''Druides''), and was associated with ''&#948;&#961;&#965;&#962;'' (''drus'' "oak tree"). It appears in [[Old Irish]] as ''druí'', giving ''draoi'' (magician) in [[Irish language|Modern Irish]] and ''druidh'' (enchanter) and ''draoidh'' (magician) in [[Scottish Gaelic]]. The Old Irish ''druídecht'' gives Modern Irish ''draoiocht'' (magic). [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''dryw'' (seer) may be [[cognate]].
==History==
From what little we know of late Druidic practice, it appears deeply traditional and conservative, in the sense that Druids were conserving repositories of culture and lore. It is impossible now to judge whether this continuity had deep historical roots and originated in the social transformations of the late [[La Tene culture|La Tène culture]], or whether there had been a discontinuity and a Druidic religious innovation.
Our historical knowledge of Druids is very limited. Druidic lore consisted of a large number of verses learned by heart and it has been claimed that twenty years were required to complete the course of study. There may have been a Druidic teaching center on [[Anglesey]] (' |
Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives has 65 members and the Senate has 35. Currently, [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] are in control of both chambers of the General Assembly. The [[2005]] Colorado General Assembly is the first to be controlled by the Democrats in forty years.
Colorado is considered a very independent state politically, having elected 17 Democrats and 12 [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] to the governorship in the last 100 years. The state supported Democrat [[Bill Clinton]] in [[1992]], and the Republican presidential nominees in [[1996]] and [[2000]]. Recently, the state appears to be going more towards the center. [[George W. Bush]] won the state's 9 electoral votes in [[2004]] by a margin of 5 percentage points with 51.7% of the vote, considerably less than the 9% margin Bush won by in [[2000]], however this can be largely attributed to the 5% of the vote [[Ralph Nader]] won in 2000. Nearly all of these votes went to Democrat [[John Kerry]] in 2004. [http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/special/president/showdown/CO/]. [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] also gained in every open seat race in the state, picking up a seat in the [[Senate]] and the [[House of Representatives]]. Democrats are strongest in [[Denver Metropolitan Area|metropolitan Denver]], [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]], southern Colorado (including [[Pueblo, Colorado|Pueblo]], and a few western ski resort counties, while Republicans are strongest in the rural plains region, [[Colorado Springs]], the [[Western Slope of Colorado|Western Slope]] (including [[Grand Junction]]), and some of the Denver suburbs.
The fastest growing parts of the state, particularly [[Douglas County, Colorado|Douglas]], [[Elbert County, Colorado|Elbert]] and [[Weld County, Colorado|Weld]] counties in metro Denver, are strongly Republican.
The two [[United States Senate|Senators]] from Colorado are [[Wayne Allard]] (R), and [[Ken Salazar]] (D).
The governor heads the state's executive branch. The current governor of Colorado is [[Bill Owens]] (R). See: [[List of Colorado Governors]]
The fact that the population of Colorado is made up heavily of transplanted citizens is illustrated by the fact that the state has not had a native-born governor since [[1975]] (when [[John David Vanderhoof]] left office) and has not elected one since [[1958]], in the person of [[Stephen L.R. McNichols]]. (Vanderhoof ascended from the Lieutenant Governorship when [[John Arthur Love]] was given a position in [[Richard Nixon]]'s administration in [[1973]].) Bill Owens is a native of [[Ft. Worth, Texas]].
<br span="clear:left;"/>
==Geography==
{{see also|List of Colorado counties|List of Colorado rivers}}
Colorado is one of only three states (the others are [[Wyoming]] and [[Utah]]) that has only lines of [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] for borders. It stretches exactly from 37°N to 41°N, and 102°W to 109°W. The [[Four Corners Monument]] at its southwestern-most point is at 37°N and 109°W.
East of the [[Front Range]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] are the [[Colorado Eastern Plains]], the section of the [[Great Plains]] within Colorado at elevations ranging from 3500 to 7000 ft (1000 to 2000&nbsp;m). [[Kansas]] and [[Nebraska]] border Colorado to the east. The plains are sparsely settled with most population along the [[South Platte River|South Platte]] and the [[Arkansas River|Arkansas]] rivers and the I-70 corridor. Rainfall is meager, averaging about 15 in/year (380 mm/year). There is some irrigated farming, but much of the land is used for [[dryland farming]] or [[ranching]]. [[Winter wheat]] is a typical crop and most small towns in the region boast both a [[water tower]] and a [[grain elevator]].
The major cities and towns lie just east of the Front Range, in the I-25 corridor. The majority of the population of Colorado lives in this densely urbanized strip.
To the west lies the [[Colorado Front Range|Front Range]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] with notable peaks such as [[Longs Peak|Long's Peak]], [[Mount Evans]], [[Pikes Peak]], and the [[Spanish Peaks]] near Walsenburg in the south. This area drains to the east, is forested, and partially urbanized. With urbanization, utilization of the forest for timbering and grazing was retarded which resulted in accumulation of fuel. During the drought of [[2002]] devastating [[forest fire|forest fires]] swept this area.
To the west of the Front Range lies the [[continental divide]]. To the west of the continental divide is the [[Western Slope of Colorado|Western Slope]]. Water west of the continental divide drains into the [[Pacific Ocean]] via the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]].
[[Image:Colorado.png|thumb|right|300px|[[Digital elevation model]] relief map of Colorado &mdash; much of the state is flat, despite stereotypes]]
Within the interior of the Rocky Mountains there are several large parks or high broad basins. In the north, on the east side of the continental divide is [[North Park]]. North Park is drained by the [[North Platte River]] which flows north into [[Wyoming]]. Just south, but on the west side of the continental divide is [[Middle Park]], drained by the Colorado River. [[South Park]] is the [[headwater]]s of the South Platte River. To the south lies the [[San Luis Valley]], the headwaters of the [[Rio Grande]] which drains into [[New Mexico]]. Across the [[Sangre de Cristo Range]] to the east of the San Luis Valley lies the [[Wet Mountain Valley]]. These basins, particularly the San Luis Valley, lie along the [[Rio Grande Rift]], a major [[geological formation]], and its branches. See [[Great Rift Valley]].
[[Image:Longs Peak.jpg|thumb|left|Snowpack accumulation at 14,255 ft (4345&nbsp;m) on Longs Peak in Rocky Mountain National Park.]]
The Rocky Mountains within Colorado contain 54 peaks over 14,000 ft (4270&nbsp;m), known as [[fourteener]]s. The mountains are timbered with [[conifer]]s and [[aspen]] to the [[tree-line]], at an elevation of about 12,000 ft (4000&nbsp;m) in southern Colorado to about 10,500 ft (3200&nbsp;m) in northern Colorado; above this only alpine vegetation grows. The Rockies are snow-covered only in the winter; most snow melts by mid August with the exception of a few small glaciers. The [[Colorado Mineral Belt]], stretching from the [[San Juan Mountains]] in the southwest to Boulder and [[Central City, Colorado|Central City]] on the front range, contains most of the historic gold and silver [[mining district]]s of Colorado.
The Western Slope is generally drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries. Notable to the south are the [[San Juan Mountains]], an extremely rugged mountain range, and to the west of the San Juans, the [[Colorado Plateau]], a high desert bordering Southern [[Utah]]. [[Grand Junction, Colorado|Grand Junction]] is the largest city on the Western Slope. Grand Junction is served by Interstate Highway I-70. To the southeast of Grand Junction is [[Grand Mesa]], a large flat-topped mountain. Further east lie the [[ski resort]]s of [[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]], [[Vail, Colorado|Vail]], [[Crested Butte, Colorado|Crested Butte]], and [[Steamboat Springs, Colorado|Steamboat Springs]]. The northwestern corner of Colorado bordering Northern Utah and Western Wyoming is mostly sparsely populated rangeland.
From west to east, the state consists of desert-like basins, turning into plateaus, then alpine mountains, and then the grasslands of the Great Plains. [[Mount Elbert]] is the highest peak in the Rocky Mountains within the continental United States. The famous [[Pikes Peak]] is just west of [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]]. Its lone peak is visible from near the [[Kansas]] border on clear days.
==Economy==
[[Image:Corn production in Colorado.jpg|thumb|250px|Corn production in Colorado.]]
The state's economy broadened from its mid 19th century roots in mining when irrigated agriculture developed, and by the late 19th century, raising livestock had become important. Early industry was based on the extraction and processing of minerals and agricultural products. Current agricultural products are [[cattle]], [[wheat]], [[dairy product]]s, [[maize|corn]], and [[hay]].
The [[federal government]] is also a major economic force in the state with many important federal facilities including [[NORAD]] and the [[United States Air Force Academy]] in [[Colorado Springs]], [[NOAA]] and the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] in [[Boulder, CO|Boulder]], [[U.S. Geological Survey]] and other government agencies at the Denver Federal Center in [[Lakewood, CO|Lakewood]], the [[Denver Mint]], and [[United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit| 10th Circuit Court of Appeals]] in Denver, and a federal [[ADX Florence|Supermax Prison]] and other federal [[prisons]] near [[Cañon City, CO|Cañon City]]. There are of course various other [[Independent Agencies of the United States Government|federal agencies]] and federally owned lands in the state, especially with Colorado's abundant [[National Forests]] and four [[List of U.S. national parks by state#Colorado|National Parks]]. There are also numerous private companies that have operations in Colorado that deal with the governmental agencies in the state.
In the second half of the 20th century the industrial and service sectors have expanded greatly. The state's economy is diversified and is notable for its concentration of scientific research and high-technology industries. Other industries include [[food processing]], transportation equipment, machinery, chemical products, minerals such as gold and [[molybdenum]], and tourism. Denver is an important financial center.
[http://www.bea.gov/ The Bureau of Economic Analysis] estimates that the total state product in 2003 was $187 billion. Per capital personal income in 2003 was $34,561, putting Colorado 8<sup>th</sup> in the nation |
lopment of [[algebra]] was by [[Abu Bakr al-Karaji]] (953-1029) in his treatise ''al-Fakhri'', where he extends the methodology to incorporate integral powers and integral roots of unknown quantities. In the [[10th century]], [[Abul Wafa]] translated the works of [[Diophantus]] into Arabic and invented the [[tangent (trigonometry)|tangent]] function.
[[Omar Khayyam]], the [[12th century]] poet, was also a mathematician, and wrote ''Discussions of the Difficulties in Euclid'', a book about flaws in [[Euclid's Elements|Euclid's ''Elements'']]. He gave a geometric solution to [[cubic equation]]s, one of the most original discoveries in Islamic mathematics. He was also very influential in [[calendar reform]]. [[Spherical trigonometry]] was largely developed by the Persian mathematician [[Nasir al-Din Tusi]] (Nasireddin) in the [[13th century]]. He also wrote influential work on [[Euclid]]'s [[parallel postulate]].
In the [[15th century]], [[Ghiyath al-Kashi]] computed the value of [[π]] to the 16th decimal place. Kashi also had an algorithm for calculating ''n''th roots, which was a special case of the methods given many centuries later by [[Ruffini]] and [[Horner]]. Other notable Islamic mathematicians are [[al-Samawal]], [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi]], [[Jamshid al-Kashi]], [[Thabit ibn Qurra]], [[Abu Kamil]] and [[Abu Sahl al-Kuhi]].
In the time of the [[Ottoman Empire]] ([[15th century]]) the development of Islamic mathematics became stagnant. This parallels the stagnation of mathematics when the [[Roman]]s conquerored the Hellenistic world.
==European Renaissance mathematics (1200 - 1600)==
In [[Europe]] at the dawn of the [[Renaissance]], most of what is now called school mathematics -- addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, geometry -- was known to educated people, though the notation was cumbersome: [[Roman numeral]]s and words were used, but no symbols: no plus sign, no equal sign, no zero and no use of ''x'' as an unknown. Almost all of the mathematics now taught in college had yet to be discovered, or was known only to the small and isolated mathematical community in [[India]].
Contact with [[Islam]]ic scholars brought to Europe knowledge of the [[Hindu-Arabic numeral]]s. In the [[12th century]] [[Robert of Chester]] translated [[Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah]] into Latin. The works of [[Aristotle]] were rediscovered, first in Arabic and later in Greek. Of particular importance to the development of mathematics was the rediscovery of a collection of Aristotle's logical writing, compiled in the [[1st century]], known as the [[Organon]].
The reawakened desire for new knowledge sparked a renewed interest in mathematics. [[Fibonacci]], in the early [[13th century]], produced the first original mathematics in Europe since the time of [[Eratosthenes]], a gap of more than a thousand years. But it was only from the late [[16th century]] that European mathematicians began to make advances without precedent anywhere in the world, so far as is known today.
The first of these was the general solution of [[cubic equation]]s, generally credited to [[Scipione del Ferro]] circa [[1510]], but first published in [[Cardan|Cardan's]] ''Ars magna''. It was quickly followed by [[Lodovico Ferrari|Lodovico Ferrai's]] solution of the general [[quartic equation]].
From this point on, mathematical discovery came swiftly, and combined with advances in science, to their mutual benefit. In the landmark year [[1543]], [[Copernicus]] published ''De revolutionibus'', asserting that the Earth traveled around the Sun, and [[Vesalius]] published ''De humani corporis fabrica'', treating the human body as a collection of organs.
By century's end, thanks to [[Regiomontanus]] (1436 - 1476) and [[François Vieta]] (1540 - 1603), among others, mathematics and science was written using Hindu-Arabic numerals and in a form not too different from the elegant symbolism used today.
==17th century==
The [[17th century]] saw an unprecedented explosion of mathematical and scientific ideas that not only fascinated philosophers but had industrial applications that began to make major changes in the way people lived.
[[Copernicus]], a Pole, had written that planets orbit the Sun. [[Galileo]], an Italian, observed the moons of Jupiter in orbit about that planet, using a telescope based on a toy imported from Holland. [[Tycho Brahe]], a Dane, had gathered an enormous quantity of mathematical data describing the positions of the planets in the sky. His student, [[Johannes Kepler]], a German, began to work with this data. In part because he wanted to help Kepler in his calculations, [[Lord Napier]], in Scotland, invented [[natural logarithm]]s. Kepler succeeded in formulating mathematical laws of planetary motion. The [[analytic geometry]] invented by [[Descartes]], a Frenchman, allowed those orbits to be plotted on a graph. And [[Isaac Newton]], an Englishman, discovered the laws of physics that explained planetary orbits and also the mathematics of calculus that could be used to deduce Kepler's laws from Newton's principle of universal gravitation. Science and mathematics had become an international endeavor. Soon this activity would spread over the entire world.
==18th century==
As we have seen, knowledge of the natural numbers, 1, 2, 3,..., as preserved in monolithic structures, is older then any surviving written text. The earliest civilizations -- in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and China -- knew arithmetic.
One way to view the development of the various number systems of modern mathematics is to see new numbers invented to answer questions about arithmetic performed on older numbers. In prehistoric times, fractions answered the question: what number, when multiplied by 3, gives the answer 1. In India and China, and much later in Germany, negative numbers were invented to answer the question: what do you get when you subtract a larger number from a smaller. The invention of the zero may have followed from similar question: what do you get when you subtract a number from itself.
Another natural question is: what kind of a number is the square root of two. The Greeks knew that it was not a fraction, and this question may have played a role in the development of [[continued fraction]]s. But a better answer came with the invention of decimals, developed by [[Lord Napier]] (1550 - 1617) and perfected [[1655]] by [[Simon Stevinis]]. Using decimals, and an idea that anticipated the concept of the [[limit]], [[Lord Napier]] also invented a new number, which [[Leonhard Euler]] (1707 - 1783) named <font face="times new roman">[[E (mathematical constant)|''e'']]</font>.
Euler asked the question: what kind of number is the square root of minus one. To answer the question, he invented what are now called imaginary numbers and complex numbers. He named the square root of minus 1 with the symbol <font face="times new roman">[[Imaginary unit|''i'']]</font>. He also popularized the use of the Greek letter <math>\pi</math> to stand for the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. He then discovered one of the most remarkable identities in all of mathematics:
: ''e''<sup>π''i''</sup> = -1 .
==19th century==
Throughout the [[19th century]] mathematics became increasingly abstract. In this century lived one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] (1777 - 1855). Leaving aside his many contributions to science, in pure mathematics he did revolutionary work on [[function]]s of [[complex variable]]s, in [[geometry]], and on the convergence of [[series]]. He gave the first satisfactory proofs of the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] and of the [[quadratic reciprocity law]]. [[Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky]] discovered [[non-Euclidean geometry]]; [[William Rowan Hamilton]] discovered [[noncommutative algebra]].
In addition to new directions in mathematics, older mathematics was given a stronger logical foundation, especially in the case of [[calculus]], in work by [[Augustin-Louis Cauchy]] and [[Karl Weierstrass]].
Also, for the first time, the limits of mathematical discovery were explored. [[Évariste Galois]] proved that there is no general algebraic method for solving polynomial equations of degree greater than four, and his work also led to a proof that straightedge and compass alone are not sufficient to trisect an arbitrary angle, to construct the side of a cube twice the volume of a given cube, nor to construct a square equal in area to a given circle. All of these problems mathematicians had vainly attempted to solve since the time of the ancient Greeks.
The 19th century also saw the founding of the first mathematical societies: the [[London Mathematical Society]] in [[1865]], the [[Société Mathématique de France]] in [[1872]], the [[Circolo Mathematico di Palermo]] in [[1884]], the [[Edinburgh Mathematical Society]] in [[1864]], and the [[American Mathematical Society]] in [[1888]].
==20th century==
Before the [[20th century]], the number of creative mathematicians in the world at any one time was at most a dozen or so, sometimes only one, sometimes none. Mathematicians were either born to wealth, like Lord Napier, or supported by wealthy patrons, like Gauss. There were a few meager livelihoods to be had teaching at a university, like Fourier, or in a high school, as was the case with Lobachevsky. [[Niels Abel]], unable to obtain a position, starved to death.
The profession of mathematician really begins in the 20th century. Every year, hundreds of new Ph.D.'s in mathematics are awarded, and jobs are available both in teaching and industry. Mathematical discovery has grown at an exponential rate, with too many new discoveries to even touch on any but a few of the most profound.
Famous theorems of the past yielded to new and more powerful techniques. [[Wolfgang Haken]] and [[Kenneth Appel]] used a computer to prove the [[four color theorem |
programmable computer in continental Europe was created by a team of scientists under direction of [[Sergei Alekseyevich Lebedev]] from [[Kiev Institute of Electrotechnology]], [[Soviet Union]] (now [[Ukraine]]). The computer [[History of computer hardware in communist countries#MESM|MESM]] (''МЭСМ'', ''Small Electronic Calculating Machine'') became operational in [[1950]]. It had about 6,000 vacuum tubes and consumed 25 kW of power. It could perform approximately 3,000 operations per second. Another early machine was [[CSIRAC]], an Australian design that ran its first test program in 1949.
In October 1947, the directors of J. Lyons & Company, a British catering company famous for its teashops but with strong interests in new office management techniques, decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. By 1951 the LEO I computer was operational and ran the world's first regular routine office computer job.
Manchester University's machine became the prototype for the [[Ferranti Mark I]]. The first Ferranti Mark I machine was delivered to the University in February, [[1951]] and at least nine others were sold between 1951 and 1957.
[[Image:UNIVAC-I.JPG|right|thumb|200px|[[UNIVAC I]], above, the first commercial electronic computer, achieved 1900 operations per second in a smaller and more efficient package than [[ENIAC]].]]
In June [[1951]], the [[UNIVAC I]] (Universal Automatic Computer) was delivered to the [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]]. Although manufactured by [[Remington Rand]], the machine often was mistakenly referred to as the "IBM UNIVAC". Remington Rand eventually sold 46 machines at more than $1 million each. UNIVAC was the first 'mass produced' computer; all predecessors had been 'one-off' units. It used 5,200 vacuum tubes and consumed 125 kW of power. It used a mercury delay line capable of storing 1,000 words of 11 decimal digits plus sign (72-bit words) for memory. Unlike earlier machines it did not use a [[punch card]] system but a metal tape input.
In November [[1951]], the [[J. Lyons & Co. Ltd.|J. Lyons]] company began weekly operation of a bakery valuations job on the [[LEO I|LEO]] (Lyons Electronic Office). This was the first business application to go live on a stored program computer.
In [[1952]], IBM publicly announced the [[IBM 701]] Electronic Data Processing Machine, the first in its successful [[IBM 700/7000 series|700/7000 series]] and its first [[IBM mainframe]] computer. The [[IBM 704]], introduced in 1954, used [[magnetic core memory]], which became the standard for large machines. The first implemented high-level general purpose [[programming language]], [[Fortran]], was also being developed at IBM for the 704 during 1955 and 1956 and released in early 1957. (Konrad Zuse's 1945 design of the high-level language [[Plankalkül]] was not implemented at that time.)
IBM introduced a smaller, more affordable computer in [[1954]] that proved very popular. The [[IBM 650]] weighed over 900 kg, the attached power supply weighed around 1350 kg and both were held in separate cabinets of roughly 1.5 meters by 0.9 meters by 1.8 meters. It cost $500,000 or could be leased for $3,500 a month. Its [[drum memory]] was originally only 2000 ten-digit words, and required arcane programming for efficient computing. Memory limitations such as this were was to dominate programming for decades afterward, until the evolution of a programming model which was more sympathetic to software development.
[[Image:Maurice V Wilkes.jpg|right|framed|[[Maurice Wilkes]] realised that basic and frequently used operations could be programmed directly into hardware.]]
In [[1955]], [[Maurice Wilkes]] invented [[Microprogram|microprogramming]], which was later widely used in the [[Central processing unit|CPUs]] and [[floating-point]] units of [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] and other computers, such as the [[IBM 360]] series. ''Microprogramming'' allows the base instruction set to be defined or extended by built-in programs (now sometimes called ''[[firmware]]'', ''[[microcode]]'', or ''[[millicode]]'').
In [[1956]], IBM sold its [[Early IBM disk storage|first magnetic disk system]], [[RAMAC]] (Random Access Method of Accounting and Control). It used 50 24-inch metal disks, with 100 tracks per side. It could store 5 [[megabyte]]s of data and cost $10,000 per megabyte. (As of 2005, disk storage costs less than $1 per gigabyte).
== 1950s and early 1960s: second generation==
[[Image:Transistor-photo.JPG|thumb|left|[[Transistor]]s, above, revolutionized computers as smaller and more efficient replacements for [[vacuum tube]]s.]]
The next major step in the history of computing was the invention of the [[transistor]] in [[1947]]. This replaced the fragile and power hungry valves with a much smaller and more reliable component. Transistorized computers are normally referred to as 'Second Generation' and dominated the late [[1950s]] and early [[1960s]]. By using transistors and [[printed circuit board|printed circuits]] a significant decrease in size and power consumption was achieved, along with an increase in reliability. For example, the transistorized [[IBM 1620]], which replaced the bulky IBM 650, was the size of an office desk. Second generation computers were still expensive and were primarily used by universities, governments, and large corporations.
In [[1959]] IBM shipped the transistor-based [[IBM 7090]] mainframe and medium scale [[IBM 1401]]. The latter was designed around [[punch card]] input and proved a popular general purpose computer. Some 12,000 were shipped, making it the most successful machine in computer history at the time. It used a magnetic core memory of 4000 characters (later expanded to 16,000 characters). Many aspects of its design were based on the desire to replace [[Unit record equipment|punched card machines]] which were in wide use from the [[1920s]] through the early [[1970s]].
In [[1960]] IBM shipped the smaller, transistor-based [[IBM 1620]], originally with only punched [[paper tape]], but soon upgraded to punch cards. It proved a popular scientific computer and about 2,000 were shipped. It used a magnetic core memory of up to 60,000 decimal digits.
[[Image:Vs-dec-pdp-1.jpg|thumb|PDP-1|200px|right|The [[PDP-1]] was built mostly of DEC 1000-series system modules, using Micro-Alloy and Micro-Alloy-Diffused Transistors.]]
Also in 1960, [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] launched the [[PDP-1]] their first machine intended for use by technical staff in laboratories and for research.
In 1961, [[Burroughs]] released the [[B5000]] the first dual processor and virtual memory computer. Other unique features were a stack architecture, descriptor-based addressing, and no programming directly in assembly language.
In 1962, Sperry Rand shipped the [[UNIVAC 1107]], one of the first machines with a general register set and the base of the successful [[UNIVAC 1100]] series.
In [[1964]] IBM announced the [[S/360]] series, which was the first family of computers that could run the same software at different combinations of speed, capacity and price. It also pioneered the commercial use of [[microprogram]]s, and an extended instruction set designed for processing many types of data, not just arithmetic. In addition, it unified IBM's product line, which prior to that time had included both a "commercial" product line and a separate "scientific" line. The software provided with System/360 also included major advances, including commercially available multi-programming, new programming languages, and independence of programs from input/output devices. Over 14,000 [[System/360]] systems were shipped by [[1968]].
Also in 1964, DEC launched the [[PDP-8]] much smaller machine intended for use by technical staff in laboratories and for research.
== Post-1960: third generation and beyond==
:''Main article:'' [[History of computing hardware (1960s-present)]]
[[Image:SEM integrated circuit (400x).jpg|right|thumb|150px|The microscopic [[integrated circuit]], above, combined many hundreds of [[transistors]] into one unit for fabrication.]]
The explosion in the use of computers began with 'Third Generation' computers. These relied on [[Jack Kilby|Jack St. Clair Kilby]]'s and [[Robert Noyce]]'s independent invention of the [[integrated circuit]] (or microchip), which later led to [[Marcian Hoff|Ted Hoff]]'s invention of the [[microprocessor]], at [[Intel]].
During the 1960s there was considerable overlap between second and third generation technologies. As late as 1975, Sperry Univac continued the manufacture of second-generation machines such as the UNIVAC 494.
The microprocessor led to the development of the [[microcomputer]], small, low-cost computers that could be owned by individuals and small businesses. Microcomputers, the first of which appeared in the 1970s, became ubiquitous in the 1980s and beyond. Computing has evolved with microcomputer architectures, with features added from their larger brethren, now dominant in most market segments.
==Notes==
* An original calculator by [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]] ([[1640]]) is preserved in the [[Zwinger|Zwinger Museum]], [[Dresden]].
* An indication of the rapidity of development of this field can be inferred by the seminal article, documented in the ''Datamation'' September-October 1962 issue, which was written, as a preliminary version 15 years earlier. (See the references below.) By the time that anyone had time to write anything down, it was obsolete.
== References ==
* [[Gottfried Leibniz]], ''Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire'' ([[1703]])
* A Spanish implementation of [[Napier's bones]] ([[1617]]), is documented in ''Hispano-American Encyclopedic Dictionary'', Montaner i Simon ([[1887]])
* [[Herman Hollerith]], ''In connection with the electric tabulation system which has been adopted by U.S. government for the work of t |
refused admission as a full student both there and at many other medical schools to which she applied. Finally she studied anatomy privately at the London Hospital, and with some of the professors at [[St Andrews University]], and at the [[Edinburgh]] Extra-Mural school. She had no less difficulty in gaining a qualifying diploma to practise medicine. London University, the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, and many other examining bodies refused to admit her to their examinations; but in the end the [[Society of Apothecaries]] allowed her to enter for the Licence of Apothecaries' Hall, which she obtained in [[1865]].
In 1866 she was appointed general medical attendant to St Mary's Dispensary, a London institution started to enable poor women to obtain medical help from qualified practitioners of their own sex. The dispensary soon developed into the New hospital for women, and there Dr Garrett worked for over twenty years. In 1870 she obtained the University of Paris degree of [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]] The same year she was elected to the first [[London School Board]], at the head of the poll for [[Marylebone]], and was also made one of the visiting physicians of the East London hospital for children; but the duties of these two positions she found to be incompatible with her principal work, and she soon resigned them.
In 1871 she married James G. S. Anderson (d. 1907), a London shipowner, but did not give up her practice. She worked steadily at the development of the New hospital, and (from 1874) at the creation of the [[London School of Medicine for Women]]. Both institutions have since been handsomely and suitably housed and equipped, the New hospital (in the Euston Road) being worked entirely by medical women, and the schools (in Hunter Street, WC1) having over 200 students, most of them preparing for the medical degree of London University (the present-day [[University College London]]), which was opened to women in 1877. In 1897 Dr Garrett Anderson was elected president of the East Anglian branch of the [[British Medical Association]].
On the 9th November 1908 she was elected mayor of [[Aldeburgh]], the first woman mayor in the whole of England. The movement for the admission of women to the medical profession, of which Dr Anderson was the indefatigable pioneer in [[England]], extended in her lifetime to every civilized country except Spain and Turkey. She died in [[1917]].
Quick notes:
* There is an Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital on the Euston road in London -- this is the modern name of the New hospital mentioned above.
* she took part in the [[Suffragette]] movement
== External links ==
* http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/WandersonE.htm
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1836 births|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[Category:1917 deaths|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[Category:British doctors|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[Category:Feminists|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[Category:Natives of Suffolk|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[is:Elizabeth Garrett Anderson]]
[[sk:Elizabeth Garrett Anderson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erosion</title>
<id>9696</id>
<revision>
<id>42013058</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:28:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.38.209.81|72.38.209.81]] ([[User talk:72.38.209.81|talk]]) to last version by Vsmith</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Washout}}
[[Image:Erosion.jpg|thumb|225px|Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA.]]
'''Erosion''' is the displacement of solids ([[soil]], [[mud]], [[Rock (geology)|rock]], and other particles) by the agents of wind, water, ice, movement in response to [[gravity]], or living organisms (in the case of [[bioerosion]]). Although the processes may be simultaneous, erosion is to be distinguished from [[weathering]], which is the decomposition of rock. Erosion is an important natural process, but in many places it is increased by human [[land use]]. Some of those poor land use practices include [[deforestation]], [[overgrazing]] and road or trail building. However, improved land use practices can limit erosion using techniques like [[Terrace (agriculture)|terrace]]-building and tree planting.
A certain amount of erosion is natural and in fact healthy for the [[ecosystem]]. For example, [[gravel]]s continually move downstream in watercourses. Too much erosion, however, can cause problems, clogging streams with gravel, filling reservoirs with [[sediment]], reducing [[Soil degradation|soil fertility]] and [[water quality]].
==Causes==
[[Image:Eroded paddock.jpg|thumb|225px|Eroded paddock, [[Australia]]]]
What causes erosion to be severe in some areas and minor elsewhere? It is a combination of many factors, including the amount and intensity of [[rainfall|precipitation]], the [[texture]] of the soil, the steepness of the slope, ground cover (from [[vegetation]], rocks, etc.) and land use. The first factor, rain, is the agent for erosion, but the degree of erosion is governed by other factors.
The first three factors can remain fairly constant over time. In general, given the same kind of vegetative cover, you expect areas with high-intensity precipitation, [[sand]]y or [[silt]]y soils, and steep slopes to be the most erosive. Soils with a lot of [[clay]] that receive less intense precipitation and are on gentle slopes tend to erode less.
The factor that is most subject to change is the amount and type of ground cover. When fires burn an area or when vegetation is removed as part of timber operations, building a house or a road, the susceptibility of the soil to erosion is greatly increased.
[[Image:Erosion02.jpg|left|thumb|225px|Detail of erosion]]
Roads are especially likely to cause increased rates of erosion because, in addition to removing ground cover, they can significantly change drainage patterns. A road that has a lot of rock and one that is "hydrologically invisible" (that gets the water off the road as quickly as possible, mimicking natural drainage patterns) has the best chance of not causing increased erosion.
Understandably, many human activities remove vegetation from an area, making the soil easily eroded. [[Logging]] and heavy [[grazing]] can reduce vegetation enough to increase erosion. But changes in the kind of vegetation in an area can also effect erosion rates. Different kinds of vegetation effect infiltration rates of rain into the soil. Forested areas have higher infiltration rates, so precipitation will result in less surface runoff, which erodes. Instead much of the water will go in subsurface flows, which are generally not erosive. Leaf litter and low shrubs are an important part of the high infiltration rates of forested systems, removing these can increase erosion rates. Leaf litter also shelters the soil from the impact of falling raindrops, which is a big agent of erosion. Vegetation can also change the speed of surface runoff flows, so grasses and shrubs can be instrumental here as well.
One of the most serious and long-running water erosion problems on the planet is in [[China]], on the middle reaches of the [[Yellow River]] and the upper reaches of the [[Yangtze River]]. From the [[Yellow River]], over [[1 E12 kg|1.6 billion tons]] of sediment flow each year into the ocean. The [[sediment]] originates primarily from water erosion in the [[Loess Plateau]] region of northwest China.
In [[materials science]], erosion is the recession of surfaces by repeated localized mechanical trauma as, for example, by suspended abrasive particles within a moving fluid. Erosion can also occur from non-abrasive fluid mixtures. [[Cavitation]] is one example.
== Erosion processes ==
[[Image:Bank erosion 5790.JPG|thumb|200 px|right|Bank erosion started by four wheeler [[all-terrain vehicle]]s, Yauhanna, South Carolina]]
[[image:Erosion2.jpg|thumb|right|A heavily eroded roadside near Ciudad Colon, Costa Rica.]]
===Gravity Erosion===
''[[Mass Wasting]]'' is the down-slope movement of rock and sediments, mainly due to the force of [[gravity]]. Mass wasting is an important part of the erosional process, as it moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where transporting agents like streams and [[glacier]]s can then pick up the material and move it to even lower elevations. Mass-wasting processes are occurring continuously on all slopes; some mass-wasting processes act very slowly, others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results. Any perceptible down-slope movement of rock or sediment is often referred to in general terms as a [[landslide]]. However, landslides can be classified in a much more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement and the velocity at which the movement occurs.
''[[Slump]]ing'' happens on steep hillsides, occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within materials like [[clay]], that, once released, may move quite rapidly downhill. They often will show a spoon-shaped depression within which the material has begun to slide downhill. In some cases the slump is caused by water beneath the slope weakening it. In many cases it is simply the result of poor engineering along [[highway]]s where it is a regular occurrence.
''Surface creep'' is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity which is usually not perceptible except through extended observation. However, the term can also describe the rolling of dislodged soil particles 0.5 to 1.0 mm in diameter by wind along the soil surface.
===Water erosion===
Splash erosion is the detachment and airborne movement of small soil particles caused by the impact of raindrops on soil. Sheet erosion is the result of heavy rain on bare soil |
==Family==
Al Gore was born in [[Washington, D.C.]], to [[Albert Gore, Sr.|Albert A. Gore, Sr.]], a politician, and [[Pauline LaFon Gore]], one of the first female lawyers to graduate from Vanderbilt Law School. Since his [[father]] was a veteran Democratic senator from Tennessee, Al Gore, Jr. divided his childhood between Washington, D.C., and [[Carthage, Tennessee|Carthage]], [[Tennessee]].
During the school year, the younger Gore lived in a [[hotel]] in Washington, during summer vacations, he lived in Carthage, where he worked on the Gore family farm.
In 1970, Gore married Mary Elizabeth Aitcheson ([[Tipper Gore]]), whom he had first met many years before at his high school senior [[prom]] (St. Albans School in Washington, D.C.). They have four children: [[Karenna Gore|Karenna]] (born [[August 6]], [[1973]]), married to [[Drew Schiff]]; [[Kristin Gore|Kristin]] (born [[June 5]], [[1977]]); [[Sarah Gore|Sarah]] (born [[January 7]], [[1979]]); and [[Al Gore III|Al III]] (born [[October 19]], [[1982]]). The Gores also have two grandchildren: Wyatt (born [[July 4]], [[1999]]) and Anna Schiff.
The Gores now reside in [[Nashville]], Tennessee, USA, and own a small farm near Carthage, Tennessee. The family attends New Salem Missionary [[Baptist Church]] in Carthage. The Gores in late 2005 bought a condo at San Francisco's swanky St. Regis.
[http://www.prweb.com/releases/2005/12/prweb326327.htm]
==Soldier and journalist==
[[Image:AlGoreVietnam.gif|right|thumb|200px|Gore served as a field reporter in Vietnam for four months.]]
Although opposed to the Vietnam War, on [[August 7]], [[1969]], Gore enlisted in the [[United States Army|army]] to participate in the [[Vietnam War]] effort. After completing training as a military journalist, Gore shipped to [[Vietnam]] in early 1971, serving for four months before being given an honorable discharge. The chronology of Gore's military service is as follows:
* '''August 1969''': Enlisted at the [[Newark, New Jersey]] recruiting office.
* '''August to October 1969''': 8 weeks of basic training at [[Fort Dix]], [[New Jersey]]
* '''Late October 1969 to December 1970''': [[Fort Rucker]], [[Alabama]], on-the-job occupational training at the [[Army Flier]] newspaper.
* '''January 1971 to May 1971''': field reporter in [[Vietnam]], part of the 20th Engineer Brigade, stationed primarily at [[Bien Hoa]] Air Base near [[Saigon]].
* '''[[May 24]], [[1971]]''': Given an honorable discharge, after his early discharge request was granted.
Gore stated many times that he opposed the Vietnam War, but chose to enlist anyway. Some observers have noted that Gore could have avoided Vietnam in a number of ways. Gore considered all these options, but said that his sense of civic duty compelled him to serve. [[Alexander Cockburn]] and [[Jeffrey St. Clair]] suggest in ''[[Al Gore: A User's Manual]]'' that Gore joined the military for political gain.
Because Gore served as a journalist, he was never exposed to front-line combat. Although some allege that his famous father's influence helped him to obtain this position, most military analysts agree that any man who enlisted with a Harvard degree had a good chance of being assigned a support specialty rather than an infantry position (even at the war's height, 88% of all servicemen were assigned to noncombatant specialties). However, Gore's decision to enlist for a two year term did mean that he would not be able to select his assignment, a choice which was available to three year enlistees. According to [[Newsweek]] journalist [[Bill Turque]]'s [[biography]] ''[[Inventing Al Gore]]'' (which does not shy away from criticism and scandals, such as charging Gore with smoking [[marijuana]] far more frequently than he admits),
:''Dess Stokes, staff sergeant at the Newark Armed Forces Entrance and Examination Station on the day he walked in, doesn't remember any communication from superiors about Gore. A kid with Gore's background (a 134 [[IQ]] and a Harvard degree), he said, didn't need to be a senator's son with high-level contacts to get the military job he wanted''.
Gore's father, [[Al Gore Sr.]], lost the [[U.S. Senate election, 1970|1970 election]], and was no longer a Senator by the time Gore arrived in Vietnam, but was a Senator until January 1971 which included the time his son would have received his assignment. Some critics charge that his father's stature led Gore's superiors to give him less dangerous assignments than they might otherwise have given him. According to combat photographer [[H. Alan Leo]], Gore was protected from dangerous situations at the request of Brigadier General [[Kenneth B. Cooper]], the 20th Engineer Brigades Commander. Leo stated that Gore's trips into the field were safe, and that Gore "could have worn a tuxedo." These remarks seem to contradict Gore's many public statements;
:"I carried an M-16. I pulled my turn on the perimeter at night and walked through the elephant grass and I was fired upon."(''[[Baltimore Sun]]'')
:"I took my turn regularly on the perimeter in these little firebases out in the boonies. Something would move, we'd fire first and ask questions later." (''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'')
:"I was shot at. I spent most of my time in the field." (''[[Washington Post]]'')
:"I used to fly these things (combat helicopters) with the doors open, sitting on the ledge with our feet hanging down. If you flew low and fast, they wouldn't have as much time to shoot you."(''[[Weekly Standard]]'')
For his part, Gore has stated that he knew Leo but rarely traveled with him in Vietnam, and that he never felt that he was being given special protection. On the other hand, Leo's testimony is that Cooper gave the orders before Gore arrived, so Gore would not know about them. The question of whether Leo frequently traveled with Gore or not still has not been conclusively answered.
Turque's book, however, states that
:''[Cooper] said that he has no recollection of even meeting Leo, much less discussing Gore's safety with him. ...''
:''The evidence indicates that if there was an official effort to guarantee Gore's safety, it was uneven at best. His clippings from the Castle Courier, the newspaper of the U.S. Army Engineering Command, and other publications suggest that he pulled his weight, which in his case meant choppering around to report features about the good works of the 20th Engineers... When Smith said he was scheduled to leave for R&amp;R in Hawaii, the sergeant called for volunteers. Gore stepped up and spent a cold night in a foxhole. "Al did what everybody else did," said Mike O'Hara, the photographer who shot the Khe Sanh assignment...''
:''Regulations allowed for early release of personnel to teach or attend school if their services were deemed "not essential to the mission," and Gore certainly qualified. ''
Gore stated in 1988 that his experience in Vietnam
:''didn't change my conclusions about the war being a terrible mistake, but it struck me that opponents to the war, including myself, really did not take into account the fact that there were an awful lot of South Vietnamese who desperately wanted to hang on to what they called freedom. Coming face to face with those sentiments expressed by people who did the laundry and ran the restaurants and worked in the fields was something I was naively unprepared for''.
After returning from Vietnam, Gore spent five years as a [[Journalist|reporter]] for the ''Tennessean'', a newspaper headquartered in [[Nashville, Tennessee]]. During this time, Gore also attended [[Vanderbilt University| Vanderbilt]] Divinity School and Law School, although he did not complete a degree at either.
==Congress==
[[Image:GoreSenate.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Al Gore speaks during a [[congressional hearing]] in the 1980s.]]
In the spring of 1976, Gore quit law school to run for the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House]], in [[United States House of Representatives, Tennessee District 4|Tennessee's fourth district]]. Gore defeated [[Stanley Rogers]] in the Democratic primary, then ran unopposed and was elected to his first [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] post. He was re-elected three times, in [[U.S. House election, 1978|1978]], [[U.S. House election, 1980|1980]], and [[U.S. House election, 1982|1982]]. In [[U.S. Senate election, 1984|1984]] Gore did not run for the House; instead he successfully ran for a seat in the [[United States Senate|Senate]], which had been vacated by Republican Majority Leader [[Howard Baker]]. Gore served as a Senator from Tennessee until 1993, when he became Vice President.
===House of Representatives===
On [[March 19]], [[1979]], Gore became the first person to appear on [[C-SPAN]], making a speech in the House chambers.
===Senate===
===1988 Presidential Run===
In 1988, Gore ran for President but failed to obtain the Democratic nomination, which went instead to [[Michael Dukakis]].
===Son's Accident and effect on 1992 Presidential run===
On [[April 3]], [[1989]], Gore's six-year-old son [[Al Gore III|Albert]] was nearly killed in an automobile accident while leaving the [[Baltimore Orioles]] opening game. Because of this and the resulting lengthy healing process, his father chose to stay near him during the recovery instead of laying the foundation for a presidential primary campaign against eventual nominee Bill Clinton. Gore started writing ''[[Earth in the Balance]]'', his book on environmental conservation, during his son's recovery. ''Earth in the Balance'' became the first book written by a sitting senator to make ''[[The New York Times]]'' best-seller list since [[John F. Kennedy]]'s ''[[Profiles in Courage]]''.
===Congressional Committees===
While in Congress, Gore was a member of the following committees: [[U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services|Armed Services]] (Defense Industry and Technology Pr |
Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, in different versions and variations after his directions.
It has been suggested by many that Warhol would just take images of things that were hip in his time and cover them in "Warhol gravy", but for Warhol there was always a personal relation between him and his subjects. For instance the Campbell's Soup did not (only) function as an illustration of commercial industry and advertisement, it was an intrinsical part of Warhol's life and memories. As a child his mother had given him this soup when he was sick, and Warhol loved it very much as a grown up. For him (and many other Americans) the soup represented a feeling of being "home".
Another criterion that is important in the way Warhol chose his subjects is that the subjects should also represent a more philosophical notion, should have a metaphorical quality. When Warhol paints money, he paints it because he wants to own it - canvases filled with money. Partly, his work was meant to provide him with this money (and success and fame and maybe even love). At the same time these paintings speak of art as a commercial commodity: the paintings of dollar bills represent monetary value as well, as investments. In this way, instead of merely depicting dollar bills, these paintings touch on notions like (artistic) value, or may be perceived as a comment on art practice.
Similarly, when Warhol paints photographs of disasters in bright colors ("Red Car Crash", "Purple Jumping Man", "Orange Disaster") they point at the horror of the event in the picture, and its media value, but also at the way in which these images are trivialized by the media. By turning these "random" clippings into paintings, Warhol turns them into monuments for personal tragedies. As such they represent a personal experience as well as a social comment as well as an illustration of a time when the media grew to be more and more important.
On a personal level a lot of Warhol's work is motivational in nature, and speaks of notions like democracy, being able to change things, optimistic materialism, being heard. But Warhol wasn't naively optimistic about these things, his work also deals with loss, death, loneliness and the such.
Warhol knew how to juggle many levels of meaning and interpretation, and to combine these in seemingly simple, sometimes even dumb-looking works of art. In general his work has a very high "Duh!" level.
Although a bit of a generalization, it may be accurate to say that Warhol depicted highly his very personal approach to subjects that everyone knows, in a way that these subjects become symbolic.
Warhol's work became more and more conceptual and more reflective of art itself. His series of Do-It-Yourself-Paintings and Rorschach-blots are intended as pop-comments on art and what art could be. His Cow Wallpaper (literally wallpaper with a cow motif) and his Oxidation Paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that show oxidated urine stains) are also noteworthy in this context. Warhol later did a series of his old works in negative, as a comment on his own position as an artist.
In the beginning of his career Warhol worked on a growing oeuvre of American forms and values, newspaper clippings, disasters, money, commercial products, Coca-Cola bottles, postal stamps, movie stars, criminals, shoes, clothes, etc. defining a position, researching and making statements. As recognition -- and the value of his work -- grew, he went back to his roots as a commercial illustrator, and starts to take commissions, most noticeably for portraits. These are sometimes viewed as Warhol's sell-out (the revolutionary painter that became a jester), but it can also be argued that his self-supporting way of working fit his world-views. At any rate, his body of portraits -- that include many celebrities, athletes, movie stars, politicians, dictators, royalty, his mother, transvestites -- have became a document of an era. Having the money or the relations to be portrayed by Warhol meant that you might be able to enter into immortality. Warhol's commercial effort also include advertisements for Chanel, Apple and more.
There are three more periods that are noteworthy in Warhol's oeuvre as a painter.
His self-portraits, of which he made many, with his silver wig, painted over with camouflage print may represent Warhol studying his own identity. Warhol has spoken about himself and was spoken about as being empty, hollow, a reflection or a mirror. The second series is his paintings of shadows. These may represent Warhol's study of the abstract. Again there is a relation with Warhol personally, as he has also depicted himself as "The Shadow," the character from the radio show. Thirdly, Warhol produced many "portfolios," series of small paintings meant for commercial sale. These series would be grouped around a theme; for instance, "famous Jews", "cars", or "animals".
At one point Warhol publicly declared that he had stopped being a painter, and that he would only make films from then on; but at the end of his life, Warhol took up painting again. His last paintings and drawings are of da Vinci's ''[[Last Supper]]'', which he was working on when he died.
=== Films ===
Warhol worked across a wide range of mediums - painting, photography, drawing, and sculpture. He was also a highly prolific filmmaker. Between 1963 and 1968, he made more than sixty films. One of his most famous films, ''[[Sleep (film)|Sleep]]'' (1963), shows a man ([[John Giorno]], who had a relationship with Warhol) sleeping for eight hours. In the 35 minute film ''[[Blow Job (film)|Blow Job]]'' (1963), he shows the face of [[David Pelman]] receiving [[fellatio]]. Another, [[Empire (1964 film)|''Empire'']] (1964), consists of eight hours of footage of the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City at dusk. Warhol's 1965 film ''[[Vinyl (1965 film)|''Vinyl'']]'' is an adaptation of [[Anthony Burgess]]' popular [[Dystopia|dystopian]] novel ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]''. Others record improvised encounters between Factory regulars such as Brigid Berlin, [[Viva]], [[Edie Sedgwick]], [[Candy Darling]], [[Holly Woodlawn]], Ondine, [[Nico]], and [[Jackie Curtis]]. Legendary underground artist [[Jack Smith (actor)|Jack Smith]] appears in the film ''Camp''.
His most popular and critically successful film was ''[[Chelsea Girls]]'' (1966). The film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two 16-mm films being projected simultaneously, with two different stories being shown in tandem. From the projection booth, the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that "story" while it was lowered for the other. Then it would be the other film's turn to bask in the glory of sound. The multiplication of images evoked Warhol's seminal silk-screen works of the early 1960s. The film's influence could be felt as late as 2000 in [[Mike Figgis]]' ''[[Timecode (film)|Timecode]]''.
Other important films include ''[[My Hustler (1965 film)|My Hustler]]'', ''[[Midnight Cowboy (1969 film)|Midnight Cowboy]]'', and ''[[Lonesome Cowboys (1968 film)|Lonesome Cowboys]]'' (1968), a raunchy pseudo-western. ''[[Blue Movie]]'', a film in which Warhol superstar [[Viva (Warhol Superstar)|Viva]] makes love and fools around in bed with a man for 33 minutes of the film's playing-time, was Warhol's last film as director. The film was at the time scandalous for its frank approach to a sexual encounter. For many years Viva refused to allow it to be screened. It was publicly screened in New York in 2005 for the first time in over thirty years.
After his [[June 3]], [[1968]] shooting, a reclusive Warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking. His acolyte and assistant director, [[Paul Morrissey]], took over the film-making chores for the [[The Factory|Factory]] collective, steering Warhol-branded cinema towards more mainstream, narrative-based, B-movie exploitation fare with ''[[Flesh (film)|Flesh]]'', ''[[Trash (film)|Trash]]'', and ''[[Heat (film)|Heat]]''. All of these films, including the later ''[[Blood for Dracula|Andy Warhol's Dracula]]'' and ''[[Flesh for Frankenstein|Andy Warhol's Frankenstein]]'', were far more mainstream than anything Warhol as a director had attempted. These latter "Warhol" films, all of which frankly were made to make money, starred [[Joe Dallesandro]], who was more of a Morrissey star than a true Warhol superstar.
In order to facilitate the success of these Warhol-branded, Morrissey-directed movies in the marketplace, all of Warhol's earlier avant-garde films were removed from distribution and exhibition by [[1972]].
The first volume of a catalogue raisoné for the Factory film archive is to be published in the spring of 2006.
As an actor, Warhol appeared as a bartender in [[The Cars]]' [[music video]] for their [[single (music)|single]] "Hello Again", and [[Curiosity Killed The Cat]]'s video for their "Misfit" single (both videos, and others, were produced by Warhol's video production company). He also appeared in an episode of [[The Love Boat]].
Warhol's character has also been represented in several motion pictures. He has been portrayed by [[Crispin Glover]], [[David Bowie]], and [[Jared Harris]], in ''[[The Doors (film)|The Doors]]'', ''[[Basquiat]]'', and ''[[I Shot Andy Warhol]],'' respectively.
=== Filmography ===
<!-- These have been reorganised chronologically from oldest to most recent -->
* ''[[Blow Job (film)|Blow Job]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Eat (film)|Eat]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Haircut (film)|Haircut]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Kiss (film, 1963)|Kiss]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Naomi's Birthday Party]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Sleep (film)|Sleep]]'' (1963)
* ''[[13 Most Beautiful Women]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Batman Dracula]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Clockwork (film)|Clockwork]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Couch (film, 1964)|Couch]]'' (196 |
r needs to match has remained from the 80s, along with a certain playfulness. [[Kangol]]s are still worn by some, track pants and nylons still have their place combined with fresh sneakers and hats. [[Trucker hat|Trucker hats]] were reintroduced on the scene in the late 1990s, well before the mainstream pop culture began wearing them again in numbers.
Function is heavily entertwined with b-boy fashion. Due to the demands on the feet in b-boying, b-boys look for shoes with low weight, good grip, and durability when given pressure to the sole as well as elsewhere. Headwear can facilitate movement with the head on the ground, especially headspins. Bandanas underneath headwear can protect from the discomfort of fabric pulling on hair. And wristbands placed along the arm can lower friction at a particular place as well as provide protection.
There are dancers and crews that now have begun to dress in a style similar to "[[goth]]" or [[Punk_fashion|punk]] rockers in order to stand out from the more traditional toned-down b-boy look.
Certain clothing brands have been associated with breaking. ''Tribal'' is an example. [[PUMA_AG|Puma]] is also well known in the breaking community. Both brands sponsor many b-boy events.
But aside from these generalities, many b-boys choose not to try too hard to dress for breaking, because in a certain sense one would want to be able to break anytime, anywhere, whatever the circumstances. This is related to why many would rather learn headspins without a helmet, despite it being able to facilitate.
==Media==
In the [[1980]]s, with the help of [[pop culture]] and MTV, breakdancing made its way from the [[suburb|suburbs]] to the rest of the world as a new cultural phenomenon. Musicians such as [[Michael Jackson]] popularized much of the breakdancing style in their music videos. Movies such as [[Flashdance]], [[Wild Style]], [[Beat Street]], [[Breakin']] and [[Breakin' 2: Electric Boogaloo]] also contributed to breakdancing's growing appeal. Today, many b-boys and former breakers are disappointed by the media hype that watered the dance down into money and overfocus on power moves.
===Myths===
For the most part, the danger inherent in b-boying is overemphasized. One can understand wanting the deterrent of fear in the past, as b-boying was associated with gang activity. Nowadays, however, the fear of life-threatening injury is largely unfounded. Like any other 'street' activity, there is a certain associated stigma which must be considered if an accurate assessment is desired. As with any other physical activity, there is of course a measured risk of physical injury.
On the history of breakdancing, it has often been presented as a dance that replaced fighting between street gangs. This is true in that breakdance battles were used to act out conflicts and that some gang members went from fighting to dancing, but it did not, by far, put an end to gang violence.
==See also==
*[[List of breakdance moves]]
*[[B-boy]]
*[[Battle of the Year]]
*[[Breakin']] - A movie about breakdancing.
==Video clips==
*[http://www.style2ouf.com/english/videos/index.php style2ouf videos] style2ouf video pages
**[http://www.style2ouf.com/ style2ouf] style2ouf website in English and French
*[http://mexispice.0kbps.net/videos_Profesional_Breakdancers.html Breakdancing Examples]
*[http://www.streetwalkn.com streewalkn breakdance] Breakdancing videos
==References==
===History links===
*The Freshest Kids: History of the b-boy. Film.
*[http://www.msu.edu/user/okumurak/styles/breaking.html B-Boying] History on breakdance
*[http://www.breakcheck.com/index.php?pg=Article&id=18 Breakcheck.com] Background of B-Boying by: Rohan Jasani
*[http://www.geocities.com/Colosseum/Stadium/7960/history.html Extract from "Breakdancing with Mr.Fresh & The Supreme Rockers"] History of Breakin
*[http://www.jahsonic.com/Breakdance.html History of Breakdance: Breakdancing Breakdown - UK] from ''The Bomb Hip-Hop Magazine'' Issue #46 (April/May 1996)
===Clubs and Societies===
*[http://www.jmu.edu/ James Madison University] [http://orgs.jmu.edu/breakdance/index.htm Breakdance Club (JMU BDC)]
*[http://www.hhdirecto.net/breakdance Spanish breakdance group] Spanish breakers
===Related links===
*[[David Toop]] (1991). ''Rap Attack 2: African Rap To Global Hip Hop'', p.113-115. New York. New York: Serpent's Tail. ISBN 1852422432.
==External links==
* [http://www.bboy.org Bboy community]
{{hiphop}}
[[Category:Hip hop culture elements]]
[[Category:Hip hop dance]]
[[cs:Breakdance]]
[[de:Breakdance]]
[[es:Breakdance]]
[[fr:Break dance]]
[[hy:Բրեյք դանս]]
[[it:Breakdance]]
[[he:ברייקדאנס]]
[[nl:Breakdance]]
[[ja:ブレイクダンス]]
[[pl:Breakdance]]
[[pt:Breakdance]]
[[ru:Брейк-данс]]
[[sl:Breakdance]]
[[fi:Breakdance]]
[[sv:Breakdance]]
[[vi:Breakdance]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bass (musical term)</title>
<id>3727</id>
<revision>
<id>42047890</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:59:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hyacinth</username>
<id>17171</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move quote to [[bassline]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term see [[Bass|Bass (disambiguation)]].''
'''Bass''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: [{{IPA|be&#618;s}}], rhyming with "face"), when used as an adjective, describes [[tone]]s of low [[frequency]] or [[range (music)|range]]. Played in an [[ensemble]]/[[orchestra]], such notes are frequently used to provide a [[counterpoint]] or counter-[[melody]], in an [[harmony|harmonic]] context either to outline or juxtapose the progression of the [[chord (music)|chord]]s, or with [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]] to underline the [[rhythm]]. In popular music the bass part most often provides harmonic and rhythmic support, usually playing the root or fifth of the chord and stressing the onbeats.
As a noun, a '''bass''' is a [[musical instrument]] or [[singer]] with a low range. See: [[basso]] and [[bass (instrument)]].
==See also==
*[[Figured bass]]
*[[Bassline]]
*[[Basso continuo]]
*[[Bass note]]
*[[Ground bass]]
[[Category:Musical terminology]]
[[da:basstemme]]
[[de:Bass]]
[[hu:Basszus]]
[[ja:&#12496;&#12473; (&#22768;&#22495;)]]
[[zh:&#30007;&#20302;&#38899;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bass music</title>
<id>3728</id>
<revision>
<id>15902043</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-01T07:46:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TUF-KAT</username>
<id>8351</id>
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<comment>redirecting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Miami bass]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Burning-glass</title>
<id>3729</id>
<revision>
<id>34283745</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T21:36:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lumos3</username>
<id>23657</id>
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<comment>/* See also */ Category:Optical devices</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brennglas.jpg|thumb|]]
A '''burning-glass''' is a large [[convex lens]], which can focus the [[sun]]'s rays on a small area and so ignite materials. Used in
[[18th century]] chemical studies for burning materials in closed glass vessels where the products of [[combustion]] could be trapped for analysis, the burning-glass was a useful contrivance in the days before electrical ignition was easily achieved.
The technology of the burning glass has been known since antiquity. [[Aristophanes]] mentions the burning-lens in his play ''[[The Clouds]]'' ([[424 BC]]), and [[Archimedes]], the renowned mathematician, was said to have used a burning glass (although it is more likely that a large number of [[angle]]d [[hexagon]]al [[mirror]]ed surfaces were used) in [[212 BC]] when Syracuse was besieged by Marcellus. Archimedes constructed a burning-glass on a scale of such magnitude that by means of it the [[Roman Navy|Roman fleet]] was incinerated, though eventually when the city was taken, he was found among the slain. The legend of Archimedes gave rise to a considerable amount of reseach on burning glasses and lenses until the late [[17th century]].
Recent excavations at the [[Viking]] harbor town of [[Fröjel]], [[Gotland]] in [[Sweden]] have revealed that this technology of fire-starting was known in the [[Viking Age]] as well. Rock crystal lenses produced at Fröjel in the 11th to 12th century via turning on pole-lathes have been found that have an imaging quality comparable to that of 1950's aspheric lenses. The Viking lenses quite effectively concentrate sunlight enough to ignite fires.
==See also==
*[[Magnifying glass]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Optical devices]]
[[Category:Glass]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Adrianople (disambiguation)</title>
<id>3730</id>
<revision>
<id>37521780</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T15:06:16Z</timestamp>
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<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There were at least nine '''Battles of Adrianople''' at Adrianople or Adrianopolis (now [[Edirne]], [[Turkey]]):
*[[Civil Wars of the Roman Empire]]
**[[Battle of Adrianople (313)]], [[30 April]] [[313]], [[Licinius]] defeats [[Maximinus]] Daia
*[[Battle of Adrianople (324)]] - [[Civil Wars of the Roman Empire]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople]] (378) - [[Gothic Invasions of the Roman Empire]] (the one most frequently meant)
*[[Battle of Adrianople (718)]] - [[Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople (813)]] - [[Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople (972)]] - [[Wars of the Byzantine Empire]] - against the Russians
*[[Battle of Adrianople (1205)]] - [[Fourth Crusade]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople (1254)]] - [[Byzantine-Bulgarian |
ity, with a deeply held sense of duty, honor and patriotism. He was upheld as a shining example in schoolbooks and lessons: as courageous and farsighted, holding the Continental Army together through eight hard years of war and numerous privations, sometimes by sheer force of will; and as restrained: at War's end taking afront at the notion he should be King; and after two terms as President, stepping aside.
Recent years have seen schools and authors focus more on his weaknesses: his reliance on the family plantation and its slaves; his role in sparking the French and Indian War. Yet the grandparents and great-great-grandparents of today's students were taught of Washington as a character model more even than war hero or founding father. To them, Washington was notable for his modesty and carefully controlled ambition. He never accepted pay during his military service with the Continental Army, and was genuinely reluctant to assume any of the offices thrust upon him. When John Adams recommended him to the [[Continental Congress]] for the position of general and commander in chief of the Continental Army, Washington left the room to allow any dissenters to freely voice their objections. In later accepting the post, Washington told the Congress that he was unworthy of the honor. However, it should be remembered that Washington was always an ambitious man. He ensured that during the Continental Congress he arrived and was always present wearing his old colonial uniform so as to make it clear to all that he was deeply interested in commanding the continental troops. Congress actually made him the commander of the continental army before they authorized an army for him to command. In reality, no one else could have ensured that the southern colonies would assist the northern ones unless Washington was part of the equation; aside from a few other, less endearing leaders, Washington was likely, overall, the only choice that would achieve this.
It is often said that one of Washington's greatest achievements was refraining from taking more power than was due. He was conscientious of maintaining a good reputation by avoiding political intrigue. He had no interest in [[nepotism]] or [[cronyism]], rejecting, for example, a military promotion during the war for his deserving cousin [[William Washington]] lest it be regarded as favoritism. [[Thomas Jefferson]] wrote, "The moderation and virtue of a single character probably prevented this Revolution from being closed, as most others have been, by a subversion of that liberty it was intended to establish."
===Washington and slavery===
Historians' perceptions of Washington's stand on slavery tend to be mixed. Although he advocated humane treatment of his slaves, according to an eyewitness, his slaves lived in "miserable" huts, and were often poorly clothed, according to plantation records. As he progressed in life, he became increasingly uneasy with the "[[peculiar institution]]", and historian [[Roger Bruns]] wrote, "As he grew older, he became increasingly aware that it was immoral and unjust."
According to historians such as Clayborne Carson and Gary Nash, Washington's professed hatred of slavery was offset by his denial of freedom to even those slaves, like William Lee, who fought with Washington for eight years. Lee lived at Mount Vernon as a slave although his wife was a free woman from Philadelphia, named Margaret Thomas. Although it is said by some historians that it is not known whether she lived with him on the plantation, [http://www.mountvernon.org/visit/plan/index.cfm/pid/211/] most sources indicate that she did not. [http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/education/life/quest11.html] [http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/henriques/hist615/gwslav.htm]. Billy Lee was the only slave freed outright in Washington's will.
According to one of his most notable biographers, Joseph Ellis, Washington possessed no moral anxiety over owning slaves. According to Ellis Washington talked and thought about his slaves as "a Species of Property," very much as he described his dogs and horses. The view by this historian might suggest that Washington's professed love of liberty would not extend out to those who worked on his plantation.
After the Revolution, Washington told an English visitor, "I clearly foresee that nothing but the rooting out of slavery can perpetuate the existence of our [Federal] union by consolidating it on a common bond of principle." The buying and selling of slaves, as if they were "cattle in the market," especially outraged him. He wrote to his friend [[John Francis Mercer]] in 1786, "I never mean... to possess another slave by purchase; it being among my first wishes to see some plan adopted, by which slavery in this country may be abolished by slow, sure, and imperceptible degrees."[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw2&fileName=gwpage013.db&recNum=175][http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw290013))] Ten years later, he wrote to [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]], "There is not a man living who wishes more sincerely than I do to see some plan adopted for the gradual [[abolition]] [of slavery]."[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/P?mgw:1:./temp/~ammem_E0NE::][http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw280323))]
[[Image:George-Washington.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Washington portrait]]
As President, Washington was mindful of the risk of splitting apart the young [[republic]] over the question of slavery. He did not advocate the abolition of slavery while in office, but did sign legislation enforcing the prohibition of slavery in the [[Northwest Territory]], writing to his good friend the [[Marquis de la Fayette]] that he considered it a wise measure. Lafayette urged him to free his slaves as an example to others&mdash; Washington was held in such high regard after the revolution that there was reason to hope that if he freed his slaves, others would follow his example. Lafayette purchased an estate in [[French Guiana]] and settled his own slaves there, and he offered a place for Washington's slaves, writing "I would never have drawn my sword in the cause of America if I could have conceived thereby that I was founding a land of slavery." Washington did not free his slaves in his lifetime, but included a provision in his will to free the slaves upon the death of his wife. Mrs. Washington did not wait on this and instead freed the Washington slaves on January 1, 1801. Billy Lee was the only slave freed outright upon George Washington's death.
One of Washington's slaves, Oney Judge Staines, escaped the Executive Mansion in Philadelphia in 1796 and lived the rest of her life free in [[New Hampshire]][http://www.ushistory.org/presidentshouse/slaves/oney.htm]<!--I don't know if this source is "official" enough, but there are other sources that can be used, and it is reputable-->.
===Religious beliefs===
Washington's religious views are a matter of some controversy. There is considerable evidence that indicates he, like numerous other men of his time, was a [[Deism|Deist]]&mdash;believing in [[God]] but not believing in [[revelation]] or [[miracle]]s. As a young man, before the Revolution, when the [[Church of England]] was still the [[state religion]] in Virginia, he served as a [[vestry]]man (lay officer) for his local church. He spoke often of the value of prayer, righteousness, and seeking and offering thanks for the "blessings of Heaven". He sometimes accompanied his wife to Christian church services; however there is no record of his ever becoming a communicant in any [[Christianity|Christian]] church, and he would regularly leave services before [[Eucharist|communion]]&mdash;with the other non-communicants. When Rev. Dr. [[James Abercrombie (Episcopal Priest)|James Abercrombie]], [[rector]] of St. Peter's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, mentioned in a weekly sermon that those in elevated stations set an unhappy example by leaving at communion, Washington ceased attending at all on communion Sundays. Long after Washington died, asked about Washington's beliefs, Abercrombie replied: "Sir, Washington was a Deist!" His step-granddaughter, Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis, and several others have said, however, that he was, indeed, a Christian. Various prayers said to have been composed by him in his later life are highly edited. He did not ask for any clergy on his deathbed, though one was available. His funeral services were those of the [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]] at the request of his wife, Martha.
Washington was an early supporter of [[religious pluralism]]. In 1775, he ordered that his troops should not burn the [[pope]] in effigy on [[Guy Fawkes Night]]. In 1790, he wrote to [[Jewish]] leaders that he envisioned a country "which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance.... May the Children of the Stock of [[Abraham]], who dwell in this land, continue to merit and enjoy the good will of the other Inhabitants; while every one shall sit under his own vine and fig tree, and there shall be none to make him afraid."
==Public offices held==
*Surveyor for Culpeper County, Virginia
*Distinguished himself as General Braddock's aide-de-camp in the [[French and Indian War]], 1755
*Named [[commander in chief]] of the Virginia [[militia]], 1755
*Elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses, 1759
*Unanimously chosen commander in chief of the Continental Army, June 1775
*Masterminded the American victory at Yorktown, October 1781
*Unanimously elected President of the Constitutional Convention 1787
*Unanimously elected President of the United States twice, 1789 and 1792
==Trivia==
*George Washington stood amost 6'3" and had red hair.
*A popular belief is that Washington wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at t |
' with responsibilities of a central bank in the U.S. was the [[First Bank of the United States]], chartered in 1791. Later, in 1816, the [[Second Bank of the United States]] was chartered. From 1837 to 1862, in the ''Free Banking Era'' there was no formal central bank, while from 1862 to 1913, a system of [[national bank]]s was instituted by the 1863 [[National Banking Act]]. A series of [[bank run]]s later provided the impetus for the creation of a more centralized banking system.
The Federal Reserve Board was created by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] through the passing of the [[Federal Reserve Act]] (or ''Owen-Glass Act''), signed into law by President [[Woodrow Wilson]] on [[December 23]], [[1913]].
== Roles and responsibilities ==
The main tasks of the Federal Reserve are:
* Supervise and regulate banks
* Implement [[monetary policy]] by [[open market operation]]s, setting the [[discount rate]], and setting the [[Fractional-reserve banking|reserve ratio]]
* Maintain a strong payments system
* Control the amount of [[currency]] that is made and destroyed on a day to day basis (in conjunction with the [[United States Mint|Mint]] and [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]])
Other tasks include:
* Economic research
* Economic education
* Community outreach
== Organization of the Federal Reserve ==
[[Image:Eccles Building south side.jpg|thumb|300px|Federal Reserve headquarters, Eccles Building, Washington, DC.]]
The basic structure of the Federal Reserve System includes:
*The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System;
*The [[Federal Open Market Committee]];
*The Federal Reserve Banks;
*The member banks.
Each Federal Reserve Bank and each member bank of the Federal Reserve System is subject to oversight by a Board of Governors (see generally {{usc|12|248}}). The 7 members of the board are appointed by the [[President of the United States|President]] and confirmed by the [[United States Senate|Senate]]. See {{usc|12|241}}. Members are selected to terms of 14 years (unless removed by the President for cause), with the ability to serve for no more than one term. See {{usc|12|242}}. A governor may serve the remainder of another governor's term in addition to his or her own full term.
The current members of the [[Board of Governors]] are:
*[[Ben Bernanke]], Chairman
*[[Roger W. Ferguson, Jr.]], Vice-Chairman
*[[Susan Bies]]
*[[Donald Kohn]]
*[[Mark Olson]]
After the retirement of [[Alan Greenspan]] and the reappointment of [[Ben Bernanke]], two positions on the Board remain open.
As of Februrary 22, 2006 Vice-Chairman Roger W. Ferguson, Jr the last remaining Democrat on the Reserve board resigned.
The [[Federal Open Market Committee]] (FOMC) comprises the 7 members of the board of governors and 5 representatives selected from the Federal Reserve Banks. The representative from the 2nd District, [[New York]], is a permanent member, while the rest of the banks rotate on two and three year intervals.
== Control of the Money Supply==
The Federal Reserve controls the size of the money supply by conducting [[Open Market Operations]], in which the Federal Reserve engages in the lending or purchasing of specific types of securities with authorized participants, known as the Fed's [[primary dealers]]. All Open Market Operations in the United States are conducted by the Open Market Desk at the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] with an aim to making the [[federal funds rate]] as close to the target rate as possible. For a detailed look at the process by which changes to a reserve account held at the Fed affect the wider monetary supply of the economy, see [[money creation]].
The Open Market Desk has two main tools to adjust the monetary supply, repurchase agreements and outright transactions.
To smooth temporary or cyclical changes in the monetary supply, the desk engages in [[repurchase agreement]]s (repos) with its primary dealers. Repos are essentially secured, short-term lending by the Fed. On the day of the transaction, the Fed deposits money in a primary dealer’s reserve account, and receives the promised securities as collateral. When the transaction matures, the process unwinds: the Fed returns the collateral and charges the primary dealer’s reserve account for the principal and accrued interest. The term of the repo (the time between settlement and maturity) can vary from 1 day (called an overnight repo) to 65 days, though the Fed will most commonly conduct overnight and 14-day repos.
Since there is an increase of bank reserves during the term of the repo, repos temporarily increase the money supply. The effect is temporary since all repo transactions unwind, with the only lasting net effect being a slight depletion of reserves caused by the accrued interest (think one day of interest at a 4.5% annual yield, or (.045/365) = .00012). The Fed has conducted repos almost daily in 2004-2005, but can also conduct reverse repos to temporarily shrink the money supply.
In a reverse repo the Fed will borrow money from the reserve accounts of primary dealers in exchange for [[Treasury security|Treasury securities]] as collateral. At maturity, the Fed will return the money to the reserve accounts with the accrued interest, and collect the collateral. Since this drains reserves, reverse repos temporarily contract the monetary supply, except, again, for the extremely small lasting increase caused by the accrued interest.
The other main tool available to the Open Market Desk is the outright transaction. Outrights differ from repos in that they permanently alter the money supply. Outright transactions overwhelmingly involve the purchase of Treasury securities in the secondary market.
In an outright purchase, the Fed will buy Treasury securities from primary dealers and finance these purchases by depositing newly created money in the dealer’s reserve account at the Fed. Since this operation does not unwind at the end of a set period, the resulting growth in the monetary supply is permanent. The Fed also has the authority to sell Treasuries in an outright, but this has been exceedingly rare since the 1980's. The sale of Treasury securities results in a permanent decrease in the money supply, as the money used as payment for the securities from the primary dealers is removed from their reserve accounts, thus working the money multiplier (see [[Money creation]]) process in reverse.
== Discount rates ==
[[Image:Federal Funds Rate (effective).png|thumb|right|250px|The effective federal funds rate charted over fifty years]]
The Federal Reserve implements [[monetary policy]] largely by targeting the [[federal funds rate]]. This is the rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans of [[federal funds]], which are the reserves held by banks at the Fed.
The Federal Reserve also directly sets the [[discount rate#Monetary Policy|discount rate]], which is the interest rate that banks pay the Fed to borrow directly from it. However, a bank will prefer to borrow Fed funds from another bank, rather than from the Fed at the normally higher discount rate, which might suggest problems with the bank's credit-worthiness or solvency.
Both of these rates influence the [[Wall Street Journal prime rate|prime rate]] which is usually about 3 percentage points higher than the federal funds rate. The prime rate is the rate that most banks price their loans at for their best customers.
Lower interest rates stimulate economic activity by lowering the cost of borrowing, making it easier for consumers and businesses to buy and build. Higher interest rates slow the economy by increasing the cost of borrowing. (See [[monetary policy]] for a fuller explanation.)
The Federal Reserve usually adjusts the federal funds rate by 0.25% or 0.50% at a time. From early 2001 to mid 2003 the Federal Reserve lowered its interest rates 13 times, from 6.25 to 1.00%, to fight [[recession]]. In [[November]] [[2002]], rates were cut to 1.75, and many interest rates went below the [[inflation]] rate. (This is known as a ''negative'' real interest rate, because money paid back from a loan with an interest rate less than inflation has lower purchasing power than it had before the loan.) On [[June 25]], [[2003]], the federal funds rate was lowered to 1.00%, its lowest nominal rate since July, 1958, when the overnight rate averaged 0.68%. Starting at the end of [[June]], [[As of 2004|2004]], the Federal Reserve started to raise the target interest rate. As of February 2006, the rate is at 4.50%; this is the result of fourteen 0.25% increases.
The Federal Reserve might also attempt to use [[open market operations]] to change long-term interest rates, but its "buying power" on the market is significantly smaller than that of private institutions. The Fed can also attempt to "jawbone" the markets into moving towards the Fed's desired rates, but this is not always effective.
== The Federal Reserve Banks and the member banks ==
[[Image:US_fed_res_regions.gif|thumb|right|250px|Federal Reserve Regions]]
The twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, which were established by the Congress as the operating arms of the nation's central banking system, are organized much like private corporations&mdash;possibly leading to some confusion about &#8220;ownership.&#8221; For example, the Reserve Banks issue shares of stock to member banks. However, owning Reserve Bank stock is quite different from owning stock in a private company. The Reserve Banks are not operated for profit, and ownership of a certain amount of stock is, by law, a condition of membership in the System. The stock may not be sold or traded or pledged as security for a loan; dividends are, by law, limited to 6% per year.[http://minneapolisfed.org/info/sys/faq/frs.cfm#3] The largest of the Reserve Banks, in terms of assets, is the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]], which is responsible for the Second District covering the state of [[New |
Fernsehturm|Berlin Television Tower]] <!-- [http://www.berlinerfernsehturm.de/] --> &mdash; 368-m (1,207 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) high television tower, built in 1969 close to [[Alexanderplatz]]. The entire city can be viewed from its 204-m (669 ft) high observation platform. Tallest building in Germany, second tallest in Europe.
*[[Grunewaldturm]] <!-- [http://www.grunewaldturm.de] --> &mdash; this 59-m (194 ft) high historic tower stands on a hill in Grunewald forest close to [[Wannsee]] lake.
*[[Französischer Dom]] <!-- [http://www.franzoesischer-dom-berlin.de] --> &mdash; located on [[Gendarmenmarkt]] in the very heart of the city, the platform of the cathedral offers unique views.
*[[Bierpinsel]] &mdash; literally "Beer Brush". 1970s style tower in the Berlin Borough of [[Steglitz-Zehlendorf|Steglitz]] with a café and bar at the top giving views over south-western Berlin.
*Restaurant of the [[Forum Hotel Berlin]]
*[[Berliner Dom]] <!-- [http://www.berliner-dom.de] --> &mdash; [[Protestant]] [[cathedral]] situated next to the [[Lustgarten]], with a circular observation platform around the dome.
*[[Bell tower Olympic Stadium Berlin|Bell tower at the Olympic Stadium]] <!-- [http://www.glockenturm.de] --> &mdash; part of the [[Reichssportfeld]] complex, the tower offers a view of the [[Olympic Stadium, Berlin|Olympic Stadium]] and also of the [[Waldbühne]], an open-air stage.
*[[Siegessäule]] <!-- [http://www.berlin-tourist-information.de/cgi-bin/sehenswertes.pl?id=13353] --> &mdash; the monument at the [[Großer Stern]] situated in the middle of the [[Tiergarten]] Park where it was relocated in 1938&ndash;39 from its previous position in front of the [[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag]].
*[[Müggelturm]] &mdash; a tower giving panoramic views over the [[Müggelsee]] lake.
*[[Reichstag building]]&mdash; the roof of the parliament building, crowned by a large glass [[cupola]] designed by Sir [[Norman Foster]] is open to the public giving an impressive view over the city, especially at night.
*[[Viktoriapark]] &mdash; the hilltop monument in this park in [[Kreuzberg]] provides a terrestrial viewpoint over many of the southern regions of the city.
===Other interesting structures (not accessible to public)===
[[Image:Berlin Oberbaumbruecke.jpg|thumb|200px|Oberbaum Bridge]]
*[[Fernmeldeturm Berlin]] (Berlin Telephone Tower)
*[[Richtfunkstelle Berlin-Frohnau]]
*[[Transmitter Berlin-Britz]]
*[[Radio mast Berlin-Scholzplatz]]
*[[Transmitter Berlin-Alley of Stallupone]]
*[[Radio mast Berlin-Olympiastadium]]
*[[Radar facility Berlin-Teufelsberg]]
*[[Berlin-Müggelberge TV Tower]]
*[[Power station Berlin-Wilmersdorf]]
*[[Power station Reutter]]
===Famous streets and boulevards===
[[Image:Berlin mem.jpg|200px|thumb|Kaiser-Wilhelm-II-Kirche, the Berlin Memorial Church]]
*[[Unter den Linden]] is the street that heads east from the Brandenburg Gate. Many Classical buildings line the street. Part of [[Humboldt University]] is located there.
*[[Friedrichstraße]], Berlin's legendary street of the "Golden Twenties" which combines the tradition of the last century with modern architecture of today's Berlin.
*[[Kurfürstendamm]] (Ku'damm), with the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche ([[Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church]]), which lies right at the top end of Kurfürstendamm, on Breitscheidplatz (underground station Kurfürstendamm). The church was bombed out in World War II and its ruins have been preserved in their damaged state. Near by is the [[Ka-De-We]] Berlin's equivalent to London's [[Harrods]]. Also nearby is the [[Zoologischer Garten Berlin |Zoologischer Garten]], a zoo with a large number of species.
*The [[Straße des 17. Juni]] connects the Brandenburg Gate in the East and Ernst-Reuter-Platz in the West, commemorating the uprisings in [[East Berlin]] of [[17 June]] [[1953]]. It features the golden ''Siegessäule'' (Statue of Victory), which used to stand in front of the ''[[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag]]''.
*The [[Karl-Marx-Allee]] (formerly Stalinalle), a boulevard lined by monumental landmark buildings designed in the Socialist Classicism of the [[Stalin]] era. It is located in [[Friedrichshain]] and [[Mitte]].
===Street lighting===
Berlin is unique in that it still has around 43,800 [[gas lamp]] standards in working order, usually to be found on back streets and historically sensitive places. The first 1,800 lanterns were erected by the English Gas Company in 1826. Operation of the Gas lamps was taken over by the City Authorities in 1847. The first electric street lighting appeared around 1880. Between 1963 and 1982 replacement of the gas lamps in East Berlin was completed apart from a few remaining streets in [[Köpenick]]. In West Berlin the reverse was the situation, new styles of gas lamp standards being introduced as late as the 1950s. There was a debate in the late 1970´s on whether replacement with electric lighting should go ahead, but public opinion was against it. This debate was revived again in 2005, due to rising costs of gas, but no definite decision on replacement has been made. There is an open-air collection of working gas lamps in Tiergarten near to S-Bahnhof Tiergarten, which as well as displaying historic examples from Berlin and other German cities also has examples from other European cities. [http://www.dtmb.de/Aktuelles/Kooperationen/Laternen/body.html]
==Quotes concerning Berlin==
<center>''"Berlin ist arm, aber sexy." ("Berlin is poor, but sexy.")''<br> <small>([[Klaus Wowereit]], Governing Mayor, in a television interview, 2004)</small><br>
''" [[Ich bin ein Berliner]]."''<br> <small>([[John F. Kennedy]], President of the USA, 1963 while visiting Berlin)</small><br>
''"Ihr Völker der Welt ... schaut auf diese Stadt!" ("Peoples of the world ... look at this city!")''<br><small>([[Ernst Reuter]], Governing Mayor, during the [[Berlin blockade]], 1948)</small>
''"[[Mikhail Gorbachev|Mr. Gorbachev]], [[Tear down this wall]]!"''<br><small>([[Ronald Reagan]], President of the United States, speech at the Brandenburg Gate, 1987)</small>
''"Ich hab noch einen Koffer in Berlin" ("I still keep a suitcase in Berlin")''<br><small>([[Marlene Dietrich]], actress and singer born 1901 in Berlin-[[Schöneberg]])</small>
''"Paris is always Paris and Berlin is never Berlin!"''<br><small>([[Jack Lang (French politician)|Jack Lang]], French former culture minister, talking about how fast Berlin is changing, 2001)</small>
''"What could have possessed people to found a city in the middle of all this sand?"''<br><small>([[Stendhal]], French writer who travelled extensively in Germany and elsewhere)
''"Berlin is a city that never is, but is always in the process of becoming."''<br><small>([[Karl Scheffler]], author of ''Berlin: Ein Stadtschicksal'')</small>
</center>
== Twin Cities ==
{|
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Los Angeles]], [[United States]], since 1967
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Paris]], [[France]], since 1987
* {{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Madrid]], [[Spain]], since 1988
* {{flagicon|Turkey}} - [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], since 1988
* {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Moscow]], [[Russia]], since 1990
* {{flagicon|Poland}} - [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]], since 1991
* {{flagicon|Hungary}} - [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]], since 1991
* {{flagicon|Belgium}} - [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]], since 1992
* {{flagicon|Indonesia}} - [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]], since 1993
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Uzbekistan}} - [[Tashkent]], [[Uzbekistan]], since 1993
* {{flagicon|Mexico}} - [[Mexico City]], [[Mexico]], since 1993
* {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Beijing]](Peking), [[China]], since 1994
* {{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]], since 1994
* {{flagicon|Argentina}} - [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]], since 1994
* {{flagicon|Czech Republic}} - [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]], since 1995
* {{flagicon|Namibia}} - [[Windhoek]], [[Namibia]], since 2000
* {{flagicon|UK}} - [[London]], [[United Kingdom]], since 2000
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], [[United States]], since 2005
|}
==See also==
*[[1920s Berlin]]
*[[Berlin Wall]]
*[[Berlin Wine Tasting of 2004]]
==References==
* [http://www-genesis.destatis.de/ German Federal Statistical Office]
* [http://www.dwd.de/de/FundE/Klima/KLIS/daten/online/nat/index.htm Climate data from the German Weather Service]
* [http://www.statistik-berlin.de/ Berlin State Statistical Office]
* [http://library.fes.de/fulltext/managerkreis/00939.htm#E283E1 Die Zukunft der Region Berlin-Brandenburg]
* Tertius Chandler, ''Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census''. Lewiston, N.Y.: St. Davids University Press, 1987.
* Ribbe, Wolfgang (editor), ''Geschichte Berlins'' (2 volumes). Munich: C.H. Beck, 1987.
* Read, Anthony, and David Fisher, ''Berlin Rising: Biography of a City''. New York: W.W. Norton, 1994.
* Large, David Clay, ''Berlin''. New York: Basic Books, 2000.
* Gross, Leonard, ''The Last Jews in Berlin''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982.
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Berlin}}
{{Wikitravel}}
*[http://www.berlin.de/english/index.html Official Website]
*[http://www.berlinonline.de/ Berlin Online Berlin's information web site]
*[http://www.alt-berlin.info/ Alt-Berlin - Extensive archive of historical maps of Berlin, from 1738 to the present day - in German and English]
*[http://germany.archiseek.com/brandenburg/berlin/index.html Architecture of Berlin]
*[http://www.statistik-berlin.de Berlin statistics - in German]
*[http://www.panorama-cities.net/berlin/berlin.html City Panoramas - Panoramic Views of Berlin's Highlights]
*[http://www.stadtentwicklung.berli |
nder inhuman conditions in German prisoner-of-war camps, or were shipped to extermination camps for execution simply because they were of Slavic extraction. Thousands of Soviet peasant villages were annihilated by German troops for more or less the same reason. Bodan Wytwycky estimated that as many as one quarter of all Soviet civilian deaths at the hands of the Nazis and their allies were racially motivated, or 3 million [[Ukrainian]] deaths and 1.5 million [[Belarus|Belarusian]] deaths.{{ref|soviet}}
At the same time, not all Slavs were targeted by the Nazis. The Slavs of Croatia and Slovakia were allies of Nazi Germany, and participated as collaborators in the Holocaust.
=== Roma, Sinti, and Manush ('Gypsies') ===
{{main|Porajmos}}
[[Image:Porajmos.jpg|thumb|250px|Gypsy arrivals in the [[Belzec]] death camp await instructions]]
Proportional to their population, the death toll of Romanies ([[Roma]], [[Sinti]], and [[Manush]]) in the Holocaust was the worst of any group of victims. Hitler's campaign of [[genocide]] against the Romani population of Europe involved a particularly bizarre application of Nazi "[[racial hygiene]]". Although, despite discriminatory measures, some Romani groups, including some of the [[Sinti]] and [[Lalleri]] of Germany, were spared deportation and death, the remaining Romani groups suffered much like the Jews. Between a quarter and a half of the Romani population was killed, upwards of 220,000 people.{{ref|hancock}} In [[Eastern Europe]], Roma were deported to the Jewish ghettoes, shot by SS ''Einsatzgruppen'' in their villages, and deported and gassed in Auschwitz and Treblinka.
=== Communists ===
About 100,000 [[communism|communists]] were killed. There had been earlier attempts at sterilizing them using X-rays.
===Gay men===
{{main|History of Gays during the Holocaust}}
Gay ([[Homosexuality|homosexual]]) men were also targets of the Holocaust, as homosexuality was deemed incompatible with [[Nazism]] because of their failure to reproduce the "master race." This was combined with [[homophobia]] and the belief among the Nazis that homosexuality could be contagious.
Initially homosexuality was discreetly tolerated while officially shunned, and the early Nazi leadership included a number of known homosexuals. By 1936, however, homosexual members of the party had been purged and [[Heinrich Himmler]] led an effort to persecute gays under existing and new anti-gay laws.
More than one million gay German men were targeted, of whom at least 100,000 were arrested and 50,000 were serving prison terms as convicted gay men. An additional unknown number were institutionalized in state-run mental hospitals. Hundreds of European gay men living under Nazi occupation were castrated under court order. The deaths of at least an estimated 15,000 gay men in concentration camps were officially documented, but it is difficult to put an exact number on just how many gay men perished in death camps. Some gay men were also used in medical experiments. According to Heinz Heger, in the concentration camps gay men "suffered a higher mortality rate than other relatively small victim groups, such as Jehovah's Witnesses and political prisoners."{{ref|pinktriangle}}. Lesbians were not normally treated as harshly as gay men. They were labeled "anti-social," but were rarely sent to camps for the engaging in homosexuality.
===Religious groups===
The Nazis also targeted some religious groups, though no religious group (outside of the Jews) was actually targeted for extermination during the Holocaust. Around 1,200 [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] perished in concentration camps, where they were held for political and ideological reasons (see [[Jehovah's Witnesses and the Holocaust]]). Additionally, some members of the Catholic clergy were killed by the Nazis, most of these were either of Jewish background, as in the case of [[Edith Stein]], or they were killed as part of the Nazis campaign against the Polish intelligensia. Some dissenting Protestant clergy, such as those who founded the anti-Nazi [[Confessing Church]], were also persecuted.
===Disabled people===
Several hundred thousand mentally and physically disabled people also were exterminated. The Nazis believed that the disabled were a burden to society because they needed to be cared for by others, but first and foremost, the mentally and physically handicapped were considered an affront to Nazi notions of a society peopled by a perfect, superhuman Aryan race. Around 400,000 individuals were [[compulsory sterilization|sterilized against their will]] for having mental deficiencies or illnesses deemed to be hereditary in nature. People with disabilities were among the first to be killed, and the United States Holocaust Memorial museum notes that the T-4 Program became the "model" for future exterminations by the Nazi regime.{{ref|euth}} The [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]] was established in 1939 in order to maintain the "purity" of the so-called [[Aryan race|Aryan]] race by systematically killing children and adults born with physical deformities or suffering from mental illness.
===Others===
[[Blacks|Black]] and [[Asian]] residents in Germany, and black prisoners of war, were also victims; often being singled out in internment camps. {{ref|blacks}} However, [[Japan]] was part of the Axis Pact with Germany, and no Japanese were known to be deliberately imprisoned or killed.
== Death toll ==
[[Image:Gen Eisenhower at death camp report.jpg|thumb|275px|right|General (later US President) [[Dwight Eisenhower]] inspecting prisoners' corpses at a liberated concentration camp, 1945]]
The exact number of people killed by the Nazi regime may never be known, but scholars, using a variety of methods of determining the death toll, have generally agreed upon common range of the number of victims. Recently declassified [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] documents have indicated the total may be somewhat higher than previously believed{{ref|JP}}. However, the following estimates are considered to be highly reliable. The estimates:
* 5.1&ndash;6.0 million Jews, including 3.0&ndash;3.5 million Polish Jews{{ref|howmany}}
* 1.8 &ndash;1.9 million [[Gentile]] Poles (includes all those killed in executions or those that died in prisons, labor, and concentration camps, as well as civilians killed in the 1939 invasion and the 1944 [[Warsaw Uprising]]){{ref|polishvictims}}
* 200,000&ndash;800,000 Roma & Sinti
* 200,000&ndash;300,000 people with disabilities
* 10,000&ndash;25,000 homosexual men
* 2,000 Jehovah's Witnesses
[[Raul Hilberg]], in the third edition of his ground-breaking three-volume work, ''[[The Destruction of the European Jews]]'', estimates that 5.1 million Jews died during the Holocaust. This figure includes "over 800,000" who died from "Ghettoization and general privation;" 1,400,000 who were killed in "Open-air shootings;" and "up to 2,900,000" who perished in camps. Hilberg estimates the death toll in Poland at "up to 3,000,000."{{ref|Hilberg}} } Hilberg's numbers are generally considered to be a conservative estimate, as they generally include only those deaths for which some records are available, avoiding statistical adjustment.{{ref|Hilberg2}} British historian [[Martin Gilbert]] used a similar approach in his ''Atlas of the Holocaust,'' but arrived at a number of 5.75 million Jewish victims, since he estimated higher numbers of Jews killed in Russia and other locations.{{ref|Gilbert}}
[[Image:Coffinmap.jpg|thumb|275px|right|Map titled "Jewish Executions Carried Out by [[Einsatzgruppe]] A" from the December 1941 [[Einsatzgruppen#The_Jager_Report|Jager Report]] by the commander of a [[Einsatzgruppen|Nazi death squad]]. Marked "Secret Reich Matter," the map shows the number of Jews shot in the [[Baltic countries|Baltic region]], and reads at the bottom: ''"the estimated number of Jews still on hand is 128,000"''. [[Estonia]] is marked as ''[[judenfrei]]''.]]
[[Lucy Davidowicz]] used pre-war census figures to estimate that 5.934 million Jews died. Using official census counts may cause an underestimate since many births and deaths were not recorded in small towns and villages. Another reason some consider her estimate too low is that many records were destroyed during the war. Her listing of deaths by country is available in the article about her book, ''[[The War Against the Jews]]''.{{Ref|Davidowicz}}
One of the most authoritative German scholars of the Holocaust, Prof. Wolfgang Benz of the Technical University of Berlin, cites between 5.3 and 6.2 million Jews killed in ''Dimension des Volksmords'' (1991), while Yisrael Gutman and Robert Rozett estimate between 5.59 and 5.86 million Jewish victims in their ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust'' (1990).{{ref|BenzGutman}}
The following groups of people were also killed by the Nazi regime, but there is little evidence that the Nazis planned to systematically target them for genocide as was the case for the groups above.
* 3.5&ndash;6 million other Slavic civilians
* 2.5&ndash;4 million Soviet [[Prisoner of war|POWs]]
* 1&ndash;1.5 million political dissidents
Additionally, the Nazis' allies, the [[Ustaša]] regime in [[Croatia]] conducted its own campaign of mass extermination against the [[Serbs]] in the areas which it controlled, resulting in the deaths of at least 330,000&ndash;390,000 Serbs.
The summary of various sources' estimates on the number of Nazi regime victims is given in Matthew White's online [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Hitler atlas of 20th century history].
===Searching for records of victims===
Initially after [[World War II]], there were millions of members of families broken up by the war or the Holocaust searching for some record of the fate and/or whereabouts of their mi |
were alike involved in one common fate.
In the summary account of this vast devastation, given in one of the inscriptions on the [[Monument to the Great Fire of London|Monument]], and which was drawn up from the reports of the surveyors appointed after the fire, it is stated, that:
<blockquote> The ruins of the city were 436 acres (1.8&nbsp;km&sup2;), viz. 333 acres (1.3&nbsp;km&sup2;) within the walls, and 63 acres (255,000&nbsp;m&sup2;) in the liberties of the city; that, of the six-and-twenty wards, it utterly destroyed fifteen, and left eight others shattered and half burnt; and that it consumed 400 streets, 13,200 dwelling-houses, 89 churches [besides chapels]; 4 of the city gates, Guildhall, many public structures, hospitals, schools, libraries, and a vast number of stately edifices. </blockquote>
The value of the property destroyed in the fire has been estimated as exceeding ten million [[pound sterling|pounds]]. As well as the buildings, this included irreplaceable treasures such as paintings and books: Pepys, for example, gives an account of the loss of the entire stock (and subsequently the financial ruin) of his own preferred bookseller. Despite the immediate destruction caused by the fire, it is nevertheless claimed that its ''remote effects'' have benefitted subsequent generations: for instance, it completed the destruction of the ''[[Great Plague]]'' which, greatly in decline by 1666, had taken the lives of 68,590 people, the previous year; and it also led to the building of some notable new buildings, such as the new St. Paul's Cathedral.
The following remarks regarding the fire are recorded:
Mr. Malcom, in ''"Anecdotes of the Manners and Customs of London in the Eighteenth Century,"'' (vol. ii. p. 378), says:
<blockquote>
Heaven be praised old London ''was burnt''. Good reader, turn to the ancient prints, in order to see what it has been; observe those hovels convulsed; imagine the chambers within them, and wonder why the plague, the leprosy, and the sweating-sickness raged. Turn then to the prints illustrative of our present dwellings, and be happy. The misery of 1665 must have operated on the minds of the legislature and the citizens, when they rebuilt and inhabited their houses. The former enacted many salutary clauses for the preservation of health, and would have done more, had not the public rejected that which was for their benefit; those who preferred high habitations and narrow dark streets had them. It is only to be lamented that we are compelled to suffer for their folly. These errors are now frequently partially removed by the exertion of the [[Corporation of London]]; but a complete reformation is impossible. It is to the improved dwellings composed of brick, the wainscot or papered walls, the high ceilings, the boarded floors, and large windows, and cleanliness, that we are indebted for the general preservation of health since 1666. From that auspicious year the very existence of the natives of London improved; their bodies moved in a large space of pure air; and, finding every thing clean and new around them, they determined to keep them so. Previously-unknown luxuries and improvements in furniture were suggested; and a man of moderate fortune saw his house vie with, nay, superior to, the old palaces of his governors. When he paced his streets, he felt the genial western breeze pass him, rich with the perfumes of the country, instead of the stench described by Erasmus; and looking upward, he beheld the beautiful blue of the air, variegated with fleecy clouds, in place of projecting black beams and plaster, obscured by vapour and smoke.
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
The streets of London must have been dangerously dark during the winter nights before it was burnt; lanterns with candles were very sparingly scattered, nor was light much better distributed even in the new streets previously to the 18th century. Globular lamps were introduced by Michael Cole, who obtained a patent in July, [[1708]].
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
We conclude the illustrations of this day with a singular opinion of the author just quoted. Speaking of the burning of London, he says, "This subject may be allowed to be familiar to me, and I have perhaps had more than common means of judging; and I now declare it to be my full and decided opinion, that London was ''burnt by government, to annihilate the plague,'' which was grafted in every crevice of the hateful old houses composing it."
</blockquote>
==Aftermath and consequences==
The fire had a marked and varied impact on [[England|English]] society: see, for example, articles concerning [[Charles II of England]], [[Christopher Wren]] and [[Samuel Pepys]].
After the fire, a rumour began to circulate that the fire was part of a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] plot. A simple-minded [[France|French]] watchmaker named Robert "Lucky" Hubert, confessed (possibly under [[torture]]) to being an agent of the [[Pope]] and starting the fire in [[Westminster]]. He later changed his story to say that he had started it at the bakery in Pudding Lane. He was convicted, despite overwhelming evidence that he could not have started the fire, and was [[hanging|hanged]] at [[Tyburn, London|Tyburn]] on [[September 28]] [[1666]].
[[Christopher Wren]] was put in charge of re-building the city after the fire. His original plans involved rebuilding the city in brick and stone to a grid plan with continental [[piazza]]s and avenues. But because many buildings had survived to basement level, legal disputes over ownership of land ended the grid plan idea. From [[1667]], [[Parliament]] raised funds for re-building London by taxing coal, and the city was eventually rebuilt to its existing street plan, but built instead out of brick and stone and with improved [[sanitation]] and access. This is the main reason why today's London is a modern city, yet with a medieval design to its streets. Christopher Wren also re-built St Paul's Cathedral 11 years after the fire.
Lessons in fire safety were learned, and when the current [[Globe Theatre]] was opened in [[1997]], it was the first building in London with a [[thatching|thatched roof]] since The Fire.
==Cultural impact==
The [[Monument to the Great Fire of London]], known simply as The Monument, was designed by Wren and [[Robert Hooke]]. It is close to the site where the fire started&sup2;, near the northern end of [[London Bridge]]. The corner of [[Giltspur Street]] and [[Cock Lane]] where the fire ended was known as Pye Corner, and is marked by a small gilded statue known as the Fat Boy or the [[Golden Boy of Pye Corner]], supposedly a reference to the theory expounded by a non-conformist preacher who said:
<blockquote>
The calamity could not have been the [[sin]] of [[blasphemy]] for in that case it would have began at [[Billingsgate]], nor [[lewdness]] for then [[Drury Lane]] would have been first on fire nor [[lying]] for then the flames would have reached the [[City of London|City]] from [[Westminster Hall]]. No, it was occasioned by the sin of [[gluttony]] for it began at Pudding Lane and ended at Pye Corner.
</blockquote>
[[John Dryden]] commemorated the fire in his poem of [[1667]], ''[[Annus Mirabilis (poem)|Annus Mirabilis]].'' Dryden worked, in his poem, to counteract paranoia about the causes of the fire and proposed that the fire was part of a year of miracles, rather than a year of disasters. The fact that Charles was already planning to rebuild a glorious city atop the ashes and the fact that there were so few reported fatalities were, to Dryden, signs of divine favor, rather than curse.
This is an extract from the Diary of [[Samuel Pepys]]:
<blockquote>
By and by Jane comes and tells me that she hears that above 300 houses have been burned down tonight by the fire we saw, and that it is now burning down all Fish Street, by London Bridge. So I made myself ready presently, and walked to the Tower; and there got up upon one of the high places, and there I did see the houses at the end of the bridge all on fire, and an infinite great fire on this and the other side of the bridge!
</blockquote>
==Predictions of a fire in London==
There had been much prophecy of a disaster befalling London in 1666, since in [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numerals]] it included the [[Number of the Beast (numerology)|number of the Beast]] and in [[Roman numerals]] it was a declining-order list (MDCLXVI). [[Walter Gostelo]] wrote in [[1658]] "If fire make not ashes of the city, and thy bones also, conclude me a liar forever!&hellip;the decree is gone out, repent, or burn, as [[Sodom and Gomorrah|Sodom and Gomorrah]]!" It seemed to many, coming after a civil war and a plague, Revelation's third [[Four horsemen of the Apocalypse|horseman]].
Prophesies made by [[Ursula Southeil]] (Old Mother Shipton), [[William Lilly]], and [[Nostradamus]] are also sometimes claimed to predict the Great Fire.
A large fire had already burnt around the northern end of [[London Bridge]] in 1632. In 1661, [[John Evelyn]] warned of the potential for fire in the city, and in 1664, Charles II wrote to the [[Lord Mayor of London]] to suggest that enforcing building regulation would help contain fires.
==Further reading==
* Hanson, Neil (2002). ''The Dreadful Judgement: The True Story of the Great Fire of London''. ISBN 0552147893. Released in the U.S. as ''The Great Fire of London: In That Apocalyptic Year, 1666''. ISBN 0471218227.
* Robinson, Bruce. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/society/great_fire_01.shtml Red Sky at Night]. [[BBC]]'s History website. &mdash;an account of the Great Fire.
* Robert Latham and William Matthews (editors). ''The Diary of Samuel Pepys, a new and complete transcription'', published by Bell & Hyman, London, 1970&ndash;1983.
==Footnotes==
|
man Republic|Romans]], the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Venice|Venetians]], the [[Seljuk Turks]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The Aegean was the site of the original [[democracy|democracies]], and it allowed for contact between several diverse civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean.
== Geography ==
[[Image:Aegeansea.jpg|thumb|left|Satellite Image]]
The [[Aegean islands]] can be simply divided into seven groups: the [[Thracian Sea]] group, the East Aegean group, the Northern [[Sporades]], the [[Cyclades]], the [[Saronic Islands]] (or [[Argo-Saronic Islands]]), the [[Dodecanese]] and Crete. The word ''[[archipelago]]'' was originally applied specifically to these islands. Many of the Aegean islands, or chains of islands, are actually extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to [[Chios]], another extends across [[Euboea]] to [[Samos Island|Samos]], and a third extends across the [[Peloponnese]] and [[Crete]] to [[Rhodes]], dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean. Many of the islands have safe harbours and bays, but navigation through the sea is generally difficult. Many of the islands are [[volcano|volcanic]], and [[marble]] and [[iron]] are mined on other islands. The larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains. There are two islands of considerable size belonging to [[Turkey]] on the Aegean Sea: [[Bozcaada]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Τένεδος ''[[Tenedos]]'') and [[Gökçeada]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ίμβρος ''[[Imvros]]'').
The bays in gulfs counterclockwise includes on [[Crete]], the [[Mirabelli Gulf|Mirabelli]], [[Almyros Bay|Almyros]], [[Souda Bay|Souda]] and [[Gulf of Chania|Chania]] bays or gulfs, on the mainland the [[Myrtoan Sea]] to the west, the [[Saronic Gulf]] northwestward, the [[Petalies Gulf]] which connects with the [[South Euboic Sea]], the [[Pagasetic Gulf]] which connects with the [[North Euboic Sea]], the [[Thermian Gulf]] northwestward, the [[Chalkidiki]] Peninsula including the [[Cassandra Gulf|Cassandra]] and the [[Singitic Gulf]]s, northward the [[Strymonian Gulf|Strymonian]] Gulf and the [[Gulf of Kavala]] and the rest are in [[Turkey]]; [[Saros Gulf]], [[Edremit]] Gulf, Dikili Gulf, Çandarlı Gulf, [[İzmir]] Gulf, [[Kuşadası]] Gulf, Gökova Gulf, Güllük Gulf.
==Port towns==
The Aegean Sea has many ports especially on the islands, for ports, see the island chains or its gulfs and bays.
==See also==
*[[Aegean civilization]]
*[[Aegean dispute]]
*[[List of traditional Greek place names]]
[[Category:Mediterranean]]
[[ar:بحر إيجة]]
[[ast:Mar Exéu]]
[[bg:Егейско море]]
[[ca:Mar Egea]]
[[cs:Egejské moře]]
[[da:Ægæiske Hav]]
[[de:Ägäis]]
[[et:Egeuse meri]]
[[el:Αιγαίο Πέλαγος]]
[[es:Mar Egeo]]
[[eo:Egea Maro]]
[[fr:Mer Égée]]
[[gl:Mar Exeo]]
[[ko:에게 해]]
[[it:Mar Egeo]]
[[he:הים האגאי]]
[[la:Mare Aegaeum]]
[[lt:Egėjo jūra]]
[[nl:Egeïsche Zee]]
[[ja:エーゲ海]]
[[no:Egeerhavet]]
[[pl:Morze Egejskie]]
[[pt:Mar Egeu]]
[[ru:Эгейское море]]
[[sk:Egejské more]]
[[sl:Egejsko morje]]
[[sr:Егејско море]]
[[fi:Aigeianmeri]]
[[sv:Egeiska havet]]
[[tr:Ege Adaları]]
[[uk:Егейське море]]
[[zh:爱琴海]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A Clockwork Orange</title>
<id>843</id>
<revision>
<id>42121758</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:36:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trevor Andersen</username>
<id>175193</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>punct (see [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:clockworkorange2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''A Clockwork Orange'' book cover]]
''This article describes the novel by Anthony Burgess. For other uses of the term '''Clockwork Orange''', see '[[Clockwork Orange (disambiguation)]]'.
'''''A Clockwork Orange''''' is a [[science fiction]] and [[dystopian]] [[1962]] [[novel]] by [[Anthony Burgess]], and forms the basis for the [[A Clockwork Orange (film)|1971 film adaptation]] by [[Stanley Kubrick]].
It is one of Burgess's "terminal novels", written to provide posthumous income for his wife after Burgess had allegedly been diagnosed with an inoperable brain tumour.
Burgess wrote that the title came from an old [[Cockney]] expression "As queer as a clockwork orange." [[#References|&sup1;]] Due to his time serving the British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Malaya]], Burgess thought that the phrase could be used to punningly refer to a mechanically responsive (clockwork) non-human (orang, [[Malay language|Malay]] for "person"). The Italian title, "Un'Arancia ad Orologeria" was interpreted to refer to a grenade. Burgess wrote in his later introduction, "A Clockwork Orange Resucked," that a creature who can only perform good or evil is "a clockwork orange&mdash;meaning that he has the appearance of an organism lovely with colour and juice but is in fact only a clockwork toy to be wound up by [[god (monotheism)|God]] or the [[Devil]]."
In his essay "Clockwork Oranges"[[#References|&sup2;]] he says that "this title would be appropriate for a story about the application of [[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlovian]], or mechanical, laws to an organism which, like a fruit, was capable of colour and sweetness." This title alludes to the protagonist's negatively conditioned responses to feelings of evil which prevent the exercise of his free will.
The book was partly inspired by an event in [[1944]], when Burgess' pregnant wife Lynne was robbed and beaten by four [[desertion |U.S. GI deserters]] in a [[London]] street, suffering a [[miscarriage]] and chronic [[gynecology|gynaecological]] problems[[#References|&sup3;]]. According to Burgess, writing the novel was both a catharsis and an "act of charity" towards his wife's attackers - the story is narrated by and essentially sympathetic to one of the attackers rather than their victim.
==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
Set in the near future, the book centres around the life of the fifteen year old protagonist [[Alex DeLarge]]. Alex and his gang roam the streets at night, committing crimes purely for enjoyment. The crimes described in the book increase in severity, from assault, to robbery, to a fight with rival gang, culminating when the gang breaks into the house of F.D. Alexander and rapes his wife. The gang returns to a bar where Alex hits one of his gang members, Dim, as punishment for Dim's rude behaviour towards a woman who was singing the chorus of ''[[Ode to Joy]]'', classical music being Alex's other passion, apart from violence. This sparks off a tense moment between the two gang members.
The next day, after fighting Dim and George to re-establish his control of the gang following the previous night's dispute Alex agrees, on Pete's suggestion, to rob a house in a rich part of town. Alex tries to persuade the woman living in the house to open the door. The woman refuses and calls the police as a precaution. He gains access to the house through a window, but is confronted by the defiant woman, who defends herself with unexpected strength, he goes for a bust of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] and she scratches his face, he manages to knock her out with a silver statue he had previously taken. As he runs out the front door he is struck by Dim who runs off with the rest of the gang just as the police arrive. At the police station we learn that the woman has died.
In prison, Alex hears about an experimental rehabilitation programme called "the Ludovico technique", which promises that the prisoner will be released upon completion of the two week treatment and will not commit crimes afterwards and manages to become the first patient. The Ludovico technique itself is a form of [[aversion therapy]], where Alex is given a drug that induces extreme nausea while being forced to watch graphically violent films. At the end of the treatment Alex is unable to carry out or even contemplate violent acts as doing so induces crippling nausea.
He is released from prison, but upon returning home he is rejected by his parents. Dejected, Alex contemplates suicide, going to the public library in order to discover what sort of poison he might take to end his life. There he is spotted by one of his former victims, who accompanied by his friends extracts his revenge. Alex is unable to strike back and the police is alerted. The police arrive, but they turn out to be Dim, and Billy Boy, the former leader of a rival gang. They take Alex, beat him up and dump him by the side of the road out in the country.
Alex stumbles to the nearest house for help, which turns out to be that of F.D. Alexander, whose wife Alex had raped and beaten earlier in the book. At first Alex is not recognised as he had always worn a mask, but the reader discovers that F.D. Alexander is in a wheel chair and his wife died from her injuries. Realising that Alex is the same person who had attacked him and his wife some years ago, F.D. Alexander drugs him, locks him in a room and plays Beethoven’s [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|9th Symphony]] at full volume. Although previously his favourite piece of music the Ninth was also used as a soundtrack for one of the films that Alex was forced to watch as part of the Ludovico treatment, hence it produces the same nauseating effects on him. Unable to stand the pain Alex throws himself out of the window to try to kill himself. He survives the fall with broken bones and wakes up in hospital informed that his tormentors have been arrested and the Ludovico treatment reversed.
The final chapter begins identically to the first, Alex having formed a new gang and reverted to his previous criminality. But on this particular night he decides not to join them and goes for a walk on his own instead. In a cafe he bumps into one of his old gang member Pete, who is married and has become a respectable member of society. Pete's wife giggles at Alex's rhetoric, and asks Pete "why does he speak like |
alorie'' was adopted by the Fifth International Conference on Properties of Steam (London, July 1956), with 1&nbsp;Mcal<sub>IT</sub> = 1.163&nbsp;kWh (exactly).
|-
|thermochemical calorie
|cal<sub>th</sub>
|1 cal<sub>th</sub> = 4.184&nbsp;J
|
|}
Other historic definitions include
* the 4 °C calorie, and
* the mean 0 °C to 100 °C calorie.
Of all these, what is most commonly meant by calorie in contemporary English text is the 15&nbsp;°C calorie. Since these many definitions are a source of confusion and error, all calories are now [[deprecate]]d, especially for precise measurements. The [[SI|International System of Units (SI)]] unit for heat (and for all other forms of energy) is the [[joule]] (J).
In nutrition, the difference between these calorie definitions is of no practical relevance, because nutritional calories are not measured amounts of energy, but are calculated from food composition. This calculation uses internationally agreed conventional conversion factors, which are generously rounded values that roughly approximate the average energy density of a large number of different food samples. The exact composition of agricultural products varies ''far'' more than the less than 0.1% difference between the above definitions of the calorie as a physical energy measure.
== Trivia ==
* [[Unicode]] has a symbol for "cal": (&#13192;), but this is just a legacy code to accommodate old [[code page]]s in certain Asian languages, and it is not recommended for use in any language today.
* The conventional value chosen to define a ton of TNT is equal to 1 [[billion]] thermochemical calories: 1 t<sub>TNT</sub> ≡ 1 × 10<sup>9</sup> cal<sub>th</sub>. The actual energy liberated from the explosion is somewhat more; see [[megaton]].
* Human fat tissue contains about 87% [[lipids]], which store about 9 kcal/g energy. Therefore, to lose 1 kg of body-fat tissue, the energy of about 870 g pure fat has to be used up, which corresponds to about 7800 kcal (32 MJ), that is one has to create a −7800 kcal deficit between energy intake and use. (In U.S. customary units, that is about 3500 kcal per pound.)
==See also==
* [[Food energy]]
* [[Empty calorie]]
* [[ISO 31-4]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=8964 USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference - Release 18] Official publically available reference database and online search. Includes 7,146 foods and is free to download and use. This database is the one used by most websites that provide calorie information.
* [http://www.caloriefreak.com/cgi-bin/caloriefreak/search-usda.cgi CalorieFreak] - Searchable and browseable nutrition database
* [http://www.healthyweightforum.org/eng/calorie-counter/ Calorie Counter] Searchable calorie database of over 11,000 foods - Including fast food (website has pop-up ads)
* [http://www.nutritiondata.com/ NutritionData's Nutrition Facts Calorie Counter]
* [http://www.stayfitalways.com/burnfat.php Tips on Burning Calorie and Fat at home]
* [http://www.calorie-count.com/ Calorie Counter Database]
* [http://www.dietandfitnesstoday.com/ Calorie counter and calories burned database] Searchable database of over 7,000 foods and calories burned for over 600 different activities.
* [http://www.thecaloriecounter.com/ The Calorite Counter] Another site documenting the nutritional content of almost any food you eat.
==References==
* [http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21092.htm European Union regulations on nutrition labeling]
* United Kingdom [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1996/Uksi_19961499_en_1.htm Food Labelling Regulations 1996] &ndash; [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1996/Uksi_19961499_en_13.htm#sdiv7 Schedule 7: Nutrition labelling]
* United States federal food-labeling regulations [http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2004/aprqtr/21cfr101.9.htm 21CFR101.9]
* [[NIST]] Special Publication 811, Appendix B8: [http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/appenB8.html#C calorie].
* Donatelle, Rebecca J. ''Health: The Basics''. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.
[[Category:Units of energy]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[ca:Caloria]]
[[cs:Kalorie]]
[[da:Kalorie]]
[[de:Kalorie]]
[[es:Caloría]]
[[eo:Kalorio]]
[[fr:Calorie]]
[[gl:Caloría]]
[[ko:칼로리]]
[[id:Kalori]]
[[it:Caloria]]
[[he:קלוריה]]
[[lt:Kalorija]]
[[lb:Kalorie]]
[[nl:Calorie]]
[[ja:カロリー]]
[[no:Kalori]]
[[pl:Kaloria]]
[[pt:Caloria]]
[[ru:Калория]]
[[sl:Kalorija]]
[[fi:Kalori]]
[[sv:Kalori]]
[[vi:Ca-lo]]
[[tr:Kalori]]
[[zh:卡路里]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corona Australis</title>
<id>6424</id>
<revision>
<id>39431076</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T02:17:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Creidieki</username>
<id>68249</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambig Ara -> Ara (constellation)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Corona australis |
abbreviation = CrA |
genitive = Coronae Australis /<br />Coronae Austrinae|
symbology = The [[South]]ern [[Crown]]|
RA = 19 |
dec= &minus;40 |
areatotal = 128 |
arearank = 80th |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = [[Alpha Coronae Australis|&alpha; CrA]] |
starmagnitude = 4.1 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Beta Corona Austrinids]] |
bordering =
*[[Sagittarius]]
*[[Scorpius]]
*[[Ara (constellation)|Ara]]
*[[Telescopium]] |
latmax = 40 |
latmin = 90 |
month = August |
notes=}}
'''Corona Australis''' or '''Corona Austrina''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[Southern]] [[Crown]]'') was one of [[Ptolemy]]'s 48 [[constellation|constellations]], and also counts among the 88 modern constellations. The name contrasts with [[Corona Borealis]]. <!-- It is the second brightest constellation in the sky after [[Crux]], and has an overall brightness of 16.446. -->
==History==
The constellation was sometimes considered to be the crown of [[Sagittarius]], which had fallen on the ground for some reason.
==Naming mixup==
In [[1932]] the [[International Astronomical Union]] officially changed the name of this constellation to "Corona Austrina" (with genitive "Coronae Austrinae"). This may have been due to an inadvertent naming mixup which has never been corrected [http://www.ianridpath.com/constellations1.htm], but in any case the official [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] website continues to list "Corona Austrina" as the official name [http://www.iau.org/IAU/Activities/nomenclature/const.html]. In practice, the original name "Corona Australis" continues to be more widely used.
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* ([[Alpha Coronae Australis|&alpha; CrA]]) 4.11 '''''Alphekka Meridiana''''' [''Alfecca Meridiana'']
:*: < &#1601;&#1603;&#1617;&#1577; ''al-fakkah'' The broken (ring of stars)
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Beta Coronae Australis|&beta; CrA]] 4.10; [[Gamma Coronae Australis|&gamma; CrA]] &ndash; double 4.23, 4.99; [[Delta Coronae Australis|&delta; CrA]] 4.57; [[Epsilon Coronae Australis|&epsilon; CrA]] 4.83; [[Zeta Coronae Australis|&zeta; CrA]] 4.74; [[Theta Coronae Australis|&theta; CrA]] 4.63; [[Eta1 Coronae Australis|&eta;<sup>1</sup> CrA]] 5.46; [[Eta2 Coronae Australis|&eta;<sup>2</sup> CrA]] 5.60; [[Kappa1 Coronae Australis|&kappa;<sup>1</sup> CrA]] 6.31; [[Kappa2 Coronae Australis|&kappa;<sup>2</sup> CrA]] 5.67; [[Lambda Coronae Australis|&lambda; CrA]] 5.11; [[Mu Coronae Australis|&mu; CrA]] 5.20
:Other notable stars:
:* [[R Coronae Australis|R CrA]] 11.50 &ndash; variable
==References==
* ''The Cambridge Guide to the Constellations'', Michael E. Bakich, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pg. 85
{{astro-stub}}
{{ConstellationsChangedByBayer}}
{{ConstellationsNLDLAltered}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
*Corona Australis photo - [http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.astroworks.com/gallery/ST2000GAL/NGC6728.JPG&imgrefurl=http://www.astroworks.com/gallery/ST2000GAL/n6727.html&h=1200&w=1600&sz=222&tbnid=gVk3B43szMYJ:&tbnh=112&tbnw=150&hl=en&start=11&prev=/images%3Fq%3DCorona%2BAustralis%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26rls%3DGGLG,GGLG:2005-48,GGLG:en%26sa%3DN]
{{Commons|Corona Australis}}
[[Category:Corona Australis constellation| ]]
[[ca:Corona Austral]]
[[da:Sydlige Krone]]
[[de:Südliche Krone (Sternbild)]]
[[fr:Couronne australe]]
[[ko:남쪽왕관자리]]
[[it:Corona Australis]]
[[la:Corona Australis (sidus)]]
[[lt:Pietų Vainikas]]
[[hu:Déli Korona (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Zuiderkroon]]
[[ja:みなみのかんむり座]]
[[nn:Sørlege krone]]
[[pl:Korona Południowa]]
[[pt:Corona Australis]]
[[ru:Южная Корона (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Južná koruna]]
[[sv:Södra kronan]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวมงกุฎใต้]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corcovado</title>
<id>6426</id>
<revision>
<id>41622726</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:15:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MJCdetroit</username>
<id>627347</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Format per [[WP:MOSNUM]] & links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the National Park in Costa Rica see [[Corcovado National Park]]''
[[Image:corcovado_mountain.jpg|thumb|right|<br><small>''Corcovado mountain''</small>]]
'''Corcovado''', meaning "hunchback" in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], is a mountain in central [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brazil]].
Location 22°57'8.7"S 43°12'42"W.
The 710-meter (2,330&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) [[granite]] peak is located in the [[Tijuca Forest]], a national park. Corcovado mountain lies just west of the city center but is wholly within the city limits and visible from great distances. It is known worldwide for the 38-meter (125&nb |
[[Erwin Chargaff]], Austrian biochemist (d. [[2002]])
*[[1912]] - [[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]], German astronomer (d. [[1954]])
*1912 - [[Thanom Kittikachorn]], [[Prime Minister of Thailand]] (d. [[2004]])
*[[1913]] - [[Angus Wilson]], British novelist (d. [[1991]])
*[[1914]] - [[José Silva (parapsychologist)|José Silva]], author of [[Silva Method]] and the Silva UltraMind ESP System (d. [[1999]])
*[[1919]] - [[Ginette Neveu]], French violinist (d. [[1949]])
*[[1921]] - [[Alex Haley]], American historian and novelist (d. [[1992]])
*[[1926]] - [[Aaron Klug]], Lithuanian-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1928]] - [[Arlene Dahl]], American actress
*[[1932]] - [[Fernando Arrabal]], Spanish writer
*[[1933]] - [[Jerry Falwell]], American preacher and politician
*[[1943]] - [[Abigail Folger]], American heiress (d. [[1969]])
*1943 - [[Pervez Musharraf]], Pakistani general and leader
*[[1944]] - [[Ian McDiarmid]], Scottish actor
*[[1946]] - [[Marilyn vos Savant]], American newspaper columnist
*[[1950]] - [[Gennidy Nikonov]], Russian weapons inventor
*1950 - [[Steve Wozniak]], American computer pioneer
*[[1953]] - [[Hulk Hogan]], American professional wrestler
*[[1954]] - [[Joe Jackson (musician)|Joe Jackson]], English singer
*1954 - [[Juan Maria Solare]], Argentine composer and pianist
*[[1955]] - [[Sylvia Hermon]], British politician
*[[1957]] - [[Richie Ramone]], American drummer ([[The Ramones]])
*[[1964]] - [[Jim Lee]], Korean-born comic book artist and publisher
*[[1966]] - [[Nigel Martyn]], English footballer
*[[1967]] - [[Joe Rogan]], American comedian and television host
*1967 - [[Enrique Bunbury]], Spanish singer and songwriter
*[[1968]] - [[Lorenzo Bernardi]], Italian volleyball player
*[[1970]] - [[Andy Bell (musician)|Andy Bell]], English bass player ([[Oasis (band)|Oasis]])
*[[1972]] - [[Jonathon Prandi]], American model
*[[1974]] - [[Audrey Mestre]], French diver
*[[1976]] - [[Ľubomir Visnovsky]], Slovak ice hockey player
*[[1980]] - [[Lee Suggs]], American football player
*[[1987]] - [[Sidney Crosby]], Canadian NHL hockey player
*[[1993]] - [[Alyson Stoner]], American actress and dancer
==Deaths==
*[[480 BC]] - [[Leonidas]], King of Sparta
*[[897]] - [[Wilfred the Hairy]], Count of Barcelona
*[[1204]] - King [[Guttorm of Norway]] (b. [[1199]])
*[[1253]] - [[Clare of Assisi]], Italian follower of [[Francis of Assisi]] (b. [[1194]])
*[[1464]] - [[Nicholas of Cusa]], German philosopher and mathematician (b. [[1401]])
*[[1519]] - [[Johann Tetzel]], German opponent of the Reformation (b. [[1465]])
*[[1563]] - [[Bartolomé de Escobedo]], Spanish composer
*[[1578]] - [[Pedro Nunes]], Portuguese mathematician (b. [[1502]])
*[[1614]] - [[Lavinia Fontana]], Italian painter (b. [[1552]])
*[[1656]] - [[Prince Octavio Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi]], Austrian field marshal (b. [[1599]])
*[[1676]] - [[Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen]], German writer
*[[1774]] - [[Tiphaigne de la Roche]], French writer (b. [[1722]])
*[[1813]] - [[Henry James Pye]], English poet (b. [[1745]])
*[[1851]] - [[Lorenz Oken]], German naturalist (b. [[1779]])
*[[1854]] - [[Macedonio Melloni]], Italian physicist (b. [[1798]])
*[[1890]] - [[John Henry Cardinal Newman]], English Catholic cardinal (b. [[1801]])
*[[1892]] - [[Enrico Betti]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1813]])
*[[1919]] - [[Andrew Carnegie]], Scottish-born industrialist and philanthropist (b. [[1835]])
*[[1937]] - [[Edith Wharton]], American author (b. [[1862]])
*[[1939]] - [[Jean Bugatti]], Italian automobile designer (b. [[1909]])
*[[1953]] - [[Tazio Nuvolari]], Italian race car driver (b. [[1892]])
*[[1956]] - [[Jackson Pollock]], American artist (b. [[1912]])
*[[1972]] - [[Max Theiler]], South African virologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1899]])
*[[1973]] - [[Karl Ziegler]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1898]])
*[[1984]] - [[Alfred A. Knopf (person)|Alfred A. Knopf]], American publisher (b. [[1892]])
*[[1988]] - [[Anne Ramsey]], American actress (b. [[1929]])
*[[1996]] - [[Rafael Kubelik]], Czech-born conductor and composer (b. [[1914]])
*[[2003]] - [[Armand Borel]], Swiss mathematician (b. [[1923]])
*2003 - [[Herb Brooks]], American hockey coach (b. [[1937]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Taiwan]] - [[Valentine's Day]]
* [[Zimbabwe]] - Heroes Day
* [[Qi Xi]] ([[2005]], the seventh day of the seventh lunar month of the [[Chinese calendar]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/11 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050811.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
----
[[August 10]] - [[August 12]] - [[July 11]] - [[September 11]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ilo:Agosto 11]]
[[af:11 Augustus]]
[[ar:11 أغسطس]]
[[an:11 d'agosto]]
[[ast:11 d'agostu]]
[[bg:11 август]]
[[be:11 жніўня]]
[[bs:11. avgust]]
[[ca:11 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 11]]
[[cv:Çурла, 11]]
[[co:11 d'aostu]]
[[cs:11. srpen]]
[[cy:11 Awst]]
[[da:11. august]]
[[de:11. August]]
[[et:11. august]]
[[el:11 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:11 de agosto]]
[[eo:11-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 11]]
[[fo:11. august]]
[[fr:11 août]]
[[fy:11 augustus]]
[[ga:11 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:11 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 11일]]
[[hr:11. kolovoza]]
[[io:11 di agosto]]
[[id:11 Agustus]]
[[ia:11 de augusto]]
[[ie:11 august]]
[[is:11. ágúst]]
[[it:11 agosto]]
[[he:11 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:11 Agustus]]
[[ka:11 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:11 zélnika]]
[[ku:11'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 11]]
[[lb:11. August]]
[[li:11 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 11]]
[[mk:11 август]]
[[ms:11 Ogos]]
[[nap:11 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:11 augustus]]
[[ja:8月11日]]
[[no:11. august]]
[[nn:11. august]]
[[oc:11 d'agost]]
[[pl:11 sierpnia]]
[[pt:11 de Agosto]]
[[ro:11 august]]
[[ru:11 августа]]
[[sco:11 August]]
[[sq:11 Gusht]]
[[scn:11 di austu]]
[[simple:August 11]]
[[sk:11. august]]
[[sl:11. avgust]]
[[sr:11. август]]
[[fi:11. elokuuta]]
[[sv:11 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 11]]
[[tt:11. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 11]]
[[th:11 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:11 tháng 8]]
[[tr:11 Ağustos]]
[[uk:11 серпня]]
[[wa:11 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 11]]
[[zh:8月11日]]
[[pam:Agostu 11]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arcology</title>
<id>2193</id>
<revision>
<id>41276082</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T05:55:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Impaciente</username>
<id>448027</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''arcology''' is an habitat or settlement, maintaining an extremely high human [[population density]]. The term was invented by architect [[Paolo Soleri]], as a [[portmanteau]] of ''[[architecture]]'' and ''[[ecology]]''. So far these constructs exist only conceptually with experiments taking place at [[Arcosanti]] in central Arizona, USA. Popular in science fiction, arcologies are generally advocated as solutions to the problems of [[overpopulation]] and [[environmental degradation]], as they reduce the footprint of cities. Most cities spread across the Earth's surface horizontally — covering more and more land and reducing arable farmland. Arcologies would be 'vertical cities,' or, more accurately, [[three dimensional cities]].
== Development of the arcology idea ==
According to Soleri, the basic idea of an arcology stems from the idea that [[urbanization]] is claiming an excessive amount of space on [[Earth]] and that an elegant, but little practiced option, is simply to use what land we have more wisely. In ''"Arcology: The City in the Image of Man''," Soleri describes ways of compacting our city structures in three dimensions to combat two-dimensional urban sprawl. While this led to many [[science fiction]] interpretations of [[domed city|domed cities]], Soleri's ideas aren't just the "human beehive" model popular in [[science fiction]]. They also encompass vast differences in societal thinking regarding some of the same things that [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] touched upon in [[transport]], [[agriculture]] and [[commerce]]. Soleri deepened Wright's ideas of what might specifically need to be done by exploring [[Factors of production|resource]] [[consumption]] and duplication, [[land reclamation]], elimination of most private transport in favor of [[public transport]] and greater use of social resources like [[public library|public libraries]]. This concept also emphasizes, in a broader scale, more efficient use of resources and compacting of urban space to preserve the environment.
Some experts speculate that arcologies will become common in the [[information age]]. Construction methods for arcologies are being tested at [[Arcosanti]]. Otherwise, arcologies are restricted to paper proposals and fictional depictions, such as [[Larry Niven]] and [[Jerry Pournelle]]'s [[Oath of Fealty]] (novel) or as elements in [[computer and video games]], such as ''[[SimCity 2000]]'', ''[[Escape Velocity Nova]]'', and ''[[Deus Ex: Invisible War]]''.
The first arcology to be described in fiction was probably "The Last Redoubt" from ''[[The Night Land]]'' by [[William Hope Hodgson]], first published in 1912. It is a complete example of an arcology, including full artificial ecology, agriculture, and public transport by mobile roadways.
==Real-life visions==
Many cities in the world have had proposed or desired arcologies that never went far. [[Tokyo]] has had many, which are listed [http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/ci/bu/sk/li/?id=100297&bt=8&ht=2&sro=1 here].
Apparently, a new "eco-city" or self-sustaining urban centre the size of a large western capital is to be built at [[Dongtan]] near [[Shanghai]] [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/business/story/0,6903,1635188,00.html]. The first phase is on target to open by 2010 and to be "completed" by 2040.
== Arcology in popular culture ==
The computer game ''[[SimCity 2000]]'' allows the construction of four different types of arcol |
to the Pacific Ocean. The ICJ also decided that the Golfo de Fonseca does not represent international waters because of the two countries' shared history as provinces of the same colonial power and subsequent membership in the United Provinces of Central America. The court ruled, rather, that the Golfo de Fonseca is a condominium, with control being shared by El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The latter country also has a coastline on the gulf. The decision allowed for the possibility that the three nations could divide the waters at a later date if they wished to do so.
==Topography==
Honduras has three distinct topographical regions: an extensive interior highland area and two narrow coastal lowlands. The interior, which constitutes approximately 80 percent of the country's terrain, is mountainous. The larger Caribbean lowlands in the north and the Pacific lowlands bordering the Golfo de Fonseca are characterized by alluvial plains.
===Interior Highlands===
The interior highlands are the most prominent feature of Honduran topography. Composing approximately 80 percent of the country's total area, these mountain areas are home to the majority of the population. Because the rugged terrain has made the land difficult to traverse and equally difficult to cultivate, this area has not been highly developed. The soil here is poor; Honduras lacks the rich volcanic ash found in other Central American countries. Until the early part of the twentieth century, the highlands economy consisted primarily of mining and livestock.
In the west, Honduras's mountains blend into the mountain ranges of Guatemala. The western mountains have the highest peaks, with the Pico Congolón at an elevation of 2,500 meters and the Cerro de Las Minas at 2,850 meters. These mountains are woodland covered with mainly pine forests.
In the east, the mountains merge with those in Nicaragua. Although generally not as high as the mountains near the Guatemalan border, the eastern ranges possess some high peaks, such as the Montaña de la Flor at 2,300 meters, El Boquerón (Monte El Boquerón) at 2,485 meters, and Pico Bonito at 2,435 meters.
One of the most prominent features of the interior highlands is a depression that runs from the Caribbean Sea to the Golfo de Fonseca. This depression splits the country's cordilleras into eastern and western parts and provides a relatively easy transportation route across the isthmus. Widest at its northern end near San Pedro Sula, the depression narrows as it follows the upper course of the Río Humuya. Passing first through Comayagua and then through narrow passes south of the city, the depression widens again as it runs along the border of El Salvador into the Golfo de Fonseca.
Scattered throughout the interior highlands are numerous flatfloored valleys, 300 to 900 meters in elevation, which vary in size. The floors of the large valleys provide sufficient grass, shrubs, and dry woodland to support livestock and, in some cases, commercial agriculture. Subsistence agriculture has been relegated to the slopes of the valleys, with the limitations of small-sized holdings, primitive technology, and low productivity that traditionally accompany hillside cultivation. Villages and towns, including the capital, Tegucigalpa, are tucked in the larger valleys.
Vegetation in the interior highlands is varied. Much of the western, southern, and central mountains are open woodland-- supporting pine forest interspersed with some oak, scrub, and grassy clearings. The ranges toward the east are primarily continuous areas of dense, broad-leaf evergreen forest. Around the highest peaks, remnants of dense rain forest that formerly covered much of the area are still found.
==Caribbean Lowlands==
This area of river valleys and coastal plains, which most Honduras call "the north coast," or simply "the coast," has traditionally been Honduras's most exploited region. The central part of the Caribbean lowlands, east of La Ceiba, is a narrow coastal plain only a few kilometers wide. To the east and west of this section, however, the Caribbean lowlands widen and in places extend inland a considerable distance along broad river valleys. The broadest river valley, along the Río Ulúa near the Guatemalan border, is Honduras's most developed area. Both Puerto Cortés, the country's largest port, and San Pedro Sula, Honduras's industrial capital, are located here.
To the east, near the Nicaraguan border, the Caribbean lowlands broaden to an extensive area known as the Mosquitia. Unlike the western part of the Caribbean lowlands, the Mosquitia is Honduras's least-developed area. Underpopulated and culturally distinct from the rest of the country, the area consists of inland savannah with swamps and mangrove near the coast. During times of heavy rainfall, much of the savannah area is covered by shallow water, making transportation by means other than a shallow-draft boat almost impossible.
==Pacific Lowlands==
The smallest physiographic region of Honduras, the Pacific lowlands, is a strip of land averaging twenty-five kilometers wide on the north shore of the Golfo de Fonseca. The land is flat, becoming swampy near the shores of the gulf, and is composed mostly of alluvial soils washed down from the mountains. The gulf is shallow and the water rich in fish and mollusks. Mangroves along the shore make shrimp and shellfish particularly abundant by providing safe and abundant breeding areas amid their extensive networks of underwater roots.
Several islands in the gulf fall under Honduras's jurisdiction. The two largest, Zacate Grande and El Tigre, are eroded volcanoes, part of the chain of volcanoes that extends along the Pacific coast of Central America. Both islands have volcanic cones more than 700 meters in elevation that serve as markers for vessels entering Honduras's Pacific ports.
==Climate==
Although all of Honduras lies within the tropics, the climatic types of each of the three physiographic regions differ. The Caribbean lowlands have a tropical wet climate with consistently high temperatures and humidity, and rainfall fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. The Pacific lowlands have a tropical wet and dry climate with high temperatures but a distinct dry season from November through April. The interior highlands also have a distinct dry season, but, as is characteristic of a tropical highland climate, temperatures in this region decrease as elevation increases.
Unlike in more northerly latitudes, temperatures in the tropics vary primarily with elevation instead of with the season. Land below 1,000 meters is commonly known as tierra caliente (hot land), between 1,000 and 2,000 meters tierra templada (temperate land), and above 2,000 meters tierra fría (cold land). Both the Caribbean and Pacific lowlands are tierra caliente, with daytime highs averaging between 28° C and 32° C throughout the year. In the Pacific lowlands, April, the last month of the dry season, brings the warmest temperatures; the rainy season is slightly cooler, although higher humidity during the rainy season makes these months feel more uncomfortable. In the Caribbean lowlands, the only relief from the year-round heat and humidity comes during December or January when an occasional strong cold front from the north (a norte) brings several days of strong northwest winds and slightly cooler temperatures.
The interior highlands range from tierra templada to tierra fría. Tegucigalpa, in a sheltered valley and at an elevation of 1,000 meters, has a pleasant climate, with an average high temperature ranging from 30° C in April, the warmest month, to 25° C in January, the coolest. Above 2,000 meters, temperatures can fall to near freezing at night, and frost sometimes occurs.
Rain falls year round in the Caribbean lowlands but is seasonal throughout the rest of the country. Amounts are copious along the north coast, especially in the Mosquitia, where the average rainfall is 2,400 millimeters. Nearer San Pedro Sula, amounts are slightly less from November to April, but each month still has considerable precipitation. The interior highlands and Pacific lowlands have a dry season, known locally as "summer," from November to April. Almost all the rain in these regions falls during the "winter," from May to September. Total yearly amounts depend on surrounding topography; Tegucigalpa, in a sheltered valley, averages only 1,000 millimeters of precipitation.
Honduras lies within the hurricane belt, and the Caribbean coast is particularly vulnerable to hurricanes or tropical storms that travel inland from the Caribbean. Hurricane Francelia in 1969 and Tropical Storm Alleta in 1982 affected thousands of people and caused extensive damage to crops. Hurricane Fifi in 1974 was the worst natural disaster in recent Honduran history; more than 8,000 people were killed, and nearly the entire banana crop was destroyed. Hurricanes occasionally form over the Pacific and move north to affect southern Honduras, but Pacific storms are generally less severe and their landfall rarer.
==Hydrography==
''See main article [[Rivers of Honduras]]''
Honduras is a water-rich country. The most important river in Honduras is the Ulúa, which flows 400 kilometers to the Caribbean through the economically important Valle de Sula. Numerous other rivers drain the interior highlands and empty north into the Caribbean. These other rivers are important, not as transportation routes, but because of the broad fertile valleys they have produced.
Rivers also define about half of Honduras's international borders. The Río Goascorán, flowing to the Golfo de Fonseca, and the Río Lempa define part of the border between El Salvador and Honduras. The Río Coco marks about half of the border between Nicaragua and Honduras.
Despite an abundance of rivers, large bodies of water are rare. Lago de Yojoa, located in the west-central part of the country, is the sole |
ne 0
</math>
along with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation
:<math>
\lang (\Delta S_x)^2 \rang \lang (\Delta S_z)^2 \rang \ge
\frac{1}{4} \left|\lang \left[ S_x, S_z\right] \rang \right|^2
</math>
== See also ==
* [[Bell test experiments]]
* [[Bell state]]
* [[Bell's theorem]]
* [[CHSH Bell test]]
* [[Local hidden variable theory]]
* [[Quantum teleportation]]
* [[Synchronicity]]
== References ==
=== Selected papers ===
* A. Aspect, ''Bell's inequality test: more ideal than ever'', Nature '''398''' 189 (1999). [http://www-ece.rice.edu/~kono/ELEC565/Aspect_Nature.pdf]
* J.S. Bell ''On the Einstein-Poldolsky-Rosen paradox'', Physics '''1''' 195 (1964).
* J.S. Bell, ''Bertlmann's Socks and the Nature of Reality''. Journal de Physique '''42''' (1981).
* P.H. Eberhard, ''Bell's theorem without hidden variables''. Nuovo Cimento '''38B1''' 75 (1977).
* P.H. Eberhard, ''Bell's theorem and the different concepts of locality''. Nuovo Cimento '''46B''' 392 (1978).
* A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen, [http://www.drchinese.com/David/EPR.pdf ''Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete?''] Phys. Rev. '''47''' 777 (1935). [http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v47/i10/p777_1]
* A. Fine, ''Hidden Variables, Joint Probability, and the Bell Inequalities''. Phys. Rev. Lett 48, 291 (1982).
* A. Fine, ''Do Correlations need to be explained?'', in ''Philosophical Consequences of Quantum Theory: Reflections on Bell's Theorem'', edited by Cushing & McMullin (University of Notre Dame Press, 1986).
* L. Hardy, ''Nonlocality for 2 particles without inequalities for almost all entangled states''. Phys. Rev. Lett. '''71''' 1665 (1993).
* M. Mizuki, ''A classical interpretation of Bell's inequality''. Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie '''26''' 683 (2001).
* M. A. Rowe, D. Kielpinski, V. Meyer, C. A. Sackett, W. M. Itano, C. Monroe and D. J. Wineland, "Experimental violation of a Bell's inequality with efficient detection". Nature '''409''', 791-794 (15 February 2001).
=== Books ===
* J.S. Bell, ''Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics'' (Cambridge University Press, 1987). ISBN 0521368693
* J.J. Sakurai, ''Modern Quantum Mechanics'' (Addison-Wesley, 1994), pp. 174-187, 223-232. ISBN 0201539292
* F. Selleri, ''Quantum Mechanics Versus Local Realism: The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox'' (Plenum Press, New York, 1988) ISBN 0306427397
== External links ==
* A. Fine, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-epr/ ''The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory'']
* Abner Shimony, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bell-theorem/ ''Bell’s Theorem''] (2004)
*[http://www.drchinese.com/David/EPR_Bell_Aspect.htm EPR, Bell & Aspect: The Original References]
*[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Quantum/bells_inequality.html Does Bell's Inequality Principle rule out local theories of quantum mechanics?] From the Usenet Physics FAQ.
[[Category:Paradoxes]]
[[Category:Thought experiments]]
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[[Category:Albert Einstein]]
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[[pl:Paradoks EPR]]
[[ru:Парадокс Эйнштейна — Подольского — Розена]]
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[[zh:愛因斯坦-波多斯基-羅森悖論]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Encapsulation in object-oriented programming</title>
<id>10300</id>
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<timestamp>2003-05-15T03:52:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Information hiding]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Encapsulation</title>
<id>10301</id>
<revision>
<id>42146891</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:12:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cburnett</username>
<id>140084</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added network encapsulation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Encapsulation''' may refer to:
* [[information hiding]] and [[separation of concerns]], in software engineering, the process of enclosing programming elements inside larger, more abstract entities
* [[integrated circuit encapsulation]], in electronics the design and manufacture of protective packages
* [[micro-encapsulation]], means to confine material
* [[molecular encapsulation]], means to confine molecules
* [[encapsulation (pharmacology)]], to enclose medicines in a usable form
* [[encapsulation (networking)]], in [[computer network]]ing, is to include data from an [[upper layer protocol]] in a [[lower layer protocol]]
{{disambig}}
[[zh:信息隐藏]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ethnologue</title>
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<contributor>
<username>Babajobu</username>
<id>125012</id>
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<minor />
<comment>clean</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Ethnologue: Languages of the World''''' is a web and print publication of [[SIL International]] (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics), a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[linguistic]] service organization which studies lesser-known languages primarily to provide the speakers with native language biblical texts.
The Ethnologue contains statistics for 6,912 [[language]]s in the 15th edition, released in [[2005]] (up from 6,809 in the 14th edition, released [[2000]]) and gives the number of speakers, location, dialects, linguistic affiliations, availability of the [[Bible]], and so forth. It is currently the most comprehensive existing language inventory, along with the [[Linguasphere Observatory|Linguasphere Register]]. However, some information regarding more esoteric languages is quite dated.
What counts as a language depends on socio-linguistic evaluation: see [[Dialect]].
The Ethnologue provides a three-[[Latin alphabet|letter]] code, called '''SIL code''', for each language it describes. The number of SIL codes significantly exceeds those of [[ISO 639-1]] and RFC 3066. In the 15th edition they have, for the most part, synchronised the SIL codes with [[ISO 639-3]] with the exception that the ISO 639-3 codes are in lowercase while the SIL are in capital letters. There are a few exceptions where the ISO 639-3 and SIL codes differ — for example, [[Dakota]]'s SIL code: ''DHG'', ISO 639-3: ''dak'' (which is the same as Dakota's ISO 639-2 code).
The [[NPOV|neutrality]] of Ethnologue as a scientific institution is sometimes disputed, particularly in areas of language classification associated with the [[Bible]] and [[Abrahamic religion]].
Conversely, the [[NPOV|neutrality]] of Ethnologue as a scientific institution is sometimes lauded: in addition to choosing a primary name for the language, it also gives some of the names by which a language is called by its speakers, by the government, by foreigners, and by neighbors, as well as how it has been named and referenced historically, regardless of which designation is considered official, politically correct, or offensive, or by whom. This selection of "alternative names" is extensive, but often incomplete.
As is inevitable in an enterprise so enormous, the Ethnologue contains some errors, some of which it fixes at every edition; for instance, en route to the 14th edition, some languages such as [[Chenoua language|Chenoua]] were added, and some rumoured "languages" such as [[Nemadi language|Nemadi]] or [[Wutana language|Wutana]] were removed. Some possible remaining errors are discussed at [[Imraguen language]], [[Senhaja de Srair language]], [[Ghomara language]], [[Kwavi language]], [[Molengue language]], [[Yauma language]], [[Fer language]], [[Yeni language]], [[Hwla language]], and [[Ofayé]].
==Controversy==
===Linguistics===
SIL has been accused of going against general linguistic community consensus (and contrary to the opinion of the majority of the speakers themselves in some cases) as to what constitutes a separate [[language]] (as opposed to a [[dialect]]). More notable are the classification of [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] and several dialects of [[Swedish language|Swedish]] as separate languages with unique language codes. In cases like [[Scanian (linguistics)|Scanian]], the dialect does not meet the minimum criteria for mutual unintelligibility from [[Standard Swedish]]. SIL also attributes separate language status to "[[Yinglish]]", an English vernacular spoken by some Jewish Americans which is to some degree influenced by the Yiddish and Hebrew languages. Some of these classifications don't meet SIL's own professed criteria for classification.[http://www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/introduction.asp#language_id]
=== Statistics ===
Ethnologue's estimates about the number of the speakers of the languages is inconsistent with other sources. For example, in Ethnologue, the speakers of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Azerbaijani]] languages in [[Iran]] are estimated as 36% and 37%, respectively. In the [[CIA factbook]], these percentages are estimated as 51% and 24%.
==See also==
*[[Language]]
*[[List of languages]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/ Web version of ''The Ethnologue'']
** [http://www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/introduction.asp Introduction to the Printed Volume]
** [http://www.ethnologue.com/codes/default.asp Three-letter codes for identifying languages]
** [http://www.ethnologue.com/codes/updating_codes.asp Three-letter codes for identifying languages: Updating codes from the 14th Edition to the 15th Edition]
** [http://www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/introduction.asp#history Ethnologue - History]
* [http://www.olestig.dk/reviews/ethnologue.html Review of th |
а]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dictatorship</title>
<id>9033</id>
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<id>42154676</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:29:31Z</timestamp>
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<username>Naryathegreat</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Definitions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term, see [[dictator]].''
{{merge from|Dictator}}
'''Dictatorship''', in contemporary usage, refers to absolute rule by a leadership (usually one [[dictator]]) unrestricted by law, constitutions, or other social and political factors within the state.
==Definitions==
In [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] usage, a dictator referred to a constitutional extraordinary [[chief magistrate]] without a colleague in [[Ancient Rome]], who temporarily received absolute power during times of emergency. Their power was neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, however, being subject to law and requiring retrospective justification. There were no such Roman dictators after the hated [[Sulla]] (81BC), and later [[de facto]] dictators were otherwise styled (such as [[Triumvir]] and the Princeps or [[Roman Emperor]]), and exercised power more personally and arbitrarily.
Dictatorships in the modern sense tend to exert their power without any regard to the moral or ethical consequences of their actions. They hardly ever come to power by democratic means, often being installed by a [[coup d'état]] or [[revolution]]. Often they will assert that they are using their powers, like ancient Roman dictators, to deal with the enormity of some emergency, real or imagined. However, dictators and their governments rarely lay down their power once any such crisis has abated. In the lack thereof, they sometimes invent their own, such as in the [[Soviet Union]] under [[Joseph Stalin]].
Such regimes survive out of the fear the people have for the government. Dictatorships often use armed force, [[propaganda]], and arbitrary detention to enforce their will, and usually suppress any opinion which runs counter to their own. Dictators in single-party states, as opposed to [[military junta]]s, often create [[single-party state]]s without elections, or with [[Show election|rigged or heavily biased ones]].
==Power==
The existence of dictatorships often relies solely upon the power which they are capable of exerting over their citizens. Without it, they usually disintegrate or are completely ineffectual, such as the [[Bolshevik]] government of [[Russia]] shortly after it came to power. Modern dictatorships have used not only force and [[coercion]], but also the [[mass media]] as tools of control. In [[People's Republic of China|China]] for instance, a [[communism|communist]] single-party state, the government controls all news broadcast in the country, censors the internet, and often simply detains those who resist.
The cultures created by many dictatorships foster what has been termed the "[[cult of personality]]", where not only is the media controlled by the state, but serves to glorify it and its leader. In [[Nazi Germany]], a picture of [[Adolf Hitler]] appeared in nearly every building. Under [[Saddam Hussein]], every news broadcast in [[Iraq]] began with a reference to himself. Entire art museums were filled with paintings of the leader. The underlying tendency to want absolute power and control has been termed [[megalomania]]. Governments which impose absolute control and personality cults are sometimes known as [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]], a term originated by the dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] of [[Italy]].
Some dictatorships are supported by much of the general public, such as in [[Nazi Germany]]. These regimes often usher in a period of calm after civil war or economic hard times. Again, the governments justify their methods as responses to the current crisis, even after it has abated. Dictatorships rarely retain lasting support, however. Eventually the people begin to push for greater freedoms, and the dictatorship is forced to employ more coercive tactics in order to survive. Such was the case in the [[communist]] regimes of [[Eastern Europe]] during the [[Cold War]], many of which enjoyed initial popular support.
==Types==
Dictatorships are broadly divided into two types: those defined by ideology and those with no clear ideological motive, although some may be a hybrid of the two. Regimes in developed nations are more often based in some ideology, such as in [[Nazi Germany]] or the [[Soviet Union]]. Most others are [[military dictatorship]]s (popularly known as [[junta]]s), their sole purpose often being to maintain themselves. During the [[Cold War]], many Western-backed regimes in the developing world were military dictatorships, like the case of [[Augusto Pinochet]] in [[Chile]]. In contrast to both groups, the reign of the [[fascist]] [[Francisco Franco]] in [[Spain]], for example, fits completely into neither category.
==The 19th century==
In the 1860s, Queen Victoria of Great Britain expressed fears of dictatorial tendencies in PM William Gladstone.
==The 20th century==
===Interbellum===
In the twentieth century, dictatorship has been an essential pillar of [[single-party state]]s, [[military dictatorship|military regimes]], and other forms of [[authoritarianism]].
In the interwar era (between the [[First World War]] and the [[World War II|Second World War]]), [[fascism|fascist]] regimes, such as [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]]'s Italy and [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler's]] Germany, incorporated principles of dictatorship with a single-party state, mass mobilization and regimentation of social and economic activity, and arbitrary exercise of police power. The prototype of the fascist dictatorship was fashioned in Italy after [[1922]], and later emulated by [[Nazi Germany]] (beginning in [[1933]]), as well as by a number of other fascist or quasi-fascist European governments during the [[1930s]]. Fascist dictatorships were dealt a fatal blow by the defeat of the [[Axis Powers]] in World War II.
Also during the interwar era, the [[Soviet Union]] under [[Joseph Stalin]] fused dictatorship with single-party rule, mass mobilization, and arbitrary use of power. Stalin was the first modern dictator who created [[cult of personality]] around himself. The Soviet Union emerged victorious in the Second World War and entered a new phase after Stalin's death, by shifting from a personal dictatorship to a collective, though still authoritarian, leadership.
===Postwar era===
After the Second World War, which was fought in the name of eliminating fascist dictatorships, dictatorships formed in many newly independent countries as well as in the Soviet-controlled countries. In the case of most African or Asian former colonies, after achieving their independence in the postwar wave of [[decolonization]], presidential regimes were gradually transformed into personal dictatorships. These regimes often proved unstable, with [[dictator]]s being frequently overthrown and replaced in [[coup]]s. [[Military dictatorship]]s were very common, particularly in [[Latin America]] and Africa.
The collapse of communism in [[1989]] and [[1990]] led to the collapse of many dictatorships in [[eastern Europe]]. However, many of the states which resulted from the demise of the Soviet Union were controlled by authoritarian leaders, such as [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] in [[Turkmenistan]]. A number of these rulers were overthrown peacefully in the [[color revolution]]s of [[2004]] and [[2005]]; however, these ended with the government massacre of many hundreds of people in [[Uzbekistan]]. In addition, the communist regimes in [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[North Korea]], [[Laos]], and [[Vietnam]] did not fall and continue to survive. Many autocratic leaders still control countries in Africa, such as [[Robert Mugabe]] in [[Zimbabwe]], with varying degrees of democracy.
== Sources and References ==
*[[Giorgio Agamben]], ''State of Exception'' (2005)
*[[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951)
*[[Claude Lefort]]
*[[Montesquieu]]
*[[Pauly-Wissowa]]
*[[Plato]]
*[[Nicos Poulantzas]], ''Fascism and dictatorship: the Third International and the problem of fascism'' 1970
**Nicos Poulantzas, ''The crisis of the dictatorships: Portugal, Greece, Spain'' 1976
*[[Carl Schmitt]], ''On Dictatorship'' (1921)
*[[Leo Strauss]]
*[[Max Weber]]
==See also==
* [[Absolute monarchy]]
* [[Bipartidism]]
* [[Elective dictatorship]]
* [[Forms of government]]
* [[Generalissimo]]
* [[Kleptocracy]]
* [[Military dictatorship]]
* [[Military rule]]
* [[Plutocracy]]
* [[Police state]]
* [[Totalitarianism]]
* [[Unitary Executive theory]]
{{philosophy portal}}
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<page>
<title>Discworld</title>
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<comment>only 34 books until now</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Diskworld]], spelled with a "k", was a [[disk magazine]] for the [[Apple Macintosh]], later renamed Softdisk for Mac.''
[[Image:TCoM.cover.jpg|thumb|right|Cover art of [[The Colour of Magic]] by [[Josh Kirby]]]]
The '''''Discworld''''' is a [[Book series|series]] of thirty-four [[satirical]] fantasy novels and a num |
After his death, Elagabalus' religious edicts were reversed and El-Gabal was returned to Emesa. Women were barred from ever attending meetings of the Senate, and a policy of [[damnatio memoriae]] &mdash; condemning a person by erasing him or her from recorded existence &mdash; was instituted.
A [[black propaganda]] campaign against Elagabalus, traditionally attributed to Julia Avitus Mamaea, was also instituted. Many denigrating and false stories were circulated about him, and his eccentricities may have been exaggerated. The most famous among these, immortalized in the [[19th century]] painting ''[[The Roses of Heliogabalus]],'' is that he smothered guests at a dinner to death with a mass of sweet-smelling rose petals dropped from above. It is said also that Elagabalus would sometimes have a slave placed in a [[brazen bull]] while his dinner guests would be entertained by his dying screams.
The source of many of these stories of Elagabalus' debauchery is the ''[[Augustan History|Historia Augusta]]'', which scholarly consensus now feels to be unreliable in its details. Although based on kernels of truth, the claim he was transgender or transsexual is also highly dubious. Many of his contemporaries felt that he only desired men; this factor has traditionally been cited as the cause of his downfall. Sources more credible than the ''Historia Augusta,'' such as Dio and Herodian, suggest that he was at least passively [[homosexuality|homosexual]], but to what extent, if any, is unknowable today. His zealous religious fervor seems to have been widely accepted and is not the subject of much debate today.
As to his acts of cruelty, some scholars point to the account of the [[Christian]] historian [[Sextus Julius Africanus]], whose request that Elagabalus rebuild his hometown of [[Emmaus]] ([[Nicopolis]]) was granted. It is also worth noting that the Senate granted him the rare honor [[Pater Patriae]] ("father of the fatherland") and that he ruled longer than many of his predecessors, though his enemy and direct predecessor [[Macrinus]] also received the Pater Patriae and his successor Severus Alexander ruled longer.
=== Cultural influence ===
Due to these stories, Elagabalus became something of a hero to the [[decadence|Decadent]] movement in the late 19th century. He appears in many paintings and poems as the epitome of an amoral aesthete. His life and character has inspired or at least informed many famous artworks, including the following:
* The Major-General's patter song in [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s [[comic opera]] ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'' ([[1879]]), in which he brags of being able to "quote in [[elegiac]]s / all the crimes of Heliogabalus";
* The painting ''[[The Roses of Heliogabalus]]'' ([[1888]]), by the Anglo-Dutch academician Sir [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]];
* A collection of poems by the [[German language|German]] poet [[Stefan George]] which he entitled ''[[Algabal]]'' ([[1892]]-[[1919]]);
* The painting ''[[Heliogabalus, High Priest of the Sun]]'' ([[1886]]), by the English decadent [[Simeon Solomon]], once a close friend of [[Algernon Charles Swinburne]];
* The novel ''[[L'Agonie]]'' (''Agony'') ([[1889]]), by the French writer [[Jean Lombard]];
* The novel ''[[The Sun God]]'' ([[1904]]), by the English writer [[Arthur Westcott]];
* The novel ''[[De Berg van Licht]]'' (''The Mountain of Light'') ([[1905]]), by the Dutch writer [[Louis Couperus]];
* the silent movie [[Héliogabale]] ([[1909]]) by the French director André Calmettes;
* A biography, ''[[The Amazing Emperor Heliogabalus]]'' ([[1911]]), by the Oxford don [[John Stuart Hay]];
* the short silent movie ''[[Héliogabale, ou L'orgie romaine]]'' ([[1911]]) by the French director Louis Feuillade;
* The essay ''[[Héliogabale ou l'Anarchiste couronné]]'' (''Heliogabalus, or the Crowned Anarchist'') ([[1934]]), by the French [[surrealism|surrealist]] [[Antonin Artaud]];
* The novel ''[[Family Favourites]]'' ([[1960]]), by the Anglo-Argentine writer [[Alfred Duggan]];
* The novel ''[[Child of the Sun]]'' ([[1966]]), by [[Lance Horner]] and [[Kyle Onstott]], who were more famous for writing the novel behind the movie ''[[Mandingo]]'';
* An orchestral work, ''[[Heliogabalus Imperator]]'' (''Emperor Heliogabalus'') ([[1972]]), by the German composer [[Hans Werner Henze]] ([[1926]]&ndash; );
* A mention in [[Kurt Vonnegut]]'s book ''[[Breakfast of Champions]]'' ([[1973]]);
* A mention in [[Danish language|Danish]] writer [[Peter Laugesen]]'s novel ''Guds ord fra landet'' ([[1974]]);
* The CD ''Eliogabalus'' ([[1990]]) by the band [[Devil Doll]];
* The 24-hour comic ''Being an Account of the Life and Death of the Emperor Heliogabulus'' ([[1991]]) by [[Neil Gaiman]];
* The French experimental rock band [[Héliogabale]] (first album, ''Yolk,'' released in [[1995]]);
* A song on the global musician [[Momus]] (aka [[Nick Currie]])'s 2001 album ''[[Folktronic]].''
*The Novel ''Super-Eliogabalo'' by the Italian writer Alberto Arbasino (1969)
==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[Severan dynasty family tree]]
== References ==
*Harry Benjamin - "[http://www.symposion.com/ijt/benjamin/ The Transsexual Phenomenon]" The Julain Press, inc. New York 1966, link verified 2005-04-27
*Michael Grant, ''The Roman Emperors'', Barnes & Noble, 1997, hardback, pages 126-130, ISBN 0-76070-091-5
*Catholic Encyclopedia at [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07206b.htm newadvent.org] Retrieved March 26, 2005.
*Jerry Fielden, ''Antoninus Elagabalus and his relationship with the Senate'', [http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/elagabalus.htm jerryfielden.com], 2000, Retrieved March 26, 2005
*''[[Augustan History|Historia Augusta]]'' Trans. Anthony Birley as ''Lives of the later Caesars''. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976. ISBN 0140443088
*[[Dio Cassius]], ''Roman History'', Book 79
*[[Herodian]], Book 5
==Note==
{{ent|1|Benjamin}} Benjamin, [http://www.symposion.com/ijt/benjamin/appendix_c.htm Appendix C: "Transsexualism: Mythological, Historical, and Cross-Cultiral Aspects", by Richard Green, M.D.]
==External links==
{{Commons|Elagabalus}}
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/elagabal.htm Entry on Elagabalus from De Imperatoribus Romanis]
*[http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/elagabalus.htm Antoninus Elagabalus and his relationship with the Senate]
*[http://www.symposion.com/ijt/benjamin/appendix_c.htm Appendix C of The Transsexual Phenomenon by H. Benjamin] mentioning Elagabalus as transsexual
'''Online Translations of the Historia Augusta's account of Elagabalus'''
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Elagabalus/1*.html Life of Elagabalus] (''Historia Augusta'' at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)
*[http://members.aol.com/heliogabby/bio/eng.htm ''Historia Augusta'', English translation at Heliogabby]
{{-}}
{{Roman Emperor | Prev=[[Macrinus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Alexander Severus]]|years=218&ndash;222}}
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<page>
<title>Homeopathy</title>
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<comment>see Talk; ammended AMA statement with reference, moved to Validity</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Totally disputed}}
{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
[[Image:Samuel_Hahnemann.png|thumb|right|'''Samuel Hahnemann''', the father of homeopathy]]
'''Homeopathy''' (also spelled '''homœopathy''' or '''homoeopathy''') from the Greek words ''όμοιος, hómoios'' (similar) and ''πάθος, páthos'' (suffering), is a [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/alternat/AT014.html controversial] system of [[alternative medicine]]. The model of homeopathy was developed by the [[Saxony|Saxon]] physician [[Samuel Hahnemann]] ([[1755]]&ndash;[[1843]]) and first published in [[1796]].
Homeopathy calls for treating "like with like", a doctrine referred to as the "Law of Similars". The practitioner considers the totality of symptoms of a particular case, then chooses as a remedy a substance that has been reported in a [[homeopathic proving]] to produce similar symptoms in healthy subjects. The remedial substance is usually given in extremely low concentrations. Dilutions are performed by a procedure known as ''potentization''.
With few exceptions, homeopathy is not accepted by medical doctors or scientists in the relevant fields.
== Basic principles ==
=== Theory of disease ===
Hahnemann did not accept the conventional theory of disease of his day, which was based on the [[four humours]]. Mainstream medicine focused on restoring the balance in the humours, either by attempting to remove an excess of a humour (by such methods as [[bloodletting]] and purging, [[laxative]]s, [[enema]]s and nauseous substances that made patients [[vomit]]) or by suppressing symptoms associated with the humours causing trouble, such as giving feverish (and so hot and wet) patients substances associated with cold and dry.
Hahnemann rejected this in favour of a view of disease as more "spirit-like". He came to consider the [[spirituality|spiritual]] factors as the root cause of all disease. Some later homeopaths, in particular [[James Tyler Kent]], put even more emphasis on "spiritual factors".
[[Vitalism]] wa |
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<minor />
<comment>Rv de-Wikifying by 24.209.41.243</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Musei Capitolini-testa bronzea di Costantino-antmoose.jpg|thumb|200px|Contemporary bronze head of Constantine. This is probably how Constantine looked.]]
'''Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus''' ([[Latin]]: <small>IMP CÆSAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS </small>[[#Notes|&sup1;]]) ([[February 27]], [[272]]&ndash;[[May 22]], [[337]]), commonly known as '''Constantine I''', '''Constantine the Great''', or (among [[Orthodox Christians]]) '''Saint Constantine''', was proclaimed [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]] by his troops on [[July 25]],[[306]] and ruled an ever-growing portion of the [[Roman Empire]] until his death. Constantine is famed for his refounding of [[Byzantium]] (modern [[Istanbul]]) as "Nova Roma" ([[New Rome]]) or [[Constantinople]] (Constantine's City).
Constantine is best remembered in modern times for the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313 and the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] in 325, which fully legalized [[Christianity]] in the Empire for the first time. These actions are considered major factors in that religion's spread, and his reputation as the "first Christian Emperor" has been promulgated by historians from [[Lactantius]] and [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] to the present day, though he himself was [[baptism|baptized]] only on his death bed.
==Early life==
[[Image:yorkconstantine.jpg|thumb|200px|Bronze statue of Constantine I in [[York]], [[England]], near the spot where he was proclaimed Emperor in 306]]
Constantine was born at [[Naissus]] in Upper [[Moesia]] (today's Niš, [[Serbia]]) on 27 February 272 or 273, to Greek general, [[Constantius I Chlorus]], and his first wife [[Helena of Constantinople|Helena]], an innkeeper's daughter who at the time was only sixteen years old. His father left his mother around 292 to marry [[Flavia Maximiana Theodora]], daughter or step-daughter of the [[Western Roman Emperor]] [[Maximian]]. Theodora would give birth to six half-siblings of Constantine, including [[Julius Constantius]].
Young Constantine served at the court of [[Diocletian]] in [[Nicomedia]], after the appointment of his father as one of the two ''[[Caesar (title)|caesares]]'' (junior emperors) of the [[Tetrarchy]] in 293. In 305, the ''[[Augustus]]'', [[Maximian]], [[abdicate]]d, and Constantius succeeded to the position. However, Constantius fell sick during an expedition against the [[Picts]] of [[Caledonia]], and died on [[July 25]], [[306]]. Constantine managed to be at his deathbed in Eboracum ([[York]]) of [[Roman Britain]], where the loyal general [[Chrocus]], of [[Alamanni]]c descent, and the troops loyal to his father's memory proclaimed him an Augustus ("Emperor"). For the next eighteen years, he fought a series of [[battle]]s and [[war]]s of consolidation that first obtained him co-rule with the Eastern Roman Emperor, and then finally leadership of a reunified [[Roman Empire]].
== Constantine and Christianity==
[[Image:Constantine's conversion.jpg|thumb|''Constantine's conversion'', by [[Rubens]].]]
{{main|Constantine I and Christianity}}
Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first [[Roman Emperor]] to freely allow [[Christianity]]. [[Christian]] historians ever since Lactantius have adhered to the view that Constantine "adopted" [[Christianity]] as a kind of replacement for the official Roman [[paganism]]. Despite the questions surrounding Constantine's Christianity, he is celebrated as a major [[Saint]] of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]. Though he was not baptized until he was on his deathbed, his conversion, according to official Christian sources, was the immediate result of an omen before his victory in the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge]], on [[October 28]], [[312]]. Upon seeing this vision, Constantine is said to have instituted a new [[flag|standard]] to be carried into battle called the [[labarum]] (☧). This vision seen by Constantine was made up of two events. Firstly, while marching with his soldiers he saw the shape of an ambigram cross with the words "[[In hoc signo vinces|in this sign you will conquer]]" in front of the sun. After seeing that he had a dream instructing him to put a new sign (☧) as the standard. It is said that after this event Constantine was immediately converted to [[Christianity]].
Constantine and [[Licinius]]' [[Edict of Milan]] (313) removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many were martyred in previous [[Persecution of Christians|persecutions of Christians]], and returned confiscated [[Church]] property.
After the Edict, new avenues were opened to Christians, including the right to compete with pagan Romans in the traditional ''[[cursus honorum]]'' for high government positions, and greater acceptance into general civil society. New churches were allowed to be constructed and Christian leadership became increasingly bold &mdash; Christian [[bishop|bishops]] took aggressive public stances that were unheard of among other religions.
As a result, [[Church]] controversies, which had been lively within the Christian communities since the mid-2nd century, now flared in public [[schism|schisms]], often with violence. Constantine saw quelling religious disorder as the divinely-appointed emperor's duty and eventually called the [[First Council of Nicaea]] ([[May 20]] - [[July 25]], [[325]]) to settle some of the doctrinal problems plaguing the early church, notably [[Arianism]].
===Persian reaction===
Beyond the ''[[limes|limites]],'' east of the [[Euphrates]], the [[Sassanid]] rulers of the [[Persian Empire]] had usually tolerated their Christians. With the edicts of toleration in the Roman Empire, Christians in Persia would now be regarded as allies of Persia's ancient enemy, and were thus persecuted. A letter supposedly from Constantine to [[Shapur II of Persia]] and alleged to have been written in c. 324 urged Shapur to protect the Christians in his realm. Shapur II wrote to his generals:
:You will arrest Simon, chief of the Christians. You will keep him till he signs this document and consents to collect for us a double tax and double tribute from the Christians … for we Gods have all the trials of war and they have nothing but repose and pleasure. They inhabit our territory and agree with Caesar, our enemy. (quoted in Freya Stark, ''Rome on the Euphrates'' 1967, p. 375)
==Constantine's life and actions after the Edict of Milan==
Coins struck for emperors often reveal details of their personal [[iconography]]. During the early part of Constantine's rule, representations first of [[Mars (god)|Mars]] and then (from 310) of [[Apollo]] as [[Solar deity|Sun god]] consistently appear on the reverse of the coinage. Mars had been associated with the [[Tetrarchy]], and Constantine's use of this symbolism served to emphasize the legitimacy of his rule. After his breach with his father's old colleague [[Maximian]] in 309&ndash;310, Constantine began to claim legitimate descent from the 3rd century emperor [[Claudius II|Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus]], the hero of the [[Battle of Naissus]] (September, 268). The ''[[Augustan History]]'' of the 4th century reports Constantine's paternal grandmother Claudia to be a daughter of Crispus, Crispus being a reported brother of both Claudius II and [[Quintillus]]. Historians however suspect this account to be a [[genealogical]] [[fabrication]] to flatter Constantine.
[[Image:Follis-Constantine-lyons RIC VI 309.jpg|thumb|300px|Coin of Constantine, with depiction of the sun god [[Sol Invictus]], holding a [[globe]] and right hand raised. Legend "<small>SOLI INVICTO COMITI</small>".]]
[[Image:As-Constantine-XR RIC vII 019.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Follis]] by Constantine. On the reverse, a [[labarum]] with the [[chi-rho]].]]
Gothicus had claimed the divine protection of [[Apollo]]-[[Sol Invictus]]. In mid-310, two years before the victory at the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge|Milvian Bridge]], Constantine reportedly experienced the publicly announced vision in which Apollo-Sol Invictus appeared to him with omens of success. Thereafter the reverses of his coinage were dominated for several years by his "companion, the unconquered Sol" — the inscriptions read <small>SOLI INVICTO COMITI</small>. The depiction represents Apollo with a solar halo, [[Helios]]-like, and the globe in his hands. In the 320s Constantine has a halo of his own. There are also coins depicting [[Apollo]] driving the chariot of the Sun on a shield Constantine is holding and another in 312 shows the Christian ''[[chi-rho]]'' on a helmet Constantine is wearing.
Constantine was also known for being ruthless with his political enemies: Upon Licinius' surrender in 324, Constantine had publicly promised to spare his life, but a year later he accused him of plotting against him and had him executed by strangulation. In 326, Constantine had his eldest son [[Crispus]] tried and executed, as he believed accusations that Crispus had an affair with [[Fausta]], Constantine's second wife. A few months later he also had Fausta killed as the appearent source of these false accusations.
Family influence is thought to account for a personal adoption of [[Christianity]]: [[Helena of Constantinople|Helena]] is said to be "probably born a Christian" though virtually nothing is known of her background, save that her mother was the daughter of an innkeeper and her father a successful soldier, a career that excluded overt Christians. Helena became known later in life for numerous [[pilgrimage]]s.
[[Image:Solidus multiple-Constantine-thess |
Coastal Plain''' is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The strip begins in Gujarat in the north and extends across the states of [[Maharashtra]], [[Goa]], Karnataka and Kerala. The plains are narrow, and range from 50 to 100&nbsp;km (30 to 60&nbsp;miles) in width.
Small rivers and numerous backwaters inundate the region. The rivers, which originate in the Western Ghats, are fast flowing and are mostly perennial. The fast flowing nature of the rivers results in the formation of [[estuary|estuaries]] rather than deltas. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, [[Mandovi]] and [[Zuari]].
The coast is divided into three regions. The northern region of Maharashtra and Goa is known as the [[Konkan|Konkan Coast]], the central region of Karnataka is known as the '''Kanara Coast''' and the southern coastline of Kerala is known as the [[Malabar Coast]]. Vegetation in this region is mostly deciduous. The Malabar Coast has its own unique ecoregion known as the [[Malabar Coast moist forests]].
=== Islands ===
India has two major offshore island possessions: the [[Lakshadweep]] islands and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. Both these island groups are administered by the Union government of India as [[Union Territory|Union Territories]].
The Lakshadweep islands lie 200 to 300&nbsp;km (124 to 186&nbsp;miles) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea. It consists of twelve [[coral]] [[atoll]]s, three [[coral reef]]s, and five banks. Ten of these islands are inhabited.
The Andaman and Nicobar island chain lies in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. It is located 950&nbsp;km (590&nbsp;miles) from [[Kolkata]] (Calcutta) and 193&nbsp;km (120&nbsp;miles) from [[Cape Negrais]] in Myanmar. The territory consists of two island groups, the [[Andaman Islands]] and the [[Nicobar Islands]]. The Andaman islands consist of 204 islands having a total length of 352&nbsp;km (220&nbsp;miles). The Nicobar Islands, which lie south of the Andamans, consists of twenty-two islands with a total area of 1,841&nbsp;km&sup2; (710&nbsp;mile&sup2;). The highest point is [[Mount Thullier]] at 642&nbsp;m (2,140&nbsp;feet). [[Indira Point]], India's southernmost land point is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189&nbsp;km (117&nbsp;miles) from the Indonesian island of [[Sumatra]] to the southeast.
Significant islands just off the Indian coast include [[Diu]], a former [[Portugal |Portuguese]] exclave; [[Majuli]], Asia's largest [[freshwater]] island; [[Salcette Island]], India's most populous island, on which [[Mumbai]] (Bombay) city is located; [[Elephanta]] in [[Bombay Harbour]]; and [[Sriharikota]] [[barrier island]] in Andhra Pradesh.
==Rivers==
{{main|Rivers of India}}
[[image:Indiarivers.png|thumb|220px|Rivers in India.]]
All major [[rivers]] of India originate from one of the three main [[watershed]]s. They are: {{inote|Manorama 517|man-517}}
#The Himalaya and the [[Karakoram]] ranges
#Vindhya and Satpura range in central India
#Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India
The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a continuous flow throughout the year. The other two networks are dependant on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season.
Twelve of India's rivers are classified as major, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000&nbsp;km&sup2; (976,000&nbsp;mile&sup2;).
[[Image:River Teesta.jpg|thumb|220px|left|The [[Teesta River]], a tributary of the [[Brahmaputra]] in northern [[West Bengal]].]]
Himalayan rivers or the northern rivers that flow westward into Pakistan are the [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Beas River|Beas]], [[Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Sutlej]], and [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]].
The [[Ganga basin|Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghana system]] has the largest catchment area of 1,100,000&nbsp;km&sup2; (424,700&nbsp;mile&sup2;). The river Ganga originates at the [[Gangotri Glacier]] in [[Uttaranchal]]. It flows in a south easterly direction, draining into [[Bangladesh]]. The [[Yamuna]] and [[Gomti]] rivers also arise in the Western Himalayas and join the Ganga river in the plains. The Brahmaputra, another tributary of the Ganga originates in [[Tibet]] and enters India in the far eastern state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. It then proceeds westwards, unifying with the Ganga in Bangladesh.
[[Image:Narmada.jpg|thumb|220px|The [[Narmada River]] in central India.]]
The [[Chambal River|Chambal]], another tributary of the Ganga originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward flowing rivers from this watershed are the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] (also called Nerbudda) and [[Tapti]] (also spelt Tapi) rivers which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow.
The Western Ghats are the source of all [[Deccan]] rivers. Major rivers in the Deccan include the [[Mahanadi]], [[Godavari]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]], and [[Kaveri River]] (also spelt Cauvery), all draining into the [[Bay of Bengal]]. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow.
<br clear="all">
==Bodies of water==
[[Image:Pangong lake by martinl.jpg|thumb|250px|The Pangong Lake in Ladakh, is a fine example of a mountain lake in the Himalayas.]]
Major gulfs include the [[Gulf of Cambay]], [[Gulf of Kutch]] and the [[Gulf of Mannar]]. Straits include the [[Palk Strait]] which separates India from Sri Lanka and the [[Ten Degree Channel]], separating the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands and the Eight Degree Channel separating the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from Minicoy Island towards the south. Important capes include the [[Cape Comorin]], the southern tip of mainland India, [[Indira Point]], the southernmost location of India, [[Rama's Bridge]] and [[Point Calimere]].
Smaller seas include the [[Laccadive Sea]] and the [[Andaman Sea]].
There are four [[coral reef]]s in India and are located in; the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, [[Gulf of Mannar]], Lakshadweep and [[Gulf of Kutch]]. {{inote|Manorama pg 580|man-580}}
Important lakes include [[Chilka Lake]], the country's largest salt-water lake in Orissa; [[Kolleru Lake]] in Andhra Pradesh; [[Loktak Lake]] in [[Manipur]], [[Dal Lake]] in Kashmir, [[Sambhar Lake]] in Rajasthan, and the [[Sasthamkotta Lake]] in Kerala.
==Wetlands==
India's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid; from ones in the [[Ladakh]] region in the state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to the ones in the wet and humid climate of peninsula India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to India's river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 22 wetlands for conservation. Among the protected wetlands are the tropical mangrove forests in peninsular India and the salt mudflats in western India.
Mangrove forests occur all along the Indian coastline, in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mud flats. The mangrove area covers a total of 6,740&nbsp;km&sup2; (2,600&nbsp;mile&sup2;) which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands; the [[Sundarbans]]; [[Gulf of Kutch]]; deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna; and parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala have large mangrove covers. {{inote|Manorama pg 580|man-580}}
Most of the identified wetlands adjoin or are parts of sanctuaries, national parks and are thus protected.
===The Sundarbans===
[[Image:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh and India]]
{{main|Sundarbans}}
The '''Sundarbans''' [[river delta|delta]] is the largest [[mangrove]] forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the [[Ganges]] and is spread across areas of [[Bangladesh]] and [[West Bengal]], [[India]]. The Bangladeshi and Indian portions of the jungle are listed in the [[UNESCO]] [[world heritage]] list separately as the Sundarbans and [[Sundarbans National Park]] respectively, though they are parts of the same forest. The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of [[tide|tidal]] waterways, [[mudflat]]s and small [[island|islands]] of salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of ongoing [[ecology|ecological]] processes.
The area is known for its wide range of fauna. The most famous among these is the [[Bengal Tiger]], but numerous species of [[bird]]s, spotted [[deer]], [[crocodile]]s and [[snake]]s also inhabit it. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.
===Rann of Kutch===
{{main|Rann of Kutch}}
The '''Rann of Kutch''' is a [[marsh]]y region located in the Gujarat state of India, which borders the [[Sindh]] region of Pakistan. The name ''Rann'' comes from the [[Hindi]] word ''ran'' meaning "salt marsh." It occupies a total area of 27,900 km&sup2; (10,800 mile&sup2;){{ref|rann}}.
The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces, most likely by earthquakes, resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large salt-water [[lagoon]]. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turns into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth height. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.
== Climate ==
{{main|Climate of India}}
India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. The Himalayas, along with the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains in Pakistan, provide a barrier to the cold winds from [[central Asia]]. This keeps most of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations in similar latitudes. The Thar Desert is responsible for attracting the moisture laden monsoon winds that provide most of India's rainfall.
It is difficult to generalise India's climate. India's huge size sees climatic con |
ried four times. His first marriage, to [[Plautia Urgulanilla]] occurred after two failed betrothals. The first was to his distant cousin [[Aemilia Lepida]], but was broken for political reasons. The second was to [[Livia Medullina]], which ended with the bride's sudden death on their wedding day. Urgulanilla was a relation of Livia's confidant [[Urgulania]]. During their marriage she gave birth to a son, Claudius Drusus. Unfortunately, Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to the daughter of [[Sejanus]]. Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorce, Claudius repudiated the baby girl, Claudia, as the father was one of his own freedmen. Soon after (possibly in 28), Claudius married [[Aelia Paetina]], a relation of Sejanus. They had a daughter, [[Claudia Antonia]]. He later divorced her after the marriage became a political liability (although Leon (1948) suggests it may have been due to emotional and mental abuse by Aelia).
In 38 or early 39, Claudius married [[Valeria Messalina]], who was his first cousin once removed and closely allied with Caligula's circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter [[Octavia]]. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known as [[Britannicus]], was born just after Claudius' accession. This marriage ended in tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina regularly [[Cuckold|cuckolded]] Claudius &mdash; [[Tacitus]] states she went so far as to face-off with a prostitute<ref>Tac. ''Ann.'' XI 10. Also Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LXI 31, and Pliny ''Nat. Hist.'' X 172.</ref> &mdash; and manipulated his policies in order to amass wealth. In 48, Messalina married her lover Gaius [[Silius]] in a public ceremony while Claudius was at Ostia. Sources disagree as to whether or not she divorced the emperor first, and whether the intention was to usurp the throne. Scramuzza, in his biography, suggests that Silius may have convinced Messalina that Claudius was doomed, and the union was her only hope of retaining rank and protecting her children<ref>Scramuzza (1940) p. 90. Momigliano (1934) pp. 6-7. Levick (1990) p. 19.</ref>. The historian [[Tacitus]] suggests that Claudius' ongoing term as Censor may have prevented him from noticing the affair before it reached such a critical point<ref>Tac. ''Ann.'' XI. 25, 8.</ref>. Whatever the case, the result was the death of Silius, Messalina, and most of her circle. Claudius made the Praetorians promise to kill him if he ever married again.
[[Image:Woman_childstatue3.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Agrippina and Nero. Courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]
Despite this declaration, Claudius did marry once more. The ancient sources tell that his freedmen pushed three candidates, Caligula's former wife [[Lollia Paulina]], his second wife Aelia, and his niece [[Agrippina the younger]]. According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through her feminine wiles<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 26.</ref>. The truth is likely more political. The coup attempt by Silius probably made Claudius realize the weakness of his position as a member of the Claudian but not the Julian family. This weakness was compacted by the fact that he did not have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy. Agrippina was one of the few remaining descendants of Augustus, and her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (later known as [[Nero]]) was one of the last males of the imperial family. Future coup attempts could rally around the pair, and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggested in recent times that Senate may have pushed for the marriage to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches<ref>Scramuzza (1940) pp. 91-92. See also Tac. ''Ann.'' XII 6, 7; Suet. ''Claud.'' 26.</ref>. This feud dated back to Agrippina's [[Agrippina the elder|mother's]] actions against Tiberius after the death of her husband Germanicus, actions which Tiberius had gladly punished. In any case, Claudius accepted Agrippina, and later adopted the newly mature Nero as his son.
Nero was made joint heir with the underage Britannicus, married to Octavia and heavily promoted. This was not as unusual as it seems to people acquainted with modern hereditary monarchies. [[Barbara Levick]] notes that Augustus had named his grandson [[Postumus Agrippa]] and his stepson Tiberius joint heirs<ref>Levick (1990) p. 70. See also Scramuzza (1940) p. 92.</ref>. Tiberius named his great-nephew Caligula joint heir with his grandson [[Tiberius Gemellus]]. Adoption of adults or near adults was an old tradition in Rome when a suitable natural adult heir was unavailable. This was the case during Britannicus' minority. S.V. Oost suggests that Claudius looked to adopt one of his sons-in-law to protect his own reign<ref>Oost (1958).</ref>. Possible usurpers could note that there was no adult to replace him. [[Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix|Faustus Sulla]], married to his daughter [[Claudia Antonia|Antonia]], was only descended from Octavia and Antony on one side &mdash; not close enough to the imperial family to prevent doubts (that didn't stop others from making him the object of a coup attempt against Nero a few years later). Besides which, he was the half brother of [[Messalina]], and at this time those wounds were still fresh. [[Nero]] was more popular with the general public as the grandson of Germanicus and the direct descendant of Augustus.
==Death, deification, and reputation==
The general consensus of the ancients is that Claudius was murdered by poison &mdash; possibly contained in mushrooms &mdash; in the early hours of [[October 13]] [[54]]. There are various accounts, some of which implicate [[Halotus]], his taster, and some Xenophon, his doctor as the administrator of the poison<ref>Accounts of his death: Suet. ''Claud.'' 43, 44. Tac. ''Ann.'' XII 64, 66-67. Josephus ''Ant. Iud.'' XX 148, 151. Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 34. Pliny ''Natural History'' II 92, XI 189, XXII 92.</ref>. Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at dinner, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again. All implicate his wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Now that Britannicus was approaching the age of majority, there was no need for Nero to be heir in case of Claudius' death. There was now no chance of a minor ascending the throne and setting off civil war. Thus, Claudius began to talk of divorce. Agrippina most likely acted to ensure the succession of Nero before changes could be made. In modern times, some authors have cast doubt on whether Claudius was murdered or merely succumbed to illness or old age<ref>Scramuzza (1934) pp. 92-93 says that tradition makes every emperor the victim of foul play, so we can't know if Claudius was trully murdered. Levick (1990) pp. 76-77. raises the possibility that Claudius was killed by the stress of fighting with Agrippina over the succession, but concludes that the timing makes murder the most likely cause.</ref>. Considering the longevity of his relatives who reached even middle age (his grandmother Livia died at 85 or 86, his uncle Tiberius reached age 77, and his mother Antonia committed suicide at 72) this seems unlikely. The universality of the murder story in the ancient texts also lends credence to the crime<ref>As opposed to the murder of Augustus, which is only found in Tacitus and Dio where he quotes Tacitus. Suetonius, an invenerate gossip, doesn't mention it at all.</ref>. Claudius' ashes were interred in the [[Mausoleum of Augustus]] on October 24, after a funeral in the manner of Augustus.
[[Image:Claudiustemple.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Model of ancient Rome showing the Temple of Claudius, built by Vespasian on the site of Nero's [[Domus Aurea|Golden House]]. The Aqua Claudia aqueduct runs next to it, and the Colosseum sits adjacent. Image courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]
Claudius was deified by the Senate almost immediately. Those who regard this homage by [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina]] as cynical should note that, cynical or not, such a move would hardly have benefited those involved, had Claudius been "hated", as some commentators, both modern and historic, characterize him. Moreover, though Claudius's divinity was annulled by [[Nero]], it was later restored by the "good" emperor [[Vespasian]], who had been a general in the British conquest. Despite this, many of Claudius' less solid supporters quickly became Nero's men. His will was suppressed and never read. Claudius had changed it shortly before death to either recommend Nero and Britannicus jointly or perhaps just Britannicus, who would be considered a man in a few months. Agrippina had sent away Narcissus shortly before Claudius' death, and now murdered the freedman. The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn all of Claudius' correspondence - most likely so it could not be used against him and others in an already hostile new regime. Thus Claudius' private words about his own policies and motives were lost to history. Nero and his circle wasted no time vilifying Claudius; Nero even criticized him in his eulogy! Most of Claudius' laws and edicts were annulled, under the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to have meant them. This opinion of Claudius, that he was indeed an old idiot, remained the official one for the duration of Nero's reign. Eventually Nero stopped referring to his deified adoptive father at all, and realigned with his birth family.
The [[Flavians]], who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack. They were in a position where they needed to shore up their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to |
U206A class)
*Auxiliary vessels
**2 [[Berlin class replenishment ship|Berlin class]] (fleet auxiliary, 1 more planned)
**1 Westerwald class (amunition tranport)
**6 [[Elbe class replenishment ship|Elbe class]] (tender)
**2 Rhön class (tanker)
**2 Tegernsee class (coastal tanker)
**3 Oste class (reconnaissance ship)
**1 Fehmarn class (ocean tug, salvage vessel)
**5 Wangerooge class (tug/trainig ship)
*[[Maritime Patrol Aircraft]]
**6 Bréguet Atlantic
**8 P3 Orion (replace Bréguet Atlantic)
**4 Dornier Do228
*Helicopters
**21 Sea Lynx Mk88
**20 Sea King Mk41
**30 NH90 (planned, replace Sea King and Sea Lynx)
After reunification, the modern German navy concentrated all ships of a given type at one base. The ''type bases'' are:
*[[Wilhelmshaven]] ([[North Sea]]): Frigates
*[[Nordholz]] ([[North Sea]]) Naval Air Service
*[[Eckernförde]] ([[Baltic Sea]]): Submarines, Fleet Protection Group, Divers
*[[Warnemünde]] ([[Baltic Sea]]): Fast Attack Craft, Corvettes
*[[Kiel]] ([[Baltic Sea]]): Mine Counter-Measure, Helicopter
The [[Laboe Naval Memorial]] near Kiel is the German memorial for sailors who lost their lives at sea during the World Wars and while on duty at sea.
==See also==
=== Wikilinks ===
* [[List of ships of the German navies]]
* [[List of ship classes of the Bundesmarine and Deutsche Marine]]
* [[U-boat]]
* [[Kampfschwimmer]]
* [[Marineamt]]
=== External links ===
* [http://www.marine.de www.marine.de - Offizieller Internetauftritt der Deutschen Marine] in German
* [http://www.marine.de/en www.marine.de/en - Official Website of German Navy] in English
* http://hk.geocities.com/german_navy_ww2/ - with detail information of German Navy during world war one and two in Chinese{{Military of Germany}}
{{navy-stub}}
[[Category:German Navy]]
[[Category:Navies]]
[[de:Deutsche Marine]]
[[ja:ドイツ海軍]]
[[no:Deutsche Marine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GEANT</title>
<id>12961</id>
<revision>
<id>40364176</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the simulation toolkit, see [[GEANT (program)]]''
'''GÉANT''' is the main [[Europe]]an multi-[[gigabit]] [[computer network]] for [[research]] and [[education]] purposes. GÉANT link speeds range from 155 Mbit/s on the slowest spur links to 10 Gbit/s in the core [[optical fiber]] network.
The GÉANT project began in November [[2000]], entered full production operation in December [[2001]] (fully replacing [[TEN-155]]). Originally due to finish in October [[2004]], it was subsequently extended until April [[2005]]. The project to plan, procure, build and operate the next generation of the network was named GÉANT2 and it began in September [[2004]].
It is intended that GÉANT interconnect with other regional research networks (such as [[Abilene Network]], [[CANARIE]], [[ESnet]], [[SINET]]) to create a single global research network. It currently has gigabit links to North America and Japan.
The GÉANT network is managed by [[DANTE]] (Delivery of Advanced Network Technology to Europe).
National research and education networks connected to GÉANT are:
* [[Austria]]'s [[ACOnet]]
* [[Belgium]]'s [[BELNET]]
* [[Bulgaria]]'s [[ISTF]]
* [[Croatia]]'s [[CARNet]]
* [[Cyprus]]'s [[CYNET]]
* [[Czech Republic]]'s [[CESNET]]
* [[Denmark]]'s [[Forskningsnettet]] (connected via [[NORDUnet]])
* [[Estonia]]'s [[EENet]]
* [[Finland]]'s [[FUNET]] (connected via [[NORDUnet]])
* [[France]]'s [[RENATER]]
* [[Germany]]'s [[DFN]]
* [[Greece]]'s [[GRNET]]
* [[Hungary]]'s [[HUNGARNET]]
* [[Iceland]]'s [[RHnet]] (connected via [[NORDUnet]])
* [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]'s [[HEAnet]]
* [[Israel]]'s [[IUCC]]
* [[Italy]]'s [[GARR]]
* [[Latvia]]'s [[LATNET]]
* [[Lithuania]]'s [[LITNET]]
* [[Luxembourg]]'s [[RESTENA]]
* [[Netherlands]]' [[SURFnet]]
* [[Norway]]'s [[UNINETT]] (connected via [[NORDUnet]])
* [[Poland]]'s [[POL-34]]
* [[Portugal]]'s [[FCCN]]
* [[Romania]]'s [[RoEduNet]]
* [[Slovakia]]'s [[SANET]]
* [[Slovenia]]'s [[ARNES]]
* [[Spain]]'s [[RedIRIS]]
* [[Sweden]]'s [[SUNET]] (connected via [[NORDUnet]])
* [[Switzerland]]'s [[SWITCH]]
* [[Turkey]]'s [[ULAKNET]]
* [[United Kingdom]]'s [[JANET]]
==External links==
* [http://www.geant.net/ The GÉANT website]
* [http://www.dante.net/ The DANTE website]
[[Category:Academic computer network organizations]]
[[da:GEANT]]
[[de:GÉANT]]
[[pl:GÉANT]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gamma-hydroxybutyrate</title>
<id>12962</id>
<revision>
<id>41906196</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:52:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jareth</username>
<id>293836</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Dangers */ wording</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''[[GHB]] redirects here. See also [[Great Highland Bagpipe]].''
<!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin-left:1em"
|-
| colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#cccccc" | '''GHB'''
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| 4-Hydroxybutanoic acid
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>3</sub>
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 104.11 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
|
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 591-81-1
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| OCCCC(=O)O
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | [[Image:Gamma-hydroxybutyrate.png|Chemical structure of GHB]]
|}
''' Gamma-hydroxybutyrate''' (4-hydroxybutanoic acid, C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) is both a [[medication|drug]] and a naturally occurring compound found in the [[central nervous system]] as well as in other organs such as the liver, kidneys, heart and bones. GHB is structurally similar to the [[ketone body]] [[beta-hydroxybutyrate]]. As a drug it is used most commonly in the form of a chemical salt (Na-GHB or K-GHB). The sodium salt is commercially known as '''sodium oxybate'''.
== Uses ==
=== Endogenous ===
The precise function of GHB in the body is not clear. It is an immediate precursor to [[GABA]], a neurotransmitter which regulates awakeness, physical activity and sleep. As GABA cannot cross the [[blood-brain barrier]], GHB obtained from food may be used for converting to GABA. GHB prevents cells from oxygen starvation, which might explain presence of the compound in vital organs. GHB was also found to have [[neuroprotective]] capabilities.
=== Medical ===
It has been used as a general [[anesthetic]], and a [[hypnotic]] in the treatment of [[insomnia]]. GHB has also been used to treat [[clinical depression]], and improve athletic performance. In the United States, the [[Food and Drug Administration]] permits the use of GHB under the trade name Xyrem to reduce the number of [[cataplexy]] attacks in patients with [[narcolepsy]].
In Italy, under the trade name Alcover, GHB is used in the treatment of [[alcoholism]] (50 to 100 milligrams per kilogram per day, in 3 or more divided doses), both for acute alcohol withdrawal and medium to long term detoxification.
=== Recreational ===
[[Image:Gamma-hydroxybutyrate.jpg|thumb|Gamma-hydroxybutyrate powder]]
GHB is an [[intoxicant]]. It may be known as G, Liquid X, Liquid E. It is less commonly known as GHB, Gamma-oh, Georgia Homeboy,Georgia Detwiler, Georgia Hillbilly, Blue Verve, Gamma-G, Qi, scoop, or goop.
Its potential for use as a [[date rape]] drug in the 1990s led to it being placed in the US on Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act in March, 2000. On March 20, 2001, the [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] placed GHB in Schedule IV of the 1971 [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]][http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/gamma/]. In the UK it was made a class C drug in June 2003.
The sodium salt of GHB has a thin, very salty, chemical taste. At low doses, GHB can cause a state of [[euphoria]], increased sociality and [[intoxication]]. This kind of use is particularly common at [[rave party|rave parties]]. At higher doses, GHB may induce nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, visual disturbances, depressed breathing, [[amnesia]] and unconsciousness. The effects of GHB can last from 1.5 to 3 hours.
Some chemicals convert to GHB in the stomach and blood. GBL, or [[gamma-butyrolactone]], is one such precursor. It is 1,6 times less potent than GHB, so 1ml of GBL is equivalent to 0,4g of GHB. GBL has also a shorter onset and is longer acting than GHB. GBL has an extremely bad taste and is also known to irritate innards and skin.
Other precursors include [[1,4-Butanediol|1,4-butanediol]]. There may be additional toxicity concerns with these precursors.
== Mode of action ==
The action of GHB has yet to be fully elucidated. GHB clearly has at least two sites of action, stimulating the newly characterized and aptly named "GHB receptor" as well as the [[GABA receptor|GABA<sub>B</sub>]]. GHB, if it is indeed a neurotransmitter, will only reach concentrations high enough to act at the GHB receptor, as it only has weak affinity fo the GABA<sub>B</sub>. However, during recreational usage, GHB can reach very high concentrations in the brain, relative to basal levels, and can act at the GABA<sub>B</sub> receptor [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16129424&query_hl=21]. GHBs action at the GABA<sub>B</sub> is probably responsible for its sedative effects. GHB-mediated GABA<sub>B</sub> receptor stimulation inhibits dopamine release as well as causes the release of natur |
Offices for Cornell-administered study abroad programs such as the Cornell-Nepal Study Program and Cornell-in-Rome
==Academics==
For the undergraduate class of 2009, 27.1% of [[college application|applicants]] were admitted. Over 88% of them graduated in the top 10% of their high school class (among schools reporting class rank){{ref|academics.admission}}. Cornell's enrollment includes students from over 120 countries and all fifty [[U.S. state]]s.
===International programs===
Cornell offers a wide array of programs and undergraduate majors with an international focus, including [[Africa|Africana Studies]], [[Asia|Asian Studies]], [[France|French Studies]], [[Germany|German Studies]], [[Jewish Studies]], [[Latino|Latino Studies]], [[Near East|Near Eastern Studies]], [[Romance languages|Romance Studies]], [[Russian Literature]], the [[South Asia|South Asia Program]], the [[Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia Program]], and the newly-launched China and Asia-Pacific Studies (CAPS). In addition to these academic programs, to the [[Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar]] and to its study abroad programs on six continents{{ref|international_programs.study_abroad}}, Cornell has undertaken a number of major initiatives overseas:
*In [[Asia]], Cornell has an agreement with [[Peking University]] in which students in the CAPS major will spend a semester in [[Beijing]].
*The [[Cornell University College of Engineering|College of Engineering]] has an agreement to exchange faculty and graduate students with [[Tsinghua University]] in [[Beijing]]{{ref|international_programs.china}}.
*The [[Cornell University School of Hotel Administration|School of Hotel Administration]] has a joint master's program with [[Nanyang Technological University]] in [[Singapore]]{{ref|international_programs.japan}}.
*The [[New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences|College of Agriculture and Life Sciences]] has signed an agreement with [[Japan]]'s [[National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences]] to engage in joint research, and to exchange graduate students and faculty members.
*The [[New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences|College of Agriculture and Life Sciences]] has agreed to cooperate in agricultural research with the [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research]]{{ref|international_programs.india}}.
*In the [[Middle East]], Cornell is developing the Bridging the Rift Center{{ref|international_programs.bridging_the_rift}}, a "Library of Life" (or databank about all living systems) on the border of [[Israel]] and [[Jordan]], in collaboration with those two countries and [[Stanford University]].
===Reputation===
Cornell ranked 13th in the [[2006]] [[U.S. News and World Report]] "National Universities" ranking{{ref|reputation.usnews}}, and 12th globally in an academic ranking of world universities by Shanghai Jiao Tong University in 2005{{ref|reputation.worldrank}}.
In its 2005 ranking of engineering programs at universities in the United States, U.S. News and World Report has placed Cornell first in engineering science and engineering physics. That same magazine rated the medical school's departments of psychiatry and orthopedic surgery as second best in the country, while rheumatology was rated third.
==Student life==
===Activities===
[[Image:Sun-first.jpg|right|160px|thumb|[[The Cornell Daily Sun]] is one of numerous campus publications]]
Cornell has more than 800 registered student organizations, running the gamut from [[kayak]]ing to full-armor [[jousting]], from varsity and club [[sport]]s and [[a cappella]] groups to [[improvisational theatre]], from political clubs and publications to [[chess]] and [[Computer and video games|video game]] clubs. Many groups are subsidized financially by the Student Assembly Finance Commission, a student-run organization that gives nearly $1,000,000 a year to clubs and organizations. Organized in [[1868]], the oldest student organization is the [[Cornell University Glee Club]].
[[The Cornell Daily Sun]] is the oldest continuously independent college daily in the United States, having published since September [[1880]], and the first collegiate member of the [[Associated Press]]. Other campus publications include [[The Cornell Review]], [[Turn Left]] and [[The Cornell American]].
WVBR is an independent radio station owned and operated by Cornell students. During the 1970s, it was noted for its progressive rock radio format. It is also known for its coverage of both Cornell and national sports.
Cornell also hosts one of the largest [[fraternities and sororities|fraternity and sorority]] systems in North America, with over 60 chapters involving 30 percent of [[undergraduate]] students. [[Alpha Phi Alpha]], the first intercollegiate [[Greek alphabet|Greek-letter]] fraternity established for [[African American]]s was founded at Cornell in [[1906]].
===Housing===
[[Image:Balch Halls Exterior.jpg|left|375px|thumb|[[Balch Hall]] is a women-only dormitory on North Campus]]
University housing is broadly divided into three sections: West Campus, Collegetown and North Campus. As a result of President [[Hunter R. Rawlings III]]'s 1997 Residential Initiative,{{ref|housing.north_campus}} West Campus houses mostly transfer and returning students, whereas North Campus is almost entirely populated by freshmen.
The only options for living on North Campus for upperclassmen are the program houses: [[Risley Hall|Risley Residential College]], Just About Music (JAM), the Ecology House, Holland International Living Center (HILC), the Multicultural Living Learning Unit (MLLU), the Latino Living Center (LLC), Akwe:kon, and Ujaama.
In an attempt to create a sense of community and an atmosphere of education outside the classroom, the university has undertaken the $250 million [[residential college]] project on West Campus. In line with Andrew Dickson White's vision of the university, the West Campus Class Halls will be demolished and rebuilt as five residential colleges. The first House, the [[Alice Cook House]], was opened to students in 2004, followed by the [[Carl Becker House]] in 2005. The next house will be the [[Hans Bethe House]]. The names of the Houses come from notable Cornell professors. The idea of building a House system can be attributed in part to the success of [[Risley Hall|Risley Residential College]], the oldest continually-operating residential college at Cornell. Like Risley, the new houses will have their own dining halls, student governments, in-house lectures, House trips, and [[heraldry|crests]]. The completion of the five-House "residential college" campus will occur in [[2010]].{{ref|housing.west_campus}}
A variety of off-campus housing options exist. Many homes in the East Hill neighborhoods adjacent to the university have been converted to apartments, and several high-rise apartment complexes have been constructed in the Collegetown neighborhood. A significant number of undergraduate students live in fraternity and sorority houses. Many "co-op" or other independent living units such as Watermargin, [[Telluride Association|Telluride House]], the Center for Jewish Living (formerly the Young Israel House), and the Wait Cooperative also exist.
The campus dining services have been rated as one of the top college dining services many times in recent years{{ref|housing.food}}. Cornell has a program called Cross Country Gourmet Guest Restaurant Series which periodically brings chefs, menus, and atmosphere from America’s most influential restaurants to Cornell’s dining rooms.
===Athletics===
{{main|Cornell Big Red}}
Cornell has one of the most diverse varsity athletic programs in the country. It sponsors 36 varsity teams. [[Image:Schoellkopfcrecent.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Schoellkopf Field]].]] An [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] [[Division I]] institution, Cornell is a member of the [[Ivy League]] and also competes in [[Eastern College Athletic Conference]], the largest athletic conference in North America. Cornell's traditional [[American football|football]] rival is the [[University of Pennsylvania]]; in [[1993]], the two institutions celebrated the 100th anniversary of their first game. More keenly followed in the present day are the men's [[ice hockey]] contests with [[Harvard University]], although the rivalry has been somewhat one-sided in recent years, with Cornell leading 22-5-2 since the 95-96 season, including ECAC Championship Game wins in 1996, 2003, and 2005.
In addition to the school's varsity athletics, a wide variety of club sports teams have been organized as student organizations under the auspices of the Dean of Students.
Cornell's intramural program includes 30 sports. In addition to such familiar sports such as [[flag football]], [[squash (sport)|squash]], or [[horseshoes]], such unusual offerings as "inner tube [[water polo]]" and formerly "broomstick [[polo]]" have been offered, as well as a sports trivia competition.
==Faculty==
{{seealso|List of Cornell University people#Faculty}}
Cornell University has over 1,550 full-time and part-time academic faculty members, and an additional 1,600 affiliated with its medical divisions. The 2004-05 Cornell faculty included three [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureates]], a [[Crawford Prize]] winner, two [[Turing Award]] winners, a [[Fields Medal]] winner, two [[Légion d'honneur|Legion of Honor]] recipients, a [[World Food Prize]] winner, four [[National Medal of Science]] winners, two [[Wolf Prize]] winners, four [[MacArthur Award]] winners, four [[Pulitzer Prize]] winners, 14 Alexander von Humboldt Award winners, two Eminent Ecologist Award recipients, a Carter G. Woodson Scholars Medallion recipient, 20 National Science Foundation CAREER grant holders, a recipient of the [[National Academy of Sciences]] Award for Initiatives in Research, a winner of the American Mathematical Society's Steele Prize for Lifetime Achievement, a recipient of the |
quot; script, that is still used today. "Square"-related scripts were in use all over the Middle East for several hundred years, but following the rise of [[Christianity]] (and later, the rise of [[Islam]]), they gave way to the [[Roman alphabet|Roman]] and [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] alphabets, respectively. According to traditional [[Judaism|Jewish]] thought, the Hebrew writing system contained all the current letters at the time of [[Moses]], although [[Ezra]] is known for his contribution to the square form.
Following the decline of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]] as the spoken languages of the Jews, the Hebrew alphabet was adopted in order to write down the languages of the Jewish diaspora ([[Karaim language|Karaim]], [[Judeo-Arabic language|Judæo-Arabic]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], etc.). The Hebrew alphabet was retained as the alphabet used for writing down the [[Hebrew language]] during its rebirth in the end of the [[19th century]], despite several unsuccessful attempts to replace it with the Latin alphabet.
==Unicode Table==
The [[Unicode]] Hebrew block extends from U+0590 to U+05FF. It includes [[letter]]s, [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]]s, [[combining diacritical mark]]s (''[[niqqud]]'' and [[cantillation]] marks) and [[punctuation]].
{| class="Unicode"
|- align="center"
|&nbsp;||&nbsp;||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|- align="center"
|590||&nbsp;||||֑||֒||֓||֔||֕||֖||֗||֘||֙||֚||֛||֜||֝||֞||֟
|- align="center"
|5A0||&nbsp;||֠||֡||֢||֣||֤||֥||֦||֧||֨||֩||֪||֫||֬||֭||֮||֯
|- align="center"
|5B0||&nbsp;||ְ||ֱ||ֲ||ֳ||ִ||ֵ||ֶ||ַ||ָ||ֹ||ֺ||ֻ||ּ||ֽ||־||ֿ
|- align="center"
|5C0||&nbsp;||׀||ׁ||ׂ||׃||ׄ||ׅ||׆||ׇ||||||||||||||||
|- align="center"
|5D0||&nbsp;||א||ב||ג||ד||ה||ו||ז||ח||ט||י||ך||כ||ל||ם||מ||ן
|- align="center"
|5E0||&nbsp;||נ||ס||ע||ף||פ||ץ||צ||ק||ר||ש||ת||||||||||ׯ
|- align="center"
|5F0||&nbsp;||װ||ױ||ײ||׳||״||||||||||||||||||||||
|}
Note: The codes װ ױ ײ are intended for Yiddish. They are not used in Hebrew.
==HTML Code Table==
'''Alef-Bet'''
{|border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="8" width="500" style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable"
|-
| width="25%" |ג|| width="25%" |ב|| width="25%" |בּ|| width="25%" |א
|-
!&amp;#1490;||&amp;#1489;||&amp;#64305;||&amp;#1488;
|-
|ז||ו||ה||ד
|-
!&amp;#1494;||&amp;#1493;||&amp;#1492;||&amp;#1491;
|-
|כּ||י||ט||ח
|-
!(&amp;#1499;&amp;#1468;)||&amp;#1497;||&amp;#1496;||&amp;#1495;
|-
|מ||ל||ך||כ
|-
!&amp;#1502;||&amp;#1500;||&amp;#1498;||&amp;#1499;
|-
|ס||ן||נ||ם
|-
!&amp;#1505;||&amp;#1503;||&amp;#1504;||&amp;#1501;
|-
|ף||פ||פּ||ע
|-
!&amp;#1507;||&amp;#1508;||(&amp;#1508;&amp;#1468;)||&amp;#1506;
|-
|ר||ק||ץ||צ
|-
!&amp;#1512;||&amp;#1511;||&amp;#1509;||&amp;#1510;
|-
|ת||תּ||שׂ||שׁ
|-
!&amp;#1514;||(&amp;#1514;&amp;#1468;)||&amp;#64299;||&amp;#64298;
|}
'''Vowels and Unique Characters'''
{| width=250 border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="8" style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable"
|-
| width=50%|Short/Hard||Long/Soft
|}
{| width=250 border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="8" style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable"
|-
| width=50%|( ַ )||( ָ )
|-
!&amp;#1463;||&amp;#1464;
|-
|( ֵ )||( ֶ )
|-
!&amp;#1461;||&amp;#1462;
|-
|וֹ||( ֹ )
|-
!&amp;#64331;||&amp;#1465;
|-
|וּ||( ֻ )
|-
!&amp;#64309;||&amp;#1467;
|-
|( ִ )|| Letter Yud ( י )
|-
!&amp;#1460;||&amp1497;
|}
{| width=250 border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="8" style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable"
|-
| width=50% | Shva Nach ( ְ )||Shva Nah ( ְ )
|-
!&amp;#1456;||&amp;#1456;
|-
| colspan="2" |Dagesh ( ּ )
|-
! colspan="2" |&amp;#1468;
|}
==See also==
* [[History of the Hebrew language]]
* [[Niqqud]]
== References ==
Roots of the Hebrew Alphabet
* Hoffman, Joel M. 2004. ''In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language.'' New York: NYU Press.
* Saenz-Badillos, Angel. 1993. ''A History of the Hebrew Language.'' Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
*[[Mathers table]]
*[http://qumran.com/alephbeth.htm ''Aleph-Beth Quick Study Chart.''] February 28, 2005. Qumran Bet Community. Retrieved January 5th, 2006.
*[http://www.ancient-hebrew.org/2_chapter4.html ''The Ancient Hebrew Language and Alephbet.''] August 11, 2004. The Ancient Hebrew Research Center. Retrieved January 5th, 2006.
==External links==
{{Commons|Hebrew alphabet}}
* [http://members.aol.com/OlivThill6/private/hebal10.htm HebAlpha, freeware to assist in learning the alphabet]
* [http://lost1.net/?page=hebrew Al's Hebrew Transliterator, converts latin alphabet transliteration into Hebrew HTML codes]
* [http://hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_One/unit_one.html A free online course to learn the Hebrew consonants]
* [http://www.amhaaretz.org/translit/ Hebrew translit] for typing Hebrew with an English keyboard
*[http://www.kabalahyoga.com/YourName.aspx Transliterate your English name into Hebrew Letters]
[[Category:Abjad writing systems]]
[[Category:Canaanite languages]]
[[Category:Hebrew alphabet| ]]
[[ar:عبرية (كتابة)]]
[[ast:Alfabetu hebréu]]
[[br:Lizherenneg hebraek]]
[[ca:Alfabet hebreu]]
[[da:Hebraisk alfabet]]
[[de:Hebräisches Alphabet]]
[[es:Alfabeto hebreo]]
[[eo:Hebrea alfabeto]]
[[fr:Alphabet hébreu]]
[[gl:Alfabeto hebreo]]
[[ko:히브리 문자]]
[[it:Alfabeto ebraico]]
[[he:אלפבית עברי]]
[[lad:Alefbet ebreo]]
[[nl:Hebreeuws alfabet]]
[[ja:ヘブライ文字]]
[[no:Hebraisk alfabet]]
[[nn:Det hebraiske alfabetet]]
[[pl:Alfabet hebrajski]]
[[pt:Alfabeto hebraico]]
[[ro:Alfabetul ebraic]]
[[ru:Еврейский алфавит]]
[[sk:Hebrejská abeceda]]
[[sr:Хебрејско писмо]]
[[fi:Heprealainen kirjaimisto]]
[[sv:Hebreiska alfabetet]]
[[tr:İbrani Alfabesi]]
[[uk:Гебрейська абетка]]
[[zh:希伯来字母]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford</title>
<id>13447</id>
<revision>
<id>41488511</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:27:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mackensen</username>
<id>20329</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Template:PeerNavbox -> Template:Succession box using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Horace Walpole.jpg|266px|thumb|right|Horace Walpole]]
'''Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford''', more commonly known as '''Horace Walpole''', ([[September 24]], [[1717]] &ndash; [[March 2]], [[1797]]), was a politician, writer, architectural innovator and namesake of his cousin [[Horatio Nelson]].
He was born in [[London]], the youngest son of [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Robert Walpole]]. He was educated at [[Eton College]] and [[King's College, Cambridge]]. His homosexual preference revealed itself early, and he is believed to have had affairs with the poet [[Thomas Gray]], and with [[Henry Fiennes Pelham-Clinton, 2nd Duke of Newcastle|Henry Fiennes Clinton, 9th Earl of Lincoln]] (later 2nd [[Duke of Newcastle]]). Gray accompanied Walpole on the [[Grand Tour]], but they quarrelled, and Walpole returned to England in [[1741]] and entered parliament. He was never politically ambitious, but remained an MP even after the death of his father in [[1745]] left him a man of independent means.
Following his father's politics, he was a devotee of King [[George II of Great Britain|George II]] and Queen [[Caroline of Ansbach|Caroline]], siding with them against their son, [[Frederick, Prince of Wales]], about whom Walpole wrote spitefully in his memoirs. Walpole's home, [[Strawberry Hill, London|Strawberry Hill]], near [[Twickenham]], was a fanciful concoction of neo-Gothic which began a new architectural trend. In [[1764]], he published his [[Gothic novel]], ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'', setting a literary trend to go with the architecture. From [[1762]] on, he published his ''Anecdotes of Painting in England'', based on [[George Vertue]]'s manuscript notes. His memoirs of the Georgian social and political scene, though heavily biased, are a useful primary source for historians. He also coined the term [[Serendipity]].
His father was created [[Earl of Orford]] in 1742. Horace's elder brother, [[Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford]] (c.1701-1751), passed the title on to his son [[George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford]] (1730-1791). When George died unmarried, Horace Walpole became the 4th Earl of Orford. When Horace Walpole died in 1797 the title became extinct. It was recreated in 1806 for Horace's cousin [[Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford]] (1723-1809). The great-grandson of the first earl of this creation, [[Horatio William Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford|Horatio William Walpole]] (1813-1894), became the 4th Earl of Orford of the 1806 creation. The 1806 creation became extinct on the death of [[Robert Horace Walpole, 5th Earl of Orford]] (1854-1931). Descendants of a younger brother of the 1st Earl of the 1806 creation have inherited older baronies, including one once held by Horace.
{{start box}}{{succession box | before=[[George Walpole]] | title=[[Earl of Orford]] | | years= | after=Extinct}}
==External links==
*[http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=4587 The Literary Encyclopedia.]
*[http://www.library.yale.edu/Walpole/Walstudy.htm Horace Walpole Study Resources]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Horace+Walpole | name=Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford}}
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4609 The Letters of Horace Walpole, V |
n]]. When peace was made in February, [[1828]], Abbas Mirza then sought to restore order in the province of [[Khorasan]], which was nominally under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the task died at [[Meshed]] in [[1833]]. In [[1834]] his eldest son, [[Mohammed Mirza]], succeeded Fath Ali as shah.
He is most remembered for his valor in battle and his attempts to modernize the Persian army, unsuccessful due to the lack of government centralization in Iran during the era.
== References ==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbas Mirza}}
* [[The Persian Encyclopedia]], the articles on ''Abbas Mirza'', ''Persia-Russia Wars'', ''Persia-Ottoman wars'', ''Golestan Treaty'', and ''Torkaman-Chay Treaty''.
{{1911}}
''Modern Iran''. Keddie, Nikki.
[[Category:1789 births|Mirza, Abbas]]
[[Category:1833 deaths|Mirza, Abbas]]
[[Category:Iranian royalty]]
[[ru:&#1040;&#1073;&#1073;&#1072;&#1089;-&#1052;&#1080;&#1088;&#1079;&#1072;]]
[[fr:Abbas Mirza]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abbon of Fleury</title>
<id>2612</id>
<revision>
<id>15901008</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-31T19:49:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Bishop</username>
<id>13008</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Abbo of Fleury]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abbo of Fleury]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Abbot (Archbishop of Canterbury)</title>
<id>2613</id>
<revision>
<id>36753797</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T05:58:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dystopos</username>
<id>99791</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:abp-g-abbot.jpg|frame|Archbishop George Abbot by an unknown artist, in the collection of Balliol College.]]
'''George Abbot''' ([[October 19]], [[1562]] &ndash; [[August 5]], [[1633]]) was an [[England|English]] divine, [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], born at [[Guildford]] in Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker. He studied, and then taught, at [[Balliol College, Oxford]], was chosen Master of [[University College, Oxford|University College]] in [[1597]], and appointed [[Dean (religion)|Dean]] of [[Winchester Cathedral|Winchester]] in [[1600]]. He was three times [[Vice-Chancellor]] of the [[University of Oxford|university]], and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version of the [[New Testament]].
In [[1608]] he went to [[Scotland]] with [[George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar]] to arrange for a union between the churches of [[England]] and Scotland. He so pleased [[James I of England|King James]] in this affair that he was made [[Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry]] in [[1609]], was translated to the See of [[Bishop of London|London]] a month afterwards, and in less than a year was raised to that of [[Archbishop of Canterbury|Canterbury]]. His [[puritan]] instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treatment of [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]s, but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, e.g. when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against the [[Earl of Essex]], and again in 1618 when, at [[Croydon]], he forbade the reading of the declaration permitting [[Sunday sports]]. He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the [[elector palatine]] and the Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the Prince of [[Wales]] with the Infanta of Spain. This policy brought upon him the hatred of [[William Laud]] (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the court, though the King himself never forsook him.
In [[1622]], while hunting in [[Lord Zouch]]'s park at [[Bramshill]] in [[Hampshire]], a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled [[melancholia]]. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of [[hunting]] which had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge. The King had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that "an angel might have miscarried after this sort." The commission was equally divided, and the King gave a casting vote in the Archbishop's favour, though signing also a formal pardon or dispensation.
After this the Archbishop seldom appeared at the Council, chiefly on account of his infirmities. He attended the King constantly, however, in his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]]. His refusal to license the [[assize sermon]] preached by Dr [[Robert Sibthorp]] at Northampton on [[February 22]] 1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as Primate, putting them in commission. The need of summoning parliament, however, soon brought about a nominal restoration of the Archbishop's powers. His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on the [[August 5]] 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of £300 a year.
Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view and often harsh towards both separatists and Roman Catholics. He wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being his discursive ''Exposition on the Prophet Jonah'' (1600), which was reprinted in 1845. His ''Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World'' (1599), passed through numerous editions.
The best account of him is in [[Samuel Rawson Gardiner|S. R. Gardiner]]'s ''History of England''.
Guildford remembers the Archbishop with a statue in the High Street, a pub and also a secondary school([[George Abbot School]] named after him.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbot, George (Archbishop)}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Archbishop of Canterbury]] | before=[[Richard Bancroft]] | after=[[William Laud]] | years=1611&ndash;1633}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord High Treasurer|First Lord of the Treasury]] | before=[[Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk|The Earl of Suffolk]]'''<br>(Lord High Treasurer) | after=[[Henry Montagu, 1st Viscount Mandeville|The Viscount Mandeville]]'''<br>(Lord High Treasurer) | years=1618&ndash;1620}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1562 births|Abbot, Archbishop George]]
[[Category:1633 deaths|Abbot, Archbishop George]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Canterbury|Abbot, George]]
[[Category:Former students of Balliol College, Oxford|Abbot, George]]
[[Category:Fellows of University College, Oxford|Abbot, George]]
[[Category:Translators of the King James version of the bible|Abbot, George]]
[[de:George Abbot]]
[[fr:George Abbot (archevêque)]]
[[pl:George Abbot]]
[[ru:Аббот, Джордж]]
[[sv:George Abbot]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Artemus Ward</title>
<id>2615</id>
<revision>
<id>15901010</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Farrar Browne]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adware</title>
<id>2616</id>
<revision>
<id>42044223</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:14:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tor Stein</username>
<id>796442</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+iw:no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Adware''' or '''advertising-supported software''' is any [[Computer software|software]] package which automatically plays, displays, or downloads advertising material to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the application is being used.
== Application ==
Adware is software integrated into or bundled with a program. It is usually seen by the [[programmer]] as a way to recover programming development costs, and in some cases it may allow the program to be provided to the user free of charge or at a reduced price. The advertising income may allow or motivate the programmer to continue to write, maintain and upgrade the software product.
Some adware is also [[shareware]], and so the word may be used as term of distinction to differentiate between types of shareware software. What differentiates adware from other shareware is that it is primarily advertising-supported. Users may also be given the option to pay for a "registered" or "licensed" copy to do away with the advertisements.
== Controversy ==
There are concerns about adware because it often takes the form of [[spyware]], in which information about the user's activity is tracked, reported, and often re-sold, often without the knowledge or consent of the user. Of even greater concern is [[malware]], which may interfere with the function of other software applications, in order to force users to visit a particular web site.
It is not uncommon for people to confuse "adware" with "spyware" and "malware", especially since these concepts overlap. For example, if one user installs "adware" on a computer, and consents to a tracking feature, the "adware" becomes "spyware" when another user visits that computer, and interacts with and is tracked by the "adware" without their consent.
Spyware has prompted an outcry from [[computer security]] and [[privacy]] advocates, including the [[Electro |
Committee]].
In [[2005]], Clinton co-sponsored with Senator [[Lindsey Graham]] the AMTAC proposal regarding incentives and rewards for completely domestic American manufacturing companies [http://www.amtacdc.org/]. As an advocate for her state, Senator Clinton led a bipartisan effort to bring [[broadband]] access to [[rural]] communities; co-sponsored the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act; included language in the Energy Bill to provide tax exempt bonding authority for [[natural environment|environmentally]] conscious [[construction]] projects; and introduced an [[constitutional amendment|amendment]] calling for funding of new job creation to repair, renovate and modernize [[public schools]].
===1995===
In May 2005, Senator Clinton joined forces with her former adversary, House Speaker [[Newt Gingrich]], on a proposal for incremental universal health care [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/06/06/klein.tm/index.html]. In June, [[2005]], Senator Clinton united with Senator [[Bill Frist]] to push for the modernization of medical records, claiming that thousands of deaths caused by medical mistakes, such as misreading prescriptions, can be prevented by greater reliance on computer technology [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/06/16/clinton.frist.healthcare.ap/index.html].
In July 2005, Senator Clinton called for the [[Federal Trade Commission]] to investigate how [[Hot Coffee mod|hidden sex scenes]] showed up in the controversial [[Computer and video games|video game]] ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]''. [http://leisure.newstimeslive.com/story.php?id=73260&category=Entertainment]
====Supreme Court Nominations====
In 2005, during the intense debate over the [[filibuster|filibustering]] of some of [[President George W. Bush]]'s federal judicial nominations, Senator Clinton generally kept a low profile. [http://www.suntimes.com/output/elect/cst-nws-fwin25.html] She was not part of the "[[Gang of 14]]" that resolved the dispute short of the "[[nuclear option (filibuster)|nuclear option]]", but she did vote to endorse that resolution and end debate on the nominations, thereby allowing the nominations to come to a vote. She subsequently voted against three of the nominees, but all were confirmed. [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,157604,00.html] Regarding the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] nomination of [[John Roberts]], in September 2005 Clinton voted against his confirmation, saying "I do not believe that the Judge has presented his views with enough clarity and specificity for me to in good conscience cast a vote on his behalf," but that she hoped her concerns would be unfounded. [http://clinton.senate.gov/news/statements/details.cfm?id=246324&&] Roberts was confirmed by a solid majority, with half the Senate's Democrats voting for him and half against. [http://www.ksbitv.com/home/1862927.html] Regarding the Supreme Court nomination of [[Samuel Alito]], in January and February 2006 Clinton not only joined almost all Senate Democrats in voting against his confirmation, but also joined about half the Democrats in supporting a filibuster against bringing his nomination to a vote [http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060131/NEWS06/601310465/1012], saying "He would roll back decades of progress, and roll over when confronted with an administration too willing to play fast and loose with the rules." [http://1010wins.com/topstories/local_story_028082921.html] That effort failed and Alito was confirmed on a largely party-line vote.
===Legislation===
Clinton sought to establish an independent, bipartisan panel patterned after the [[National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|9/11 Commission]] to investigate what went wrong with federal, state and local governments' response to [[Hurricane Katrina]]. She failed to win over a two-thirds majority needed to overcome procedural hurdles in the Senate rules. [http://www.breitbart.com/news/2005/09/14/D8CK6RV01.html]
On [[November 29]], [[2005]], Clinton, together with [[Joe Lieberman]] and [[Evan Bayh]] introduced the [[Family Entertainment Protection Act]]. The act is intended to protect children from inappropriate content found in video games. Similar bills have been filed in some U.S. states such as Michigan and Illinois, but were ruled to be unconstitutional.
==The 2006 Senate race==
Clinton announced in November 2004 that she will seek a second term in the Senate in the [[New York U.S. Senate election, 2006|2006 New York election for Senator]]. The two most prominent Republicans contemplating a challenge to Senator Clinton were [[lawyer]] [[Ed Cox]] (the son-in-law of former President [[Richard M. Nixon]]) and [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]] [[District Attorney]] [[Jeanine Pirro]]. On [[October 14]], [[2005]], New York Governor [[George Pataki]] formally endorsed Pirro, causing Cox to drop out of the race [http://www.buffalonews.com/editorial/20051015/1031517.asp]. However, Pirro trailed Clinton badly in fund-raising and in polls, and under pressure from state party officials dropped out of the race herself on [[December 21]], [[2005]] [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/12/21/ny.pirro/index.html], leaving the Republicans without a well-known candidate. Possible Republican nominees now include Cox; former [[Yonkers, New York|Yonkers]], New York, mayor [[John Spencer (politician)|John Spencer]]; and K. T. (Kathleen Troia) McFarland, who was a [[Pentagon]] spokeswoman under President [[Ronald Reagan]].
Clinton also faces opposition for the Democratic party nomination for Senate; it comes from the anti-war base of her own party that has become increasingly frustrated with her support for the Iraq War.
In October 2005 [[New Paltz, New York|New Paltz]] firefighter and activist [[Steven Greenfield]] announced he would run against her. Then on December 6, 2005, labor advocate [[Jonathan Tasini]] announced that he would run against her as well [http://www.nysun.com/article/24079], calling for immediate withdrawal of troops from Iraq, [[universal health care]] and what he terms "New Rules For the Economy," a more labor-centric as opposed to the corporate-centric approach to economic matters espoused by Clinton. Tasini is supported by anti-war activist [[Cindy Sheehan]], who had in October said, "I will resist her candidacy with every bit of my power and strength...I will not make the mistake of supporting another pro-war Democrat for president again." [http://www.madison.com/tct/opinion/index.php?ntid=64347&ntpid=10]
==Speculation about possible 2008 presidential bid==
Clinton has expressed interest in the [[U.S. presidential election, 2008|2008 U.S. presidential race]] [http://www2.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-11/27/content_285278.htm]. No woman has ever been nominated for President by a major party.
Clinton has an established national image that makes her possible candidacy in [[U.S. presidential election, 2008|2008]] a popular and controversial topic among media pundits, [[weblog|bloggers]], and the public at large. For example, in July 2005 the magazine ''[[Washington Monthly]]'' ran two side-by-side articles, one thinking that she could win the presidency and one thinking that she could not [http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2005/0507.cannon.html] [http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2005/0507.sullivan1.html]. In a December 2005 [[CNN]]/[[USA Today]]/[[Gallup]] poll, 41% of Democrats preferred her for the 2008 presidential nomination. [http://www.pollingreport.com/WH08dem.htm]
In a poll conducted by the same organizations in May 2005, when general voters were asked the likelihood of voting for Senator Clinton for president, 29% of respondents were very likely, 24% were somewhat likely, 7% were not very likely, and 39% were not at all likely. In June 2003, in a similar poll, the numbers had been 21% very likely, 21% somewhat likely, 12% not very likely, and 44% not at all likely. In May 2005, 55% of respondents held a favorable view of Senator Clinton, while 39% held an unfavorable view of her [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/05/26/hillary.clinton/index.html]. These findings were similar to the June 2003 poll that found 53% reacted favorably toward her and 41% unfavorably, with the undecided/no opinion bloc representing only 6% of those polled.
Following the 2004 election cycle, Clinton began what some saw as a movement to the political [[center]] by supporting health care reform with [[Contract with America]] architect and former adversary [[Newt Gingrich]]. [http://www.newsday.com/news/local/wire/newyork/ny-bc-ny--clinton-gingrich0721jul21,0,7550602.story]
The alignment represents for both a reconciliation with the past, for it was Gingrich that helped defeat Clinton's health care plan in the early 1990s. Clinton's January 2005, speech on abortion [[#Eliminating without criminalizing abortion|quoted below]] was viewed by some as part of her alleged move to the center. [[Liberalism|Liberal]] media watchdog [[Media Matters]] has offered evidence that Clinton's positions have remained consistent with her past [http://mediamatters.org/items/200501260014] [http://mediamatters.org/items/200502020002]. In August 2005, the Los Angeles Times reported that Clinton was positioning herself as a centrist [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-hillary8aug08,0,1894074.story?coll=la-home-nation]; critics [http://independentsources.com/2005/08/08/los-angeles-times-hillary-a-moderate-independent-sources-not-so-fast/] cited her Senate voting record as proof that was not the case.
In February 2005, associates of Republican political consultant [[Arthur J. Finkelstein|Arthur Finkelstein]] announced he would be forming a [[Political action committee|PAC]] entitled [http://www.stophernow.com/ Stop Her Now] with the stated goal, "to shed light on the REAL Hillary Clinto |
Leipzig]], under the title of the [[Codex Frederico-Augustanus]], a name given in honour of his patron, [[Frederick Augustus II of Saxony|king of Saxony]]. The fragments were published in 1846 although he kept the place of discovery a secret.
A great triumph of these laborious months was the decipherment of the [[palimpsest]] ''[[Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus|Codex Ephraemi Syri Rescriptus]]'', of which the New Testament part was printed before he left Paris, and the [[Old Testament]] in 1845. His success in dealing with a manuscript that, having been rewritten with other works of [[Ephrem the Syrian]], had been mostly illegible to earlier collators, made him more well known, and gained support for more extended critical expeditions. He now became ''professor extraordinarius'' at Leipzig, and married (1845). He also began to publish an account of his travels in the East (2 vols., 1845-1846).
In the winter of 1849 appeared the great work now titled ''Novum Testamentum Graece. Ad antiquos testes recensuit, Apparatum Criticum multis modis wiktionary:canon|canon]]s of criticism, adding examples of their application that are applicable to students today:
:Basic rule: "The text is only to be sought from ancient evidence, and especially from Greek manuscripts, but without neglecting the testimonies of versions and [[Fathers of the Church|fathers]]."
#"A reading altogether peculiar to one or another ancient document is suspicious; as also is any, even if supported by a class of documents, which seems to evince that it has originated in the revision of a learned man."
#"Readings, however well supported by evidence, are to be rejected, when it is manifest (or very probable) that they have proceeded from the errors of copyists."
#"In parallel passages, whether of the New or Old Testament, especially in the [[Synoptic Gospels]], which ancient copyists continually brought into increased accordance, those testimonies are preferable, in which precise accordance of such parallel passages is not found; unless, indeed, there are important reasons to the contrary."
#"In discrepant readings, that should be preferred which may have given occasion to the rest, or which appears to comprise the elements of the others."
#"Those readings must be maintained which accord with [[Koine Greek|New Testament Greek]], or with the particular style of each individual writer."[http://www.bible-researcher.com/bib-t.html]
These were partly the result of the tireless travels he had begun in 1839 in search of unread manuscripts of the New Testament, "to clear up in this way," he wrote, "the history of the sacred text, and to recover if possible the genuine [[apostolic]] text which is the foundation of our faith."
In 1850 appeared his edition of the ''[[Codex Amiatinus]]'' and of the [[Septuagint]] version of the Old Testament (7th ed., 1887); in 1852, amongst other works, his edition of the ''[[Codex Claromontanus]]''. In 1853 and 1859 he made a second and a third voyage to the East. On the last of these, with the active aid of the [[Russia|Russian]] government, he at length got access to the remainder of the precious Sinaitic codex, and persuaded the monks to present it to the ''[[Alexander II of Russia|tsar]]'', at whose cost it was published in 1862 (in four folio volumes). In 1869 the ''tsar'' awarded him the style of "von" Tischendorf as a Russian noble.
In 1853, he made a second trip to the Syrian monastery but made no new discoveries. He returned a third time in January, 1859 under the patronage of Czar [[Alexander II of Russia]] to find more of the Codex Frederico-Augustanus or similar ancient Biblical texts. On [[February 4]], the last day of his visit, he was shown a text which he recognized as significant-- the ''[[Codex Sinaiticus]]'' -- a Greek manuscript of the complete New Testament and parts of the Old Testament dating to the [[4th century]].
Meanwhile, also in 1859, he had been made ''professor ordinarius'' of theology and of Biblical [[paleography]], this latter professorship being specially created for him; and another book of travel, ''Aus dem heiligen Lande'', appeared in 1862. Tischendorf's Eastern journeys were rich enough in other discoveries to merit the highest praise.
Tischendorf exemplified the [[buccaneer]] image of [[19th century]] [[archaeology]] in his pursuit of unknown manuscripts to compare with known manuscripts to create his ''magnum opus'': the "Critical Edition of the New Testament."
The great edition, of which the text and apparatus appeared in 1869 and 1872, was called by himself ''editio viii.''; but this number is raised to twenty or twenty-one, if mere reprints from [[stereotype]] plates and the minor editions of his great critical texts are included; posthumous prints bring the total to forty-one. Four main recensions of Tischendorf's text may be distinguished, dating respectively from his editions of 1841, 1849, 1859 (ed. vii.), and 1869-1872 (ed. viii.). The edition of 1849 may be regarded as historically the most important, from the mass of new critical material it used; that of 1859 is distinguished from Tischendorf's other editions by coming nearer to the received text; in the eighth edition, the testimony of the Sinaitic manuscript received great (probably too great) weight. The readings of the [[Vatican]] manuscript were given with more exactness and certainty than had been possible in the earlier editions, and the editor had also the advantage of using the published labours of [[Samuel Prideaux Tregelles|SP Tregelles]].
Of relatively lesser importance was Tischendorf's work on the Greek Old Testament. His edition of the Roman text, with the variants of the Alexandrian manuscript, the ''Codex Ephraemi'', and the ''Friderico-Augustanus'', was of service when it appeared in 1850, but, being stereotyped, was not greatly improved in subsequent issues. Its imperfections -- even within the limited field it covers -- may be judged by the aid of [[CE Nestle]]'s appendix to the 6th issue (1880). Besides this may be mentioned editions of the New Testament [[apocrypha]], ''De Evangeliorum apocryphorum origine et usu'' (1851); ''Acta Apostolorum apocrypha'' (1851); ''Evangelia apocrypha'' (1853; 2nd ed., 1876); ''Apocalypses apocryphae'' (1866), and various minor writings, partly of an apologetic character, such as ''Wann wurden unsere Evangelien verfasst?'' (1865; 4th ed., 1866), ''Haben wir den echten Schrifttext der Evangelisten und Apostel?'' (1873), and ''Synopsis evangelica'' (7th ed., 1898).
By those ignorant of the details of his discovery of ''Codex Sinaiticus'', Tischendorf was accused of buying manuscripts from ignorant [[monastery]] librarians at low prices. Indeed he was never rich, but he staunchly defended the rights of the monks at St. Catherine's Monastery when he persuaded them eventually to send the manuscript to the ''tsar''.
Alongside his industry in collecting and collating manuscripts, Tischendorf pursued a constant course of editorial labours, mainly on the New Testament, until he was broken down by overwork in 1873. He died on [[7 December]] [[1874]] at Leipzig.
Besides his fame as a scholar, he was a friend of both [[Robert Schumann]], with whom he corresponded, and [[Felix Mendelssohn]], who dedicated a song to him. His personal library, purchased after his death, eventually came to the [[University of Glasgow]] [http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/collection/tischendorf.html], where a commemorative exhibition of books from his library was held in 1974.
==External links==
*[http://www.burgmueller.com/tischendorf_e.html Klaus Zehnder-Tischendorf, "Constantine von Tischendorf" 2002]
*[http://www.gospelcom.net/chi/DAILYF/2003/01/daily-01-18-2003.shtml Constantine von Tischendorf]
==Reference==
*Black, Matthew, and Robert Davidson, ''Constantin von Tischendorf and the Greek New Testament'' Glasgow: University of Glasgow Press, 1981.
See, in addition to the handbooks on New Testament criticism, Carl Bertheau's article on Tischendorf in Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyklopädie'' (3rd ed., 1907).
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Christian texts]]
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[[Category:1874 deaths|Tischendorf, Constantin von]]
[[Category:German theologians|Tischendorf, Lobegott Friedrich Konstantin von]]
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<page>
<title>Chester A. Arthur</title>
<id>6194</id>
<revision>
<id>42134843</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:24:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tomf688</username>
<id>94202</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rp image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=President Chester Alan Arthur
| nationality=american
| image=Chester Alan Arthur.jpg
| order=21st President
| term_start=[[September 19]], [[1881]]
| term_end=[[March 3]], [[1885]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->
| predecessor=[[James A. Garfield]]
| successor=[[Grover Cleveland]]
| birth_date=[[October 5]], [[1829]]
| birth_place=[[Fairfield, Vermont]]
| death_date=[[November 18]], [[1886]]
| death_place=[[New York City, New York]]
| spouse=[[Ellen Lewis Herndon Arthur]]
| party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| vicepresident=None
}}
'''Chester Alan Arthur''' ([[October 5]], [[1829]]&ndash;[[November 18]], [[1886]]) was an [[Politics of the United States|American politician]] who served as the twenty-first [[President of the United States]]. Arthur was a member of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] and worked as a [[Law of the United States|lawyer]] before becoming the 20th [[Vice President of the United States|vice pres |
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Idiolect]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Insterburg</title>
<id>15219</id>
<revision>
<id>15912706</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T11:25:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing indirect redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chernyakhovsk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imprecise language</title>
<id>15220</id>
<revision>
<id>29798671</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-01T12:36:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nikola Smolenski</username>
<id>11304</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Moving disambig tag to bottom</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Language might be said to imprecise because it exhibits one or more of the following features:
* [[ambiguity]] - when two or more different meanings can be interpreted equally well from a certain word or phrase
* [[vagueness]] - when borderline cases interfere with an interpretation
* [[equivocation]] - ambiguity or vagueness within an argument
* [[accent (logic)]] - when the use of bold or italics causes confusion over the meaning of a statement
* [[amphiboly]] - when crucial premises in an argument are left implicit
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intel 80188</title>
<id>15221</id>
<revision>
<id>40887000</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T17:51:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Stack pointer]] to [[Stack-based memory allocation]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Intel 80188''' is a version of the [[Intel 80186]] microprocessor with an 8 bit external [[data bus]], instead of 16 bit. This makes it less expensive to connect to [[computer peripheral|peripherals]].
As the [[8086]], the 80188 featured four 16-bit general [[processor register|registers]], which could also be accessed as eight 8-bit registers. It also included six more 16-bit registers, which included, for example, the [[Stack-based memory allocation|stack pointer]], the [[instruction pointer]], [[index registers]], or a status word register that acted like a flag, for example, in comparison operations.
Just like the [[8086]], the processor also included four 16-bit [[memory segment|segment]] registers that enabled the addressing of more than 64 Kbytes of memory, which is the limit of a 16-bit architecture, by introducing an offset value that was added, after being shifted left 4 bits, to the value of another register. This addressing system provided a total of 1 Mbyte of addressable memory, a value that, at the time, was considered to be very far away from the total memory a computer would ever need.
==External links==
*[http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&l0=cl&l1=80186/188 Intel 80186/80188 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
{{Intel processors}}
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<page>
<title>IEEE 802.2</title>
<id>15222</id>
<revision>
<id>40364455</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''IEEE 802.2''' is the [[IEEE 802]] standard defining [[Logical Link Control]] (LLC), which is the upper portion of the data link layer for [[local area network|local area networks]]. The LLC sublayer presents a uniform interface to the user of the data link service, usually the [[network layer]]. Beneath the LLC sublayer is the [[media access control|Media Access Control]] (MAC) sublayer.
The IEEE standard adds this sublayer which adds the standard 8-bit ''DSAP'' (''Destination [[Service Access Point]]'') and ''SSAP'' (''Source Service Access Point'') labels to a given packet regardless of network type. There is also an 8 or 16 bit control field for use in auxiliary functions such as [[flow control]].
== Operational modes ==
IEEE 802.2 provides two [[connectionless mode transmission| connectionless]] and one connection-oriented operational modes:
* '''Type 1''' is an unacknowledged connectionless mode. It allows for sending frames
** to a single destination (point-to-point or unicast transfer),
** to multiple destinations on the same network (multicast),
** or to all stations of the network (broadcast).
The use of multicasts and broadcasts reduce network traffic when the same information needs to be propagated to all stations of the network.
However the Type 1 service provides no guarantees regarding the order of the received frames compared to the order in which they have been sent; the sender does not even get an acknowledgment that the frames have been received.
* '''Type 2''' is a [[connection-oriented| connection-oriented]] operational mode. Sequence numbering ensures that the frames received are guaranteed to be in the order they have been sent, and no frames are lost. A [[sliding window]] flow control procedure prevents fast senders from flooding slow destinations.
* '''Type 3''' is an acknowledged [[connectionless mode transmission| connectionless]] service. It supports point-to-point communication only.
== IEEE 802.2 header control words and frame formats ==
To confuse matters further, there can be three kinds of IEEE 802.2 PDU, in so-called U, I or S frames.
* U frames, with an 8-bit control field, are intended for connectionless applications
* I frames, with a 16-bit control and sequence numbering field, are intended to be used in connection-oriented applications
* S frames, with a 16-bit control field, are intended to be used for supervisory functions at the LLC layer.
Of these three formats, only the U-format is commonly used. The format of a PDU frame is identified by the lower two bits of the first byte of the control field. IEEE 802.2 was conceptually derived from [[HDLC]], which explains these aspects of its design.
==External links==
* [http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/802.2.html IEEE 802.2 online]
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:IEEE 802|IEEE 802.02]]
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[[pt:IEEE 802.2]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Invertebrate</title>
<id>15223</id>
<revision>
<id>40768828</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T22:17:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hede2000</username>
<id>284384</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+da:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Invertebrate''' is a term coined by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] to describe any [[animal]] without a [[spinal column]]. It therefore includes all animals except [[vertebrate]]s ([[fish]], [[reptile]]s, [[amphibian]]s, [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s).
Lamarck divided these animals into two groups, the [[Insect]]a and the [[Vermes]], but nowadays, they are classified into over 30 [[phylum (biology)|phyla]], from simple organisms such as [[sponge]]s and [[flatworm]]s to complex animals such as [[arthropod]]s and [[mollusk]]s.
Since invertebrates include all animals except a certain group, invertebrates form a [[paraphyletic]] group, but, despite not forming a "natural group" (that is, [[monophyletic]]), "invertebrate" is still a widely used term. It is not uncommon for books entitled "Invertebrate Zoology" to be found. This reflects the bias in society and also in [[zoology]] towards larger, more complex animals that are more closely related to [[human]]s. Thus, there are relatively many scientists studying (and relatively much funding available for the study of) birds, mammals, reptiles, and so on, but far fewer scientists studying invertebrates, even though invertebrates include 97% of all animal [[species]].
For a full list of animals considered to be invertebrates, see [[animal]]. All the listed phyla are invertebrates along with two of the three [[subphylum|subphyla]] in Phylum [[chordate|Chordata]]: [[Urochordata]] and [[Cephalochordata]]. These two, plus all the other known invertebrates, have only one cluster of [[Hox genes]], while the vertebrates have duplicated their original cluster more than once.
==External links==
* [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/categories/invertz.html Invertebrate Zoology]
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/onlinedictinvertzoology/ ''Online Dictionary of Invertebrate Zoology'']
*[http://www.goliathus.cz/en/museum-homepage-0.html Online museum] of many invertebrates, provided by [http://www.goliathus.cz/ goliathus.cz].
[[Category:Animals]]
[[bg:Безгръбначни]]
[[ca:Invertebrat]]
[[da:Invertebrat]]
[[de:Wirbellose]]
[[et:Selgrootud]]
[[es:Invertebrado]]
[[fr:Invertébré]]
[[id:Invertebrata]]
[[he:חסרי חוליות]]
[[lt:Bestuburiai]]
[[ms:Invertebrat]]
[[nl:Ongewerveld]]
[[ja:無脊椎動物]]
[[pl:Bezkręgowce]]
[[pt:Invertebrado]]
[[simple:Invertebrate]]
[[zh:无脊椎动物]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ivar Aasen</title>
<id>15225</id>
<revision>
<id>36344677</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T11:08:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>EmirA</username>
<id>740055</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ivar Andreas Aasen''' ([[August 5]], [[1813]] &ndash; [[September 23]], [[1896]] |
since it acted as though nothing had changed since 1653 and so it could treat the Army how it liked. After the dissolution of the Rump in October 1659, a real prospect of a total descent into anarchy loomed as the Army's pretence of unity finally dissolved into factions.
Into this atmosphere General [[George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle | George Monck]], governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, marched south with his army from Scotland. On [[April 4]] 1660, in the [[Declaration of Breda]] [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] made known the conditions of his acceptance of the crown of England. Monck organised the [[Convention Parliament#Convention Parliament of 1660|Convention Parliament]], which met for the first time on [[April 25]]. On [[May 8]] it declared that King Charles II had reigned as the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I in January 1649. Charles returned from exile on [[May 23]]. Later in London, on [[May 29]], he was acclaimed king. His coronation took place at [[Westminster Abbey]] on [[23 April]] 1661. These events became known as the ''[[English Restoration]]''.
As they resulted in the restoration of the monarchy with the consent of Parliament, the civil wars effectively set England and Scotland on course to adopt a [[parliamentary monarchy]] form of government. This system would result in the outcome that the [[United Kingdom]], formed under the [[Act of Union 1707|Acts of Union]], would avoid participation in the European republican movements that followed the [[Jacobin]] revolution in [[18th century | 18th-century]] France and the later success of [[Napoleon]]. Specifically, future monarchs became wary of pushing Parliament too hard, and Parliament effectively chose the line of succession in [[1688]] with the [[Glorious Revolution]] and the [[1701]] [[Act of Settlement 1701|Act of Settlement]]. After the [[English Restoration|Restoration]], Parliament's factions became [[political party|political parties]] (later becoming the [[Tory|Tories]] and [[Whig (UK)|Whigs]]) with competing views and varying abilities to influence the decisions of their monarchs.
==Theories relating to the English Civil War==
Throughout the greater part of the [[20th century]], two schools of thought dominated theoretical explanations of the Civil War: the [[Marxism|Marxist]]s and the 'Whigs'. Both of them explained the English seventeenth century in terms of long-term trends.
Whigs explained the Civil War as the result of a centuries-long struggle between Parliament (especially the House of Commons) and the monarchy. Parliament fought to defend the traditional rights of Englishmen, while the monarchy attempted on every occasion to expand its right to dictate law arbitrarily. The most important Whig historian, [[Samuel Rawson Gardiner|S.R. Gardiner]], popularized the idea of describing the civil war as a 'Puritan Revolution' which challenged the repressive nature of the Stuart church and paved the way for the [[religious toleration]] of the Restoration. Puritanism, in this view, became the natural ally of a people seeking to preserve their traditional rights against the arbitrary power of the monarchy.
The Marxist school of thought, which became popular in the [[1940s]], interpreted the Civil War as a [[bourgeois]] [[revolution]]. In the words of [[Christopher Hill (historian)|Christopher Hill]], "the Civil War was a class war". On the side of reaction stood the [[landed aristocracy]] and its ally, the [[established church]]. On the other side stood (again, according to Hill) "the trading and industrial classes in town and countryside, [...] the yeomen and progressive gentry, and [...] wider masses of the population whenever they were able by free discussion to understand what the struggle was really about". The Civil War occurred at the point in English history at which the wealthy [[middle class]]es, already a powerful force in society, liquidated the outmoded medieval system of English government. Like the Whigs, the Marxists found a place for the role of religion in their account. Puritanism as a moral system ideally suited the bourgeois class, and so the Marxists identified Puritans as inherently bourgeois.
Beginning in the [[1970s]], a new generation of historians began mounting challenges to the Marxist and Whig theories. This began with the publication in [[1973]] of the anthology ''[[The Origins of the English Civil War]]'' (edited by [[Conrad Russell]]). These historians disliked the way that Marxists and Whigs explained the Civil War in terms of long-term trends in English society. The new historians called for, and began producing, studies which focussed on the minute particulars of the years immediately preceding the war, thus returning in some ways to the sort of contingency-based historiography of [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon|Clarendon]]'s famous contemporary history of the civil war. As a result, they have demonstrated that the pattern of allegiances in the war did not fit the theories of Whig and Marxist historians. Puritans, for example, did not necessarily ally themselves with Parliamentarians, and many of them did not identify as bourgeois; many bourgeois fought on the side of the King; many landed aristocrats supported Parliament.
The new generation of historians (commonly called 'Revisionists') have discredited large sections of the Whig and Marxist interpretations of the war. Many of these historians (such as [[Jane Ohlmeyer]]) have discarded the title 'English Civil War' and replaced it with the 'Wars of the three Kingdoms' or even the geographically arguable but politically incorrect 'British Civil Wars'. This forms part of a wider trend in British history towards the study of the whole of the [[British Isles]] ([[Islands of the North Atlantic|IONA]]). This trend is largely a reaction to what is perceived as 'Anglocentric' history, which concentrates on England and ignores or marginalizes other parts of the British Isles. These revisionist historians argue that one cannot fully understand the English civil war in isolation; it needs to stand as just one conflict in a series of interlocking conflicts throughout the British Isles. They see the causes of the war as a consequence arising from one king, Charles I, ruling over multiple kingdoms. For example, the wars unfolded when Charles I tried to impose an Anglican prayer book on Scotland; when the Scots resisted he declared war on them, but had to raise heavy taxes in England to pay for campaigning, which triggered the Civil War in England.
==Re-enactments==
Two large historical societies exist, [[The Sealed Knot (reenactment)|The Sealed Knot]] and [[The English Civil War Society]], which regularly re-enact events and battles of the Civil War in full period costume.
==See also==
* [[The Levellers|Levellers]], [[Fifth Monarchists]], [[Quaker history|Quakers]], [[Diggers (True Levellers)|Diggers]] and [[Ranters]]
* [[Thirty Years War|The Thirty Years' War]] for a defining moment in European history during the reign of Charles I.
* [[Timeline of events leading to the English Civil War|Timeline of English Civil War events]]
== External links ==
*[http://members.lycos.co.uk/chrishill61/civil_war_newark.htm Civil War Newark] All about the castles, sieges and defences of the English Civil war (in Newark, near Nottingham)
*[http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture7c.html Lecture 7: The English Civil War] An essay on the Politics of the English Civil War
*[http://badley.info/history/Civil-War-England.general.html English Civil War Chronology World History Database]
*[http://www.historybookshop.com/articles/commentary/civil-wars-of-three-kingdoms-ht.asp The Wars of the Three Kingdoms] ''The British and Irish Civil Wars'' article by Jane Ohlmeyer, who argues that the English Civil War formed just one of an interlocking set of conflicts that encompassed the British Isles in the mid-seventeenth century
*[http://www.virtualbrum.co.uk/history/civilwar.htm The Civil War around Birmingham 1642&ndash;1648]
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/hill-christopher/english-revolution/ The English Revolution 1640] by Christopher Hill, Pub Lawrence and Wishart, 1940.
[[Category:English Civil War]]
[[Category:Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]
[[Category:Rebellion]]
[[Category:Revolutions]]
[[ang:Englisc Ingefeoht]]
[[bs:Engleski Građanski Rat]]
[[da:Engelske borgerkrig]]
[[de:Englischer Bürgerkrieg]]
[[es:Revolución Inglesa]]
[[eo:Angla Enlanda Milito]]
[[fr:Première révolution anglaise]]
[[hr:Engleski građanski rat]]
[[nl:Engelse Burgeroorlog]]
[[nds:Ingelsche Börgerorlog]]
[[ja:イングランド内戦]]
[[no:Den engelske borgerkrigen]]
[[pt:Guerra civil inglesa]]
[[ru:Английская революция XVII века]]
[[sl:Angleška državljanska vojna]]
[[fi:Englannin sisällissota]]
[[sv:Engelska inbördeskriget]]
[[uk:Англійська Громадянська війна]]
[[zh:英國內戰]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elementary algebra</title>
<id>9710</id>
<revision>
<id>40090919</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T01:42:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aianrnoens</username>
<id>468006</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about basic algebra in mathematics. For other uses of the term "algebra" see [[algebra (disambiguation)]].''
'''Elementary algebra''' is the most basic form of [[algebra]] taught to students who are presumed to have no knowledge of [[mathematics]] beyond the basic principles of [[arithmetic]]. While in arithmetic only [[number]]s and their arithmetical operations (such as +, &minus;, &times;, ÷) occur, in algebra one also uses symbols (such as ''a'', ''x'', ''y'') to denote numbers. This is useful because:
* It allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as <math>a + b = b + a</math> for all ''a'' and ''b''), and thus is the first step to a systematic exploration of the properties of the [[ |
est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Guinean (s)
<br>''adjective:''
Guinean
'''Ethnic groups:'''
African 99% ([[Balanta]] 30%, [[Fula]] 20%, [[Manjaca]] 14%, [[Mandinka people|Mandinga]] 13%, [[Papel]] 7%), European and Mulatto less than 1%
'''Religions:'''
indigenous beliefs 50%, Muslim 45%, Christian 5%
'''Languages:'''
Portuguese (official), Crioulo, African languages
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
53.9%
<br>''male:''
67.1%
<br>''female:''
40.7% (1997 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Guinea-Bissau]]
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Demographics by country|Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Guinea-Bissau]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Guinea-Bissau</title>
<id>12190</id>
<revision>
<id>35516165</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T08:05:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Acntx</username>
<id>104025</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* International organization participation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Guinea-Bissau}}
'''Politics of Guinea-Bissau''' takes place in a framework of a [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]] in transition, whereby the [[Heads of State of Guinea-Bissau|President]] is [[head of state]] and the [[Heads of Government of Guinea-Bissau|Prime Minister]] is [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[National People's Assembly of Guinea-Bissau|National People's Assembly]]. Since 1994 the party system is dominated by the socialist [[African Independence Party of Guinea and Cape Verde]] and the [[Party for Social Renewal]].
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
==Recent political developments==
In [[Guinea-Bissau]] in 1989, the ruling [[African Independence Party of Guinea and Cape Verde]] under the direction of President [[João Bernardo Vieira|João Bernardo "Nino" Vieira]] began to outline a political liberalization program which the [[People's National Assembly of Guinea-Bissau|People's National Assembly]] approved in 1991. Reforms that paved the way for multi-party democracy included the repeal of articles of the constitution, which had enshrined the leading role of the PAIGC. Laws were ratified to allow the formation of other political parties, a free press, and independent trade unions with the right to strike.
Guinea-Bissau's first [[multi-party system|multi-party]] [[election]]s for president and parliament were held in 1994. Following the 1998-99 civil war, presidential and legislative elections were again held, bringing opposition leader [[Kumba Ialá]] and his [[Party for Social Renewal]] to power. The PRS currently holds 38 of 102 National Assembly seats and 18 of 25 Cabinet seats. Ialá was ousted in a bloodless coup in September 2003, and [[Henrique Rosa]] was sworn in as President. Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracy is complicated by its crippled economy, devastated in the civil war.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[Heads of State of Guinea-Bissau|President]]
|[[João Bernardo Vieira|João Bernardo "Nino" Vieira]]
|Independent
|[[1 October]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Heads of Government of Guinea-Bissau|Prime Minister]]
|[[Aristides Gomes]]
|Independent
|[[2 November]] [[2005]]
|}
The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The prime minister is appointed by the president after consultation with party leaders in the legislature.
==Legislative branch==
The [[National People's Assembly of Guinea-Bissau|National People's Assembly]] (''Assembleia Nacional Popular'') has 102 members, elected for a four year term in multi-member [[constituency|constituencies]].
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Guinea-Bissau|Elections in Guinea-Bissau}}
{{Guinea-Bissau presidential election, 2005}}
{{main|Guinea-Bissau presidential election, 2005}}
{{Guinea-Bissau legislative election, 2004}}
{{main|Guinea-Bissau legislative election, 2004}}
==Judicial branch==
The Supreme Court or Supremo Tribunal da Justica, consists of nine justices who are appointed by the president and serve at his pleasure, final court of appeals in criminal and civil case. There are Regional Courts, one in each of nine regions, first court of appeals for sectoral court decisions, hear all felony cases and civil cases valued at over $1,000 and 24 Sectoral Courts, judges are not necessarily trained lawyers, hear civil cases under $1,000 and misdemeanor criminal cases.
'''Political parties and leaders:'''
African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde or PAIGC [Carlos GOMES Junior]; Front for the Liberation and Independence of Guinea or FLING [Francois MENDY]; Guinea-Bissau Resistance-Ba Fata Movement or RGB-MB [Helder Vaz LOPES]; Guinean Civic Forum or FCG [Antonieta Rosa GOMES]; International League for Ecological Protection or LIPE [Alhaje Bubacar DJALO, president]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Abubacer BALDE, secretary general]; Party for Democratic Convergence or PCD [Victor MANDINGA]; Social Renovation Party or PRS [Kumba YALA]; Union for Change or UM [Jorge MANDINGA, president, Dr. Anne SAAD, secretary general]; United Platform or UP [coalition formed by PCD, FDS, [[Frente de Luta pela Independência Nacional da Guiné|FLING]], and RGB-MB]; United Social Democratic Party or PUSD [Francisco Jose FADUL]
==Administrative divisions==
Guinea-Bissau is divided in 9 regions (regioes, singular - regiao); Bafata, Biombo, Bissau, Bolama, Cacheu, Gabu, Oio, Quinara, Tombali.
<br>''note:'' Bolama may have been renamed Bolama/Bijagos
==International organization participation==
ACCT (associate), ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
'''Flag description:'''
two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and green with a vertical red band on the hoist side; there is a black five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
:''See also :'' [[Guinea-Bissau]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Guinea-Bissau]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Guinea-Bissau</title>
<id>12191</id>
<revision>
<id>38992991</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T00:17:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Guinea-Bissau table}}
'''Economy - overview:'''
[[Guinea-Bissau]] is among the world's least developed nations and one of the 20 poorest countries in the world, and depends mainly on agriculture and fishing. [[Cashew]] crops have increased remarkably in recent years, and the country now ranks sixth in cashew production. Guinea-Bissau exports fish and seafood along with small amounts of [[peanut]]s, palm kernels, and timber. License fees for fishing provide the government with some revenue. [[Rice]] is the major crop and staple food.
Intermittent fighting between [[Senegal]]ese-backed government troops and a military junta destroyed much of the country's [[infrastructure]] and caused widespread damage to the economy in 1998; the civil war led to a 28% drop in GDP that year, with partial recovery in 1999. Agricultural production is estimated to have fallen by 17% during the conflict, and the civil war led to a 28% overall drop in GDP in 1998. Cashew nut output, the main export crop, declined in 1998 by an estimated 30%. World cashew prices dropped by more than 50% in 2000, compounding the economic devastation caused by the conflict.
Before the war, trade reform and price liberalization were the most successful part of the country's structural adjustment program under IMF sponsorship. The tightening of monetary policy and the development of the private sector had also begun to reinvigorate the economy. Under the government&rsquo;s post-conflict economic and financial program, implemented with IMF and World Bank input, real GDP recovered in 1999 by almost 8%. In December 2000 Guinea-Bissau qualified for almost $800 million in debt-service relief under the first phase of the enhanced [[HIPC]] initiative and is scheduled to submit its Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper in March 2002. Guinea-Bissau will receive the bulk of its assistance under the enhanced HIPC initiative when it satisfies a number of conditions, including implementation of its Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.
Because of high costs, the development of [[petroleum]], [[phosphate]], and other [[mineral]] resources is not a near-term prospect. It produces 400,000 barrels/day of petrol.
==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/pu.html#top CIA Factbook]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:African Union member economies|Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:WTO members|Guinea-Bissau]]
[[es:Economía de Guinea-Bissáu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Guinea-Bissau</title>
<id>12192</id>
<revision>
<id>15909895</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-24T19:23:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[Category:Communications_by_country]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
13,120 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA
'''Telephone system:'''
small system
<br>' |
on>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Prussia</title>
<id>14433</id>
<revision>
<id>15911991</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-07T03:11:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Carr</username>
<id>22444</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prussia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hugh of St. Victor</title>
<id>14434</id>
<revision>
<id>15911992</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-14T22:43:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MrH</username>
<id>3315</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect to duplicate page.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hugh of St Victor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hasidic Judaism</title>
<id>14436</id>
<revision>
<id>42104722</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:30:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Dress */ dab Prince Albert</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Jew}}
'''Hasidic Judaism''' (from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''Chasidut''' &#1495;&#1505;&#1497;&#1491;&#1493;&#1514;, meaning "pious", from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] root word ''chesed'' &#1495;&#1505;&#1491; meaning "loving kindness") is a [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] [[Judaism|Jewish]] religious movement. Some refer to Hasidic Judaism as '''Hasidism''', and the adjective ''Chasidic''/''Hasidic'' (or in [[Yiddish]] ''Chasidish'' &#1495;&#1505;&#1497;&#1491;&#1497;&#1513;) applies. The movement originated in [[Eastern Europe]] ([[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]]) in the [[18th century]].
Rabbi [[Israel ben Eliezer]] (1700–1760), also known as the [[Israel ben Eliezer | ''Ba'al Shem Tov'']] {{ref|Besht}}, founded Hasidic Judaism. It originated in a time of persecution of the [[Jew]]ish people, when European Jews had turned inward to [[Talmud]] study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too "academic", and that they no longer had any emphasis on [[spirituality]] or joy. The ''Ba'al Shem Tov'' set out to improve the situation. In its initial stages, Hasidism met with opposition from several contemporary leaders, most notably the [[Vilna Gaon]] leader of the [[Lithuanian Jews]], united as the ''[[mitnagdim]]''—literally meaning "those who stand opposite"—a name given to them by the Hasidim themselves.
==History==
===Prelude===
In [[Poland]], where the bulk of Jewry had established itself since the [[sixteenth century]], the struggle between traditional rabbinic Judaism and radical [[Kabbalah]]-influenced [[mysticism]] became particularly acute after the Messianic movement of [[Sabbatai Zevi]] in the 17th century. Leanings toward mystical doctrines and sectarianism showed themselves prominently among the Jews of the south-eastern provinces of Poland, while in the north-eastern provinces, in [[Lithuania]], and in [[White Russia]], rabbinical orthodoxy held sway. Jews who follow this tradition are called ''[[Litvish]]'' (Lithuanian). In part, this division in modes of thought reflected social differences between the northern (Lithuanian) Jews and the southern Jews of [[Ukraine]]. In Lithuania the Jewish masses mainly lived in densely-populated towns where rabbinical academic culture (in the [[yeshiva | yeshivot]]) flourished; while in Ukraine the Jews tended to live scattered in villages far removed from intellectual centers.
Pessimism in the south became more intense after the [[Chmielnicki Uprising | Cossacks' Uprising]] (1648 - 1654) under [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky | Bohdan Chmielnicki]] and the [[The Deluge | turbulent times]] in Poland (1648 - 1660), which completely ruined the Jewry of Ukraine, but left comparatively untouched that of Lithuania. The economic and spiritual decline of the Jews of what became southern Russia created a favorable field for mystical movements and religious sectarianism, which spread in the area from the middle of the seventeenth to the middle of the eighteenth century.
Besides these influences, deeply-seated causes produced among many Jews a discontent with [[rabbinism]] and a gravitation toward [[mysticism]]. Rabbinism, which in Poland had become transformed into a system of religious formalism, no longer provided a satisfactory religious experience to many Jews. Although traditional [[Judaism]] had adopted some features of Kabbalah, it adapted them to fit its own system: it added to its own ritualism the asceticism of the "practical cabalists" of the East<!-- East of what? -->, who saw the essence of earthly existence only in fasting, in penance, and in spiritual sadness. Such a combination of religious practises, suitable for individuals and hermits, did not suit the bulk of the Jews.
Hasidism gave a ready response to the burning desire of the common people in its simple, stimulating, and comforting faith. In contradistinction to other sectarian teaching, early Hasidism aimed not at dogmatic or ritual reform, but at a deeper psychological one. It aimed to change not the belief, but the believer. By means of psychological suggestion it created a new type of religious man, a type that placed emotion above reason and rites, and religious exaltation above knowledge.
===Israel ben Eliezer===
The founder of Hasidism, [[Israel ben Eliezer]], also became known under the title of the "Master of the Good Name" (the ''Ba'al Shem Tov'', abbreviated as the ''Besht''). His fame as a healer spread not only among the Jews, but also among the non-Jewish peasants and the Polish nobles. He allegedly could sometimes successfully predict the future.
To the common people, the ''Besht'' appeared wholly admirable. Characterized by an extraordinary sincerity and simplicity, he knew how to gain an insight into the spiritual needs of the masses. He taught them that true religion consisted not only of religious scholarship, but also of a sincere love of God combined with warm faith and belief in the efficacy of [[prayer]]; that the ordinary person filled with a sincere belief in God, and whose prayers come from the heart, is more acceptable to God than someone versed in and fully observant of Jewish law. This democratization of Judaism attracted to the teachings of the ''Besht'' not only the common people, but also the scholars whom the rabbinical [[scholasticism]] and ascetic [[Kabbalah]] failed to satisfy.
About 1740 the ''Besht'' established himself in the [[Podolia]]n town of Miedzyboz. He gathered about him numerous disciples and followers, whom he initiated into the secrets of his teachings not by systematic exposition, but by means of sayings and parables. These sayings spread by oral transmission; later the founder's disciples set them in writing, developing the disjointed thoughts of their master into a system. The ''Besht'' himself did not write anything. As a mystic by nature, he regarded his teachings as a prophetic revelation.
===The spread of Hasidism===
Israel ben Eliezer's disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across [[Europe]]. After the ''Besht'''s death, followers continued his cause, especially [[Dovber of Mezeritch|Dov Ber of Mezeritch]]. From his court students went forth; they in turn attracted many Jews to Hasidism, and many of them came to study in Mezhirech with Dov Ber personally. Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life of the majority of Jews in [[Ukraine]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], and central [[Poland]]; the movement also had sizable groups of followers in [[Belarus]]-[[Lithuania]] and [[Hungary]]. Hasidic Judaism came to [[Western Europe]] and then to the [[United States]] during the large waves of Jewish emigration in the 1880s.
[[Image:Hasidim Hungary.jpg|thumb|Hasidim at a 1923 Rabbinical conference in Marienbad (Now Mariánské Lázně, Czech Republic)]]
Hasidism gradually branched out into two main divisions: (1) in Ukraine and in Galicia and (2) in Lithuania. Three disciples of Dov Ber of Mezeritch ([[Elimelech of Lezhinsk]], [[Levi Yitzchak]] of Berdichev, and [[Menachem Nahum]] of [[Chornobyl|Chernobyl]]), besides the grandson of the ''Besht'', Baruch of Tulchin, directed the first of these divisions. Elimelech of Lezhinsk affirmed belief in Tzaddikism as a fundamental doctrine of Hasidism. In his book ''No'am Elimelekh'' he conveys the idea of the [[Tzadik]] ("righteous one") as the mediator between God and the common people, and suggests that through him God sends to the faithful three earthly blessings: life, a livelihood, and children, on the condition, however, that the Hasidim support the Tzaddik by pecuniary contributions ("pidyonim"), in order to enable the holy man to become completely absorbed in the contemplation of God. Lithuanian Hasidim followed Rabbi [[Shneur Zalman]] of Liadi, who founded [[Chabad Lubavitch|Chabad]] Hassidism.
This teaching practically led to the contribution by the people of their last pennies toward the support of their tzaddik (''[[rebbe]]''), and the tzaddik untiringly "poured forth blessings on the earth, healed the sick, cured women of sterility," etc. The vocation of tzaddik became hereditary. A multiplicity of Hasidic dynasties contested for supremacy.
===Opposition===
Early on, a serious schism evolved between the Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. The Hasidim dubbed [[Europe]]an [[Jew]]s who rejected the Hasidic movement as ''[[Mitnagdim]]''. Critics of Hasidic Judaism:
* decried the novel Hasidic emphasis on different aspects of [[halakha|Jewish law]];
* found even more problematic the overwhelming exuberance of Hasidic worship;
* distrusted as non-traditional Hasidic ascriptions of infallibility and [[Miracle]]-working to their leaders;
* expressed concern that Hasidism might become |
epublican]]s caused him to be dropped from the ticket in 1864 in
favor of [[Andrew Johnson]], who was a member of the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] and a [[U.S. Southern states|southerner]].
Hamlin served in the Senate from 1869 to 1881. His last post was minister to [[Spain]], from 1881 to 1882.
He died in [[Bangor, Maine]], on [[July 4]], [[1891]] and is buried in Mount Hope Cemetery.
He had two sons, Charles Hamlin and Cyrus Hamlin, who served in the Union forces during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. Charles and sister Sarah were present at [[Ford's Theater]] the night of [[Abraham Lincoln#Assassination|Lincoln's assassination]]. His son [[Hannibal Emery Hamlin]] was Maine state [[Attorney General]] from 1905 to 1908.
There are biographies by his grandson Charles E. Hamlin (printed 1899, reprinted 1971) and H.D. Hunt (printed 1969).
[[Hamlin County, South Dakota]] is named in his honor.
==Sources and further reading==
*{{bioguide}}
*Hamlin, Charles E. ''Life and Times of Hannibal Hamlin''. Cambridge, Mass.: 1899.
==External links==
*[http://www.mlwh.org/inside.asp?ID=89&subjectID=2 Biography]
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{{succession box|title=[[List of Governors of Maine|Governor of Maine]]|before=[[Samuel Wells]]|after=[[Joseph H. Williams]]|years=1857}}
{{succession box| title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party vice presidential candidate]]| before=[[William L. Dayton]]| after=[[Andrew Johnson]] *| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860]] (won)}}
{{succession box|title=[[Vice President of the United States]]|before=[[John C. Breckinridge]]|after=[[Andrew Johnson]]|years=[[March 4]], [[1861]]&ndash;[[March 3]], [[1865]]}}
{{succession footnote| marker=*| footnote=Lincoln and Johnson ran on the National Union ticket in 1864.}}
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{{US Vice Presidents}}
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[[Category:1809 births|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[Category:1891 deaths|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[Category:Governors of Maine|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Maine|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[de:Hannibal Hamlin]]
[[fr:Hannibal Hamlin]]
[[it:Hannibal Hamlin]]
[[ja:ハンニバル・ハムリン]]
[[sv:Hannibal Hamlin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hopwood Award</title>
<id>13978</id>
<revision>
<id>40364301</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hopwood Awards''' are a major scholarship program at the [[University of Michigan]], founded by [[Avery Hopwood]].
Under the terms of the will of Avery Hopwood, a prominent [[United States|American]] [[dramatist]] and member of the Class of [[1905]] of The University of Michigan, one-fifth of Mr. Hopwood's estate was given to the Regents of the University for the encouragement of creative work in writing. The first awards were made in [[1931]], and today the [[Hopwood Program]] offers approximately $100,000 in prizes every year to young aspiring writers at the University of Michigan.
Following is a list of the contests held by the [[Hopwood Program]] with a brief description of eligibility and prizes offered:
The Graduate and Undergraduate Hopwood Contest<br>
Awards are offered in the following genres: drama/screenplay, [[essay]], [[the novel]], [[short story|short fiction]] and [[poetry]]. These awards are classified under two categories, Graduate or Undergraduate, except the novel which is a combined category. Award amounts for this contest vary, but usually fall in the range of $1000 to $6000.
Summer Hopwood Contest<br>
This contest is only open to students who take writing courses during Spring and Summer terms.
Hopwood Underclassmen Contest<br>
This contest is open to freshmen and sophomores who are enrolled in writing courses.
See also: [[University of Michigan]], [[Arthur Miller]], [[short story]], [[literature]], [[theater]]
==External links==
*[http://www.lsa.umich.edu/english/hopwood/hopwood.htm Hopwood Awards]
[[Category:University of Michigan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hopwood Program</title>
<id>13979</id>
<revision>
<id>40364306</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hopwood Program''' administers the [[University of Michigan]] [[Hopwood Award]] in [[literature]], as well as several other awards in writing. It is located in the Hopwood Room at the University of Michigan.
The Hopwood Room<br>
1176 Angell Hall<br>
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104<br>
Monday - Friday from 8:30 - 4:30
The Hopwood Room serves the needs and interests of Hopwood contestants. The Room was established by Professor [[Roy W. Cowden]], Director of the Hopwood Awards from [[1933]] to [[1952]], who generously contributed a part of his library, which has grown through the addition of many volumes of contemporary literature. In addition to housing the winning manuscripts from the past years of the contests, the Hopwood Room has a lending library of [[20th century|twentieth -century]] literature, a
generous supply of non-circulating current periodicals, some reference
books on how to get published, information on graduate and summer writing
programs, and a collection of screen plays donated by former Hopwood winner
[[Lawrence Kasdan]].
==Prizes Administered by the Hopwood Program==
The Hopwood Program also administers the following writing contests: the Kasdan Scholarship in Creative Writing, the Arthur Miller Award of the U-M Club of New York Scholarship, the Jeffery L. Weisberg Poetry Prize, the Dennis McIntyre Poetry Prize, the Chamberlain Award for Creative Writing, the Helen S. and John Wagner Prize, the Andrea Beauchamp Prize, the Robert F. Haugh Prize, the Meader Family Award, the Naomi Saferstein Literary Award, the Leonard and Eileen Newman Writing Prizes and the Paul and Sonia Handleman Poetry Award.
==Notable Hopwood Winners==
*[[Lawrence Kasdan]]
*[[Elizabeth Kostova]], Novel-in-Progress ("The Historian")
*[[Arthur Miller]]
*[[ Patrick O'Keeffe ]], MFA, winner of the Chamberlain Award for Creative Writing for "Above the Bar." (administered by the Hopwood Program) and instructor in the University of Michigan’s [[Sweetland Writing Center]] has won the 2006 [[Story Prize]], the richest U.S. prize for short fiction, for The Hill Road, a collection of four novellas set in a fictional Irish farming village. O'Keeffe's writing has been compared to the Irish short-story and novel writer [[William Trevor]].
*[[Marge Piercy]], Poetry and Fiction (1957)
==External links==
http://www.lsa.umich.edu/english/hopwood/hopwood.htm
see [[literature]], [[University of Michigan]], [[Arthur Miller]], [[Hopwood Award]]
[[Category:University of Michigan]]</text>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Homeostasis''' is the property of an [[open system (system theory)|open system]], especially living [[organism]]s, to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable, constant condition, by means of multiple [[dynamic equilibrium]] adjustments, controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. The term was coined in [[1932]] by [[Walter Cannon]] from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''homo'' (same, like) and ''stasis'' (to stand, posture).
== Overview ==
The term is most often used in the sense of [[biology|biological]] homeostasis. [[Multicellular organism]]s require a homeostatic internal [[natural environment|environment]], in order to [[life|live]]; many [[environmentalist]]s believe this principle also applies to the external environment.
Many [[ecology|ecological]], [[biology|biological]], and [[society|social]] systems are homeostatic. They oppose change to maintain equilibrium. If the system does not succeed in reestablishing its balance, it may ultimately lead the system to stop functioning.
[[Complex system]]s, such as a human body, must have homeostasis to maintain stability and to survive. These systems do not only have to endure to survive; they must adapt themselves and evolve to modifications of the environment.
=== Properties of homeostasis ===
Homeostatic systems show several properties:
*They are [[stability|ultrastable]]: the system is capable of testing which way its variables should be adjusted.
*Their whole [[organization]] (internal, structural, and functional) contributes to the maintenance of [[equilibrium]].
*They are unpredictable: the resulting effect of a precise action often has the opposite effect to what was expected.
Main examples of homeostasis in mammals are as follows:
*The regulation of the amounts of water and minerals in the body. This is known as osmoregulation. This happens in the kidneys.
*The removal of metabolic waste. This is known as excretion. This is done by the excretory organs such as the kidneys and lungs.
*The regulation of body temperature. This is mainly done by the skin.
*The regulation of blood glucose level. This is mainly done by the liver and the insulin secreted by the pancreas.
It is important to note tha |
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<title>Gaudy Night</title>
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'''''Gaudy Night''''' is a [[1935]] [[Lord Peter Wimsey]] [[Detective fiction|detective story]] by [[Dorothy L. Sayers]]. It is the third of the Wimsey novels to feature [[Harriet Vane]].
It was adapted for television in [[1987]] as part of a series starring [[Edward Petherbridge]] as Lord Peter and [[Harriet Walter]] as Harriet Vane. In [[2005]] an adaptation of the novel was released on CD by the [[BBC Radio Collection]] to finally complete the run of Wimsey adaptations begun with ''[[Whose Body?]]'' in [[1973]]; the role of Harriet was played by Joanna David, and Wimsey, as ever, by [[Ian Carmichael]].
==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
Having been acquitted of one murder in ''[[Strong Poison]]'', and been instrumental in the solving of another in ''[[Have His Carcase]]'', mystery writer Harriet Vane arrives for the reunion (or [[gaudy]]) at her ''alma mater'', the fictitious Shrewsbury College, [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. Here she encounters a tangle of [[poison pen]] notes, obscene [[graffiti]], and dangerous pranks that Lord Peter Wimsey helps her get to the bottom of.
As the case develops, Harriet begins to realize that she loves Wimsey, who has been proposing to her ever since they first met (in prison, as she faced the gallows as a suspect in the murder of her former lover). In an extraordinarily touching scene at the end of the book, she finally accepts his proposal of marriage.
Their marriage and honeymoon (interrupted by yet another murder mystery) is depicted in ''[[Busman's Honeymoon]]''.
----
The plot of ''Gaudy Night'' was adapted to become the two-part ''Out of the Past'' episode (#155 & #156) of the American television mystery series ''[[Diagnosis Murder]]'' starring [[Dick van Dyke]] as Dr. Mark Sloan.
The episode first aired on [[May 11|11 May]] [[2000]], with [[John Schneider]] as the villain.
[[Category:1935 books]]
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{{Sexual orientation}}
In modern society, '''''gay''''' is a word which can be used as either a noun or adjective. In both forms, it is equivalent to [[Homosexuality|homosexual]], although it is less formal. In noun form, it is commonly used as a term to specifically identify men with homosexual [[sexual orientation|orientation]], instead of homosexuals of both genders. The term ''[[lesbian]]'', on the other hand, is used exclusively in a gender specific way to describe homosexual females. ''Gay'' used as an adjective describes traits associated with gays and lesbians, their culture, or perceived lifestyle.
==Etymology==
[[Image:Punch 1857.jpg|thumb|150px|left| A cartoon from [[Punch magazine]] from 1857 illustrating the use of "gay" as a euphemism for prostitution. One woman says to the other (who looks glum), "how long have you been gay?"]]The primary meaning of the word ''gay'' has changed dramatically during the 20th century &ndash; though the change evolved from earlier usages. It derives via the [[French language|French]] ''gai'', from the [[Latin]] ''gaius'', and originally meant "carefree", "happy", or "bright and showy" and was very commonly used with this meaning in speech and literature. In more recent times, starting in the mid [[20th century]], the word ''gay'' cannot be used solely in this former context without the expectation that one will assume a [[double entendre]], or that the person using the term is out of touch with contemporary society. Some have tried to recover the original [[denotation]] of the word, but with limited success.
[[Image:Castro-sidewalk-east-cropped.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Castro Street]] in [[San Francisco]]]]
{{wiktionarypar|gay}}
The word started to acquire sexual connotations in the late 17th century, being used with meaning "addicted to pleasures and dissipations". This was by extension from the primary meaning of "carefree": implying "uninhibited by moral constraints". By the late nineteenth century the term "gay life" was a well-established euphemism for [[prostitution]] and other forms of extramarital sexual behaviour that were perceived as immoral.
The first name ''Gay'' is still occasionally encountered, usually as a female name although the spelling is often altered to ''Gaye''. (795th most common in the United States, according to the 1990 US census[http://www.census.gov/genealogy/names/dist.female.first]). It was also used as a male first name. The first name of the popular male Irish television presenter [[Gay Byrne|Gabriel Byrne]] was always abbreviated as "Gay", as in the title of his radio show ''The Gay Byrne Show''. It can also be used as a short form of the female name ''Gaynell'' and as a short form of the male name ''Gaylen''. The "Gaiety" was also a common name for places of entertainment. One of [[Oscar Wilde]]'s favourite venues in Dublin was the [[Gaiety Theatre]], first appearing there in [[1884]].
===Etymology of the modern usage===
The use of the term ''gay'', as it relates to homosexuality, arises from an extension of the sexualised connotation of "carefree and uninhibited", implying a willingness to disregard conventional or respectable sexual mores. Such usage is documented as early as the [[1920s]]. It was initially more commonly used to imply heterosexually unconstrained lifestyles, as for example in the once-common phrase "gay Lothario",[http://www.bartleby.com/81/10549.html] or in the title of the book and film [[The Falcon (literary character)|
''The Gay Falcon'']] (1941), which concerns a womanising detective whose first name is "Gay". Well into the mid 20th century a middle-aged bachelor could be described as "gay" without [[prejudice]].
A passage from [[Gertrude Stein]]'s ''Miss Furr & Mrs. Skeene'' ([[1922]]) is possibly the first traceable published use of the word to refer to a homosexual relationship, though it is not altogether clear whether she uses the word to mean [[lesbian]]ism or happiness:
:''They were ...gay, they learned little things that are things in being gay, ... they were quite regularly gay.''
The [[1929]] musical ''[[Bitter Sweet]]'' by [[Noel Coward]] contains another use of the word in a context that strongly implies homosexuality. In the song "Green Carnation", four overdressed, [[1890s]] [[dandy|dandies]] sing:
:''Pretty boys, witty boys, You may sneer''
:''At our disintegration.''
:''Haughty boys, naughty boys,''
:''Dear, dear, dear!''
:''Swooning with affectation...''
:''And as we are the reason''
:''For the "Nineties" being gay,''
:''We all wear a green carnation.''
The song title alludes to [[Oscar Wilde]], who famously wore a [[green]] [[carnation]], and whose homosexuality was well known. However, the phrase "gay nineties" was already well-established as an epithet for the decade (a film entitled ''The Gay Nineties; or, The Unfaithful Husband'' was released in the same year). The song also drew on familiar satires on Wilde and [[Aesthetic movement|Aestheticism]] dating back to [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s ''[[Patience (operetta)|Patience]]'' (1881). Because of its continuation of these public usages and conventions &ndash; in a mainstream musical &ndash; the precise connotations of the word in this context remains ambiguous.
Other usages at this date involve some of the same ambiguity as Coward's lyrics. [[Bringing Up Baby]] ([[1938]]) was the first film to use the word ''gay'' in apparent reference to homosexuality. In a scene where [[Cary Grant]]'s clothes have been sent to the cleaners, he must wear a lady's feathery robe. When another character inquires about his clothes, he responds "Because I just went gay...all of a sudden!" [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~UG03/comedy/bringingupbaby.html] However, since this was a mainstream film at a time when the use of the word to refer to homosexuality would still be unfamiliar to most film-goers, the line can also be interpreted to mean "I just decided to do something frivolous". While there is much debate about what Gr |
biology]], see [[Elliott Sober]]'s ''[[Philosophy of Biology]]'', ch. 2.
===Conservatism and political theory===
Many regard David Hume as a political [[conservative]], sometimes calling him the first conservative philosopher. He expressed suspicion of attempts to reform society in ways that departed from long-established custom, and he counselled people not to resist their governments except in cases of the most egregious [[tyranny]]. However, he resisted aligning himself with either of Britain's two political parties, the [[British Whig Party|Whigs]] and the [[Tories]], and he believed that we should try to balance our demands for liberty with the need for strong authority, without sacrificing either. He supported [[liberty of the press]], and was sympathetic to [[democracy]], when suitably constrained. It has been argued that he was a major inspiration for [[James Madison]]'s writings, and the [[Federalist No. 10]] in particular. He was also, in general, an optimist about social progress, believing that, thanks to the economic development that comes with the expansion of trade, societies progress from a state of "barbarism" to one of "civilisation". Civilised societies are open, peaceful and sociable, and their [[citizen]]s are as a result much happier. It is therefore not fair to characterise him, as [[Leslie Stephen]] did, as favouring "that stagnation which is the natural ideal of a [[skeptic]]". (Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, 2 vols. (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1876), vol. 2, 185.)
Although strongly pragmatic, Hume produced an essay titled "Towards a Perfect Commonwealth", where he detailed what any reforms should seek to achieve. Strong features for the time included a strict [[separation of powers]], [[decentralisation]], extending the [[Suffrage|franchise]] to anyone who held property of value and limiting the power of the [[clergy]]. The [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[militia]] system was proposed as the best form of protection. Elections were to take place on an annual basis and representatives were to be unpaid, which was aimed at keeping the interests of [[constituent]]s in the minds of politicians.
For more, see [[Douglas Adair]]'s ''[[That Politics May Be Reduced to a Science: David Hume, James Madison and the Tenth Federalist]]'' in ''[[Fame and the Founding Fathers]]''; [[Donald W Livingston]], ''[[Hume's Philosophy of Common Life]]''; [[John B Stewart]], ''[[Opinion and Reform in Hume's Political Philosophy]]''; [[Bradley C. S. Watson]], ''[[Hume, Historical Inheritance, and the Problem of Founding]]'' in ''[[The American Founding and the Social Compact]]''.
==Contributions to economic thought==
Through his discussions on politics, Hume developed many ideas that are prevalent in the field of economics. This includes ideas on private property, inflation, and foreign trade.
Hume's idea on private property is special—private property was not a natural right, but is justified since it is a limited good. If all goods were unlimited and available freely, then private property would not be justified, but instead becomes an “idle ceremonial”. Hume also believed in unequal distribution of property, since perfect equality would destroy the ideas of thrift and industry, which leads to impoverishment.
Hume did not believe that foreign trade produced specie, but considered trade a stimulus for a country’s economic growth. He did not consider the volume of world trade as fixed because countries can feed off their neighbor’s wealth, being part of a “prosperous community”. The fall in foreign demand is not that fatal, because in the long run, a country cannot preserve a leading trading position.
Hume was among the first to develop automatic price-specie flow, an idea that contrasts the [[mercantile system]]. Simply put, when a country increases its in-flow of gold, this in-flow of gold wil result in price inflation, and then price inflation will force out countries from trading that would have traded before the inflation. This results in a decrease of the in-flow of gold in the long-run.
Hume also proposed a theory of beneficial inflation. He believed that increasing the money supply would raise production in the short run. This phenomenon was caused by a gap between the increase in the money supply and that of the price level. The result is that prices will not rise at first and may not rise at all. This theory was later proven by [[John Maynard Keynes]].
==Works==
* ''[[A Treatise of Human Nature]]: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects.'' (1739&ndash;40)
**Book 1: "Of the Understanding" His treatment of everything from the origin of our ideas to how they are to be divided. Important statements of Scepticism.
**Book 2: "Of the Passions" Treatment of emotions.
**Book 3: "Of Morals" Moral ideas, justice, obligations, benevolence.
:Hume intended to see whether the ''Treatise'' met with success, and if so to complete it with books devoted to Politics and Criticism. However, it did not meet with success (as Hume himself said, "It fell dead-born from the press, without reaching such distinction as even to excite a murmur among the zealots"), and so was not completed.
* ''[[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (1748)
:Contains reworking of the main points of the ''Treatise'', Book 1, with the addition of material on free will, miracles, and the argument from design.
* ''[[An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals]]'' (1751)
:Another reworking of material from the ''Treatise'' for more popular appeal. Hume regarded this as the best of all his philosophical works, both in its philosophical ideas and in its literary style.
* ''[[Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion]]'' (posthumous)
:Discussion among three fictional characters concerning arguments for the existence of God, most importantly the argument from design. Despite some controversy, most scholars agree that the view of Philo, the most skeptical of the three, comes closest to Hume's own.
* ''[[Essays Moral and Political]]'' (first ed. 1741&ndash;2)
:A collection of pieces written over many years and published in a series of volumes before being gathered together into one near the end of Hume's life. The essays are dizzying and even bewildering in the breadth of topics they address. They range freely over questions of aesthetic judgement, the nature of the British government, love, marriage and polygamy, and the demographics of ancient Greece and Rome, to name just a few of the topics considered. However, certain important topics and themes recur, especially the question of what constitutes "refinement" in matters of [[taste (aesthetics)|taste]], manners, and morals. The Essays are written in clear imitation of [[Joseph Addison | Addison]]'s ''Tatler'' and ''[[The Spectator (1711)|The Spectator]]'', which Hume read avidly in his youth.
* ''[[The History of England]]'' (1754&ndash;62)
:This forms more a category of books than a single work, a monumental history spanning "from the invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688". This work brought Hume the most fame during his own lifetime, going through over 100 editions. Many considered it ''the'' standard history of England until the publication of [[Thomas Macaulay]]'s own monumental ''History of England''.
* "[[My Own Life]]" (1776)
:Penned in April, shortly before his death, this autobiography was intended for inclusion in a new edition of "Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects".
L A Selby-Bigge provides, by means of an introduction to Hume's ''Enquiries'', a fascinating (and sometimes quite scathing) discussion of the various differences in the content and tone of Hume's ''Treatise'' and ''Enquiries''.
==See also==
*[[Hume's principle]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Hume's fork]]
==Further reading==
*Johnson, David ''Hume, Holism and Miracles.'' Cornell University Press: Ithaca, 1999. ISBN: 0-8014-3663-X
*Siebert, Donald T. ''The Moral Animus of David Hume.'' University of Delaware Press: Newark, 1990.
*Russell, Paul, ''Freedom and Moral Sentiment: Hume's Way of Naturalizing Responsibility'' Oxford University Press: New York & Oxford, 1995.
==References==
*Anderson, R. F. (1966). "Hume’s First Principles", University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
*Ayer, A. J. (1980). "Hume", Oxford University Press, Oxford.
*Broackes, Justin Prof., “Hume, David”, The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Ted Hoderich (ed.), New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
*Flew, A. (1986). "David Hume: Philosopher of Moral Science", Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
*Fogelin, R. J. (1993). Hume’s scepticism. In Norton, D. F. (ed.), (1993). "The Cambridge Companion to Hume", Cambridge University Press, pp. 90-116.
*Gregory, R. L. (1981). "Mind in Science", Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.
*Husserl, E. (1970). "The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology", Carr, D. (trans.), Northwestern University Press, Evanston.
*Kolakowski, I. (1968). "The Alienation of Reason: A History of Positivist Thought", Doubleday, Garden City.
*Morris, William Edward, “David Hume”, [http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2001/entries/hume/The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)]
*Norton, D. F. (1993). Introduction to Hume’s thought. In Norton, D. F. (ed.), (1993). "The Cambridge Companion to Hume, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-32.
*Penelhum, T. (1993). Hume’s moral philosophy. In Norton, D. F. (ed.), (1993). "The Cambridge Companion to Hume", Cambridge University Press, pp. 117-147.
*Phillipson, N. (1989). "Hume", Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.
*Popper. K. (1960). Knowledge without a |
[[Republic of Ireland]], in the mid-1970s, the Minister for Local Government, [[James Tully]], attempted to arrange constituencies to ensure that the governing [[National Coalition]] would win a parliamentary majority. This was planned as a major reversal of previous gerrymandering by the [[Fianna Fáil]] party (then in opposition). Tully ensured that there were as many as possible three-seat constituencies where the governing parties were strong, in the expectation that the governing parties would each win a seat in many constituencies, relegating the [[Fianna Fáil]] party to one out of three. In areas where the governing parties were weak four-seat constituencies were used so that the governing parties had a strong chance of winning two still. In fact the process backfired spectacularly due to a larger than expected collapse in the vote, with Fianna Fáil winning a landslide victory, two out of three seats in many cases, relegating the National Coalition parties to fight for the last seat. Consequently, the term '''tullymandering''' was used to describe the phenomenon of a failed attempt at gerrymandering.
===Gerrymandering in Germany===
When the electoral districts in [[Germany]] were redrawn in 2000, together with the administrative districts, the ruling Social-Democrat Party [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] was accused of gerrymandering to marginalize the socialist [[Left Party (Germany)|PDS]] party in its strongholds in eastern [[Berlin]] by combining them into new districts with more populous areas of western Berlin, where the PDS had very limited following. After winning four seats in Berlin in the 1998 national election, the PDS kept only two of them after the following 2002 elections. This caused the PDS to drop out of the [[Bundestag]], the German federal [[parliament]] (as a party; the individually elected representatives held their seats). Under German electoral law a [[political party]] has to win either more than five percent of the votes or at least three seats to move in. In the election of 2005 the PDS (renamed "Left Party") managed to get 8,7% of the votes and thus moved back in.
<!--Ugly paragraph-->However, the number of Bundestag seats of parties which traditionally get over 5% of the votes can't be affected very much by gerrymandering, because seats are awarded to these parties on a proportional basis. Only when a party wins so many districts in any one of the 16 federal states that those seats alone count for more than its proportional share of the vote in that same state does the districting have some influence on larger parties - those extra seats, called "Überhangmandate", remain.
===Gerrymandering in Canada===
Early in Canadian history gerrymandering at both the federal and provincial levels was common. Over time this has been largely eliminated as responsibility for drawing electoral boundaries was handed over to independent agencies. The first to do this was [[Manitoba]] in the 1950s with the federal government delegating the drawing of boundaries to the "arm's length" [[Elections Canada]] in 1964. Today gerrymandering is not a major issue in Canada.
There is some debate and minor conterversy about gerrymandering at the provincial level in Quebec on the Island of [[Montreal]] where some Liberal Party members argue that the ridings (electoral districts) have been drawn to elect as few Liberals as possible, especially in the western part of the islamd.
==See also==
*[[Representation (politics)|Representation]]
*[[Redistricting]]
*[[Will Rogers phenomenon]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fairvote.org/articles/bbcnews100804.htm Gerrymandering in the US]
*[http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2004/items/200408/s1172393.htm Anti-Gerrymandering policy in Australia]
*[http://www.westmiller.com/fairvote2k/in_gerry.htm A collection of bizarre and unconstitutional districts from recent history, dedicated to Governor Eldridge Gerry.]
*[http://www.worldpolicy.org/globalrights/democracy/2003-0529-CSM-gerrymandering.html Beyond gerrymandering and Texas posses: US electoral reform]
*[http://www.commoncensus.org The CommonCensus Map Project] - Draws internal US boundaries based on cultural affinities, not politics
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gin and Tonic.jpg|thumb|[[Gin and tonic]]]]
:''This article concerns the beverage. For other uses see [[Gin (disambiguation)]].''
'''Gin''' is a [[distilled beverage|spirit]], or strong [[alcoholic beverage]]. It is made from the distillation of white grain spirit and [[juniper]] berries, which provide its distinctive flavour. The taste of ordinary gin is very [[dry (property of alcohol)|dry]], and as such it is rarely drunk on its own. It should not be confused with [[sloe gin]], a sweet liqueur traditionally made from [[sloe]] berries (blackthorn fruit) infused in gin.
The most common style of gin, typically used for mixed drinks, is "London dry gin", which refers not to brand, marque, or origin, but to a distillation process. London dry gin is a high proof spirit, usually produced in a [[column still]] and redistilled after the [[botanicals]] are added to the base spirit. In addition to juniper, it is usually made with a small amount citrus botanicals like lemon and [[bitter orange]] peel. Other botanicals that may be used include [[anise]], [[angelica]] root, [[orris]] root, [[cinnamon]], [[coriander]], and [[cassia]] bark.
A well-made gin will be very dry with a smooth texture lacking in harshness. The flavor will be harmonious yet have a crisp character with a pronounced Juniper flavor.
Other types of gin include [[Jenever]] (Dutch gin), Plymouth gin, and Old Tom gin (said to approximate the pot-distilled 18th century spirit).
== History ==
Gin originated in the [[Netherlands]] in the [[17th century]] - its invention is often credited to the physician [[Franciscus Sylvius]]. From there it spread to [[England]] after the [[Glorious Revolution]] put a Dutchman on the English throne. Dutch gin, known as ''jenever'', is a distinctly different drink from English-style gin; it is [[Distillation|distilled]] with [[barley]] and sometimes aged in wood, giving it a slight resemblance to [[whisky]]. [[Schiedam]], in [[South Holland]], is famous for its [[jenever]]. Jenever is produced in a [[pot still]] and is typically lower in alcohol and more strongly flavored than London gin.
[[Image:GinLane.jpg|thumb|Hogarth's Gin Lane]]
Gin became very popular in England after the government created a market for poor quality grain that was unfit to be used in brewing beer by allowing unlicensed gin production and at the same time imposing a heavy [[duty]] on all imported spirits. Thousands of gin-shops sprang up all over England. By [[1740]] the production of gin had increased to six times that of [[beer]] and because of its cheapness it became extremely popular with the poor. Of the 15,000 drinking establishments in [[London]] over half were gin-shops. Beer maintained a healthy reputation as it was often safer to drink the brewed ale than unclean plain water, but gin was blamed for various social and medical problems, and may have been a factor in the high death rate that caused London's previously increasing population to remain stable. The reputation of the two drinks was illustrated by [[William Hogarth]] in his engravings ''[[Beer Street]]'' and ''[[Gin Lane]]'' ([[1751]]). This negative reputation survives today in the English language; terms such as "gin-mills" to describe disreputable bars or calling drunks "gin-soaked". The [[Gin Act 1736]] imposed high taxes on retailers but led to riots in the streets. The prohibitive duty was gradually reduced and finally abolished in [[1742]]. The [[Gin Act 1751]] however was more successful. It forced distillers to sell only to licensed retailers and brought gin-shops under the jurisdiction of local magistrates. Gin in the 18th century was produced in pot stills, and was somewhat sweeter than the London gin known today.
In [[1832]] the [[column still]] was invented, and later in the 19th century the London dry style was developed. Gin thus became a more respectable drink. In tropical English colonies, gin was used to mask the flavor of [[quinine]], a protection against [[malaria]], which was diluted in [[tonic water]]. This was the origin of today's popular [[Gin and tonic]], even though quinine is no longer effective against malaria. Many other gin-based mixed drinks were invented, including the [[martini cocktail|martini]]. Gin, in the form of secretly-produced "bathtub gin", was a common drink in the [[speakeasy|speakeasies]] of [[Prohibition]]-era America due to the relative simplicity of the basic production methods. It remained popular as the basis of many [[cocktail]]s after the repeal of Prohibition.
At the present time there are numerous types and manufactures of gin, the most notable of which are listed below. During the most recent gin-tasting competitions it was held that the relatively new [[Tanqueray|Tanqueray Ten]] was the world champion of gins followed closely by the previous world winner [[Bombay Sapphire]]. In 2005 [[South Gin]] made by Pacific Dawn Distillers of New Zealand received the ‘Grand Gold with Palm Leaves’ at the Monde Selection in Brussels rating it as the best gin in t |
or.liu.se/sf_archive/sf-texts/Ansible/Last_Deadloss_Visions,Chris_Priest]. Priest documented a half-dozen instances in which Ellison promised TLDV would appear within a year of the statement, but did not fulfill those promises. Ellison has a record of fulfilling obligations in other instances, including to writers whose stories he solicited, and has expressed outrage at other editors who have displayed poor practices.
In the 1980s, there was a widely-publicized incident in which Ellison allegedly assaulted author and critic [[Charles Platt]] at the Nebula Awards banquet. Platt did not pursue legal action against Ellison, and the two men signed a "non-aggression pact" later, promising never to discuss the incident again or have any contact with one another. In later years, however, Ellison often publicly boasted about the incident. Platt, too, has been less than absolute in adhering to the agreement.
Ellison has on occasion used the [[pseudonym]] "Cordwainer Bird" to alert members of the public to situations in which he feels his creative contribution to a project has been mangled beyond repair by others, typically Hollywood producers or studios. (See, e.g., [[Alan Smithee]].) The "Cordwainer Bird" moniker is a tribute to fellow SF writer Paul M. A. Linebarger, better known by his pen name, [[Cordwainer Smith]]. The origin of the word "[[cordwainer]]" is shoemaker (from working with [[cordovan]] [[leather]] for shoes). The term used by Linebarger was meant to imply the industriousness of the [[pulp magazine|pulp]] author. Ellison has said, in interviews and in his writing, that his version of the pseudonym was meant to mean "a shoemaker for birds". Since he has used the pseudonym mainly for works he wants to distance himself from, it may be understood to mean that "this work is for the birds". [[Stephen King]] once said he thought that it meant that Ellison was giving people who mangled his work a literary version of "[[the bird]]".
Ellison recently gained attention for his [[April 24]], [[2000]] lawsuit against Stephen Robertson for posting four of his stories to the [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]] alt.binaries.e-book without authorization. Included as defendants in the lawsuit were [[AOL]] and [[RemarQ]], [[internet service provider]]s whose involvement was running Usenet servers carrying the group in question and for failing to stop the alleged copyright infringers in accordance with the "Notice and Takedown Procedure" outlined in the [[1998]] [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]. Robertson and RemarQ settled the lawsuit with Ellison, though he pressed on with his suit against AOL. The AOL suit was settled in June [[2004]] under conditions which were not made public.
== Short stories collections==
*''[[A Touch of Infinity]]''
*''[[Children of the Streets]]''
*''[[Gentleman Junkie and Other Stories of the Hung-Up Generation]]''
*''[[Ellison Wonderland]]''
*''[[Paingod and Other Delusions]]''
*''[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]''
*''[[From the Land of Fear]]''
*''[[Love Ain't Nothing But Sex Misspelled]]'' (fiction and nonfiction)
*''[[The Beast that Shouted Love at the Heart of the World]]''
*''[[Over the Edge (short stories)|Over the Edge]]''
*''[[Partners in Wonder]]'' (collaborations with 14 other writers)
*''[[Alone Against Tomorrow]]''
*''[[Approaching Oblivion]]''
*''[[Deathbird Stories]]''
*''[[No Doors, No Windows]]''
*''[[Strange Wine]]''
*''[[Shatterday]]''
*''[[Stalking the Nightmare]]''
*''[[Angry Candy]]''
*''[[Slippage (short stories)|Slippage]]''
*''[[The Time of the Eye]]''
*''[[The Essential Ellison]]
== Novels ==
*''[[Rumble (novel)|Rumble]]'' (also titled ''Web of the City'')
*''[[The Sound of a Scythe]]''
*''[[Spider Kiss]]'' (originally titled ''Rockabilly'')
*''[[Doomsman]]''
*''[[The Starlost No. 1: Phoenix Without Ashes]]'' (adaptation by Edward Bryant of Ellison's pilot script)
== Published screenplays and teleplays ==
*''[[I, Robot]]'' (with [[Isaac Asimov]]) (unrelated to the [[I, Robot (movie)|2004 movie]] starring [[Will Smith]])
*''[[The City on the Edge of Forever (TOS episode)|The City on the Edge of Forever]]'' ([[Star Trek]] episode, original screenplay, with commentary). For an in-depth review of this book see [http://www.lysator.liu.se/sf_archive/sf-texts/books/E/Ellison,Harlan.mbox].
*''[[Harlan Ellison's Movie]]'' (unproduced feature-length screenplay serialised in Ellison's weekly newspaper column ''[[The Harlan Ellison Hornbook]]'' and collected in the omnibus volume ''[[Edgeworks 3]]'')
*''[[Flintlock]]'' (unproduced pilot teleplay for a proposed TV series based on [[James Coburn]]'s character in ''[[In Like Flint]]'', published in the retrospective volume ''[[The Essential Ellison]]'')
*''[[The Whimper of Whipped Dogs]]'' (teleplay produced in the TV series ''[[The Young Lawyers]]'', serialised in Ellison's weekly newspaper column ''[[The Glass Teat]]'' and published in his volume ''[[The Other Glass Teat]]'')
*''[[The Whimper of Whipped Dogs]]'' (unfinished screenplay based on Ellison's 1974 short story of the same title as, but completely unrelated to, the ''[[The Young Lawyers|Young Lawyers]]'' teleplay referenced above; three treatments of the opening sequence were published in the June 1988 issue of ''[[The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]]'' and later appeared in the volume ''[[Harlan Ellison's Watching]]'')
See also ''Phoenix without Ashes'', the novelization by [[Edward Bryant]] of the screenplay for the pilot episode of ''The Starlost'', which includes a lengthy afterword by Ellison describing what happened in the production of that series.
== Nonfiction ==
*''[[Memos from Purgatory]]''
*''[[The Glass Teat]]'' (essays on television, 1968-1970)
*''[[The Other Glass Teat]]'' (essays on television, 1970-1972)
*''[[Sleepless Nights in the Procrustean Bed]]'' edited by [[Marty Clark]]
*''[[Harlan Ellison's Watching]]''
*''[[An Edge in My Voice]]''
*''[[The Harlan Ellison Hornbook]]''
*"[[The Book of Ellison]]" (edited by Andrew Porter, 1978, Algol Press)
== Anthologies edited ==
*''[[Dangerous Visions]]'' [[1967]] (ISBN 0743452615)
**Note: This book has also been issued in a three-volume paperback edition.
*''[[Nightshade and Damnations: the finest stories of Gerald Kersh]]''
*''[[Again Dangerous Visions]]'' [[1972]] (ISBN 0425061825)
**Note: This book has also been issued in a two-volume paperback edition
*''[[Medea: Harlan's World]]'' (1985; ISBN 0932096360): an experiment in collaborative science-fictional world-building, featuring contributions by [[Hal Clement]], [[Frank Herbert]], [[Ursula K. LeGuin]] and others.
== Selected short stories ==
*"[[The Beast That Shouted Love at the Heart of the World]]"
*"[[A Boy and his Dog]]" (made into a film)
*"[[The Deathbird]]"
*"[[The Diagnosis of Dr. D'arqueAngel]]"
*"[[From A to Z, in the Chocolate Alphabet]]"
*"[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]"
*"[[Jeffty Is Five]]"
*"[[Knox (story)|Knox]]"
*"[[The Prowler in the City at the Edge of the World]]"
*""[["Repent, Harlequin!" Said the Ticktockman]]"
*"[[Shatterday]]"
*"[[Shattered Like a Glass Goblin]]"
*"[[Soldier (story)|Soldier]]": filmed as an ''[[The Outer Limits|Outer Limits]]'' episode. The film ''[[The Terminator]]'' had sufficient story element similarities to it (and also to another ''[[The Outer Limits|Outer Limits]]'' episode, "Demon With a Glass Hand") that Ellison filed a lawsuit against [[James Cameron]]. Later prints of the film acknowledge the debt to Ellison.
*"[[Try a Dull Knife]]"
*"[[The Whimper of Whipped Dogs]]"
== Computer games ==
*''[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream (computer game)|I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]''
== Awards won ==
(Paragraph repeated from above; for accompanying links, see first iteration.)
He has won the Hugo Award eight and a half times; the Nebula Award three times; the Bram Stoker Award, presented by the Horror Writers Association, five times (including the Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996); the Edgar Award of the Mystery Writers of America twice; the Georges Méliès fantasy film award twice; and was awarded the Silver Pen for Journalism by International PEN, the international writers' union. He was presented with the first Living Legend Award by the International Horror Guild at the 1995 World Horror Convention. He is also the only author in Hollywood ever to win the Writers' Guild of America Award for Most Outstanding Teleplay (solo work) four times, most recently for "Paladin of the Lost Hour" in 1987. In March 1998, the National Women's Committee of Brandeis University honored him with their 1998 Words, Wit, Wisdom award. In 1990, Ellison was honored by International PEN for continuing commitment to artistic freedom and the battle against censorship. Some of the specific occasions are listed below.
=== Bradbury award ===
The [[Bradbury Award]] in [[2000]] went to Harlan Ellison and [[Yuri Rasovsky]].
=== Bram Stoker Award ===
*''[[The Essential Ellison]]'' (best collection, [[1987]])
*''[[Harlan Ellison's Watching]]'' (best non-fiction, [[1989]]&mdash;tie)
*''[[Mefisto in Onyx]]'' (best novella, [[1993]]&mdash;tie)
*''[[Chatting With Anubis]]'' (best short story, [[1995]])
*Life achievement award, [[1995]]
*''[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]'' (best other media&mdash;audio, [[1999]])
=== Hugo Award ===
*''[["Repent, Harlequin!" Said the Ticktockman]]'' (best short fiction, [[1966]])
*''[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]'' (best short story, [[1968]])
*''[[City on the Edge of Forever]]'' (best dramatic presentation, [[1968]])
*''[[Dangerous Visions]]'' (special award, [[1968]])
*''[[The Beast That Shouted Love at the Heart of the World]]'' (best short story, |
liberalism]]. It may be exhibited by favoritism in the distribution of legal permits, government grants, special [[tax break]]s, and so forth.
Crony capitalism arises when political [[cronyism]] spills over into the world of business, and the relationships between powerful businessmen and powerful politicians form a kind of [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] social [[hierarchy]], influenced by self-serving [[friendship]]s and [[family]] ties, to the extent that it corrupts [[public good|public-serving]] economic and political ideals.
== Viewpoints ==
The phrase is often used by [[socialism|socialists]] and other [[anti-capitalism|anti-capitalists]], who assert that such [[Political corruption|corrupt]] processes are an inevitable result of any capitalist system. For example, [[Jane Jacobs]] calls it a natural consequence of collusion between those managing [[power (sociology)|power]] and [[trade]].
Theoretically, this can be explained by considering personal relationships as forming a [[social network|network]]. As government and business leaders try to accomplish various things, they naturally turn to other powerful people for support in their endeavors. These people form hubs in the network. In a developing country those hubs may be very few, thus concentrating economic and political power in a small highly-interlocking group. In a fully developed country, the processes of capitalism have already concentrated wealth into the possession of a small group, with the same result: reduction of the number of hubs.
Capitalists generally respond that governmental favours are incompatible with true capitalism, that so-called "crony capitalism" is in fact the result of an excess of socialist-style interference in the market, which requires active corporate lobbying to reduce red tape. They point to the relatively higher levels of interaction between corporations and governments that are considered more socialist, taken to its maximum in the form of [[nationalization]]. For example, [[Burton W. Folsom, Jr.]], in his book ''[[The Myth of the Robber Barons]]'', distinguished those that engage in crony capitalism &ndash; designated by him "political entrepreneurs" &ndash; from those who compete in the marketplace without special aid from government, whom he calls "market entrepreneurs".
Finally, some critics question whether the concept is meaningful at all, pointing out that personal factors influence business decisions in all economic systems that involve a government and that the existence of these factors, ''per se'', is an insufficient explanation for why certain economic systems work better than others.
== Examples ==
States often said to exhibit crony capitalism are [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Japan]], [[Indonesia]], [[Russia]], and most other ex-[[Soviet]] states. Critics claim that government connections are almost indispensable to business success in these countries. Some allege that the same is true for certain industries in the [[United States]], especially the so-called "[[military-industrial complex]]".
[[Enronomics]] is an example of the same principle.
==See also==
* [[Cronyism]]
* [[Corporate welfare]]
* [[Oligarchy]]
* [[Plutocracy]]
* [[Political families]]
* [[Mercantilism]]
==External links==
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/21/weekinreview/21SANG.html?todaysheadlines New York Times, "The Global Cost of Crony Capitalism"]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/30/international/europe/30VLAD.html?todaysheadlines New York Times, "Vladivostok Journal: Out of Russia's Gangland, and Into Cafe Society."]
*[http://www.project-syndicate.org/series/series_text.php4?id=781&lang=1 Joseph Stiglitz, "Crony capitalism American-style".]
[[Category:Pejorative political terms]]
[[Category:Political corruption]]
[[de:Staatskapitalismus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Countries of the world</title>
<id>5250</id>
<revision>
<id>15903472</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-27T21:20:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wilfried Derksen</username>
<id>42636</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>changed redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of countries]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities</title>
<id>5252</id>
<revision>
<id>40049644</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T19:41:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobak</username>
<id>325166</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Related lists */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
The alphabetical listing is based on Christina DeMello's pages at http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/cdemello/univ.html.
==See also==
*[[College]]
*[[University]]
*[[Distance education]]
*[[Land-grant university]]
*[[Liberal arts college]]
*[[Nursing school]]
*[[Pontifical university]]
*[[Sea grant colleges]]
*[[Space grant colleges]]
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Universities]]
== Related lists ==
*[[List of colleges and universities by country]]
*[[List of for-profit colleges and universities]]
*[[List of oldest universities in continuous operation]]
*[[List of universities named after people]]
*[[List of college athletic conferences]]
*[[Business school]]
*[[List of law schools]]
*[[List of medical schools]]
*[[Mega university]]
*[[Military academy]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges|*]]
[[el:&#917;&#954;&#960;&#945;&#943;&#948;&#949;&#965;&#963;&#951;]]
[[es:Universidades por orden alfabético]]
[[nl:Lijst van universiteiten]]
[[ja:&#22823;&#23398;&#19968;&#35239;]]
[[fi:Luettelo yliopistoista]]
[[mi:R&#257;rangi w&#257;nanga]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Constitution</title>
<id>5253</id>
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<id>41958014</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:56:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.20.187.186</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the entry on the ship, see:'' [[USS Constitution]]''.''
A '''constitution''' is a system, often [[codified]] in a written document, which establishes the rules and principles by which an organization is governed. In the case of [[state]]s, this term refers specifically to a national constitution, which defines the fundamental [[politics|political]] principles and establishes the [[power (sociology)|power]] and [[duty|duties]] of each government. Most national constitutions also guarantee certain [[right|rights]] to the people. Historically, before the evolution of modern codified national constitutions, the term ''constitution'' could be applied to any important [[law]].
Constitutions are found in many organizations. They are found extensively in government, at supernational (e.g. [[United Nations Charter]]), national (e.g. [[Constitution of the United States]]), and sub-national/provincial (e.g. [[Maryland Constitution|Constitution of Maryland]]) levels. They are found in many political groups, such as [[political party|political parties]] and [[pressure group]]s, including [[trade union]]s (labor unions). There are many non-political groups and entities that may have constitutions of a sort such as [[company (law)|companies]] and [[voluntary association|voluntary organisations]].
== Etymology ==
The term ''constitution'' comes from the [[Latin]], referring to issuing any important law, usually by the Roman emperor. Later, the term was widely used in [[canon law]] to indicate certain relevant decisions, mainly from the [[pope]].
== General features ==
Generally, all constitutions confer specific powers to an organization on the condition that it ab |
itional proscription is against olive oil, it is often interpreted as excluding all vegetable oils.
[[Shellfish]] is not included in the proscription against [[meat]]; accordingly, shellfish is permitted during fasts. (So-called "[[Surimi|imitation crabmeat]]" is not Lenten fare as it is made not made from shellfish but, rather from fish, generally, [[pollock]].) Although shellfish is permitted, fasting Orthodox Christians would also need to take into account the overarching principles of denial and moderation; thus, feasts of lobster and crab (like feasts on other luxurious Lenten foods) during fasts could still be contrary to the spirit of fasting.
Vegetable oils are permitted on certain days and weeks of the fast as is wine. Thus, most fasting guidelines resemble a [[vegan]] diet with all cooking done simply with water but no oil. In addition to restrictions on food, it is generally understood that married couples abstain from sexual relations during a fast (see [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 7:5) and it is often recommended that entertainments or amusements be eliminated altogether during the stricter periods of fasting.
The time and type of fast is generally uniform for all Orthodox Christians; the times of fasting are part of the ecclesial calendar. There are four major fasting periods during the year. They are:
*The ''[[Nativity Fast]]'' (Advent or [[Winter Lent]]) which is the 40 days preceding the [[Nativity]] of Christ ([[Christmas]]).
*''[[Great Lent]]'' which consists of the 6 weeks (40 Days) preceding Palm Sunday, and Great Week (Holy Week) which precedes Pascha ([[Easter]]).
*The ''[[Apostles' Fast]]'' which varies in length from 2 to 6 weeks on the Old Calendar. It begins on Monday following the first Sunday after [[Pentecost]] and extends to the feast day of Saints Peter and Paul on June 29th. It can virtually disappear on the New Calendar (one of the reasons for the Old Calendar Movement).
*The two-week long Fast preceding the ''[[Dormition of the Theotokos]]'' (repose of The Virgin Mary).
In addition, except during feasting weeks, members of the Orthodox Church fast on every Wednesday in commemoration of Christ's betrayal by [[Judas Iscariot]], and on every Friday in commemoration of his [[crucifixion]]. Monastics often include Mondays as a fast day in commemoration of the [[Angels]].
The number of fast days varies each year, but in general the Orthodox Christian can expect to spend over half the year fasting at some level of strictness.
It is considered a greater sin to advertise one's fasting than to not participate in the fast. Fasting is a purely personal communication between the Orthodox and God, and in fact has no place whatsoever in the public life of the Orthodox Church. If one has respnsibilities that cannot be fulfilled because of fasting, then it is perfectly permissible to not fast.
===Almsgiving===
"[[Almsgiving]]" refers to any charitable giving of material resources to those in need. Along with ''prayer'' and ''fasting'', it is considered a pillar of the personal spiritual practices of the Orthodox Christian tradition. Almsgiving is particularly important during periods of fasting, when the Orthodox believer is expected to share the monetary savings from his or her decreased consumption with those in need.
===Baptism===
[[Baptism]] is the rite by which a person's sins are remitted and he is united to the Body of Christ by becoming a member of the Orthodox Church. [[Holy water]] is blessed, and the person to be baptized is fully immersed in it three times in the name of the Holy Trinity. This is considered to be a death of the "old man" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection.
Children of Orthodox families are normally baptized shortly after birth. Converts from other religions or the unchurched must be received by baptism. Local rules vary for converts from other Christian groups. Depending on the group and the rules of the local Church, such a convert may be received by either baptism, chrismation, or just by confession of the Orthodox faith.
This is the only one of the Mysteries (Sacraments) that need not be facilitated by a minister who has received Holy Orders, although this would mostly obtain to emergency situations.
===Chrismation===
[[Chrismation]] (sometimes called [[Confirmation|confirmation]]) is the mystery by which a person, who has been baptized is granted the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]] through anointing with Holy [[Chrism]]. It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Orthodox Church. As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so chrismation is a person’s participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at [[Pentecost]].
A baptized and chrismated Orthodox Christian is a full member of the Church, and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.
Chrism may be blessed by any bishop, but this is normally done only by the chief hierarch of a local church during Holy Week. Anointing with it substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament.
===Holy Communion===
The [[Eucharist]] is at the center of Orthodox Christianity. In practice, it is the partaking of bread and wine in the midst of the [[Divine Liturgy]] with the rest of the church. The bread and wine are believed to be the genuine Body and Blood of the Christ [[Jesus]]. The Eastern Orthodox Church has never described exactly how this occurs, or gone into the detail that the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches have in the West. The doctrine of [[transubstantiation]] was formulated after the Great Schism took place, and the Orthodox churches have never formally affirmed or denied it, preferring to state simply that it is a mystery and sacrament.
Communion is given only to baptized, chrismated Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer, and confession (if of the age of reason, see below). The priest will administer the gifts with a spoon directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice. From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive Holy Communion.
It is the opinion of some traditionalists that frequent communion is dangerous spiritually if it reflects a lack of piety in approaching the most significant of the Mysteries, which would be damaging to the soul. However, many spiritual advisors advocate frequent reception as long as it is done in the proper spirit and not casually, with full preparation and discernment. Frequent reception is more common now than in recent centuries.
===Repentance===
Orthodox Christians who have committed sins but repent of them, and who wish to reconcile themselves to God and renew the purity of their original [[baptism]]s, quietly confess their sins to God before an [[icon]] of [[Jesus]] and in the presence of a priest as a witness, who then prays for God's forgiveness and confirms it with a blessing. Although it is not an essential component of the Mystery, the opportunity is often taken at this time to offer spiritual counsel. Orthodox confession can therefore take the form of a discussion between the confessor and the penitent concerning his or her sins and the best means of overcoming them. Sin is not viewed by the Orthodox as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, or a legal transgression that must be set right by a punitive sentence, but rather as an illness in need of a cure. [[Penance]] is therefore given only occasionally, at the discretion of the confessor, if he believes the sins mentioned in his hearing to be symptomatic of some spiritual illness requiring that treatment. It typically consists of a temporary excommunication, ideally accompanied by intensified prayer and fasting.
Repentance is essential preparation for receiving the Eucharist ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 11:28) but this is not required of very young children who have not yet attained the [[age of reason]]<!--NB to robot operators: DAB page contains appropriate dictdef. Please to not disambiguate. De-wiki preferable.-->.
===Marriage===
{{further|[[Marriage in the Eastern Orthodox Church]]}}
Orthodox Marriage is seen as an act of God in which he joins two believers into one. Procreation is not seen as the only reason for marriage though it is referenced throughout the standard Orthodox Wedding Service. The fact that intimacy between married adults creates a loving bond is paramount, and that union between the two is reflective of our ultimate union with God.
The Sacrament of Marriage in the Orthodox Church has two distinct parts: The Betrothal and The Crowning. The Betrothal includes: The exchange of the rings, the procession, the declaration of intent and the lighting of candles. Then follows the Crowning, the epistle, the gospel, the Blessing of the Common Cup and the Dance of Isaiah, and then the Removal of the Crowns. Finally there is the Greeting of the Couple.
Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church allows divorce and allows divorced men and women to remarry under specific circumstances (infidelity, apostasy, etc.) as judged by a Spiritual Court or Bishop. It is regarded as a great tragedy, however, and a second marriage normally requires special permission from a bishop. A second wedding is always performed in the context of repentance on the part of the previously married party, a fact reflected in the ceremony.
A peculiarity of the Orthodox wedding ceremony is that there is no exchange of vows. There is a set expectation of the obligations incumbent on a married couple, and whatever promises they may have privately to each other are their responsibility to keep.
===Holy Orders===
[[Image:Orthodox clergy.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Orthodox clergy at All Saints Antiochian Orthodox Chu |
50]] - [[Mike Campbell]], American guitarist and producer
*[[1954]] - [[Bill Mumy]], American actor and musician
*[[1956]] - [[Exene Cervenka]], American musician ([[X (US band)|X]])
*[[1961]] - [[Volker Fried]], German field hockey player
*[[1962]] - [[José Luis Cuciuffo]], Argentinian footballer =)
*1962 - [[Tomoyasu Hotei]], Japanese guitarist
*[[1965]] - [[Sherilyn Fenn]], American actress
*1965 - [[Brandon Lee]], American actor (d. [[1993]])
*1965 - [[Princess Stéphanie of Monaco]]
*[[1966]] - [[Michelle Akers]], American soccer player
*1966 - [[Rob Lee]], English footballer
*[[1968]] - [[Lisa Marie Presley]], American singer and actress
*1968 - [[Pauly Shore]], American comedian
*1968 - [[Mark Recchi]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1969]] - [[Gabriel Batistuta]], Argentine footballer
*1969 - [[Joshua Redman]], American musician
*1969 - [[Brian Krause]], American actor
*[[1971]] - [[Yoshi DeHerrera]], American television personality
*1971 - [[Jill Kelly]], American pornographic actress
*1971 - [[Ron Welty]], American musician ([[The Offspring]])
*1971 - [[Zlatko Zahovic|Zlatko Zahovi&#269;]], Slovenian footballer
*[[1974]] - [[David Carter]], Seneschalstown footballer (retired)
*[[1975]] - [[Big Boi]], American musician ([[Outkast]])
*[[1977]] - [[Kevin Kilbane]], Irish footballer
*[[1984]] - [[Darren Fletcher]], Scottish footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Dean Shiels]], Northern Irish footballer
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1248]] - [[Henry II, Duke of Brabant]] (b. [[1207]])
*[[1328]] - King [[Charles IV of France]] (b. [[1294]])
*[[1542]] - [[Girolamo Aleandro]], Italian Catholic cardinal (b. [[1480]])
*[[1563]] - [[Menas of Ethiopia|Menas]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] (died of fever)
*[[1590]] - [[Lawrence Humphrey]], English clergyman and educator
*[[1691]] - [[Pope Alexander VIII]] (b. [[1610]])
*[[1718]] - [[Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury]], English politician (b. [[1660]])
*[[1733]] - King [[Augustus II of Poland]] (b. [[1670]])
*[[1734]] - [[John Floyer]], English physician and writer (b. [[1649]])
*[[1743]] - [[Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni]], Italian composer (b. [[1657]])
*[[1761]] - [[Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix]], French historian (b. [[1682]])
*[[1768]] - [[Sir Robert Rich, 4th Baronet]], British cavalry officer (b. [[1685]])
*[[1793]] - [[William Wildman Shute Barrington]], British statesman (b. [[1717]])
*[[1851]] - [[Mary Shelley]], English author (b. [[1797]])
*[[1893]] - [[George Henry Sanderson]], Mayor of San Francisco (b. [[1824]])
*[[1897]] - [[Constantin von Ettingshausen]], Austrian geologist (b. [[1826]])
*[[1903]] - [[George Gabriel Stokes]], Irish physicist (b. [[1819]])
*[[1908]] - King [[Carlos I of Portugal]] (b. [[1863]])
*[[1928]] - [[Hughie Jennings]], baseball player (b. [[1869]])
*[[1944]] - [[Piet Mondriaan]], Dutch painter (b. [[1872]])
*[[1957]] - [[Friedrich Paulus]], German general (b. [[1890]])
*[[1958]] - [[Clinton Davisson]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1888]])
*[[1966]] - [[Hedda Hopper]], American gossip columnist (b. [[1885]])
*[[1966]] - [[Buster Keaton]], American actor (b. [[1895]])
*[[1970]] - [[Alfréd Rényi]], Hungarian mathematician (b. [[1921]])
*[[1976]] - [[Werner Heisenberg]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1901]])
*[[1976]] - [[George Whipple]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1878]])
*[[1979]] - [[Abdi İpekçi]], Turkish Journalist (b. [[1929]])
*[[1981]] - [[Donald Wills Douglas, Sr.]], American aircraft manufacturer (b. [[1892]])
*[[1981]] - [[Geirr Tveitt]], Norwegian composer (b. [[1908]])
*[[1986]] - [[Alva Myrdal]], Swedish politician, diplomat, and writer, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1902]])
*[[1988]] - [[Heather O'Rourke]], American actress (b. [[1975]])
*[[1989]] - [[Elaine de Kooning]], American artist (b. [[1918]])
*[[1997]] - [[Herb Caen]], American newspaper columnist (b. [[1916]])
*[[1999]] - [[Paul Mellon]], American philanthropist (b. [[1907]])
*[[2002]] - [[Hildegard Knef]], German actress, singer, and writer (b. [[1925]])
*[[2003]] - The crew of the [[Space Shuttle Columbia]], astronauts:
**[[Michael P. Anderson]] (b. [[1959]])
**[[David M. Brown|David Brown]] (b. [[1956]])
**[[Kalpana Chawla]] (b. [[1961]])
**[[Laurel Clark]] (b. [[1961]])
**[[Rick D. Husband]] (b. [[1957]])
**[[William McCool|Willie McCool]] (b. [[1961]])
**[[Ilan Ramon]] (b. [[1954]])
*[[2003]] - [[Mongo Santamaria]], Cuban percussionist and band leader (b. [[1922]])
*[[2005]] - [[John Vernon]], Canadian actor (b. [[1932]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
*[[St. Brigid]] of [[Kildare]] - one of the three [[patron saints]] of [[Ireland]], the others being [[St. Patrick]] and [[Columba|St. Columcille]].
*[[Imbolc]] - the first day of Spring in [[Ireland]] ([[Irish Calendar]]), one of the eight solar holidays in the [[Wheel of the Year]].
*The start of [[Black History Month]] in the [[United States]].
==Fiction==
* In [[Roald Dahl]]'s ''[[Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory]],'' the fictional character Willy Wonka gives an unprecedented tour of his chocolate factory on February 1 (year unspecified).
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=01 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060201.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/1 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[January 31]] - [[February 2]] - [[January 1]] - [[March 1]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[Category:Days|February 01]]
[[Category:Days]]
[[af:1 Februarie]]
[[ar:1 فبراير]]
[[an:1 de frebero]]
[[ast:1 de febreru]]
[[bg:1 февруари]]
[[be:1 лютага]]
[[bs:1. februar]]
[[ca:1 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 1]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 1]]
[[co:1 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:1. únor]]
[[cy:1 Chwefror]]
[[da:1. februar]]
[[de:1. Februar]]
[[et:1. veebruar]]
[[el:1 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:1 de febrero]]
[[eo:1-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 1]]
[[fo:1. februar]]
[[fr:1er février]]
[[fy:1 febrewaris]]
[[ga:1 Feabhra]]
[[gl:1 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 1일]]
[[hr:1. veljače]]
[[io:1 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 1]]
[[id:1 Februari]]
[[ia:1 de februario]]
[[ie:1 februar]]
[[is:1. febrúar]]
[[it:1 febbraio]]
[[he:1 בפברואר]]
[[jv:1 Februari]]
[[ka:1 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:1 gromicznika]]
[[ku:1'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 1]]
[[lb:1. Februar]]
[[li:1 februari]]
[[hu:Február 1]]
[[mk:1 февруари]]
[[ml:ഫെബ്രുവരി 1]]
[[mr:फेब्रुवारी १]]
[[ms:1 Februari]]
[[nap:1 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:1 februari]]
[[ja:2月1日]]
[[no:1. februar]]
[[nn:1. februar]]
[[oc:1 de febrièr]]
[[os:1 февралы]]
[[pl:1 lutego]]
[[pt:1 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:1 februarie]]
[[ru:1 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 1.]]
[[sco:1 Februar]]
[[sq:1 Shkurt]]
[[scn:1 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 1]]
[[sk:1. február]]
[[sl:1. februar]]
[[sr:1. фебруар]]
[[fi:1. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:1 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 1]]
[[tt:1. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 1]]
[[th:1 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:1 tháng 2]]
[[tr:1 Şubat]]
[[uk:1 лютого]]
[[wa:1î d' fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 1]]
[[zh:2月1日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 1]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Lady of the United States</title>
<id>10847</id>
<revision>
<id>42042343</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:50:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Martha_Washington.jpg|175px|thumb|right|[[Martha Washington]], Original First Lady of the United States.]]
[[Image:Laurabush.jpeg|175px|thumb|right|[[Laura Bush]], current First Lady of the United States (2001-present).]]
'''''First Lady of the United States''''' is the unofficial title of the hostess of the [[White House]]. Because this position is traditionally filled by the wife of the [[President of the United States]], the title is sometimes taken to apply only to the wife of a sitting president. The current first lady is [[Laura Bush]]. Some of the more notable former first ladies include [[Martha Washington]], [[Dolley Madison]], [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Kennedy]], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], [[Rosalynn Carter]], [[Nancy Reagan]], and [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
Several women, other than wives of presidents, have served as first lady. This situation has arisen due to the president being a bachelor or widower, or when the wife of the president is unable or unwilling to fulfill the duties of the first lady herself. In these cases, the position has been filled by a female relative or friend of the president.
==Origins of the title==
Although the words ''[[first lady]]'' had previously been used in combination before, their use as a title to describe the spouse or hostess of an executive was initially an American invention.
In the early days of the republic, there was no generally agreed upon title for the wife of the president. Many early first ladies expressed their own preference for how they were addressed, including the use of such titles as "Lady", "Mrs. President", "Queen", and "Mrs. Presidentress". Martha Washington was often referred to as "Lady Washington."
According to legend, [[Dolley Madison]] was referred to as "first lady" in [[1849]] at her [[funeral]] in a [[eulogy]] delivered by President [[Zachary Taylor]]. However, no written record of this eulogy exists today.
Sometime between 1849 and 1877, the title began being used in social circles in [[Washington D.C.]]. The oldest known written use of the title is from the [[November 3]] [[1863]] diary entry of |
using the idea of collections, or [[set|sets]]. Dedekind's approach was essentially to adopt the idea of [[one-to-one correspondence]] as a standard for comparing the size of sets, and to reject the view of Galileo (which derived from [[Euclid]]) that the whole cannot be the same size as the part. An infinite set can simply be defined as one having the same size as at least one of its "[[proper subset|proper]]" parts; this notion of infinity is called [[Dedekind infinite]].
Cantor defined two kinds of infinite numbers, the [[ordinal number]]s and the [[aleph number|cardinal numbers]]. Ordinal numbers may be identified with [[well-ordered]] sets, or counting carried on to any stopping point, including points after an infinite number have already been counted. Generalizing finite and the ordinary infinite [[sequence]]s which are maps from the positive [[integers]] leads to [[Map (mathematics)|mappings]] from ordinal numbers, and transfinite sequences. Cardinal numbers define the size of sets, meaning how many members they contain, and can be standardized by choosing the first ordinal number of a certain size to represent the cardinal number of that size. The smallest ordinal infinity is that of the positive integers, and any set which has the cardinality of the integers is '''countably infinite'''. If a set is too large to be put in one to one correspondence with the positive integers, it is called '''uncountable'''. Cantor's views prevailed and modern mathematics accepts actual infinity. Certain extended [[number]] systems, such as the [[hyperreal number]]s, incorporate the ordinary (finite) numbers and infinite numbers of different sizes.
Our intuition gained from finite sets breaks down when dealing with infinite sets. One example of this is [[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel]].
=== Mathematics without infinity ===
[[Leopold Kronecker]] rejected the notion of infinity and began a school of thought, in the [[philosophy of mathematics]] called [[finitism]], which led to the philosophical and mathematical school of [[mathematical constructivism]].
== Use of infinity in common speech ==
In common parlance, infinity is often used in a [[hyperbole|hyperbolic]] sense. For example, "The movie was infinitely boring, but we had to wait forever to get tickets."
In [[Computer and video games|video games]], '''infinite lives''' and '''infinite ammo''' refer to a never-ending supply of lives and [[ammunition]]. An [[infinite loop]] in [[computer programming]] is a conditional loop construction whose condition always evaluates to true. In theory, as long as there is no external interaction, the loop will continue to run for all time. In practice however, some programming loops considered as infinite will halt by exceeding the (finite) number range of one of its variables. See [[halting problem]]. These terms describe things that are only potential infinities; it is impossible to play a video game for an infinite period of time or keep a computer running for an infinite period of time.
The number [[Infinity plus 1]] is also used sometimes in common speech.
== Physical infinity ==
In [[physics]], approximations of [[real number]]s are used for [[continuum|continuous]] measurements and [[natural number]]s are used for [[discrete]] measurements (i.e. counting). It is therefore assumed by physicists that no [[observable|measurable quantity]] could have an infinite value, for instance by taking an infinite value in an [[extended real number line|extended real number]] system (see also: [[hyperreal number]]), or by requiring the counting of an infinite number of events. It is for example presumed impossible for any body to have infinite mass or infinite energy. There exists the concept of infinite entities (such as an infinite [[plane wave]]) but there are no means to generate such things. Likewise, [[perpetual motion]] machines theoretically generate infinite energy by attaining 100% efficiency or greater, and emulate every conceivable [[open system]]; the impossible problem follows of knowing that the output is actually infinite when the source or mechanism exceeds any known and understood [[system]].
This point of view does not mean that infinity cannot be used in physics. For convenience sake, calculations, equations, theories and approximations often use [[infinite series]], unbounded [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, etc., and may involve infinite quantities. Physicists however require that the end result be physically meaningful. In [[quantum field theory]] infinities arise which need to be interpreted in such a way as to lead to a physically meaningful result, a process called [[renormalization]].
===Infinity in cosmology ===
An intriguing question is whether actual infinity exists in our physical [[universe]]: Are there infinitely many stars? Does the universe have infinite volume? Does space "go on forever"? This is an important open question of [[cosmology]]. Note that the question of being infinite is logically separate from the question of having boundaries. The two-dimensional surface of the Earth, for example, is finite, yet has no edge. By walking/sailing/driving straight long enough, you'll return to the exact spot you started from. The universe, at least in principle, might have a similar [[topology]]; if you fly your space ship straight ahead long enough, perhaps you would eventually revisit your starting point.
If the universe is indeed ever expanding as science suggests then you could never get back to your starting point even on an infinite time scale.
== Three types of infinities ==
Besides the mathematical infinity and the physical infinity, there could also be a philosophical infinity. There are scientists who hold that all three really exist and there are scientists who hold that none of the three exist. And in between there are the various possibilities. [[Rudy Rucker]], in his book ''Infinity and the Mind -- the science and philosophy of the mind'' (1982), has worked out a model list of representatives of each of the eight possible standpoints. The footnote on p.335 of his book suggests the consideration of the following names: [[Abraham Robinson]], [[Plato]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[L.E.J. Brouwer]], [[David Hilbert]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Georg Cantor]].
== Infinity in science fiction ==
[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]] contains the following definition of infinity:
:"Bigger than the biggest thing ever and then some, much bigger than that, in fact really amazingly immense, a totally stunning size, real 'Wow, that's big!' time. Infinity is just so big that by comparison, bigness itself looks really titchy. Gigantic multiplied by colossal multiplied by staggeringly huge is the sort of concept we are trying to get across here."
Another quote from [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]] states: "Infinity itself looks flat and uninteresting. Looking up into the night sky is looking into infinity -- distance is incomprehensible and therefore meaningless."
[[Rudy Rucker]]'s novel ''White Light'' describes a mathematician who leaves his body and travels to a kind of afterworld that includes a mountain whose Absolute Infinite height matches that of the class of all ordinals. Georg Cantor makes an appearance as a character, and the hero finds a physical correlate for Cantor's Continuum Problem.
== See also ==
* [[Infinitesimal]]
* [[Axiom of infinity]]
== References ==
* {{cite book | author=Aczel, Amir D. | title=The Mystery of the Aleph: Mathematics, the Kabbalah, and the Search for Infinity | publisher=Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0743422996}}
* {{cite book | author=Wallace, David Foster | title=Everything and More: A Compact History of Infinity | publisher=Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc. | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0393326292}}
== External links ==
* ''[http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/infapp.htm A Crash Course in the Mathematics of Infinite Sets]'', by Peter Suber. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59. The stand-alone appendix to <em>Infinite Reflections</em>, below. A concise introduction to Cantor's mathematics of infinite sets.
* ''[http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/infinity.htm Infinite Reflections]'', by Peter Suber. How Cantor's mathematics of the infinite solves a handful of ancient philosophical problems of the infinite. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59.
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/INFINITY.html ''Infinity'', Principia Cybernetica]
* [http://www.c3.lanl.gov/mega-math/workbk/infinity/infinity.html Hotel Infinity]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/infinite.html The concepts of finiteness and infinity in philosophy]
* [http://uk.geocities.com/frege@btinternet.com/cantor/Phil-Infinity.htm Source page on medieval and modern writing on Infinity]
== Notes ==
{{ent2|1|large_cardinals}} Large cardinals are quantitative infinities defining the number of things in a [[collection]], which are so large that they cannot be proven to exist in the ordinary mathematics of [[ZFC|Zermelo-Fraenkel plus Choice]] (ZFC).
{{ent2|2|antinomies}} See also {{Web reference | title= Logic of antinomies | url=http://www.emis.de/cgi-bin/zmen/ZMATH/en/quick.html?first=1&maxdocs=3&type=html&an=0724.03003&format=complete | date=November 14 | year=2005 }}
[[Category:Infinity| ]]
[[Category:Mathematics]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
[[Category:Philosophy of mathematics]]
[[Category:Theology]]
[[ca:Infinit]]
[[cs:Nekonečno]]
[[da:Uendelig]]
[[de:Unendlichkeit]]
[[et:Lõpmatus]]
[[es:Número infinito]]
[[fr:Infini]]
[[ko:무한]]
[[it:Infinito]]
[[he:אינסוף]]
[[lt:Begalybė]]
[[jbo:ci'i]]
[[ja:無限]]
[[la:infinitas]]
[[nl:Oneindig]]
[[pl:Nieskończoność]]
[[pt:Infinito]]
[[ru:Бесконечность]]
[[simple:Infinity]]
[[sl:Neskončnost]]
[[sr:Бесконачност]]
[[fi:Äärettömyys]]
[[sv:Oändlighet]]
[[zh:无穷]]</text>
</revisio |
a groupoid as a certain [[algebraic structure]].
To be specific, let ''G'' be a [[set]] and let comp be a [[partial function|partially defined]] [[binary operation]] on ''G''.
That is, given elements ''f'' and ''g'' of ''G'', comp(''f'',''g'') may be an element of ''G'', or it may be undefined.
We write ''gf'' for comp(''f'',''g'').
There is also a total (everywhere defined) [[function (mathematics)|function]] inv on ''G''.
We write ''f''<sup>-1</sup> for the ''inverse'' inv(''f'') of ''f''.
Then ''G'' is a ''groupoid'' iff:
* Whenever ''fg'' and ''gh'' are both defined, then (''fg'')''h'' and ''f''(''gh'') are also defined, and they are equal;
* ''f''<sup>-1</sup>''f'' and ''ff''<sup>-1</sup> are always defined;
* Whenever ''fg'' is defined, then ''fgg''<sup>-1</sup> = ''f'' and ''f''<sup>-1</sup>''fg'' = ''g'' — we already know that these expressions are unambiguously defined by the previous conditions.
The relation between these definitions is as follows:
given a groupoid in the category-theoretic sense, let ''G'' be the [[disjoint union]] of all of the sets ''G''(''x'',''y'').
Then inv and comp become partially defined operations on ''G'', and inv will in fact be defined everywhere.
Explicit reference to ''G''<sub>0</sub> (and hence to id) can be dropped.
On the other hand, given a groupoid in the algebraic sense, let ''G''<sub>0</sub> be the set of all elements of the form ''ff''<sup>-1</sup> for some element ''f'' of ''G''.
In other words, the objects are identified with the identity morphisms, and id<sub>''x''</sub> is just ''x''.
Let ''G''(''x'',''y'') be the set all elements ''f'' such that ''yfx'' is defined.
Then inv and comp break up into several functions on the various ''G''(''x'',''y'').
While we have referred to ''sets'' in the definitions above, one may instead want to use [[class (set theory)|class]]es, in the same way as for other categories.
== Examples ==
From [[linear algebra]]:
Given a [[field (algebra)|field]] ''K'', the '''general linear groupoid''' GL<sub>*</sub>(''K'') consists of all invertible [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]] with entries from ''K'', with composition given by [[matrix multiplication]].
If ''G'' = GL<sub>*</sub>(''K''), then ''G''<sub>0</sub> contains a copy of the set of [[natural number]]s, since there is one [[identity matrix]] of dimension ''n'' for each natural number ''n'', although ''G''<sub>0</sub> contains other matrices.
''G''(''m'',''n'') is [[empty set|empty]] unless ''m'' = ''n'', in which case it is the set of ''n'' by ''n'' matrices.
From [[topology]]:
Start with a [[topological space]] ''X'' and let ''G''<sub>0</sub> be the set ''X''.
The morphisms from the point ''p'' to the point ''q'' are [[equivalence class]]es of [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[path (topology)|path]]s from ''p'' to ''q'', with two paths being considered equivalent if they are [[homotopic]].
Two such morphisms are composed by first following the first path, then the second; the homotopy equivalence guarantees that this composition is [[associative]].
This groupoid is called the ''[[fundamental groupoid]]'' of ''X'', denoted &Pi;<sub>1</sub>(''X'').
If ''X'' is a [[set]] and ~ is an [[equivalence relation]] on ''X'', then we can form a groupoid representing this equivalence relation as follows:
The objects are the elements of ''X'', and for any two elements ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'', there is a single morphism from ''x'' to ''y'' [[if and only if]] ''x''&nbsp;~&nbsp;''y''.
If the [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' [[group action|act]]s on the set ''X'', then we can form a groupoid representing this group action as follows:
The objects are the elements of ''X'', and for any two elements ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'', there is a morphism from ''x'' to ''y'' for every element ''g'' of ''G'' such that ''g''.''x'' = ''y''.
Composition of morphisms is given by the group operation in ''G''.
== Relation to groups ==
If a groupoid has only one object, then the set of its morphisms forms a [[group (algebra)|group]].
Using the algebraic definition, such a groupoid is literally just a group.
Many concepts of [[group theory]] can be generalized to groupoids, with the notion of [[group homomorphism]] being replaced by that of [[functor]].
If ''x'' is an object of the groupoid ''G'', then the set of all morphisms from ''x'' to ''x'' forms a group ''G''(''x'').
If there is a morphism ''f'' from ''x'' to ''y'', then the groups ''G''(''x'') and ''G''(''y'') are [[group isomorphism|isomorphic]], with an isomorphism given by mapping ''g'' to ''fgf''<sup>-1</sup>.
Every [[connected (category theory)|connected]] groupoid (that is, one in which any two objects are connected by at least one morphism) is isomorphic to a groupoid of the following form:
Pick a group ''G'' and a set (or [[mathematical class|class]]) ''X''.
Let the objects of the groupoid be the elements of ''X''.
For elements ''x'' and ''y'' of ''X'', let the set of morphisms from ''x'' to ''y'' be ''G''.
Composition of morphisms is the group operation of ''G''.
If the groupoid is not connected, then it is isomorphic to a [[disjoint union]] of groupoids of the above type (possibly with different groups ''G'' per connected component).
Thus, any groupoid may be given ([[up to]] isomorphism) by a set of [[ordered pair]]s (''X'',''G'').
Note that the isomorphism described above is not unique, and there is no [[natural equivalence|natural]] choice.
Choosing such an isomorphism for a connected groupoid essentially amounts to picking one object ''x''<sub>0</sub>, a group isomorphism ''h'' from ''G''(''x''<sub>0</sub>) to ''G'', and for each ''x'' other than ''x''<sub>0</sub> a morphism in ''G'' from ''x''<sub>0</sub> to ''x''.
In category-theoretic terms, each connected component of a groupoid is [[equivalent categories|equivalent]] (but not [[isomorphic categories|isomorphic]]) to a groupoid with a single object, that is, a single group.
Thus any groupoid is equivalent to a [[multiset]] of unrelated groups.
In other words, for equivalence instead of isomorphism, you don't have to specify the sets ''X'', only the groups ''G''.
Consider the examples in the previous section.
The general linear groupoid is both equivalent and isomorphic to the disjoint union of the various [[general linear group]]s GL<sub>''n''</sub>(''F'').
On the other hand, the fundamental groupoid of ''X'' is equivalent to the collection of the [[fundamental group]]s of each [[path-connected component]] of ''X'', but for an isomorphism you must also specify the set of points in each component.
The set ''X'' with the equivalence relation ~ is equivalent (as a groupoid) to one copy of the [[trivial group]] for each [[equivalence class]], but for an isomorphism you must also specify what each equivalence class is.
Finally, the set ''X'' equipped with an action of the group ''G'' is equivalent (as a groupoid) to one copy of ''G'' for each [[orbit (group theory)|orbit]] of the action, but for an isomorphism you must also specify what set each orbit is.
The collapse of a groupoid into a mere collection of groups loses some information, even from a category-theoretic point of view, because it's not [[natural (category theory)|natural]].
Thus when groupoids arise in terms of other structures, as in the above examples, it can be helpful to maintain the full groupoid.
If you don't, then you must choose a way to view each ''G''(''x'') in terms of a single group, and this can be rather arbitrary.
In our example from topology, you would have to make a coherent choice of paths (or equivalence classes of paths) from each point ''p'' to each point ''q'' in the same path-connected component.
===Covariance in special relativity===
An example of this phenomenon that is well known in [[physics]] is [[covariance]] in [[special relativity]].
Working with a single group corresponds to picking a specific [[frame of reference]], and you can do all of physics in this fashion.
But it's more natural to describe physics in a way that makes no mention of any particular frame of reference, and this corresponds to using the entire groupoid.
(''I need to go into more detail about this. It really is a precise correspondence -- the particular group involved is the [[Poincaré group]] — but I'm not sure how best to explain it yet.'')
== Lie groupoids and Lie algebroids ==
When studying geometrical objects, the arising groupoids often carry some [[differentiable structure]], turning them into '''Lie groupoids'''.
These can be studied in terms of [[Lie algebroid]]s, in analogy to the relation between [[Lie group]]s and [[Lie algebra]]s.
: ''Explain this''
==See also==
[[Heinrich Brandt]]
== External links ==
*Alan Weinstein, Groupoids: unifying internal and external symmetry, available as [http://math.berkeley.edu/~alanw/Groupoids.ps Groupoids.ps] or [http://www.ams.org/notices/199607/weinstein.pdf weinstein.pdf]
* Part VI of Geometric Models for Noncommutative Algebras, ''by A. Cannas da Silva and A. Weinstein'' [http://math.berkeley.edu/%7Eacannas/notes_latest.pdf PDF file.]
* [http://www.bangor.ac.uk/r.brown/hdaweb2.htm Higher dimensional group theory ] is a web article with lots of references explaining how the groupoid concept has to led to notions of higher dimensional groupoids, not available in group theory, with applications in homotopy theory and in group cohomology.
* [http://www.shef.ac.uk/~pm1kchm/gt.html General theory of Lie groupoids and Lie algebroids, K.C.H. Mackenzie, CUP, 2005]
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h further melodies added in later games. The battle sequences that end in victory for the player in the first ten installments of the series would be accompanied by a victory fanfare that used the same nine-note sequence to begin the fanfare, and it has become one of the most recognized pieces of music relating to the ''Final Fantasy'' series. Other memorable tunes include the Chocobo's theme, the Moogle's theme, and a piece originally called "Ahead On Our Way" in ''Final Fantasy I'', which was in fact the opening theme and which is now usually played during the ending credits of the game and called "Prologue".
Notably in the character-driven ''Final Fantasy'' incarnations, a significant element in each game's musical score is the use of [[leitmotif]]s. A leitmotif, popularized by [[Romantic Era]] composer [[Richard Wagner]], can be described as a 'theme melody' for a specific character, situation, or other entity. In nearly all ''Final Fantasy'' games, the most important characters and plot elements have their own theme music. For example, in ''Final Fantasy VII'', the song "Anxious Heart" is generally played whenever the main character's troubled past is brought up in the storyline.
== Graphics and technology ==
=== The [[History of video games (8-bit era)|8-bit]] and [[History of video games (16-bit era)|16-bit]] generations ===
[[Image:Final Fantasy I Battle.png|256px|right|thumb|[[Screenshot]] of ''[[Final Fantasy (video game)|Final Fantasy]]'' during a battle.]]
''Final Fantasy'' began on the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Nintendo Family Computer]] (also known as the "Famicom," and known internationally as the ''Nintendo Entertainment System'') as ''Final Fantasy'' in 1987, and was joined by two sequels, ''Final Fantasy II'' (re-released on the [[PlayStation]] and [[Game Boy Advance]] worldwide) and ''Final Fantasy III'' (only released in Japan). On the main world screen, small [[Sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]] representations of the leading party member were displayed because of graphical limitations, while in battle screens, more detailed, full versions of all characters would appear in a side view perspective.
The same basic system was used in the next three games, ''Final Fantasy IV'', ''Final Fantasy V'', and ''Final Fantasy VI'', for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super Famicom]] (known internationally as the ''Super Nintendo Entertainment System''). These games utilized updated graphics and effects, as well as higher quality music and sound than in previous games, but were otherwise similar to their predecessors in basic design.
The text of the Japanese versions of early ''Final Fantasy'' games was comprised purely of [[kana]]. Much of the dialogue was simply clumps of text, making it especially hard for older gamers and foreigners learning Japanese. Finally, in ''Final Fantasy V'', the games began to use [[kanji]]. This would continue to get more advanced in ''Final Fantasy VI'', and the trend would continue to make the games much more erudite.
=== [[Compact disc|CD]]/[[DVD]]-based generations ===
[[Image:FFVII cutscene aeris.jpg|thumb|right|256px|''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'' was the first game in the series to incorporate [[full motion video]].]]
In the late 16-bit generation, Squaresoft [[Final Fantasy VI: The Interactive CG Game|showcased a preview]] of Final Fantasy for the next generation. However, 1997 saw the release of ''Final Fantasy VII'' for the [[PlayStation]] and not [[Nintendo 64]] as many had originally anticipated. The characters and entire game world were now [[3D computer graphics|3-dimensional]], with fully [[Rendering (computer graphics)|pre-rendered]] backgrounds. ''Final Fantasy VII'' was also the first ''Final Fantasy'' game to use [[full motion video]] sequences, part of the reason why the game spanned a full three [[CD-ROM]]s. However, ''Final Fantasy VII''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s FMVs often lacked consistency, with character models resembling their realtime counterparts in one scene, and then extremely detailed in the next.
''Final Fantasy VII'' is often regarded as the game that dawned RPGs into a whole new cinematic experience, and without a doubt boosted the popularity of RPGs ever since.
Released shortly after ''Final Fantasy VII'', the spinoff title ''Final Fantasy Tactics'', once again utilized sprites for the characters. As the only real user-interaction outside of battle was menu-driven, the developers saw no need for fully [[3D computer graphics|3D]]-rendered overhead graphics, although the battle area was in 3D. This title was also the first tactics based RPG in the series. It also had another spinoff on [[Nintendo]] [[Game Boy Advance]].
Starting with ''Final Fantasy VIII'', the series adopted a more [[Photorealism|photo-realistic]] look. Like ''Final Fantasy VII'', some full motion video sequences utilized a display technique wherein video would play in the background while the polygon characters would be composited on top.
''Final Fantasy IX'' returned briefly to the more stylized design of earlier games in the series, but maintained most of the graphical techniques utilized in the previous two games in the series.
''Final Fantasy X'' was released on the [[PlayStation 2]], and made use of the much more powerful hardware to render many cutscenes in real-time, rather than displayed in pre-rendered video. Also, rather than having 3D models moving about in pre-rendered backgrounds, the game featured full 3D environments, giving it a much more dynamic look. It was also the first Final Fantasy game to introduce full voice-acting throughout the whole game, even with many minor characters. This aspect added a whole new dimension of depth to the character's reactions, emotions, and development. ''Final Fantasy X-2'' utilized the same game engine as ''Final Fantasy X'', and was aesthetically not much different.
Initially released on the PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows, ''Final Fantasy XI'' is to be released on the [[Xbox 360]], which utilizes dual-layer [[DVD]] technology. (Note: PlayStation 2 and some PC systems also utilise dual-layer DVD technology.) The Xbox 360 version will be released with the next expansion ''[[Final Fantasy XI: Treasures of Aht Urhgan|Treasures of Aht Urhgan]]'' on April 18th, 2006 worldwide. The expansion disk will be available on the PC and PlayStation 2 as well.
''Final Fantasy XII'' is scheduled to be released on March 16th, 2006 in Japan for the PlayStation 2. The game will utilize only half as many polygons as ''Final Fantasy X'' in exchange for more advanced textures and lighting. It will also allow the use of a free rotating camera.
Although no footage of a [[Blu-ray Disc]] (BD-ROM) generation ''Final Fantasy'' game has been released yet, a [[Final Fantasy VII technical demo|technical demo of ''Final Fantasy VII'']] was revealed at the 2005 [[E3|Electronic Entertainment Expo]] to showcase what the next title in the series will look like on Sony's [[PlayStation 3]].
== Gameplay ==
=== Game screens ===
The games typically have several types of screens, or modes of interaction, broadly categorized as:
* '''Field screens''' &mdash; These are where the main interaction between the characters occurs, and indeed most of the exploration of the world occurs on these screens. Dialog mostly occurs on these screens. ''Final Fantasy VII'' marked the point that ''Final Fantasy'' would have realistic computer graphics, while ''[[Dragon Quest|Dragon Warrior]]'' stayed with anime style [[Cel-shaded animation|cel-shaded]] graphics. Prior to ''Final Fantasy VII'', they were pseudo-[[Orthographic projection|orthographic]], using a simple [[Dimension|2D]] [[Game engine|engine]]. ''Final Fantasy VII'', ''Final Fantasy VIII'', and ''Final Fantasy IX'' used pre-rendered and pre-painted backgrounds over which 3D models were overlaid. ''Final Fantasy X'' used a completely 3D field screen system, which allowed the camera angle to change as the characters moved about.
* '''Battle screens''' &mdash; Battles occur on a separate type of screen (or [[arena]]), usually with a change of scale and a backdrop "arena" that usually generically represents where the battle is occurring in the game. (For example, a random battle in a [[desert]] gets a desert backdrop.) Plot-relevant battles (as opposed to battling random monsters) may have a specially built battle screen/arena, however. In ''Final Fantasy VII'' and later, these screens are fully 3D, using higher resolution versions of the characters, but very restricted in size. ''Final Fantasy XII'' will do away with "scene-battles": battle sequences will occur on the main field screen.
* '''World screen''' &mdash; A low-scale screen used to symbolize traveling great distances in times that would otherwise slow the game down unacceptably plot-wise. These are usually not scaled, as a character may appear the size of a small mountain. Relatively little plot occurs here, but there are exceptions. The world screen was eliminated in ''Final Fantasy X'' and ''Final Fantasy X-2''.
* '''[[Cut-scene|Cutscenes]]''' &mdash; These scenes are non-interactive playback that usually advances the plot. They can either be pre-rendered video (FMV), or they can be executed in with the same engine as the field screens. In some cases, pre-rendered video was overlaid with real-time rendered field screen graphics (full motion video-3D).
* '''Menu Screen''' &mdash; This screen is used for navigating your party's status, equipment, magic, etc. This screen is usually a very simple blue-table layout, with a gloved hand to select one's options. In some games, the option to change the color or texture of the tables is given.
The games often feature various [[:Category:Final Fantasy minigames|minigames]] with their own graphical engines.
=== Battle system ===
[[Image:Activetimebattle.jpg|256px|right|thumb|[[Screenshot]] of ''[[ |
.M. and Donohue, B.C., Functional Connectivity of the Angular Gyrus in Normal Reading and Dyslexia, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol 95, July 21, 1998
* Hynd, G.W. et al., Dyslexia and Corpus Callosum Morphology, Archives of Neurology, vol 52, Jan., 1995
* Snowling, M.J. (2000). Dyslexia. Blackwell Publishing: ISBN 0631205748
==See also==
* [[Picture thinking]]
* [[Double deficit (education)|Double deficit]]
* [[List of people with dyslexia]]
* [[Alexia (disorder)]]
* [[Educational psychology]]
==External links==
===Associations and organizations===
* [http://www.apduk.org/ Auditory Processing Disorder in the UK ]
* [http://www.interdys.org/ The International Dyslexia Association (IDA)]
* [http://www.dyslexichelp.org/ Useful Website for Parents of Dyslexics]
* [http://www.dyslexiacouncil.ik.com/ Dyslexia Council UK]
* [http://www.bda-dyslexia.org.uk/main/home/index.asp British Dyslexia Association]
* [http://www.dyslexiaassociation.ca/ Canadian Dyslexia Association]
* [http://www.dyslexia.com/ Davis Dyslexia Association International (DDAI)]
* [http://www.triplesr.org/ Society for the Scientific Studies of Reading]
* [http://www.disfam.com/ Asociación Dislexia y Familia]
* [http://www.dislexiasinbarreras.com/ Asociación de Dislexia]
* [http://www.rfbd.org/ Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic]
===Tools and other helpful information===
* [http://www.rehasoft.com Assistive Technology - Ayudas Técnicas]
* [http://www.dislexia.portalpsi.com Portal da Dislexia]
* [http://www.ditt-online.org Dyslexia International - Tools and Technologies (DITT)]
* [http://www.kurzweiledu.com/ Kurzweil Educational Systems]
* [http://www.bookshare.org Bookshare.org]
* [http://www.rfbd.org/ Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic]
*[http://www.loc.gov/nls National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped]
* [http://www.testdyslexia.com/ Is it Dyslexia? Free Online Assessment]
* [http://www.getbrightstar.com/about_dyslexia.php About Dyslexia]
* [http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/academicsupport/screening/ Dyslexia Screening at the University of Nottingham]
* "[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/050408.html Is it possible to be dyslexic in Chinese?]" at [[Cecil Adams|Straight Dope]]
*"[http://www.ruleworks.co.uk/dyslexia The Dyslexia Guide]" - A to Z and FAQ info
*"[http://www.3dlearner.com/ 3D Learner Dyslexia Center]" - An alternate understanding of dyslexia and how to treat it.
==References==
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2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
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#{{Note|BPS2004Court}} [http://www.psychtesting.org.uk/hotissues.asp?id=83 British Psychological Society report on a British High Court judgement regarding the definition of dyslexia].
#{{Note|BerlinR1884}} Berlin, R. (1884). Uber Dyslexie. ''Archiv fur Psychiatrie'', '''15''', 276-278.
#{{Note|AAP1998}} [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;102/5/1217 Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and Vision: A Subject Review ] A report from American Academy Of Pediatrics reporting the complete lack of evidence for a link between visual problems and learning difficulties. Essentially, coloured lenses and other visual gimmicks and exercises should be avoided according to this report.
# {{Note|MITNews}} [http://www-tech.mit.edu/V121/N12/shorts2_12.12w.html News Briefs: Scientists Say Severity of Dyslexia Depends on Language]
# {{Note|37Symptoms}} [http://www.dyslexia.com/library/symptoms.htm 37 Common Characteristics of Dyslexia ] © 1992 by Ronald D. Davis.
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[[Image:Ltspkr.png]] '''[[Media:Nl-Delft.ogg|Delft]]''' is a city in [[South Holland]] (Zuid-Holland), the [[Netherlands]], located halfway between [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]] (Den Haag). Delft is also a [[municipality]]. It has 94,098 inhabitants ([[2005]]).
See also ''[[Delftware]]''.
==History==
[[Image:Flag of Delft.png|thumbnail|100px|Flag of Delft]]
[[Image:Wapenvandelft.jpg|thumbnail|100px|Arms of Delft]]
The city dates from the [[12th century]]. It received its [[City rights in the Netherlands|charter]] in [[1246]].
The association of the [[House of Orange]] with Delft began when [[William the Silent|William of Orange]] (Willem van Oranje), nicknamed William the Silent, took up residence there in [[1572]]. William was the leader at the time in the struggle against the Spanish, the [[Eighty Years' War]].
Delft was one of the leading cities of [[Holland]] and was equipped with the necessary [[city wall]]s to serve as a headquarters. When William was shot to death in [[1584]] by [[Balthazar Gerards]] in the hall of the Prinsenhof, the family's traditional burial place in [[Breda (Netherlands)|Breda]] was in the hands of the Spanish. He was buried in the [[Nieuwe Kerk (Delft)|Nieuwe Kerk]] (New Church), starting a tradition for the House of Orange that has continued to the present day.
In [[1654]], the city was badly damaged and over 100 people killed in the [[Delft Explosion]].
==Sights==
The city centre retains many old buildings, and many streets have [[canal]]s in the centre, inhabited by [[fish]] and [[plant]]s.
Historical buildings include:
* [[Oude Kerk]] (Old Church). [[Piet Pieterszoon Hein]] and [[Anthony van Leeuwenhoek]] are buried here.
* [[Nieuwe Kerk (Delft)|Nieuwe Kerk]] (New Church), constructed between [[1381]] and [[1496]]. It contains the Dutch royal family's burial vault, which between funerals is sealed with a 5000 kg cover stone.
* The [[Prinsenhof]] (Princes' Court), now a museum.
* City Hall.
* The Oostpoort ([[Eastern Gate (Delft)|Eastern gate]]), built around 1400. This is the only remaining gate of the old city walls.
* The Gemeenlandshuis or Huyterhuis, built in [[1505]], which houses the regional water authority Delfland since [[1645]].
==Culture==
[[Image:Jan Vermeer van Delft 001.jpg|180px|thumb|''View of Delft'', Johannes Vermeer, 1660-1661]]
Delft is well known for the [[Delftware|Delft pottery]] [[ceramic]] products which were styled on the imported [[China|Chinese]] [[porcelain]] of the [[17th century]]. The city had an early start in this area since it was a home port of the [[Dutch East India Company]].
The painter [[Johannes Vermeer]] ([[1632]]-[[1675]]) was born in Delft. Vermeer used Delft streets and home interiors as the subject or background of his paintings.
Several other famous painters lived and worked in Delft at that time, such as [[Pieter de Hooch|Pieter de Hoogh]], [[Carel Fabritius]] and [[Nicolaes Maes]]. They all were members of the [[Delft School]]. The Delft School is known for its images of domestic life, views of households, church interiors, courtyards, squares and the streets of Delft. The painters also produced pictures showing historic events, flower paintings, portraits for patrons and the court, and decorative pieces of art.
==Education==
[[Delft University of Technology]] (TU Delft) is the most important engineering school of the Netherlands. It was founded as an academy for civil engineering in [[1842]] by [[William_II_of_the_Netherlands|King William II]]. Today about 10,000 students are enlisted at TU Delft. This is about 10% of the population of Delft.
Also the [[UNESCO-IHE]] Institute for Water Education which provides [[postgraduate]] water education for people from [[developing country|developing countries]] is based here. It draws on the strong tradition in [[water management]] and [[hydraulic engineering]] of the university.
==Recreation==
In the East of Delft is the ''Delftse Hout'' (meaning "Delft Forest") recreation area with a [[lake]] called ''Grote Plas'', in which people can [[swimming|swim]].
A part of the lake shore consists of a narrow beach (lanes of sand and grass). The northeastern side of the beach is a [[nudism|nudist]] area. It is not separated from the clothed areas as in other places: the walking path around the lake, for general use, passes through it. In Delftse Hout there is also a dinner restaurant named "de Schaapskooi", private gardens, a campground |
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'''[[August 13]]''' is the 225th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (226th in [[leap year]]s), with 140 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[3114 BC]] - According to the Lounsbury corollation, the [[Maya calendar]] starts.
*[[523]] - [[Pope John I|John]] succeeds [[Hormisdas]] as [[Pope]].
*[[1099]] - [[Pope Paschal II|Paschal II]] elected [[Pope]].
*[[1315]] - [[Louis X of France]] marries Clemence d'Anjou.
*[[1326]] - [[Aradia de Toscano]], according to legend/folklore, is initiated into a [[Diana (goddess)|Dianic]] [[witchcraft]] cult, subsequently founds the tradition of [[Stregheria]] later known as the [[Malandanti]].
*[[1415]] - [[Henry V of England]] lands at [[Chef-en-Caux]], [[France]] with 8000 men.
*[[1516]] - [[Treaty of Noyon]] between [[France]] and [[Spain]] signed. In it, [[Francis I of France|Francis]] recognizes [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles]]'s claim to [[Naples]], and Charles recognizes Francis's claim to [[Milan]].
*[[1521]] - [[Tenochtitlán]] (present day [[Mexico City]]) falls to [[conquistador]] [[Hernán Cortés]]
*[[1536]] - Buddhist monks from Kyoto's [[Enryaku-ji|Enryaku Temple]] set fire to 21 [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]] temples throughout [[Kyoto]] in the Tenbun Hokke Disturbance. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: [[July 27]] [[1536]]).
*[[1553]] - [[Michael Servetus]] arrested by [[John Calvin]] in [[Geneva]] as a [[heresy|heretic]].
*[[1704]] - [[War of the Spanish Succession]]: [[Battle of Blenheim]] - English and Austrians victorious over French and Bavarians.
*[[1814]] - The [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814|Convention of London]], a [[treaty]] between the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]], is signed in [[London]].
*[[1905]] - [[Norway]] holds [[referendum]] in favour of dissolving the union with [[Sweden]].
*[[1913]] - [[Otto Witte]], an acrobat, is crowned King of [[Albania]].
*1913 - Invention of [[stainless steel]] by [[Harry Brearley]].
*[[1918]] - Women enlist in the [[United States Marine Corps]] for the first time. [[Opha Mae Johnson]] is the first woman to enlist.
*[[1920]] - [[Polish-Soviet War]]: [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]] begins, lasts till [[August 25]]. The [[Red Army]] is defeated.
*[[1923]] - First major sea-going ship arrives at [[Gdynia]], newly constructed [[Poland|Polish]] seaport.
*[[1937]] - [[Battle of Shanghai (1937)]] begins.
*[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Britain]] begins - The [[Luftwaffe]] launches a series of attacks on [[United Kingdom|British]] fighter bases and [[radar]] installations.
*[[1942]] - [[Walt Disney]]'s fifth [[animated feature]], ''[[Bambi (1942 movie)|Bambi]]'', premiers.
*[[1960]] - The [[Central African Republic]] declares independence from [[France]].
*[[1961]] - The [[German Democratic Republic]] closes the border between the eastern and western sectors of [[Berlin]], to thwart its inhabitants' attempts to escape to the [[Western countries|West]].
*[[1968]] - [[Alexandros Panagoulis]] attempts to assassinate the Greek dictator Colonel G. Papadopoulos in Varkiza, [[Athens]], [[Greece]].
*[[1987]] - U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] assumes responsibility for his role in the [[Iran-Contra scandal]].
*[[1996]] - [[Marc Dutroux]], his wife Michelle Martin, and Michel Lelièvre are arrested on suspicion of [[kidnapping]]. All are found guilty on [[June 22]], [[2004]], with sentences of life, 30, and 25 years, respectively.
*[[1997]] - ''[[South Park]]'' debuts on [[Comedy Central]].
*[[2004]] - The 28th [[Summer Olympics]] opens in [[Athens, Greece]].
*2004 - [[Hurricane Charley]], a Category 4 storm, strikes the [[Fort Myers, Florida]], area.
*2004 - [[Black Friday (Maldives)|Black Friday]] crackdown by [[National Security Service (Maldives)|NSS]] on a peaceful protest in the capital city of [[Maldives]], [[Malé]].
*2004 - 156 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] [[Tutsi]] refugees massacred at the [[Gatumba]] [[refugee camp]] in [[Burundi]].
*2004 - [[Adam Curry]]'s first [[Daily Source Code]] is created, launching [[podcasting]].
==Births==
*[[582]] - [[Arnulf of Metz]], French bishop and saint (d. [[640]])
*[[1311]] - King [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] and Leon (d. [[1350]])
*[[1313]] - [[Aradia de Toscano]], Italian insurrectionist, teacher, and witch
*[[1584]] - [[Theophilus Howard, 2nd Earl of Suffolk]], English politician (d. [[1640]])
*[[1625]] - [[Rasmus Bartholin]], Danish physician, mathematician, and physicist (d. [[1698]])
*[[1662]] - [[Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset]], English politician (d. [[1748]])
*[[1666]] - [[William Wotton]], English scholar (d. [[1727]])
*[[1700]] - [[Heinrich, count von Brühl]], German statesman (d. [[1763]])
*[[1717]] - [[Louis François I, Prince of Conti]], French military leader (d. [[1776]])
*[[1721]] - [[Jacques Lelong]], French bibliographer (b. [[1665]])
*[[1792]] - [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen]], queen of [[William IV of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1849]])
*[[1803]] - [[Vladimir Odoevsky]], Russian philosopher and writer (d. [[1869]])
*[[1814]] - [[Anders Jonas Ångström]], Swedish physicist (d. [[1874]])
*[[1818]] - [[Lucy Stone]], American suffragette (d. [[1893]])
*[[1819]] - [[George Gabriel Stokes]], French physicist (d. [[1903]])
*[[1820]] - Sir [[George Grove]], English music historian (d. [[1900]])
*[[1823]] - [[Goldwin Smith]], English-born historian and journalist (d. [[1910]])
*[[1851]] - [[Felix Adler]], German-born educator (d. [[1933]])
*[[1860]] - [[Annie Oakley]], American sharpshooter (d. [[1926]])
*[[1866]] - [[Giovanni Agnelli]], Italian industrialist (d. [[1945]])
*[[1872]] - [[Richard Willstätter]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1942]])
*[[1879]] - [[John Ireland]], English composer (d. [[1962]])
*[[1887]] - [[Julius Freed]], American inventor and banker (d. [[1952]])
*[[1888]] - [[John Logie Baird]], Scottish television pioneer (d. [[1946]])
*[[1895]] - [[Bert Lahr]], American actor (d. [[1967]])
*[[1899]] - [[Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock]], English film director (d. [[1980]])
*[[1902]] - [[Felix Wankel]], German engineer and inventor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1904]] - [[Charles 'Buddy' Rogers]], American actor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1907]] - Sir [[Basil Spence]], Scottish architect (d. [[1976]])
*[[1912]] - [[Ben Hogan]], American golfer (d. [[1997]])
*1912 - [[Salvador Luria]], Italian-born biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1991]])
*[[1913]] - [[Fred Davis]], English snooker player (d. [[1998]])
*[[1918]] - [[Frederick Sanger]], English chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Pirze]] laureate
*[[1919]] - [[George Shearing]], British musician
*[[1920]] - [[Neville Brand]], American actor (d. [[1992]])
*[[1926]] - [[Fidel Castro]], Cuban revolutionary and politician
*[[1930]] - [[Don Ho]], American musician
*[[1933]] - Doctor [[Joycelyn Elders]], [[United States Surgeon General]]
*[[1941]] - [[Erin Fleming]], Canadian actress (d. [[2003]])
*[[1944]] - [[Kevin Tighe]], American actor
*[[1948]] - [[Kathleen Battle]], American soprano
*[[1949]] - [[Bobby Clarke]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1951]] - [[Dan Fogelberg]], American singer
*[[1952]] - [[Herb Ritts]], American photographer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1959]] - [[Danny Bonaduce]], American actor
*[[1961]] - [[Sandra Miranda]], Puerto Rican Hair Stylist and Entrepeneur
*[[1967]] - [[Amélie Nothomb]], Belgian writer
*[[1969]] - [[Midori Ito]], Japanese figure skater
*[[1970]] - [[Matthew Hyson]], American professional wrestler
*1970 - [[Alan Shearer]], English footballer
*[[1971]] - |
y different countries.
Elsewhere in the [[New Testament]] Paul describes the experience as speaking in an "unknown tongue" (1 Cor 14:14-19), known as '''theopneustic glossolalia''', and discourages simultaneous speaking in tongues lest unbelievers think the assembled brethren "mad" (1 Cor 14:23, 27). Many [[Pentecostal]] groups teach that speaking in tongues is not exclusively xenoglossia.
Fundamental to [[Bible|Biblical]] [[Exegesis|interpretation]] is the appropriate transliteration of primitive terms, and just as the term "[[spirit]]" comes from "breath" or "vapour", the term "tongues of fire" is almost certainly a use of [[fire]] as a metaphor for markedly increased and radiant powers of speech during the Pentecost.
====Contemporary Christian glossolalia====
Some Christians have claimed that they have witnessed, or personally engaged in, "speaking in tongues". These claims have particular importance in the [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and in the [[Charismatic]] traditions. The belief that the gifts of the Apostles ([[Acts]] 2) continue to persist in the modern world forms a fundamental point of Pentecostal and Charismatic doctrine. In light of [[1 Corinthians]] 14:2 and 14:14, both Pentecostals and Charismatics believe that speaking in tongues is a form of praying in the spirit.
Other Christians hold that this religious glossolalia comprises, at least in some cases, ''bona fide'' language inspired by the [[Holy Spirit]]: utterances in a language usually unknown to both the speaker and to the listeners. More and more Christians are accepting glossolalia as seen in the fact that Pentecostalism is the fastest growing sect within Christianity, however, this view is more typically held in the conservative [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] or [[Fundamentalist_Christianity|fundamentalist]].
[[Charismatic]]/[[Pentecostal]] and [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Christians more readily agree that the original instances of Christian glossolalia, as reported in the book of Acts, exemplified ''bona fide'' instances of actual human languages. In some cases, listeners have been able to distinguish words that they have heard before although they could not speak the full language themselves.
Some [[Charismatic]] Christians identify three different activities that comprise "tongues". The "sign of tongues" refers to xenoglossia, in which listeners hear their native language by means of divine power. The "gift of tongues" refers to a belief that the [[Holy Spirit]] sometimes conveys a message through a believer engaged in glossolalia, which requires an interpretation for those hearing. Lastly "praying in the spirit" refers to a believer engaged in glossolalia as a private prayer between the believer and God.
''See also: [[Criticisms of Charismatic and Pentecostal belief]], [[Baptism of the Holy Spirit]]''
==Glossolalia in other religions==
Aside from Christians, certain religious groups also have been observed to practice some form of ''theopneustic glossolalia''.
Glossolalia is evident in the renowned ancient [[Oracle of Delphi]], whereby a priestess of the god [[Apollo]] (called a sibyl) speaks in strange utterances, supposedly through the spirit of Apollo in her, but possibly related to high levels of natural gas present in spring waters beneath the temple.
Certain [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] magical texts from the Roman period have written on them nonsense syllables like "t t t t t t t t n n n n n n n n n d d d d d d d..." etc. It is believed that these may be transliterations of the sorts of sounds made during glossolalia.
In the 19th century, [[Spiritism]] was developed into a religion of its own thanks to the work of [[Allan Kardec]] and the phenomenon was seen as one of the self-evident manifestations of [[Spirit]]s. Spiritists argued that some cases were actually cases of [[Xenoglossia]] (when one speaks in a language unknown to him). However, the importance attributed to it, as well as its frequency, has since decreased significantly. Present-day spiritists regard the phenomenon pointless, as it does not convey any intelligible message to those present.
Glossolalia has also been observed in [[shamanism]] and the [[Voodoo]] religion of [[Haiti]]; it can often be brought on by the ingestion of [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic drug]]s or [[entheogen]]s such as [[Psychedelic mushrooms|Psilocybe mushrooms]].
==See also==
*[[Biblical hermeneutics]]
*[[Covenant theology]]
*[[Dispensationalism]]
*[[Pentecostalism]]
*[[Charismatics]]
*[[Grammatical-historical]]
*[[Philip K. Dick]]
*[[Snow Crash]]
==External links==
* [http://gospel-herald.com/noorbergen/glossolalia_book_1/glossolalia_index1.htm Glossolalia, an online book by Rene Noorbergen]
* [http://skepdic.com/glossol.html A Skeptic's Perspective] The Skeptic's Dictionary on Glossolalia
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/31-35/31-1-05.htm Glossolalia as Foreign Language] by D. William Faupel
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20041010115802/http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/gloss.html UbuWeb Ethnopoetics: Glossolalia]
* [http://www.bible411.com/glossolalia/ Bible411.com on Glossolalia] (a skeptical critique from a Christian point of view)
==Biblical references to speaking in tongues==
* Isaiah 28:11 (1 Corinthians 14:21)
* Mark 16:17
* Acts 2:4-15
* Acts 10:44-48
* Acts 19:2-6
* 1 Corinthians 12:8-11
* 1 Corinthians 13:1
* 1 Corinthians 14:1-40
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]
[[da:Tungetale]]
[[de:Zungenrede]]
[[es:Glosolalia]]
[[fr:Glossolalie]]
[[ko:방언 (종교)]]
[[id:Bahasa Roh]]
[[ia:Glossolalia]]
[[it:Glossolalia]]
[[lt:Glosolalija]]
[[nl:Glossolalie]]
[[no:Tungetale]]
[[pl:Glosolalia]]
[[pt:Glossolalia]]
[[ru:Глоссолалия]]
[[fi:Kielilläpuhuminen]]
[[sv:Tungomålstalande]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Golf</title>
<id>12328</id>
<revision>
<id>42146204</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:06:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.107.196.107</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Anatomy of a golf course */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--
A NOTE TO CONTRIBUTORS
Thank you for contributing your knowledge to Wikipedia.
Golf is a complex topic, and this article is organised in a way that should make it as easy as possible for the reader. PLEASE TAKE THE TROUBLE TO READ THE ARTICLE BEFORE EDITING IT, and please try to find out into which section your contribution belongs. Often, a particular piece of information will already be present and it will be better to rephrase or expand it instead of adding it anew.
Because readers with no prior knowledge of golf will read this article, it explains important concepts in a logical order. For example, "anatomy of a golf course" is the first section because it explains many terms that are necessary for understanding the "play of the game", which in turn lays the ground for "handicap systems". Similarly, "types of shots" comes before "golf clubs" because it defines rthe shots for which the specific clubs are used.
There are many sub-topics linked from here, and as the article is already rather long, it might often be better to expand a related article rather than [[Golf]].
Thank you for your consideration, and happy editing.
-->
:''This article is about the game of golf. For other meanings, see [[Golf (disambiguation)]]. Putting can also refer to [[shot put]].''
'''Golf''' (''gowf'' in [[Scots language|Scots]]) is a [[game]] where individual players or teams hit a [[golf ball|ball]] into a [[hole]] using various [[golf club (equipment)|clubs]], and is one of the few [[ball games]] that does not use a fixed standard playing area. It is defined in the ''Rules of Golf'' as ''"playing a ball with a club from the teeing ground into the hole by a stroke or successive strokes in accordance with the Rules."''
Golf originated in [[Scotland]] and has been played for several centuries in the [[British Isles]]. The oldest course in the world is The Old Links at [[Musselburgh]]. Golf has been played on Musselburgh Links since 1672. Although often viewed as an [[elite]] pastime, golf is increasingly popular.
{| align=right
|[[Image:Spanish-Bay-First-Tee.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Tee for the first hole at [[The Links at Spanish Bay]]]]
|-
|[[image:golf.bunker.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bunkers at Filton Golf Club, Bristol, England]]
|}
==Anatomy of a golf course==
Golf is played on a tract of land designated as ''the course''. The course consists of a series of ''holes''. A ''hole'' means both the hole in the ground into which the ball is played (also called the ''cup''), as well as the total distance from the ''tee'' (a pre-determined area from where a ball is first hit) to the ''green'' (the area surrounding the actual hole in the ground). Most golf courses consist of 9 or 18 holes. (The "[[nineteenth hole]]" is the colloquial term for the bar/grill at a club house).
The first stroke on each hole is done from the ''tee'' (officially, ''teeing ground''), where the grass is well tended to facilitate the ''tee shot''. After teeing off, the player hits the ball from the ''fairway'' (where the grass is cut so low that most balls can be easily played) or from the ''rough'' (grass cut much longer than fairway grass, or which may be uncut) until the ball comes to rest in the cup. Many holes include ''hazards'', which may be of two types: water hazards (lakes, rivers, etc.) and bunkers. Special rules apply to playing balls that come to rest in a hazard, which make it undesirable to play a ball into one. For example, in a hazard, a player must not touch the ground with his club prior to playing a ball, not even for a practice swing. A ball in any type of hazard may be played as it lies without pe |
der]]s who are better with the bat might also have averages in this range. This is also the desirable range for [[wicket-keeper]]s, though some fall short and make up for it with fielding skill.
*All-rounders who are more prominent [[Bowler (cricket)|bowler]]s than batsmen typically average something between 15 and 30.
*15 and under is typical for specialist bowlers.
Career records for batting average are usually subject to a minimum qualification of at least 20 [[innings]] played. This is because it is easy to sustain an artificially high average over a career spanning few matches. Under this qualification, the highest [[Test cricket|Test]] batting average belongs to [[Australia]]'s [[Donald Bradman|Sir Donald Bradman]], with 99.94. Given that a career batting average over 50 is exceptional, and that only [[List of Test cricket records#Highest career average|three other players]] have averages (barely) over 60, this is an outstanding statistic. The fact that Bradman's average is so far above that of ''any'' other cricketer has led several statisticians to argue that, statistically at least, he was the greatest sportsman in any sport.
Batting averages in [[One-day International]] (ODI) cricket tend to be lower than in Test cricket, because of the need to score runs more quickly and the lesser emphasis on building a large innings.
Some cricket followers have noted that the batting average is inflated by the number of not-outs (innings in which the batsman has not been dismissed), and argue that a better measure of a batsman's quality is the number of runs scored divided by the number of innings played. This proposed statistic has never been given an accepted name and is not commonly used by cricket fans or commentators. It may have the disadvantage that it would ''deflate'' the apparent quality of lower-order batsmen who are often not out but are rarely given the chance to bat for long.
A different, and more recently developed, statistic which is also used to gauge the effectiveness of batsmen is the [[strike rate]]. It measures a different concept however - how quickly the batsman scores - so does not supplant the role of batting average.
===See also===
* [[Cricket statistics]]
==Baseball==
{{sabermetric | formula = <math>AVG=\frac{H}{AB}</math>}}
In baseball, the '''batting average''' is defined as the ratio of [[Hit (baseball statistics)|hits]] to [[at bat]]s.
[[Henry Chadwick]], an [[England|English]] statistician raised on cricket, was an influential figure in the early history of baseball. In the late [[19th century]] he adapted the concept behind the cricket batting average to devise a similar statistic for baseball. Rather than take the naive approach and simply copy cricket's formulation of [[run (baseball)|run]]s scored divided by [[out (baseball)|out]]s, he realised that hits divided by at bats would provide a better measure of individual batting ability. This is because of an intrinsic difference between the two sports; scoring runs in cricket is dependent almost only on one's own batting skill, whereas in baseball it is largely dependent on having other good hitters in your team. Chadwick noted that hits are independent of team mates' skills, so used this as the basis for the baseball batting average. His reason for using at bats rather than outs is less obvious, but it leads to the intuitive idea of the batting average being a percentage reflecting how often a batter gets on base, whereas hits divided by outs is not as simple to interpret in real terms.
In modern times, a [[season (sport)|season]] batting average higher than .300 is considered to be good, and an average higher than .400 a nearly unachievable goal. The last player to do so, with enough at bats to qualify for the batting championship, was [[Ted Williams]] of the [[Boston Red Sox]], who hit .406 in [[1941]].
[[Ty Cobb]] holds the record for highest career batting average. Some hold his lifetime average as .366 others as .367, 8-9 points higher than [[Rogers Hornsby]] who has the second highest average in history at .358. Cobb's career batting average record will probably never be broken, since even the best of modern hitters find it difficult to hit higher than .360 in more than one or two seasons, let alone consistently throughout their entire careers.
For non-pitchers, a batting average below .250 is poor, and one below .200 is totally unacceptable. This latter level is known as "The [[Mendoza Line]]", named either for [[Mario Mendoza]], a stellar defensive shortstop who hit .215 during his Major League career, or for Minnie Mendoza, also a shortstop, who was a long-time minor-league player who finally reached the majors briefly in [[1970]] at the age of 36 and hit .188 in 16 games. The league batting average in Major League Baseball for [[2004 in baseball|2004]] - the most recent completed season - was just higher than .266, and the all-time league average is between .260 and .275.
The [[Major League Baseball]] batting average championship (often referred to as "the Batting Title") is awarded to the player in each league who has the highest batting average with at least 3.1 [[plate appearance]]s per game that his team has played during a season. Ty Cobb also holds the record for most Batting Titles, winning 12 in his pro career.
[[Sabermetrics]] considers batting average a weak measure of performance because it does not correlate as well as other measures to runs scored. Batting average does not take into account walks or power, whereas newer statistics like [[slugging percentage]] have been specifically designed to measure such concepts. Others would say it is the most important measure of the performance of a hitter, since it takes into account his consistency and his ability to perform as an individual independent of what his team mates have done. measuring individual performance rather than runs scored was in fact Chadwick's goal in devising the statistic.
In [[1887 in baseball|1887]], [[Major League Baseball]] counted [[Base on balls|bases on balls]] as [[Hit (baseball)|hits]]. The result was skyrocketed batting averages, including some near .500, and the experiment was abandoned the following season.
===The decline of the .400 hitter===
A point of interest to baseball followers is that hitting .400 was special and rare feat in the early 20th century. It was accomplished only 13 times between 1900-1941 by 8 players, but has not occurred at all since 1941. Many people have expounded theories on why this is the case.
One theory of particular interest was proposed by biologist and baseball fan [[Stephen Jay Gould]], who applied his knowledge of biological [[statistical population|population]] statistics to the question. Many scientists believe that the range of a given species will tend to decrease through time. That is, the average difference between the tallest and shortest members of a species will tend to decline through time; the difference between the fastest-running and the slowest members will tend to decline; and so on.
Gould argued in his book ''Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin'' (published as ''Life's Grandeur: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin'' in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]]) that the evolution of baseball batting averages has mimicked this behaviour. In other words, the difference between the strongest hitters and the weakest hitters has declined as a natural consequence of the improvement of baseball skills over time. Not only has the .400 hitter disappeared; so has the .150 hitter. Thus the evolution of baseball players can be said to mimic other [[evolution|evolutionary]] groups.
Although Gould makes a persuasive argument, his theory does not account for the fact that the highest Test cricket batting averages have remained around 60 since the 19th century (with the single notable exception of Bradman), and the lowest around 10. One may conclude that the evolution of sports statistics over time relies on more factors than simple population statistics.
It is also important to note that pitching strategies have changed dramatically since the era of the .400 hitter. Since the 1950s, pitchers have increasingly tried to strike out hitters, rather than get the hitter to put the ball in play. Hitters also more frequently try to hit home runs, which leads to more strikeouts, but in many cases greater offensive production. Also, it is more acceptable to pitch around strong hitters, and to stop throwing strikes after the first two are thrown in a plate appearance, to try to get the hitter to swing at a ball. Lastly, managers now use many more relievers in an average game. This means that hitters see the same pitcher fewer times in a game (losing the advantage of familiarity), and are more likely to face a fresh pitcher, and even a specialist pitcher brought into a game just to get that specific hitter out.
In general, all of these factors either increase strikeout or walk totals, both of which make it much more difficult to achieve a high ratio of hits to at bats, relative to earlier eras of baseball.
===See also===
*[[Baseball statistics]]
==Other contexts==
Following from usage in cricket and baseball, '''batting average''' has come to be used for other statistical measures of performance.
An example is the [[Internet Archive]], which uses the term in ranking [[uploading and downloading|downloads]]. Its "batting average" indicates the [[correlation]] between views of a description page of a downloadable item, and the number of actual downloads of the item. This avoids the effect of popular downloads by volume swamping potentially more focused and useful downloads, producing an arguably more useful ranking.
[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
[[Category:Cricket terminology]]
[[Category:Batting (cricket)]]
[[Category:Cricket records and statistics]]
[[ja:打率]]
[[zh:打擊率]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
|
n individuals to own guns or other weapons." [http://www.aclu.org/PolicePractices/PolicePractices.cfm?ID=9621&c=25] The ACLU has generally avoided taking gun-related cases, and this has occasioned criticism by those who consider their interpretation of the amendment to be far "softer" than its "hard-line" stances on other parts of the law.
The ACLU has been noted for vigorously defending the right to express unpopular, controversial, and extremist opinions on both the left and right. Some have expressed the view that the ACLU sometimes plays a role comparable to that played by [[public defender]]s, helping to ensure that even unpopular defendants receive due process.
==Notable cases==
Since its founding, the ACLU has been involved in many cases (see the [[List of ACLU Cases]] for a fuller list). A few of the most significant are discussed here.
In 1925, the ACLU persuaded [[John T. Scopes]] to defy [[Tennessee]]'s anti-[[evolution]] law in a court test. [[Clarence Darrow]], a member of the ACLU National Committee, headed Scopes' legal team. The ACLU lost the case and Scopes was fined $100. The Tennessee Supreme Court later upheld the law but overturned the conviction on a technicality.
In 1942, a few months after the [[Japan]]ese attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], the ACLU affiliates on the West Coast became some of the sharpest critics of the government's policy on enemy aliens and U.S. citizens descended from enemy ancestry. This included the relocation of [[Japanese American Internment|Japanese-American citizens]], [[internment]] of aliens, prejudicial curfews (''[[Hirabayashi v. United States]]'', 1943), and the like. However, the national board of the ACLU dodged the issue, taking a mildly pro-government position: it accepted the internment in principle and only demanded that relocatees, once "cleared" of any suspicion of wrongdoing, be released from the concentration camps in which they were held.
<!--missing blurb on its 1947 case which brought the idea of the separation of church and state into american legal practice-->
In 1954, the ACLU played a role in the case of ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'', which led to the ban on segregation in U.S. [[public school]]s.
In 1973, the organization was the first major national organization to call for the [[impeachment]] of President [[Richard M. Nixon]], giving as reasons the violation by the Nixon administration of civil liberties. That same year, the ACLU was involved in the cases of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' and ''[[Doe v. Bolton]]'', in which the Supreme Court held that the constitutional right of privacy extended to women seeking [[abortion]]s.
In 1977, the ACLU filed suit against the Village of [[Skokie, Illinois]], seeking an injunction against the enforcement of three town ordinances outlawing [[Nazi]] parades and demonstrations (Skokie had a large [[Jew]]ish population). A federal district court struck down the ordinances in a decision eventually affirmed by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]]. The ACLU's action in this case led to the resignation of about 15 percent of the membership from the organization (25 percent in [[Illinois]]), especially of [[Judaism|Jewish]] members. A cutback in its activities was avoided by a special mailing which elicited $500,000 in contributions.
In his February 23, 1978 decision overturning the town ordinances, US District Court Judge Bernard M. Decker described the principle involved in the case as follows: "It is better to allow those who preach racial hatred to expend their venom in rhetoric rather than to be panicked into embarking on the dangerous course of permitting the government to decide what its citizens may say and hear ... The ability of American society to tolerate the advocacy of even hateful doctrines ... is perhaps the best protection we have against the establishment of any Nazi-type regime in this country."
In the 1980s, the ACLU filed suit to challenge the [[Arkansas]] 1981 [[creationism]] statute, which required the teaching in public schools of the biblical account of creation as a scientific alternative to evolution. The law was declared unconstitutional by a Federal District Court.
==Funding==
The ACLU receives funding from a large number of sources; the distribution and amount of funding for each chapter varies from state to state. To take one particular example, the ACLU of [[New Jersey]] reported $1.2 million in income to both the ACLU-NJ and its affiliated tax-exempt foundation in the the 2005 fiscal year. Of that income, 46% came from contributions, 19% came from membership dues, 18% came from court awarded attorney fees, 12% came from grants, 4% came from investment income and the remainder from other sources. Its expenses in the same period were $800,000, of which 12% went to administration and management. Smaller chapters with fewer resources, such as that in [[Nebraska]], receive subsidies from the national ACLU [http://www.aclunebraska.org/faq.htm#10].
The ACLU and its affiliated tax-exempt foundation receive annual support from the [[Ford Foundation|Ford]], [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]], [[Carnegie Foundation|Carnegie]], [[Field Foundation|Field]], [[Tides Foundation|Tides]], [[Gill Foundation|Gill]], [[Arcus Foundation|Arcus]], [[Horizons Fund|Horizons]], and other foundations. However, recently the ACLU rejected $1.5 million from both the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations because it viewed a clause in the donation agreement stipulating that "none of the money would go to underwriting terrorism or other unacceptable activities" as a threat to civil liberties. The ACLU also withdrew from a federal charity drive, losing an estimated $500,000, taking a stand against the attached condition that it would "not knowingly hire anyone on terrorism watch lists." Other key donors include Peter B. Lewis (an insurance magnate) [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/08/national/08aclu.html].
It is sometimes asserted that the ACLU collects legal fees in the event that they are involved on the winning side of a legal judgment [http://stoptheaclu.com/archives/2005/08/05/christian-group-asks-congress-to-investigate-aclu-for-frivolous-dangerous-lawsuits/]. As described in greater detail below, while there are restrictions on how fees may be collected, the ACLU has in a number of cases indeed received substantial monetary awards.
The awarding of legal fees to groups like the ACLU in civil rights cases remains highly controversial for some. The Public Expression of Religion Act of 2005, for example, introduced by Representative [[John N. Hostettler]], seeks to alter prior civil rights legislation to prevent monetary judgements in the particular case of violations of church-state separation [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.R.2679:], and groups such as the [[American Legion]] have taken stances opposing the ACLU's right to collect fees under such legislation [http://www.legion.org/word/aclu.rtf]. On the other hand, the recovery of legal fees by non-profit legal advocacy organizations is common practice across the political spectrum; the [[pro-life]] [[Thomas More Law Center]], for example, generally seeks, and is successful in, recovery of legal fees in the same manner as the ACLU [http://www.thomasmore.org/news.html?NewsID=227], [http://www.thomasmore.org/news.html?NewsID=383].
In many cases however, due to the nature of its legal work, the ACLU is involved in litigation against governmental bodies, which are generally protected from adverse monetary judgements: ''i.e.'', a town, state or Federal agency may be required to change its laws or behave differently, but not to pay monetary damages except by an explicit statutory waiver [http://www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/case/959/]; [http://www.chainyounger.com/pa_cases_against_government.html#1].
In some cases, the law does permit plantiffs who successfully sue government agencies to collect damages. In particular, a 1976 Federal law, the Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Awards Act, among other similar laws, does leave the government liable in some civil rights cases. In many cases where the ACLU represents plantiffs, the case is handled not by ACLU attorneys, but by sympathetic law firms who provide their services ''[[pro bono]]''. In these cases, the law firm may sue for legal fees; in such circumstances the money would be awarded to the firm, and not the ACLU. [http://www.stcynic.com/blog/archives/2005/08/volokh_on_stopt.php]
These caveats aside, the ACLU and its state chapters do, in cases where they provide legal services and laws permit government liability, share in monetary judgements against government agencies. It shared, for example, with other plantiffs in a $156,960 judgement against the State of [[Nebraska]] in a gay marriage case now on appeal [http://www.journalstar.com/articles/2005/08/02/local/doc42efae0b8e7f7297850171.txt].
A separate example involves a string of church-state cases. The Georgia chapter was awarded $150,000 in fees after suing a county courthouse for the removal of a [[Ten Commandments]] display [http://www.acluga.org/press.releases/0507/barrow.county.html]; a second Ten Commandments case in the State, in a different county, led to a $74,462 judgment [http://www.acluga.org/docket.html]. Meanwhile, the State of [[Tennessee]] was required to pay $50,000, the State of [[Alabama]] $175,000, and the State of [[Kentucky]] $121,500, in similar Ten Commandments cases [http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/07/09/loc_kytencommandments09.html], [http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_10cb.htm].
The State of [[Kentucky]] was in fact required by courts to pay the ACLU nearly $700,000 in legal fees in the years 1994-2003, mainly for passing abortion and state religion-related laws later struck down by courts [http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/07/09/loc_kytencommandments09.html]. Ref. [http://www.reclaimamerica.org/Pages/News/newspage.asp?story=285 |
'true confession' style [[pulp magazines]] like ''True Story'', van Vogt decided to switch to writing something he enjoyed, [[science fiction]].
Van Vogt's first published SF story, "Black Destroyer" (''[[Analog Science Fiction|Astounding Science Fiction]]'', [[July]] [[1939]]), was inspired by ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' by [[Charles Darwin]]. The story depicted a fierce, carnivorous [[Extraterrestrial_life|alien]] stalking the crew of an exploration spaceship. It was the cover story of the issue of ''Astounding'' which ushered in the Golden Age of science fiction. The story became an instant classic and eventually served as the inspiration for a number of science fiction movies. In 1950 it was combined with "War of Nerves" ([[1950]]), "Discord in Scarlet" (1939) and "M33 in Andromeda" ([[1943]]) to form the novel ''[[The Voyage of the Space Beagle]]'' ([[1950]])
Many fans of that era would have named van Vogt, [[Robert A. Heinlein]], and [[Isaac Asimov]] as the three greatest science fiction writers.
In [[1941]] van Vogt decided to become a full time writer, quitting his job at the Canadian Department of National Defence. Extremely prolific for a few years, van Vogt wrote a large number of [[short stories]]. In the 1950s, many of them were retrospectively patched together into novels, or "[[fixup|fixups]]" as he called them, a term which entered the vocabulary of science fiction criticism. Sometimes this was successful (''[[The War against the Rull]]'') while other times the disparate stories thrown together made for a less coherent plot (''[[Quest for the Future]]'').
One of van Vogt's best novels of this period is ''[[Slan]]'', which appeared in ''Astounding Sicence Fiction'' in [[1940]]. Using what became one of van Vogt's recurring themes, it told the story of a 9-year-old [[superman]] living in a world in which his kind are slain by [[Homo sapiens]].
==A post-war philosopher==
In [[1944]], van Vogt moved to [[Hollywood, California]], where his writing took on new dimensions after [[World War II]]. Van Vogt was always interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge (akin to modern [[meta-systems]]), the characters in his very first story used a system called 'Nexialism' to analyze the alien's behaviour, and he became interested in the [[General Semantics]] of [[Alfred Korzybski]]. And he was profoundly affected by revelations of [[totalitarian]] [[police state|police states]] that emerged after [[World War II]]. He wrote a mainstream novel that was set in Communist [[China]], ''The Angry Man'' ([[1962]]); he said that prior to this he had read 100 books about China.
He subsequently wrote three novels merging these overarching themes, ''[[The World of Null-A]]'' and ''[[The Pawns of Null-A]]'' in the late [[1940s]], and ''[[Null-A Three]]'' in the early [[1980s]]. ''Null-A'', or [[non-Aristotelian logic]], refers to the capacity for, and practice of, using [[intuitive]], inductive reasoning ([[fuzzy logic]]), rather than reflexive, or conditioned, deductive logic.
[[Image:Linn.jpg|thumb|220px|First edition of ''[[The Wizard of Linn]]'' ([[1956]])]]
Van Vogt systematized his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved. Several of his stories hinge upon temporal [[Conundrum|conundrums]], a favorite theme. He stated that he acquired many of his writing techniques from books on writing by [[Thomas Uzzell]].
He said many of his ideas came from dreams, and indeed his stories at times had the incoherence of dreams, but at their best, as in the fantasy novel ''[[The Book of Ptath]]'', his works had all the vision and power a dream can impart. Throughout his writing life he arranged to be awakened every 90 minutes during his sleep period so he could write down his dreams.
In the [[1950s]], van Vogt briefly became involved in [[L. Ron Hubbard|L. Ron Hubbard's]] [[Dianetics]]. Van Vogt operated a storefront, for the secular precursor to Hubbard's [[Scientology]] [[sect]], in the [[Los Angeles]] area for a time, before winding up at odds with Hubbard and his methods. His writing more or less stopped for some years, a period in which he bitterly claimed to have been harassed and intimidated by Hubbard's followers. In this period he limited to collect old short stories to form notable [[fixup|fixups]] like: ''[[The Mixed Men]]'' ([[1952]]), ''[[The War Against the Rull]]'' ([[1959]]), ''[[The Beast]]'' ([[1963]]) and the two novels of the "Linn" cyle, which were inspired by fall of the [[Roman Empire]]. He resumed writing again in the [[1960s]], mainly through [[Frederik Pohl]]'s invitation, while remaining in Hollywood with his second wife, Lydia Bereginsky, who took care of him through his declining years. In this period his stories were born since the very beginning as whole novels, but in general show van Vogt's difficulties in keeping pace with the evolution of science fiction.
==Recognition==
In [[1946]], van Vogt and his first wife, [[Edna Mayne Hull]], were co-Guests of Honor at the fourth [[World Science Fiction Convention]],
In [[1980]], van Vogt received a "Casper Award" (precursor to the Canadian [[Aurora Award]]s) for Lifetime Achievement. In [[1995]] he was awarded the [[Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award]]. In [[1996]], van Vogt was recognized on two occasions: the [[World Science Fiction Convention]] presented him with a Special Award ''for six decades of golden age science fiction'', and the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame]] included him among its initial four inductees.
===Critical praise===
Famous science fiction author [[Philip K. Dick]] has said that van Vogt's stories spurred his interest in science fiction with their strange sense of the unexplained, that something more was going on than the protagonists realized.
In a review of ''Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt'', science fiction writer [[Paul Di Filippo]] said:
:''Van Vogt knew precisely what he was doing in all areas of his fiction writing. There's hardly a wasted word in his stories... His plots are marvels of interlocking pieces, often ending in real surprises and shocks, genuine paradigm shifts, which are among the hardest conceptions to depict. And the intellectual material of his fictions, the conceits and tossed-off observations on culture and human and alien behavior, reflect a probing mind...Each tale contains a new angle, a unique slant, that makes it stand out.'' <br> (DiFilippo, Paul, (2003) ''[http://www.scifi.com/sfw/issue326/books2.html Off The Shelf]'', Retrieved [[9 January]] [[2003]]).
===Criticism===
Van Vogt's style has been criticized as confused and incoherent. Writer and critic [[Damon Knight]] wrote in [[1945]] that "van Vogt is not a giant as often mantained. He's only a pygmy using a giant typewriter".
His technical knowledge seems questionable. Examples:
*In ''Cosmic Encounter'', one result of the crash of an alien spaceship is the generation of a temperature of minus 50,000 degrees, well below [[absolute zero]].
*The title of his story collection ''M33 in Andromeda'' is incorrect; M33 is in [[Triangulum]], M31 (the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]) is in [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]].
*The popular short story ''Vault of the Beast'' hinges on the concept of the largest [[prime number]]; it was demonstrated as far back as [[Ancient Greece]] that the series of primes is infinite.
==Bibliography==
===Novels===
* ''[[Slan]]'' ([[1946]])
* ''[[The Book of Ptath]]'' ([[1947]])
* ''[[The World of Null-A]]'' ([[1948]])
* ''[[The House That Stood Still]]'' ([[1950]])
* ''[[Masters of Time]]'' ([[1950]])
* ''[[The Voyage of the Space Beagle]]'' ([[1950]])
* ''[[The Weapon Shops of Isher]]'' (1951)
* ''[[Mission to the Stars]]'' ([[1952]])
* ''[[The Universe Maker]]'' ([[1953]])
* ''[[Planets for Sale]]'' ([[1954]]) (with [[Edna Mayne Hull]])
* ''[[The Players of Null-A]]'' ([[1956]]) also published as ''The Pawns of Null-A''
* ''[[The Mind Cage]]'' ([[1957]])
* ''[[Empire of the Atom]]'' ([[1957]])
* ''[[Siege of the Unseen]]'' ([[1959]])
* ''[[The War against the Rull]]'' ([[1959]])
* ''[[Earth's Last Fortress]]'' ([[1960]])
* ''[[The Wizard of Linn]]'' ([[1962]])
* ''[[The Violent Man]]'' ([[1962]])
* ''[[The Beast (novel)|The Beast]]'' ([[1963]])
* ''[[The Twisted Men]]'' ([[1964]])
* ''[[Rogue Ship]]'' ([[1965]])
* ''[[The Winged Man]]'' ([[1966]])
* ''[[Moonbeast]]'' ([[1969]])
* ''[[The Silkie]]'' ([[1969]])
* ''[[Children of Tomorrow]]'' ([[1970]])
* ''[[Quest for the Future]]'' ([[1970]])
* ''[[The Battle of Forever]]'' ([[1971]])
* ''[[More Than Superhuman]]'' ([[1971]])
* ''[[The Darkness on Diamondia]]'' ([[1972]])
* ''[[Future Glitter]]'' ([[1973]])
* ''[[The Man with a Thousand Names]]'' ([[1974]])
* ''[[The Secret Galactics]]'' ([[1974]]); also published as ''Earth Factor X''
* ''[[Supermind (novel)|Supermind]]'' ([[1974]])
* ''[[The Anarchistic Colossus]]'' ([[1977]])
* ''[[The Enchanted Village]]'' ([[1979]]) (chapbook)
* ''[[Renaissance (novel)|Renaissance]]'' ( [[1979]])
* ''[[Cosmic Encounter (novel)|Cosmic Encounter]]'' ([[1980]])
* ''[[Computerworld (novel)|Computerworld]]'' ([[1983]])
* ''[[Computer Eye]]'' ([[1983]])
* ''[[Null-A Three]]'' ([[1985]])
* ''[[To Conquer Kiber]]'' ([[1987]])
===Collections===
* ''M33 in Andromeda'' ([[1943]])
* ''Out of the Unknown'' ([[1948]]) (with [[Edna Mayne Hull]])
* ''Away and Beyond'' ([[1952]])
* ''Destination: Universe!'' ([[1952]])
* ''The Far-Out Worlds of A. E. van Vogt'' ([[1956]])
* ''Monsters'' ([[1965]])
* ''The Van Vogt Omnibus'' (omnibus - [[1967]])
* ''The Sea Thing and Other Stories'' ([[1970]])
* ''The Proxy Intelligence and Other Mind Benders'' ([[1971]])
* ''The Van Vogt Omnibus 2'' (omnibus - [[1971]])
* ''The Book of Van Vogt'' ([[1972]])
* ''Far Out Worlds of Van Vogt'' ([[1973]])
* ''The Three Eyes of Ev |
ke or bun, often filled with cream.
Cookies were first made from little pieces of [[cake]] batter that were cooked separately in order to test oven temperature. The ancestor of the cookie is said to have come from [[Iran|Persia]] in the 1600s according to many sources. [http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/CookieHistory.htm (example)] [http://www.kitchenproject.com/history/cookies.htm 2]
==Recipe==
Cookies can be baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, depending on the type of cookie. Some cookies are not cooked at all. Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including [[sugar]]s, [[spice]]s, [[chocolate]], [[butter]], [[peanut butter]], [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s or dried [[fruit]]s.
A general theory of cookies may be formulated this way. Despite their descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base (in the case of cakes called 'batter') as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles &ndash; responsible for a cake's fluffiness &ndash; to form better. In the cookie the agent of cohesion has become some variation of the theme of oil. Oils, be they in the form of butter, egg yolks, vegetable oils or lard are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is far denser after removal from the oven.
Oils in baked cakes do not behave as water in the finished product. Rather than evaporating and thickening the mixture, they remain, saturating the bubbles of escaped gasses from what little water there might have been in the eggs, if added, and the [[carbon dioxide]] released by heating the [[baking powder]]. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not sink into it.
Obviously there is some variation in that some cookies are purposely undercooked to retain a water-moist center.
==Classification of cookies==
[[Image:cookieplateful.jpg|thumb|300px|Eight types of cookies|left]]
Cookies are broadly classified according to how they are formed, including at least these categories:
* ''Drop cookies'' are made from a relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls onto the baking sheet. During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten. [[Chocolate chip cookie]]s are an example of drop cookies.
* ''Refrigerator cookies'' are made from a stiff dough that is refrigerated to become even stiffer. The dough is typically shaped into cylinders which are sliced into round cookies before baking.
* ''Molded cookies'' are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie shapes by hand before baking. [[Snickerdoodle|Snickerdoodles]] are an example of molded cookies.
* ''Rolled cookies'' are made from a stiffer dough that is rolled out and cut into shapes with a [[cookie cutter]]. [[Gingerbread man|Gingerbread men]] are an example.
* ''Pressed cookies'' are made from a soft dough that is extruded from a [[cookie press]] into various decorative shapes before baking. [[Spritzgebäck]] are an example of a pressed cookie.
* ''Bar cookies'' consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed into a pan (sometimes in multiple layers), and cut into cookie-sized pieces after baking. [[Chocolate brownies|Brownies]] are an example of a batter-type bar cookie, while [[Rice Krispie treats]] are a bar cookie that doesn't require baking, perhaps similar to a [[cereal bar]]. In [[British English]], bar cookies are known as "tray bakes".
Commercially-produced cookies include many varieties of ''sandwich cookies'' filled with [[marshmallow]], [[jam]], or [[icing (food)|icing]], as well as cookies covered with [[chocolate]] which may more closely resemble a type of [[confectionery]].
==Biscuits (cookies) in the United Kingdom==
A basic biscuit (cookie) recipe includes [[flour]], [[shortening]] (often lard), [[baking powder]] or soda, [[milk]] ([[buttermilk]] or sweet milk) and [[sugar]]. Common savoury variations involve substituting [[sugar]] with an ingredient such as [[cheese]]. (In the U.S., these are called "[[cheese straws]]".)
One of the most popular biscuits is the Jammie Dodger, two sweet biscuits sandwiching a jam filling. The jammie dodger most commonly has a heart shaped hole in the middle. The biscuits in the UK are mainly madeby Burton's Foods who also produce the popular Wagon Wheel, two sandwiched biscuits filled with marshmallow and coated in milk chocolate.
===Varieties===
Common biscuit (cookie) types include:
<p></p>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
*[[Bath Oliver]] biscuits
*[[Bourbon biscuit]]s
*[[Cream cracker]]s
*[[Custard cream]]s
*[[Broken biscuits]]
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
*[[Digestive biscuit]]s
*[[Chocolate digestive]]s
*[[Hobnobs]]
*[[Lincoln biscuit]]s
*[[Nice biscuit]]s
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
*[[Ginger biscuits]]
*[[Rich tea]]
*[[Shortbread]]
<p></p>
|}
==See also==
* [[American and British English differences]]
* [[List of brands of biscuit|List of brands of UK biscuits (cookies)]]
* [[Biscotti]], a twice-baked, hard [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] cookie
* [[Cookie Monster]]
* [[Cookie cutter]]
* [[Cookie exchange]]
* [[Girl Scout cookie|Girl Scout Cookies]]
==Exterior links==
* [http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/CookieHistory.htm Cookie History]
* [http://www.nicecupofteaandasitdown.com/ Site devoted to Tea and Biscuits (cookies)]
{{wiktionary}}
{{cookbook}}
{{wikiquote}}
[[Category:Cookies| ]]
[[Category:Desserts]]
[[Category:Dutch loanwords]]
[[Category:Snack foods]]
[[da:Småkage]]
[[de:Keks]]
[[es:Galleta]]
[[fr:Cookie (cuisine)]]
[[ko:쿠키]]
[[he:עוגייה]]
[[nl:Koek]]
[[pt:Bolacha]]
[[fi:Keksi]]
[[th:คุกกี้]]
[[zh:曲奇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyrus Griffin</title>
<id>7219</id>
<revision>
<id>33160027</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-29T20:28:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nunh-huh</username>
<id>41723</id>
</contributor>
<comment>George Washington was in no way a successor to Cyrus Griffin</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyrus Griffin''' ([[1749]]&ndash;[[December 14]], [[1810]]) was the tenth and last [[President of the United States in Congress assembled]] under the [[Articles of Confederation]], holding office from [[January 22]], [[1788]] to [[March 4]], [[1789]]. He was preceded in office by [[Arthur St. Clair]]. Upon the approval of the [[United States Constitution]], his position was eliminated.
Griffin was born in [[Farnham,Virginia]] in [[1749]]. He was educated in [[England]] and while there married Christine Stewart, daughter of [[James Stewart, 6th Earl of Traquair|the sixth Earl of Traquair]]. He was a member of the Virginia legislature and a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] in [[1778]]--[[1781]] and in [[1787]]--[[1788]]. He was president of the Supreme Court of the Admiralty from its creation until its abolition, was commissioner to the [[Creek (people)|Creek]] nation in 1789, and was judge of the United States court for the district of Virginia from December [[1789]], until his death (in [[Yorktown, Virginia]]) on [[December 14]], [[1810]].
While numerous trivia buffs and inaccurate websites insist that Griffin was (the seventh or tenth) ''President of the United States'', he was in fact the last President of Congress under the [[Articles of Confederation]]. Historians note that his title and responsibilities were different from the office of President that was created by the United States Constitution.
{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[President of the Continental Congress|President of the United States in Congress Assembled]]| before=[[Arthur St. Clair]]| after=''(none)'' <sup>(a)</sup>| years=[[January 22]], [[1788]] &ndash; [[November 2]], [[1788]]}}
{{succession footnote| marker=<sup>(a)</sup>| footnote=The position of President of the United States in Congress Assembled was abolished under the new [[United States Constitution]].}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1749 births|Griffin, Cyrus]]
[[Category:1810 deaths|Griffin, Cyrus]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Griffin, Cyrus]]
==External links==
*[http://www.archontology.org/nations/us/us1/griffin.php Cyrus Griffin at Archontology.org]".</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Common Gateway Interface</title>
<id>7220</id>
<revision>
<id>40173709</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T19:02:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.108.192.162</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Common Gateway Interface''' ('''CGI''') is an important [[World Wide Web]] technology that enables a client [[web browser]] to request data from a program executed on the [[Web server]]. CGI specifies a standard for passing request data between a web server and the program used to serve that request.
CGI arose out of discussions on the www-talk mailing list between Rob McCool, John Franks, Ari Luotonen, George Phillips and Tony Sanders in 1993. Rob McCool, working at [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications|NCSA]], drafted the initial specification and provided a reference implementation in the [[NCSA HTTPd]] web server using [[environment variable]]s to store parameters passed from the web server execution environment before spawning the CGI program as a separate [[computer proc |
). However, after the Orioles failed to advance to the World Series in either playoff, Johnson resigned as manager following a dispute with Angelos, with pitching coach [[Ray Miller (baseball)|Ray Miller]] taking his place. With Miller at the helm, the Orioles found themselves not only out of the playoffs, but also with a losing season. When Gillick's contract expired in 1998, it was not renewed. Angelos brought in Frank Wren to take over as GM. The Orioles added volatile slugger [[Albert Belle]], but the team's woes continued in the 1999 season, with stars like [[Rafael Palmeiro]], [[Roberto Alomar]], and [[Eric Davis]] leaving in free agency. After a second straight losing season, Angelos fired both Miller and Wren. He named Syd Thrift the new GM and brought in former Cleveland manager [[Mike Hargrove]].
===2000-20004===
Going into the [[2006 in baseball|2006]] season, the Orioles have had eight consecutive sub-.500 seasons due to the combination of lackluster play on the team’s part, a string of ineffective management, and the ascent of the Yankees and Red Sox to the top of the game - each rival having a clear advantage in financial flexibility due to their larger media market size. Further complicating the situation for the Orioles is the relocation of the Montreal Expos franchise to nearby [[Washington, D.C.]] - for which Angelos has demanded compensation from [[Major League Baseball]] (as opposed to doing something useful, like signing better pitchers). The new [[Washington Nationals]] threaten to carve into the Orioles fan base and television dollars. There is some hope that having competition in the larger Baltimore-Washington metro market will spur the Orioles to field a better product to compete for fans with the Nationals.
Beginning with the 2003 season, big changes began to sweep through the organization to try to snap the losing ways. General Manager Syd Thrift was fired and to replace him, the Orioles hired [[Jim Beattie]] as the Executive Vice President and [[Mike Flanagan (baseball player)|Mike Flanagan]] as the Vice President of Baseball Operations. After another losing season, manager [[Mike Hargrove]] was not resigned and Yankees coach [[Lee Mazzilli]] was brought in as the new manager. The team signed powerful hitters in SS [[Miguel Tejada]], C [[Javy Lopez]], and former Oriole 1B [[Rafael Palmeiro]]. The following season, the Orioles traded for OF [[Sammy Sosa]].
===The 2005 Collapse===
The 2005 season will likely go down as the most controversial in the Orioles' history. The Orioles began the season with a tremendous start, holding onto first place in the AL East division for 62 straight days. However, turmoil on and off the field began to take its toll as the team started struggling around the All-Star break, dropping them close to the surging Yankees and Red Sox. Injuries to [[Luis Matos]], [[Javy Lopez]], [[Brian Roberts]], [[Sammy Sosa]], and [[Larry Bigbie]] came within weeks of each other. The team was increasingly dissatisfied with the front office's and manager Lee Mazzilli's "band-aid" moves to help the team through this period of struggle. Various minor league players such as Single-A Frederick outfielder [[Jeff Fiorentino]] were brought up in place of more experienced players such as [[David Newhan]], who batted .311 the previous season.
On July 15, 2005, [[Rafael Palmeiro]] collected his 3,000th hit in Seattle, and was suspended for a violation of [[Major League Baseball drug policy|MLB's drug policy]] 15 days later, after testing positive for the anabolic steroid [[stanozolol]]. The Orioles continued tumbling, falling out of first place and further down the AL East standings. This downfall cost [[Lee Mazzilli]] his managerial job in early August, allowing bench coach and 2003 managerial candidate [[Sam Perlozzo]] to take over as interim manager and lead the team to a 23-32 finish.
The Orioles' 30-62 second half record is, from a percentage standpoint, the worst in baseball history after playing .600 ball for the first 70 days. The club's major offseason acquisition, [[Sammy Sosa]], posted his worst performance in a decade, with 14 homeruns and a .221 batting average. The Orioles did not attempt to resign him, considering his exorbitant salary, his miserable performance, and his stormy relationship with batting coach [[Terry Crowley]] and teammates including [[Miguel Tejada]]. The Orioles also allowed Rafael Palmeiro to file for free agency and publicly stated they would not resign him.
===2005-2006 offseason===
====Front Office Changes====
Following the disappointing 2005 season, it was clear major changes needed to be made within the Orioles. In the front office, Executive VP [[Jim Beattie]] was not re-signed, allowing [[Mike Flanagan (baseball player)|Mike Flanagan]] to become the sole GM of the Orioles. Shortly after, [[Jim Duquette]] was hired as Vice President of Baseball Operations, which was Flanagan's previous position. Duquette made it clear at his signing that he reported to Flanagan, so the "two-headed GM" will not exist anymore. The Orioles also fired assistant General Manager [[Ed Kenney]] and asked for the resignation of [[Dave Ritterpusch]], Director of Baseball [[Information Systems]].
====Coaching Staff Changes====
There was also drastic changes in the Orioles coaching staff. Perlozzo was named the new manager, and unlike Mazzilli, was given full freedom to name his coaching staff. Perlozzo led off strong by convincing Atlanta pitching coach [[Leo Mazzone]], who had revolutionized the careers of many pitchers in Atlanta, to become the pitching coach for the Orioles. He retained hitting coach [[Terry Crowley]] and first base coach [[Dave Cash (baseball)|Dave Cash]]. Former base coach and [[1983 World Series]] [[World Series MVP Award|MVP]] [[Rick Dempsey]] was named the bullpen coach, with [[Tom Trebelhorn]] resuming third base coach. Perlozzo rounded out his staff with former Cubs and Phillies manager [[Lee Elia]] as the bench coach.
====Roster Changes====
The roster changes of 2005 were prefaced with [[Peter Angelos|Peter Angelos']] comments: "We are coming back strong next year. I know you have heard that tune before, but this time it will literally come true." The Orioles knew they had to try to sweep away many of the negative influences from the previous era, and so they allowed [[Rafael Palmeiro]], [[Sammy Sosa]], and [[B.J. Surhoff]] to become free agents. They also set their wishlist: An everyday first baseman, an experienced starter, a closer, a defensive catcher, outfield help, more defense, and more speed. However, their offseason moves showed no differences from past years. The Orioles were not able to resign closer [[B.J. Ryan]], who signed a landmark deal with the [[Toronto Blue Jays]]. They were also locked out in bids to sign first baseman [[Paul Konerko]], outfielder [[Johnny Damon]], and starter [[Paul Byrd]]. The Orioles were rumoured to have a deal with outfielder [[Jeromy Burnitz]], but his agent balked at language regarding the physical, and Burnitz signed with the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]. The Orioles chose not to enter the bidding for players like [[A.J. Burnett]] and [[Kevin Millwood]], whose asking prices were far beyond what the Orioles were willing to pay. The only target the Orioles managed to sign was catcher [[Ramon Hernandez]]. Locked out of pursuits to sign top-tier players, the Orioles decided to make several moves to allow minor league prospects more time to develop. This led to bringing in players like [[Jeff Conine]] and [[Kevin Millar]], both of whom are known for their positive presence in the clubhouse. The Orioles also made several trades to bring in needed players. They first traded disgruntled reliever [[Steve Kline]] for [[LaTroy Hawkins]], then traded for outfielder [[Corey Patterson]], who brings speed and defense to the outfield, and traded former closer [[Jorge Julio]] and [[John Maine]] for experienced starter [[Kris Benson]]. The Orioles also addressed future free agents by extending the contract of outfielder [[Jay Gibbons]] and discussing contract extensions with second baseman [[Brian Roberts]] and third baseman [[Melvin Mora]].
====Miguel Tejada====
The Orioles' lack of movement over the course of the offseason frustrated many, including [[Miguel Tejada]]. This led to him stating, controversially, that he "wanted to play for a winner", and "perhaps a change of scenery is needed". The Oriole front office began to talk to many teams interested in Tejada as a trade. It was rumored that the [[Boston Red Sox]] offered [[All-Star]] outfielder [[Manny Ramirez]] for Tejada, though no Orioles officials confirmed this. There were also talks of [[Mark Prior]] being offered for Tejada. After several weeks, teammate [[Melvin Mora]] facillitated a conference call between the Orioles and Tejada where Tejada backed down and said his comments were intended to motivate the Orioles to make more moves in free agency.
===2006 Season===
=="O!"==
Since the 1970s, it has been a tradition at Orioles games for fans to accent the line of "Oh say does that Star-Spangled Banner yet wave" in the "[[The Star Spangled Banner]]" by yelling "O!" This tradition carries on to this day. Some consider the yell to be disrespectful to the [[national anthem]]. However, since Francis Scott Key wrote the National Anthem in the Harbor of Baltimore during the War of 1812, Baltimoreans have felt they have the right to sing the song in the manner that they please.
The tradition is so strong and beloved, that it is carried out at many other sporting events, both professional and not, throughout the [[Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area|Baltimore/Washington area]]. Notably at [[Baltimore Ravens]] games. The tradition has also sparked many high schools and univerisities in the Baltimore/Washington area to ask crowds to not |
clined to grapple with American backers. The German producer, Artur Brauner, was expressing interest in remaking not only ''[[The Indian Tomb]]'' (a story that Lang had developed in the twenties that was ultimately taken from him by studio heads and directed instead by [[Joe May]]) but Lang's earlier ''[[Doctor Mabuse]]'' pictures. Fearing that Brauner would proceed with or without his assent, Lang abandoned his plans for retirement and returned to Germany in order to make his ''Indian Epic'', which is regarded as a masterpiece by a number of film scholars today. Following the production, Brauner was ready to proceed with his remake of ''Das Testament des Doctor Mabuse'' when Lang approached him with the idea of adding another original film to the series. The result was ''[[Die Tausend Augen des Dr. Mabuse]]'' (The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse), made in a hurry and with a relatively small budget. It can be viewed as the marriage between the director's early experiences with expressionist techniques in Germany as well as the spartan style already visible in his late American work. Lang was approaching blindness during the production, making it his final project.
Returning to the United States in retirement, he continued collecting research material and drafting screenplays, though he never made another film. While his career had ended without fanfare, his work went through a reappraisal in later years following [[Jean-Luc Godard]]'s decision to cast him in his film ''[[Le Mépris]]'' in addition to considerable critical adulation in the US from the likes of [[Peter Bogdanovich]].
He died in [[1976]] and was interred in the [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)|Forest Lawn - Hollywood Hills Cemetery]] in [[Los Angeles]].
==Trivia==
Fritz Lang was portrayed in the movie [[Fullmetal Alchemist: Conquerer of Shambala]]. In the film, he disguised himself as Mabuse, an elderly man, so that he could research and get inspiration for his next movie.
==Filmography==
*''Halbblut'' (The Half-Caste) (1919)
*''Die Spinnen, 1. Teil: Der Goldene See'' (Spiders, Part 1: The Golden Lake) (1919)
*''Harakiri'' (Madame Butterfly) (1919)
*''Die Pest in Florenz'' (The Plague in Florence) (1919)
*''Der Herr der Liebe'' (Master of Love) (1919)
*''Die Spinnen, 2. Teil: Das Brillantenschiff'' (Spiders, Part 2: The Diamond Ship) (1920)
*''Das Wandernde Bild'' (The Wandering Image) (1920)
*''[[Der müde Tod]]'' (Released in English as ''Beyond the Wall''; the German title means "weary [[Death (personified)|Death]]") (1921)
*''Vier um die Frau'' (Four Around a Woman) (1921)
*''Dr. Mabuse, der Spieler'' (Dr. Mabuse, The Gambler) (1922)
*''Die Nibelungen: Siegfried'' (Die Nibelungen: Siegfried) (1924)
*''Die Nibelungen: Kriemhilds Rache'' (Die Nibelungen: Kriemheld's Revenge) (1924)
*''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' (1927)
*''Spione'' (Spies) (1928)
*''[[Frau im Mond]]'' (Woman in the Moon) (1929)
*''[[M (1931 film)|M]]'' (1931)
*''Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse'' ([[The Testament of Dr. Mabuse]]) (1933)
*''Liliom'' (1934)
*''[[Fury (1936 film)|Fury]]'' (1936)
*''[[You Only Live Once]]'' (1937)
*''You and Me'' (1938)
*''[[The Return of Frank James]]'' (1940)
*''Western Union'' (1941)
*''Man Hunt'' (1941)
*''Confirm or Deny'' (1941) (uncredited)
*''Moontide ''(1942) (uncredited)
*''[[Hangmen Also Die]]'' (1943)
*''[[Ministry of Fear]]'' (1944)
*''[[The Woman in the Window]]'' (1944)
*''[[Scarlet Street]]'' (1945)
*''Cloak and Dagger'' (1946)
*''[[Secret Beyond the Door]]'' (1948)
*''[[House by the River]]'' (1950)
*''American Guerrilla in the Philippines'' (1950)
*''Rancho Notorious'' (1952)
*''[[Clash by Night]]'' (1952)
*''[[The Blue Gardenia]]'' (1953)
*''[[The Big Heat]]'' (1953)
*''[[Human Desire]]'' (1954)
*''[[Moonfleet]]'' (1955)
*''[[While the City Sleeps]]'' (1956)
*''[[Beyond a Reasonable Doubt]]'' (1957)
*''Der Tiger von Eschnapur'' (The Tiger of Eschnapur, or: The Tiger of Bengal) (1959)
*''Das indische Grabmal'' (The Indian Tomb, or: Journey to the Lost City) (1959)
*''Die 1000 Augen des Dr. Mabuse'' (The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse) (1960)
==See also==
* [[List of Austrians|List of famous Austrians]]
* [[Film noir]]
* [[Expressionism]]
* [[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000485|name=Fritz Lang}}
* [http://www.jscheuer.com/lang.htm Biographie]
* [http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/lang.html Senses of Cinema - Biographie]
* [http://www.persocom.com.br/brasilia/erika.htm Lang and Metropolis - the first Science Fiction film]
* [http://www.filmportal.de/df/77/Uebersicht,,,,,,,,EFC121B064DE6C3FE03053D50B3736F2,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.html Fritz Lang] at filmportal.de
* [http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=595 Biography and Pictures]
[[Category:1890 births|Lang, Fritz]]
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[[he:פריץ לאנג]]
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[[ja:フリッツ・ラング]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Food and Drug Administration</title>
<id>11632</id>
<revision>
<id>41567030</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T04:54:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Autiger</username>
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</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|FDA}}
[[Image:Food_and_Drug_Administration_logo.png|right|200px|FDA logo]]
The '''Food and Drug Administration''' ('''FDA''') of the [[United States]] is the government agency responsible for regulating [[food]] (human and animal), [[dietary supplement]]s, [[Medication|drug]]s (human and animal), [[cosmetic]]s, [[medical device]]s (human and animal), [[Biopharmaceutical|biologics]], and [[Blood|blood products]] in the United States.
==Description==
The FDA is a division of the [[Department of Health and Human Services]] (DHHS), which itself is part of the [[Executive Office of the President of the United States]]. The FDA is divided into five major Centers: the [[Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research]] (CBER), the [[Center for Devices and Radiological Health]] (CDRH), the [[Center for Drug Evaluation and Research]] (CDER), the [[Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition]] (CFSAN) and the [[Center for Veterinary Medicine]] (CVM). Each center has its own origins and history, the oldest being CBER, which oversees [[blood products]], [[vaccines]], and newer therapeutics related to [[stem cell]]s and [[gene therapy]]. CDER, which regulates human pharmaceuticals, receives considerable public scrutiny.
[[2005|Today]], the FDA is headed by acting Commissioner, [[Andrew von Eschenbach|Dr. Andrew von Eschenbach]], who succeeds [[Lester Crawford|Dr. Lester Crawford]] who resigned on [[September 23]], [[2005]] only two months after his final Senate confirmation.
The over-arching mandate of the FDA is to regulate the multitude of medicinal products in a manner that ensures the safety of the American public and the efficacy claims (label) of marketed drugs. The FDA's budget for approving, labeling, and monitoring drugs is roughly $290 million per year. "Review teams" employ around 1,300 employees to approve new drugs. The "safety team" has 72 employees to determine whether new drugs are hurting people. The safety team monitors the effects of more than 3,000 prescription drugs on 200 million people with a budget of about $15 million a year. The FDA requires a four phased series of [[clinical trials]], with phase three being the largest and usually requiring 1,000-3,000 patients.
One aspect of its jurisdiction over [[food]] is [[regulation]] of the content of [[health claims on food labels]]. However, because regulating the content of labels implicates the [[First Amendment]], FDA must balance concerns about the public health with the right to free speech. Dan Troy, a lawyer who was Chief Counsel of the Food and Drug Division from August 2001 to November 2004, raised the agency's focus on First Amendment issues.
The FDA does not pre-approve [[dietary supplement]]s on their safety and efficacy, unlike drugs. In contrast, the FDA can only go after dietary supplement manufacturers after they have put unsafe products on the market. However, certain foods (such as infant formula and medical foods) are deemed special nutritionals because they are consumed by highly vulnerable populations and are thus regulated more strictly than the majority of dietary supplements.
According to the ''Small Business Guide to FDA'', "Anyone may request or petition FDA to change or create an Agency policy or regulation under 21 CFR Part 10.30." This is called a '''Citizen's Petition''' and it is one method used to challenge specific approvals by the FDA.{{ref|petitionform}}
The ''[[FDA Consumer]]'' magazine was first issued in 1989 to spread informatin on how to get and stay healthy.
==History==
* 1927 &mdash; The "Bureau of Chemistry" is reorganized into two separate entities. Regulatory functions are located in the "Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration", and nonregulatory research is located in the "Bureau of Chemistry and Soils".
* 1930 &mdash; The name of the "Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration" is shortened to "Food and Drug Administration" (FDA) under an agricultural appropriations act.
* 1938 &mdash; Over 100 people died after consumi |
runs the pair would hit as teammates. On [[April 15]], [[1954 in sports|1954]] Aaron got his first major league hit, a single off of [[St. Louis Cardinals|Cardinals]] pitcher [[Vic Raschi]]. Aaron hit his first Major League home run on [[April 23]], [[1954 in sports|1954]] off of Raschi. Over the next 122 games, Aaron batted .280 (he would not hit that low again until [[1966 in sports|1966]]) with 13 homers (he wouldn't go below 20 for the next 20 years) before suffering a broken ankle on [[September 5]].
In the following season, Aaron was moved to [[right field]], where he played for most of his career, winning three Gold Gloves. [[1955 in sports|1955]] also saw the first of a record-tying 24 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Games]] for Aaron &ndash; only [[Willie Mays]] and [[Stan Musial]] appeared in as many All-Star Games. On [[June 24]], [[1955 in sports|1955]], Aaron became the first strike out victim of the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]]' future Hall of Famer, [[Sandy Koufax]]. Koufax came on in relief for the Dodgers on [[Milwaukee]]'s [[County Stadium]], pitching two shutout innings and fanning two. Aaron finished the season batting .314 with 27 home runs and 106 RBI.
[[1956 in sports|1956]] saw Aaron hit .328 to win the first of two [[National League|NL]] batting titles. He is also named [[Sporting News|The Sporting News]]' NL Player of the Year. Two changes were made in [[1957 in sports|1957]] that had a profound effect on Aaron. First, he went from second in the batting order to fourth, behind [[Eddie Mathews]] instead of in front of him, and, second, he switched from a 36-ounce bat to a 34-ounce model. Aaron responded by leading the league with 44 home runs, a career-high 132 RBI, batted .322 and won his only NL [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP Award]]. During a game on [[August 15]]th, Aaron belted his 100th major league home run off of the Reds' [[Don Gross]]. On [[September 23]], [[1957 in sports|1957]], Aaron had what he called the best moment of his career. Aaron drilled a pitch from the [[St. Louis Cardinals|Cardinals]]' [[Billy Muffett]] for a two-run homer in the 11th inning of a game. It clinched the Braves' first pennant in Milwaukee and Aaron was carried off the field by his teammates. That year, Milwaukee registered its only [[World Series]] victory behind right-handed pitcher [[Lew Burdette]], who defeated the [[New York Yankees|Yankees]] three times. Aaron did his part by hitting .393 with three homers and seven RBI.
====The chase is on====
Aaron had another spectacular year in [[1958 in sports|1958]] by hitting .326, with 30 home runs and 95 RBI. He led the Braves to another pennant, but this time they lost a seven-game Series to the Yankees. Aaron picked up his first Gold Glove and finished 3rd in MVP voting. Hall of Famer [[Don Drysdale]] served up the first of seventeen home runs to Aaron on [[June 29]], [[1958 in sports|1958]] – more than any other pitcher.
On [[June 21]], [[1959 in sports|1959]] Aaron had a single most productive day as a hitter. Against the [[San Francisco Giants]], he hit two-run home runs in the 1st, 6th and 7th inning off of [[Johnny Antonelli]], [[Stu Miller]] and [[Gordon Jones]]. It was the only time in his career that he would hit three homers in a game. Exactly one month later, on [[July 21]], Aaron appeared on the television show "Home Run Derby." He was paid $30,000 for his appearance – almost as much as his annual salary. The prize money encouraged Aaron to change his approach in hitting and swing for more homers. Aaron defended his decision by saying, "I noticed that they never had a show called "Singles Derby". [[Eddie Mathews]] led the league in home runs with 46 and Aaron led the league in hitting with a .355 average and finished 3rd in MVP voting.
[[July 3]], [[1960 in sports|1960]] saw Aaron hit his 200th home run off of the [[St. Louis Cardinals|Cardinals]]' [[Ron Kline]] at [[Sportsman's Park]]. On [[June 8]], [[1961 in sports|1961]], Aaron, [[Eddie Mathews]], [[Joe Adcock]] and [[Frank (Joseph) Thomas|Frank Thomas]] became the first four players ever to hit successive home runs in a game. Aaron and Mathews went back to back off of [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]]' pitcher [[Jim Maloney]]. Adcock and Thomas hit theirs off of reliever [[Marshall Bridges]]. Despite the unprecedented feat, the Braves lost the game 10-8.
On [[June 18]], [[1962]], Aaron hit what most consider to be the longest home run of his career -- a 470-foot shot to straight-away center at the [[Polo Grounds]] in [[New York City]]. Only two other players ever hit a ball there &ndash; [[Joe Adcock]] in [[1953 in sports|1953]] and [[Lou Brock]], who oddly did it the day before Aaron. On [[April 19]], [[1963 in sports|1963]] he hit his 300th home run off of the [[New York Mets|Mets]]' [[Jay Hook]]. Aaron just missed winning the triple crown in [[1963 in sports|1963]] by leading the league with 44 home runs and 130 RBI. He finished .007 percentage points behind [[Tommy Davis]] in batting. Aaron became the 3rd member of the [[30-30 club]] behind [[Ken Williams (baseball player)|Ken Williams]] and [[Willie Mays]]. He again finished 3rd in the MVP voting.
On [[September 20]], [[1965]], Aaron hit the last home run by a Milwaukee Braves player at Milwaukee County Stadium. It came off [[Ray Culp]] of the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]]. The Braves moved to Atlanta the following season and made [[Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium|Fulton County Stadium]] their new home. Aaron's home run output increased due to the hitter friendly park &ndash; later nicknamed "The Launching Pad".
Aaron hit his 400th home run on [[April 20]], [[1966 in sports|1966]] off [[Bob Priddy]] of the [[San Francisco Giants]]. On [[August 23]] he homered to set a major league record with [[Eddie Mathews]] for most career home runs by teammates (863). The first two batters faced by [[Nolan Ryan]] in his career were Mathews and Aaron, on [[September 11]], [[1966 in sports|1966]]. Neither of them struck out against Ryan.
In the first game of a [[double header]] against the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]] on [[May 10]], [[1967 in sports|1967]], Aaron hit his only [[Inside-the-park home run|inside the park home run]] off [[Jim Bunning]]. Aaron hit a conventional home run in the second game of the double header off of [[Larry Jackson]].
Aaron hit his 500th home run on [[July 14]], [[1968 in sports|1968]] off [[Mike McCormick]] of the [[San Francisco Giants]] at [[Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium|Fulton County Stadium]]. Aaron was just the 8th player to reach the milestone and he did it exactly one year after his former teammate [[Eddie Mathews]] did it with the [[Houston Astros]]. At the time, Aaron was the second youngest player to ever do so at 34 years, five months and nine days, a year and a half older than the youngest player to do so, [[Jimmie Foxx]].
On [[July 30]], [[1969 in sports|1969]] Aaron hit his 537th home run to move into 3rd place on the career home run list, past [[Mickey Mantle]] and behind only [[Willie Mays]] and [[Babe Ruth]]. The Braves marked the first year of division play by winning the West. The Braves were fifth place on [[August 19]], but outplayed the [[San Francisco Giants|Giants]] and [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]] down the stretch to win the division. Aaron slugged 44 homers and knocked in 97 runs. The Braves lost to the Miracle [[New York Mets|Mets]] in the playoffs, three games to none. Aaron and brother [[Tommie Aaron|Tommie]] were the first siblings to appear in a League Championship series together as teammates. Aaron finished 3rd in MVP voting.
Aaron got his 3,000th career hit off of [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]]' [[Wayne Simpson]] on [[May 17]], [[1970 in sports|1970]] with a single in the second game of a doubleheader at Cincinnati's Crosley Field, becoming the first player to reach that milestone and hit 500 career home runs. On [[July 31]], he hit a home run against [[Dave Guisti]] of the [[Pittsburgh Pirates|Pirates]] in Atlanta for this 30th homer of the season, establishing a National League record for most seasons with 30 or more homers (12).
[[1971 in sports|1971]] saw several milestones for Aaron. On [[April 27]] he hit his 600th career homer off the [[San Francisco Giants]]' [[Gaylord Perry]] in [[Atlanta]]. The greatest home run hitter slugged two homers off the greatest [[strikeout]] [[pitcher]], [[Nolan Ryan]], the first of which was on [[May 21]], [[1971 in sports|1971]], in [[Shea Stadium]]. On [[July 31]] Aaron homered in an [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]] for the first time, connecting off [[Vida Blue]] in [[Detroit]]. He hit his 40th home run of the season against the [[San Francisco Giants|Giants]]' [[Jerry Johnson]] on [[August 10]], establishing a National League record for most seasons with 40 or more home runs (seven). On [[September 21]], Aaron homered against the [[San Diego Padres|Padres]]' [[Jay Franklin]] for his 46th home run of the season &ndash; a new career high. Five days later, he hit his 47th home run, the most he hit in a season. He finished 3rd in MVP voting for the 6th time in his career.
During the strike shortened season of [[1972 in sports|1972]], Aaron tied and then surpassed [[Willie Mays]] for second place on the career home run list with home runs on [[May 31]] (648) off of the [[San Diego Padres|Padres]]' [[Fred Norman]] and [[June 10]] (649) off of the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]]' [[Wayne Twitchell]]. His home run on [[June 10]] was also his 14th grand slam, tying him with [[Willie McCovey]] and [[Gil Hodges]] for the National League record. On [[June 28]] Aaron hit a two-run homer to tie [[Lou Gehrig]] for second place on the all-time RBI list with 1,990. The next day he passes Gehrig with a home run off of the [[San Diego Padres|Padres]]' [[Mike Caldwell]] to move into sole possession of seco |
read by a read-write head which senses electrical change as the magnetic fields pass by in close proximity as the platter rotates.
A typical hard disk drive design consists of a central axis or spindle upon which the platters spin at a constant rotational velocity. Moving along and between the platters on a common armature are read-write heads, with one head for each platter surface. The armature moves the heads radially across the platters as they spin, allowing each head access to the entirety of the platter.
The associated electronics control the movement of the read-write armature and the rotation of the disk, and perform reads and writes on demand from the disk controller. Modern drive firmware is capable of scheduling reads and writes efficiently on the disk surfaces and remapping sectors of the disk which have failed.
Also, most major hard drive and motherboard vendors now support
[[Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology|S.M.A.R.T.]]
technology, by which impending failures can often be predicted,
allowing the user to be alerted in time to prevent data loss.
The (mostly) sealed enclosure protects the drive internals from dust, condensation, and other sources of contamination. The hard disk's read-write heads fly on an [[air bearing]] (a cushion of air) only [[nanometer]]s above the disk surface. The disk surface and the drive's internal environment must therefore be kept immaculately clean to prevent damage from fingerprints, hair, dust, smoke particles, etc. given the submicroscopic gap between the heads and disk.
Contrary to popular belief a hard disk drive does not contain a [[vacuum]]. Instead, the system relies on air pressure inside the drive to support the heads at their proper ''flying height'' while the disk is in motion. Another common misconception is that a hard drive is totally sealed. A hard disk drive requires a certain range of air pressures in order to operate properly. If the air pressure is too low, the air will not exert enough force on the flying head, the head will not be at the proper height, and '''there is a risk of head crashes and data loss'''. (Specially manufactured sealed and pressurized drives are needed for reliable high-altitude operation, above about 10,000 feet. This does not apply to pressurized enclosures, like an [[aircraft|airplane]] cabin.) Modern drives include temperature sensors and adjust their operation to the operating environment.
[[Image:Hard_disk_head.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Close-up of a hard disk head resting on the disk platter.]]
Hard disk drives are not airtight. They have a permeable filter (a '''breather filter''') between the top cover and inside of the drive, to allow the pressure inside and outside the drive to equalize while keeping out dust and dirt. The filter also allows moisture in the air to enter the drive. Very high humidity year-round will cause accelerated wear of the drive's heads (by increasing [[stiction]], or the tendency for the heads to stick to the disk surface, which causes physical damage to the disk and spindle motor). You can see these breather holes on all drives -- they usually have a warning sticker next to them, informing the user not to cover the holes. The air inside the operating drive is constantly moving too, being swept in motion by friction with the spinning disk platters. This air passes through an internal filter to remove any leftover contaminants from manufacture, any particles that may have somehow entered the drive, and any particles generated by [[head crash]].
Due to the extremely close spacing of the heads and disk surface, any contamination of the read-write heads or disk platters can lead to a [[head crash]] &mdash; a failure of the disk in which the head scrapes across the platter surface, often grinding away the thin magnetic film. For [[Giant_magnetoresistive_effect |Giant Magnetoresistive]] (GMR) heads in particular, a minor head crash from contamination (that does not remove the magnetic surface of the disk) will still result in the head temporarily overheating, due to friction with the disk surface, and renders the disk unreadable until the head temperature stabilizes. Head crashes can be caused by electronic failure, a sudden power failure, physical shock, wear and tear, or poorly manufactured disks. Normally, when powering down, a hard disk moves its heads to a safe area of the disk, where no data is ever kept (the ''landing zone''). However, especially in old models, sudden power interruptions or a power supply failure can result in the drive shutting down with the heads in the data zone, which increases the risk of data loss. Newer drives are designed such that the rotational inertia in the platters is used to safely park the heads in the case of unexpected power loss. IBM pioneered drives with "head unloading" technology that lifts the heads off the platters onto "ramps" instead of having them rest on the platters, reducing the risk of stiction. Other manufacturers also use this technology.
[[Image:Rwheadmicro.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Microphotograph of a hard disk head. The size of the front edge is about 0.3 * 1.2 mm. The functional part of the head is the round, orange structure in the middle. Also note the connection wires bonded to gold-plated pads.]]
[[Apple Computer]] has created a technology for their new [[PowerBook]] line of laptop computers called [[Sudden Motion Sensor]], or SMS. When a sudden, sharp movement is detected by the built-in motion sensor in the PowerBook, internal hard disk heads automatically unload themselves into the parking zone to reduce the risk of any potential data loss or scratches made.
Spring tension from the head mounting constantly pushes the heads towards the disk. While the disk is spinning, the heads are supported by an air bearing and experience no physical contact wear. The sliders (the part of the heads that are closest to the disk and contain the pickup coil itself) are designed to reliably survive a number of landings and takeoffs from the disk surface, though wear and tear on these microscopic components eventually takes its toll. Most manufacturers design the sliders to survive 50,000 contact cycles before the chance of damage on startup rises above 50%. However, the decay rate is not linear &mdash; when a drive is younger and has fewer start/stop cycles, it has a better chance of surviving the next startup than an older, higher-mileage drive (as the head literally drags along the drive's surface until the air bearing is established). For example, the Maxtor DiamondMax series of desktop hard drives are rated to 50,000 start-stop cycles. This means that no failures attributed to the head-disk interface were seen before at least 50,000 start-stop cycles during testing.
Using rigid platters and sealing the unit allows much tighter tolerances than in a [[floppy disk]]. Consequently, hard disks can store much more data than floppy disk, and access and transmit it faster. In [[2005]], a typical [[workstation]] hard disk might store between 80 GB and 500 GB of data, rotate at 7,200 to 10,000 [[rpm]], and have a sequential media transfer rate of over 50 MB/s. The fastest workstation and server hard drives spin at 15,000 rpm, and can achieve sequential media transfer speeds of up to 100 MB/s. Notebook hard drives, which are physically smaller than their desktop counterparts, tend to be slower and have less capacity. Most spin at only 4,200 rpm or 5,400 rpm, though the newest top models spin at 7,200 rpm.
The platters are made from a non-magnetic material, usually glass or aluminum, and coated on both sides with a thin layer of magnetic material, usually [[iron(III) oxide]]
[http://www.computerpoweruser.com/editorial/article.asp?guid=&article=articles/hardware/2004/h0707/harddrivesterm.asp]
.
==Access and interfaces==
A hard disk is generally accessed over one of a number of bus types, including [[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]] (IDE, EIDE), [[Serial ATA]], [[SCSI]], SAS, [[FireWire]] (aka IEEE 1394), [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]], and [[Fiber Channel]].
Back in the days of the [[ST-506]] interface, the data [[encoding]] scheme was also important. The first ST-506 disks used [[Modified Frequency Modulation]] (MFM) encoding (which is still used on the common "1.44 MB" (1.4 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]) 3.5-inch floppy), and ran at a data rate of 5 [[megabit]]s per second. Later on, controllers using ''2,7 [[RLL]]'' (or just "RLL") encoding increased this by half, to 7.5 megabits per second; it also increased drive capacity by half.
Many ST-506 interface drives were only certified by the manufacturer to run at the lower MFM data rate, while other models (usually more expensive versions of the same basic drive) were certified to run at the higher RLL data rate. In some cases, the drive was overengineered just enough to allow the MFM-certified model to run at the faster data rate; however, this was often unreliable and was not recommended. (An RLL-certified drive could run on a MFM controller, but with 1/3 less data capacity and speed.)
ESDI also supported multiple data rates (ESDI drives always used 2,7 RLL, but at 10, 15 or 20 megabits per second), but this was usually negotiated automatically by the drive and controller; most of the time, however, 15 or 20 megabit ESDI drives weren't downward compatible (i.e. a 15 or 20 megabit drive wouldn't run on a 10 megabit controller). ESDI drives typically also had jumpers to set the number of sectors per track and (in some cases) sector size.
SCSI originally had just one speed, 5 MHz (for a maximum data rate of 5 megabytes per second), but later this was increased dramatically. The SCSI bus speed had no bearing on the drive's internal speed because of buffering between the SCSI bus and the drive's internal data bus; however, many early drives had very small buffers, and thus had to be reformatted to a different interleave (just like ST-506 dr |
y the end of 1983 US Air Force users were using user names like alclark@vax1.mil to send e-mails between a nationwide linkup of VAX computers. By 1984 these same users were using personal computers for same.
In 1982 the [[White House]] adopted a prototype e-mail system from IBM called the Professional Office System, or PROFs for the [[National Security Council]] (NSC) staff. By April 1985, the system was fully operational within the NSC with home terminals for principals on the staff. And by November of 1986 the rest of the White House came online, first with the PROFs system, and later (by the end of the 1980s) through a variety of systems including [[VAX]] A-1 ("All in One"), and [[ccmail]].
== Modern Internet e-mail ==
=== How Internet e-mail works ===
[[Image:How e-mail works.png|center|How e-mail works]]
The diagram above shows a stereotypical sequence of events that takes place when [[Alice and Bob|Alice]] sends an e-mail to [[Alice and Bob|Bob]].
# Alice composes a message using her [[E-mail client|mail user agent]] (MUA). She types in, or selects from an address book, the '''e-mail address''' of her correspondent. She hits the "send" button. Her MUA formats the message in [[#Internet e-mail format|Internet e-mail format]] and uses the [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP) to send the message to the local [[mail transfer agent]] (MTA), in this case <tt>smtp.a.org</tt>, run by Alice's [[Internet Service Provider]] (ISP).
# The MTA looks at the destination address provided in the SMTP protocol (not from the message header), in this case <tt>bob@b.org</tt>. A modern Internet e-mail address is a string of the form <tt>localpart@domain.example</tt>. The part before the @ sign is the '''local part''' of the address, often the [[username]] of the recipient, and the part after the @ sign is a [[domain name]]. The MTA looks up this domain name in the [[Domain Name System]] to find the [[mail exchange server]]s accepting messages for that domain.
# The [[DNS server]] for the <tt>b.org</tt> domain, <tt>ns.b.org</tt>, responds with an [[MX record]] listing the mail exchange servers for that domain, in this case <tt>mx.b.org</tt>, a server run by Bob's ISP.
<!--nitpick: dns requests almost always go via a dns server acting as a recursive resolver they are not made directly by the app (in this case the mta) that needs the information [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 02:30, [[22 May]] [[2005]] (UTC)-->
# <tt>smtp.a.org</tt> sends the message to <tt>mx.b.org</tt> using SMTP, which delivers it to the mailbox of the user <tt>bob</tt>.
# Bob presses the "get mail" button in his MUA, which picks up the message using the [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP3).
This sequence of events applies to the majority of e-mail users. However, there are many alternative possibilities and complications to the e-mail system:
* Alice or Bob may use a client connected to a corporate e-mail system, such as [[IBM]]'s [[Lotus Notes]] or [[Microsoft]]'s [[Microsoft Exchange Server|Exchange]]. These systems often have their own internal e-mail format and their clients typically communicate with the e-mail server using a vendor-specific, proprietary, protocol. The server sends or receives e-mail via the Internet through the product's Internet mail gateway which also does any necessary reformatting. If Alice and Bob work for the same company, the entire transaction may happen completely within a single corporate e-mail system.
* Alice may not have a MUA on her computer but instead may connect to a [[webmail]] service.
* Alice's computer may run its own MTA, so avoiding the transfer at step 1.
* Bob may pick up his e-mail in many ways, for example using the [[Internet Message Access Protocol]], by logging into <tt>mx.b.org</tt> and reading it directly, or by using a [[webmail]] service.
* Domains usually have several mail exchange servers so that they can continue to accept mail when the main mail exchange server is not available.
It used to be the case that many MTAs would accept messages for any recipient on the Internet and do their best to deliver them. Such MTAs are called ''[[open mail relay]]s''. This was important in the early days of the Internet when network connections were unreliable. If an MTA couldn't reach the destination, it could at least deliver it to a relay that was closer to the destination. The relay would have a better chance of delivering the message at a later time. However, this mechanism proved to be exploitable by people sending [[e-mail spam|unsolicited bulk e-mail]] and as a consequence very few modern MTAs are open mail relays, and many MTAs will not accept messages from open mail relays because such messages are very likely to be spam.
Note that the people, e-mail addresses and domain names in this explanation are fictional: see [[Alice and Bob|''Alice and Bob'']].
=== Internet e-mail format ===
The format of Internet e-mail messages is defined in RFC 2822 and a series of [[Request_for_Comments|RFCs]], RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called [[MIME|Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions]] (MIME). Although as of [[July 13]], [[2005]] (see [http://www.ietf.org/iesg/1rfc_index.txt]) RFC 2822 is technically a proposed IETF standard and the MIME RFCs are draft IETF standards, these documents are the de facto standards for the format of Internet e-mail. Prior to the introduction of RFC 2822 in 2001 the format described by RFC 822 was the de facto standard for Internet e-mail for nearly two decades; it is still the official IETF standard. The IETF reserved the numbers 2821 and 2822 for the updated versions of RFC 821 (SMTP) and RFC 822, honoring the extreme importance of these two RFCs. RFC 822 was published in 1982 and based on the earlier RFC 733.
Internet e-mail messages consist of two major sections:
* Header - Structured into fields such as summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail
* Body - The message itself as unstructured text; sometimes containing a [[signature block]] at the end
The header is separated from the body by a blank line.
==== Internet e-mail header ====
The message header consists of fields. Each header field has a name and a value. RFC 2822 specifies the precise syntax. Informally, the field name starts in the first character of a line, followed by a ":", followed by the value which is continued on non-null subsequent lines that have a space or tab as their first character. Field names and values are restricted to 7-bit [[ASCII]] characters. Non-ASCII values may be represented using MIME [[MIME#Encoded-Word|encoded words]]. Messages usually have at least four fields in the header:
# From: The e-mail address, and optionally name, of the sender of the message
# To: The e-mail addresses, and optionally names, of the receiver of the message
# Subject: A brief summary of the contents of the message
# Date: The local time and date when the message was originally sent
Note however that the "To" field in the header is not necessarily related to the addresses to which the e-mail is delivered. The actual delivery list is supplied in the SMTP protocol, not extracted from the header content. The "To" field is similar to the greeting at the top of a conventional letter which is delivered according to the address on the outer envelope. Also note that the "From" field does not have to be the real sender of the e-mail. It is very easy to fake the "From" field and let an e-mail seem to be from any mail address. It is possible to [[Digital signature|digitally sign]] an e-mail, which is much harder to fake. Some [[Internet service provider|Internet service providers]] do not relay e-mails claiming to come from a domain not hosted by them, but very few (if any) check to make sure that the person or even e-mail address named in the "From" field is the one associated with the connection.
Other common header fields include:
# Cc: [[Carbon copy]] (because [[typewriter]]s use [[carbon paper]] to make copies of letters)
# Received: Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a message
# Content-Type: Information about how the message has to be displayed, usually a [[MIME]] type
Many e-mail clients present "Bcc" (Blind carbon copy, recipients not visible in the "To" field) as a header field. Since the entire header is visible to all recipients, "Bcc" is not included in the message header. Addresses added as "Bcc" are only added to the SMTP delivery list, and do not get included in the message data.
==== E-mail content encoding ====
E-mail was only designed for 7-bit [[ASCII]]. While a lot of e-mail software was in fact 8-bit clean this couldn't be relied upon on open interchange. The [[MIME]] standard introduced charset specifiers and two content transfer encodings to encode 8 bit data for transmission: [[quoted printable]] for mostly 7 bit content with a few characters outside that range and [[base64]] for arbitrary binary data. The [[8BITMIME]] extension was introduced to allow transmission of mail without the need for these encodings but many mail transport agents still don't support it fully, possibly due to the complication of having to do content transformations when forwarding to a mailserver that doesn't support it.
=== Saved Message Extension ===
Different applications save e-mail files with different file extensions. .
* .eml
This is used by [[Outlook Express]], and is the default e-mail extension for [[Mozilla Thunderbird]].
* .emlx
Used by [[Apple Mail]]
== Messages and mailboxes ==
Messages are exchanged between hosts using the [[SMTP|Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] with software like [[Sendmail]]. Users download their messages from servers usually with either |
tp://www.rockhall.com/hof/inductee.asp?id=65 Rock & Roll Hall of Fame page on The Beach Boys]
*[http://Brianwilson.com Brian Wilson's official site]
*[http://mikelovefanclub.com The Mike Love Fan Club]
*[http://www.aljardine.com Al Jardine's official site]
*[http://www.carlwilsonfoundation.org The Carl Wilson Foundation]
*[http://fun_fun_fun.tripod.com/setlists.html Eric Aniversario's Beach Boys setlist archive]
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~bellagio/ Bellagio 10452 - timeline and discography]
*[http://www.surfermoon.com/main.html Mike Wheeler's Brian Wilson page - ''CabinEssence'']
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~bellagio/Riaa.html Recording Industry Association of America Awards]
*[http://www.pob.ch.vu Pacific Ocean Blue - rare MP3s]
[[Category:American musical groups|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:The Beach Boys|*]]
[[Category:1960s music groups|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:1970s music groups|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:1980s music groups|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:Rock music groups|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:Surf groups|Beach Boys,The]]
[[da:The Beach Boys]]
[[de:The Beach Boys]]
[[es:The Beach Boys]]
[[fr:The Beach Boys]]
[[it:Beach Boys]]
[[hu:The Beach Boys]]
[[nl:The Beach Boys]]
[[ja:ザ・ビーチ・ボーイズ]]
[[pl:The Beach Boys]]
[[pt:The Beach Boys]]
[[ru:The Beach Boys]]
[[fi:The Beach Boys]]
[[sv:The Beach Boys]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BCE</title>
<id>4479</id>
<revision>
<id>29788324</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-01T09:13:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Teque5</username>
<id>202729</id>
</contributor>
<comment>odd setence removed</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BCE''' is a [[TLA]] (Three Letter Acronym) that may stand for:
* [[Common Era|Before the Common Era]], Before the Christian Era, or Before the Current Era. Date notation equivalent to BC (Before Christ). Common Era (CE), Christian Era, or Current Era is the equivalent alternative to [[Anno Domini|AD]].<br>
* [[European Central Bank]] in some [[Romance languages]] (e.g., ''Banco Central Europeo'')
* [[Banco Central del Ecuador]]
* [[Bell Canada Enterprises]], [[Canada]]'s largest telecom corporation
* [[British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority]] {{reporting mark|BCE}}
* [[Broadcasting Center Europe]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[fr:BCE]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BC</title>
<id>4480</id>
<revision>
<id>41615528</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:10:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|Feb 20]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BC''' may stand for:
*[[Before Christ]]: refers to a year before the beginning of the year count that starts with the supposed year of the birth of Jesus
*[[Ballistic coefficient]] : a measure of air drag on a projectile by calculating a ratio its sectional density to its coefficient of form
*[[Boston College]] : a university in [[Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts]]
*[[British Columbia]] : Province of [[Canada]]
*[[Baja California]] : State of [[Mexico]].
*[[B.C. (comic)]] : [[Print syndication|syndicated]] comic strip by Johnny Hart
*[[BC (video game)]] : an as-yet unreleased computer game by Peter Molyneux
*[[bc (Unix)]] : basic calculator program.
*[[Beloit College]] : A small liberal arts college in Beloit, Wisconsin
*[[Benedictine College]] : an institution of higher education in Atchison, Kansas
*[[Bliss bibliographic classification]] : a library cataloguing system
*[[Figured bass|Basso Continuo]] : an accompaniment used in almost all genres of music in the Baroque period
*[[Boise Cascade]] : a manufacturer of paper and pulp products
*[[BookCrossing]] : releasing books from your shelf into the world
*[[Botswana]]: the obsolete [[NATO country code|NATO digram]] from the former name Bechuanaland
*[[Breath control]] : also referred to as [[Erotic asphyxiation]]
*[[Because]] : bc can be used in internet lingo to stand for this
*[[Brunswick Corporation]] : stock symbol for a consumer sporting goods manufacturer traded on the New York Stock Exchange
*[[Buoyancy compensator]] : a piece of Scuba diving equipment
*[[Skymark Airlines]] : the IATA code for Japan based airline
*[[British Columbia]] [[Pot]] : grown in British Columbia
*[[Brasseries du Cameroun]] : a brewery in Cameroon
*[[Backward compatibility]] : a compatibility of new product in place of old product
*[[British Council]]: a non-departmental public body and registered charity for cultural relations in the United Kingdom
==See also==
;BC powder
:[[BC Powder]]: name brand of pain reliever
:"B.C. powder": can also refer to the light and fluffy snow which attracts skiers and snowboarders to British Columbia
:"B/C powder": powdered chemicals in a [[fire extinguisher]] effective against burning liquids (B-rated) and gases (C-rated).
;BC wheel : the [[impossible wheel]], a unicycle, named after the comic strip [[B.C. (comic)|B.C.]]
;[[Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania]]
{{2CC}}
[[de:BC]]
[[it:Bc]]
[[ja:BC]]
[[ko:BC]]
[[sl:BC]]
[[zh:BC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beatrix Potter</title>
<id>4481</id>
<revision>
<id>40890833</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T18:21:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.142.107.251</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* List of works by Beatrix Potter */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Benjamin and Flopsy Bunny - Project Gutenberg eText 14220.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Potter's illustration of her [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] rabbits &mdash; in this case the married cousins, Benjamin and Flopsy Bunny (with Peter Rabbit in the background), from ''The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies'']]
'''Beatrix Potter''', or '''Helen Beatrix Potter''' ([[July 28]] [[1866]] &ndash; [[December 22]], [[1943]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Children's literature|children's book]] [[author]] and [[illustrator]]. Her most famous character is [[Peter Rabbit]].
Her father, Rupert Potter, although educated as a [[barrister]], spent his days at [[Gentlemen's club]]s and rarely practised. Her mother spent her time visiting or receiving visitors. Both parents lived on incomes (inheritances) from their parents. Nannies and governesses raised Beatrix and her younger brother, Bertram. When she came of age, her parents appointed her their housekeeper and discouraged any intellectual development, instead requiring her to supervise the household. An uncle attempted to introduce her as a student at the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Royal Botanical Gardens]] at Kew, but she was rejected because she was female.
The basis of her many projects and stories were the small animals that she smuggled into the house or observed during family holidays in [[Scotland]] and the [[Lake District]].
Potter was one of the first to suggest that [[lichens]] were a [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship between [[fungi]] and [[algae]], but her one attempt to publish was thwarted. Her uncle had to read her paper at the scientific society because they did not admit females.
She was encouraged to publish her story, ''[[The Tale of Peter Rabbit]]'', but she struggled to find a publisher until it was accepted in 1902. The small book and her following works were extremely well received and she gained an independent income from the sales. She also became secretly engaged to the publisher, [[Norman Warne]], but her parents were set against her marrying anyone who worked for a living. He died before the engagement, causing a breach between Beatrix and her parents.
Potter wrote 23 books. These were published in a small format, easy for a child to hold and read. Her writing efforts abated around 1920 due to poor eyesight, though her last major work, ''The Tale of Little Pig Robinson'', was published in 1930.
In her later years she bought and ran a sheep farm in the English [[Lake District]]; she loved the landscape, and with the steady stream of royalties from her books, along with the inheritance from her parents, she bought up large areas of local land. She had been a friend of one of the founders of the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]], and in her will, much of the property was left to the Trust &mdash; cottages, 15 farms, 4000 acres (16 km&sup2;) of land &mdash; to ensure that its beauty could remain unspoiled. Her legacy is now part of the [[Lake District National Park]].
At the age of 47, Beatrix Potter married her [[solicitor]], William Heelis; they had no children. She died in [[Sawrey, Lancashire]] on [[December 22]], [[1943]].
==List of works by Beatrix Potter==
*''[[The Tale of Peter Rabbit]]'' (1902)
*''[[The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin]]'' (1903)
*''[[The Tailor of Gloucester]]'' (1903)
*''[[The Tale of Benjamin Bunny]]'' (1904)
*''[[The Tale of Two Bad Mice]]'' (1904)
*''[[The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle]]'' (1905)
*''[[The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan]]'' (1905)
*''[[The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher]]'' (1906)
*''[[The Story of A Fierce Bad Rabbit]]'' (1906)
*''[[The Story of Miss Moppet]]'' (1906)
*''[[The Tale of Tom Kitten]]'' (1907)
*''[[The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck]]'' (1908)
*''[[The Tale of Samuel Whiskers or, The Roly-Poly Pudding]]'' (1908)
*''[[The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies]]'' (1909)
*''[[The Tale of Ginger and Pickles]]'' (1909)
*''[[The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse]]'' (1910)
*''[[The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes]]'' (1911)
*''[[The Tale of Mr. Tod]]'' (1912)
*''[[The Tale of Pigling Bland]]'' (1913)
*''[[Appley Dapply's Nursery Rhymes]]'' (1917)
*''[[The Tale of Johnny Town-Mouse]]'' (1918)
*''[[Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes]]'' (1922)
*''[[The Tale of Little Pig Robinson]]'' (1930)
==S |
until after [[WWII]]. This is especially true of English speaking countries; in Gregory Brown's [http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosophers/leibniz/ online bibliography,] fewer than 30 of the English language entries were published before 1946. American Leibniz studies owe much to Leroy Loemker (1904-85); see, e.g., his (1969) annotated translations and his interpretive essays included in LeClerc (1973).
Leibniz's reputation as a philosopher is now perhaps higher than at any time since he was alive because (Jolley 2005: 217-19):
*Work in the history of 17th and 18th century [[history of ideas|ideas]] now reveals more clearly a 17th century Intellectual Revolution that preceded the better known [[industrial revolution|Industrial]] and commercial revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries.
*The doctrinaire contempt for [[metaphysics]], characteristic of [[analytic philosophy|analytic]] and [[linguistic philosophy]], has faded;
*[[Analytic philosophy]] continues to profit from his notions of [[identity]], [[individuation]], and [[possible worlds]];
*The 17th century belief that natural science, especially [[physics]], differs from philosophy mainly in degree and not in kind, is no longer dismissed out of hand;
*He is now seen as a major prolongation of the mighty endeavor begun by [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]: the [[universe]] and man's place in it are amenable to human [[reason]].
==Philosopher==
It is very difficult to grasp Leibniz's philosophical thinking, because his philosophical writings consist mainly of a multitude of short pieces: journal articles, manuscripts published long after his death, and many letters to many correspondents. He only wrote two philosophical treatises, and the only one he published in his lifetime, the ''Théodicée'' of 1710, is as much theological as philosophical. Leibniz dated his beginning as a philosopher to his ''[[Discourse on Metaphysics]]'', which he composed in 1686 as a commentary on a running dispute between [[Malebranche]] and [[Antoine Arnauld]]. This led to an extensive and valuable correspondence with Arnauld (AG 69, LL §§36,38); it and the ''Discourse'' were not published until the 19th century. In 1695, Leibniz made his public entrée into European philosophy with a journal article titled "New System of the Nature and Communication of Substances" (AG 138, LL §47, W II.4). Over 1695-1705, he composed his ''[[New Essays on Human Understanding]]'', a lengthy commentary on [[John Locke]]'s 1690 ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'', but upon learning of Locke's 1704 death, lost the desire to publish it, so that the ''New Essays'' were not published until 1765. The ''Monadologie'', composed in 1714 and published posthumously, consists of 90 aphorisms.
Leibniz met [[Spinoza]] in 1676, read some of his unpublished writings, and has since been suspected of appropriating some of Spinoza's ideas. While Leibniz admired Spinoza's powerful intellect, he was also forthrightly dismayed by Spinoza's conclusions (AG 272-84, W III.8, LL §§14,20,21), especially when these were inconsistent with Christian orthodoxy.
Unlike Descartes and Spinoza, Leibniz had a thorough university education in philosophy. His lifelong [[Scholastic philosophy|scholastic]] and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] turn of mind betrayed the strong influence of one of his [[Leipzig]] professors, [[Jakob Thomasius]], who also supervised his BA thesis in philosophy. Leibniz also eagerly read [[Francisco Suarez]], a Spanish Jesuit respected even in Lutheran universities. Leibniz was deeply interested in the new methods and conclusions of [[Descartes]], [[Huygens]], [[Newton]], and [[Boyle]], but viewed their work through a lens heavily tinted by scholastic notions. Yet it remains the case that Leibniz's methods and concerns often anticipate the [[logic]], and [[analytic philosophy| analytic]] and [[linguistic philosophy]] of the 20th century.
For a first introduction to Leibniz's philosophy, turn to the Introduction of an anthology of his writings in English translation, e.g., Wiener (1951), Loemker (1969a), Woolhouse and Francks (1998). Then turn to the monographs [http://www.etext.leeds.ac.uk/leibniz/leibniz.htm MacDonald Ross (1984),] and Jolley (2005). For an introduction to Leibniz's metaphysics, see the chapters by Mercer, Rutherford, and Sleigh in Jolley (1995); see Mercer (2001) for an advanced study. For an introduction to those aspects of Leibniz's thought of most value to the philosophy of logic and of language, see Jolley (1995, chpts. 7,8); Mates (1986) is more advanced. MacRae (Jolley 1995: chpt. 6) discusses Leibniz's theory of knowledge. For glossaries of the philosophical terminology recurring in Leibniz's writings and the secondary literature, see Woolhouse and Francks (1998: 285-93) and Jolley (2005: 223-29).
===The Principles===
Leibniz variously invoked one or another of seven fundamental philosophical Principles (Mates 1986: chpts. 7.3, 9):
*[[Identity]] / [[Contradiction]]. If a proposition is true, its negation is false and vice versa.
*[[Identity of indiscernibles]]. Two things are identical if and only if they share the same properties.
*[[principle of sufficient reason|Sufficient Reason]]. "There must be a sufficient reason [often known only to God] for anything to exist, for any event to occur, for any truth to obtain." (LL 717).
*[[Pre-established harmony]]. See Jolley (1995: 129-31), Woolhouse and Francks (1998), and Mercer (2001).
*[[Continuum mechanics|Continuity]]. ''Natura non saltum facit''. A mathematical analog to this principle would go as follows. If a function describes a transformation of something to which continuity applies, its domain and range are both dense sets.
*[[Optimism]]. "God assuredly always chooses the best." (LL 311).
*[[Plenitude principle|Plenitude]].
He would on occasion propose a rationale for a specific principle, but often took them for granted. For a precis of what Leibniz meant by these and other Principles, see Mercer (2001: 473-84). For a classic discussion of [[principle of sufficient reason|sufficient reason]] and [[Plenitude principle|plenitude]], see Lovejoy (1957).
===The Monads===
Leibniz's best known contribution to [[metaphysics]] is his theory of [[monad]]s, as exposited in his ''Monadologie.'' Monads are to the mental realm what [[atom]]s are to the physical. (Curiously, Leibniz argued that matter was infinitely divisible, thus denying that atoms exist.) Monads are the ultimate elements of the [[universe]], and are also entities of perception. The [[monad]]s are "substantial forms of being" with the following properties: they are eternal, indecomposable, individual, subject to their own laws, un-interacting, and each reflecting the entire universe in a [[pre-established harmony]] (a historically important example of [[panpsychism]]). Monads are centers of [[force]]; substance is force, while [[space]], [[matter]], and [[motion]] are merely phenomenal.
The [[ontology|ontological]] essence of a monad is its irreducible simplicity. Unlike [[atom]]s, monads posses no material or spatial character. They also differ from atoms by their complete mutual independence, so that interactions among monads are only apparent. Instead, by virtue of the principle of [[pre-established harmony]], each monad follows a preprogrammed set of "instructions" peculiar to itself, so that a monad "knows" what to do at each moment. (These "instructions" may be seen as analogs of the [[scientific law]]s governing [[subatomic particle]]s.) By virtue of these instrinsic instructions, each monad is like a little mirror of the universe. Monads need not be "small"; e.g., each human being constitutes a monad, in which case [[free will]] is problematic. [[God]], too, is a monad, and [[existence of God|God's existence]] can be inferred from the harmony prevailing among all other monads; God wills the [[pre-established harmony]].
Monads are purported to solve the problematic:
*Interaction between [[mind]] and [[matter]] arising in the system of [[Descartes]];
*Lack of [[individuation]] inherent to the system of [[Spinoza]], which represent individual creatures as merely [[accident|accidental]].
The monadology was thought arbitrary, even eccentric, in Leibniz's day and since. It now seems less so, in the light of key notions in contemporary physics such as [[field (physics)|field]], and the [[action at a distance (physics)|action at a distance]] and [[entanglement]] characterizing [[quantum mechanics]].
===Theodicy and optimism===
The ''Théodicée'' tries to justify the apparent imperfections of the world by claiming that it is optimal among all possible worlds. It must be the best possible and most balanced world, because it was created by a perfect God. Rutherford (1998) is a detailed scholarly study of Leibniz's theodicy.
The statement that "we live in the best of all possible worlds" drew scorn, most notably from [[Voltaire]], who lampooned it in his comic novel ''[[Candide]]'' by having the character ''[[Pangloss|Dr. Pangloss]]'' (a parody of Leibniz) repeat it like a [[mantra]]. Thus the adjective "panglossian", describing one so naive as to believe that the world about us is the best possible one.
The mathematician [[Paul du Bois-Reymond]], in his "Leibnizian Thoughts in [[Modern]] [[Science]]," wrote that Leibniz thought of God as a [[mathematician]].<blockquote> "As is well known, the theory of the [[maxima]] and [[minima]] of [[Function (mathematics)|functions]] was indebted to him for the greatest progress through the discovery of the method of [[tangent]]s. Well, he conceives God in the creation of the world like a mathematician who is solving a minimum problem, or rather, in our modern phraseology, a problem in the [[calculus of variations]] --- the question being to determine among an [[infinite]] number of possible worlds, tha |
others. This leadership was supported and fostered by the Reichswehr General Staff system, which worked the Army to greater and greater levels of capability through massive and systematic Movement warfare war games in the 1930s.
The Reichswehr and Red Army collaborated in [[wargame]]s and tests in [[Kazan]] and [[Lipetsk]] beginning in 1926. Set within the Soviet Union, these two centres were used to field test aircraft and armoured vehicles up to the battalion level, as well as housing aerial and armoured warfare schools through which officers were rotated. This was done in the Soviet Union, in secret, to evade the Treaty of Versailles's occupational agent, the [[Military Inter-Allied Commission of Control|Inter-Allied Commission]].{{ref|4}}
===Guderian into the Wehrmacht===
[[Image:guderian 1.jpg|right|thumb|General [[Heinz Guderian]], a theorist key to Germany's development of blitzkrieg.]]
Following Germany's military reforms of the 1920s, [[Heinz Guderian]] emerged as a strong proponent of mechanised forces. Within the Inspectorate of Transport Troops, Guderian and colleagues performed theoretical and field exercise work. There was opposition from many officers who gave primacy to the infantry or simply doubted the usefulness of the tank. Among them was Chief of the General Staff [[Ludwig Beck]] (1935–38), who was sceptical that armoured forces could be decisive. Nonetheless, the panzer divisions were established during his tenure.
Guderian argued that the tank was the decisive weapon of war. "If the tanks succeed, then victory follows", he wrote. In an article addressed to critics of tank warfare, he wrote "until our critics can produce some new and better method of making a successful land attack other than self-massacre, we shall continue to maintain our beliefs that tanks—properly employed, needless to say—are today the best means available for a land attack." Addressing the faster rate at which defenders could reinforce an area than attackers could penetrate it during the First World War, Guderian wrote that "since reserve forces will now be motorised, the building up of new defensive fronts is easier than it used to be; the chances of an offensive based on the timetable of artillery and infantry co-operation are, as a result, even slighter today than they were in the last war." He continued, "We believe that by attacking with tanks we can achieve a higher rate of movement than has been hitherto obtainable, and—what is perhaps even more important—that we can keep moving once a breakthrough has been made."{{ref|5}} Guderian additionally required that tactical [[radio]]s be widely used to facilitate co-ordination and command.
===Panzertruppe and Luftwaffe===
[[Image:EarlyPzDivTOE.png|thumb|right|250px|Organisation of a 1941 German [[Panzertruppe|panzer division]].]]
Blitzkrieg would not have been possible without modifying Germany's standing interwar military, which under the [[Treaty of Versailles]] was limited to 100,000 men, its air force disbanded, and tank development forbidden. After becoming head of state in 1933, [[Adolf Hitler]] ignored these provisions. A command for armoured troops was created within the German [[Heer]]—the ''[[Panzertruppe]]'', as it came to be known later. The [[Luftwaffe]], or air force, was re-established, and development begun on ground-attack aircraft and doctrines. Hitler was a strong supporter of this new strategy. He observed panzer field exercises and read Guderian's book ''Achtung! Panzer!''{{ref|6}} Upon seeing exercises at [[Kummersdorf]], he remarked "That is what I want—and that is what I will have."{{ref|7}}
===Spanish Civil War===
[[Image:Pzkpfwiausfa.jpg|thumb|left|[[Panzer I|PzKpfw I]] saw extensive use as training and scout vehicles in most blitzkrieg operations]]
German volunteers tested aspects of blitzkrieg tactics during the [[Spanish Civil War]] of 1936. Panzer commitments consisted of Panzer Battalion 88, a force built around three companies of [[Panzer I|PzKpfw I]]'s that functioned as a training cadre for Nationalists. The Luftwaffe deployed squadrons of [[Fighter aircraft|fighters]], [[Dive bomber|dive-bombers]], and [[Transport aircraft|transports]] as the [[Condor Legion]].{{ref|8}} Guderian called the panzer employment "on too small a scale to allow accurate assessments to be made."{{ref|9}} More was gained by the Luftwaffe, which developed both tactics and aircraft in combat; it was here that the [[Junkers Ju 87|Stuka]] first saw combat. Eighteen thousand Luftwaffe troops also gained combat experience.
==Methods of operations==
===Schwerpunkt===
Blitzkrieg sought decisive actions at all times. To this end, the theory of a ''schwerpunkt'' (focal point) developed; it was the point of maximum effort. Panzer and Luftwaffe forces were used only at this point of maximum effort whenever possible. By local success at the ''schwerpunkt'', a small force achieved a breakthrough and gained advantages by fighting in the enemy's rear. It is summarised by Guderian as "Nicht kleckern, klotzen!" (Don't tickle, smash!)
To achieve a breakout, infantry or, less commonly, panzer forces themselves (otherwise preserved for manoeuvre beyond) would attack the enemy's defensive line, supported by artillery fire and Luftwaffe bombing. These forces created a breach in the depth of the enemy's line. Through this breach passed the panzer forces in their entirety, as the breaching force attacked to the flanks to increase security through distance. This point of breakout has been labelled a "hinge", for from it panzer forces manoeuvred forward and developed "leverage" against the defensive line's forces.
In this, the opening phase of an operation, the Luftwaffe sought a coup against enemy air forces. It attempted to strafe and bomb landed aircraft and runways, disabling them, or deploy in fighter sweeps to clear the skies in large battles. From the beginning, air superiority was a goal; to operate as designed, the panzer force required that reconnaissance aircraft, ground-attack aircraft, and in some cases transport aircraft all be able to fly. With the Luftwaffe itself driven from the sky in the war's later years, operating under Allied air superiority would be a hindrance ([[#Air superiority|See below]]).
A final element was the use of [[airborne forces]] beyond the enemy lines. These were not only to disrupt enemy activities or take important positions, in ''Blitzkrieg'' they were also to serve as a psychological inducement for the troops trying to forge ahead into enemy territory - since any rapid advance is in danger of eventually slowing down when urgency is lost and supply lines lengthen, while troop strengths fall due to inevitable casualities. It was the stated purpose of commanding officers that the airborne troops deployed far beyond enemy lines serve as a sort of 'beacon' which the advancing troops were to relieve. In this urgent rush to save their comrades from eventually being overwhelmed by heavier enemy forces was thus seen an important element of preventing an advance from slowing down too much.
===Paralysis===
[[Image:PanzerV Panther D.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Panther tank|Panther Ausf. D]], one of the more advanced German panzer designs developed from experience with the Soviet [[T-34]].]]
Having achieved a breakthrough into the enemy's rear areas, German forces attempted to paralyse the enemy's decision making and implementation process. Moving faster than enemy forces, panzer forces exploited weaknesses and acted before opposing forces could formulate a response. Guderian wrote that "Success must be exploited without respite and with every ounce of strength, even by night. The defeated enemy must be given no peace."
Central to this is the [[decision cycle]]. Every decision made by German or opposing forces required time to gather information, make a decision, disseminate orders to subordinates, and then implement this decision through action. Through superior mobility and faster decision-making cycles, panzer forces could take action on a situation sooner than the forces opposing them.
[[Directive control]] was a fast and flexible method of command. Rather than receiving an explicit order, a commander would be told of his superior's intent and the role which his unit was to fill in this concept. The exact method of execution was then a matter for the low-level commander to determine as best fit the situation. Staff burden was reduced at the top and spread among commands more knowledgeable about their own situation. In addition, the encouragement of initiative at all levels aided implementation. As a result, significant decisions could be effected quickly and either verbally or with written orders a few pages in length.
===Kesselschlacht===
An operation's final phase, the ''Kesselschlacht'' (cauldron battle), was a concentric attack on an encircled force. It was here that most losses were inflicted upon the enemy, primarily through the capture of prisoners and weapons.
==Operations in the Second World War==
===Poland 1939===
[[Image:Poland2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In Poland, panzer divisions created numerous pockets of Polish forces (blue circles) that were destroyed by following infantry.]]
Despite the term ''blitzkrieg'' being coined during the [[Polish September Campaign]] of 1939, historians generally hold that German operations during it were more consistent with more traditional methods. The Wehrmacht's strategy was more inline with [[Vernichtungsgedanken]], or a focus on envelopment to create pockets in broad-front annihilation. Panzer forces were deployed among the three German concentrations without strong emphasis on independent use, being used to create or destroy close pockets of [[Polish Army|Polish forces]] and seize operational-depth terrain in support of the largely unmotorised infantry which followed. The Luftwaffe gained a |
ised the ideal boyfriend. Muslim &mdash; often [[Sufi]] &mdash; poets in medieval [[Arab]] lands and in [[Iran|Persia]] wrote odes to the beautiful Christian wine boys who, they claimed, served them in the taverns and shared their beds at night. In many areas the practice survived into modern times (as documented by [[Richard Francis Burton]], [[André Gide]], and others).
In [[Central Asia]], on the [[Silk Route]], the two traditions of the east and the west met, and gave rise to a strong local culture of same-sex love. In the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking areas, one manifestation of this were the [[baccha|bacchá]], adolescent or adolescent-seeming male entertainers and sex workers. In other areas male love continues to surface despite efforts to keep it quiet. After the American invasion of Afghanistan, Central Asian same-sex love customs in which adult men take on adolescent lovers were widely reported.
Other forms are less well documented. It is reported that in the oasis of [[Siwa]] boy marriages were the norm until the middle of the twentieth century, a practice which was coupled with a minimum age for heterosexual marriage of forty for the men, a measure presumed to have been taken to avoid overpopulation. Finally, sexual relations between older and younger boys are said to be frequent in the Middle East as well as in the [[Maghreb]].
The prevailing pattern of same-sex relationships in the temperate and sub-tropical zone stretching from Northern India to the Western Sahara is one in which the relationships were &mdash; and are &mdash; either gender-structured or age-structured or both. In recent years, egalitarian relationships modelled on the western pattern have become more frequent, though they remain rare.
''See also: [[Tellak]]''
===South Pacific===
In many societies of [[Melanesia]] same-sex relationships are an integral part of the culture. Traditional [[Melanesia]]n insemination rituals also existed wherein adolescents would [[oral sex|fellate]] older males as part of an initiation rite. In some tribes of [[Papua New Guinea]], for example, it is considered a normal ritual responsibility for a boy to have a relationship as a part of his ascent into manhood. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of [[Christianity]] by [[European]] [[missionaries]].
===Modern Developments===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Generobinsonconsecration.jpg|thumb|Consecration of the [[Anglican Communion]]'s first openly noncelibate gay Bishop, [[Gene Robinson]] on [[November 2]], [[2003]], in [[Durham, New Hampshire]], [[United States]].]] -->
Shortly after [[World War II]] the [[gay community]] began to make advancements in [[civil rights]] in much of the [[Western World]]. A turning point was reached in [[1973]] when, in a vote decided by a plurality of the membership, the [[American Psychiatric Association]] removed homosexuality from the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], thus negating homosexuality as a clinical [[mental disorder]].
Since the [[1960s]], in part due to their history of shared oppression, many gays in the West have developed a shared [[Queer culture|culture]]. Not all gays choose to participate in it, and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To many gay men and women, the gay culture represents [[heterophobia]] and is scorned as widening the gulf between gay and straight people. Some people believe that gay culture is exemplified by the [[gay pride]] movement. In the past, some gay groups organised campaigns for awareness of the [[AIDS]] outbreak.
====Marriage====
At the start of [[2006]], at least five countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada and South Africa), plus the U.S. in the [[Commonwealth of Massachusetts]], have legalized [[same-sex marriage]]. Other countries, including the majority of [[Europe]], have enacted [[civil unions]]. Numerous countries in [[Scandinavia]] have had domestic partnership laws since the late 1980s.
In Asia, the conflict between homoerotic tradition and a resurgent Islamic fundamentalism continues. Liaquat Ali, a 42 year old [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] refugee, and Markeen Afridi a 16 year old [[Pakistan|Pakistani]] boy, reportedly fell in love and got married in a very public ceremony in October of [[2005]]. {{ref|sydney}} {{ref|daily_times}} There are efforts to refute the original reports which were authored by a reporter from the tribe where the wedding occurred. {{ref|fabricated}}
====Political developments====
Publicly gay politicians have attained numerous government posts, even in countries that had [[sodomy laws]] or outright [[History of Gays during the Holocaust|mass murder of gays]] in their recent past.
====Religious developments====
The overall trend of greater acceptance of gay men and women in the latter part of the [[20th Century]] was not limited to [[secular]] institutions; it was also seen in many [[Religion and homosexuality|religious]] institutions. [[Reform Judaism]], the largest branch of [[Judaism]] outside [[Israel]] had begun to facilitate religious [[same-sex marriages|weddings]] for gay adherents in their synagogues. The [[Anglican Communion]] encountered discord that caused a rift between the European and North American Churches when American and Canadian churches ordained gay clergy and began blessing same-sex unions against the wishes of the Anglican archdiocese. Other Churches such as the [[Methodist Church]] had experienced trials of gay clergy who some claimed were a violation of religious principles resulting in mixed verdicts dependent on geography.
These developments have been accompanied by a response from certain conservative religious organisations, especially in the United States. In various instances, this movement has succeeded in overturning some of the aforementioned legislation and has had an influence on academia. In late [[2005]], Haworth Press withdrew from publication a volume on homosexuality in classical antiquity titled ''Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and in the Classical Tradition of the West.'' This was in response to criticism from American conservative groups which objected to the discussion of positive aspects of classical pederasty, as well as to a chapter by the American academic Bruce Rind which was branded by the critics as advocating pedophilia. ''(see [[Anti-gay slogan]])'' The publisher, in a letter to the editors, exonerated Rind from the accusation and conceded that his article was sound, but stood by its decision to withdraw it "to avoid negative press" and "economic repercussions."[http://thechronicleherald.ca/NovaScotia/456746.html Article in the Halifax ''The Chronicle Herald'']
Fundamentalist religious organizations are also attempting to weaken the gay rights community by cutting off its sources of income. In spring of [[2005]], the "American Family Association" threatened a boycott of [[Ford]] products to protest Ford's perceived support of "the homosexual agenda and homosexual marriage." After meeting with representatives of the group, Ford announced it was curtailing ads in a number of major gay publications (thus depriving them of a major source of income), an action it claimed to be determined not by cultural but by "cost-cutting" factors. That statement was contradicted by the AFA, which claimed it had a "good faith agreement" that Ford would cease such ads. Soon afterwards, as a result of a strong upcry from the gay community, Ford backtracked and announced it would continue ads in gay publications, in response to which the AFA denounced Ford for "violating" the agreement, and renewed threats of a boycott.[http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2005/ford_gay_ads04.html Anti-Gay Group Renews Ford Boycott Threat]
==Art and literature==
{{main|Homoeroticism}}
[[Image:Love play in China - wiki.jpg|thumb|''Young men sipping tea, reading poetry, and making love''<br> Individual panel from a hand scroll on homosexual themes, paint on silk; [[China]], [[Qing]] dynasty (18th-19th c.); [[Kinsey Institute]], Bloomington, Indiana]]
One of the main ways in which the record of same-sex love has been preserved is through [[literature]] and [[art]]. Homoerotic sensibilities are at the foundation of art in the west, to the extent that those roots can be traced back to the [[ancient Greeks]]. [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' is considered to have the love between two men as its central feature, a view held since antiquity. [[Plato]]'s [[Symposium]] also gives readers commentary on the subject, at one point putting forth the claim that homosexual love is superior to heterosexual love.
The European tradition was continued throughout the ages in the works of [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo]], and [[William Shakespeare]]. In Islamic societies it was present in figures such as [[Abu Nuwas]], [[Omar Khayyam]], . ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'', called the "world's first real novel", fostered this tradition in [[Japan]], as did the Chinese literary tradition in works such as [[Homosexuality in China#Same-sex love in literature|Bian er Zhai]] and [[Homosexuality in China#Same-sex love in literature|Jin Ping Mei]]
Icons such as [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] and [[Elton John]] have followed this tradition in modern times. Presently the Japanese [[anime]] subgenre, [[yaoi]], commonly features the theme. Artistic nudes have prominently displayed lesbianism. Playwrights have penned popular works such as ''[[Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes|Angels In America]]''. These sentiments have been pervaded in many movies. A popular television series exploited these perceptions with ''[[Queer Eye for the Straight Guy]]'' equating gay men with the ancient Greek [[Muses]]. Recently, the film [[Brokeback Mountain]] has raised enormo |
military regime also sing the anthem with the Verse III in private ceremonies.
==Official version lyrics==
Below are the lyrics of the version most often played; it corresponds to Verse V of the full version and the chorus:
{|
!Spanish original
!Translation
|-
|width=50%|
Puro, Chile, es tu cielo azulado;<br>
Puras brisas te cruzan también.<br>
Y tu campo de flores bordado<br>
Es la copia feliz del Edén.<br>
Majestuosa es la blanca montaña<br>
Que te dio por baluarte el Señor<br>
Que te dio por baluarte el Señor,<br>
Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña<br>
Te promete futuro esplendor<br>
Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña<br>
Te promete futuro esplendor.<br>
'''Coro'''<br>
Dulce Patria, recibe los votos<br>
Con que Chile en tus aras juró:<br>
Que o la tumba serás de los libres<br>
O el asilo contra la opresión<br>
Que o la tumba serás de los libres<br>
O el asilo contra la opresión<br>
Que o la tumba serás de los libres<br>
O el asilo contra la opresión<br>
O el asilo contra la opresión<br>
O el asilo contra la opresión.
|width=50%|
Pure, Chile, is your blue sky;<br>
Pure breezes flow across you as well.<br>
And your flower-embroidered field<br>
Is a happy copy of Eden.<br>
Majestic is the snow-capped mountain<br>
That was given as a bastion by the Lord<br>
That was given as a bastion by the Lord,<br>
And the sea that quietly washes your shores<br>
Promises you future splendor<br>
And the sea that quietly washes your shores<br>
Promises you future splendor.
'''Chorus'''<br>
Sweet fatherland, accept the vows<br>
That were given by Chile at your altars:<br>
Either you be the tomb of the free<br>
Or the refuge against oppression<br>
Either you be the tomb of the free<br>
Or the refuge against oppression<br>
Either you be the grave of the free<br>
Or the refuge against oppression<br>
Or the refuge against oppression<br>
Or the refuge against oppression.
|}
==Full version lyrics==
'''I'''<br>
Ha cesado la lucha sangrienta;<br>
Ya es hermano el que ayer invasor;<br>
De tres siglos lavamos la afrenta<br>
Combatiendo en el campo de honor.<br>
El que ayer doblegábase esclavo<br>
Libre al fin y triunfante se ve;<br>
Libertad es la herencia del bravo,<br>
La Victoria se humilla a sus pies.
:'''Coro'''
:Dulce Patria, recibe los votos
:Con que Chile en tus aras juró
:Que o la tumba serás de los libres
:O el asilo contra la opresión.
'''II'''<br>
Alza, Chile, sin mancha la frente;<br>
Conquistaste tu nombre en la lid;<br>
Siempre noble, constante y valiente<br>
Te encontraron los hijos del Cid.<br>
Que tus libres tranquilos coronen<br>
A las artes, la industria y la paz,<br>
Y de triunfos cantares entonen<br>
Que amedrenten al déspota audaz.
:'''Coro'''
'''III'''<br>
Vuestros nombres, valientes soldados,<br>
Que habéis sido de Chile el sostén,<br>
Nuestros pechos los llevan grabados;<br>
Los sabrán nuestros hijos también.<br>
Sean ellos el grito de muerte<br>
Que lancemos marchando a lidiar,<br>
Y sonando en la boca del fuerte<br>
Hagan siempre al tirano temblar.
:'''Coro'''
'''IV'''<br>
Si pretende el cañón extranjero<br>
Nuestros pueblos osado invadir;<br>
Desnudemos al punto el acero<br>
Y sepamos vencer o morir.<br>
Con su sangre el altivo araucano<br>
Nos legó por herencia el valor;<br>
Y no tiembla la espada en la mano<br>
Defendiendo de Chile el honor
:'''Coro'''
'''V'''<br>
Puro, Chile, es tu cielo azulado,<br>
Puras brisas te cruzan también,<br>
Y tu campo de flores bordado<br>
Es la copia feliz del Edén.<br>
Majestuosa es la blanca montaña<br>
Que te dio por baluarte el Señor,<br>
Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña<br>
Te promete futuro esplendor.
:'''Coro'''
'''VI'''<br>
Esas galas, ¡oh, Patria!, esas flores<br>
Que tapizan tu suelo feraz,<br>
No las pisen jamás invasores;<br>
Con tu sombra las cubra la paz.<br>
Nuestros pechos serán tu baluarte,<br>
Con tu nombre sabremos vencer,<br>
O tu noble, glorioso estandarte,<br>
Nos verá combatiendo caer.
:'''Coro'''
==External links==
*[http://www.presidencia.cl/view/descargaAudio.asp?file=Himno-Nacional-audio.mp3 Sang anthem at Chile's Presidency site] ([[Mp3]], 2.0 MB)
*[http://www.navyband.navy.mil/anthems/ANTHEMS/chile.mp3 Chilean anthem by the US Navy Band] (Mp3, 1.9 MB)
[[Category:Chilean culture]]
[[Category:National anthems]]
[[ca:Himne nacional de Xile]]
[[de:Nationalhymne Chiles]]
[[es:Himno Nacional de Chile]]
[[fr:Hymne national du Chili]]
[[it:Inno Nazionale del Cile]]
[[hu:Chilei himnusz]]
[[nl:Himno Nacional]]
[[ja:チリの国歌]]
[[no:Himno Nacional de Chile]]
[[pt:Hino nacional do Chile]]
[[sr:Химна Чилеа]]
[[sv:Himno Nacional]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christmas Island</title>
<id>5500</id>
<revision>
<id>41898527</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:35:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MJCdetroit</username>
<id>627347</id>
</contributor>
<comment>English & Metric measurements per [[WP:MOSNUM]] and formating</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Pacific Ocean]] island, see [[Kiritimati]]''
[[Image:ChristmasIslandMap.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of Christmas Island]]
[[Image:Poonsaan1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Poon Saan in the evening]]
[[Image:Poonsaan2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Poon Saan shops]]
The '''Territory of Christmas Island''' is a small, non self-governing [[Territory]] of [[Australia]] located in the [[Indian Ocean]], 1,466 miles (2,360 [[kilometres|km]]) northwest of [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] in [[Western Australia]] and 310 miles (500 km) south of [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]]. It maintains about 1,500 residents who live in a number of towns on the northern tip of the island: Settlement, Silver City, Kampong, Poon Saan, and Drumsite. It has a unique natural topography and is of immense interest to scientists and naturalists due to the number of species of endemic flora and fauna which have evolved in isolation and undisturbed by human habitation. While there has been mining activity on the island for many years, 65 per cent of its 135 square kilometres (52.1&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi) are now National Park and there are large areas of pristine and ancient [[rainforest]].
==History==
For centuries, Christmas Island's isolation and rugged coasts provided natural barriers to settlement. British and Dutch navigators first included the island on their charts from the early seventeenth century, and Captain William Mynors of the East India Ship Company vessel, the ''Royal Mary'', named the island when he arrived on Christmas Day, 25th December, 1643. The island first appears on a map produced by [[Pieter Goos]] and published in [[1666]]. Goos had labelled the island ''Moni''.
The earliest recorded visit was in March of [[1688]] by [[William Dampier]] of the British ship ''Cygnet'', who found it uninhabited. An account of the visit can be found in Dampier's ''Voyages'', which describes how, when trying to reach [[Cocos]] from [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]], his ship was pulled off course in an easterly direction and after 28 days arrived at Christmas Island. Dampier landed at the Dales (on the West Coast) and two of his crewmen were the first recorded people to set foot on Christmas Island.
The next visit was by [[Daniel Beekman]], who described it in his [[1718]] book, ''A Voyage to and from the Island of Borneo, in the East Indies''.
In [[1771]] the [[India]]n vessel, the ''Pigot'', attempted to find an anchorage but was unsuccessful; the crew reported seeing wild pigs and coconut palms. However, pigs have never been introduced to the island, so the ''Pigot'' may have found a different island.
The first attempt at exploring the island was in [[1857]] by the crew of the ''Amethyst''. They tried to reach the summit of the island, but found the cliffs impassable.
During the [[Challenger expedition|1872-76 ''Challenger'' expedition]] to Indonesia, naturalist Dr John Murray carried out extensive surveys. At his urging, the British Admiralty annexed the 135 square kilometre island on 6 June 1888. But it was not until 1888 that Christmas Island was settled, when the Clunies-Ross brothers from neighbouring Cocos-Keeling Islands (some 900 kilometres to the south west) established a settlement at [[Flying Fish Cove]] to collect timber and supplies for the growing industry on Cocos.
In [[1887]], Captain Maclear of [[HMS Flying Fish|HMS ''Flying Fish'']], having discovered an anchorage in a bay that he named Flying Fish Cove, landed a party and made a small but interesting collection of the flora and fauna. In the next year, Pelham Aldrich, on board [[HMS Egeria|HMS ''Egeria'']], visited it for ten days, accompanied by J. J. Lister, who gathered a larger biological and mineralogical collection.
Among the rocks then obtained and submitted to Sir [[John Murray (oceanographer)|John Murray]] for examination were many of nearly pure phosphate of lime, a discovery which led to annexation of the island by the British Crown in [[June]] [[1888]]. Soon afterwards, a small settlement was established in Flying Fish Cove by G. Clunies Ross, the owner of the [[Cocos Islands|Keeling Islands]], and phosphate mining began in the [[1890s]] using [[Indentured_servant|indentured]] workers from [[Singapore]], [[China]], and [[Malaysia]].
The island was administered jointly by the British Phosphate Commissioners and District Officers from the U.K. Colonial Office through the Straits Colony, and later the Colony of Singapore. [[Japan |
arose from nineteenth century Western scholars assumptions that Dravidian speakers were a distinct group within India, separate from the speakers of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] languages in the north of the country. It was supposed that the generally darker-skinned Dravidians constituted a distinct [[race]]. This notion corresponded to [[master race|racial hierarchies]] of the time according to which darker skinned peoples were more primitive than light-skinned [[whites]]. Accordingly, Dravidians were envisaged as primitive early inhabitants of India who had been partially displaced and subordinated by more advanced [[Aryans]]. The term Dravidian is taken from the [[Sanskrit]] "drāvida", meaning "Southern". It's most probably derived from Prakrit equivalent of the word, "Tamil". It was adopted following the publication of [[Robert Caldwell]]'s ''Comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages'' (1856); a publication which established the language grouping as one of the major language groups of the world.
Classical anthropology viewed them as their own race of about the 40 human races ("Weddid race"). Indeed
they differ from northern Indians in many respects, one of which is often darker skin. Most modern historians, however, reject this conception of a distinct Dravidian race, asserting that the high degree of admixture between the two in prehistory negates any meaningful distinction outside of linguistics. Some believe darker skins of the Dravidians would be explained by their adaptation to the hotter and sunnier climate of South India.
The concept has affected thinking in India about racial and regional differences. It has informed aspects of [[Tamil people|Tamil]] nationalism, which has at times appropriated the claim that Dravidians are the earliest inhabitants of India in order to argue that other populations were oppressive interlopers from which Dravidians should liberate themselves. The discovery of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] in the 1920s, which was attributed to the displaced Dravidians of the north, further fuelled such Dravidianist ideas since it implied that the Indo-Aryans were "uncivilised barbarians" rather than a "superior race".
There is evidence to suggest that the proto-Dravidians of the [[Indian subcontinent]] were a [[Caucasoid]] people who arrived from the [[Middle East]], and may have been related to the [[Elamites]], whose language some propose be categorized along with the Dravidian languages as part of a larger [[Elamo-Dravidian]] language family. The Dravidians were preceded in the subcontinent by an [[Australoid]]-type people, and followed by [[Indo-European]]-speaking [[migrant]]s sometime later. The original inhabitants may be identified with the speakers of the [[Munda languages]], which are unrelated to either Indo-Aryan or Dravidian languages. This view is put forward in [[geneticist]] [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza]]'s book ''The History and Geography of Human Genes''. According to Tamil tradition, the Tamils came from a submerged island to the southeast of the subcontinent. However, Tamils form only quarter of Dravidian population.
==Dravidian languages and Dravidian peoples==
{{main|Dravidian languages}}
The Dravidian languages are grouped into Northern, Central, South-Central, and Southern categories. The Northern consists of Malto and [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]], spoken in northeast India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, as well as [[Brahui language|Brahui]] which is primarily spoken in southwestern [[Pakistan]]. South-Central consists mainly of [[Telugu language|Telugu]]. The southern branch has the most languages, with [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada language|Kannada]], and [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]].
Malayalam, Telugu and Kannada are highly influenced by [[Sanskrit]], both in vocabulary and in grammar. This may be attributable to the dominance of Brahmins in the past, and also to the adaptation of Sanskrit as the principal language of Buddhism, Jainism and Saivism in those societies.
Some believe that Dravidian-speaking peoples were spread throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] before the [[Aryan race|Aryans]] settled there. In this view the early [[Indus Valley civilization]] ([[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]]) is often identifed as having been Dravidian. A subsequent theory, which is controversial now, suggests that its peoples were then forced southwards by the [[Aryan invasion theory|invasion of the Aryans]], which caused the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization. However it is now considered more likely that the collapse was caused by environmental change (drought). It was then this collapse that encouraged the migration of the nomadic Indo-Aryans into the area; a situation comparable with the decline of the [[Roman Empire]] and the incursions of [[North Europe]]an tribes that followed during the [[Migrations Period]]. It is therefore more likely that the Dravidian speakers of South India were already living in the region, and were merely the only group unaffected by the initial [[Indo-Aryan migration]].
Some scholars like J. Bloch and [[Michael Witzel|M. Witzel]] believe that the Dravidians intruded upon an Indo-Aryan speaking area after the oldest parts of the [[Rig Veda]] were already composed (see Bryant 2001: chapter 5). This theory might be supported if a higher antiquity of the Indo-Aryan languages could be established. However, since this theory is mainly a linguistic hypothesis, the Dravidian influence on Aryan languages must not necessarly be equated to a movement of populations. A small number of individuals, rather than populations, could have influenced the [[Sanskrit]] language. The influence of Sanskrit itself on the Dravidian languages was the result of individual Sanksrit speakers (and not of whole populations) migrating to South India.
Into the 21st century, Indians, with possible justification, continue to accuse the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Raj]] of exaggerating differences between northern and southern Indians beyond [[linguistics|linguistic]] differences to help sustain their control of India. The British Raj ended in 1947, yet all discussion of [[Aryan race|Aryan]] or Dravidian "[[race|races]]" remains highly controversial in India.
== Dravidian and Vedic culture ==
The Dravidians and South Indians have been in some respects the best preservers of ancient Vedic culture and traditions, especially when the north of India was dominated by [[Buddhism]] and later was affected by [[Islam]]. Some modern theories of the origins of both [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] focus on the resultant mixture of the "Aryan" and "Dravidian" cultures.
According to the [[Purana]]s, the Dravidians are descendants of the Vedic Turvasha people. According to the [[Matsya Purana]], [[Manu]] is considered as a south Indian king. In [[Hindu]] tradition the creation of the [[Tamil language]] is credited to the [[Rig Veda|Rig Vedic]] sage Rishi Agastya, a view that secular linguists would interpret as a [[Mythology|myth]] designed to link Dravidians to Vedic Indo-Aryan culture.
Tamil literature and Tamil epics and classics have many references to Vedic gods and culture. The [[Tolkaappiyam]] mentions non-Vedic, early-Vedic ([[Indra]], [[Varuna]]) and Puranic ([[Vishnu]]) gods. The Paripadal (8; 3; 9 etc.), one of the "Eight Anthologies" of poetry (or ettuttokai), has homages to [[Vishnu]], [[Lakshmi]], [[Brahma]], the twelve [[Aditya]]s, the Ashwins, the Rudras, the Saptarishis, [[Indra]], the Devas etc. The [[Kural]], written by [[Tiruvalluvar]], mentions gods like Indra (25) and Lakshmi (e.g. 167).
The Tamil epic [[Shilappadikaram]], begins with invocations to [[Chandra]], [[Surya]], and [[Indra]], and has homages to [[Agni]], [[Varuna]], [[Shiva]], Subrahmanya, Vishnu-Krishna, Uma, etc. The epic states that &#8220;Vedic sacrifices [are] being faultlessly performed&#8221; and has many references to Vedic culture and Vedic texts. In the Buddhist work [[Manimekhalai]], the submersion of the city Puhar in [[Kumari Kandam]] is attributed to the neglect of the worship to [[Indra]].
==Kumari Kandam==
According to Tamil Tradition, the Dravidians originally came from a submerged island [[Kumari Kandam]] in the south of India. The Epics [[Shilappadikaram]] and [[Manimekhalai]] describe the submerged city of [[Puhar]] (Poombuhar). [[Kumari Kandam]] has also been linked to [[Lemuria (continent)|Lemuria]].
At [[Mahabalipuram]], near [[Chennai]], submerged ruins have been found in the ocean.
== The Eastern Ethiopians ==
{{Main|Eastern Ethiopian}}
[[Herodotus]], [[Homer]] and other Greek authors called the Dravidians the [[Eastern Ethiopian]]s. Greek writers sometimes identified the "Western Aethiopians" of East Africa with the "Eastern Aethiopians" of South India. Also the African and Indian geography were sometimes compared or identified with eachother: [[Arrian]] (vi. i.) mentions that the [[Indus]] River was thought by some ancient [[History of Ancient Greece|Greek]]s to be the source of the [[Nile]]. It is usually assumed that by 'Aethiopian' Herodotus simply means 'black person', so that the term really only functions to characterise southern Indians as Eastern black people.
Herodotus wrote about the Dravidians: ''They differed in nothing from the other Ethiopians, save in their language, and the character of their hair. For the Eastern Ethiopians have straight [[hair]], while they of [[Libya]] are more woolly-haired than any other people in the world. (Herodotus: from The History of the Persian Wars, VII.70., c.430 BCE)''
[[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky]], however, took up this connection between Dravidians and Ethiopians in order to claim a direct racial and cultural link between the two peoples. She was attempting to show that Indian culture influenced Ancient [[Egypt]] via Ethiopi |
23 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 23일]]
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[[he:23 בפברואר]]
[[jv:23 Februari]]
[[ka:23 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:23 gromicznika]]
[[ku:23'ê reşemiyê]]
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[[os:23 февралы]]
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[[se:Guovvamánu 23.]]
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[[sk:23. február]]
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[[th:23 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:23 tháng 2]]
[[tr:23 Şubat]]
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[[pam:Pebreru 23]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>February 22</title>
<id>11009</id>
<revision>
<id>41952568</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:17:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elizabeth M Ross</username>
<id>891688</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Events */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=22}}
|}
'''February 22''' is the 53rd day of every year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 312 days remaining, 313 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
*[[1290s BC|1295 BC]] - The coronation of [[Ramses II]], on whose face the sun's rays fall each year in [[Abu Simbel]] temple.
* [[1281]] - [[Pope Martin IV|Martin IV]] becomes [[Pope]].
* [[1288]] - [[Pope Nicholas IV|Nicholas IV]] becomes [[Pope]].
* [[1495]] - King [[Charles VIII of France]] enters [[Naples]] to claim the city's throne.
* [[1632]] - [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s ''[[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems]]'' is published.
* [[1744]] - The [[Battle of Toulon, 1744|Battle of Toulon]] begins.
* [[1819]] - By the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]], [[Spain]] sells [[History of Florida|Florida]] to the [[United States]] for five million [[United States dollar|U.S. dollars]].
* [[1847]] - [[Mexican-American War]]: The [[Battle of Buena Vista]] - 5,000 [[United States|American]] troops drive off 15,000 [[Mexico|Mexican]].
* [[1855]] - The [[Pennsylvania State University]] is founded.
* [[1856]] - The [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] opens its first national meeting in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].
* [[1865]] - [[Tennessee]] adopts a new [[constitution]] that abolishes [[slavery]].
* [[1876]] - [[Johns Hopkins University]] is founded in [[Baltimore, Maryland]].
* [[1879]] - In [[Utica, New York]], [[Frank Woolworth]] opens the first of many of 5 and 10-cent [[Woolworth]] stores.
* [[1889]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Grover Cleveland]] signs a bill admitting [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Montana]] and [[Washington]] as [[U.S. state]]s.
* [[1904]] - [[UK]] recognises the [[South Orkney Islands]] as part of [[Argentina]], in [[1908]] claims them again.
* [[1915]] - [[Germany]] institutes [[unrestricted submarine warfare]].
* [[1920]] - In [[Emeryville, California]], the first [[dog race]] track to employ an imitation [[rabbit]] opens.
* [[1923]] - The [[United States]] begins the first transcontinental [[air mail]] route.
* [[1924]] - [[Calvin Coolidge]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to deliver a [[radio]] broadcast from the [[White House]].
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] orders [[General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]] out of the [[Philippines]] as [[United States|American]] defense collapses.
* [[1943]] - Members of [[White Rose]] are executed in [[Nazi]] [[Germany]].
* [[1948]] - Start of the [[Czechoslovak]] [[Revolution]].
* [[1949]] - [[Grady the Cow]], a 1,200-pound cow gets stuck inside a silo on a farm in [[Yukon, Oklahoma]] and garners national media attention.
* [[1956]] - [[Elvis Presley]] enters the music charts for the first time, with "[[Heartbreak Hotel]]".
* [[1958]] - [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] join to form the [[United Arab Republic]].
* [[1959]] - [[Lee Petty]] wins the first [[Daytona 500]].
* [[1969]] - [[Barbara Jo Rubin]] wins a [[United States]] thoroughbred [[horse race]] making history as the first woman to do so.
* [[1973]] - [[Cold War]]: Following [[President]] [[Richard Nixon]]'s [[Nixon visit to China 1972|visit]] to [[China]], the [[United States]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] agree to establish liaison offices.
* [[1974]] - [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] ([[OIC]]) summit conference starts in [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]]. Thirty-seven countries are attending. Twenty-two heads of state and government participate.
* [[1979]] - Independence of [[Saint Lucia]] from the [[United Kingdom]].
* [[1980]] - The [[United States]] [[ice hockey]] team defeats the [[Soviet Union]] team at the [[1980 Winter Olympic Games]] in an upset dubbed the "[[Miracle on Ice]]".
* [[1994]] - [[Aldrich Ames]] and his wife are charged by the [[United States Department of Justice]] with spying for the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[1997]] - In [[Roslin]], [[Scotland]], scientists announce that an adult [[sheep]] named [[Dolly the sheep|Dolly]] had been successfully [[cloning|cloned]].
* [[2002]] - A [[MH-47E Chinook]] [[helicopter]] crashes into the ocean near the [[Philippines]], killing all 10 aboard.
* [[2006]] - [[Al Askari Mosque]] bombed.
* [[2006]] - [[Dushanbe synagogue]] demolished.
* [[2006]] - At least six men stage Britain's [[Securitas depot robbery|biggest ever robbery]], stealing £53m (about $92.5 million or €78 million) from a Securitas depot in [[Tonbridge]], [[Kent]].
* [[2006]] - [[Utada Hikaru]]'s 11th single "[[Keep Tryin']]" is released.
==Births==
*[[1040]] - [[Rashi]], French rabbi and commentator (d. [[1105]])
*[[1403]] - King [[Charles VII of France]] (d. [[1461]])
*[[1440]] - King [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary]] (d. [[1457]])
*[[1500]] - [[Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi]], Italian humanist (d. [[1564]])
*[[1612]] - [[George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol]], English statesman (d. [[1677]])
*[[1705]] - [[Peter Artedi]], Swedish naturalist (d. [[1735]])
*[[1714]] - [[Louis-Georges de Bréquigny]], French historian (d. [[1795]])
*[[1732]] (N.S.) - [[George Washington]], first [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1799]])
*[[1778]] - [[Rembrandt Peale]], American artist (d. [[1860]])
*[[1788]] - [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], German philosopher (d. [[1860]])
*[[1796]] - [[Alexis Bachelot]], French missionary (d. [[1838]])
*1796 - [[Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet]], Belgian mathematician (d. [[1874]])
*[[1817]] - [[Carl Wilhelm Borchardt]], German mathematician (d. [[1880]])
*[[1819]] - [[James Russell Lowell]], American poet and essayist (d. [[1891]])
*[[1839]] - [[Francis Pharcellus Church]], American editor and publisher (d. [[1906]])
*[[1840]] - [[August Bebel]], German politician (d. [[1913]])
*[[1849]] - [[Nikolay Yakovlevich Sonin]], Russian mathematician (d. [[1915]])
*[[1857]] - [[Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell]], English founder of the Boy Scouts (d. [[1941]]) (also of his wife - see 1889)
*1857 - [[Heinrich Hertz]], German physicist (d. [[1894]])
*[[1878]] - [[Walter Ritz]], Swiss physicist (d. [[1909]])
*[[1880]] - [[Frigyes Riesz]], Hungarian mathematician (d. [[1956]])
*[[1883]] - [[Marguerite Clark]], American silent film actress (d. [[1940]])
*[[1886]] - [[Hugo Ball]], German author and poet (d. [[1927]])
*[[1887]] - [[Ksawery Tartakower]], Polish chess player (d. [[1956]])
*[[1889]] - [[Wojciech Rubinowicz]], Polish physicist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1889]] - Lady [[Olave Baden-Powell]], English Chief Girl Guide (d. [[1977]]) (also of her husband - see 1857)
*[[1892]] - [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]], American writer (d. [[1950]])
*[[1896]] - [[Enid Markey]], silent screen actress (d. [[1981]])
*[[1899]] - [[Dwight Frye]], American actor (d. [[1943]])
*1899 - [[George O'Hara]], American actor (d. [[1966]])
*1899 - [[Dechko Uzunov]], Bulgarian painter (d. [[1986]])
*[[1900]] - [[Luis Buñuel]], Spanish-born film director (d. [[1983]])
*[[1902]] - [[Fritz Strassmann]], German physicist (d. [[1980]])
*[[1903]] - [[Morley Callaghan]], Canadian writer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1907]] - [[Sheldon Leonard]], American actor, writer, director, and producer (d. [[1997]])
*1907 - [[Robert Young (actor)|Robert Young]], American actor (d. [[1998]])
*[[1908]] - Sir [[John Mills]], English actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1914]] - [[Renato Dulbecco]], Italian-born virologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1918]] - [[Sid Abel]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[2000]])
*1918 - [[Charlie Finley]], American sports entrepreneur (d. [[1996]])
*1918 - [[Don Pardo]], American radio and television announcer
*1918 - [[Robert Wadlow]], tallest person in history (d. [[1940]])
*[[1921]] - [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]], ruler of the Central African Republic (d. [[1996]])
*1921 - [[Wayne Booth]], American literary critic (d. [[2005]])
*1921 - [[Giuletta Masina]], Italian actress (d. [[1994]])
*[[1925]] - [[Edward Gorey]], American illustrator (d. [[2000]])
*[[1926]] - [[Kenneth Williams]], English actor (d. [[1988]])
*1926 - [[Bud Yorkin]], American film director
*[[1928]] - [[Paul Dooley]], American actor
*1928 - [[Bruce Forsyth]], British entertainer
*[[1929]] - [[Rebecca Schull]], American actress
*[[1930]] - [[Marni Nixon]], American singer
*[[1932]] - [[Ted Kennedy]], U.S. senator from Massachusetts
*[[1933]] - [[Katharine, Duchess of Kent|Katharine]], The [[Duchess]] of [[Kent]]
*[[1934]] - [[Sparky Anderson]], American baseball manager
*[[1936]] - [[J. Michael Bishop]], Ameri |
*''[[Spitting Image: The Ronnie and Nancy Show]]'' (1987) (TV)
*''[[Flicks]]'' (1987) (voice)
[[Image:Derek Smalls.jpg|thumb|Shearer as [[Derek Smalls]].]]
*''[[The History of White People in America: Volume II]]'' (1986) (TV)
*''[[Spitting Image: Down and Out in the White House]]'' (1986) (TV)
*''[[Viva Shaf Vegas]]'' (1986) (TV)
*''[[The History of White People in America]]'' (1985) (TV)
*''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'' (1984)
*''[[The Right Stuff]]'' (1983)
*''[[Million Dollar Infield]]'' (1982) (TV)
*''[[Likely Stories, Vol. 1]]'' (1981) TV Series
*''[[One Trick Pony]]'' (1980)
*''[[Loose Shoes]]'' (1980)
*''[[Animalympics]]'' (1980)
*''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' (1979-1980, 1984-1985)
*''[[The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh]]'' (1979)
*''[[The T.V. Show]]'' (1979) (TV)
*''[[Real Life (film)|Real Life]]'' (1979)
*''[[Cracking Up]]'' (1977)
*''[[American Raspberry]]'' (1977)
*''[[Serpico: The Deadly Game]]'' (1976) (TV)
*''[[The Jack Benny Program]]'' (1955) (guest voice) TV Series - Harry Beaver
*''[[The Jack Benny Program]]'' (1953) (guest voice) TV Series - Jack as a Child
*''[[The Robe]]'' (1953) (uncredited)
*''[[Abbott and Costello Go to Mars]]'' (1953) (uncredited)
==Books by Harry Shearer==
*(1993) ''Man Bites Town''. St Martins Pr. ISBN 0312088426.
*(1999) ''It's the Stupidity, Stupid : Why (Some) People Hate Clinton and Why the Rest of Us Have to Watch (Library of Contemporary Thought)''. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0345434013.
==External links==
*[http://www.harryshearer.com/ Harry Shearer's official site]
*[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/eat-the-press Harry Shearer's blog at the [[Huffington Post]]]
*{{Imdb name|id=0790434|name=Harry Shearer}}
*[http://voicechasers.com/database/showactor.php?actorid=1207 Harry Shearer] at [http://www.voicechasers.com Voice Chasers]
[[Category:1943 births|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on ER|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:American actors|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:American comedians|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:American radio personalities|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:American satirists|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:American voice actors|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Film actors|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Impressionists|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:KCRW|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Living people|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Saturday Night Live cast members|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Simpsons cast members|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Television actors|Shearer, Harry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Haenir</title>
<id>14332</id>
<revision>
<id>24745669</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-04T18:21:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krun</username>
<id>246742</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hœnir]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>How to test three-phase pumps</title>
<id>14333</id>
<revision>
<id>15911895</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-18T22:39:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Plugwash</username>
<id>90028</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Three-phase testing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hunter S Thompson</title>
<id>14334</id>
<revision>
<id>15911896</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hunter S. Thompson]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Painting</title>
<id>14335</id>
<revision>
<id>15911897</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of painting]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>High fantasy</title>
<id>14336</id>
<revision>
<id>42026064</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:08:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Saga or series */ references</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Fantasy}}
'''High fantasy''' is a [[Genre|subgenre]] of [[fantasy fiction]] that is set in invented or [[parallel world|parallel worlds]]. Built upon the platform of a diverse body of works in the already very popular fantasy genre, high fantasy came into fruition through the work of authors such as [[C. S. Lewis]] and [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]. While it is far from being the oldest fantasy subgenre, high fantasy, along with [[sword and sorcery]], has become one of the two genres most commonly associated with the general term ''fantasy''.
== Genre overview ==
These stories are reputedly serious in tone and often epic in scope, dealing with themes of grand struggle against [[supernatural]], [[evil]] forces. It is one of the most popular subgenres of fantasy fiction. Some typical characteristics of high fantasy include fantastical races such as [[elves]] and [[dwarves]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[wizard]]s, invented languages, coming-of-age themes, and multi-volume narratives.
The term can also distinguish between high fantasy and [[low fantasy]]. In this case, "high" and "low" simply describe the relative amount of [[supernatural]] forces in the world. In some fiction, a contemporary, "real-world" character is placed in the invented world, sometimes through devices such as portals to other worlds or even [[subconscious]] travels. Purists might not consider this to be "true" high fantasy, although such stories are often categorized as high fantasy due to the fact that they've yet to be classified as their own distinct subgenre, and often resemble this subgenre more closely than any other.
High fantasy is the most popular and successful subgenre of the fantasy fiction. Its fandom ranges from Tolkien to contemporary. Recent screen versions of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' have contributed to the subgenre's continuing popularity. Moreover some novels are in preproduction status for movie adaptations like David Farland's ''Runelords'' and [[Terry Brooks]]' ''[[Magic Kingdom (Terry Brooks)|Magic Kingdom of Landover]]''.
=== Concepts ===
One of the main concepts of the high fantasy storylines is the main [[hero]]'s storyline. Most of the main characteristics revolve around his heritage. In many novels he is mostly an unusual [[orphan]] or an unusual and strange sibling with some (or more) incredible abilities and skills in a particular area (most of the time - [[magic]]) - e.g. [[Terry Goodkind]]'s [[Richard Rahl]], [[Robert Jordan]]'s [[Rand al'Thor]] of ''[[The Wheel of Time]]'', [[Raymond Feist]]'s [[Pug_(fictional_character)|Pug]] of ''[[Riftwar Saga]]'', [[Christopher Paolini]]'s [[Eragon (character)|Eragon]] of '' The [[Inheritance Trilogy]]'', [[David Eddings]]' [[Belgarion]] of ''[[Belgariad]]'', [[Tad Williams]]' Simon of ''[[Memory, Sorrow, and Thorn]]''. In other works he is a completely developed individual with his own character and spirit - David Eddings' [[Sparhawk]] of ''[[The Elenium]]'' and ''[[The Tamuli]]''.
In most stories, the hero, considering his dark and vague heritage, slowly gains knowledge of his past, through legend, prophecy, lost-and-found-again family members, or from more mysterious encounters. With that knowledge comes power and self-confidence. In many books there is a love interest surrounding the main character. Usually, she is as selfless and good as the [[main character]].
In the beginning of the storyline, there is one important twist or event in the life of the character. He is threatened by the unknown force. Many times, the character is destined to destroy the evil force, or to be a threat himself of some importance. In many books there is one mystical persona who provides the main character with advice and help. Mostly he is a formidable wizard or warrior. Examples would be: the wizard [[Kulgan]] of [[Riftwar Saga]], Tolkien's [[Gandalf]], and [[Allanon]] of Terry Brooks.
Plagiarism of ideas sometimes makes novels dull or repetitive. Many of the novels are strongly influenced by Tolkien's ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', which is considered the groundwork of the genre.
=== Saga or series ===
Role-playing campaign settings like [[Forgotten Realms]] by [[Ed Greenwood]] and [[Dragonlance]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dragonlance.com| title=Dragonlance homepage| accessdate=2006-03-02| format=HTML}}</ref> by [[Tracy Hickman]] and [[Margaret Weis]]' are an excellent basis for many fantasy books and many authors continue to contribute to the settings.
From [[J.R.R. Tolkien|Tolkien]] to the modern day, authors in this genre tend to create their own worlds where they set multi-tiered narratives such as the ''Riftwar'' saga, ''Belgariad'', ''Malloreon'' and ''Memory, Sorrow and Thorne''. Other authors such as George R.R. Martin, Robert Jordan, L. E. Modesitt, Jr., and Terry Goodkind write extended stories over several volumes relating with the same character threads.
==References==
<references/>
==See also==
*[[Eric Rucker Eddison]] (''[[The Worm Ouroboros]]'' and ''The [[Zimiamvian Trilogy]]'') was a pre-Tolkien high fantasy writer.
*[[List of high fantasy fiction]]
[[Category:Fantasy genres]]
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[[zh:严肃奇幻]]</text>
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<title>Human sexual behavior</title>
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|
t; was comprised of rap tracks while "Bones" explored further the group's forays into [[rock (music)|rock]]. The album reached the Top 5 on the [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]] 200 and number 3 in [[Canada]]. The first single was "Rock Superstar" for rock radio and "Rap Superstar" for urban radio. The band also released a ''Live at [[the Fillmore]]'' disc in 2000.
Cypress Hill continued their experimentation with rock on ''The Stoned Raiders'' album on [[2001]]. However, its sales were a disappointment, as the disc did not even reach the top 50 of the U.S. album charts.
Cypress Hill recorded "Just Another Victim" for the [[WWE]] as a theme song for Taz. At the time, the [[WWE]] was using original music for almost all of the wrestlers, so this was an unusual step for the company to take, but it remains one of the more memorable songs to emerge from the wrestling organization.
The band released ''Till Death Do Us Part'' on [[March 23]], [[2004]]. The album saw the band experiment with [[reggae]] especially on the lead single "What's Your Number". The track features [[Tim Armstrong]] of [[Rancid]] on bass and [[Rob Aston]] of [[The Transplants]] on backup vocals. It is based on the classic song "Guns of Brixton" on [[The Clash]]'s ''[[London Calling]]'' and has proven to be a success on the modern rock charts. However, people who expected the original Cypress Hill-Flow from the first four albums got disappointed. The album also features appearances by [[Damian Marley]], son of [[Bob Marley]], Prodigy and Twin of [[Mobb Deep]] and producer [[the Alchemist]].
==Sound==
One of the band's most striking aspects is B-Real's exaggeratedly high-pitched nasal vocals, which fits and emphasizes the lyrics' concentration on parodied [[gangster]] stories (''pick it / pack it / fire it up / come along / and take a hit from the bong/ put the blunt down for a second / dont get me wrong its not a new method / inhale / exhale / just got an ounce in the mail'').
However, the sound and groove of their music, produced by Muggs, is also notable for its influence and stoned aesthetic. Members of Cypress Hill produced [[Urge Overkill]]'s 1993 album ''Saturation'' as the '''Butcher Bros'''.
{{section-stub}}
==Paintball==
Members of the group are also involved with the Division 2 NPPL paintball team, The Stoned Assassins, who are sponsored by paintball manufacturers Smarts Parts, JT and Chronic. B-Real's music appears on the [[Xbox]] games ''[[Greg Hastings' Tournament Paintball]]'' and ''[[Greg Hastings Tournament Paintball MAX'D]]'' (developed by [[The Whole Experience]]). B-Real is also a featured character in both GHTP games, and wrote a song for ''GHTP MAX'D'' entitled ''Play It For Real''. They also contributed towards the soundtrack for the first person shooter game 'Kingpin', set in a gangster & rap environment, including three songs.
==Discography==
* ''[[Cypress Hill (album)| Cypress Hill]]'' (1991)
* ''[[Black Sunday (album) | Black Sunday]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Cypress Hill III: Temples of Boom]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Unreleased and Revamped]] EP'' (1996)
* ''[[IV (Cypress Hill album)|IV]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Los grandes éxitos en español]]'' (1999) (Greatest hits in Spanish)
* ''[[Skull & Bones (album)| Skull & Bones]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Live at the Fillmore (Cypress Hill album)| Live at the Fillmore]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Stoned Raiders]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Stash]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Till Death Do Us Part (album)|Till Death Do Us Part]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Greatest Hits From the Bong]]'' (2005)
==External links==
*[http://www.angelesrecords.com/ New record label Official website]
*[http://www.brealonline.com/ B Real Official website]
*[http://www.djmuggs.com/ Dj Muggs Official website]
*[http://www.ericbobo.com/ Eric Bobo Official website]
*{{AMG Artist|sql=Bfifwxq95ld6e|artist=Cypress Hill}}
*[http://www.discogs.com/artist/Cypress+Hill Cypress Hill] at [[Discogs]]
*[http://www.cypresshill.com/ Cypress Hill's official website]
*[http://www.bandnews.org/Cypress%20Hill/ Cypress Hill news]
*[http://www.hiponline.com/artist/music/c/cypress_hill/ Cypress Hill's entry on hip online]
*[http://www.bandhunt.com/artist_site/band.php/cy002/ Cypress Hill's entry on iSOUND.COM]
*[http://www.lyricsdir.com/cypress-hill-lyrics.html Cypress Hill Lyrics]
*[http://www.ghtp.net Greg Hastings Tournament Paintball MAX'D website]
*[http://www.cypresshill.org/pchst/index.html Official Polish Cypress Hill Street Team]
[[Category:American hip hop groups]]
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<title>Combustion</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the chemical process. For the software, see [[Autodesk Combustion]]''.
'''Combustion''' or '''burning''' is a chemical process, an [[exothermic reaction]] between a substance (the [[fuel]]) and a gas (the [[oxidizer]]), usually O<sub>2</sub>, to release [[heat]]. In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an oxidizing element, and the products are compounds of each element in the fuel with the oxidizing element. For example:
[[methane|CH<sub>4</sub>]] + 2 [[oxygen|O<sub>2</sub>]] &rarr; [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] + 2 [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]] + [[heat]]
[[methylene sulfide|CH<sub>2</sub>S]] + 6 [[fluorine|F<sub>2</sub>]] &rarr; [[carbon tetrafluoride|CF<sub>4</sub>]] + 2 [[hydrogen fluoride|HF]] + [[sulfur hexafluoride|SF<sub>6</sub>]] + heat
==Rapid combustion==
Rapid combustion is a form of combustion in which large amounts of heat and [[light]] energy are released. This often occurs as a [[fire]].
This is used in forms of machinery, such as [[internal combustion engine]]s, and in [[thermobaric weapon]]s.
==Slower combustion==
Slow combustion is a form of combustion which takes place at low temperatures. [[Cellular respiration|Respiration]] is an example of slow combustion.
==Complete combustion==
In complete combustion, the reactant will burn in oxygen, producing a limited number of products. When a [[hydrocarbon]] burns in oxygen, the reaction will only yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and iron are burned, they will yield the most common oxides. Carbon will yield carbon dioxide. Nitrogen will yield [[nitrogen dioxide]]. Sulfur will yield [[sulfur dioxide]]. Iron will yield [[iron(III) oxide]]. Complete combustion is generally impossible to achieve unless the reaction occurs where conditions are carefully controlled (e.g. in a lab environment).
==Incomplete combustion==
In incomplete combustion there is an inadequate supply of oxygen for the combustion to occur completely. The reactant will burn in oxygen, but will produce numerous products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will yield carbon dioxide, water, carbon monoxide, and various other compounds such as nitrogen oxides. Incomplete combustion is much more common and will produce large amounts of byproducts, and in the case of burning fuel in automobiles, these byproducts can be quite lethal and damaging to the environment.
==Chemical equation==
Generally, the [[chemical equation]] for burning a [[hydrocarbon]] (such as [[octane]]) in [[oxygen]] is as follows:
:C<sub>''x''</sub>H<sub>''y''</sub> + (''x'' + ''y''/4)O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; ''x''CO<sub>2</sub> + (''y''/2)H<sub>2</sub>O
For example, the burning of [[propane]] is:
:C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> + 5O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 3CO<sub>2</sub> + 4H<sub>2</sub>O
The simple word equation for the combustion of a [[hydrocarbon]] is:
:[[Fuel]] + [[Oxygen]] &rarr; [[Heat]] + [[Water]] + [[Carbon dioxide]].
==Combustion of liquid fuels==
Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase, i. e. it is the vapour that burns, not the liquid. Therfore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature, its [[flash point]]. Below that temperature the liquid will not evaporate fast enough to sustain the fire.<!--THIS IS WHAT I RECALL FROM MY CHEMISTRY CLASSES IN COLLEGE. WILL SOME EXPERT PLEASE CHECK?-->
==Combustion of solid fuels==
The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases:
* '''Preheating phase''', when the unburned [[fuel]] is heated up to its flash point and then [[fire point]]. Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to [[dry distillation]].
* '''Distillation phase''' or '''gaseous phase''', when the mix of evolved flammable gases with [[oxygen]] is ignited. Energy is produced in the form of heat and light, [[flame]] is often visible.
* '''Charcoal phase''' or '''solid phase''', when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low for persistent presence of flame and the [[charring|charred]] fuel does not burn rapidly anymore but just glows and later only [[smouldering|smoulders]].
==Combustion temperatures==
Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as an [[adiabatic]] (no heat loss) and complete combustion, the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the [[first law of thermodynamics]] and takes note of the fact that the [[heat of combustion ]] (calculated from the fuel's [[heating value]]) is used entirely for warming up fuel and gas (e.g. oxygen or air).
In the case of fossil fuels burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on
* the heating value
* the [[stoichiometric air ratio] |
dius|&OElig;colampadius]] of [[Basel]], were, as Erasmus says, quoting him as holding views similar to their own in order to try to claim him for their schismatic movement.
==Writings==
Erasmus wrote both on ecclesiatic subjects and those of general human interest. He seems to have regarded the latter as trifling, a leisure activity.
His more serious writings begin early with the ''Enchiridion Militis Christiani,'' the "Handbook of the Christian Soldier" ([[1503]]). In this short work, Erasmus outlines the views of the normal Christian life, which he was to spend the rest of his days in elaborating. The chief evil of the day, he says, is formalism, going through the motions of tradition without understanding their basis in the teachings of Christ. Forms can teachthe soul how to worship God or they may hide or quench the spirit. In his examination of the dangers of formalism, Erasmus discusses [[monasticism]], saint-worship, war, the spirit of class and the foibles of "society", but the ''Enchiridion'' is more like a sermon than a [[satire]].
Erasmus' best-known work was ''[[The Praise of Folly]],'' ([[Latin]]: ''Moriae Encomium'') a satirical attack on the traditions of the Catholic Church and popular superstitions, written in 1509 and published in 1511 and dedicated to his friend Sir [[Thomas More]].
The ''[[Institutio Principis Christiani]]'' (Basel, [[1516]]), was written as advice to the young king Charles of Spain, later [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Erasmus applies the general principles of honour and sincerity to the special functions of the Prince, whom he represents throughout as the servant of the people. The ''Education of a Christian Prince'' was published in 1516, 26 years before [[Machiavelli]]’s ''The Prince.'' A comparison between the two is worth noting. [[Machiavelli]] stated that, to maintain control by political force, it is safer for a prince to be feared than loved. Erasmus, on the other hand, preferred for the prince to be loved, and suggested that the prince needed a well-rounded education in order to govern justly and benevolently and avoid becoming a source of oppression.
In 1516, Erasmus anonymously published a satiric dialogue, ''Julius Exclusus'', in which Pope [[Julius II]] is turned away from the gates of Heaven by St. Peter.
As a result of his reformatory activities, Erasmus found himself at odds with both the great parties. His last years were embittered by controversies with men toward whom he was sympathetic. Notable among these was [[Ulrich von Hutten]], a brilliant, but erratic genius, who had thrown himself into the Lutheran cause and had declared that Erasmus, if he had a spark of honesty, would do the same. In his reply, ''Spongia adversus aspergines Hutteni'' ([[1523]]), Erasmus displays his skill in [[semantics]]. He accuses Hutten of having misinterpreted his utterances about reform and reiterates his determination never to break with the Church.
The most important work of this last period is the ''[[Ecclesiastes_of_Erasmus|Ecclesiastes]]'' or "Gospel Preacher" ([[Basel]], [[1535]]), in which he comments on the function of preaching. His little tract of [[1533]], "Preparation for Death", in which the emphasis throughout is on the importance of a good life as the essential condition of a happy death.
References:
Gauss, C. (1999). Introduction to ''The Prince.'' New York, NY: Signet. First published in 1949, p. 11.
Jardine, L. (1997). Introduction to Erasmus: ''The Education of a Christian prince.'' Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
==Legacy==
The extraordinary popularity of his books, however, has been shown in the number of editions and translations that have appeared since the 16th century, and in the undiminished interest excited by his elusive but fascinating personality. Ten columns of the catalogue of the British Library are taken up with the bare enumeration of the works and their subsequent reprints. The greatest names of the classical and patristic world are among those translated, edited or annotated by Erasmus, including as Saint [[Ambrose]], [[Aristotle]], Saint [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], Saint [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil]], Saint [[John Chrysostom]], [[Cicero]], and Saint [[Jerome]].
Today in his home town of Rotterdam, the [[Erasmus Universiteit|University]] has been named in his honour.
However, Erasmus' reputation and interpretations of his work have varied greatly over time. Following his death there was an initial outflow of support and admiration, primarily by his supporters, but also throughout Europe. Moderate Catholics saw in him a leading figure in attempts to reform Church, while Protestants recognized his initial support for Luther's ideas and the groundwork he laid for the future Reformation. By the 1560s, however, there is a marked change in reception.
The Catholic [[Counter-Reformation]] movement often condemned Erasmus as being worse than Luther himself, and as having "laid the egg that hatched the Reformation." Their critique of him was formulated principally for his not being strong enough in his criticism of Luther, for not seeing the dangers of a vernacular Bible, and for dabbling in dangerous scriptural criticism that weakened the church's arguments against [[Arianism]] and other doctrines. All of his works were placed on the prohibited Index of books for [[Paul IV]], and some of his works continued to be banned or viewed with caution in the later Index of [[Pius IV]].
Protestant views of Erasmus fluctuate largely depending on region and period, with continuous support in his native Netherlands and in cities of the Upper Rhine area. However, following his death and in the late 16th century Reformation supporters see Erasmus' critiques of Luther and lifelong support for the universal Catholic Church as damning. His reception was particularly cold in the Reformed Protestant groups.
By the coming of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], however, Erasmus was increasingly returning to become a more widely respected cultural symbol and hailed as an important figure by increasingly broad groups.
Reference:
Mansfield, Bruce E. Phoenix of His Age: Interpretations of Erasmus C. 1550-1750.
==Representations of Erasmus==
[[Image:HolbeinErasmusHands.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Holbein's studies of Erasmus' hands, in silverpoint and chalks, ca. 1523. ([[Louvre]])]]
Other works:
* ''[[Colloquia]]'' which appeared at intervals from [[1500]] on.
* ''[[Apophthegmatum opus]]''
* ''[[Adagia]]''
The portraitist [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] made a profile half-length portrait in [[1523]], and [[Albrecht Dürer]] made an engraving of Erasmus in [[1526]].
*
==Notes==
#{{note|Stevens}} Stevens, Forrest Tyler. Erasmus's "Tigress": The Language of Friendship, Pleasure, and the Renaissance Letter. Queering The Renaissance. Duke University Press 1994.
==Critical bibliography==
*Botley, Paul. ''Latin Translation in the Renaissance: The Theory and Practice of [[Leonardo Bruni]], [[Giannozzo Manetti]] and Desiderius Erasmus''. London: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
*Chantraine, Georges. « Philosophie erasmienne et théologie lutérienne. » &#8220;Mystère&#8221; et &#8220;Philosphie du Christ&#8221; selon Erasme. Brussels : Duculot, 1971, 374-6.
*Dockery, David S., “The Foundation of Reformation Hermeneutics: A Fresh Look at Erasmus,” Premise 2, no. 9 (October 19, 1995): 6-ff. - An appreciative look at Erasmus' contribution to biblical [[hermeneutics]] (interpretation methods) from an [[Evangelical]] Christian perspective.
*Hoffmann, Manfred. Rhetoric and Theology: The Hermeneutic of Erasmus. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994.
*Huizinga, Johan. ''Erasmus and the Age of Reformation''. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1957. - Huizinga's text was translated from Dutch and first published by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1924. It is considered one of the foundational Erasmus biographies of the 20th century.
*Jardine, Lisa. ''Erasmus, Man of Letters : The Construction of Charisma in Print''. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1993. - Argues that Erasmus was extremely careful and skillful in creating, manipulating, and managing his own image.
*Mansfield, Bruce E. Phoenix of His Age : Interpretations of Erasmus C. 1550-1750. Erasmus Studies; 4. Toronto; Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1979. - Traces the reception and interpretations of Erasmus after his death.
*Payne, John B. ''Erasmus: His Theology of the Sacraments''. Richmond: John Knox Press, 1970. - This work gives great attention to Erasmus' own writings, and analizes the different aspects of his theology in light of his Catholic and Humanist influences. Payne did extensive work on UTP's ''Collected Works of Erasmus'' editions.
*Phillips, Margaret Mann. Erasmus and the Northern Renaissance. Teach Yourself History Library. London,: Hodder & Stoughton, 1949. - An important classic on the topic.
*Rabil, Albert. Erasmus and the New Testament: The Mind of a Christian Humanist. San Antonio: Trinity University Press, 1972.
*Tracy, James D. Erasmus: The Growth of a Mind. Travaux D'humanisme Et Renaissance, 126. Genève: Droz, 1972. - One of the standard biographies.
== See also ==
* [[Rodolphus Agricola]]
* [[Christian humanism]]
* [[Erasmus Prize]]
* [[Erasmus' Correspondents]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Desiderius Erasmus}}
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'''[[Wikisource]] has the original Latin text of ''[[Wikisource:la:Moriae encomium|Praise of Folly]]'''''.
|}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05510b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.metmuseum.or |
ernment. As well, because of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] and [[judiciary|rulings of courts]] on legislation, Canada is becoming more like a [[constitutionalism|constitutional democracy]], as opposed to the [[parliamentary democracy]] of its design.
==Political information (summary)==
===[[List of countries|Country name]]===
* ''conventional/legal name:'' Canada
* ''official title (disused):'' Canada
{{see|Canada's name}}
'''[[Country code|Data code]]:''' CA — '''[[Internet TLD]]:''' [[.ca]]
'''[[Government]] type:''' [[constitutional monarchy]]; [[federation|federal]] [[parliament]]ary [[democracy]]
'''[[Capital]]:''' [[Ottawa, Ontario]]
'''[[Federation#List_of_federations|Administrative divisions]]:''' 10 [[Provinces of Canada|provinces]] and 3 [[Territories of Canada|territories*]]; [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]], [[Manitoba]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], [[Northwest Territories]]*, [[Nova Scotia]], [[Nunavut]]*, [[Ontario]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Quebec]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Yukon Territory]]*
'''[[National holiday]]:''' [[Canada Day]], [[July 1]] ([[1867]])
'''[[Constitution of Canada|Constitution]]:''' [[Westminster system]], based on unwritten [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|conventions]] and written [[Constitution Act, 1982]] (including the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]) and the [[Constitution Act, 1867]] (formerly the [[British North America Act, 1867]]).
'''[[Legal system]]:''' except for [[criminal law]] (under sole federal jurisdiction), it is based on [[English law|English]] [[common law]], except in Quebec, where a [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system, centred on the [[Civil Code of Quebec]] and based on the Custom of Paris in pre-revolutionary France; accepts compulsory [[International Court of Justice|ICJ]] jurisdiction, with reservations. ''See: [[Law of Canada]]''
'''[[Suffrage]]:''' Citizens aged 18 years or older. Only two citizens in Canada cannot vote; the [[Chief Electoral Officer (Canada)|Chief Electoral Officer]], and the Deputy Chief Electoral Officer.
===[[Executive branch]]===
* ''[[Head of state]]:'' [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Canada]] (since [[February 6]], [[1952]]).
* ''[[de facto]] [[Head of state]]:'' [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Michaëlle Jean]] (since [[September 27]], [[2005]]).
* ''[[Head of government]]:'' [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Stephen Harper]] (since [[February 6]], [[2006]]).
* ''[[Cabinet]]:'' [[The Ministry|Ministers]] (usually around 30) chosen by the Prime Minister to lead various ministries and agencies, generally with regional representation. Most, but not all, will be members of the leader's own party in the House of Commons. {{see|Cabinet of Canada}}
* ''[[Election]]s:'' The monarchy is hereditary. The governor general is appointed by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister for a five-year term. Following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons is automatically designated by the governor general to become prime minister.
{{see|Monarchy in Canada|Elections in Canada}}
===[[Legislative branch]]===
The [[bicameral]] [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]] consists of the [[Canadian Senate|Senate]] and the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]]; by definition, Parliament also includes the monarch. Currently the Senate is limited to 104 members, who are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister to serve until age 75. The number of senators was exceeded once when Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] sought to ensure the passage of a [[Goods and Services Tax (Canada)|national sales tax]]. The House of Commons currently has 308 members elected by a plurality of popular votes in [[electoral district (Canada)|separate constituencies (ridings)]] for terms that do not exceed five years. The five-year term has been exceeded once when Prime Minister [[Robert Borden]] perceived the need during [[World War I]].
* ''Elections:'' direct [[plurality]] representation in House of Commons - last held [[January 23]], [[2006]]
* ''Election results:'' percent of vote by party - [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]] 36.3%, [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] 30.2%, [[New Democratic Party]] 17.5%, [[Bloc Québécois]] 10.5%, [[Green Party of Canada|Green Party]] 4.5%, other 5.6%; seats by party - Conservative Party 124, Liberal Party 103, Bloc Québécois 51, New Democratic Party 29, Independent 1
* ''current seats by party:'' ''See [[Canadian House of Commons]], [[Canadian Senate]]''
===[[Political party|Political parties]], [[politicians|leaders]], and status===
(By number of elected representatives in House of Commons)
*[[Conservative Party of Canada]] - [[Stephen Harper]] ([[minority government]])
*[[Liberal Party of Canada]] - [[Paul Martin, Jr.|Paul Martin]] ([[Bill Graham]], acting leader) ([[parliamentary opposition|official opposition]])
*[[Bloc Québécois]] - [[Gilles Duceppe]]
*[[New Democratic Party]] - [[Jack Layton]]
===[[Judiciary|Judicial branch]]===
[[Supreme Court of Canada]], judges are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the Cabinet with parliamentary committee review.
===Government departments and structure===
*Notable departments include [[Department of Finance (Canada)|Finance]], [[Canada Revenue Agency|Revenue]], [[Human Resources and Skills Development Canada|Human Resources and Skills Development]], [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|National Defence]], [[Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada|Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness]], and [[Department of Foreign Affairs (Canada)|Foreign Affairs]]/[[Department of International Trade (Canada)|International Trade]].
{{see|Structure of the Canadian federal government}}
===Notable [[Crown corporation]]s and other government agencies===
*[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC)
*[[VIA Rail]]
*[[Elections Canada]]
*[[Canada Council]]
*[[Canada Post]]
'''[[International organization]] participation:''' ABEDA, ACCT, AfDB, [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, C, CCC, [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]] (non-regional), [[Council of Europe]] (observer), [[Commonwealth of Nations]], EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, [[European Space Agency|ESA]] (cooperating state), [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[La Francophonie]], [[G-7]], [[G-10]], IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[International Criminal Court|ICCt]], [[International Court of Justice|ICJ]], ICFTU, ICRM, [[International Development Association|IDA]], IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, [[International Labour Organisation|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], IMO, [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], IOM, ISO, ITU, [[Kyoto Protocol]], MINURCA, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM (guest), [[North American Free Trade Agreement|NAFTA]], [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]], NEA, NSG, [[Organization of American States|OAS]], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], OPCW, [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], PCA, [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] (prior/temporary), UNCTAD, UNDOF, [[UNESCO]], UNFICYP, [[UNHCR]], UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, [[World Health Organization|WHO]], WIPO, WMO, [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[Zangger Committee]]
'''[[Flag]] description:''' a red [[maple]] leaf centred on a [[Canadian pale]]: three vertical bands of red (hoist side), white (double width, square), and red, with a length twice that of its height. {{see|Flag of Canada}}
==Principal government officials*==
{{office-table}}
|[[Queen of Canada]]
|[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|[[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]
|[[Michaëlle Jean]]
|
|[[27 September]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]
|[[Stephen Harper]] <!--Harper does not become PM until he is sworn in as PM-->
|[[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]]
|[[6 February]] [[2006]]
|-
|[[Deputy Prime Minister of Canada|Deputy Prime Minister]]
| TBA
|[[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]]
|[[6 February]] [[2006]]|-
|-
:Provincial [[Lieutenant-Governor]]s, [[Premier (Canada)|Premiers]]
{{Template:Cabinet of Canada}}
==Executive branch==
[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] as [[Queen of Canada]] is the repository of executive power, which she normally does not exercise herself. As expressed in the constitution, "the Executive Government and Authority of and over Canada is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the Queen". The government acts in her name. The term ''[[The Crown]]'' is usually used to represent the power of the monarchy. Government ministers are ministers of the Crown. Criminal prosecutions are made by Crown prosecutors in the name of the monarch.
Since the monarch does not reside in Canada, she appoints a [[Governor-General of Canada|governor general]] to represent her and exercise her powers. The person who fills this role is selected on the advice of the prime minister. "Advice" in this sense is a choice without options since it would cause a major political crisis if the prime minister's advice were not followed. This convention protects the monarchy. As long as the monarch is only following the advice of her ministers, she is not held personally responsible for the decisions of the government. The governor general has no term limit, but the practice in recent decades is for the governor general to be replaced after about five years in office.
The prime minister is appointed by the Governor General, but to ensure the continuity of a stable government this person will always be the one who has the confidence of the |
ona as 'Roc' Ingersol at the end of the film and his role as 'plucky comic relief' has similarities to a number of Star Trek cliches.
*'''Sarris''', the evil villain, bears the name of highbrow film critic [[Andrew Sarris]].
===Events===
* The ''NSEA Protector'' leaves spacedock, grinding and denting its hull as it goes; this echoes [[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]].
* Additionally, the entire sequence of leaving the spacedock is a mock tribute to lenghty sequence in [[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]].
* ''The Protector'' can separate into two parts, in the manner of the ''Enterprise-D'' of ''Star Trek : The Next Generation''.
* Travel through the bowels of the Protector is assisted by the service ducts, similarly to the [[Jefferies tube]]s. These service ducts are filled with nonsensical things like giant fans, flaming vents and useless giant pistons called "chompers", all things that really do not belong in a service duct.
* ''The Protector's'' matter-energy technology, the 'Digital Conveyor', is a standard science fiction [[teleporter]], and so is necessarily similar to the Star Trek transporter. The interesting correspondence is in the name for the device's employment: the command to operate it is 'digitise', recalling the 'energise' command in Star Trek.
* The Thermians take the Galaxy Quest TV Show as the basis for their entire society, as in the TOS episode, [[A Piece of the Action]].
* The Galaxy Quest relaunch TV series takes place "eighteen years after the original adventure"; [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]] was launched eighteen years after [[Star Trek]] was cancelled.
* The ''Galaxy Quest'' score is overblown, dramatic and brassy, parodying Star Trek scores, notably the theme tune to The Next Generation. Ironically, the Galaxy Quest theme is used in the Internet video series [http://www.hiddenfrontier.org Star Trek: Hidden Frontier].
* Facing an enormous rock monster (a concept itself from an early script from ''[[Star Trek V: The Final Frontier]]''), Nesmith is advised by Webber to "go for its eyes, like in episode 22". This may be a reference to ''Star Trek VI''. Guy then tells him to "fashion some sort of rudimentary lathe". This echoes a variety of incidents in ''Star Trek'' (particular the original series episode ''[[Arena (Star Trek)|Arena]]'') in which a crew member constructs an elaborate piece of equipment from few materials.
* At the Galaxy Quest convention, there is a shy girl who imagines a romance between Madison and Taggart, referencing the common phenomenon of [[shipping (fandom)|shipping]].
* Jason looses his shirt during battle with the rock monster (which Alexander comments on). In TOS, Capt. Kirk frequently lost his shirt during battle with aliens and/or rogue crewmen.
== Quotes ==
{{wikiquote|Galaxy Quest|Galaxy Quest}}
===Quotes from the Film===
* "By Grabthar's hammer... what a savings." - Sir Alexander Dane, appearing as "Dr. Lazarus" at the opening of an electronics superstore.
* "Ducts! Why is it '''always''' ducts?!" - Gwen DiMarco, referencing [[Aliens (film)|Aliens]], in which [[Sigourney Weaver]] has the [[Ellen Ripley|main role]].
* "Well, fuck '''that!!'''" - Gwen DiMarco, upon seeing the chompers for the first time; the word "fuck" is censored via muting, but her face is still visible as she says the word.
* "Oh, that's not right." - Guy, sixth crew member
* "Guy... maybe you're the plucky comic relief. You ever think about that?" - Fred Kwan, when Guy fears he is a [[Redshirt (character)|red shirt]].
* "How adorable! The actors are going to play war with me!" - Sarris, during the final confrontation.
* "Never give up, never surrender." Captain Peter Quincy Taggart, motto for the crew.
* "So you managed to get your shirt off." - Dr. Lazarus to Taggart after he survives the rock monster.
* "And then it exploded." - Ted, after the strange alien creature fails to teleport.
* Gwen DeMarco: "Alex, you had a part people loved. I mean, my TV Guide interview was six paragraphs about my ''boobs'' and how they fit into my suit. No one bothered to ask me what I do on the show."<br/>Fred Kwan: "You were... umm, wait..."<br/>Gwen DeMarco: "I repeated the computer, Fred."
* Sir Alexander Dane: "You broke the ship. You broke the bloody ship." After the [[beryllium]] sphere breaks
* Fred Kwan: "It's the simple things in life you treasure." To Guy as they watch the Rock Monster attack Sarris' men.
* Guy: "Don't open that! It's an alien planet! Is there air? You don't know!" ''(takes a deep breath)'' <br/> ''(Fred sniffs the air and then takes a few deep breathes)'' <br/> Fred: "Seems okay."
==Reaction From Star Trek Regulars==
* I had originally not wanted to see ''Galaxy Quest'' because I heard that it was making fun of ''Star Trek'' and then [[Jonathan Frakes]] rang me up and said ‘You must not miss this movie! See it on a Saturday night in a full theatre.’ And I did and of course I found it was brilliant. Brilliant. No one laughed louder or longer in the cinema than I did, but the idea that the ship was saved and all of our heroes in that movie were saved simply by the fact that there were fans who did understand the scientific principles on which the ship worked was absolutely wonderful. And it was both funny and also touching in that it paid tribute to the dedication of these fans. - [[Patrick Stewart]]
* I've had flashbacks of ''Galaxy Quest'' at the many conventions I've gone to since the movie came out. I thought it was an absolute laugh-a-minute. - [[Tim Russ]]
* I thought it was very funny, and I thought the audience that they portrayed was totally real, but the actors that they were pretending to be were totally unrecognizable. Certainly I don't know what Tim Allen was doing. He seemed to be the head of a group of actors and for the life of me I was trying to understand who he was imitating. The only one I recognized was the girl playing [[Nichelle Nichols]]. - [[William Shatner]] sending himself up.
* Yes, I have seen ''Galaxy Quest'' and no, it's not really like that. - [[Casey Biggs]] [http://memory-alpha.org/en/wiki/Damar]
* I '''loved''' ''Galaxy Quest''. I thought it was brilliant satire, not only of Trek, but of fandom in general. The only thing I wish they had done was cast me in it, and have me play a freaky fanboy who keeps screaming at the actor who played "the kid" about how awful it was that there was a kid on the spaceship. Alas. - [[Wil Wheaton]].
== See also ==
*[[Trekkies]], a documentary film about Star Trek convention goers.
== External links ==
*[http://www.amazon.com/galaxyquest/ "Official Website"] hosted by [[Amazon.com]]
*{{imdb title|id=0177789|title=Galaxy Quest}}
*[http://www.questarian.com/ Fan site]
*[http://scifiscripts.name2host.com/msol/GALAXY_QUEST.txt Early script]
*[http://www.hwcn.org/~ag775/gq/index.htm Fan fiction site]
[[Category:1999 films]]
[[Category:Comedy science fiction films]]
[[Category:Fictional fictional characters]]
[[Category:Fictional television]]
[[Category:Science fiction Westerns]]
[[Category:Time travel films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[de:Galaxy Quest]]
[[fr:Galaxy Quest]]
[[ja:ギャラクシー・クエスト]]
[[sv:Galaxy Quest]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GhIlghameS</title>
<id>13150</id>
<revision>
<id>24339268</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-29T19:25:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.159.163.109</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=ghIlghameS}}
'''''ghIlghameS''''' is the [[Klingon language]] translation of the [[Babylon|Babylonian]] ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]''. [[Paramount Pictures]] owns the copyright to the translation.
A bilingual paperback edition (ISBN 1587153386) was published in 2000.
{{ST-stub}}
[[Category:Epics]]
[[Category:Star Trek]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gilgamesh</title>
<id>13151</id>
<revision>
<id>42109239</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:01:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.210.255.172|204.210.255.172]] ([[User talk:204.210.255.172|talk]]) to last version by Rmarghi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Mesopotamian myth (heroes)}}
According to the [[Sumerian king list]], '''Gilgamesh''' was the fifth king of [[Uruk]] (Early Dynastic II, first dynasty of Uruk), the son of [[Lugalbanda]]. Legend has it that his mother was [[Ninsun]], a goddess.
According to another document, the so-called ''History of Tummal'', Gilgamesh, and eventually his son Urlugal, rebuilt the sanctuary of the goddess [[Ninlil]], located in Tummal, a block of the [[Nippur]] city.
In the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' it is often said that Gilgamesh ordered the creation of the legendary walls of Uruk. In historical times, [[Sargon of Akkad]] claimed to have destroyed these walls to prove his military power.
Fragments of an epic text found in Me-Turan (modern Tell Haddad) relate that Gilgamesh was buried under the waters of a river at the end of his life. The people of Uruk diverted the flow of the [[Euphrates]] river crossing Uruk for the purpose of burying the dead king within the riverbed. In April 2003, a German-led expedition discovered what is thought to be the entire city of Uruk - including, where the Euphrates once flowed, the last resting place of its King Gilgamesh.
Despite the lack of direct evidence, most scholars do not object to consideration of Gilgamesh as a historical figure, particularly after inscriptions were found confirming the historical existence of other figures associated with him: kings [[Enmebaragesi]] and Aga |
s change of [[religion]]. He also addressed replies to Vittoria Colonna, Tolomei, and other Italian sympathizers who were reluctant to go to the same length as himself.
His own breach with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] was decisive and irreparable, and illustrated the justice of [[Martin Luther|Luther's]] description of justification by [[faith]] alone as the ''articulus stantis vel cadentis ecclesiae'', the vital point whose acceptance or rejection drew everything else along with it. In [[1545]] he became minister of the Italian Protestant congregation at [[Augsburg]], which he was compelled to forsake when, in January [[1547]], the city was occupied by the imperial forces. He found an asylum in [[England]], where he was made a [[prebendary]] of [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]], received a [[pension]] from [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]]'s privy purse, and composed his capital work, the ''Tragoedie or Dialoge of the unjuste usurped primacie of the Bishop of Rome'', etc. This remarkable performance, originally written in [[Latin]], is extant only in the 1549 translation of Bishop [[John Ponet]], a splendid specimen of nervous English.
The conception is highly dramatic; the form is that of a series of dialogues. [[Lucifer]], enraged at the spread of [[Jesus]]' kingdom, convokes the fiends in council, and resolves to set up the [[pope]] as [[antichrist]]. The state, represented by the emperor [[Phocas]], is persuaded to connive at the [[pope]]'s assumption of spiritual authority; the other churches are intimidated into acquiescence; Lucifer's projects seem fully accomplished, when [[Heaven]] raises up [[Henry VIII of England]] and his son for their overthrow. The conception bears a remarkable resemblance to that of ''Paradise Lost''; and it is nearly certain that [[John Milton|Milton]], whose sympathies with the Italian Reformation were so strong, must have been acquainted with it. Several of Ochino's ''Prediche'' were also translated into English by a lady, [[Anna Cook]], afterwards wife of Sir [[Nicholas Bacon]]; and he published numerous controversial treatises on the Continent.
In [[1553]] the accession of [[Mary I of England|Mary I]] drove Ochino from England. He became pastor of the Italian congregation at [[Zürich|Zürich]], composed principally of refugees from [[Locarno]], and continued to write books which, repeating the history of his early works, gave increasing evidence of his alienation from the strict [[orthodoxy]] around him. The most important of these was the ''Labyrinth'', a discussion of the [[free will|freedom of the will]], covertly assailing the [[Calvinism|Calvin]]istic doctrine of [[predestination]].
In [[1563]] the long-gathering storm of obloquy burst upon the occasion of the publication of his ''Thirty Dialogues'', in one of which his adversaries maintained that he had justified [[polygamy]] under colour of a pretended refutation. His dialogues on [[divorce]] and the [[Trinity]] were also obnoxious. No explanation was allowed. Ochino was banished from Zürich, and, after being refused a shelter by other Protestant cities, directed his steps towards [[Poland]], at that time the most tolerant state in [[Europe]]. He had not resided there long when an edict appeared banishing all foreign [[dissident]]s. Fleeing the country, he encountered the [[Black Death|plague]] at [[Pinczoff]]; three of his four children were carried off; and he himself, worn out by misfortune, expired in solitude and obscurity at [[Schlakau]] in [[Moravia]], about the end of [[1564]].
His reputation among Protestants was at the time so bad that he was charged with the authorship of the treatise ''De tribus Impostoribus'', as well as with having carried his alleged approval of polygamy into practice.
It was reserved for his biographer [[Karl Benrath]] to justify him, and to represent him as a fervent [[evangelist]] and at the same time as a speculative thinker with a passion for free inquiry, always learning and unlearning and arguing out difficult questions with himself in his dialogues, frequently without attaining to any absolute conviction. The general tendency of his mind, nevertheless, was counter to tradition, and he is remarkable as resuming in his individual history all the phases of [[Protestant theology]] from Luther to [[Socinus]]. He is especially interesting to Englishmen for his residence in England, and the probable influence of more than one of his writings upon [[John Milton|Milton]].
All attainable information respecting Ochino is collected in Karl Benrath's excellent German biography, translated into English by Miss [[Helen Zimmern]], with a preface by the Rev. W. Arthur, London, [[1876]].
==References==
*Text is from the 9th edition (1880s) of an unnamed encyclopedia
[[Category:Capuchins|Ochino, Bernardino]]
[[Category:Italian theologians|Ochino, Bernardino]]
[[fr:Bernardino Ochino]]
[[de:Bernardino Ochino]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bay of Quinte</title>
<id>4204</id>
<revision>
<id>24199527</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-28T00:14:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mindmatrix</username>
<id>160367</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>stub to {{Ontario-geo-stub}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Bay of Quinte''' is on the northern shore of [[Lake Ontario]].
Located about 200 kilometers east of [[Toronto]] and 400 west of [[Montreal]], the Bay of Quinte is a long, thin bay in the shape of a letter "Z". The northern side of the bay is defined by the mainland, while the southern side follows the shore of the [[Prince Edward County, Ontario|Prince Edward County]] headland. Beginning in the east with the outlet to Lake Ontario, the bay runs west-southwest for 25 kilometers to [[Picton, Ontario|Picton]], where it turns north-northwest for another 20 kilometers as far as [[Deseronto, Ontario|Deseronto]]. From there it turns south-southwest again for another 40 kilometers, running past [[Big Island]] on the south and [[Belleville, Ontario|Belleville]] on the north. The width of the bay rarely exceeds two kilometers. The bay ends at [[Quinte West, Ontario|Quinte West]] (formerly Trenton) and the [[Trent River (Ontario)|Trent River]], both also on the north side. The [[Murray Canal]] has been cut through the few miles separating the end of the bay and Lake Ontario on the west side. The Trent River is part of the [[Trent-Severn Waterway]], a canal connecting Lake Ontario to [[Lake Simcoe]] and then [[Georgian Bay]] on [[Lake Huron]].
[[Category:Geography of Ontario]]
[[Category:Bays of Canada|Quinte]]
{{Ontario-geo-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benzene</title>
<id>4206</id>
<revision>
<id>42108625</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:57:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joanjoc</username>
<id>93075</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[ca:Benzè]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a chemical. For the Rammstein single, see [[Benzin]].''
<!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| align="right" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;"
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Benzene_structure.png|250px|Benzene]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Benzene
|-
| Other names
| Benzol
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| C1=CC=CC=C1
|-
| [[International Chemical Identifier|InChI]]
| InChI=1/C6H6<br/>/c1-2-4-6-5-3-1/h1-6H
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 78.11 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colorless liquid
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [71-43-2]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 0.8786 g/cm&sup3;, liquid
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| 1.79 g/l (25 °C)
|-
<!-- | Other solvents e.g. [[ethanol]], [[acetone]] -->
<!-- | solubility info on other solvents -->
<!-- |- -->
| [[Melting point]]
| 5.5 °C (278.6 K)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 80.1 °C (353.2 K)
|-
| [[Viscosity]]
| 0.652 [[Poise|cP]] at 20 °C
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Structure
|-
| [[Orbital hybridisation#Molecule shape|Molecular shape]]
| Planar
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 0 [[Debye|D]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]]
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| Flammable ('''F''')<br/>[[Carcinogen|Carc. Cat. 1]]<br/>[[Mutagen|Muta. Cat. 2]]<br/>Toxic ('''T''')
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h3.png]][[Image:nfpa_f4.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]]
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| {{R45}}, {{R46}}, {{R11}}, {{R36/38}},<br/>{{R48/23/24/25}}, {{R65}}
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| {{S53}}, {{S45}}
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| &minus;11 °C
|-
| [[Autoignition temperature]]
| 561 °C
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| CY1400000
|-
<!--! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure and<br/>properties]]
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''ε<sub>r</sub>'']], etc.
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic<br/>data]]
| Phase behaviour<br>Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|- -->
! {{chembox header}} | Relat |
ows versions is still included. Windows Vista will also be the first version of Windows where the graphics card will be used to draw the desktop.
<br clear="all" />
==Trivia==
Modern computer games usually develop their own GUIs, which are often (but not always) based on the [[WIMP_(computing)| WIMP]] paradigm.
==See also==
*[[Apple v. Microsoft]]
*[[Bill Atkinson]]
*[[Blit (computer_terminal)|The Blit]] - A Multiplexed Graphics Terminal by [[Rob Pike]] in [[1982]]
*[[Direct manipulation interface]]
*[[Doug Engelbart]]'s [[On-Line System]]
*[[Graphical user interface]]
*[[History of computing hardware]]
*[[History of Microsoft Windows]]
*[[Ivan Sutherland]]'s [[Sketchpad]]
*[[Jef Raskin]]
*[[Office of the future]]
*[[Mezzo (desktop environment)|Mezzo]]
==External links==
* [http://arstechnica.com/articles/paedia/gui.ars Jeremy Reimer. "A History of the GUI" [[Ars Technica]]. [[May 5]], [[2005]].]
* [http://toastytech.com/guis/ Nathan Lineback. "The Graphical User Interface Gallery". Nathan's Toasty Technology Page.]
* [http://www.guidebookgallery.org GUIdebook: Graphical User Interface gallery]
* [http://members.fortunecity.com/pcmuseum/vision.htm VisiOn history - The first GUI for the PC]
* [http://www.mprove.de/diplom/text/3_guis.html mprove: Historical Overview of Graphical User Interfaces]
* [http://www.folklore.org/ Anecdotes about the development of the Macintosh Harware & GUI]
[[Category:graphical user interface]]
[[Category:History of computing]]
[[de:Geschichte der grafischen Benutzeroberfläche]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harry Potter/Broom</title>
<id>13916</id>
<revision>
<id>40843031</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T10:26:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Broom (tool)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harry Potter/Quidditch</title>
<id>13917</id>
<revision>
<id>15911501</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-27T09:52:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Epopt</username>
<id>30</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Quidditch]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Quidditch]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hezbollah</title>
<id>13919</id>
<revision>
<id>41832570</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:04:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joturner</username>
<id>153365</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>corrected to Qur'an using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{Politics of Lebanon}}
[[Image:Hizb1.jpg|framed|right|The Hezbollah flag]]
'''Hezbollah''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] حزب الله, meaning '''Party of God''') is a [[Shi'a]] [[Islamist]] group in [[Lebanon]] founded in 1982 to fight the [[Israel]]i occupation in southern [[Lebanon]]. It is regarded by many in the [[Arab world|Arab]] and [[Muslim world]] as a legitimate [[resistance movement|resistance]] movement and [[political party]] in [[Lebanon]]. However, the [[United States]] and various other governments regard it as a [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization (see: [[Hezbollah#Designations|Designations]]). In addition to its military wing, Hezbollah maintains a [[civilian]] arm, which runs [[hospital]]s, news services, educational facilities and participates in the [[Lebanese Parliament]] and recently it was represented in the 2005 government.
==Alternative spellings and names==
The name حزب الله is transliterated from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in a number of ways. A scientific transliteration would be '''hizbu' llah'''. '''Hezbollah''' is used by [[CNN]] and [[BBC]]. It is also written as '''Hizbullah,''' '''Hizballah,''' '''Hizbollah,''' '''Hezbullah,''' and the literal Arabic version '''Hizb Allah,''' which is used by [[Al Jazeera]]. "Hizb" (party) is the [[Modern Standard Arabic]] pronunciation, and "Hezb" is closer to [[Persian language|Persian]] and to [[Lebanese Arabic|Lebanese dialect]]. The 'h' is [[pharyngeal]] in Arabic, but a normal 'h' sound in Persian. The "-llah" ending, originally "Allah", means "(the) God". The name is derived from a [[Qu'ran|Qu'ranic]] aaya (verse) referring to the "Party of God".
[[Image:Hez-flag.gif|right|thumb|Illustration of organization flag]]
Hezbollah has a military branch known as ''Al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya'' ("The Islamic Resistance"), and is the possible sponsor of a number of lesser-known militant organizations, some of which may be little more than fronts for Hezbollah itself. These organizations include the Organization of the Oppressed, the Revolutionary Justice Organization, the Organization of Right Against Wrong, and Followers of the Prophet Muhammed. [http://www.canlii.org/ca/regu/sor1-360/whole.html]
==Designations==
Hezbollah has been designated as a terrorist organization by the [[United States]] [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2000/2450.htm] the [[United Kingdom]] [http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/lebanon/intro/], the [[Netherlands]][http://www.fas.org/irp/world/netherlands/aivd2004-eng.pdf], [[Canada]] [http://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/eng/publications/advisories/index_supervisory.asp?#Supter][http://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/eng/documents/advisories/docs/entstld.txt], [[Israel]] and [[Australia]] [http://www.ag.gov.au/www/attorneygeneralHome.nsf/Alldocs/9F22AF531A4693F2CA256D66007C1F14?OpenDocument]; the U.S. Department of State notes that Hezbollah has killed more than 300 American citizens (over 200 of whom were [[United States Marine Corps|U.S Marines]] in [[Lebanon]] - though accountability for the Marine barracks bombing has never been thoroughly established). The [[European Union]] has designated Hezbollah's External Security Organization or international wing as "terrorist".
On [[March 10]] [[2005]] the European Parliament voted overwhelmingly (473 in favor, 8 against, 33 abstain) on a resolution branding Hezbollah in whole as a terrorist organization. The resolution stated that the "Parliament considers that clear evidence exists of terrorist activities by Hezbollah. The (EU) Council should take all necessary steps to curtail them"[http://www.haaretzdaily.com/hasen/spages/550729.html]. The EU has also decided to block Hezbollah's [[Al-Manar]] television from European satellites in order to enforce European regulations against "incitement to racial and/or religious hatred". {{ref|EUBlock}} The United Nations has not included Hezbollah on its list of terrorist groups (which is just being drawn up). However it has called for the disbanding of Hezbollah's military wing in [[UN Security Council Resolution 1559]].
Hezbollah has denounced some acts of terror, like the [[September 11 attacks]][http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/hezbollah2.html], [[Armed Islamic Group|GIA]] [[List of Algerian massacres of the 1990s|massacres]] in [[Algeria]], [[Islamic Group]] attacks on tourists in [[Egypt]]{{ref|terrorcondemn}}, and the murder of [[Nick Berg]][http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3710057.stm]. As a stated aim of Hezbollah is the destruction of the state of Israel, it expresses support and sympathy [http://www.unb.ca/web/bruns/9900/issue14/intnews/israel.html] for the activities of [[Hamas]] and [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad|Islamic Jihad]], [[Islamist]] groups responsible for [[suicide bombing|suicide attacks]] in Israel.
==History==
===Origins===
Hezbollah was formed from numerous other Lebanese [[Shia]] groups shortly after [[1982 Lebanon war|Israel's 1982 invasion]], largely fought in mainly Shia southern [[Lebanon]]. The group was conceived by [[Iran]], or at least was aided in its inception by the arrival in Lebanon of 1,500 [[Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps|Islamic revolutionary guards]] from Iran, three years after that country's own Islamic Revolution in 1979. Iran, as an Islamic republic — a Shia one — remains a close ally, financial backer, arms supplier and model for Hezbollah. [[Syria]] backs Hezbollah morally and has also supplied it with money and arms, such as [[Katyusha|Katyusha rockets]]. In return, Hezbollah protects Syria's interests in Lebanon and aligns with Syria in its confrontation with Israel over the occupation of the [[Golan Heights]].
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4314423.stm]
One of the main objectives of Hezbollah at the time was to spread the Iranian Revolution. Since then, the party has publicly declared that it will suspend its attempts to create an Islamic state in Lebanon "because the conditions are not met". It remained underground for a number of years and did not make a public announcement of its existence until 1985. Its earliest members operated under the auspices of the "Lebanese National Resistance," an amalgam of forces united in their opposition to the Israeli invasion.
===Hezbollah during the Lebanese war (1982-1990)===
====Combat Operations====
After emerging during the civil war of the early 1980s as an Iranian-sponsored second militia (besides [[Amal Movement|Amal]]) for Lebanon's [[Shia]] community, Hezbollah focused on expelling Israeli and Western forces from Lebanon. It is the principal suspect in several notable attacks on the American, French and Italian Multinational peacekeeping force, whose claimed purpose was the stabilization of Lebanon: the [[suicide bombing]]s of the [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing|U.S. Embassy]], which killed 63 including 17 Americans, of the [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine]] barracks in [[Beirut]] (see [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing]]), which killed 241 American servicemen, and of the French multinational force headqu |
and was near tears as he said that they were being sold "smoke." In fact, TrueType had definitive advantages: it provided not only full scalability, but also precise control of the pixel pattern created by the font's outlines. A few months later Adobe published the Type 1 specification, and soon released the "Adobe Type Manager" software, which allowed for [[WYSIWYG]] scaling of Type 1 fonts on screen, just like TrueType (though without the precise
pixel-level control). However, these moves were too late to stop the rise of TrueType, which quickly became the standard for business and the average Windows user, with Type 1 remaining the standard in the graphics/publishing market.
On [[2005-04-18]] Adobe Systems announced an agreement to acquire its former main rival [[Macromedia]] in a stock swap valued at about $3.4 billion on the last trading day before the announcement. The acquisition was consummated on [[2005-12-03]].
==Employees==
===Key employees===
{| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="2" | '''Executive Board'''
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Charles Geschke|Charles M. Geschke]]
| Co-[[Chairman of the Board]]
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[John Warnock|John E. Warnock]]
| Co-Chairman of the Board
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Bruce R. Chizen]]
| [[CEO]], Director (2003 Compensation: $1,848,124 [[United States dollar|USD]])
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Shantanu Narayen]]
| President & Chief Operating Officer (2003 Compensation: $879,247 [[United States dollar|USD]])
|- valign="top"
| [[Murray J. Demo]]
| [[CFO]], [[SVP]] ([[2003]] Compensation: $777,753 [[United States dollar|USD]])
|-
|
|-
| colspan="2" | '''Non Executive Board'''
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | Carol Mills
| Director (executive vice president and general manager, Infrastructure Products Group, Juniper Networks)
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | Mike R. Cannon
| Director (president, CEO and directors, Solectron Corp.)
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | James E. Daley
| Director (independent consultant, former [[CFO]] of Electronic Data Systems)
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | Colleen M. Pouliot
| Director (attorney, former [[SVP]] and general counsel of Adobe Systems)
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)|Robert Sedgewick]]
| Director (computer science professor, [[Princeton University]])
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Del Yocam|Delbert W. Yocam]]
| Director (independent consultant, former chairman and CEO of [[Borland]])
|-
|
|-
| colspan="2" | '''Senior Management'''
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Stephen Elop]]
| [[President]], Worldwide Field Operations
|- valign="top"
| [[Karen O. Cottle]]
| [[SVP]], General Counsel, Secretary
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[James Heeger]]
| [[SVP]], Creative Professional Business Unit (2003 Compensation: $591,086 [[United States dollar|USD]])
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[John Brennan]]
| [[SVP]], Corporate Development
|- valign="top"
| [[Melissa Dyrdahl]]
| [[SVP]], Corporate Marketing and Communications
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Bryan Lamkin]]
| [[SVP]], Creative Solutions (acting)
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Naresh Gupta]]
| [[SVP]], Print and Classic Publishing Solutions, & Managing Director, India Research and Development
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Thomas Hale]]
| [[SVP]], Knowledge Wordker Solutions
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Kevin Lynch]]
| [[SVP]], Platforms
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Tom Malloy]]
| [[SVP]] and Chief Software Architect, Advanced Technology Labs
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[David Mendels]]
| [[SVP]], Enterprise and Developer Solutions
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Alan S. Ramadan]]
| [[SVP]], Mobile and Device Solutions
|- valign="top"
| width="150" | [[Kevin Burr]]
| [[VP]], Corporate Communications
|}
==Reputation==
In many circles Adobe is considered one of the most principled of the major software companies, and one that treats its large corporate customers and employees well, although customer service for smaller businesses and individuals has often received unfavorable press. Adobe has climbed [[Fortune magazine]]'s rankings as an outstanding place to work over the last several years (2001-03). Adobe was rated the fifth best American company to work for in 2003 and sixth best in 2004. Adobe was ineligible for Fortune's ranking in 2005 due to its major acquisition of Macromedia.
==Products==
<!-- Don't include plugins or derivative products. Derivative products should be described on the root product's page. -->
<!-- Instead of listing each product like so, there should be a brief description of each product complemented by relevant financial data (not prices). -->
{| width="600" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="2" | '''Current'''
|- valign="top"
|
* [[Adobe Central Output Server]]
* [[Adobe Creative Suite]]
** [[Adobe Acrobat]]
** [[Adobe Bridge]]
** [[Adobe GoLive]]
** [[Adobe Illustrator]]
** [[Adobe InDesign]]
** [[Adobe Photoshop]] (includes: [[Adobe ImageReady]])
** [[Adobe Stock Photos]]
* [[Adobe Document Server]]
* [[Adobe Document Policy Server]]
* [[Adobe eBook Reader]]
* [[Adobe Fonts]]
* [[Adobe Form Manager]]
** [[Adobe Form Server]]
* [[Adobe FrameMaker]]
* [[Adobe InCopy]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Barcoded Forms]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Designer]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Document Security]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Reader Extensions]] (previously Document Server for Reader Extensions and other names)
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Forms]] (previously Form Server)
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Form Manager]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Policy Server]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Workflow]]
* [[Adobe Output Designer]]
* [[Adobe PageMaker]]
* [[Adobe PDF JobReady]]
* [[Adobe Photoshop Album]]
* [[Adobe Photoshop Album Starter Edition]]
* [[Adobe Photoshop Elements]]
* [[Adobe Premiere Elements]]
* [[Adobe Reader]]
* [[Adobe SVG Viewer]]
* [[Adobe Production Studio]]
** [[Adobe After Effects]]
** [[Adobe Audition]]
** [[Adobe Encore]]
** [[Adobe Premiere Pro]]
* [[Adobe Web Output Pak]]
* [[Digital Negative Specification]]
| colspan="2" | '''Recently Acquired'''
*[[Macromedia Studio]]
*[[Macromedia Flash]]
*[[Macromedia Dreamweaver]]
*[[Macromedia Breeze]]
*[[Macromedia Flex]]
*[[Macromedia ColdFusion]]
*[[Macromedia Director]]
*[[Authorware#Macromedia Authorware|Macromedia Authorware]]
*[[Macromedia FreeHand]]
*[[Macromedia Fireworks]]
*[[Macromedia Contribute]]
*[[Macromedia Robohelp]]
*[[Macromedia Captivate]]
*[[Macromedia Shockwave]]
*[[Macromedia JRun]]
*[[Macromedia HomeSite]]
*[[Macromedia FlashPaper]]
*[[Fontographer|Macromedia Fontographer]]
*[[Macromedia Central]]
*[[Macromedia FlashCast]]
*[[Macromedia Web Publishing System]]
| colspan="2" | '''Discontinued'''
* [[Adobe Atmosphere]]
* [[Adobe Dimensions]]
* [[Adobe InProduction]]
* [[Adobe LiveMotion]]
* [[Adobe PageMill]]
* [[Adobe Persuasion]]
* [[Adobe PhotoDeluxe]]
* [[Adobe PressReady]]
* [[Adobe PressWise]]
* [[Adobe SiteMill]]
* [[Adobe Streamline]]
* [[Adobe Transcript]]
* [[Adobe TrapWise]]
* [[Adobe Type Manager]] Deluxe
* [[Adobe TypeAlign]]
* [[Adobe TypeReunion]]
|}
==Financial information==
<!-- Fact-check and display accurate data. Financial data is EASY to acquire. -->
Adobe Systems entered [[NASDAQ]] in 1986. As of December 2004, Adobe's [[market capitalization]] is roughly $15 [[1 E9|billion]] [[United States dollar|USD]], and its shares are traded for $62 [[United States dollar|USD]]. Adobe's 2002 revenues were about $1.2 billion [[United States dollar|USD]].
On [[2005-04-18]], Adobe Systems announced its acquisition of [[Macromedia]] at $3.4 billion [[United States dollar|USD]].
*Press Releases:
**[http://www.adobe.com/aboutadobe/invrelations/adobeandmacromedia.html Adobe Press Release]
**[http://www.macromedia.com/macromedia/proom/pr/2005/adobe_macromedia.html Macromedia Press Release]
*News on that issue: <!-- That issue? Define "that issue". -->
**[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/18/technology/18cnd-adobe.html New York Times]
**[http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/technology/[[2005-04-18]]-adobe-macromedia_x.htm?csp=34 USA Today]
**[http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/ap/20050418/ap_on_bi_ge/adobe_macromedia_9 Yahoo! Financial Report]
==See also==
*[[CoolType]]
*[[OpenType]]
*[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]
*[[PostScript]]
==External links==
*[http://www.adobe.com/ Adobe Systems, Inc.]
**[http://www.adobe.com/type Adobe Type Library]
** {{cite web
| url = http://www.adobe.com/aboutadobe/pressroom/pdfs/Adobe2004Timeline_101804fin.pdf
| title = Adobe timeline
| format = PDF
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Patents owned by Adobe Systems
| work = US Patent & Trademark Office
| url = http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2Fsearch-adv.htm&r=0&p=1&f=S&l=50&Query=an%2F%22Adobe+Systems%22&d=ptxt
| accessdate = December 8 | accessyear = 2005
}}
<!-- Merge into article. | *As of [[2003-11-15]], [[Adobe LiveMotion]] is no longer distributed. [http://www.adobe.com/products/livemotion/main.html] -->
===Data===
* {{cite web
| url = http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/12/12518.html
| publisher = Yahoo!
| title = Adobe Systems Incorporated Company Profile
}}
[[Category:Adobe Systems| ]]
[[Category:Companies based in California]]
[[C |
im|Leitrim]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Limerick|Limerick]]
|
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Limerick]]''
|-
|[[County Londonderry|Londonderry]]
|(see [[County Coleraine|Coleraine]])
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Longford|Longford]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Louth|Louth]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Mayo|Mayo]]
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|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Meath|Meath]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Monaghan|Monaghan]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Offaly|Offaly]]
|[[King's County, Ireland|King's County]]
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Roscommon|Roscommon]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Sligo|Sligo]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Tipperary|Tipperary]]
|
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|[[North Tipperary]],<br/>[[South Tipperary]]
|-
|[[County Tyrone|Tyrone]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Waterford|Waterford]]
|
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Waterford]]''
|-
|[[County Westmeath|Westmeath]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Wexford|Wexford]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Wicklow|Wicklow]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|}
==Former counties==
Former counties include: [[County Coleraine]] which formed the basis of County Londonderry, and [[Nether Tyrone|Nether]] and [[Upper Tyrone]] which were merged, and [[Desmond]] which was split between Counties Cork and Kerry. Other names seen on old maps include [[Caterlaugh]] or [[Caterlagh]], archaic designations of County Carlow, in the days before much of the north of that county was taken into Wicklow. In 1777, the ancient norman town of Carrickfergus lost its status of county town, there was formerly a county of Carrickfergus which extend further than the modern borough of Carrickfergus,
==See also==
*[[List of Irish counties by population]]
*[[List of Irish counties by area]]
*[[County_Town#Traditional_counties_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland|List of Irish County Towns]]
*[[Provinces of Ireland]]
*[[Districts of Northern Ireland]]
*[[Irish Vehicle Registration Plates]]
*[[Irish topics]]
*[[ISO 3166-2:IE]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cso.ie/census/Census2002Results.htm Central Statistics Office - 2002 census results]
*[http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/irl/ Family history links to traditional counties of Ireland]
Flags
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Sparta/1648/flags.htm Flags of Ireland - includes county flags]
*[http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/ie.html Flags of the World - Ireland - includes more flags]
Baronies, Civil Parishes and Townlands
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/baronies.htm The Baronies of Ireland -Clans and Baronies]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-connacht.htm Connacht Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-leinster.htm Leinster Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-munster.htm Munster Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-ulster.htm Ulster Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.seanruad.com/ IreAtlas Townland Search]
Representatives of local government
*[http://www.amai.ie Association of Municipal Authorities of Ireland]
*[http://www.councillors.ie General Council of County Councils]
*[http://www.lama.ie Local Authority Members Association]
[[Category:Lists of subnational entities|Ireland, Counties of]]
[[Category:Counties of Ireland|!]]
[[Category:Ireland]]
[[Category:Local government in the Republic of Ireland]]
[[ast:Condaos d'Irlanda]]
[[de:Gliederung Irlands]]
[[es:Condados de Irlanda]]
[[fr:Comtés d'Irlande]]
[[it:Contee d'Irlanda]]
[[nl:Graafschappen van Ierland]]
[[ja:アイルランドの地方行政区画]]
[[no:Grevskap i Irland]]
[[pt:Subdivisões da Irlanda]]
[[ro:Comitatele Irlandei]]
[[sv:Irlands grevskap]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Information Sciences Institute</title>
<id>15034</id>
<revision>
<id>37251202</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T20:15:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.7.50.54</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Division 7: Computer Networks */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Information Sciences Institute''' ('''ISI''') of the [[University of Southern California]] (USC) is a prominent research organization in the field of [[information science]]; it is part of the [[Viterbi School of Engineering]] at USC. It is involved in a broad spectrum of [[information]] processing research, and in the development of advanced computer and communication technologies.
The Institute was founded in 1972 by [[Keith Uncapher]]. ISI is currently headed by [[Herbert Schorr]] who came to ISI in 1988 after a career as both executive and scientist at [[IBM]].
It is not located on campus as USC, but at a separate facility in [[Marina del Rey, California]]; it also has a branch facility in [[Arlington, Virginia]].
==Divisions==
ISI is divided into ten "divisions", each of which contains research groups focused on a particular aspect of information science:
===Division 1: Computational Sciences===
Conducts research in the areas of [[applied mathematics]], [[compiler]]s, [[cluster]]s, and other large-scale applications with emphasis of maximizing [[throughput]].
===Division 2: Distributed Scalable Systems===
Conducts research in areas that deal with groups of computers, particularly those that are involved in mobile or distributed applications. Topics include [[information space analysis]] and [[e-commerce]].
===Division 3: Intelligent Systems===
Conducts research in the area of [[artificial intelligence]] and related fields such as [[data mining]], [[robotics]], and [[machine learning]].
===Division 4: Silicon Systems / [[MOSIS]]===
Conducts research in low-cost low-volume [[semiconductor]] and [[MEMS]] manufacturing.
===Division 5: Business Office===
Contracts and Grants administration. [[Human Resources]] functions.
===Division 6: Action===
[[Hardware]] and [[Software]] Support.
===Division 7: Computer Networks===
Conducts research into all forms of [[computer networking]] including networking [[protocol (computing)|protocols]], [[Distributed computing|distributed networking]], [[embedded]] networking, [[sensor network]]s, and [[middleware]]. The division has built or collaborated on building several key elements of modern networks that are in wide use throughout today's [[Internet]], including: [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]], [[Domain Name System|DNS]], [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]], and [[IPv6]].
Division 7 was directed by [[Jon Postel]] until his passing.
===Division 8: Advanced Systems===
Conducts research into unconventional and cutting-edge systems in a range of areas such as compilers, [[Very-large-scale integration|VLSI]], [[grid computing]], [[wireless]] systems, and [[computer-aided design]].
===Division 9: Integration Sciences===
Conducts research into distributed [[database]]s, [[pattern recognition]] and their applications.
===Division 10: Dynamic Systems===
Conducts research into standard and [[Embedded system|embedded systems]] that adapt to changes in [[Electric power|power]], [[configuration]], or [[natural environment|environment]].
==External links==
*[http://www.isi.edu ISI homepage]
{{org-stub}}
[[Category:Scientific institutions]]
[[Category:University of Southern California]]
[[ja:&#24773;&#22577;&#31185;&#23398;&#30740;&#31350;&#25152;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers</title>
<id>15035</id>
<revision>
<id>15912550</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ICANN]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Information security</title>
<id>15036</id>
<revision>
<id>40745519</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T19:15:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Awillcox</username>
<id>363018</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ (added SoGP/ISF)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Information security''' deals with several different "[[trust]]" aspects of [[information]]. Another common term is '''information assurance'''. Information security is not confined to [[computer]] systems, nor to information in an electronic or [[machine-readable]] form. It applies to all aspects of safeguarding or protecting information or data, in whatever form.
The [[United States|U.S.]] [[National Information Systems Security Glossary]] defines '''Information systems security''' ('''INFOSEC''') as:
:''the protection of [[information]] systems against unauthorized [[access]] to or modification of information, whether in [[Computer storage|storage]], processing or transit, and against the denial of service to authorized users or the provision of service to unauthorized users, including those measures necessary to detect, document, and counter such threats.''
Most definitions of information security tend to focus, sometimes exclusively, on specific usages and, or, particular media; e.g., "protect electronic data from unauthorized use". In fact it is a common misconception, or misunderstanding, that information security is synonymous with [[computer security]]—in any of its guises: computer and network security, [[information technology]] (IT) security, [[information systems security]], information and communications technology (ICT) security. Each of these has a different emphasis, but the common concern is the security of information in some form (electronic in these cases): hence, all are subsets |
comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[tachycardia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bradycardia</title>
<id>5872</id>
<revision>
<id>39109610</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T19:59:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Bringing "External links" and "See also" sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{SignSymptom infobox |
Name = Bradycardia |
ICD10 = R00.1 |
ICD9 = |
}}
'''Bradycardia''', as applied in adult medicine, is defined as a [[heart rate]] of under 60 beats per minute, though it is seldom symptomatic until the rate drops below 50 beat/min [http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic534.htm].
It is also less commonly known as brachycardia. Trained [[athlete]]s tend to have slow resting heart rates, and resting bradycardia in athletes should not be considered abnormal if the individual has no symptoms associated with it.
The term relative bradycardia is used to explain a heart rate that, while not technically below 60 beats per minute, is considered too slow for the individual's current medical condition.
This [[cardiac arrhythmia]] can be underlied by several causes, which are best divided into cardiac and non-cardiac causes.
Non-cardiac causes are usually secondary, and can involve [[recreational drug use|drug]] use or [[drug abuse|abuse]]; [[metabolism|metabolic]] or [[endocrine]] issues, especially in the [[thyroid]]; an [[electrolyte]] imbalance; [[:Category:Neurology|neurologic]] factors; autonomic reflexes; situational factors such as prolonged bed rest; and [[autoimmune|autoimmunity]].
Cardiac causes include acute or chronic [[ischemic heart disease]], vascular [[heart disease]], valvular heart disease, or degenerative primary electrical disease.
Ultimately, the causes act by three mechanisms: depressed automaticity of the heart, conduction block, or escape pacemakers and rhythms.
== Causes ==
There are generally two types of problems that result in bradycardias: disorders of the [[sinus node]], and disorders of the [[atrioventricular node]] (AV node).
With sinus node dysfunction (sometimes called [[sick sinus syndrome]]), there may be disordered [[automaticity]] or impaired conduction of the impulse from the sinus node into the surrounding atrial tissue (an "exit block").
It is difficult and sometimes impossible to assign a mechanism to any particular bradycardia, but the underlying mechanism is not clinically relevant to treatment, which is the same in both cases of sick sinus syndrome: a permanent [[pacemaker]].
Atrioventricular conduction disturbances (aka an AV block) may result from impaired conduction in the AV node, or anywhere below it, such as in the His bundle.
Patients with bradycardia have likely acquired it, as opposed to having it [[congenital]]ly.
Also, bradycardia is more common in older patients, since both cardiac and non-cardiac causes are more likely in the [[elderly]].
== Management ==
There are two main reasons for treating any [[cardiac arrhythmia]]s.
With bradycardia, the first is to address the associated symptoms, such as [[Fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], limitations on how much an individual can physical exert, [[fainting]] (syncope), [[dizziness]] or lightheadedness, or other vague and non-specific symptoms.
The other reason to treat bradycardia is if the person's ultimate outcome (prognosis) will be changed or impacted by the bradycardia.
Treatment in this vein depends on whether any symptoms are present, and what the underlying cause is.
Primary or [[idiopathic]] bradycardia is treated symptomatically if it is significant, and the underlying cause is treated if the bradycardia is secondary.
==See also==
* [[Tachycardia]]
==External links==
*[http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic534.htm Sinus Bradycardia] at eMedicine
[[Category:Cardiology]]
[[Category:Symptoms]]
[[de:Bradykardie]]
[[fr:Bradycardie]]
[[it:Bradicardia]]
[[pl:bradykardia]]
[[pt:Bradicardia]]
[[sv:Bradykardi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canada Day</title>
<id>5873</id>
<revision>
<id>40525557</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T05:19:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JimWae</username>
<id>61906</id>
</contributor>
<comment>for consistency</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Canada_Day_2000_Wellington.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Canada Day in [[Ottawa]].]]
'''Canada Day''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Fête du Canada'') is [[Canada]]'s [[national holiday]]. It is celebrated on [[1 July]] annually.
==History==
Canada Day celebrates the creation of the [[dominion]] of [[Canada]] through the [[British North America Act 1867|British North America Act]] on [[1 July]] [[1867]], uniting three [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] territories &mdash; the [[Province of Canada]] (southern [[Ontario]] and southern [[Quebec]]), [[Nova Scotia]], and [[New Brunswick]] &mdash; into a [[federation]]. (See [[Canadian Confederation]].)
The holiday itself was formally established in [[1879]] and was originally called ''[[Dominion Day]]'', making reference to the Canadian-originated term "dominion" to describe the political union, at a time when the [[Fathers of Confederation]] were hesitant to use a name such as the Kingdom of Canada. The name was changed to ''Canada Day'' on [[27 October]] [[1982]], largely harking of the adoption of the earlier [[Canada Act 1982]].
On Dominion Day [[1923]], the [[Chinese Immigration Act of 1923]] went into effect. Until the act was repealed in 1947, many [[Chinese-Canadian]]s referred to [[1 July]] as "Humiliation Day" and refused to celebrate Canada's birthday.
It is a federal holiday celebrated by all provincial governments and most businesses across Canada. [[Quebec]] also has [[Moving Day]] on [[1 July]], due to the fact that most leases there begin and end on that day, with many people changing residences.
==Newfoundland and Labrador Memorial Day==
In [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], [[1 July]] is recognised as Memorial Day, and commemorates the [[Newfoundland Regiment]]'s heavy losses during [[World War I]], at [[Beaumont Hamel]], on the [[first day on the Somme|first day of the Battle of the Somme]].
==Activities==
[[Image:CanadaDayIqaluit19990701 CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|right|Canada Day celebrations in Iqaluit, 1999.]]
Canada Day is generally marked by patriotic celebrations. Most cities have organized celebrations, often featuring fireworks. Entertainment usually has a Canadian theme. [[National Flag of Canada|Canadian flag]]s abound, and some go as far as to paint their faces in Canadian [[national colours]] (red and white).
The celebrations in [[Ottawa]] are particularly lavish. Every Canada Day, hundreds of thousands gather on [[Parliament Hill]] to celebrate Canada's birth.
==Trivia==
*One time-honored [[United States of America|American]] schoolkids' riddle is, "Does Canada have a [[Independence Day (United States)|Fourth of July]]?"
*One answer is, "Yes, only it comes on the ''First''!"
==See also==
*[[Canada]]
*[[Dominion Day]]
*[[Moving Day]]
*[[National Flag of Canada Day]]
==External links==
*[http://www.pch.gc.ca/special/canada/index_e.cfm Government of Canada site on Canada Day]
*[http://www.ncc.gc.ca/canadaday/index_e.asp National Capital Commission]
[[Category:Holidays in Canada]]
[[Category:History of Canada]]
[[es:Día de Canadá]]
[[fr:Fête du Canada]]
[[he:יום קנדה]]
[[zh:加拿大日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Claudine</title>
<id>5874</id>
<revision>
<id>24512178</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-01T22:06:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mairi</username>
<id>95631</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 1974 film, see ''[[Claudine (movie)]]''
'''Claudine''' is the protagonist of the early novels of the French author [[Colette]], published under the name of her husband 'Willy'.
* ''Claudine à l'école'' (1900)
* ''Claudine à Paris'' (1901)
* ''Claudine en ménage'' (1902)
* ''Claudine s'en va'' (1903)
{{fict-char-stub}}
[[Category:Series of books]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer jargon</title>
<id>5875</id>
<revision>
<id>41684436</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:19:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mailer diablo</username>
<id>131286</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Computer jargon]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">(''arcane computer acronym, terminology or technology'')
(Computer [[jargon]] must be distinguished from [[hacker]] [[slang]], which is the language of a certain subculture of people involved with computers. See [[jargon file]].)
'''BTKATC''' - '''B'''etween '''T'''he '''K'''eyboard '''A'''nd '''T'''he '''C'''hair; An acronym commonly used in the Technical Support Realm and in other IT instances. An error refering to the source of a linguistic or programming error. Also spelled "BCAK" (Between Chair And Keyboard).
'''[[CAD]]''' - '''C'''omputer '''A'''ided '''D'''esign; particular software design program, esp. architectural
'''[[CAM]]''' - '''C'''omputer '''A'''ided '''M'''anufacturing; particular software design program used in manufacturing operations, esp. [[numerical control machine]]s
'''[[CLI]]''' - Command Line Interface. A type of [[UI]] consisting of a text prompt to which you give commands.
'''[[Cyclic redundancy check|CRC]]''' - Cyclic Redundancy Check; a specific type of checksum added data that can be used to verify that the data was received without bits |
Sumatra and been brought to Melaka at the time of its foundation. In time Malay came to be the official language of all the Malay states, although local languages survived in many places.
==European domination==
The closing of the overland route from Asia to Europe by the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the claim towards trade monopoly with [[India]] and south-east Asia by Arab traders led the European powers to look for a maritime route. In [[1498]] [[Vasco da Gama]], sent by King [[John II of Portugal|John II]] of [[Portugal]], found the way around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] to India, and in [[1511]] [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] led an expedition to Malaya which seized Melaka after a month-long siege and made it the capital of Portugal&#8217;s eastern empire. This was a bitter lesson to the Malay world about the greed and ruthlessness of the Europeans, and also about their technological superiority.
The son of the last Sultan of Melaka fled to the island of [[Bintan]] off the southern tip of Malaya, where he founded a new state which eventually became the [[Sultanate of Johor]]e. Freed from Melaka&#8217;s domination, the Malay world broke up into a series of quarrelsome [[successor state]]s, of which the most important were [[Aceh]], [[Brunei]], [[Johore]] and [[Perak]]. Other states such as [[Banten]], [[Yogyakarta]], [[Kedah]], [[Selangor]], [[Sulu]] and [[Terengganu]] also emerged as independent sultanates. By the late 16th century the tin mines of northern Malaya had been discovered by European traders, and Perak grew wealthy on the proceeds of tin exports. But the European colonial powers were bent on expanding further into the region. The Portuguese gained control of the spice-rich [[Maluku|Moluccas]] (Maluku), and in [[1571]] the [[Spain|Spanish]] captured [[Manila]].
The Dutch arrived in the region in [[1596]]. They hated the Portuguese both for religious reasons and as commercial rivals, and were determined to evict them from the wealthy islands they called the [[East Indies]]. Led by the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC), they soon overcame the weak sultanates in Java and founded [[Jakarta|Batavia]] (Jakarta) as their capital in [[1619]]. From there they expanded across the archipelago, forming an alliance with Johore against their main enemies, the Portuguese at Melaka and the powerful Sultan of Aceh. In [[1641]], after several attempts, the VOC-Johore alliance captured Melaka, breaking Portuguese power in Malaya for good &#8211; Portugal was left with only [[Portuguese Timor]]. Backed by the Dutch, Johore established a loose hegemony over the Malay states, except Perak, which was able to play off Johore against the Siamese to the north and retain its independence.
The weakness of the Malay states in this period allowed other people to migrate into the Malay homelands. The most important of these were the [[Bugis]], seafarers from eastern Indonesia, who regularly raided the Malay coasts and finally seized control of Johore following the assassination of the last Sultan of the old Melaka royal line in [[1699]]. Other Bugis raiders took control of [[Selangor]]. The [[Minangkabau]] peoples from Sumatra also migrated into Malaya, and eventually established their own state in [[Negeri Sembilan]]. The fall of Johore left a power vacuum on the Malay Peninsula which was partly filled by the Siamese kings of [[Ayutthaya kingdom]], who made the five northern Malay states &#8211; [[Kedah]], [[Kelantan]], [[Patani]], [[Perlis]] and [[Terengganu]] &#8211; their vassals. Johore&#8217;s eclipse also left Perak as the unrivalled leader of the Malay states.
The economic importance of Malaya to Europe grew rapidly during the 18th century. The fast-growing [[tea]] trade between China and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] increased the demand for high-quality Malayan tin, which was used to line tea-chests. Malayan pepper also had a high reputation in Europe, while Kelantan and [[Pahang]] had gold mines. The growth of tin and gold mining and associated service industries led to the first influx of foreign settlers into the Malay world &#8211; at first Arabs and Indians, later Chinese &#8211; who colonised the towns and soon dominated economic activities. This established a pattern which characterised Malayan society for the next 200 years &#8211; a rural Malay population increasingly under the domination of wealthy urban immigrant communities, whose power the Sultans were unable to resist.
English traders had been present in Malay waters since the 17th century, but it was not until the mid 18th century that the [[British East India Company]], based in British India, developed a serious interest in Malayan affairs. The growth of the China trade in British ships increased the Company&#8217;s desire for bases in the region. Various islands were used for this purpose, but the first permanent acquisition was [[Penang]], leased from the Sultan of Kedah in [[1786]]. This was followed soon after by the leasing of a block of territory on the mainland opposite Penang (known as [[Province Wellesley]]). In [[1795]], during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British occupied Dutch Melaka to forestall possible [[France|French]] interest in the area. When Melaka was handed back to the Dutch in [[1815]], the British governor, [[Stamford Raffles]], looked for an alternative base, and in [[1819]] he acquired [[Singapore]] from the Sultan of Johore. The twin bases of Penang and Singapore, together with the decline of the Netherlands as a naval power, made Britain the dominant force in Malayan affairs. British influence was increased by Malayan fears of Siamese expansionism, to which Britain made a useful counterweight. During the 19th century the Malay Sultans became loyal allies of the British Empire.
==British Malaya==
{{main|British Malaya}}
In [[1824]] British hegemony in Malaya was formalised by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the decisive event in the formation of modern Malaysia. The Dutch evacuated Melaka and renounced all interest in Malaya, while the British recognised Dutch rule over the rest of the East Indies. This imposed an arbitrary frontier on the Malay world, one which has never been overcome. Penang, Melaka and Singapore were united as the [[Straits Settlements]], ruled by a British Governor in Singapore. During the 19th century, the British concluded treaties with the Malay states, installing &#8220;residents&#8221; who advised the Sultans and soon came the effective rulers of their states. The wealth of Perak&#8217;s tin mines made political stability there a priority for British investors, and Perak was thus the first Malay state to agree to the supervision of a British resident. Johore alone resisted, holding out until [[1914]]. In [[1909]] the weakened Siamese kingdom was compelled to cede [[Kedah]], [[Kelantan]], [[Perlis]] and [[Terengganu]] to the British. (Siam retained the Sultanate of [[Patani]], leaving a Muslim minority in southern [[Thailand]] which has been a source of much trouble for successive Thai governments.)
During the late 19th century the British also gained control of the north coast of [[Borneo]], where Dutch rule had never been established. The eastern part of this region (now [[Sabah]]) was under the nominal control of the Sultan of [[Sulu]], a vassal of the Spanish Philippines. The rest was the territory of the Sultanate of [[Brunei]]. In [[1841]], a British adventurer, [[James Brooke]], leased [[Kuching]] from the Sultan and made himself the &#8220;White Rajah&#8221; of [[Sarawak]], steadily expanding his territory at Brunei&#8217;s expense. North-eastern Borneo was colonised by British traders, and in [[1881]] the [[British North Borneo Company]] was granted control of the territory under the distant supervision of the governor in Singapore. The Spanish Philippines never recognised this loss of the Sultan of Sulu&#8217;s territory, laying the basis of the subsequent Filipino claim to Sabah. In [[1888]] what was left of Brunei was made a British protectorate, and in [[1891]] another Anglo-Dutch treaty formalised the border between British and Dutch Borneo. Thus the borders of modern Malaysia were formed, in complete disregard of ethnic and linguistic factors, by the colonial powers.
By [[1910]] the pattern of British rule in the Malay lands was established. The Straits Settlements were a [[Crown Colony]], ruled by a governor under the supervision of the [[Colonial Office]] in [[London]]. Their population was about half Chinese, but all residents, regardless of race, were British subjects. The first four states to accept British residents, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang, were termed the [[Federated Malay States]]: while technically independent, they were placed under a Resident-General in [[1895]], making them British colonies in all but name. The Unfederated Malay States (Johore, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terangganu) had a slightly larger degree of independence, although they were unable to resist the wishes of their British Residents for long. Johore, as Britain&#8217;s closest ally in Malay affairs, had the privilege of a written constitution, which gave the Sultan the right to appoint his own Cabinet, but he was generally careful to consult the British first.
==Multi-racial Malaya==
Unlike some colonial powers, the British always saw their empire as primarily an economic concern, and its colonies were expected to turn a profit for British shareholders. Malaya&#8217;s obvious attractions were its tin and gold mines, but British planters soon began to experiment with tropical plantation crops &#8211; [[tapioca]], [[uncaria|gambier]], pepper and coffee. But in [[1877]] the [[rubber]] plant was introduced from [[Brazil]], and rubber soon became Malaya&#8217;s staple export, stimulated by booming demand from European industry. Rubber was later joined by [[palm oil]] as an export earner. All these industries re |
ses, the Latin etymon must be spelled with an ''o'' where the French word has ''œu'': ''bovem'' > ''bœuf'', ''mores'' > ''mœurs'', ''oculum'' > ''œil''.
Some attempts have been made to [[Reforms of French orthography|reform]] French spelling, but few major changes have been made over the last two centuries.
==Examples of French==
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
!English
!French
!pronunciation
|-
||French|| ''Français'' || {{IPA|/fʁɑ̃sɛ/}}
|-
||English || ''Anglais'' || {{IPA|/ɑ̃ɡlɛ/}}
|-
||Yes || ''Oui'' || {{IPA|/wi/}}
|-
||No || ''Non'' || {{IPA|/nɔ̃/}}
|-
||Hello! || ''Bonjour !'' || {{IPA|/bɔ̃ʒuːʁ/}}
|-
||Good evening! || ''Bonsoir !'' || {{IPA|/bɔ̃swa:ʁ/}}
|-
||Good night! || ''Bonne nuit !'' || {{IPA|/bɔnnɥi/}}
|-
||Goodbye! || ''Au revoir !'' || {{IPA|/ɔʁvwaːʁ/}}
|-
||Have a good day! || ''Bonne journée !'' || {{IPA|/bɔnʒuʁne/}}
|-
||Please || ''S'il vous plaît'' || {{IPA|/silvuple/}}
|-
||Thank you || ''Merci'' || {{IPA|/mɛʁsi/}}
|-
||Sorry || ''Pardon'' / ''désolé'' (if male) / ''désolée'' (if female) || {{IPA|/dezɔle/}}
|-
||Who? || ''Qui ?'' || {{IPA|/ki/}}
|-
||What? || ''Quoi ?'' || {{IPA|/kwa/}}
|-
||When? || ''Quand ?'' || {{IPA|/kɑ̃/}}
|-
||Where? || ''Où ?'' || {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
||Why? || ''Pourquoi ?'' || {{IPA|/puʁkwa/}}
|-
||Because || ''Parce que'' || {{IPA|/paʁs(ə)kə/}}
|-
||How? || ''Comment ?'' || {{IPA|/kɔmɑ̃/}}
|-
||How much? || ''Combien ?'' || {{IPA|/kɔ̃bjɛ̃/}}
|-
||I do not understand. || ''Je ne comprends pas.'' || {{IPA|/ʒənəkɔ̃pʁɑ̃pɑ/}}
|-
||Help me!|| ''Aidez-moi !'' || {{IPA|/edemwa/}}
|-
||Where's the bathroom? || ''Où sont les toilettes ?'' || {{IPA|/u sɔ̃ le twalɛt/}}
|-
||Do you speak English? || ''Parlez-vous anglais ?'' || {{IPA|/paʁlevu ɑ̃ɡle/}}
|-
|}
==References==
* Walter, [[Henriette Walter|Henriette]] and [[Gérard Walter|Gérard]], ''Dictionnaire des mots d'origine étrangère,'' [[1998]].
==See also==
* [[Académie française]]
* [[Common phrases in different languages]]
* [[List of English words of French origin]]
* [[List of French phrases]]
* [[Francophone]]
* [[French in the United States]]
* [[French Language Wikipedia]]
* [[French phrases used by English speakers]]
* [[French proverbs]]
* [[Reforms of French orthography]]
* [[Morphology of the French verb]]
* [[Louchebem]]
* [[Verlan]]
* [[Creole language#French Creoles|French Creole languages]]
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=fr}}
{{Wikibookspar||French}}
{{Commonscat|French}}
*[http://www.learnfrenchathome.com/ Learn French at Home] Learn French with a teacher via internet or telephone!
*[http://www.jump-gate.com/languages/french/ French Language Course], free and the first on the net
*[http://www.ielanguages.com/french.html French Language Tutorial] at ielanguages.com
*[http://www.linguaguide.com/ French at LinguaGuide], free resource locator
*[http://www.langtolang.com/ Langtolang French, English, Turkish, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Rumanian, Swedish, Danish, Polish, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish, Esperanto, Swahili, Serbo_Croat Multilingual Dictionary]
*[http://www.wordreference.com/ Wordreference.com dictionary]
*[http://www.my-french-dictionary.com/ My French Picture Dictionary]
*[http://www.etienne-meul.be Plenty of exercises on French grammar]
*{{About.com|topic=French}}
*[http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=33 All free French dictionaries] Collection of free French dictionaries.
*[http://www.window.to/french/ Learn French online]
*[http://francophones.activebb.net/ French language forum]
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.academie-francaise.fr/ Académie Française]
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/ Office québécois de la langue française]
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.granddictionnaire.com Grand dictionnaire]
*[http://french.about.com/library/begin/bl_begin_vocab.htm Beginning French Vocabulary]
*[http://radio-canada.ca/education/francaismicro/ Capsules linguistiques - Radio-Canada.ca]
*[http://www.moelc.moe.edu.sg/french/ Département de Français, Ministry of Education Language Centre, Singapore]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=fra Ethnologue report for French]
*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/f.htm Free online resources for learners]
*[http://www.lexilogos.com/french_language_dictionary.htm French-English : all online dictionaries]
*[http://www.intuxication.org/~webtypo/le_francais_facile.htm Le français facile]
*[http://portal.wikinerds.org/rapidfrench How to learn French in 10 months]
*[https://oraprdnt.uqtr.uquebec.ca/pls/public/atxw007?owa_no_recueil=1&owa_nom_recueil=ELF Welcome to Easy French Literature]
*[http://dhost.info/defu/wiki/index.php?id=French_accentuation_rules Basic tips of French accentuation]
*[http://www.eslbase.com/language-exchange/ Language Exchange - Learn French]
*[http://www.languagehelpers.com/words/french/basics.html LanguageHelpers]
*[http://www.lightandmatter.com/french/ Liberté], an online first-year French textbook
*[http://www.listenandlearn.org/learn/french/index.php Learn French by reading and listening]
*[http://dhost.info/defu/wiki/index.php?id=Virtual_French_Keyboard A virtual French keyboard]
*[http://linearb.co.uk:8080/memory/ Searchable French-English dictionary], with example sentences
*{{fr icon}} [http://atilf.atilf.fr/ Le Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé] (''very comprehensive'')
*[http://truckspeak.monsite.wanadoo.fr Truck Drivers' French - English, English - French Dictionary]
*[http://french.window.to Learn about the French language]
*[http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&to_lang=3&learn-French/ Listen to useful French expressions]
*[http://sourceforge.net/projects/fvcr/ Open source database of French verb conjugation rules]
*[http://www.learnfrenchlive.com/ Learn French Live], Learn French one-on-one using MSN
*[http://www.granddictionnaire.com/ Grand dictionnaire terminologique] French-English, English-French dictionary of technical terms from numerous disciplines
*[http://www.quiz-tree.com/French_Vocabulary_main.html Everyday French Vocabulary Training]
*[http://french.typeit.org Type any text with French characters].
*[http://www.freefrenchebook.com Free online activities for learning and practicing the language].
{{french dialects}}
{{Official EU languages}}
[[Category:French language]]
[[Category:Guttural R]]
[[Category:Languages of Belgium]]
[[Category:Languages of Canada]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Languages of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Languages of French Polynesia]]
[[Category:Languages of Luxembourg]]
[[Category:Languages of Morocco]]
[[Category:Languages of New Caledonia]]
[[Category:Languages of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Languages of Wallis and Futuna]]
[[Category:Oïl languages]]
[[Category:Synthetic languages]]
[[af:Franse taal]]
[[als:Französische Sprache]]
[[ang:Frencisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة فرنسية]]
[[an:Idioma franzés]]
[[bg:Френски език]]
[[bm:Faransikan]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hoat-gí]]
[[br:Galleg]]
[[ca:Francès]]
[[cs:Francouzština]]
[[cy:Ffrangeg]]
[[da:Fransk (sprog)]]
[[de:Französische Sprache]]
[[et:Prantsuse keel]]
[[el:Γαλλική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma francés]]
[[eo:Franca lingvo]]
[[eu:Frantses]]
[[fa:زبان فرانسوی]]
[[fr:Français]]
[[ga:Fraincis]]
[[gl:Lingua francesa]]
[[ko:프랑스어]]
[[hr:Francuski jezik]]
[[io:Franciana linguo]]
[[ilo:Pagsasao a Franses]]
[[id:Bahasa Perancis]]
[[ia:Lingua francese]]
[[iu:ᐅᐃᕖᑎᑐᑦ]]
[[is:Franska]]
[[it:Lingua francese]]
[[he:צרפתית]]
[[ka:ფრანგული ენა]]
[[kw:Frynkek]]
[[ku:Zimanê fransî]]
[[la:Lingua Francogallica]]
[[lv:Franču valoda]]
[[lt:Prancūzų kalba]]
[[li:Frans]]
[[ln:Lifalansé]]
[[hu:Francia nyelv]]
[[mk:Француски јазик]]
[[nl:Frans]]
[[nds:Franzöösche Spraak]]
[[ja:フランス語]]
[[no:Fransk språk]]
[[nn:Fransk språk]]
[[oc:Francés]]
[[os:Францусаг æвзаг]]
[[pl:Język francuski]]
[[pt:Língua francesa]]
[[ro:Limba franceză]]
[[rm:Lingua franzosa]]
[[ru:Французский язык]]
[[se:Fránskkagiella]]
[[sc:Limba frantzesa]]
[[sco:French leid]]
[[sq:Gjuha Frënge]]
[[simple:French language]]
[[sk:Francúzština]]
[[sl:Francoščina]]
[[sr:Француски језик]]
[[fi:Ranskan kieli]]
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[[tl:Wikang Pranses]]
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[[zh:法语]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Feminist Film Theory</title>
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<title>Formalist Film Theory</title>
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<title>Formula fiction</title>
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<timestamp>2006-01-11T00:49:08Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[popular culture]], '''formula fiction''' is [[literature]] in which the storylines and plots have been reused to the extent that the narratives are predictable. It is similar to [[genre fiction]], which identifies a number of specific settings that are frequently reused. The label of ''formula fiction'' is used in [[literary criticism]] as at least a mild [[pejorative]] to imply lack of originality.
Formula fiction is similar to genre fiction. The label of genre fiction is typically assigned because of the reuse of settings, content, layout, and/or style. The label |
ed by Mike Nesmith. Mike and Frank wore cheap disguises and the interview was performed as if Mike was Frank and Frank was Mike.
* Music from his early albums with The Mothers Of Invention is used in the [[1969 in film|1969 film]] [[Medium Cool]]
* He appeared on [[Dick Cavett]]'s interview show in the early 1970's with the Flo and Eddie version of the band, and other interview shows.
* Zappa was the guest host and musical guest of the October 21, 1978 show of [[Saturday Night Live]]. His sense of humor alienated him from the cast and his mugging-to-the-camera performance has led to [[Lorne Michaels]] never allowing the show to be shown in repeats or on video. In the same show he portrayed [[Coneheads|Connie Conehead]]'s date.
* He appeared on ''[[What's My Line]]?''
* He once played a [[drug dealer]] in the episode "Payback" of [[Miami Vice]]
* Every year since [[1989]], the Zappanale Festival held in [[Germany]] will invite fans to celebrate the music of Frank Zappa. Tribute Bands, often led by ex-members of the different Zappa bands, will perform Zappa's music for three days.
* In 1990, Zappa visited Czechoslovakia at the request of President [[Vaclav Havel]], one of his lifelong fans, and was asked by Havel to serve as Special Amabassador to the West on Trade, Culture and Tourism. Zappa enthusiastically agreed and began meeting with corporate officials interested in investing in Czechoslovakia. He told ''The Nation'' "You don't have to know about international financing. You just have to know about composition." Bush administration officials pressured Havel to withdraw the appointment, but Havel made Zappa an unofficial cultural attaché anyway.
* Zappa was the voice of [[the Pope]] in the [[1992 in television|1992]] ''[[The Ren and Stimpy Show|Ren and Stimpy]]'' episode ''[[In the Army/Powdered Toast Man|Powdered Toast Man]].
* After his death an internet email campaign to the [[International Astronomical Union]]'s Minor Planet Center led to an [[asteroid]] being named in his honor: [[3834 Zappafrank]], the asteroid having been discovered by Czech astronomers. [http://www.klet.org/names/view.php3?astnum=3834] [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/andymurkin/Resources/MusicRes/ZapRes/asteroid.html] Since then other things have been named in his honor including: another asteroid ([[16745 Zappa]]), a [[gene]] (ZapA gene of [[Proteus mirabilis]], a microbe that causes urinary tract infections [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/andymurkin/Resources/MusicRes/ZapRes/ZapA.html]), a [[goby]] fish (''[[Zappa confluentus]]'' [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/andymurkin/Resources/MusicRes/ZapRes/fish.html] ), a [[jellyfish]] (''[[Phialella zappa]]'' [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/andymurkin/Resources/MusicRes/ZapRes/jellyfish.html]), an extinct [[mollusc]] (''[[Amauratoma zappa]]''), and a [[spider]] with an abdominal mark supposedly resembling Zappa's mustache (''[[Pachygnatha zappa]]'' [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/andymurkin/Resources/MusicRes/ZapRes/spider.html]).
* The television cartoon show [[Duckman]] featured the voice of Zappa's son Dweezil and Zappa's music.
* In [[1995]] a series of [[Intel]] PC [[motherboards]] were named after him.
* His song "Dirty Love" was used in the [[1997]] film ''[[The Ice Storm]]'', and "Watermelon In Easter Hay" was used in the [[2001]] film ''[[Y Tu Mamà También]]''.
* Zappa is mentioned in the ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' episode "[[Manos: The Hands of Fate]]."
* 2004 saw the ''First International Conference of Esemplastic Zappology'', organized by Ben Watson and Esther Leslie in London. Renegade academics, poets and sturdy beggars convened to expound Zappological densities with wit and fervour. The proceedings were published in 2005, and a Roman sequel is rumoured for 2006.
* In January [[2006]], the city of [[Berlin]] renamed a Street 13 in the [[Marzahn]] district the "Frank-Zappa-Strasse."
* He is referenced in the songs:
** "Winds of Change" - The Animals
** "[[Smoke on the Water]]" and "MTV" by the legendary British [[Hard Rock]] band, [[Deep Purple]].
** "Sucede" by the Spanish [[Hard Rock]] band, [[Extremoduro]].
** "Ouija" by the Spanish band, [[Gigatron]].
** "Censorshit" by [[the Ramones]]
** "Blood from a Clone" by [[George Harrison]]
** "Thanks" by [[Sublime (band)|Sublime]] (on the [[40 Oz. to Freedom]] album)
** "Scrapbook" by Chicago
** "Weihnachtskaat Vun Nem Flittche Vum Eijetstein" by The Piano has been Drinking
==Note on his name==
As his autobiography ''The Real Frank Zappa Book'' notes, his real name was "Frank", never "Francis". Until rediscovering his birth certificate as an adult, Zappa himself believed he had been christened Francis, and he is credited as Francis on some of his early albums. Some encyclopedias still incorrectly claim that his real name was "Francis". Zappa is Italian for [[hoe (tool)|hoe]].
==Samples==
*[[Media:HungryFreaks,Daddy.ogg|Download sample]] of "Hungry Freaks, Daddy" from ''[[Freak Out!]]''
*[[Media:We're Only in It for the Money - What's the Ugliest Part of your Body sample.ogg|Download sample]] of "What's the Ugliest Part of Your Body?" from ''[[We're Only in It for the Money]]''.
*[[Media:Fz, bobby brown.ogg|Download sample]] of "Bobby Brown Goes Down" from [[Sheik Yerbouti]].
==Discography==
{{Main|Frank Zappa discography}}
==Filmography==
===Theatrical releases===
* [[200 Motels]] ([[1971]])
* [[Baby Snakes]] ([[1979]])
===Honker Home Video===
* [[The Dub Room Special]] ([[1984]])
* [[Video from Hell]] ([[1985]])
* [[Does Humor Belong in Music? (video)|Does Humor Belong in Music?]] ([[1985]])
* [[The True Story of Frank Zappa's 200 Motels]] ([[1988]])
* [[The Amazing Mr. Bickford]] ([[1987]])
* [[Uncle Meat (film)|Uncle Meat]] ([[1987]])
* [[Roxy & Elsewhere|The Roxy Film]] (to be announced)
==Further reading==
* ''The Real Frank Zappa Book,'' by Frank Zappa and Peter Occhiogrosso, is the definitive Zappa autobiography. Includes his Senate testimony.
* ''No Commercial Potential--The Saga of Frank Zappa,'' by David Walley
* ''Kenardaki Milyonerler--Zappa by Metin Solmaz, Istanbul 1992, Turkish book, contains a large biography and some lyrics
* ''Frank Zappa; The Negative Dialectics of Poodle Play,'' by Ben Watson, St. Martin's Press (March 1996) contains extensive notes on history, tours and releases.
* ''In Cold Sweat-Interviews With Really Scary Musicians,'' by Thomas Wictor, contains an extensive interview with [[Scott Thunes]], one of Zappa's most creative bassists.
* ''Lunar Notes-Zoot Horn Rollo's Captain Beefheart Experience,'' by Bill Harkleroad, contains several references about Zappa's collaboration with Don Van Vliet, better known as [[Captain Beefheart]].
*''Mother! the Frank Zappa Story'', by Michael Gray
*''Electric Don Quixote: The Definitive Story of Frank Zappa'', by Neil Slaven
*''Necessity Is... The Early Years of Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention'', by Billy James
*''Cosmik Debris: The Collective History and Improvisations of Frank Zappa'', by Greg Russo, Crossfire Pubns; 2nd Rev edition (January 9, 2003), ISBN 0964815702
*''My Brother was a Mother'', by Patrice "Candy" Zappa
*''Them or Us'', by Frank Zappa
*''Under the Same Moon'', by Suzannah Thana Harris
*''Being Frank: My Time with Frank Zappa'', by Nigey Lennon
*''Zappa: A Biography'', by Barry Miles, Publisher: Grove Press (November 9, 2004), ISBN 080211783X - Contains inaccuracies and opinions of things that Zappa did instead of facts.
*''Dangerous Kitchen: The Subversive World of Zappa'', by Kevin Courrier, ECW Press (June, 2002) ISBN 1550224476
*''Andreas Rausch, "Zappaesk". ehapa, Köln 2005: ISBN 3-7704-2888-9
*''Frank Zappa, Captain Beefheart, and the Secret History of Maximalism'', by Michel Delville and Andrew Norris. Cambridge: Salt Publishing, 2005.
*''Academy Zappa: Proceedings of the First International Conference of Esemplastic Zappology'', edited by Ben Watson and Esther Leslie, (London: SAF, 2005), ISBN 0946719799
==See also==
*[[List of rock instrumentals]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.zappa.com/ Zappa.com]
*[http://blog.wfmu.org/freeform/2006/02/frank_zappa_ver.html CNN Crossfire interview] with Frank Zappa and John Lofton in 1986 (Quicktime Video)
*[http://www.planetzappa.com/ PlanetZappa - A Tribute To Frank Zappa]
*[http://www.singingfool.com/player.asp?PublishedId=&List=327703|588284&showid= Frank The Dancing Fool on Singing Fool]
*[http://wiki.killuglyradio.com/ Zappa Wiki Jawaka - a wiki dedicated to FZ]
*[http://www.geocities.com/SunsetStrip/6095/ A Tribute to Frank Zappa (much detailed biographical material - click on "Biography")]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/mal/MO/philm/zappa/ Philm Freax: Frank Zappa]
*[http://www.tangento.net/prezappa.html Zappa at Tangento's]
*[http://www.thewire.co.uk/archive/essays/zappa.html Don't Do That On Stage Anymore, July 1995, The Wire]
*[http://www.lukpac.org/~handmade/patio/ the zappa patio (detailed discography including bootlegs)]
*[http://globalia.net/donlope/fz/ Information is not knowledge - FZ Lyrics & Else (includes musicians list track by track)]
*[http://members.shaw.ca/fz-pomd/ The Planet Of My Dreams (includes line-ups chronology)]
*[http://www.zappateers.com/ Zappateers - we're only in it for the music]
*[http://www.zapguz.nl/ Zapguz: A fan with some interesting pictures]
*[http://www.debrakadabra.com/ DebraKadabra - Italian FZ Appreciation Consortium]
*[http://www.science.uva.nl/~robbert/zappa/quote/phrases A library of Frank Zappa quotations]
*{{imdb name | id=0953261 | name=Frank Zappa}}
*[http://digilander.libero.it/tcmyc/ Touring Can Make You Crazy]
*[http://uweb.superlink.net/~jdandrea/shrg99-529/p51.html Transcript of Zappa's Senate Testimony] |
h current Digital [[Mavica]] models) and the Ion and Xapshot cameras from [[Canon (company)|Canon]]. It was officially referred to as a Video Floppy (or VF for short).
VF was not a digital data format; each track on the disk stored one video field in the analog [[interlace]]d [[composite video]] format in either the North American [[NTSC]] or European [[PAL]] standard. This yielded a capacity of 25 images per disk in frame mode and 50 in field mode.
The same media was used digitally formatted - 720 KB double-sided, double-density - in the [[Zenith Minisport]] laptop computer circa 1989. Although the media exhibited nearly identical performance to the 3½-inch disks of the time, it was not successful.
=== Ultimate capacity, speed ===
It is not easy to provide an answer for data capacity, as there are many factors involved, starting with the particular disk format used. The differences between formats and encoding methods can result in data capacities ranging from 720 KB or less up to 1.72 [[megabyte]]s (MB<!--- true capacity is what? --->) or even more on a standard 3½-inch high-density floppy, just from using special floppy disk software, such as the [[fdformat]] utility, which enables "standard" 3½-inch HD floppy drives to format HD disks at 1.62, 1.68 or 1.72 MB<!--- true capacity is what? --->, though reading them back on another machine is another story. These techniques require much tighter matching of drive head geometry between drives; this is not always possible and cannot be relied upon. The LS-240 drive supports a (rarely used) 32 MB<!--- true capacity is what? ---> capacity on standard 3½″ HD floppies&mdash;it is, however, a write-once technique, and cannot be used in a read/write/read mode. All the data must be read off, changed as needed and rewritten to the disk. And it requires an LS-240 drive to read.
Sometimes, however, manufacturers provide an "unformatted capacity" figure, which is roughly 2.0 MB<!--- true capacity is what? ---> for a standard 3½-inch HD floppy, and should imply that data density cannot (or should not) exceed a certain amount. There are, however, some special hardware/software tools, such as the [[CatWeasel]] [[floppy disk controller]] and software, which claim up to 2.23 MB<!--- true capacity is what? ---> of ''formatted'' capacity on a HD floppy. Such formats are not standard, hard to read in other drives and possibly even later with the same drive, and are probably not very reliable. It is probably true that floppy disks can surely hold an extra 10&ndash;20% formatted capacity versus their "nominal" values, but at the expense of reliability or hardware complexity.
3½-inch HD floppy drives typically have a transfer rate of 500 kilo[[baud]]. While this rate cannot be easily changed, overall performance can be improved by optimizing drive access times, shortening some [[BIOS]] introduced delays (especially on the [[IBM PC]] and [[IBM PC compatible|compatible]] platforms), and by changing the '''sector:shift''' parameter of a disk, which is, roughly, the numbers of sectors that are skipped by the drive's head when moving to the next track.
This happens because sectors are not typically written exactly in a sequential manner but are scattered around the disk, which introduces yet another delay. Older machines and controllers may take advantage of these delays to cope with the data flow from the disk without having to actually stop it.
By changing this parameter, the actual sector sequence may become more adequate for the machine's speed. For example, an IBM format 1440 KB disk formatted with a sector:shift ratio of 3:2 has a sequential reading time (for reading ''all'' of the disk in one go) of just 1 minute, versus 1 minute and 20 seconds or more of a "normally" formatted disk. It is interesting to note that the "specially" formatted disk is very&mdash;if not completely&mdash;compatible with all standard controllers and BIOS, and generally requires no extra software drivers, as the BIOS generally "adapts" well to this slightly modified format.
== Usability ==
One of the chief [[usability]] problems of the floppy disk is its vulnerability. Even inside a closed plastic housing, the disk medium is still highly sensitive to dust, condensation and temperature extremes. As with any magnetic storage, it is also vulnerable to magnetic fields. Blank floppies have usually been distributed with an extensive set of warnings, cautioning the user not to expose it to conditions which can endanger it.
Users damaging floppy disks (or their contents) were once a staple of "stupid user" folklore among computer technicians. These stories poked fun at users who stapled floppies to papers, made [[facsimile machine|faxes]] or [[photocopier|photocopies]] of them when asked to "copy a disk", or stored floppies by holding them with a magnet to a file cabinet. The flexible 5¼-inch disk could also (folklorically) be abused by rolling it into a [[typewriter]] to type a label, or by removing the disk medium from the plastic enclosure to store it safely.
On the other hand, the 3½-inch floppy has also been lauded for its mechanical usability by HCI expert [[Donald Norman]] (here quoted from his book ''[[The Design of Everyday Things]]'', Chapter 1):
:A simple example of a good design is the 3½-inch magnetic diskette for computers, a small circle of "floppy" magnetic material encased in hard plastic. Earlier types of floppy disks did not have this plastic case, which protects the magnetic material from abuse and damage. A sliding metal cover protects the delicate magnetic surface when the diskette is not in use and automatically opens when the diskette is inserted into the computer. The diskette has a square shape: there are apparently eight possible ways to insert it into the machine, only one of which is correct. What happens if I do it wrong? I try inserting the disk sideways. Ah, the designer thought of that. A little study shows that the case really isn't square: it's rectangular, so you can't insert a longer side. I try backward. The diskette goes in only part of the way. Small protrusions, indentations, and cutouts, prevent the diskette from being inserted backward or upside down: of the eight ways one might try to insert the diskette, only one is correct, and only that one will fit. An excellent design.
==The floppy as a metaphor==
For more than two decades, the floppy disk was the primary ''external'' writable storage device used. Also, in a non-network environment, floppies have been the primary means of transferring data between computers (sometimes jokingly referred to as ''[[Sneakernet]]'' or ''Frisbeenet''). Floppy disks are also, unlike hard disks, handled and seen; even a novice user can identify a floppy disk (although this may change as they become less common). Because of all these factors, the image of the floppy disk has become a metaphor for saving data, and the floppy disk symbol is often seen in programs on buttons and other user interface elements related to saving files.
==Floppy trivia==
* If the cable for a 3½-inch floppy disk drive is incorrectly connected to the floppy drive controller with a 180°-twist, the floppy drive LED will remain on.
* In the early days, manufacturers of "single sided" floppy disks would advise consumers that they "certified" only one side (hence the name single-sided), and if the user wanted to use the other side of the diskette, they should buy the more expensive "double-sided" variety of floppy disks. Consumers quickly found out that the single-sided diskettes were usable on ''both'' sides regardless.
* On the disk drives of the old [[Atari 8-bit family]] of computers, the drive activity indicator [[light-emitting diode|LED]]s were actually part of the power circuit. If they burned out, the drive would stop working.
* On the disk drives of the [[Atari ST]], [[Commodore computer]]s, and possibly others as well, the drive activity indicator LEDs are software controllable. This was put to use in some games, for example in the ST version of ''[[Lemmings]]'', where the LED would blink as the three last building bricks were used by the bridge builder lemming. In the absence of audio cues (e.g., when not listening to the in-game sound), this was critical to prevent the builder lemming from falling down after completing a bridge.
* It was possible with the [[Commodore 1541]] and [[Commodore 1571|1571]] disk drives to vibrate the head carriage against a "Track-0" head stop at varying frequencies to create simple musical melodies (e.g., ''[[Amazing Grace]]'' or ''[[James Bond music|the James Bond Theme]]).
* There is an [[urban myth]] that it is safe to view a [[solar eclipse]] through the film of a floppy removed from its case. Despite some anecdotal support, this is in fact dangerous and can lead to retina damage and even blindness ([http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/filters.html], [http://www.flycapers.com/tours/voyages/eyesafety.html]). Moreover, it produces poor image quality compared to filters designed for this purpose.
*3½-inch disks were frequently advertised in Europe as "88,9 mm disks"&mdash;an accurate, if overly precise, conversion, but the disks are actually 90 mm wide.
* The holes on the right side of a 3½-inch disk can be altered as to 'fool' some [[disk drives]] or [[operating system|operating systems]] (others such as the [[Acorn Archimedes]] simply do not care about the holes) into treating the disk as a higher or lower density one, for backwards compatibility or economical reasons. Popular modifications include:
** Drilling or cutting an extra hole into the right-lower side of a 3½-inch DD disk (symmetrical to the write-protect hole) in order to format the DD disk into a HD one. This was a popular practice during the early 1990s, as most p |
Kyonki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi'' (lit., Because the mother-in-law too was once a daughter-in-law).
==Common difficulties faced in learning Hindi==
* the ''[[phonetics|phonetic]] mechanism of some sounds peculiar to Hindi (eg. rda, dha etc)'' The distinction between aspirated and unaspirated consonants will be difficult for English speakers. In addition, the distinction between dental and alveoloar (or retroflex) consonants will also pose problems. English speakers will find that they need to carefully distinguish between four different d-sounds and four different t-sounds.
* ''pronunciation of vowels'': In English, unstressed vowels tend to have a "[[schwa]]" quality. The pronunciation of such vowels in English is changed to an "uh" sound; this is called reducing a vowel sound. The second syllable of "unify" is pronounced /{{IPA|ə}}/, not "ee." The same for the unstressed second syllabe of "person" which is also pronounced /{{IPA|ə}}/ rather than "oh." In Hindi, English-speakers must constantly be careful not to reduce these vowels.
**In this respect, probably the most important mistake would be for English speakers to reduce final "ah" sounds to "uh." This can be especially important because an English pronunciation will lead to misunderstandings about grammar and gender. In Hindi, "vo bolta hai" is "he talks" whereas "vo bolti hai" is "she talks." A typical English pronunciation in the first sentence would be "vo boltuh hai," which will be understood as "she talks" by most Hindi-native speakers.
* The 'a' ending of many Sanskrit and Sanskrit borrowed gender-masculine words, due to [[Romanization]], is highly confused by non-native speakers, because the short 'a' is dropped in Hindi. There are exceptions, of course, if the devanagari script itself dictates the additional diacritical mark for the vowel "long ā" at the end of certain masculine words, like [[Brahma (god)|Brahmā]] (ब्रह्मा).
* ''the Verbal [[concordance]]''; Hindi exhibits [[split ergativity]]; see [[Ergative-absolutive language]] for an example.
* ''[[Postpositions]] (''ne'')''
* ''Relative-correlative constructions''. In English interrogative and relative pronouns are the same word. In "Who are you?" the word "who" is an interrogative, or question, pronoun. In "My friend who lives in Chicago can speak Hindi," the word "who" is not an interrogative, or question, pronoun. It is a relative, or linking, pronoun. In Hindi, there are different words for each. The interrogative pronoun tends to start with the "k" sound:" kab = when?, kahaaN = where?, kitna = how much? The relative pronouns are usually very similar but start with "j" sounds: jab = when, jahaaN = where, jitna = how much.
* ''Honorifics''. For many English speakers, the fact that Hindi uses a three-part system of honorifics in the second person pronoun ("you") is deeply mystifying. It shouldn't be. The more formal pronouns are used in situations in which it's proper to express a degree of social respect. The less formal pronouns depart from this and indicate, on the one hand, intimacy, or on the other, an absence of social respect. The most formal is "aap" and is the safest for foreigners to use in all situations. It is used in situations that range from deeply respectful to the merely businesslike. When first meeting adults, whether at the bank, hotel or a restaurant, we should use "aap." The more intimate "tum" would be acceptable in talking with children or with adults with whom one is on more intimate terms. The safest thing with adults is wait and see what pronoun they use with you. They will almost certainly start off with "aap," but might, over time, start to use "tum" if your relationship becomes more like that of close friends. If your Hindi is too weak to determine whether they are using "aap" or "tum," then by all means, you should use "aap." Many grammars say that foreigners will rarely have the chance to use "tum" with Indian colleagues, but that is true only if one behaves like a "memsahib" or "sahib." The most intimate pronoun is "tu", which is only used in situations where there is a total absence of human formality: it is used in addressing servants, very close friends, younger siblings and deities. The use of "tu" with another adult may express the intimacy of lovers (but even here "tum" is safer) or extraordinary anger. What's the connection? All of these situations involve the lack of social respect.
* ''Direct and [[Oblique case]]s'' in nouns and adjectives
* ''[[Optative mood|Optative]] and Conditional moods'' in verbs
== See also ==
*The [[Wiktionary:Category:Hindi language|list of Hindi words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Hindi derivations|list of words of Hindi origin]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project
* [[Hindi literature]]
* [[Origin of some common Hindi words]]
* [[Complex Text Layout languages]]
* [[Languages on the Internet|Where is Hindi on the Internet?]]
* [[Languages of India]]
* [[List of national languages of India]]
* [[List of Indian languages by total speakers]]
* [[History of Hindi]]: a detailed chronology
==References==
* International Phonetic Association (1999) ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' ISBN 0-521-63751-1
*Snell, Rupert ''Teach yourself Hindi: A complete guide for beginners.'' Lincolnwood, IL : NTC Publishing Group, 1992. ISBN 0844238635
*Taj, Afroz (2002) ''[http://www.ncsu.edu/project/hindi_lessons/ A door into Hindi]''. Retrieved [[November 8]], [[2005]].
== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=hi}}
{{Wikibooks}}
* [http://labnol.blogspot.com/2005/06/free-software-tools-and-fonts-cd.html Request free Hindi Fonts and Devanagari Tools CD from Indian Government]
*[http://www.it-c.dk/people/pfw/hindi/ A short introduction to Hindi grammar]
*[http://hi.wiktionary.org Hindi Wiktionary]
*[http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=HND Ethnologue on Hindi]
*[http://www.lorem-ipsum.info/_hindi Generator for Hindi typographical filler text]
*[http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/hindilinks.html Hindi Language Resources]
*[http://sanskrit.gde.to/hindi Hindi documents and dictionary]
*[http://ltrc.iiit.net/showfile.php?filename=downloads/ International Institute of Information Technologies IIIT], online and downloadable dictionaries cross referenced in English for Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Bengali, Kannada, Telugu languages. Includes Classical Hindi Literature, writings of Meera, Suradas, Tulasidas, Premchand, Rahim et cetera.
*[http://www.aczone.com/itrans/online/ Online Itrans] to generate Hindi/Devanagari output.
*[http://www.goidirectory.nic.in Government of India website]
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf Official Unicode Chart for Hindi (PDF)]
*[http://www.bhashaindia.com Website of Microsoft to Provide Solutions for Hindi Language on net]
*[http://www.bhashaindia.com/Developers/MSTech/indicsupport/index.aspx Windows Indic Script Support]
*[http://www.bhashaindia.com/Developers/IndianLang/IndicScript/oslevel.htm?lang=en How to enable Indic Language Support at OS level]
*[http://www.bhashaindia.com/Developers/IndianLang/TypingDnagari/dnpages.aspx#pl9 Microsoft hindi IME keyboard हिन्दी कीबोर्ड]
*[http://www.iit.edu/~laksvij/language/hindi.html Romanized to Unicode Hindi transliterator]
* [http://www.wordanywhere.com/ Wordanywhere.com] Hindi/Telugu/English translator
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Hindi-english/ Hindi English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://mog.software.free.fr/Hindi/ Virtual Hindi Keyboard] Freeware
{{Indian selected article}}
[[Category:Hindi]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[ast:Hindi]]
[[bg:Хинди]]
[[ca:Hindi]]
[[cy:Hindi]]
[[da:Hindi]]
[[de:Hindi]]
[[dv:ހިންދީ]]
[[es:Hindi]]
[[eo:Hindia lingvo]]
[[eu:Hindi]]
[[fr:Hindî]]
[[gd:Hindi]]
[[gu:હિન્દી ભાષા]]
[[ko:힌디어]]
[[hi:हिन्दी]]
[[id:Bahasa Hindi]]
[[is:Hindí]]
[[he:הינדי]]
[[ka:ჰინდი]]
[[lt:Hindi]]
[[li:Hindi]]
[[hu:Hindi nyelv]]
[[mr:हिंदी]]
[[nl:Hindi]]
[[ja:ヒンディー語]]
[[no:Hindi]]
[[nn:Hindi]]
[[pl:Język hindi]]
[[pt:Língua hindi]]
[[ru:Хинди]]
[[sa:हिन्दी]]
[[sq:Hindi]]
[[simple:Hindi]]
[[sl:Hindijščina]]
[[sr:Хинди]]
[[fi:Hindi]]
[[sv:Hindi]]
[[tl:Wikang Hindī]]
[[ta:ஹிந்தி]]
[[th:ภาษาฮินดี]]
[[zh:印地语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hugin and Munin</title>
<id>13653</id>
<revision>
<id>39739933</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T15:01:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SashatoBot</username>
<id>743015</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: lb</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Odin hrafnar.jpg|thumb|240px|Huginn and Muninn sit on [[Odin]]'s shoulders in this illustration from an 18th century [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]
'''Huginn and Muninn''', sometimes Anglicized '''Hugin''' and '''Munin''', are a pair of [[raven]]s associated with the [[Norse god]] [[Odin]]. Hugin and Munin travel the world bearing news and information to Odin. Hugin is "[[thought]]" and Munin is "[[memory]]". They are sent out at dawn to gather information and return in the evening. They perch on the god's shoulders and whisper the news into his ears. It is from these ravens that the [[kenning]] 'raven-god' for Odin is derived.
The name ''Munin'' has its roots in the [[Old Norse]] word for memory.
From [[Grímnismál]]:
:The whole world wide, every day,
:Fly Hugin and Munin;
:I worry lest Hugin should fall in flight,
:Yet more I fear for Munin.
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Creatures in Norse mythology]]
[[Ca |
5 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
34% (male 1,486,902; female 1,422,977)
<br>''15-64 years:''
61% (male 2,609,934; female 2,518,330)
<br>''65 years and over:''
5% (male 192,254; female 212,136) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
1.64% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
25.15 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
4.72 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
-4.04 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.91 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
35.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
73.2 years
<br>''male:''
71.12 years
<br>''female:''
75.38 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
3 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Dominican(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Dominican
'''Ethnic groups:'''
white 16%, black 11%, mulatto 73%
'''Religions:'''
Roman Catholic 95%
'''Languages:'''
[[Spanish language|Spanish]]
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
82.1%
<br>''male:''
82%
<br>''female:''
82.2% (1995 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Society of the Dominican Republic]]
[[es:Demografía de la República Dominicana]]
[[fr:Démographie de la République dominicaine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of the Dominican Republic</title>
<id>8066</id>
<revision>
<id>41470267</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:49:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>4.43.69.94</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Constitution and legal system */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Dominican Republic}}
The [[Dominican Republic]] is a [[representative democracy]] whose national powers are divided among independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president appoints the cabinet, executes laws passed by the legislative branch, and is commander in chief of the armed forces. The president and vice president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for four-year terms.
[[Legislature|Legislative power]] is exercised by a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[Congress of the Dominican Republic|National Congress]] -- the [[Senate of the Dominican Republic|Senate]] (32 members), and the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Dominican Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] (150 members). Presidential elections are held in years evenly divisible by four. Congressional and municipal elections are held in even numbered years not divisible by four.
Under the constitutional reforms negotiated after the 1994 elections, the 16-member Supreme Court of Justice is appointed by a National Judicial Council, which is nominated by the three major political parties. The Court has sole jurisdiction over actions against the president, designated members of his cabinet, and members of Congress.
The Supreme Court hears appeals from lower courts and chooses members of lower courts. Each of the 29 provinces is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Elected mayors and municipal councils administer the National District (Santo Domingo) and the 103 municipal districts.
==Recent political history==
The Dominican Republic has a multi-party political system with national elections every four years. In two rounds of presidential elections in 1996, nearly 80% of eligible Dominican voters went to the polls. The leading parties in 1994 were the PRSC, linked to the International [[Christian Democratic]] political movement, whose candidate was President [[Joaquín Balaguer]]; the PRD, affiliated with the Socialist International, whose candidate was [[José Francisco Peña Gómez]]; and the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), whose candidate was former President [[Juan Bosch]].
In the 1994 elections, international observers noted many irregularities in the voter lists, and the opposition PRD immediately charged the Central Electoral Board and the PRSC with fraud. A Verification Commission appointed by the Central Electoral Board, however, did not accept the PRD's charges. By all estimates, total disenfranchised voters far exceeded the 22,281-vote margin of victory in favor of President Balaguer on [[2 August]] [[1994]].
Following an intense period of political activity, the competing political parties signed a Pact for Democracy on [[10 August]], reducing President Balaguer's term of office from 4 to 2 years, setting early elections, and reforming the constitution. A new Central Electoral Board was named to work on electoral reform. The main candidates in 1996 were Vice President [[Jacinto Peynado]] (PRSC), José Francisco Peña Gómez (PRD), and [[Leonel Fernández]] (PLD).
Domestic and international observers saw the 1996 election as transparent and fair. After the first round in which Jacinto Peynado (PRSC) was eliminated, the PRSC with Joaquín Balaguer endorsed Leonel Fernandez (PLD). Results in the second round, 45 days later on [[30 June]], were tabulated quickly, and although the victory margin was narrow (1.5%), it was never questioned. The transition from incumbent administration to incoming administration was smooth and ushered in a new, modern era in Dominican political life.
Fernández' political agenda was one of economic and judicial reform. He helped enhance Dominican participation in hemispheric affairs, such as the Organization of American States and the follow up to the Miami Summit. On [[16 May]] [[2000]], [[Hipólito Mejía]], the Revolutionary Democratic Party candidate, was elected president in another free and fair election. He defeated Dominican Liberation Party candidate [[Danilo Medina]] 49.8% to 24.84%. Former President Balaguer garnered 24.68% of the vote. Mejia entered office on [[16 August]] with four priorities: education reform, economic development, increased agricultural production, and poverty alleviation. Mejia also champions the cause of Central American and Caribbean economic integration and migration, particularly as it relates to Haiti.
The military consists of about 24,000 active duty personnel, commanded by the president. Its principal mission is to defend the nation, but it serves more as an internal security force. The army, twice as large as the other services combined, consists of four infantry brigades and a combat support brigade; the air force operates three flying squadrons; and the navy maintains 30 aging vessels. The Dominican Republic's military is second in size to Cuba's in the Caribbean.
The armed forces participate fully in counter-narcotics efforts. They also are active in efforts to control contraband and illegal immigration from Haiti to the Dominican Republic and from the Dominican Republic to the United States.
==Country information==
===Country name===
The conventional long form of the country's name is "Dominican Republic". The local long form is
"''Republica Dominicana''". The country's data code is "DO".
===Government===
The government of the Dominican Republic is a [[representative democracy]]. The country's capital is [[Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic|Santo Domingo]].
===Administrative divisions===
The Dominican Republic has 31 provinces (''provincias'') and one district* (''distrito''): [[Azua]], [[Baoruco]], [[Barahona]], [[Dajabón]], [[Distrito Nacional, Dominican Republic|Distrito Nacional]]*, [[Duarte Province|Duarte]], [[El Seibo]], [[Elías Piña]], [[Espaillat]], [[Hato Mayor]], [[Independencia Province|Independencia]], [[La Altagracia]], [[La Romana Province|La Romana]], [[La Vega]], [[María Trinidad Sánchez]], [[Monseñor Nouel]], [[Monte Cristi]], [[Monte Plata]], [[Pedernales Province|Pedernales]], [[Peravia]], [[Puerto Plata]], [[Salcedo Province|Salcedo]], [[Samaná]], [[Sánchez Ramírez]], [[San Cristóbal]], [[San José de Ocoa]], [[San Juan Province, Dominican Republic|San Juan]], [[San Pedro de Macorís Province|San Pedro de Macorís]], [[Santiago Province, Dominican Republic|Santiago]], [[Santiago Rodríguez]], [[Santo Domingo Province|Santo Domingo]], [[Valverde]].
===Independence===
On [[27 February]] [[1844]], the Dominican Republic declared [[independence]] from Haiti.
===Constitution and legal system===
The [[constitution]] of the Dominican Republic was [[ratification|ratified]] on [[28 November]] [[1966]]. The country's legal system is based on French civil codes.
[[Suffrage]] is extended to those at least 18 years of age, and to married persons regardless of age. It is both universal and compulsory.
==Executive branch==
===Chief of State===
[[Leonel Fernández|President Leonel Antonio Fernández Reyna]] has been the since [[16 August]] [[2004]]. The Vice is President Rafael Albuquerque de Castro (since [[16 August]] [[2004]]). The president is both the Chief of State and the head of government.
===Cabinet===
The cabinet is nominated by the President.
===Elections===
The President and Vice President are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held [[16 May]] [[2004]] (next to be held in May 2008)
In the 2004 election, Leonel Fernandez was elected president on the PLD ticket with 57.1% percent of the votes. Rafael Hipolito Mejia Dominguez of the PRD received 33.7% of the vote, and Eduardo Estrella of the PRSC received 8.7%.
==Legislative branch==
The bicameral [[Congress of the Dominican Republic|National Congress]] or ''Congreso Nacional'' consists of the [[Senate of the Dominican Republic|Senate]] or ''Senado'' and the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Dominican Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] or ''Cámara de Diput |
/edv_docu/documentation/xemacs-21.1.4/elib_toc.html#SEC21 The AVL TREE Data Type]
*[http://www.comnets.rwth-aachen.de/doc/cncl/classCNAVLTree.html CNAVLTree Class Reference]
*[http://www.stanford.edu/~blp/avl/ GNU libavl]
*[http://home.earthlink.net/~akonshin/delphi_components.htm AVL-trees - balanced binary trees] by [[Alex Konshin]]
*[http://www.informatik.uni-mannheim.de/~cjk/publications/ed-media98/node11.html Simulation of AVL Trees]
*[http://www.csi.uottawa.ca/~stan/csi2514/applets/avl/BT.html AVL tree applet]
*[http://webpages.ull.es/users/jriera/Docencia/AVL/AVL%20tree%20applet.htm Simulation of AVL Trees (DYNAMIC)]
*[http://webpages.ull.es/users/jriera/Docencia/AVL/AVL%20tree%20applet.htm AVL, Splay and Red/Black Applet]
*[http://www.eli.sdsu.edu/courses/fall96/cs660/notes/avl/avl.html Visual Tutorial of AVL Tree operations]
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
[[da:AVL-træ]]
[[de:AVL-Baum]]
[[es:Árbol AVL]]
[[fr:Arbre AVL]]
[[he:עץ AVL]]
[[lt:AVL medis]]
[[ja:AVL木]]
[[pl:Drzewo AVL]]
[[pt:Árvore AVL]]
[[sk:AVL strom]]
[[sl:AVL drevo]]
[[fi:AVL-puu]]
[[zh:AVL树]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aliphatic compound</title>
<id>2120</id>
<revision>
<id>41622368</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:12:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>206.191.43.2</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>correction: aliphatic compounds can be cyclic, just not aromatic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], '''aliphatic compounds''' are non-[[aromatic]] [[organic compound]]s. They include not only the [[fatty acid]]s and other derivatives of the [[paraffin]] [[hydrocarbon]]s ([[alkane]]), but also unsaturated compounds, such as the [[ethylene]] ([[alkene]]) and [[acetylene]] ([[alkyne]]) series. Aliphatic [[molecule]]s consist, in general, of a backbone of [[carbon]] [[atom]]s and other atoms bound to this carbon chain &mdash; most frequently [[hydrogen]], [[oxygen]], [[nitrogen]], [[sulfur]], and various [[halide]]s. The simplest aliphatic compound is [[methane]] ([[Carbon|C]][[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>4</sub>).
== See also ==
* [[Carbon-carbon bond]]
{{organic-compound-stub}}
[[Category:Organic compounds]]
[[ar:أليفاتي]]
[[ca:Hidrocarbur alifàtic]]
[[de:Aliphat]]
[[es:Hidrocarburo alifático]]
[[fr:Aliphatique]]
[[fi:Alifaattinen yhdiste]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angels</title>
<id>2121</id>
<revision>
<id>22304753</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-01T04:48:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Everyking</username>
<id>44020</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/222.124.7.106|222.124.7.106]] to last version by Rdsmith4</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Angel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astrology</title>
<id>2122</id>
<revision>
<id>42123747</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:52:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chris Brennan</username>
<id>381788</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History of astrology */ typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Astrology''' refers to any of several systems, [[tradition]]s or [[belief]]s in which knowledge of the apparent positions of [[celestial bodies]] is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about human affairs and events on earth. A practitioner of astrology is called an '''astrologer''' or, less often, an '''astrologist'''.
The word is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] αστρολογία = άστρον, ''astron'', "star" and the [[English language|English]] [[suffix]], ''[[-ology]]'', "study or discipline". -ology is in turn derived from the Greek λόγος, ''[[logos]]'', which has a variety of meanings in English but generally related to "[[system]]atic thought or speech".
Although the two fields share a common origin, modern [[astronomy]] as practiced is not to be confused with astrology. While astronomy is the study and observation of celestial objects and their movements through space, astrology is the study of the supposed correlation of those objects with earthly affairs. There is as yet no accepted evidence that astrology has a [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]], scientific basis.
[[Image:Flammarion.jpg|thumb|right|375px|The [[Flammarion Woodcut]], an enigmatic [[woodcut]] by an unknown artist.]]
==Description==
[[Image:Astrological Glyphs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Astrological [[glyph]]s representing the planets.]]
The core principles of astrology reflect a general principle, which was accepted throughout most of the ancient world, that events in the heavens should have analogies on Earth. Such ancient beliefs are epitomized in the [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] [[proverb|maxim]]: ''As Above, So Below''. The famous [[astronomer]]/[[astrologer]] [[Tycho Brahe]] also used a similar phrase to justify his studies in astrology: ''Suspiciendo despicio'' &mdash; "By looking up I see downward." Although the principle that events in the heavens are mirrored by those on Earth was one generally held in most traditions of astrology across the world, historically in the West there has been a debate over the nature of the mechanism behind astrology and whether or not celestial bodies are only signs or [[portent]]s of events, or if they are actual causes of events through some sort of force or mechanism.
Many of those who practice astrology believe the positions of certain celestial bodies either influences or correlates with people's [[personality]] traits, important events in their lives, physical characteristics, and to some extent their [[destiny]].
All astrological traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real and construed [[celestial body|celestial bodies]] as seen at the time and place of the event being studied. These are chiefly the [[Sun]], [[Moon]], [[planet]]s, and the [[lunar node]]s. The calculations performed in astrology involve arithmetic and simple geometry and serve to locate the apparent position of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on astronomical tables.
In past centuries astrology often relied on close observation of celestial objects, and the charting of their movements, and might be considered a [[protoscience]] in this regard. In modern times astrologers have tended to rely on data drawn up by [[astronomers]] and set out in a set of tables called an [[ephemeris]], which shows the changing positions of the heavenly bodies through time. It is the interpretation of these science-based tables that makes astrology a target for the label [[pseudoscience]].
== Traditions ==
There are many different traditions of astrology, some of which share similar features due to the transmission of astrological doctrines from one culture to another. Other traditions developed in isolation and hold completely different doctrines, although they too share some similar features due to the fact that they are drawing on similar astronomical sources, i.e. planets, stars, etc.
[[Image:zodiac_woodcut.png|thumb|right|360px|[[Zodiac]] signs, [[16th century]] [[European]] woodcut]]
Significant traditions of astrology include but are not limited to:
:*[[Babylonian astrology]]
:*[[Horoscopic astrology]] and its specific subsets
::*[[Hellenistic astrology]]
::*[[Jyotish]]/[[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] astrology
::*Medieval & Renaissance horoscopic astrology
::*Modern [[Western astrology]] with its specific subsets
:::*Modern [[Tropical zodiac|tropical]] and [[sidereal astrology|sidereal]] horoscopic astrology
:::*[[Hamburg School of Astrology]]
::::*[[Uranian astrology]] - subset of the Hamburg School
:::*[[Cosmobiology]]
:::*[[Psychological astrology]]
:*[[Chinese astrology]]
:*[[Mesoamerican astrology]]
:*[[Tibetan astrology]]
:*[[Kabbalistic astrology]].
== Horoscopic astrology ==
Horoscopic astrology is a very specific and complex system of astrology that was developed in the [[Mediterranean]] region and specifically [[Hellenistic]] [[Egypt]] sometime around the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE{{ref|Pingree}} that deals largely with astrological charts cast for specific moments in time in order to interpret the inherent meaning underlying the alignment of the planets at that moment based on specific sets of rules and guidelines. One of the defining characteristics of this form of astrology that makes it distinct from other traditions is the computation of the degree of the Eastern horizon rising against the backdrop of the [[ecliptic]] at the specific moment under examination, otherwise known as the [[ascendant]]. This has been the most influential and widespread form of astrology accross the world, especially in [[India]], [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]], and there are several major traditions of horoscopic astrology including [[Jyotish|Indian]], Hellenistic, Medieval, and most other modern western traditions of astrology.
=== The Horoscope ===
[[Image:Natal Chart -- Adam.jpg|thumb|right|225px|A Western [[natal chart]].]]
Central to horoscopic astrology is the calculation of a [[horoscope]], or astrological chart. This is a diagrammatic representation in two dimensions of the celestial bodies' apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on [[Earth]] at a given time and place. The horoscope of an individual's birth is called a [[natal chart]]. In ancient Hellenistic astrology the rising sign or [[Ascendant]] demarcated the first celestial house of a chart, and the word for the ascendant in Greek was ''horoskopos''. This is the word that the term "horoscope" derives from and in modern times it has come to be used as a general term for an astrological chart, or to denote the birth chart of an individual as a whole. Other commonly used names for the horoscope/natal chart in English include natus, birth-chart, astrological |
cessed food, fishmeal and [[seafood]], and other manufactured products.
Chile's export markets are fairly balanced among [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Latin America]], and [[North America]]. The [[United States|U.S.]], the largest-single market, takes in 17% of Chile's exports. Latin America has been the fastest-growing export market in recent years. The government actively seeks to promote Chile's exports globally. Since 1991, Chile has signed several bilateral free trade agreements, including [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], [[South Korea]], [[United States|USA]],the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Central American Common Market|CACM]] nations ([[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Guatemala]], [[Nicaragua]]), the [[EFTA]] and the [[European Union]] and has recently entered into the [[Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership]] which is a multilateral free trade agreement with [[New Zealand]], [[Singapore]] and [[Brunei]]. This means that Chile has free-trade access to over half of the world's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Chile intends to negotiate further agreements with countries such as [[India]] and [[Japan]]. Also, Chile is member (in different degrees) of many international economical instances, like [[APEC]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[Mercosur]]. Such diversity of relations prevents the Chilean economy from being exclusively dependent of any major partner and thus provides stability.
After growing for several years, imports were down in 1998 and 1999, reflecting reduced consumer demand and deferred investment. Imports have rebounded in 2000 and are up 19% over 1999; capital goods make up about 22% of total imports. The United States is Chile's largest-single supplier, supplying 18.5% of the country's imports in 2000, down from 21% in 1999. Chile unilaterally is lowering its across-the-board import tariff--for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement--by a percentage point each year until it reaches 6% in 2003. Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, vegetable oils, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands.
==Finance==
Chile's financial sector has grown faster than other areas of the economy over the last few years; a banking law reform approved in 1997 broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. Domestically, Chileans have enjoyed the recent introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards.
The introduction of these new products has been accompanied by increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $36 billion at the end of September 2000, has provided an important source of investment capital for the stock market. Chile has maintained one of the best credit ratings in Latin America despite the 1999 economic slump. In recent years, many Chilean companies have sought to raise capital abroad due to the relatively lower interest rates outside of Chile. There are three main ways Chilean firms raise funds abroad: bank loans, issuance of bonds, and the selling of stock on U.S. markets through [[American Depository Receipt]]s (ADRs). Nearly all of the funds raised go to finance investment. The government is rapidly paying down its foreign debt. The combined public and private foreign debt was roughly 50% of GDP at the end of 2000, low by Latin American standards.
==Figures==
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $182.512 billion (2004)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
5.8% (2004 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $11,500 (2004)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
''agriculture:''
6.3%
''industry:''
38.2%
''services:''
55.5% (2004)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
18.8% (2003 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
''lowest 10%:''
1.2%
''highest 10%:''
47% (2000)
'''Distribution of family income - Gini index:'''
57.1 (2000)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.4% (2004 est.)
'''Labour force:'''
6.2 million (2004 est.)
'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 13.6%, industry 23.4%, services 63% (2003 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
8.5% (2004)
'''Budget:'''
''revenues:''
$21.53 billion
''expenditures:''
$19.95 billion, including capital expenditures of $3.33 billion (2004 est.)
'''Industries:'''
copper, other minerals, foodstuffs, fish processing, iron and steel, wood and wood products, transport equipment, cement, textiles
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
7.8% (2004 est.)
'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 48.6 [[TWh]] (2004)
* ''consumption:'' 41.8 TWh (2002)
* ''exports:'' 0 TWh (2002)
* ''imports:'' 1.813 TWh (2002)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 47%
* ''hydro:'' 51.5%
* ''other:'' 1.4% (2001)
* ''nuclear:'' 0%
'''Oil:'''
* ''production:'' 18,500 barrel/day (2003 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 240,000 barrel/day (2003 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 barrel/day (2003)
* ''imports:'' 221,500 barrel/day (2003 est.)
* ''proved reserves:'' 150 million barrel ([[1 January]] [[2004]])
'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 1.18 billion m&sup3; (2002 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 6.517 billion m&sup3; (2002 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 m&sup3; (2002)
* ''imports:'' 5.337 billion m&sup3; (2002 est.)
* ''proved reserves:'' 99.05 billion m&sup3; ([[1 January]] [[2004]])
'''Agriculture - products:'''
wheat, corn, grapes, beans, sugar beets, potatoes, fruit; beef, poultry, wool; fish; timber
'''Exports:'''
$29.2 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
copper, fish, fruits, paper and pulp, chemicals
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[United States|U.S.]] 14%, [[Japan]] 11.4%, [[China]] 9.9%, [[South Korea]] 5.5%, [[Netherlands]] 5.1%, [[Brazil]] 4.3%, [[Italy]] 4.1%, [[Mexico]] 4% (2004)
'''Imports:'''
$22.53 billion f.o.b. (2004)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
consumer goods, chemicals, motor vehicles, fuels, electrical machinery, heavy industrial machinery, food
'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Argentina]] 17%, [[United States|U.S.]] 14.1%, [[Brazil]] 11.1%, [[China]] 7.1% (2004)
'''Debt - external:'''
$43.3 billion (2004)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA, $0 million (2002 est.)
'''Currency:'''
Chilean peso (CLP)
'''Currency code:'''
CLP
'''Exchange rates:'''
Chilean pesos per U.S. dollar - 609.37 (2004), 691.43 (2003), 688.94 (2002), 634.94 (2001), 539.59 (2000)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
==See also==
* [[Chile]]
* [[Miracle of Chile]]
* [[Economy of South America]]
{{APEC}}
{{SACN}}
{{WTO}}
{{South America in topic|Economy of}}
[[Category:Economy of Chile| ]]
[[Category:WTO members|Chile]]
[[ca:Economia de Xile]]
[[es:Economía de Chile]]
[[fr:Économie du Chili]]
[[pt:Economia do Chile]]
[[ru:Экономика Чили]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Chile</title>
<id>5495</id>
<revision>
<id>40447705</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T16:54:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
3,650,000 (2001)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
10,900,000 (2005)
'''Telephone system:'''
modern system based on extensive [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay facilities
<br>''domestic:''
extensive [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay links; domestic [[satellite]] system with 3 earth stations
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 180 (eight inactive), [[FM]] 64, [[shortwave]] 17 (one inactive) (1998)
'''Radios:'''
5.18 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
63 (plus 121 repeaters) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
3.15 million (1997)
'''Television System:'''
NTSC
Mail TV Channel: http://www.canal13.cl
http://www.tvn.cl
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
7 (2000)
'''Internet users:'''
5.6 million (2005)
'''[[Country code]]:''' CL
'''Voltage:'''
220 volts AC, 50 Hz
:''See also :'' [[Chile]]
{{South America in topic|Communications in}}
[[Category:Communications in Chile| ]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Chile]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Chile</title>
<id>5496</id>
<revision>
<id>40449236</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:08:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ {{South America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Railways:'''
<br>''total:''
6,782 km
<br>''broad gauge:''
3,743 km 1.676-m gauge (1,653 km electrified)
<br>''narrow gauge:''
116 km 1.067-m gauge; 2,923 km 1.000-m gauge (40 km electrified) (1995)
== Rail links to other countries ==
{{Sectstub}}
* [[Bolivia]] - ??
* [[Argentina]] - [[IRJ]] of March 2005 reports construction started to build/restore (?) [[Trans-Andean Railways|South Trans-Andean Railway]] link between [[Zapala]], Argentina and [[Longuimay]], Chile. Possible [[break-of-gauge]].
* [[Peru]] - ??
City with [[metro]] system: [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]] ([http://www.metrosantiago.cl/ Metro de Santiago])
== Highways ==
<br>''total:''
79,800 km
<br>''paved:''
11,012 km
<br>''unpaved:''
68,788 km (1996 est.)
== Freeways ==
2,653 km
== Waterways ==
725 km
== Pipelines ==
crude oil 755 km; petroleum products 785 km; natural gas 320 km
== Ports and harbors ==
[[Antofagasta]], [[Arica]], [[Chañaral]], [[Coquimbo]], [[Iquique]], [[Puerto Montt]], [[Punta Arenas]], [[San Antonio]], [[San Vicente]], [[Talcahuano]], [[Valparaíso]]
== Merchant marine ==
<br>''total:''
45 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 580,749 GRT/860,034 DWT
< |
lon]], open to the public: August
* Film festivals
** Filmfest Hamburg [http://www.filmfesthamburg.de/]: September
** Fantasy Filmfest [http://www.fantasyfilmfest.com/]: April
** Kurzfilmfestival - International Short Film Festival [http://www.shortfilm.com/]: June
** Lateinamerika-Filmtage - Latin-America Days [http://www.cinelatino.de/]: December
** Spanische Filmtage - Spanish Days [http://www.cinelatino.de/]: July
** Lesbian & Gay Film Festival Hamburg [http://hamburg.gay-web.de/filmtage/]: October
* Arts & Exhibitions
** International Fireworks Festival: August
** Kirschblütenfest - Grand fireworks and Japanese culture: May
** Lange Nacht der Museen - one ticket, 40 of Hamburg's museums open until midnight: May
** Theme nights (jungle, romantic, Asian) at Hagenbeck's zoo [http://www.hagenbeck.de/]: Saturdays in summer
* Music
** Fleetinselfest - Music and international artists open air [http://www.bwp-events.de/eigene/fleetinsel_main.html]: July
** G-Move - [[Techno music|Techno]] parade: June
** Schlagermove - German 1970's music parade [http://www.schlagermove.de/]: July
* Fun / Street Festivals
** Alstervergnügen [http://www.alstervergnuegen-hamburg.de/] - Alster fair: August
** [[Christopher Street Day]] (Gay Pride Parade) [http://www.hamburg-pride.de/]: June
** Hamburger Dom - considered the biggest seasonal theme park in northern Germany: three times a year
** Hafengeburtstag [http://www.hamburger-hafengeburtstag.de/]- Hamburg's harbour birthday: May
** Motorradgottesdienst - Biker's divine service in Hamburg's largest church St. Michaelis: June
==Notable Hamburgians==
==== Actors, actresses, and filmmakers ====
*[[Gustaf Gründgens]]
*[[Hans Albers]]
*[[Andreas Schnaas]]
*[[Heidi Kabel]]
*[[Horst Jansson]]
*[[Uwe Friedrichsen]]
*[[Fatih Akın]]
==== Architects and Designers ====
*[[Fritz Höger]]
*[[Karl Lagerfeld]]
*[[Jil Sander]]
*[[Fritz Schumacher]]
==== Musicians and Composers ====
*[[Georg Philipp Telemann]] (1681 - 1767)
*[[Carl Philip Emanuel Bach]] (1714 - 1788), a son of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
*[[Johannes Brahms]] (1833 - 1897)
*[[Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy]] (1809 - 1947)
==== Poets and Writers ====
*[[Wolfgang Borchert]]
*[[Barthold Heinrich Brockes]]
*[[Helmut Heißenbüttel]]
*[[Brigitte Kronauer]]
*[[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
*[[Peter Rühmkorf]]
*[[James H. Schmitz]]
*[[Peter von Zahn]]
==== Politicians ====
*[[August Bebel]]
*[[Ernst Thälmann]]
*[[Helmut Schmidt]], former [[Chancellor of Germany]]
*Lord [[Ralf Dahrendorf]]
*[[Klaus von Dohnanyi]], former mayor and federal minister
*[[Angela Merkel]], current Chancellor of Germany.
==== Scientists ====
*[[Johann Bernhard Basedow]] (1723 - 1790), educational reformer
*[[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]] (February 22, 1857 - January 1, 1894), famous physicist for whom the unit [[Hertz]] is named, first to demonstrate the existence of radio waves.
=== Sportsmen ===
*[[Uwe Seeler]]
*[[Andreas Brehme]]
*[[Stefan Effenberg]]
*[[Tommy Haas]]
*[[Ricki Osterthun]]
*[[Michael Stich]]
*[[Michael Westphal]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Hamburg, Germany}}
* [http://www.wachsende-stadt.hamburg.de/int-grafikversion/ Hamburg 2020]
* [http://international.hamburg.de/?ba=english Official Hamburg website] - In many languages
* [http://www.hafencity.com/ Hafen City]
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/Germany/States/Hamburg/ Hamburg category of the Open Directory Project DMOZ]
{{Germany_states}}
[[Category:States of Germany]]
[[Category:German state capitals]]
[[Category:Hamburg|*]]
[[Category:Cities in Germany]]
[[Category:Port cities]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League|Hamburg]]
[[af:Hamburg]]
[[als:Hamburg]]
[[ar:هامبورغ]]
[[bg:Хамбург]]
[[bs:Hamburg]]
[[ca:Estat d'Hamburg]]
[[cs:Hamburk]]
[[da:Hamborg]]
[[de:Hamburg]]
[[et:Hamburg]]
[[es:Hamburgo]]
[[eo:Hamburgo]]
[[fa:هامبورگ (آلمان)]]
[[fr:Hambourg]]
[[ko:함부르크]]
[[id:Hamburg]]
[[it:Amburgo]]
[[he:המבורג]]
[[ka:ჰამბურგი (მხარე)]]
[[ku:Hamburg]]
[[la:Hamburgum]]
[[lv:Hamburga]]
[[hu:Hamburg (tartomány)]]
[[nl:Hamburg]]
[[nds:Hamborg]]
[[ja:ハンブルク]]
[[nb:Hamburg]]
[[nn:Hamburg]]
[[pl:Hamburg]]
[[pt:Hamburgo]]
[[ro:Hamburg]]
[[ru:Гамбург]]
[[simple:Hamburg]]
[[sk:Hamburg]]
[[fi:Hampuri]]
[[sv:Hamburg]]
[[tr:Hamburg]]
[[zh:汉堡市]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hessen</title>
<id>13468</id>
<revision>
<id>15911075</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-01T08:56:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
<id>7580</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv - Hesse is the ENGLISH name, and don't move articles by copy-and-paste</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hesse]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hannover</title>
<id>13469</id>
<revision>
<id>15911076</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-22T17:03:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Scipius</username>
<id>488</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hanover]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hedonism</title>
<id>13470</id>
<revision>
<id>41877879</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:29:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kjr0024</username>
<id>1016380</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
'''Hedonism''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: h&#275;don&#275; "pleasure" + [[&#8211;ism]]) describes any way of thinking that gives [[pleasure]] a central role. Hedonism can be generally summed up as "pleasure is the highest good" or — in an ethical formulation — "whatever causes pleasure is right." Furthermore, Hedonism can be defined as the doctrine holding that behavior is motivated by the desire for pleasure and the avoidance of pain.
The hedonistic view focuses on increasing ''pleasure'' and reducing ''pain''. Note that while the terms were originally employed literally, this is no longer the case. There seems to be no common ground on what actually constitutes pleasurable or painful activities. The hedonistic [[philosophy]] does not always have a [[human sexuality|sexual]] or [[liberalism|liberal]] connotation.
==Basic concepts==
The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that all actions can be measured on the basis of how much ''pleasure'' and how little ''pain'' they produce. In very simple terms, a hedonist thrives towards maximising this 'ratio' (pleasure over pain). [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]] established the foundation principles of hedonism through their ethical theory of [[Utilitarianism]]. Utilitarian value stands as a precursor to hedonistic values in that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest amount of people. Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill’s hedonistic values are faintly divergent in relation to their exposition of the principle of utility. There are two basic schools of thought on hedonism:
* One school, grouped around [[Jeremy Bentham]], argues a quantitative approach. Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be quantitavely understood. Essentially, he believed value of a pleasure to be intensity of pleasure multiplied by duration. So it was not just the number of pleasures, but the intensity and how long it lasted that would be taken into account.
* Other proponents, like [[John Stuart Mill]] argue a qualitative approach. Mill believed that there can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure is better than lower quality pleasure. Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often references [[pig]]s) have an easier access to the simpler pleasures since they do not see other aspects of life, they can simply indulge in their pleasures. The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen the time for pleasure. It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge in such 'simple pleasures' in the same manner.
There are problems with this: generally, all ''pleasures'' do not necessarily share common traits, besides the fact that they can be seen as "pleasurable". Furthermore the standards of what ought to be "pleasurable" vary (e.g., [[sadism and masochism|sadism]]).
==Predecessors==
[[Epicureanism]] is considered by some to be a form of ancient hedonism. [[Epicurus]] identified pleasure with tranquility and emphasized the reduction of [[tanha|desire]] over the immediate acquisition of pleasure. In this way, Epicureanism escapes the preceding objection: while pleasure and the highest good are equated, Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple, moderate life spent with friends and in philosophical discussion. He stressed that it was not good to do something that made one feel good if by experiencing it one would belittle later experiences and make them no longer feel good. For example, too much [[intercourse|sex]] might later decrease interest in sex, which may cause one to be dissatisfied with one's sexual partner leading to unhappiness.
==Hedonism and Egoism==
Hedonism can be conjoined with either [[psychological egoism|psychological]] or [[ethical egoism]] to make '''[[psychological hedonism]]''': a purely descriptive claim which states that [[Agent (grammar)|agents]] naturally seek pleasure, or '''ethical hedonism''', the claim that we ''should'' act so as to produce our own pleasure. One constant objection is that where one finds pleasure, another may find pain, leading to a contradiction in what the [[morality|moral]] act is.
However, hedonism is not necessarily related to [[egoism]]. The [[Utilitarianism]] of [[John Stuart Mill]] is sometimes classified as a type of hedonism, as it judges the morality of actions by their consequent contributions to the greater good and [[happiness]] of all. Note that |
iography about Gustavus Adolphus with a [[Marxist]] analysis of the actions of the Swedish King during [[Thirty Years' War]], claiming it had little to do with religion, (the official explanation), and everything to do with economics, (the Marxist explanation).
==Timeline==
* July [[1626]] Gustav and his army were disembarked in [[Pillau]] [[Prussia]] during [[Polish-Swedish War|Polish-Sweden War of 1625-1629]].
* On [[18 August]] [[1627]] the King was seriously wounded by a Polish soldier in the battle of [[Tczew]].
* May[[1630]]. Gustav lands with his army in [[Pomerania]]. On [[July 6]] he lands in [[Germany]].
* September [[1631]]. At the [[Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)|Battle of Breitenfeld]], Gustav decisively defeats the Catholic forces led by [[Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly|Tilly]], even after the allied Protestant Saxon army was routed and fled with the baggage train.
* March [[1632]]. At the [[Battle of Lech]], Gustav defeats Tilly once more, and in the battle Tilly sustains a fatal wound.
* April [[1632]]. [[Battle of Rain]].
* May [[1632]]. Munich yields to the Swedish army.
* September [[1632]]. Gustav attacks the stronghold of Alte Feste, which is under the command of [[Albrecht von Wallenstein|Wallenstein]], but is repulsed. This leads to defection of some mercenary elements in the Protestant army.
* November [[1632]]. [[Battle of Lützen (1632)|The Battle of Lützen]], Gustav is killed but the Swedes win the day and defeat Wallenstein. The Swedish war effort was kept up by generals Horn, Banér, Torstensson and chancellor Oxenstierna until the [[Peace of Westphalia]].
[[Image:Gustav II Adolf by Merian.jpg|thumb|Gustav II Adolph in Polish '[[delia]]' coat, painting by Merian 1632]]
A history of Adolphus' wars was written by [[Johann Philipp Abelin]].
Gustav Adolf Day is celebrated in Sweden each year on [[November 6]]. On this day only a special pastry, with a chocolate medallion of the king, is sold. The day is also an official [[Flag days in Sweden|flag day]] in the Swedish calendar.
==Fictional appearances==
Gustavus Adolphus plays an important supporting role in [[Eric Flint]]'s [[1632 series|''16XX'' series]].
==See also==
* [[History of Sweden]] — [[Rise of Sweden as a Great Power]]
* [[Axel Oxenstierna]]
* [[Gustav Gustavsson af Vasaborg]]
* [[Gustavus Adolphus College]]
* [[List of people known as The Great]]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Swedish monarchs|King of Sweden]] | before=[[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles IX]] | after=[[Christina of Sweden|Christina]]'''<br /><small>''Queen of Sweden'''''</small> | years=1611&ndash;1632}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1594 births]]
[[Category:1632 deaths]]
[[Category:Vasa|Gustav 2 Adolf]]
[[Category:Swedish monarchs|Gustav 2 Adolf]]
[[Category:Rulers of Finland]]
[[Category:Swedish military commanders]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Thirty Years' War]]
[[cy:Gustav II Adolff o Sweden]]
[[da:Gustav 2. Adolf af Sverige]]
[[de:Gustav II. Adolf von Schweden]]
[[et:Gustav II Adolf]]
[[fr:Gustave II Adolphe de Suède]]
[[he:גוסטב השני אדולף, מלך שבדיה]]
[[nl:Gustaaf II Adolf]]
[[ja:グスタフ2世アドルフ (スウェーデン王)]]
[[no:Gustav II Adolf av Sverige]]
[[nn:Gustav II Adolf av Sverige]]
[[pl:Gustaw II Adolf]]
[[pt:Gustavo II Adolfo da Suécia]]
[[ru:Густав II Адольф]]
[[fi:Kustaa II Aadolf]]
[[sv:Gustav II Adolf]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gustav II Adolf</title>
<id>12672</id>
<revision>
<id>15910343</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-08T19:04:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Violetriga</username>
<id>90192</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>update redirect after move</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galois group</title>
<id>12673</id>
<revision>
<id>25266193</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-11T09:34:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Unyoyega</username>
<id>460372</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing interwikis +: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''Galois group''' is a [[group (mathematics)|group]] associated with a certain type of [[field extension]]. The study of field extensions (and [[polynomial]]s which give rise to them) via Galois groups is called [[Galois theory]].
For a more elementary discussion of Galois groups in terms of permutation groups, see the article on [[Galois theory]].
==Definition of the Galois group==
Suppose that ''E'' is an [[field extension|extension]] of the [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''F''. Consider the set of all field [[automorphism|automorphisms]] of ''E''/''F''; that is, [[isomorphism]]s &alpha; from ''E'' to itself, such that &alpha;(''x'') = ''x'' for every ''x'' in ''F''. This set of automorphisms with the operation of [[function composition]] forms a group ''G'', sometimes denoted Aut(''E''/''F'').
If ''E''/''F'' is a [[Galois extension]], then ''G'' is called the '''Galois group''' of the extension, and is usually denoted Gal(''E''/''F''). The significance of an extension being Galois is that it obeys the [[fundamental theorem of Galois theory]].
It can be shown that ''E'' is [[algebraic extension|algebraic]]
over ''F'' if and only if the Galois group is [[pro-finite group|pro-finite]].
==Examples==
* If ''E'' = ''F'', then the Galois group is the trivial group that has a single element.
* If ''F'' is the field '''R''' of [[real number]]s, and ''E'' is the field '''C''' of [[complex number]]s, then the Galois group has two elements, namely the identity automorphism and the [[complex conjugation]] automorphism.
* If ''F'' is '''Q''' (the field of [[rational number]]s), and ''E'' is '''Q'''(&radic;2), the field obtained from '''Q''' by adjoining &radic;2, then the Galois group again has two elements: the identity automorphism, and the automorphism which exchanges &radic;2 and &minus;&radic;2.
* If ''F'' is '''Q''', and ''E'' is '''Q'''(&alpha;), where &alpha; is the real cube root of 2, then ''E''/''F'' is not a [[Galois extension]]. This is because it is not a [[normal extension]], since the other two cube roots of 2, being complex numbers, are not contained in '''Q'''(&alpha;). In other words ''E'' is not a [[splitting field]]. There is no automorphism of ''E'' apart from the identity.
* If ''F'' is '''Q''' and ''E'' is the field of real numbers, then the automorphism group is trivial: the only automorphism of ''E'' is the identity.
* If ''F'' is '''Q''' and ''E'' is the field of complex numbers, then the Galois group is infinite.
[[Category:Field theory]]
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Galois theory]]
[[de:Galoisgruppe]]
[[es:Grupo de Galois]]
[[fr:Groupe de Galois]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>German Empire</title>
<id>12674</id>
<revision>
<id>42122271</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:40:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lucius1976</username>
<id>782296</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of the German Empire.svg|thumb|Flag of the German Empire, 1871&ndash;1919: black-white-red]]
[[Image:prussiaflag_small.jpg|left|framed|Coat of arms]]
The term '''German Empire''' commonly refers to [[Germany]], from its foundation as a unified [[nation-state]] on [[January 18]] [[1871]], until the abdication of [[Emperor]] [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] on [[November 9]] [[1918]]. Germans, when referring to the Reich in this period under the Kaisers, typically use the term '''Kaiserreich''' and this term has often been used by non-German historians.
Sometimes in English, but rarely in German, the name '''Second Reich''' is used, based on counting the [[Holy Roman Empire]] of the German Nation as the first German empire and [[Nazi Germany]] as the third. Numbering of the Reichs began in [[1923]] by [[Arthur Moeller van Den Bruck]] (he longed for a third, which he idealized) and was briefly taken up by Nazi propaganda. After the Great War, ''Drittes Reich'' (or semi-translated 'Third Reich') became the standard name for Nazi Germany.
It should be noted that '''Deutsches Reich''' was the state's official name not only in the period of the Kaisers [[1871]] to [[1918]], but also during the [[Weimar Republic]], and in [[Nazi]] Germany; thus the next two articles of the [[History of Germany]] series also cover the official ''Deutsches Reich''.
{{History_of_Germany}}
==Bismarck's founding of the Empire==
Under the disguise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in [[1848]] to [[Prussia|Prussian]] prime minister [[Otto von Bismarck]]'s authoritarian ''[[Realpolitik]]''. Bismarck wanted unification to achieve his aim of a conservative, Prussian-dominated German state. He accomplished this through three military successes:
# He first allied with [[Austrian Empire| Austria]] in order to defeat [[Denmark]] in a short war (the [[Second war of Schleswig]]) fought during [[1864]], thus acquiring [[Schleswig-Holstein]].
# In [[1866]], in concert with Italy, he virtually created the [[Austro-Prussian War]] and won a decisive victory at the [[Battle of Königgrätz]], which, in the same year, allowed him to exclude long-time rival Austria when forming the [[North German Confederation]] with the states that had supported Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War. The Confederation was the direct precursor to the 1871 Empire.
# Finally, France was defeated in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] ([[1870]]&ndash;71); the Confederation was transformed into the Empire with the proclamation of Prussian King [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] as German Emperor at the [[Palace of Versailles]], to the humiliation of the French.
Bismarck himsel |
a]] (1983)
*[[Image:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg|20px|]] [[Shenzhen]], [[People's Republic of China]] (1986)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Norway.svg|20px|]] [[Stavanger]], [[Norway]] (1980)
*[[Image:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg|20px|]] [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]], [[Republic of China]] (1963)
*[[Image:Flag of Mexico.svg|20px|]] [[Tampico]], [[Tamaulipas]], [[Mexico]] (2003)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Russia.svg|20px|]] [[Tyumen]], [[Russia]] (1995)
==Sources==
*{{handbookoftexas|id=HH/hdh3|name=Houston, Texas}}
*http://www.flagspot.net, http://fotw.vexillum.com/flags/us-tx-hu.html - Source of flag image. Image made by Tony DeFalco
*[http://www.pbase.com/ngruev/houston Nothing but pictures of Houston] Link provided by the author of the pictures - Nikola Gruev
* {{cite book | last = Johnston | first = Marguerite | title = Houston, The Unknown City, 1836-1946 | publisher = Texas A&M University Press | year = 1991 | id = ISBN 0-89096-476-9 }}
* {{cite book | last = Miller | first = Ray | title = Ray Miller's Houston | publisher = Gulf Publishing Company | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0-88415-081-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Slotboom | first = Oscar F. "Erik" | title = Houston Freeways | publisher = Oscar F. Slotboom | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0-9741605-3-9 }}
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Houston}}
*[http://www.chinatownconnection.com/ Houston Chinatown]
*[http://www.houstontx.gov/ City of Houston homepage]
*[http://www.downtownhouston.org/ Downtown Houston Alliance]
*[http://www.uptown-houston.com/ Uptown Houston]
*[http://www.houstonmidtown.com/ Midtown Houston]
*[http://www.houstonhistory.com/ Detailed History of Houston]
*[http://www.wildtexas.com/parks/results.php?nearby_cities=Houston Houston Area Parks]
*[http://www.spacetaker.com/ Calendar of Local Cultural Arts Events]
*[http://HoustonHomePage.com/ Many Houston Links and pictures]
*[http://www.pbase.com/ngruev/houston Nothing but pictures of Houston]
*[[WikiTravel:Houston|Wikitravel article about Houston]]
*[http://www.houstonfreeways.com Houston Freeways]
*[http://www.fly2houston.com/home Houston Airport System]
*[http://www.housealmanac.com/property/houston/houston-texas.htm Houston Real Estate Statistics]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/tx6/houstoncelebrity/ Famous Houstonians]
{{Houston, Texas}}
{{Houston-Sugar Land-Baytown MSA}}
{{Texas}}
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<title>Houston</title>
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<timestamp>2002-08-22T20:57:16Z</timestamp>
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<page>
<title>Head (disambiguation)</title>
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<comment>Added beer head</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|head}}
Some [[dictionary|dictionaries]] define nearly thirty meanings of the word '''head'''. However, a majority of usages are associated with the connotation of forward, top, essential, control, etc., which are derived from attributes of an animal head (or brain).
==Meanings in the sciences==
*In [[anatomy]], the '''[[head (anatomy)|head]]''' of an [[animal]] is the [[superior]] part that bears the [[mouth]], the [[brain]] and various sensory organs (e.g. organs of sight, hearing, smell and taste).
* By extension, the word '''head''' can refer to the top of an object or to a protuberance near the top (''head'' of a nail).
* In [[botany]], a '''[[head (botany)|head]]''' is a type of [[inflorescence]], previously known as a [[composite flower]] &mdash; a structure composed of numerous individual [[flower]]s.
* In [[linguistics]], the '''[[head (linguistics)|head]]''' is the main part of a [[phrase]] or [[compound]]. Based on this meaning, '''head-first''' and '''head-last''' are informal terms for right and left [[branching (linguistics)|branching]].
* In [[fluid dynamics]], '''[[head (hydraulic)|hydraulic head]]''' refers to the constant right hand side in the incompressible steady version of [[Bernoulli's equation]].
==Technology==
* In [[internal combustion engine]]s, the '''[[cylinder head]]''' refers to the part of an [[engine]] that is bolted to the engine block, over the [[piston]]s and [[cylinder (engine)|cylinder]]s.
* In the [[Unix]] operating system, the '''<tt>[[head (Unix)|head]]</tt>''' command provides the first few lines of a file.
* HEAD is a request method in '''[[HTTP]]'''.
* A "head" can be a '''[[computer display]]'''.
* Head can be shorthand for a [[drive head]], the mechanism responsible for reading and writing the medium in [[magnetic storage|magnetic disk drives]]. Less frequently, it is applied to the analogous mechanism in [[optical storage|optical disk drives]].
* '''[[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]] HEAD'''
==Culture==
* In the context of [[coin flipping]], the '''heads''' (usually [[Obverse and reverse|obverse]]) side of a coin (as opposed to the ''tails'' side) is the side with a person's head on it.
* In [[organization]]al [[hierarchy|hierarchies]], '''head''' is often a noun in a job description or an adjective (or occasionally a noun) in a title.
* In [[jazz music]], particularly [[bebop]], the '''[[Head (music)|head]]''' is the repeated, non-improvised section of a composition that bookends individual solo passages, usually at the beginning and end of a performance or recording. It is similar to the [[refrain|chorus]] or [[hook (music)|hook]] in other musical genres.
* In [[slang]] referring to [[human sexuality]], '''''head''''' or more specifically "giving..." or "getting head", refers to the act of '''[[oral sex]]''', being [[fellatio]] or [[cunnilingus]], and can be applied to the act in any gender combination. It may originate from the idea of the "active" partner using (part of) their head for the benefit especially of the other, though the head, or [[glans]] of the male [[penis]] may have influenced the usage to some extent.
* The word ''head'' can mean a person in slang, and is commonly found in compound words such as '''[[pothead]]''' or '''[[crackhead]]'''.
* In [[sailing]], "head" can mean:
**The '''[[head (sailing)|head]]''' of a [[sail]] is its uppermost corner or, in the case of four-cornered sails, sometimes its uppermost edge.
**The '''[[head sail]]''' is a [[jib]], [[spinnaker]] or any other sail set forward of the foremost [[mast (sailing)|mast]].
**The '''[[Head (watercraft)|head]]''' is the [[Glossary of nautical terms|nautical name]] both for a [[toilet]] or [[latrine]] of a [[watercraft|marine vessel]], and for the structure projecting from the bows of sailing ships which served the same purpose for the crew.
*In [[carbonated]] [[beverages]] and particularly [[beer]], the '''''head''''' refers to the [[emulsion]] of liquid and [[carbon dioxide]] (the [[foam]] at the top) that occurs when the beverage is agitated, as when poured into a container.
==As a name==
* ''Head'' is a leading global manufacturer and marketer of premium sports equipment.
* ''Head'' is the nickname of [[Korn|KoЯn's]] former [[guitarist]] '''[[Brian Welch]]'''.
* '''[[Head (movie)|Head]]''' is a [[surrealism|surreal]]ly comic [[film|movie]] starring [[The Monkees]]. '''[[Head (Motion Picture Soundtrack)]]''' is the soundtrack album to the movie.
* "Head" is a song by [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] from his 1980 album [[Dirty Mind]].
* [[Human Head Studios]] is the name of a game making company.
*[[Walter W. Head]] [[Boy Scouts of America]] member of the [[World Scout Committee]] of the [[World Organization of the Scout Movement]] from 1931 until 1939 and again from 1947 until 1949
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Hlava]]
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[[eo:Kapo]]
[[fr:Tête (homonymie)]]
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[[it:Testa]]
[[nl:Hoofd]]
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<page>
<title>Hard disk</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">A '''hard disk drive''' ('''HDD''', or also '''hard drive''') is a [[non-volatile storage|non-volatile]] [[data storage device]] that stores data on a [[Magnetism|magnetic]] surface layered onto [[hard disk platters]].
[[Image:Hard disk WD 400.jpg|300px|thumb|Top and bottom views of a [[Western Digital]] WD400 3.5&quot; hard disk]]
==Mechanics==
[[Image:Hard_disk_dismantled.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The inside of a hard disk with the platter removed. To the left is the read-write arm. In the middle the electromagnets of the platter's motor can be seen.]]
A hard disk uses [[hard disk platter|platters]] (disks). Each platter has a [[planar]] magnetic surface on which digital data may be stored. Information is written to the disk by transmitting an electromagnetic [[flux]] through a [[disk read-and-write head|read-write head]] that is very close to a magnetic material, which in turn changes its polarization due to the flux. The information can be |
whereby the player controlled Spider-Man and had to do battle with various enemies.
==Trivia==
The 2004 movie ''[[Spider-Man 2]]'' was at one point tentatively titled ''The Amazing Spider-Man''.
==External links==
*[http://www.spyder-25.com Spyder-25.com :: Ultimate Resource For Spider-Man Fans]
*[http://www.spidermancrawlspace.com Spider-Man Crawl Space: All Spidey, All The Time]
*[http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/spidermn/about.htm The Amazing Spider-Man comic strip]
{{spiderman}}
[[Category:Spider-Man titles]]
[[Category:Comic strips|Amazing Spider-Man, The]]
[[fr:Amazing Spider-man]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Archie</title>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Archie''' may refer to:
* [[Archie Andrews (puppet)]] -- Ventriloquist's puppet
* [[Archie Bunker]] -- a [[sitcom]] character from the [[1970s]].
* [[Archie Comics]] -- a comic book publisher specializing in teen humor
** [[Archie Andrews (comics)]] -- Main character in Archie Comics
* [[Archie search engine]] -- a [[search engine]] for [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] sites, named after the comic series, launched in the early [[1990s]].
* [[Archie, Missouri]] -- city located in Cass County, Missouri.
* A slang term for [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft fire]] used by the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Flying Corps]] and [[Royal Air Force]].
* [[Archie_(Linux)|Archie Linux]] -- a [[LiveCD]] version of [[Arch Linux]]
* [[Archie (Pokémon)|Archie]] -- leader of [[Team Aqua]] in the [[Pokémon]] series
* [[Archie MacPherson]] -- Scottish sports broadcaster.
{{disambig}}</text>
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<page>
<title>AM</title>
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<minor />
<comment>sort</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar4|AM|A.M.|Am|am}}
'''AM''' may refer to:
* [[AM broadcasting]], radio broadcasting using [[Amplitude Modulation]]
* [[AM (fictional computer)]], a fictional evil supercomputer in the short story ''I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream''
* ''[[Ante Meridiem]]'', in 12-hour clock notation, Latin for "before noon"
* ''[[Anno Mundi]]'', a Calendar era counting from the creation of the world
* [[Armenia]] (ISO country code AM)
* [[Anguilla]] (MARC country code am)
* [[Aeroméxico]] (IATA airline designator)
* [[Air Marshal]], a military rank in the Royal Air Force and many Commonwealth air forces
* [[Air Medal]], a military decoration
* [[Airmail]]
* [[Artium Magister]], alternative abbrevation for a Master's degree in Arts
* [[Amazonas State, Brazil]]
* [[Americium]], a chemical element with symbol Am
* [[Amharic language]] (ISO 639-1 language code am)
* [[Amran Governorate]], Yemen (ISO 3166-2:YE)
* ''[[Anno Martyrum]]'', used in the Coptic calendar
* [[Arkansas and Missouri Railroad]], a short-line railroad headquartered in Springdale, Arkansas
* [[Arthur-Merlin protocol]], an interactive proof system in computational complexity theory
* [[Asia Miles]], a Cathay Pacific travel reward programme
* [[Attometre]] (am), a unit of length (equal to 10<sup><small>–18</small></sup> m)
* [[Automated Mathematician]], an artificial intelligence program
* [[Minesweeper (ship)]], U.S. Navy 1921 warship classification code
* [[Order of Australia]] member (postnominal)
* A-minor (Am), a [[minor chord]] in music
* Assembly Member of the [[National Assembly for Wales]] or [[London Assembly]]
* "Away message", see [[status message (IM)]]
{{disambig}}
[[ca:Am]]
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<contri |
isia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine (West Bank and Gaza)]], [[Western Sahara]] ([[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|SADR]]), [[Yemen]] by a majority, and in many other countries, such as [[Israel]], as a minority language.
|region=[[Arab world]]
|speakers=206 million ([[Ethnologue]], native speakers of all dialects 1998 est.); 286 million (population of [[Arab]] countries, [[CIA World Factbook]] 2004 est.), excluding Arab minorities in other countries and bilingual speakers
|rank=5 (by first language); slightly before [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=[[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
|fam4=[[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
|script=[[Arabic alphabet]]
|nation=[[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]], [[Comoros]], [[Chad]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]], [[Iraq]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Oman]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Qatar]], [[Western Sahara]] ([[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|SADR]]), [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Somalia]], [[Sudan]], [[Syria]], [[Tunisia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Yemen]];
<br>A [[national language]] of: [[Mali]], [[Senegal]] ([[Hassaniya]]).<br><br>
International organizations: [[United Nations]], [[Arab League]], [[Organization of Islamic Conference]], [[African Union]]
|agency=[[Egypt]]: [[Academy of the Arabic Language]]
|iso1=ar|iso2=ara
|lc1=ara|ld1=Arabic (generic)<br>''see [[varieties of Arabic]] for the individual codes''|ll1=none}}
'''Arabic''' ({{ar|اللغة العربية}}; ''{{ArabDIN|al-luġatu-l-ʻarabiyyatu}}'', less formally, {{ar|عربي}} ''{{ArabDIN|ʻarabī}}'') is the largest member of the [[Semitic]] branch of the [[Afro-Asiatic]] [[language family]] (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]. It is spoken throughout the [[Arab world]] and is widely studied and known throughout the [[Islamic world]]. Arabic has been a [[literary language]] since at least the [[6th century]] and is the [[liturgical language]] of [[Islam]].
Quite a few [[English language|English]] words are ultimately derived from Arabic, often through other [[Europe]]an languages, especially [[Spanish language|Spanish]], among them every-day vocabulary like "[[sugar]]" (''sukkar''), "[[cotton]]" (''{{unicode|quṭūn}}'') or "[[magazine]]" (''[[makhzen|{{ArabDIN|maḫāzin}}]]''). More recognizable are words like "[[algebra]]", "[[alcohol]]" and "zenith" (see [[list of English words of Arabic origin]]).
==Literary and Modern Standard Arabic==
The term "Arabic" may refer either to [[literary Arabic]] or [[Modern Standard Arabic]] or to the many localized [[varieties of Arabic]] commonly called "colloquial Arabic." Arabs consider literary Arabic as the standard language and tend to view everything else as mere dialects. [[Literary Arabic]], ''{{ArabDIN|al-luġatu-l-ʻarabiyyatu-l-fuṣḥā}}'' (Literally: "the most eloquent Arabic language" &mdash; {{ar|اللغة العربية الفصحى}}) refers both to the language of present-day media across [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]] and to the more articulate language of the [[Qur'an]]. (The expression ''media'' here includes most television and radio, and all written matter, including all books, newspapers, magazines, documents of every kind, and reading primers for small children.) "Colloquial" or "dialectal" Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties derived from Classical Arabic, spoken daily across [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], which constitute the everyday spoken language. These sometimes differ enough to be mutually incomprehensible. These dialects are not typically written, although a certain amount of literature (particularly plays and poetry) exists in many of them. They are often used to varying degrees in informal spoken media, such as [[soap opera]]s and [[talk show]]s.
Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages.
The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of [[diglossia]]–the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their local dialect and their school-taught literary Arabic (to an equal or lesser degree). This diglossic situation facilitates [[code switching]] in which a speaker switches back and forth unaware between the two varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. In instances in which Arabs of different nationalities engage in conversation only to find their dialects mutually unintelligible (e.g. a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), both should be able to code switch into Literary Arabic for the sake of communication.
Since the written Arabic of today differs from the written Arabic of the [[Qur'an]]ic era, it has become customary in western scholarship and among non-Arab scholars of Arabic to refer to the language of the Qur'an as [[Classical Arabic]] and the modern language of the media and of formal speech as [[Modern Standard Arabic]]. Arabs, on the other hand, often use the term ''{{Unicode|fuṣḥā}}'' to refer to both forms, thus placing greater emphasis on the similarities between the two. The difference between Arabic of the Qur'anic era and today's Classical Arabic is only in the degree of eloquence. The vocabulary, the syntactic and grammatical rules are the same.
==Arabic and Islam==
It is sometimes difficult to translate [[Islam]]ic concepts, and concepts specific to [[Arab culture]], without using the original Arabic terminology. The [[Qur'an]] is expressed in Arabic and traditionally [[Muslim]]s deem it impossible to translate in a way that would adequately reflect its exact meaning&mdash;indeed, until recently, some schools of thought maintained that it should not be translated at all. A [[list of Islamic terms in Arabic]] covers those terms which are too specific to translate in one phrase. While Arabic is strongly associated with [[Islam]] (and is the language of [[salah]]), it is also spoken by [[Arab Christians]], Oriental {{Unicode|([[Mizrahi Jews|Mizraḥi]])}} [[Jew]]s, and smaller sects such as Iraqi [[Mandaean]]s. Even so, a majority of the world's [[Muslims]] do not actually speak Arabic, but only know some fixed phrases of the language, such as those used in Islamic prayer. However, to counteract this trend, non-Arabic-speaking Muslims are strongly encouraged to learn the language.
==Classification and related languages==
[[Maltese language|Maltese]], which is spoken on the Mediterranean island of [[Malta]], is the only surviving European language to derive primarily from Arabic, though it contains a large number of [[Italian language|Italian]] and English borrowings.
==Dialects==
''See [[varieties of Arabic]] for main article''
"Colloquial Arabic" is a collective term for the spoken languages or dialects of people throughout the Arab world, which, as mentioned, differ radically from the [[literary language]]. The main dialectal division is between the [[Maghreb]] dialects and those of the [[Middle East]], followed by that between sedentary dialects and the much more conservative [[Bedouin]] dialects. [[Maltese language|Maltese]], though descended from Arabic, is considered a separate language. Speakers of some of these dialects are unable to converse with speakers of another dialect of Arabic; in particular, while Middle Easterners can generally understand one another, they often have trouble understanding Maghrebis (although the converse is not true, due to the popularity of Middle Eastern&mdash;especially Egyptian&mdash;films and other media).
One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words, and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among [[Romance languages]], retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi ''aku'', Levantine ''fiih'', and North African ''kayen'' all mean "there is", and all come from Arabic (''yakuun'', ''fiihi'', ''kaa'in'' respectively), but now sound very different.
The major groups are:
*[[Egyptian Arabic]]
*[[Maghreb Arabic]] ([[Algerian Arabic]], [[Moroccan Arabic]], [[Tunisian Arabic]] and western Libyan)
*[[Levantine Arabic]] (Western Syrian, Lebanese, Palestinian, and western Jordanian, [[Cypriot Maronite Arabic]])
*[[Iraqi Arabic]] ([[Khuzestani Arabic]]), which has significant [[Persian language|Persian]] influence and is not understood by most other Arabic speakers
*[[Gulf Arabic]] (Eastern Syrian, Kuwaiti, Saudi Arabian, Persian Gulf coast from Iraq to Oman including much of Saudi Arabia's [[Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia|Eastern Province]], and minorities on the other side)
Other varieties include:
* {{unicode|[[Hassaniya|Ḥassānīya]]}} (in Mauritania and western Sahara)
* [[Andalusi Arabic]] (extinct, but important role in literary history)
* [[Maltese language|Maltese]]
* [[Sudanese Arabic]] (with a dialect continuum into Chad)
* [[Baharna Arabic]] (Bahrain, Saudi Eastern Province, and Oman)
* [[Hijazi Arabic]] (west coast of Saudi Arabia, Northern Saudi Arabia, eastern Jordan, Western Iraq)
* [[Najdi Arabic]] (Najd region of central Saudi Arabia)
* [[Yemeni Arabic]] (Yemen to southern Saudi Arabia)
== Sounds ==
{{IPA notice}}
The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of Standard Arabic.
===Vowels===
Arabic has three vowels, wi |
ourth movement (without words) is used as the official anthem of the [[European Union]] (see [[Ode to Joy]]).
==History==
===Writing of the symphony===
The Philharmonic Society of London (later the [[Royal Philharmonic Society]]) originally commissioned the symphony in [[1817]]. Beethoven supposedly started work on his last symphony in [[1822]] and finished it early in [[1824]]. This was about 10 years after his eighth symphony, however Beethoven was working on this work much earlier. Beethoven wanted to put the ''An die Freude'' to music as early as [[1793]]. He did that as a song, but unfortunately that song has been lost forever. The theme for the scherzo can be traced back to a fugue written in [[1815]].
The introduction for the vocal part of the symphony caused a lot of headaches for Beethoven. Beethoven's friend, Anton Schindler, later said: "When he started working on the fourth movement the struggle began as never before. The aim was to find an appropriate way of introducing Schillers' ode. One day he [Beethoven] entered the room and shouted 'I got it, I got it!' Then he showed me a sketchbook with the words 'let us sing the ode of the immortal Schiller.'" That introduction didn't make it however, and Beethoven would spend a lot of time rewriting the part until it had its current form.
===Premiere===
Beethoven was eager to get his work played in [[Vienna]] as fast as possible when he finished writing. He was equivocal, however, thinking also that the musical taste in Vienna was stricken by Italian composers such as Rossini. When his friends and financiers heard this they urged him to premiere the symphony in Vienna.
The Ninth Symphony was premiered on Friday, [[May 7]], [[1824]] in the [[Kärntnertortheater]] in Vienna. The work was premiered along with the overture ''Die Weihe des Hauses'' and the first three parts of the ''Missa solemnis''. This was the composer's first on-stage appearance in twelve years; the hall was packed. The soprano and alto parts were interpreted by two famous young singers: Henriette Sonntag and Caroline Unger.
Although the performance was officially directed by Ignaz Umlauf, the theater's Kapellmeister, Beethoven shared the stage with him. However two years earlier, Umlauf had watched as the composer's attempt to conduct a dress rehearsal of his opera Fidelio ended in disaster. So this time, he instructed the singers and musicians to ignore the totally deaf Beethoven. At the beginning of every part, Beethoven, who sat by the stage, gave the tempos. He was turning the pages of his score and was beating time for an orchestra he could not hear.
There are a number of anecdotes about the premiere of the Ninth. Based on the testimony of the participants, there are suggestions that it was under-rehearsed (there were only two full rehearsals) and rather scrappy in execution. On the other hand, the premiere was a big success. In any case, Beethoven was not to blame, as violist Josef Bohm recalled, "Beethoven directed the piece himself, that is: he stood before the lectern and gesticulated furiously. At times he raised, at other times he shrunk to the ground, he moved as if he wanted to play all the instruments himself and sing for the whole chorus. All the musicians minded his rhythm alone while playing".
When the audience applauded at the end, Beethoven was several measures off and still conducting. Because of that, the contralto Caroline Unger walked over and forcibly turned Beethoven around to accept the audience's cheers and applause. According to one witness, "the public received the musical hero with the utmost respect and sympathy, listened to his wonderful, gigantic creations with the most absorbed attention and broke out in jubilant applause, often during sections, and repeatedly at the end of them." The whole audience acclaimed him through standing ovations five times; there were handkerchiefs in the air, hats, raised hands, so that Beethoven, who could not hear the applause, could at least see the ovation gestures. The theatre house had never seen such enthusiasm in applause.
At that time, it was customary that the imperial couple be greeted with three ovations at their entrance in the hall. The fact that a private person, who wasn’t even employed by the state, and all the more, was a musician (class of people who had been perceived as lackeys at court), received five ovations, was in itself inadmissible, almost indecent. Police agents present at the concert had to break off this spontaneous explosion of ovations. Beethoven left the concert deeply moved.
The repeat performance on May 23 in the great hall of the Fort was, however, poorly attended.
==Music==
===Naming===
The ''official name'' is: Symphony No. 9 in D minor, opus 125. The symphony is sometimes referred to as "Choral", pointing to the vocal end of the symphony. Also known as The Symphony of Joy.
===Score===
The Ninth Symphony is scored for [[piccolo]], 2 [[flute]]s, 2 [[oboe]]s, 2 [[clarinet]]s (in C, A and B flat), 2 [[bassoon]]s, [[contrabassoon]], 4 [[horn (instrument)|horn]]s (in D, E flat, B flat and bass B flat), 2 [[trumpet]]s (in D, B flat), 3 [[trombone]]s, 2 [[timpani]], [[triangle (instrument)|triangle]], [[cymbal]]s, [[bass drum]], a string section consisting of the usual first and second [[violin]]s, [[viola]]s, [[cello]]s, [[double bass]]es, four vocal soloists (soprano, alto, tenor, baritone), and a chorus singing in four parts (soprano, alto, tenor, bass). These are by far the largest forces needed for any Beethoven symphony; at the premiere Beethoven expanded them further by assigning two players to each wind part.
===Movements===
The symphony is in four movements, marked as follows:
# [[Allegro (music)|Allegro ma non troppo]], un poco [[maestoso]]
# Molto [[vivace]]
# [[Adagio (music)|Adagio molto]] e [[Wiktionary:cantabile|cantabile]]
# [[Presto (music)|Presto]]/[[recitative]] - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro ma non troppo]]/recitative - [[Vivace]]/recitative - [[Adagio (music)|Adagio]] [[Wiktionary:cantabile|cantabile]]/recitative - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro assai]]/recitative - [[Presto (music)|Presto]]/recitative: "O Freunde" - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro assai]]: "Freude, schöner Götterfunken" - Alla marcia - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro assai]] [[vivace]]: "Froh, wie seine Sonnen" - [[Andante]] [[maestoso]]: "Seid umschlungen, Millionen!" - [[Adagio (music)|Adagio ma non troppo]], ma divoto: "Ihr, stürzt nieder" - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] energico, sempre ben marcato: "Freude, schöner Götterfunken" / "Seid umschlungen, Millionen!" - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] ma non tanto: "Freude, Tochter aus Elysium!" - [[Prestissimo]]: "Seid umschlungen, Millionen!"
This arrangement of movements adopts a slightly unusual [[Classical music era|Classical]] pattern, with the [[scherzo]] movement in second (rather than the normal third) position. Beethoven was familiar with this arrangement from [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]]'s work and had used it on various occasions throughout his career (the [[string quartet|quartet]]s Op. 18 no. 4-5, the "Archduke" [[piano trio]] Op. 97, the [[Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven)|"Hammerklavier"]] piano sonata Op. 106).
====First movement====
The first movement is in [[sonata form]], following a formal model that had guided Beethoven throughout his career. The mood is generally bleak and stormy. A striking moment here is the onset of the [[recapitulation]] section, which instead of literally repeating the ''pianissimo'' opening bars in [[D minor]], switches to ''fortissimo'' [[D major]], a key change which has struck many listeners, paradoxically, as expressing terror or awe. [[Piccolo]],[[Contrabassoon]], and [[Trombone]]s are not called for in this movement; however this is the first appearance of a quartet of [[horn (instrument)|horn]]s in a Beethoven symphony.
====Second movement====
The second movement, a [[scherzo]], is likewise in D minor, with the opening theme a kind of echo of the theme of the first movement, a pattern found likewise in the [[Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven)|Hammerklavier]] piano sonata, written a few years earlier. It is notable for its propulsive rhythm and [[timpani]] solos (for this purpose the two timpani are tuned, unusually, an octave apart). At one point Beethoven gives the direction ''ritmo di tre battute'', meaning that the beats of three consecutive measures must form a single rhythmic unit, as if the music were in 9/4 instead of 3/4 time; this is later reverted with ''ritmo di quattro battute'', with the typical four-measure beat.
The contrasting trio section is in D major and in duple time. The trio also marks the first arrival of the [[trombone]]s in the work.
====Third movement====
The lyrical and deeply felt slow movement, in [[B-flat major]], is written in a loose [[variation (music)|variation]] form, with each of the two variations dividing the basic beat to produce a more elaborate melodic configuration than what went before. The first variation, like the theme, is in 4/4 time, the second in 12/8. The variations are separated by more impassioned passages in 3/4, the first in D major, the second in [[G major]]. The final variation is twice interrupted by striking episodes in which loud fanfares for the full orchestra are answered by double-stopped octaves played by the first violins alone. Also worth noting is a virtuosic [[horn (instrument)|horn]] solo assigned to the fourth player. [[Trombone]]s are tacet for the movement.
====Fourth movement====
The famous choral finale has struck many listeners as somewhat rambling. Some helpful clarification can be found in the description of [[Charles Rosen]], who characterizes it as a symphony within a symphony, containing four movements played without interruption. This "inner symphony" follow |
ay to do this is by firing [[ions]] into the material at high speed, so that collisions inside the material knock all atoms from their original positions. This technique is known as [[ion implantation]], and only forms amorphous solids if the material is too cold for atoms to diffuse back to their original positions as the process continues.
===Cold Deposition===
Techniques such as [[sputtering]] and [[CVD]] can be used to deposit a thin film of material onto a surface. If the surface is kept cold, the atoms being deposited will not, on average, gain enough energy to diffuse along the surface until they find a place in an ordered crystal. For every deposition technique, there is a substrate temperature below which the deposited film will be amorphous. However, surface [[diffusion]] requires much less energy than diffusion through the bulk, so that these temperatures are often lower than those required to make amorphous films by ion implantation.
==Toward a strict definition==
It is difficult to make a distinction between truly amorphous solids and crystalline solids in which the size of the crystals is very small (less than two [[nanometre]]s). Even amorphous materials have some short-range order among the atomic positions (over length scales of about one [[nanometre]]). Furthermore, in very small [[crystal]]s a large fraction of the [[atom]]s are located at or near the surface of the crystal; relaxation of the surface and interfacial effects distort the atomic positions, decreasing the structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as x-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy, have difficulty in distinguishing between amorphous and crystalline structures on these length scales.
The transition from the liquid state to the glass, at a temperature below the equilibrium melting point of the material, is called the [[glass transition]]. From a practical point of view, the glass transition temperature is defined empirically as the temperature at which the [[viscosity]] of the liquid exceeds a certain value (commonly 10<sup>13</sup> [[pascal second|pascal-seconds]]). The transition temperature depends on cooling rate, with the glass transition occurring at higher temperatures for faster cooling rates. The precise nature of the glass transition is the subject of ongoing research. While it is clear that the glass transition is not a first-order thermodynamic transition (such as melting), there is debate as to whether it is a higher-order transition, or merely a kinetic effect.
Glass is often referred to as a 'super-cooled' liquid: this amounts to an assertion that the glass transition is purely a kinetic, rather than a thermodynamic effect. One argument against speaking this way is the fact that many supercooled liquids flow (see [[pitch drop experiment]]) whereas glass does not (see special section in [[glass]]).
Some examples of amorphous solids are [[glass]], [[polystyrene]], and the [[silicon]] in many [[Thin-film deposition|thin film]] [[solar cell]]s.
== See also ==
* [[Cryopreservation]]
* [[Supercooling]]
* [[Vitrification]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.ptbf.am.wroc.pl/v271/v271_17.pdf Vogel-Tammann-Fulcher Equation Parameters]
*[http://eprints.iisc.ernet.in/archive/00000257/01/kjrao.pdf Fragility thy name is glass]
{{Template:Phase_of_matter}}
[[Category:Phases of matter]]
[[cs:Amorfní látka]]
[[da:Amorf]]
[[de:Amorphes Material]]
[[eo:Amorfa solido]]
[[nl:Amorf]]
[[ja:アモルファス]]
[[pl:Ciało amorficzne]]
[[pt:Amorfo]]
[[sv:Amorf]]
[[vi:Chất rắn vô định hình]]</text>
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<page>
<title>A Wizard of Earthsea</title>
<id>2890</id>
<revision>
<id>42049719</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:19:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Caiyu</username>
<id>319611</id>
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<minor />
<comment>reverted edits by [[Sesshomaru38]] to last version by 194.80.32.8</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Wizard of Earthsea''''', first published in [[1968]], is the first of a series of books written by [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] and set in her [[fantasy]] [[archipelago]] of [[Earthsea]]. The tale of the eponymous wizard &ndash; after this, his first great adventure &ndash; continues in ''[[The Tombs of Atuan]]'', and ''[[The Farthest Shore]]'', but Le Guin has written a number of other novels and short stories set in the world of Earthsea.
== Synopsis ==
{{spoiler}}
In the novel, a young man, Sparrowhawk, comes of age on his home island of Gont. While still a boy, he discovers that he has the inborn aptitude to practice [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]. Some years later, he uses this ability to save his village from a raiding party of barbarians. In the aftermath of the battle, in a rite of passage that leads him into adulthood, he is given his true, secret name ("[[Ged (fictional character)|Ged]]") and is apprenticed to the wizard [[Ogion]] the Silent.
Sparrowhawk then travels to the school of wizardry on [[Roke]] Island, masters his craft easily, and, in his [[hubris]], summons a spirit of darkness that scars him and leaves him for dead.
After a painful and slow recovery, Sparrowhawk is sent out into the world as a wizard. He has a series of adventures, including surviving a confrontation with a [[western dragon|dragon]]. At last he resolves to track down the foe he has released and destroy or banish it.
Ultimately Sparrowhawk confronts the [[Shadow (psychology)|shadow]] that hunts him, and defeats it by realizing that it is his own shadow. He calls the shadow, which was thought to be nameless, by name &ndash; "Ged". In doing so, he reconciles both sides of himself and takes responsibility for his past mistakes which, until then, he had run from.
== About the book and its author ==
''A Wizard of Earthsea'' is a coming-of-age story, written with an eye for a young adult audience. It won the [[Boston Globe-Hornbook Award]] for juvenile fiction in [[1968]]. It is, in effect, a fantasy [[Bildungsroman]] &ndash; the story of a young man's quest for wisdom and spiritual wholeness, written in a sparse prose style.
Le Guin has said that the book was in part a response to the image of wizards as ancient and wise, and to her wondering where they come from. The author is famous for her [[science fiction]] and fantasy works; over her career she has received about an award a year,[http://www.ursulakleguin.com/Bio2001.html] among them a total of ten of the most prestigious of them all, the [[Hugo award|Hugo]] and [[Nebula award|Nebula]] awards.
== External links ==
* [http://www.ursulakleguin.com/ Ursula K. Le Guin's official website]
* [http://www.ursulakleguin.com/TalesEarthsea_Excerpt.html An excerpt of ''Tales from Earthsea'']
* {{isfdb series | id=Earthsea_Cycle | title=Earthsea}}
<div style="font-size:90%;">
{| border=1 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 align=center
|---- bgcolor="#cccccc"
!width="40%"|Preceded by:
!width="20%"|Series:<br />
!width="40%"|Followed by:
|----- align="center"
|[[The Rule of Names]]
|[[Earthsea]]
|[[The Tombs of Atuan]]
|}
</div>
[[Category:1968 books|Wizard of Earthsea, A]]
[[Category:Earthsea|Wizard of Earthsea, A]]
[[es:Un mago de Terramar]]
[[he:הקוסם מארץ ים]]
[[zh:地海巫師]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Animal rights</title>
<id>2891</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42145845</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:03:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SlimVirgin</username>
<id>129409</id>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Cguerriero@hotmail.com|Cguerriero@hotmail.com]] ([[User talk:Cguerriero@hotmail.com|talk]]) to last version by Zsinj</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Great Ape Project logo.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The logo of the [[Great Ape Project]], which is campaigning for a [[Declaration on Great Apes]]. [http://www.greatapeproject.org/declaration.html] ]]
'''Animal rights''', or '''animal liberation''', is the movement to protect animals from being used or regarded as property by human beings. It is a [[radicalism|radical]] [[social movement]], insofar as it aims not merely to attain more [[humane]] treatment for animals, but also to include species other than [[Human|human beings]] within the moral community by giving their basic interests &mdash; for example, the interest in avoiding suffering &mdash; the same consideration as our own. The claim, in other words, is that animals should no longer be regarded [[Law|legally]] or [[Moral philosophy|morally]] as property, or treated merely as resources for human purposes, but should instead be regarded as [[persons]].
Some countries have passed legislation awarding recognition to the interests of animals. [[Switzerland]] recognized animals as beings, not things, in 1992, and in 2002, the protection of animals was added to the [[Germany|German]] constitution. The [[Seattle]]-based [[Great Ape Project]], founded by [[Australia]]n philosopher [[Peter Singer]], is campaigning for the [[United Nations]] to adopt its [[Declaration on Great Apes]], which would see [[gorilla]]s, [[orangutan]]s, and both species of [[chimpanzee]] included in a "community of equals" with human beings, and which would extend to them the protection of three basic interests: the [[right to life]], the protection of individual [[liberty]], and the prohibition of [[torture]]. [http://www.greatapeproject.org/declaration.html]
Critics of the concept of animal [[right]]s argue that, because animals do not have the capacity to enter into a [[social contract]] [http://articles.animalconcerns.org/ar-voices/archive/case_for_ar.html] or make [[Morality|moral]] choices, cannot respect the rights of others, and |
ing, but is instead higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (e.g., pure nitrogen) leads to loss of consciousness without subjective breathing problems. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots, and is also the reason why the instructions in commercial airplanes for case of loss of cabin pressure stress that one should apply the oxygen mask to oneself before helping others&mdash;otherwise one risks going unconscious without being aware of the imminent peril.
Plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by [[photosynthesis]], which uses light energy to produce organic plant materials by combining carbon dioxide and [[water]]. This releases free oxygen gas. Sometimes carbon dioxide gas is pumped into [[greenhouse]]s to promote plant growth. Plants also emit CO<sub>2</sub> during respiration, but on balance they are net sinks of CO<sub>2</sub>.
[[OSHA]] limits carbon dioxide concentration in the workplace to 0.5% for prolonged periods. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safey and Health limits brief exposures (up to ten minutes) to 3% and considers concentrations exceeding 4% as "[[immediately dangerous to life and health]]." People who breathe 5% carbon dioxide for more than half an hour show signs of acute [[hypercapnia]], while breathing 7%&ndash;10% carbon dioxide can produce unconsciousness in only a few minutes. Carbon dioxide, either as a gas or as dry ice, should be handled only in well-ventilated areas.
''See also'': [[Arterial blood gas]].
== Atmosphere ==
[[Image:CO2-Mauna-Loa.png|thumbnail|right|250px|Atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations, measured at [[Mauna Loa]].]]
[[As of 2004]], the [[earth's atmosphere]] is about 0.038% by volume (380 µL/L or [[Parts per million|ppmv]]) or 0.057% by weight CO<sub>2</sub>. This represents about 2.94 × 10<sup>12</sup> [[tonnes]] of CO<sub>2</sub>. Because of the greater land area, and therefore greater plant life, in the northern hemisphere as compared to the southern hemisphere, there is an annual fluctuation of about 5 µL/L, peaking in May and reaching a minimum in October at the end of the northern hemisphere growing season, when the quantity of [[biomass]] on the planet is greatest.
Despite its small concentration, CO<sub>2</sub> is a very important component of Earth's atmosphere, because it absorbs [[infrared]] radiation and enhances the [[greenhouse effect]].
The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]]; this was essential for a warm and stable climate conducive to life. Volcanic activity now releases about 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (145 million to 255 million [[ton|short tons]]) of carbon dioxide each year. Volcanic releases are about 1% of the amount which is released by human activities.
[[Image:Global Carbon Emission by Type.png|thumb|left|250px|Global [[carbon dioxide]] emissions [[1751]]&ndash;[[2000]].]]
Since the start of the [[Industrial Revolution]], the atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentration has increased by approximately 110 µL/L or about 40%, most of it released since [[1945]]. Monthly measurements taken at [[Mauna Loa]] [http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/co2/sio-mlo.htm] since [[1958]] show an increase from 316 µL/L in that year to 376 µL/L in [[2003]], an overall increase of 60 µL/L during the 44-year history of the measurements. Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased man-made CO<sub>2</sub>; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires may have released 13%&ndash;40% as much carbon as fossil fuel burning does [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peat#Peat_fires]. Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO<sub>2</sub> remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The
ratio of the emitted CO<sub>2</sub> to the increase is atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically 57% over longer (5 year) periods.
<div style="clear: both"></div>
[[Image:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]
The Global Warming Theory (GWT) predicts that increased amounts of CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere tend to enhance the [[greenhouse effect]] and thus contribute to [[global warming]]. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is called the [[Callendar effect]].
=== Variation in the past ===
[[Image:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]
The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels were about 260&ndash;280µL/L immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years.
The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 650,000 years before the present. [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html] During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied between 180&ndash;210 µL/L during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280&ndash;300 µL/L during warmer [[interglacial]]s.
Some studies have disputed the claim of stable CO<sub>2</sub> levels during the present interglacial (the last 10 kyr). Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.{{ref|Wagner2002}} argued that CO<sub>2</sub> levels during the period 7&ndash;10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 µL/L) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO<sub>2</sub>{{ref|Indermuhle1999}}. Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO<sub>2</sub> values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.{{ref|Smith1997}}) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice. When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO<sub>2</sub> measurements.
[[Image:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years). The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]
On longer timescales, various proxy measurements have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past. These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations (>3,000 µL/L) between 600 and 400 Myr BP and between 200 and 150 Myr BP.[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm] On long timescales, atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the carbon cycle over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they
are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentration continued to fall after about 60 Myr BP, and there is geochemical evidence that concentrations were <300 µL/L by about 20 Myr BP. Low CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Myr BP. Although contemporary CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations were exceeded during earlier geological epochs, present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 million years [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/107.htm#331] and at the same time lower than at any time in history if we look at time scales longer than 50 million years.
== Capturing/Extracting CO<sub>2</sub> ==
Methods of CO<sub>2</sub> extraction/separation include:
*[[Adsorption]]
[http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/3b3.pdf www.netl.doe.gov]('''pdf file''')
*[[Amine]] extraction
*[[Molecular Sieve]]
*[[Polymer membrane gas separator]]s [http://www.medal.airliquide.com/en/membranes/carbon/index.asp] [http://www.medal.airliquide.com/en/membranes/carbon/coal.asp]
*Reversing heat exchangers
*[[Regenerative Carbon Dioxide Removal System]](RCRS)
Th |
any religious conversions took place. For those reasons, the population of the region decreased, yet it remained largerly ethnically similar, as the Christians didn't have the right to use any means of transportation. The only notable event however, was the gradual settlement of [[Arvanites]] and [[Vlachs]] in isolated communities throughout the Greek peninsula. Some of the ancestors of those settlers survive until today, but only as linguistic groups of purely Greek ethnic identity.
The [[population exchange]]s with [[Bulgaria]] and [[Turkey]] that took place in the early 20th century, added in total some 2 million Greeks from [[Asia Minor]], [[Constantinople]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Albania]] and [[Yugoslavia]] to the demography of the Greek Kingdom.
==Education==
[[Image:Greece demography.png|thumb|Population of Greece from 1961 to 2003.]]
Greek education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 15. English language study is compulsory from 5th grade through high school. University education, including books, is also free, contingent upon the student's ability to meet stiff entrance requirements.
A high percentage of the student population seeks higher education. About 100,000 students are registered at Greek universities, and 15% of the population currently holds a university degree. Entrance to a university is determined by state-administered exams, the candidate's grade-point average from high school, and his/her priority choices of major. About one in four candidates gains admission to Greek universities.
The Greek law does not currently offer official recognition to the graduates of private universities that operate in Greece. As a result, a large and growing number of students are pursuing higher education abroad. The Greek Government decides through an evaluation procedure whether to recognize degrees from specific foreign universities as qualification for public sector hiring. Other students attend private, post-secondary educational institutions in Greece that are not recognized by the Greek Government.
The number of Greek students studying at European institutions is increasing along with EU support for educational exchange. In addition, nearly 5,000 Greeks are studying in the United States, about half of whom are in graduate school. Greek per capita student representation in the U.S. is the highest of any European country.
==Religion Groups in Greece==
[[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] is the official and dominant religion in Greece. During the centuries of Ottoman domination, the [[Greek Orthodox Church]] preserved Greek language, values, and national identity and was an important rallying point in the struggle for independence. There is a '''[[Greek Muslim minority|Muslim minority]]''' concentrated in Thrace, which has a [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] ethnic identity. Other religious communities in Greece include [[Catholic]]s, [[Jew]]s, [[Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece|Old Calendar Orthodox]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Mormon]]s, and [[Protestant]]s.
==Minority Ethnic and Linguistic Groups==
A survey conducted by the VPRC Institute in 2001 found the following minority linguistic groups in Greece:
* 3.3% [[Arvanitic language|Arvanitic]] speakers
* 2.2% [[Turkish language|Turkish]] speakers
* 2.0% [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]] speakers
* 1.4% [[Italian language|Italian]] speakers
* 0.7% [[Russian language|Russian]] speakers
* 0.6% [[Macedonian language|Macedonian Slavic]] speakers
* 0.6% [[Romany language|Roma]] speakers
The survey mentioned that most of the respondents were using the [[Greek language]] in everyday life.
==Statistics==
'''Population:'''
10,964,020 (2001 Census)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
15% (male 828,585; female 779,902)
<br>''15-64 years:''
67% (male 3,580,079; female 3,574,788)
<br>''65 years and over:''
18% (male 815,247; female 1,022,926) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
0.19% (2005 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
9.72 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
10.15 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
2.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.06 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.06 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.79 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
0.96 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
5.53 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
79.09 years
<br>''male:''
76.59 years
<br>''female:''
81.76 years (2005 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
1.33 children born/woman (2005 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Greek(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Greek
'''Ethnic groups:'''
Greek 98%, other 2%
'''Religions:'''
Greek Orthodox 98%, Muslim 1.3%, other 0.7%
'''Languages:'''
Greek 99% (official), English, French
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
97.5%
<br>''male:''
98.6%
<br>''female:''
96.5% (2003 est.)
==References==
*[http://www.geoplace.com/hottopics/CIAwfb/factbook/geos/gr.html CIA World Factbook 2004 entry for Greece]
*[http://www.v-prc.gr/ VPRC official site - source of report on minority language survery]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Greece]]
[[Category:Geography of Greece]]
[[Category:Greek society]]
[[el:Δημογραφία της Ελλάδας]]
[[fr:Démographie de la Grèce]]
[[pt:Demografia da Grécia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Greece</title>
<id>12112</id>
<revision>
<id>38997893</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T00:56:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.122.87.59</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>wikisyntax repair '</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Greece}}
'''Politics of Greece''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Greece]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Hellenic Parliament]]. Since the restoration of democracy the party system is dominated by the conservative [[New Democracy]] (''Νεα Δημοκρατια - Nea Dimokratia'') and the socialist [[Panhellenic Socialist Movement]] (''Πανελληνιο Σοσιαλιστικο Κινημα - Panellinio Sosialistiko Kinima''). The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The [[1975]] [[constitution]], which describes [[Greece]] as a "[[President|presidential]] [[parliament]]ary [[republic]]," includes extensive specific guarantees of [[civil liberties]] and vests the powers of the [[head of state]] in a president elected by parliament and advised by the Council of the Republic. The Greek governmental structure is similar to that found in many Western [[democracy|democracies]], and has been described as a compromise between the [[France|French]] and [[Germany|German]] models. The prime minister and [[cabinet]] play the central role in the political process, while the president performs some governmental functions in addition to ceremonial duties.
== Executive branch ==
{{office-table}}
|[[list of Presidents of Greece|President]]
|[[Karolos Papoulias]]
|
|[[March 12]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[list of Prime Ministers of Greece|Prime Minister]]
|[[Kostas Karamanlis]]
|
|[[March 10]] [[2004]]
|}
The [[Cabinet of Greece]] includes the heads of all executive ministries, appointed by the president on the recommendation of the
The President is elected by Parliament for a five-year term (election last held [[March 7]] [[2004]]), and a maximum of two terms in office. When a presidential term expires, Parliament votes to elect the new President. In the first two votes, a 2/3 majority (200 votes) is necessary. The third and final vote requires a 3/5 (180 votes) majority. If the third vote is fruitless, Parliament is dissolved and elections are proclaimed by the outgoing President within the next 30 days. In the new Parliament, the election for President is repeated immediately with a 3/5 majority required for the initial two votes and a simple majority (151 votes) for the third and final one. The system is so designed as to promote consensus Presidential candidates among the main political parties.
The president has the power to declare war and to conclude agreements of peace, alliance, and participate in international organizations; upon the request of the government a three-fifths parliamentary majority is required to ratify such actions, agreements, or treaties. The president also can exercise certain emergency powers, which must be countersigned by the appropriate cabinet minister. Changes to the constitution in 1986 limited the president's political powers. As a result, the president may not dissolve parliament, dismiss the government, suspend certain articles of the constitution, or declare a state of siege. To call a referendum, he must obtain approval from parliament.
The prime minister is appointed by the president.
==Legislative branch==
Greece elects a [[legislature]] by universal suffrage of all citizens over the age of 18. The '''[[Parliament of Greece|Greek Parliament]]''' (''Vouli ton Ellinon'') has 300 members, elected for a four-year term by a system of reinforced [[proportional representation]] in 51 multi-seat [[constituency|constituencies]], 5 single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and a single nationwide list. 288 of the 300 seats are determined by constituecy voting, and voters may select the candidate or candidates of their choice by marking their name on the party ballot. The remaining 12 seats are filled from nationwide party lists on a top-down basis and based on the proportion of the |
on to English economic domination almost a century prior to the famine in his pamphlet "[[A Modest Proposal]]" (1729). Professor Joe Lee called what happened a [[holocaust (disambiguation)|holocaust]]. (See [[Democide]]). Others, however, note that over three-million people were fed through soup-kitchens, and that factors such as poor communication, primitive retail distribution networks and the inefficiencies of local government had exacerbated the situation.
The "debate" is largely a moral one, attempting to ascertain whether within the policies of the British Empire lay a racist, forgetful, or simply inconsiderate mentality that, despite its power, made it impotent to handle a humanitarian crisis in its own backyard, or whether a large reduction in Ireland's population was looked on as a favourable outcome by a large segment of the British body politic, who then decided to let nature take its course. Some Irish, British and US historians [[F.S.L. Lyons]], [[John A. Murphy]], [[Joe Lee]], [[Roy Foster Historian|Roy Foster]], and [[James S. Donnelly, Jr.]], as well as historians [[Cecil Woodham-Smith]], [[Peter Gray]], [[Ruth Dudley Edwards]] and many others have long dismissed claims of a ''deliberate policy'' of extermination. This dismissal usually does not preclude any assessment of [[British Empire|British Imperial]] rule as ill-mannered or unresponsive toward certain of its [[subjects]].
The notable difference between the Famine and other [[humanitarian crises]] was that it occurred within the imperial homeland, at a time well into the modern prosperity of the [[Victorian age|Victorian]] and [[Industrial age|Industrial]] age. Even today, such crises tend to be far away from [[centers of power]] such that the subjects of empire, almost by definition, are of distant [[culture|cultures]], [[language|languages]] and [[religion|religious beliefs]]. Within the imperial culture, the reportage of a crisis among its subjects more often uses dismissive and [[dehumanization|dehumanizing]] terms, and treats otherwise urgent matters with little relevancy or interest. With respect to geography, the famine would appear to belie many of the typical circumstances in which colonialist dismissal of native plight often occurred. With respect to era, the famine came at a crossroads of old world and modern world. Though human suffering during the famine was never [[photograph|photographed]], the event immediately and profoundly altered the course of generations of Irish and Irish diaspora &mdash;for whom history has a rich and prosperous record.
==Irish landholdings==
The catastrophe that was the Famine was the product of a number of complex problems which affected nineteenth century Ireland. One of the most central was the nature of land-holdings. From the middle ages onwards, Irish ownership of the land of the island had been in decline, as waves of settlers, from the [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabethan]] [[Plantations of Ireland|plantations]] on, assumed control of large tracts of land. A practice of consolidation of lands into large estates was widespread in Europe, but, in Ireland, it was complicated by the discriminatory laws applied to all faiths other than the established [[Church of Ireland]], but which most directly affected Irish Roman Catholics, by far the religion of the overwhelming majority of Irish people. Under the [[Penal Laws]], Irish Catholics faced the threat of confiscation of property. While the enforcement of the law fluctuated both in terms of period and geography, and by the time of the Famine the laws had in any case been repealed, the cultural effect of the discrimination they embodied helped shape Irish attitudes towards land. As a result of all of this, by the time of the Famine most Irish Catholics were restricted to holding small, frequently impoverished tenancies, lacking what came to be known as the '[[Three Fs|Three Fs]]'; fair rent, fixity of tenure, and free sale.
This was further complicated by a cultural tradition known as [[Irish farm subdivision|'sub-division']], whereby lands and property, instead of being inherited by the first-born son ([[primogeniture]]) was divided equally among male heirs, both legitimate and on occasion illegitimate. The Penal Laws had decreed sub-division among the conquered Catholic Irish, in the hopes of encouraging conversion to Protestantism. In its nineteenth century land-holding form, it meant that, over each generation, the size of a tenant farm was reduced, as it was split between all living sons, though by the 1840s, sub-division was increasingly only found among the poorest people on the smallest farms. In 1845, for example, 24% of all Irish tenant farms were of 0.4 to 2 [[hectare]]s (one to five [[acre]]s) in size, while 40% were of 2 to 6 hectares (five to fifteen acres). This included [[marsh|marshland]] and [[bog|bogland]] that could not be used for food production. As a result, holdings were so small that the only crop that could be grown in sufficient quantities, and which provided sufficient nourishment to feed a family, was potatoes. A British Government report carried out shortly before the Famine noted that the scale of the poverty was such that one third of all small holdings in Ireland were presumed to be unable to support their families, after paying their rent, other than through the earnings of seasonal migrant labour in [[England]] and [[Scotland]]. {{fn|1}}
As a result, the Irish landholding system in the 1840s was already in serious trouble. Many of the big estates, as a result of earlier agricultural crises, were heavily mortgaged and in financial difficulty. (10% were eventually bankrupted by the Famine). Below that level were mass tenancies, lacking rent control and security of tenure, many of them through sub-division so small that the tenants were struggling to survive in good years, and almost wholly dependent on potatoes because they alone could be grown in sufficient quantity and nutritional value. Furthermore, efforts of tenants to increase the productivity of their land was actively discouraged by the threat that any increase in land value would lead to a disproportionately high resulting increase in rents, possibly leading to their eviction.
==Evictions==
In a final disastrous twist, local relief was paid for through the [[Poor Law]] Union, which was funded by rates (local taxes) paid by landlords, on the basis of an estate's tenant numbers. This produced the perverse farce of increasing local reliance on the poor law leading landlords to evict impoverished tenants in order to control their rapidly rising rates bills, only to see those evictees, now reliant on the Poor Law Union pushing up rate bills further, leading to more evictions. But if they kept on tenants unable to pay rents, they then might be unable to meet ''their'' rates bill (many estates were already in financial trouble), meaning the Poor Law would not be able to offer local relief, leading to more starvation. {{fn|5}} Only central funding of Poor Law Unions from the exchequer could solve this conundrum, but Russell's government was opposed to this. Some landlords, to avoid ex-tenants relying on the Poor Law, provided passage to other countries, on what became known as [[coffin ship|coffin ships]]. All too many emigrants, already weak, some with [[cholera]], died during the passage to North America.
Ireland experienced a massive number of evictions, due to financial reasons, and infamously to 'clear' their lands to allow cattle grazing, similar to the [[Highland Clearances]], which were happening in [[Scotland]] around the same time. Some evicted reluctantly because of their climbing rates bills, others with notorious brutality to take advantage from the Famine. 90,000 people were evicted in 1849 alone, though up to one third were allowed to return as 'caretakers'. 109,000 were evicted in 1850. {{fn|6}} Many estates did however provide help for their tenants, with reduced rents and the provision of soup kitchens, in some cases bankrupting themselves in the process. Many also initiated relief works, where workers were paid a pittance for building (mostly superfluous) roads and walls. The [[River Shannon|Shannon]]-[[Erne]] canal (recently reopened) was built as a relief work after petition from the landholders of South Leitrim.{{fn|7}} 10% of all estates were bankrupt by 1850, as heavily-mortgaged estates could not cover their financial costs from tenants facing starvation and bankruptcy themselves. The failure of the United Kingdom to control the behaviour of landlords has often been criticised. However in the mid-nineteenth century, few states internationally restricted the rights of landlords; restrictions in Ireland were only imposed from the 1870s, as under the Land Acts which conceded the Irish nationalist demand for the Three Fs and which finally allowed tenants to buy their farms.
Large sums of money were donated by charities; [[Calcutta]] is credited with making the first donation of £14,000. The money was raised by Irish soldiers serving there and Irish people employed by the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]. [[Pope Pius IX]] sent funds, [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] personally gave the modern day equivalent of €70,000, while the [[Choctaws|Choctaw]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] famously sent $710 and grain, (an act of generosity still remembered to this day, and publicly commemorated by President [[Mary Robinson]] in the 1990s). [[Nathan Mayer Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild|Lord Rothschild]] donated more than every other English aristocrat combined, although he had not the financial interests in Ireland that many others had. Nevertheless, charitable donations could not solve the scale of the problem.
Critics have observed how during this time, Irish & Anglo-Irish landowners exported corn (and other crops) and livestock which could have s |
. The copula is used to describe what or who someone is, as opposed to how and where. This has been likened to the difference between the verbs ''ser'' and ''estar'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], although this is only a rough approximation. The copula, which in the present tense is ''is'', is usually demonstrative:
:''Is fear é.'' "It is a man."
:''Is Sasanaigh iad.'' "They're English."
When saying "this is", or "that is", ''seo'' and ''sin'' are used:
:''Seo í mo mháthair.'' "This is my mother."
:''Sin é an muinteoir.'' "That's the teacher."
One can also add "that is in him/her/it", especially when using an adjective, when it is desired to emphasise the quality:
:''Is fear láidir atá '''ann'''.'' "He's a strong man."
:(Literally: "It is a strong man that is in him.")
:''Is cailín álainn atá '''inti'''.'' "She's a beautiful girl."
:(Literally: "It is a beautiful girl that is in her.")
This sometimes appears in [[Hiberno-English]], either translated literally as "that is in it", or as "so it is".
===Morphology===
''See main articles [[Irish morphology]], [[Irish nominals]], and [[Irish verbs]].''
Another feature of Irish grammar that is shared with other Celtic languages is the use of prepositional pronouns (''forainmneacha réamhfhoclacha''), which are essentially conjugated prepositions. For example, the word for "at" is ''ag'', which in the first person singular becomes '''agam''' "at me". When used with the verb ''bí'' ("to be") ''ag'' indicates possession; this is the equivalent of the English verb "to have".
{|cellspacing="7"
|''Tá leabhar '''agam'''''.||"I have a book."||(Literally, "is a book at me")
|-
|''Tá deoch '''agat'''''.||"You have a drink."
|-
|''Tá ríomhaire '''aige'''''.||"He has a computer."
|-
|''Tá páiste '''aici'''''.||"She has a child."
|-
|''Tá carr '''againn'''''.||"We have a car."
|-
|''Tá teach '''agaibh'''''.||"You (plural) have a house."
|-
|''Tá airgead '''acu'''''.||"They have money."
|}
Compare with [[Breton language|Breton]]:
{|cellspacing="7"
|''Ul levr a zo '''ganin'''''.||"I have a book."
|-
|''Ur banne a zo '''ganit'''''.||"You have a drink."||('Banne' related to the Irish 'bainne' - milk - though semantically drifted)
|-
|''Un urzhiataer a zo '''gantañ'''''.||"He has a computer."
|-
|''Ur bugel a zo '''ganti'''''.||"She has a child."||('Bugel' related to Irish word "buachail" - boy - though semantically drifted)
|-
|''Ur c'harr a zo '''ganimp'''''.||"We have a car."
|-
|''Un ti a zo '''ganeoc'h'''''.||"You (plural) have a house."
|-
|''Arc'hant a zo '''ganto'''''.||"They have money."
|}
===Orthography and pronunciation===
''See main articles [[Irish orthography]] and [[Irish phonology]].''
The written language looks rather daunting to those unfamiliar with it. Once understood, the orthography is relatively straightforward. The [[acute accent]], or ''síneadh fada'' (´), serves to lengthen the sound of the vowels and in some cases also changes their quality. For example, in Munster Irish (Kerry), ''a'' is {{IPA|/ʌ/}} or {{IPA|/ɑ/}} and ''á'' is {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in "law" but in Ulster Irish (Donegal), ''á'' tends to be {{IPA|/ɑː/}}.
Around the time of [[World War II]], [[Séamas Daltún]], in charge of Rannóg an Aistriúcháin (the official translations department of the Irish government), issued his own guidelines about how to standardise Irish spelling and grammar. This de facto standard was subsequently approved of by the State and called the Official Standard or ''Caighdeán Oifigiúil''. It simplified and standardised the orthography. Many words had silent letters removed and vowel combination brought closer to the spoken language. Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word, one or more were selected.
Examples:
* ''Gaedhealg / Gaedhilg(e) / Gaedhealaing / Gaeilic / Gaelainn / Gaoidhealg / Gaolainn'' => ''Gaeilge'', "Irish language" (''Gaoluinn'' or ''Gaolainn'' is still used in books written in dialect by Munster authors, or as a facetious name for the Munster dialect)
* ''Lughbhaidh'' => ''Lú'', "Louth"
* ''biadh'' => ''bia'', "food" (The orthography ''biadh'' is still used by the speakers of those dialects that show a meaningful and audible difference between ''biadh'' - nominative case - and ''bídh'' - genitive case: "of food, food's". For example, in Munster Irish the latter ends in an audible -g sound, because final ''-idh, -igh'' regularly delenites to ''-ig'' in Munster pronunciation.)
Modern Irish has only one [[diacritic]] sign, the acute (á é í ó ú), known in Irish as the ''síneadh fada'' 'long mark', plural ''sínte fada''. In English, this is frequently referred to as simply the ''fada'', where the adjective is used as a noun. The dot-above diacritic, called a ''ponc séimhithe'' or ''sí buailte'' (often shortened to ''buailte''), derives from the ''punctum delens'', which was used in medieval manuscripts to indicate deletion, similar to crossing out unwanted words in handwriting today. From this usage it was used to indicate the [[lenition]] of ''s'' (from /s/ to /h/) and ''f'' (from /f/ to zero) in [[Old Irish]] texts. Lenition of ''c'', ''p'', and ''t'' was indicated by placing the letter ''h'' after the affected consonant; lenition of other sounds was left unmarked. Later both methods were extended to be indicators of lenition of any sound except ''l'' and ''n'', and two competing systems were used: lenition could be marked by a ''buailte'' or by a postposed ''h''. Eventually, use of the ''buailte'' predominated when texts were writing using Gaelic letters, while the ''h'' predominated when writing using Roman letters. Today Gaelic letters and the ''buailte'' are rarely used except where a 'traditional' style is required, e.g. the motto on the [[University College Dublin]] [[coat-of-arms]] or the symbol of the Irish Defence Forces, The [[Irish Defence Forces cap badge]] ''(Óglaiġ na h-Éireann)''. Letters with the ''buailte'' are available in [[Unicode]] and [[ISO 8859-14|Latin-8]] [[character set]]s (see Latin Extended Additional chart [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1E00.pdf PDF]).
===Mutations===
''See main article [[Irish initial mutations]]''
In Irish, there are two classes of initial mutations:
* Lenition (in Irish, ''séimhiú'' "softening") describes the change of stops into fricatives. Indicated in old orthography by a dot (called a sí buailte) written above the changed consonant, this is now shown by adding an extra -h-:
** ''caith!'' "throw!" - ''chaith mé'' "I threw" (this is an example of the lenition as a past-tense marker, which is caused by the use of ''do'', although this is now usually omitted)
** ''margadh'' "market", "market-place", "bargain" - ''Tadhg an mhargaidh'' "the man of the street" (word for word "Timothy of the market-place" (here we see the lenition marking the genitive case of a masculine noun)
** ''Seán'' "Seán, John" - ''a Sheáin!'' "O John!" (here we see lenition as part of what is called the vocative case - in fact, the vocative lenition is triggered by the ''a'' or vocative marker before ''Sheáin'')
* Nasalisation (in Irish, ''urú'' "eclipsis") covers the voicing of voiceless stops, as well as the true nasalisation of voiced stops.
** ''athair'' "father" - ''ár nAthair'' "our Father"
** ''tús'' "start", ''ar dtús'' "at the start"
** ''Gaillimh'' "Galway" - ''i nGaillimh'' "in Galway"
==History and politics==
===Stages of the Irish language===
The introduction of Irish to Ireland dates from some time after 1200 BC.<sup>2</sup> The earliest form of the language, [[Primitive Irish]], is found in [[ogham]] inscriptions up to about the [[4th century]]AD. After the conversion to [[Christianity]], [[Old Irish]] begins to appear as [[gloss]]es in the margins of [[Latin]] [[manuscripts]], beginning in the [[6th century]], until it gives way in the [[10th century]] to Middle Irish. Modern Irish dates from about the [[16th century]].
===Irish Language Movement===
The Irish language was the most widely spoken language on the island of Ireland until the 19th century. The first [[Bible]] in Irish was translated by William Bedell, [[Church of Ireland]] [[Bishop]] of [[Kilmore]], in the [[17th century]].Though its number of speakers has been in decline since the 19th century, it is an important part of [[Irish nationalist]] identity.
A combination of the introduction of a primary education system (the '[[National School]]s'), in which Irish was prohibited and only English taught by order of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British government]], and the [[Irish Potato Famine|Great Famine]] (''An Gorta Mór'') which hit a disportionately high number of Irish language speakers (who lived in the poorer areas heavily hit by famine deaths and emigration), hastened its rapid decline. Irish political leaders, such as [[Daniel O'Connell]] (Dónall Ó Conaill), too were critical of the language, seeing it as 'backward', with English the language of the future. Contemporary reports spoke of Irish-speaking parents actively discouraging their children from speaking the language, and encouraging the use of English instead. This practice continued long after independence, as the stigma of speaking Irish remained very strong. Despite the policy of successive Irish governments to promote the language the decline in the number of native speakers within the Gaeltach |
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