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d in 1981 as a 12-inch single only in limited territories, and, along with Super Trouper, managed to top the American club and dance chart. A Spanish language compilation album was also recorded at this time - 'Gracias Por La Musica', which was released in Latin America and sold very well.
''[[The Visitors]]'' ([[1981]]), their final studio album, showed a songwriting maturity and depth of feeling distinctly lacking from their earlier recordings but still placed the band squarely in the pop genre, with catchy tunes and harmonies. ''The Visitors''<nowiki>'</nowiki> title track refers to secret meetings held against the approval of Communist governments in Soviet satellite states and other tracks address topics like aging, loss of innocence, a parent watching her child grow up and so on. Their melodies were still catchy but their change of style was reflected by the start of a commercial decline after their final great pop single "[[One Of Us (ABBA song)|One Of Us]]" which was a worldwide hit in December 1981.
Although by this time regarded as a group in decline, ABBA still drew huge audiences, particularly in continental Europe and might have gone on indefinitely if it were not for the band's personal turmoils: the two married couples were both divorced by this point. Songs like "The Winner Takes It All" and "One Of Us" gave glimpses of personal issues ABBA's members were facing.
In summer 1982, the group gathered to record a new album. In the end they settled for a double album compilation of all their past successes with two new songs. The double album ''[[The Singles: The First Ten Years]]'' topped the UK album chart and was a worldwide bestseller. The new tracks were "[[Under Attack]]" and "[[The Day Before You Came]]", which was the last song ABBA ever recorded together. Two other songs were recorded during 1982, "I Am The City" and "Just Like That". While both were completed, only "I Am The City" was released on the compilation album ''More ABBA Gold'' in 1993. Despite numerous efforts from fans, Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson are still refusing to release "[[Just Like That (ABBA song)|Just Like That]]" in its entirety.
The group gradually drifted apart as they began pursuing different projects. Benny and Björn collaborated with [[Tim Rice]] to write the musical ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'', while Agnetha and Frida worked on solo albums.
==After ABBA==
Björn and Benny wrote the music for the [[West End]] show ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'' ([[1984]]) with lyricist [[Tim Rice]]. ''Chess'' ran for three years in London. The show also opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in the US ([[1988]]) but the song order, lyrics and storyline had been altered compared with the London version, and was less successful; the show closed within weeks. "Chess" is best known today for producing the international hit "[[One Night in Bangkok]]", sung by [[Murray Head]].
Björn and Benny, inspired by the successes of Rice and his former collaborator [[Andrew Lloyd-Webber]], had long expressed their desire to write a musical. Their first attempt had been a "mini-musical", ''The Girl with The Golden Hair'', performed by the group during their 1977 tour of Europe and Australia. Excerpts were included in ''ABBA - The Movie'' and ''ABBA - The Album''. Björn and Benny followed ''Chess'' with ''[[Kristina från Duvemåla]]'' ([[1995]]), directed for the stage by [[Lars Rudolfsson]] and based on the ''Emigrants'' [[tetralogy]] by Swedish novelist [[Vilhelm Moberg]]. ''[[Mamma Mia!]]'', a musical built around ABBA's songs, had its London premiere in [[1999]]. In 2003, their first musical was given new life in a Swedish-language version, ''Chess På Svenska''.
After being largely forgotten throughout most of the 1980s, ABBA experienced a resurgence. The attention was often ironic, along the lines of "they were so [[wikt:naff|naff]] they were good," yet others recognised that while ABBA was often panned by critics and sneered at by [[punk rock|punk]] and [[New Wave music|New Wave]] musicians they were masters of their art, the three minute pop song. [[1992]] saw a huge revival of interest in ABBA, with the release of their [[ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits]] compilation album selling massively worldwide and setting chart longevity records. The revival was further validated by the [[1994]] film "[[Muriel's Wedding]]", a popular Australian film starring an ABBA-loving protaganist. Björn and Benny were finally recognised in [[2001]] with an [[Ivor Novello|Ivor Novello Award]] for their songwriting. Many former punk and New Wave artistes later admitted to levels of fondness and respect for ABBA they were unwilling to own up to in their early years.
During the 1990s many ABBA tracks were rediscovered and covered by other artists, such as [[Erasure]], [[Ash (band)|Ash]] and the [[A*Teens]], among others. The avant-garde band [[Blancmange (band)|Blancmange]] had also covered ''The Day Before You Came'' in the mid-1980s, one of the first bands to cover an ABBA track.
On [[April 6]]th 2004 three former ABBA members (Björn, Benny and Frida) showed up together in London for the 30th anniversary of their Eurovision Song Contest win in 1974, appearing on stage after the fifth anniversary performance of ''Mamma Mia!''. In a November 2004 interview with the German magazine ''[[Bunte]]'' Björn said a reunion would not satisfy ABBA's many fans, even though there are legions of them around the world often clamouring for one. In February 2005 all four members of ABBA appeared together in public for the first time since 1986 at the gala opening of ''Mamma Mia!'' in Stockholm.
On [[October 22]] 2005, during the celebration show for the 50th anniversary of the Eurovision Song Contest held in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]], ''Waterloo'' was [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4366574.stm voted the best] Eurovision song in the history of the contest.
===Post-ABBA solo careers===
Both female members of ABBA have had some success with solo careers following the break-up of the band.
In [[1982]], Frida released her [[Phil Collins]]-produced album ''[[Something's Going On]]'' This album included the hit single "I Know There's Something Going On". Agnetha followed in [[1983]] with the album ''Wrap Your Arms Around Me''. This album included the hit single ''The Heat Is On'' (a cover of the [[Noosha Fox]] recording) which was a big hit all over Europe and Scandinavia that year. In the US Agnetha scored a Billboard top 30 hit with ''Can't Shake Loose''. Her album sold over 1.2 million copies worldwide. Frida retired after her second solo album ''Shine'' flopped. Agnetha fared better with her second post-ABBA solo album ''Eyes of a Woman''. The album was number two in the Swedish charts and did reasonably well in Europe.
After ''I Stand Alone'' in [[1987]] Agnetha withdrew from public life and refused to give interviews. In [[1996]] she released her [[autobiography]] called ''As I Am'' and also released a compilation that featured her solo hits. In [[2004]] she released a disc of cover songs called "My Colouring Book" which debuted at number one in Sweden and number six in Germany. The album peaked just outside of the British top ten (number 11) and the single ''If I Thought You'd Ever Change Your Mind'' reached number 9 in the UK singles chart. The album went triple-platinum in Sweden (300,000 copies), gold in Finland and silver in Great Britain.
Frida released ''Shine'' (produced by [[Steve Lillywhite]]) in [[1984 in music|1984]] but it was not until 1996 that she released her last album to date, the Swedish-language ''Djupa Andetag'' which was a number one album in Sweden (selling 90,000 copies) but unknown internationally. In September 2004 Frida recorded a song called "The Sun Will Shine Again" with former [[Deep Purple]] member [[Jon Lord]] for his latest album, making some rare appearances on German television.
==Fashion and videos==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:abba2.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Members of ABBA embodied the height of disco glamour in the 70s.]] -->
ABBA was widely noted as an epitome of 1970s fashion for the colourful costumes its members wore. The videos which accompanied some of their biggest hits are often cited as being among the earliest examples of the genre. Though The Beatles and the Rolling Stones had shot the occasional video clip, making promotional videos still hadn't become the industry standard by the early-to-mid 1970s. Most of ABBA's videos (and ''ABBA - The Movie'') were directed by [[Lasse Hallström]] who would later direct the films ''[[My Life as a Dog]]'', ''[[The Cider House Rules]]'' and ''[[Chocolat (movie)|Chocolat]]''.
ABBA made videos because their songs were hits in so many different countries and personal appearances weren't always possible. This was also an effort to minimise travelling, particularly to countries that would have required extremely long flights. Agnetha and Björn had two young children, and Agnetha, who was also [[Fear of flying|afraid of flying]], was very reluctant to leave her children for such a long time. ABBA's manager Stig Anderson realised the potential of showing a simple video clip on television to publicise a single or album, thereby allowing easier and quicker exposure than a concert tour. Some of these videos became classics because of the 1970s era costumes and early video effects, such as the grouping of the band members in different combinations of pairs, overlapping one girl's profile with the other's full face, and the contrasting of one member against another.
Nowadays, most of their videos can be seen on the DVDs ''ABBA Gold'' and ''The Definitive Collection''.
[[Image:Ringringstill.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A still from ABBA's music video, or promo clip, "Ring Ring.&q |
;!-- local time? -->) was retrieved from old backup tapes on [[September 10]], [[2002]], by [[Jeff Baird]]. See [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/Orig-Smiley.htm Fahlman's website] for a full account of the thread. <!-- is this sentence necessary? -->
19-Sep-82 11:44 Scott E Fahlman :-)
From: Scott E Fahlman &lt;Fahlman at Cmu-20c>
I propose that the following character sequence [be used] for joke markers:
:-)
Read it sideways. Actually, it is probably more economical to mark
things that are NOT jokes, given current trends. For this, use
:-(
=== Internet usage ===
In [[Internet forum]]s, text emoticons are often automatically replaced with small corresponding images, which came to be called ''emoticons'' as well. In some versions of [[Microsoft Word]], the Auto Correct feature recognizes basic smiles such as <tt>:)</tt> and <tt>:(</tt>. Many popular [[instant messaging|instant-messaging]] (IM) tools perform such replacement automatically when receiving a message. Originally, these image emoticons were fairly simple and replaced only the most straightforward and common text strings, but over time they became so complex that the more specialized emoticons are often input using a menu of sometimes hundreds of emoticons. Often these menus go beyond the realm of emoticons and also have other objects such as musical instruments and can sometimes make sounds upon receiving the message.
An [[August 2004]] issue of the ''Risks Digest'' (''comp.risks'' on [[USENET]]) pointed out a problem with such features which are not under the sender's control:
:It's hard to know in advance what character-strings will be parsed into what kind of unintended image. A colleague was discussing his 401(k) plan with his boss, who happens to be female, via instant messaging. He discovered, to his horror, that the boss's instant-messaging client was rendering the "(k)" as a big pair of red smoochy lips. [http://catless.ncl.ac.uk/Risks/23.48.html#subj5]
In many online computer games, emoticons are commonly used.
==Purposes==
Emoticons have developed over the years as a replacement for facial expressions and other emotional cues lacking in text-only communication; the goal is to avoid misunderstandings due to the lack of contextual information. Many books have been written on this subject, with voluminous listings of emoticons.
==Western style==
Traditionally, the emoticon in Western style is written from left to right, the way one reads and writes in most Western cultures. Thus, most commonly, you'll see the eyes on the left, followed by the nose and mouth. To more easily recognise them, tilt your head towards your left shoulder (or occasionally towards your right shoulder if the "top" of the emoticon is towards the right).
The smile is represented with a basic smiley <tt>:-)</tt>. The [[colon (punctuation)|colon]] represents the eyes, the [[hyphen]] is for the nose, and the [[parenthesis]] is for the mouth.
Many variants exist with different symbols substituted for the basic ones. The symbol for the nose is often omitted, for example <tt>:)</tt> or <tt>;)</tt>. When the colon is replaced with the equals sign, <tt>=)</tt>, the nose is almost always omitted (so one would not see <tt>=-)</tt>, for example).
===Basic examples===
The following examples all use a consistent form, but each of them can also be transformed by being rotated, having the hyphen omitted, and/or by replacing the eyes symbol. An equal sign is often used for the eyes in place of the colon, without changing the meaning of the emoticon. In these instances, the hyphen is almost always either omitted or, occasionally, replaced with an 'o' as in =o). Lately it has become common to omit the hyphen, whether a colon or an equal sign is used for the eyes [http://denoser.sourceforge.net/].
<!--Note to editors: This list should be kept fairly short. It is not meant to be comprehensive. Please think carefully before adding your favorite emoticon.-->
{| cellpadding=2
|-
| align="center" | :) ''or'' :-) || smile
|-
| align="center" | X-P ''or'' X-p || knocked out or dead
|-
| align="center" | :-] || polite smile, or sometimes a complimented blush
|-
| align="center" | :-( ''or'' :-<|| frown
|-
| align="center" | :-[ || another frown, or sometimes an embarassed blush
|-
| align="center" | :-/ ''or'' :-\ || skepticism, annoyance, uneasiness, or a slight frown
|-
| align="center" | :-| || indecision, deadpan, a lack of response, or indifference; also often used with a contrasting statement to convey biting sarcasm (e.g. "That was hilarious! <nowiki>:-|</nowiki>")
|-
| align="center" | ;-) ''or'' !-) ''or'' ;-p || wink
|-
| align="center" | :-D || wide grin
|-
| align="center" | :-P ''or'' :-p ''or'' :-þ || tongue sticking out; used to convey a joke, light-hearted sarcasm, inappropriateness, or a light hearted groan, as in "Ugh". Many users still interpret this as a raspberry-sound, especially long-time users of emoticons.
|-
| align="center" | B-) ''or'' 8-) || wearing glasses (usually interpreted as sunglasses)
|-
| align="center" | :-o ''or'' :-O ''or'' :-0 || surprise
|-
| align="center" | :-s ''or'' :-S || confusion
|-
| align="center" | :-8 ''or'' :-B || buck teeth
|-
| align="center" | :-x || sealed lips; used to convey "I shouldn't have said that" or sometimes shocked silence
|-
| align="center" | :'-( ''or'' :_( ''or'' :*( ''or'' :…( ''or'' ;_; || shedding a tear
|-
| align="center" | :o) || clown face, can mean [[tongue in cheek]]
|-
| align="center" | >:-) ''or'' }:-)|| eyebrows or horns; evil, being mean, a [[devil]]
|-
| align="center" | 0:-) || halo over the head, an angel, innocence
|-
| align="center" | XD || childish laugh
|-
| align="center" | D-: || horror (read right to left)
|-
| align="center" | :3 || cat face, or the "aw" face.
|-
| align="center" | :V || mouth opened comically wide (in some communities, e.g. [[Ragnarok Online]], it is considered a duck)
|-
| align="center" | :-t || angry
|-
| align="center" | :-> || grin
|-
| align="center" | :*) || blush; (sometimes used to illustrate "drunk")
|-
| align="center" | :-)* || kiss 2
|-
| align="center" | :^o || liar liar
|-
| align="center" | :-& || tongue-tied
|-
| align="center" | :-{D || mustache
|-
| align="center" | >:o~ || Angry; drooling (frothing at mouth with anger)
|-
| align="center" | ;( || Sad wink/Crying
|}
===Variants===
There are endless possibilities, because people are very good at creating and interpreting pictures as faces. See [[ASCII art]].
Some variants are also more common in certain countries because of reasons like [[keyboard layout]]s, for example the smiley <tt> =) </tt> is common in [[Scandinavia]] and [[Finland]] where the keys for <tt> = </tt> and <tt> ) </tt> are placed right beside each other and both need the use of the [[shift key]].
Adding }}} before an emoticon converts it into a [[Klingon]]. e.g. }}};-) A winking Klingon.
A few people turn the smiley around, a "left handed" smiley <tt> (: </tt> This left-handed smiley can sometimes cause miscommunication though, since some ######## net addicts tend to drop the <tt> : </tt> representing the eyes [leaving <tt> ) </tt> instead of <tt> :) </tt>] so what was intended to be a smile could be interpreted as a frown.
There also exists the use of [[umlaut]]s to achieve emoticons that aren't tilted to the side. For example, <tt>Ö</tt> is the upright version of <tt>:O</tt> (meaning that one is alarmed).
As more of a joke than anything – but also as a political statement – "frownies", the symbol <tt> :-( </tt>, were trademarked by [[Despair, Inc.]] in ''U.S. Trademark Serial No. 75502288, Registration No. 2347676''. The trademark applies only to "Printed matter namely, greeting cards, posters and art prints". In January [[2001]] Despair issued a satirical [http://www.despair.com/demotivators/frownonthis.html press release] in which it was announced that the company would be suing "over 7 million internet users" who had infringed their trademark. They subsequently issued [http://www.despair.com/demotivators/acompromise.html another press release] a month later in response to the reaction their claim had generated.
XD (used to represent laughing) supposedly became popular on the internet shortly after it was used in the television show, ''[[South Park]]'', usually explained to the unknowing as the [[emoticon]] being akin to the animation method used when a character was laughing so hard they had their eyes closed (a sideways X for their eyes).
===Head and hands emoticons===
These emoticons aren't rotated, they include the letter "o" for a human head, and slashes and backslashes for the arms.
{| cellpadding=2
|-
| align="center" | o/ || waving with or raising the left hand (person facing you)
|-
| align="center" | \o || waving with or raising the right hand (person facing you); this is sometimes used to mimic a Nazi salute
|-
| align="center" | /o || scratching one's head
|-
| align="center" | /o\ || despair, cowering
|-
| align="center" | \o/ || joy, note that \w/ is "rock."
|-
| align="center" |<nowiki> <o/ _o> <o> </nowiki>|| dancing
|-
| align="center" | <o_/ \_o/ || fencing
|-
| align=" |
03-01T19:57:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: gl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the color black; for other uses, see [[Black (disambiguation)]].}}
'''Black''' is a [[color]] with several subtle differences in meaning.
==Color or light==
{{infobox color|title=Black|hex=000000|textcolor=white|
r=0|g=0|b=0|
c=0|m=0|y=0|k=100 †|
h=-|s=-|v=0
}}Black can be defined as the visual impression experienced in directions from which no [[visible light]] reaches the eye. (This makes a contrast with [[white]]ness, the impression of any combination of [[color]]s of [[light]] that equally stimulates all three types of color-sensitive visual receptors.)
Pigments that absorb light rather than reflect it back to the eye "look black". A black pigment can, however, result from a ''combination'' of several pigments that collectively absorb all colors. If appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called "black".
This provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black. Black is the lack of all colors of light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment. See also [[Primary colors]]
{| style="border:solid 1px black;"
|+ † various [[CMYK]] combinations
!c!!m!!y!!k
|-
|align=right|0%||align=right|0%||align=right|0%||align=right|100%||align=center|(canonical)
|-
|align=right|100%||align=right|100%||align=right|100%||align=right|0%||align=center|(ideal inks, [[subtractive color#limitations|theoretical only]])
|-
|align=right|100%||align=right|100%||align=right|100%||align=right|100%||align=center|([[registration black]])
|}
In [[physics]], a [[black body]] is a perfect absorber of light, but by a rule derived by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] it is also, when heated, the best emitter. Thus, the best radiative cooling, out of sunlight, is by using black paint, though it is important that it be black (a nearly perfect absorber) in the [[infrared]] as well.
In elementary science far Ultraviolet light is called "black light" because, unseen per se, it causes many minerals and other substances to [[Phosphorescence | fluoresce]].
==Usage, symbolism, colloquial expressions==
In the [[Western world]], black is most often used with a '''negative''' connotation. The reasons for this are various, but the most widely accepted explanations are that [[night]] is experienced by humans as negative and dangerous. A secondary reason is that stains are most visible as dark additions to pale materials. In traditional class-based Western cultures "pale" skin indicated genteel domestic or intellectual indoor-work as opposed to rough outdoor labor in the fields. Aspects of this black/white opposition are not unique to the West, as, for example in the [[India]]n [[varna (caste)|varna]] system. [[African]], [[Afro-Caribbean]] and [[African-American]] writers such as [[Frantz Fanon]], [[Langston Hughes]], [[Maya Angelou]], and [[Ralph Ellison]] in particular identify a number of negative symbolisms surrounding the word "black", arguing that the good vs. bad dualism associated with white and black provide prejudiced connotations to [[color metaphors for race]].
* A "black day", in these cultures, would refer to a sad or tragic day. The Romans already marked [[fasti]] days with white stones and [[nefasti]] days with black.
** e.g. the [[Black September in Jordan]] refers to a month in which thousands were killed.
**[[Black Monday]], [[stock market crash]] on [[October 19]], [[1987]]
**[[Wall Street Crash 1929|Black Tuesday]], stock market crash on [[October 29]], [[1929]] which is the start of the [[Great Depression]].
**[[Black Wednesday]] caused Britain to pull out of the [[ERM]].
**[[Wall Street Crash 1929|Black Thursday]], stock market crash on [[October 24]], [[1929]]
**[[Black Friday]], various tragic events. Also the day after Thanksgiving, the official start to the US holiday shopping season.
*many poems and songs use the word black negatively (e.g. "''Paint It Black''" ([[Rolling Stones]]), "''Baby's In Black''" ([[Beatles]]), "''Black Eyed Dog''" ([[Nick Drake]]), " Fade to Black" ([[Metallica]]).
* In these cultures, the color black is often used in painting, film, and literature to evoke a sense of the [[fear]] or to symbolize [[death]]. It has also been adopted as a symbolic color of the [[Halloween]] festival.
*In English [[heraldry]], black means darkness, doubt, ignorance, and uncertainty. (The American Girls Handy Book, p. 370)
* Black is often a color of [[mourning]]. Historically, widows and widowers were often expected to wear black.
* [[Black comedy]] is a form of [[comedy]] dealing with morbid and serious topics.
* [[Black magic]] is an evil form of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], often connected with [[death]].
* A [[blacklist]] is a list of undesirable persons or entities.
* Evil witches are sterotypically dressed in black and good fairies in white. Melodrama villains are dressed in black and heroines in white dresses. In many [[Western (genre)|Hollywood Westerns]], bad cowboys wear [[black hat]]s while the good ones wear white. Funeral dress is black, wedding gowns are white.
* In [[computer security]], a [[blackhat]] is an attacker with evil intentions, while a [[whitehat]] bears no such ill will.
* The [[black market]] is illegal.
* [[Blackmail]] is illegal and is perceived as immoral.
* The [[black sheep]] of the family is the ne'er-do-well.
* The infamous "[[black hole of Calcutta]]."
* To "blackball" someone is to prevent admission.
* Black thoughts are wicked ones.
* A black mood is a bad one (e.g. [[Winston Churchill]]'s depression, which he called "my black dog").
* A black cat often means bad luck.
* If you sink the black eight-ball in billiards before all others are out of play, you lose. (The ball with which you sink all others is the white [[cue ball]].)
* A black mark against you is a bad thing.
* A black-hearted person is mean and unloving.
* [[Black propaganda]] is the use of known falsehoods, partial truths, or masquerades in propaganda to confuse an opponent.
However, black can have '''positive''' symbolism.
* In the [[Maasai]] tribes of [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]], the color black is associated with rain clouds, becoming a symbol of life and prosperity.
* In Western [[fashion]], black is considered reliably stylish. This seems to be for reasons of contrast with the white skin (conversely, white t-shirts or suits are always stylish among African-Americans).
** The colloquialism "[[the new black]]" is a reference to the latest trend or fad, on the basis that black is always fashionable.
* Black is seen as a color of seriousness and authority.
** Many [[priest]]s of the older [[religious denomination]]s traditionally wear black.
** The ''[[beltzak]]'' ("blacks" after their uniform) are the riot control units of the [[Basque Autonomous Police]]
*To say one's accounts are "in the black" is used to mean that one is free of debt.
** (Being "in the red" is to be in debt—in traditional bookkeeping, negative amounts, such as costs, were printed in red ink, and positive amounts, like [[revenues]], were printed in black ink, so that if "the bottom line" is printed in black, the firm is profiting.)
*The most sought-after rank in any martial art is a black belt.
*[[Cathar]] Perfects wore black (Cathars viewed black as a color of perfection).
*Dreaming of a black cat, or a black cat walking towards you, means good luck.
Black can also be used in many '''neutral''' ways.
*The term black is often used in the [[Western World|West]] to denote [[race]] for persons whose [[skin color]] ranges from light to darker shades of [[brown]]. For a discussion of usage, see the main entry at [[Black (people)]] and [[Color metaphors for race]].
* In arguments, things can be [[black-and-white]], meaning that the issue at hand is [[dichotomy|dichotomized]]. However, this dualism is fraught with danger, as one may assign the colors "black and white" to bad and good, respectively. Also, few arguments have only two opposing sides.
* Black frequently symbolizes [[ambiguity]], [[secrecy]], and the [[unknown]].
** A ''[[black box]]'' is any device whose internal workings are unknown or irrelevant.
** A ''black project'' is a secretive project, like [[Enigma machine|Enigma Decryption]], [[Narcotics]], or police [[sting operation]]s.
** The [[blackshirt]]s were Italian Fascist militias (negative for anti-fascists, but presumably positive for the original fascists themselves)
** Some organizations are called "black" when they keep a low profile, like [[Société Anonyme|Sociétés Anonymes]] and [[secret societies]].
* From [[1988]] until his death in the [[2001]] [[Daytona 500]], [[NASCAR]] driver [[Dale Earnhardt]] was famous for driving a black [[Chevrolet]].
* The term "[[black hole]]" is applied to [[Gravitational collapse|collapsed]] [[star]]s. This term is metaphorical in the extreme, because few properties of black objects or black voids apply to black holes. However, light emitted within a black hole's [[event horizon]] cannot escape, hence a black hole cannot be directly observed.
* The national [[Rugby Union|rugby]] team of [[New Zealand]] is called the ''[[All Blacks]]'', in reference to their black outfits.
* [[Football (soccer)|Association football (soccer)]] [[referee (football)|referees]] traditionally wear all-black uniforms, however nowadays other uniform colors may also be worn.
* In [[auto racing]], a black [[flag]] signals a certain driver to go into the pits.
* Black is also used for [[anarchist symbolism]], |
is barely out of reach, and ends up being removed from the ice cube by the tide. Scrat then explodes in anger and hits his head on a tree, which drops a [[coconut]]. Scrat's anger immediately turns to glee at this new find. He tries to pack it into the ground as he did previously with his acorns, but in the process causes a volcanic eruption. Scrat also gets his own short film entitled [[Gone Nutty]], where he loses his meticulously-organized collection of acorns in a catastrophic chain of events occurring after ramming his acorn into the hole in the exact middle of the collection.
Alert viewers will notice the plot has some similarity to [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s animated version of ''[[The Jungle Book (1967 film)|The Jungle Book]]'' ([[1967]]).
==Soundtrack==
The soundtrack features songs such as "Send Me on My Way" by [[Rusted Root]]. The [[Japan]]ese release's theme song is "Hitoshizuku" by [[ZONE (band)|ZONE]].
==Controversy==
[[Ivy Supersonic]] claims the "Scrat" character concept is a trademark infringement on her "Sqrat" as reported in 2002 on [[CNN]] by [[Jeanie Moos]]. Ivy's Sqrat is a combination character concept of a [[Squirrel]] and a [[Rat]] as new species and Ivy is credited with coining that term for New Yorkers to describe Central Park rodents in 2000, and a small product line of related items was available at that time. Since her trademark was established prior to the movie release of ''Ice Age'', it would appear that [[20th Century Fox]] attempted to skirt the concept, look and feel, and trademark by naming their adaptation as a "Scrat" spelled with a "c" rather than a "q", but the Squirrel/Rat composite was applied to the character now in the ''Ice Age'' movie. It is reported that [[Chris Wedge]] presented the "Scrat" after exposure to Ivy's Sqrat, and the movie producers liked it enough to take the risks associated with similarity to Ivy's Sqrat. This has spawned a heated debate in and out of court that is on-going. Please refer to http://scrat.com.
Counterpoint: Ivy [http://www.uspto.gov/ trademarked] the term "sqrat" in Nov. 2001, by which time the character design, name, and preliminary sketches of the character Scrat had already been completed (Ivy includes raw sketches of the final Scrat, dated Sep. 2001 on her site). [[20th Century Fox]] changed the character name from Sqrat to Scrat, but since the creature is not described and the proper name Sqrat does not infringe on the descriptive term sqrat, they were not in actual trademark infringement. Trademark law protects uniquely specific logos and phrases, not unique pictures or artwork, which fall under copyright law. Ivy first filed a [http://www.copyright.gov/records/ copyright] on her drawing of a sqrat in Dec. 2001. Since the character design of her sqrat bears little resemblance to the character design already finalized in Sep. 2001, 20th Century Fox did not infringe on this registration either. While it may be true that Ivy coined the term and drew 2 logos in 1999, she tried to sell the concept to Hollywood before properly registering either trademark or copyright, and some Hollywood people used her concept as a starting point for their own unique work.
[[Conservative Christians]] have criticized the movie for allegedly promoting [[evolution]] and referencing to [[homosexuality]] in a few scenes, such as the pair of rhino-like animals which have a strong dislike for Sid the sloth.
==Factual accuracy==
The film has numerous [[anachronism]]s and factual errors, though the creators can claim [[artistic license]]. Probably the most glaring anachronism is the portrayed fate of the [[dodo]] which, unlike the other animals in the movie, did not actually become extinct until modern times.
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0268380|title=Ice Age}}
[[Category:2002 films]]
[[Category:Anthropomorphic films]]
[[Category:Films about animals]]
[[Category:Computer-animated films]]
[[Category:Children's films]]
[[de:Ice Age]]
[[fr:L'Âge de glace]]
[[pl:Epoka lodowcowa (film)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>InterWiki</title>
<id>14906</id>
<revision>
<id>39632881</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T20:42:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kaiwen1</username>
<id>508893</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ Remove dead link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''InterWiki''' is a facility for creating links to the many [[wiki wiki web]]s on the [[World Wide Web]]. Users avoid pasting in entire [[URL]]s (as they would for regular web pages) and instead use a shorthand similar to links within the same wiki.
Unlike [[domain name]]s on the Internet, there is not a globally defined list of InterWiki prefixes &mdash; and owners of a wiki must define a mapping appropriate to their needs. Users generally have to create separate accounts for each wiki they intend to use (unless they intend to edit anonymously). Variations in text formatting and layout can also hinder a seamless transition from one wiki to the next.
By making wiki links simpler to type for the members of a particular community, these features help bring the different wikis closer together. Furthering that goal, InterWiki "bus tours" (similar to [[webring]]s) have been created to explain the purposes and highlights of different wikis. Such examples on [[Wikipedia]] include [[Wikipedia:TourBusStop]] and [[Wikipedia:WikiNode]].
==Notations==
InterWiki notations vary, depending largely on what kind of ''link pattern'' a wiki uses. The two most common link patterns in wikis are [[CamelCase]] and free links (arbitrary phrases surrounded by some set [[delimiter]], such as <nowiki>[[double square brackets]]</nowiki>).
Accordingly, InterWiki links on a CamelCase-based wiki frequently take the form of "Code:PageName", where ''Code'' is the defined InterMap prefix for another wiki. Thus, a link "WikiPedia:InterWiki" could be rendered in [[HTML]] as a link to an article on [[Wikipedia]] for example [[Wikipedia:Interlanguage links]]. Linking from a CamelCase-wiki to a page that contains spaces in its title typically requires substitution of the spaces with underscores (e.g. WikiPedia:Main_Page).
InterWiki links on wikis based on free links, such as Wikipedia, typically follow the same principle, but using the delimiters that would be used for internal links. These links can then be parsed and escaped as they would be if they were internal, allowing easier typing of spaces but potentially causing problems with other special characters. For example, on Wikipedia, <code><nowiki>[[MeatBall:AssumeGoodFaith]]</nowiki></code> appears as [[MeatBall:AssumeGoodFaith]], and <code><nowiki>[[:de:InterWiki]]</nowiki></code> (former syntax: <code><nowiki>[[DeWikipedia:InterWiki]]</nowiki></code>) appears as [[:de:InterWiki]].
The [[MediaWiki]] software has an additional feature which uses similar notation to create automatic interlanguage links - for instance, the link <code><nowiki>[[de:InterWiki]]</nowiki></code> (with no leading colon) automatically creates a reference labelled "Other languages: [[:de:InterWiki|Deutsch]] | ..." at the top and bottom of the article display. Various other [[wiki software]] systems have features for "semi-internal" links of this kind, such as support for [[namespace]]s or multiple sub-communities.
==Implementation==
Internally, a wiki that uses InterWiki links needs to have an "InterMap" that defines the mapping from wiki-code links to full URLs. For example, <code><nowiki>[[MeatBall:InterWiki]]</nowiki></code> might appear as [[MeatBall:InterWiki]], but link to <code>http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterWiki</code>.
Since most wiki systems use URLs for individual pages where the page's title appears at the end of an otherwise unchanging address, the simplest way of defining such mappings is by substituting the InterWiki prefix for the unchanging part of the URL. So in the example above, the <code>MeatBall:</code> has simply been replaced by <code><nowiki>http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?</nowiki></code> in creating the target of the [[HTML]] rendered link.
Care must be taken, however, in the handling of special characters - both those that violate local link pattern rules, and those that must be represented specially in crafting a URL for the target system. So a CamelCase-based wiki must make special provision for recognising that non-[[alphanumeric]] characters can be part of an InterWiki link, and even a free link based system may disallow local links containing characters such as '+' or '"' for technical reasons. Similarly, characters such as '?' and '&amp;' are treated specially within URLs and may need to be converted into some other representation, as might unusual characters when linking between sites using different [[character encoding]]s.
However, rather than creating a new list from scratch for every wiki, it is often useful to obtain a copy of that from another site. Sites such as [[MeatballWiki]] [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterMap] and the [[UseModWiki]] site contain comprehensive lists which are often used for this purpose - the former being publicly editable in the same way as any other wiki page, and the latter being verified as usable but potentially out of date.
MeatballWiki uses a mechanism called [[FileReplacement]] to directly use the openly editable InterWiki map for its own pages. Changes to that map do not take effect immediately, but the InterMap configuration file is re-generated if the wiki page remains unedited for a defined period of time. This delay is inten |
y poor lubricant, leading to the discovery that in fact lubrication is due to [[adsorbed]] air and water between the layers, unlike other layered dry lubricants such as [[molybdenum disulfide]]. Recent studies suggest that an effect called [[superlubricity]] can also account for this effect.
When a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as [[pyrolytic carbon]], a useful material in blood-contacting implants such as [[prosthetic]] [[heart valve]]s.
Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials due to their shear-planes, brittleness and inconsistent mechanical properties.
In its pure glassy (isotropic) synthetic forms, [[pyrolytic graphite]] and [[carbon fiber]] graphite is an extremely strong, heat-resistant (to 3000 &deg;C) material, used in reentry shields for missile nosecones, [[solid rocket]] engines, [[Pebble bed reactor|high temperature reactors]], [[brake]] shoes, [[electric motor]] brushes and as electrodes in [[EDM]] electrical discharge machines.
Intumescent or expandable graphites are used in fire seals, fitted around the perimeter of a fire door. During a fire the graphite intumesces (expands and chars) to resist fire penetration and prevent the spread of fumes. A typical start expansion temperature (SET) is between 150 and 300 degrees Celsius.
[[Carbon fiber]] and [[carbon nanotube]]s are also used to [[graphite reinforced plastic]]s, and in heat-resistant composites such as [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] (RCC)). They have also successfully [[reinforced concrete]]. The mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey [[cast iron]] are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials.
Graphite also finds use as a matrix and [[Neutron_moderator|moderator]] within [[nuclear reactor]]s. Its low [[neutron]] [[Cross section (physics)|cross section]] also recommends it for use in proposed [[thermonuclear|fusion]] reactors. Care must be taken that reactor-grade graphite is free of neutron absorbing materials such as [[boron]], widely used as the seed electrode in commercial graphite deposition systems-- this caused the failure of the German's [[World War II]] graphite-based nuclear reactors. Since they could not isolate the difficulty they were forced to use far more expensive [[heavy water]] moderators.
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = graphite stereo animation.gif |
title = Graphite animation |
description = Rotating graphite [[stereogram]]. (2.79 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[animated GIF]] format). |
format = [[animated GIF]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
== See also ==
* [[Carbon fiber]]
* [[Pyrolytic graphite]]
* [[Diamond]]
* [[Lonsdaleite]]
* [[Graphene]]
* [[Carbon nanotube]]
* [[Pencil lead]]
==Reference==
* Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr. (1985) ''Manual of Mineralogy: after Dana'' 20<sup>th</sup> ed. ISBN 0-471-80580-7
== External links ==
{{Commons|Graphite}}
*[http://www.phy.mtu.edu/~jaszczak/graphite.html The Graphite Page]
*[http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/graphite/graphite.htm Mineral galleries]
*[http://www.webmineral.com/data/Graphite.shtml Webmineral]
*[http://www.mindat.org/show.php?id=1740&ld=1&pho= Mindat w/ locations]
*[http://www.astroflame.com/intumescent.html Intumescent graphite for fireproofing]
[[Category:Chemical elements|Carbon, Graphite]]
[[Category:Native element minerals]]
[[Category:Lubricants]]
[[Category:Art materials]]
[[Category:Carbon forms]]
[[Category:Refractory materials]]
[[ar:جرافيت]]
[[ca:Cristal·lografia]]
[[da:Grafit]]
[[de:Graphit]]
[[et:Grafiit]]
[[es:Grafito]]
[[eo:Grafito]]
[[fa:گرافیت]]
[[fr:Graphite]]
[[it:Grafite]]
[[he:גרפיט]]
[[lt:Grafitas]]
[[hu:Grafit]]
[[nl:Grafiet]]
[[ja:グラファイト]]
[[no:Grafitt]]
[[pl:Grafit]]
[[pt:Grafite]]
[[ru:Графит]]
[[sk:Grafit]]
[[sv:Grafit]]
[[th:แกรไฟต์]]
[[vi:Than chì]]
[[zh:石墨]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Garry Trudeau</title>
<id>12367</id>
<revision>
<id>40363904</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Garry Trudeau.jpg|frame|Garry Trudeau]]
'''Garretson Beekman Trudeau''' (born [[July 21]], [[1948]]) is an American [[cartoonist]]. He attended [[St. Paul's School (U.S.)|St. Paul's School]] and then [[Yale University]] in the late [[1960s]], where he developed his most famous creation, the daily [[comic strip]] [[Doonesbury]], and was a member of [[Scroll and Key]]. He also attended the Yale School of Art, earning his M.F.A. in graphic design in 1973.
Doonesbury is [[print syndication|syndicated]] to almost 1,400 newspapers worldwide and is accessible online in association with [[Slate_Magazine|Slate]] at [http://www.doonesbury.com/ doonesbury.com].
In [[1975]], he became the first comic strip artist to win a [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Editorial Cartooning. The award was controversial at the time, since it is traditionally awarded to editorial page cartoonists. He is also the recipient of an [[Academy Award for Animated Short Film|Oscar]] in the category for Animated Short Film, for [[The Doonesbury Special]], with [[John Hubley]] and [[Faith Hubley]].
His other awards include the [[National Cartoonist Society]] Newspaper Comic Strip Award for 1994, and their [[Reuben Award]] for 1995.
He was made a fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in [[1993]].
[[Wiley Miller]], fellow comic strip artist responsible for ''[[Non Sequitur (comic strip)|Non Sequitur]]'', called Trudeau "far and away the most influential editorial cartoonist in the last 25 years."
In addition to his work on Doonesbury, Trudeau has written plays (such as ''Rap Master Ronnie'' and a ''Doonesbury'' musical) and the [[1988]] [[Home Box Office|HBO]] [[miniseries]] ''[[Tanner '88]]'', directed by [[Robert Altman]].
He married the journalist [[Jane Pauley]] in [[1980]] and lives on Central Park West in New York City. He is distantly related to former [[Canada|Canadian]] [[prime minister]] [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]].
Trudeau maintains a low personal profile. A rare and early appearance on television was as a guest on ''[[To Tell the Truth]]'' in [[1971]], where all but one of the panelists failed to guess his identity.
In [[2004]], Trudeau made a widely-circulated offer of a $10,000 reward for proof that [[George W. Bush]] fulfilled his [[military]] duties in the [[1970s]]. See [[George W. Bush military service controversy]] for more complete coverage.
He also famously said in Richard Saul Wurman’s Follow The Yellow Brick Road, that, “Whether revered or reviled in their lifetimes, history’s movers framed their questions in ways that were entirely disrespectful of conventional wisdom. Civilization has always advanced in the shimmering wake of its discontents."
==See also==
*[[Saranac Lake, New York]]
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0874034|name=Garry Trudeau}}
*[http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards.asp NCS Awards]
[[Category:1948 births|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[Category:Living people|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[Category:American satirists|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[Category:Reuben Award winners|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[Category:French Americans|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[Category:Yale alumni|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[it:Garry Trudeau|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[fr:Garry Trudeau]]
[[ja:%E3%82%AE%E3%83%A3%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%BB%E3%83%88%E3%82%A5%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%BC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guild</title>
<id>12369</id>
<revision>
<id>41917603</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:36:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Larrybroker</username>
<id>986470</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Modern guilds */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''guild''' is an [[Voluntary association|association]] of people of the same trade or pursuits (with a similar [[skill]] or [[craft]]), formed to protect mutual interests and maintain standards of morality or conduct. Historically they were formed to [[benefit society|benefit societies]] or [[small business]] associations, also referred to as a trade union of sorts, since each crafter was a self-employed individual [[artisan]] or part of a small craft shop or co-operative. They exist in modern and medieval incarnations, both of which are discussed in this article. One's view of guilds tends to be heavily colored by one's view of [[political economy]], since the whole history of [[trade]], [[technology]], [[intellectual property]], regulated [[profession]]s, [[social security]], and [[professional ethics]] are entwined with the history of the guilds in Europe.
==Early history==
Regulated professions were a feature of the ancient and classical world. The [[Code of Hammurabi]] specified a death penalty for [[builder]]s, or [[masonry|masons]], whose buildings fell on the inhabitants. [[Hammurabi]] himself had been a stonemason, so this could be considered an early example of self-regulation. The [[Hippocratic Oath]] applies to this day as the basis of the modern [[physician]]s' [[ethical code]]. All known [[legal code]]s include some limits on the practices or powers of [[jurist]]s, e.g. the [[Rules of Civil Procedure]], or [[politician]]s, e.g. the rules of [[parliamentary debate]]. It has generally been recognized that those in a position of special knowledge or trust were to be held accountable to the public for their advice and services.
[[Islamic civilization]] extended this to a degree to the [[artisan]] as well — most notably to the [[warraqeen]] |
[open back rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED ALPHA
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ʌ}} || turned V || [[open-mid back unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL TURNED V
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|ɔ}} || open O || [[open-mid back rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O
|}
The symbol {{IPA|ɔ}} can be described as a ''turned cee'', but it is almost always referred to as ''open o'', which described both its articulation and its shape. The symbol {{IPA|ʌ}} is often also called "[[caret]]" or "wedge" for it similarity to that diacritic.
A few letters are ''reversed'' (flipped on a vertical axis): '''{{IPA|ɘ}}''' ''reversed E'', '''{{IPA|ɜ}}''' ''reversed epsilon'', '''{{IPA|ʕ}}''' ''reversed glottal stop'' [often called by its Arabic name, ''[[ayin]]''].
One letter is ''inverted'' (flipped on a horizontal axis): '''{{IPA|ʁ}}''' ''inverted R''. ('''{{IPA|ʍ}}''' could also be called an ''inverted double-u'', but ''turned double-u'' is more common.)
When a horizontal stroke is added, it is called a ''bar'': '''{{IPA|ħ}}''' ''barred H'', '''{{IPA|ɵ}}''' ''barred o'', '''{{IPA|ʢ}}''' ''reversed barred glottal stop'' or ''barred ayin'', '''{{IPA|ɟ}}''' ''barred dotless J'' or ''barred gelded J'' [apparently never 'turned F'], '''{{IPA|ǂ}}''' ''double-barred pipe'', etc.
One letter instead has a ''slash'' through it: '''{{IPA|ø}}''' ''slashed O''.
The implosives have ''hook'' tops: '''{{IPA|ɓ}}''' ''hook-top B'', as does '''{{IPA|ɦ}}''' ''hook-top H''.
Such an extension at the bottom of a letter is called a ''tail''. It may be specified as ''left'' or ''right'' depending on which direction it turns: '''{{IPA|ɳ}}''' ''right-tail N'', '''{{IPA|ɻ}}''' ''right-tail turned R'', '''{{IPA|ɲ}}''' ''left-tail N'' [note that '''{{IPA|ŋ}}''' has its own traditional name, ''[[engma]]''], '''{{IPA|ɱ}}''' ''left-tail em'', '''{{IPA|ʐ}}''' ''tail Z'' [or just ''retroflex Z''], etc.
When the tail loops over itself, it's called ''curly'': '''{{IPA|ʝ}}''' ''curly-tail jay'', '''{{IPA|ɕ}}''' ''curly-tail C''.
There are also a few unique modifications: '''{{IPA|ɬ}}''' ''belted L'', '''{{IPA|ɞ}}''' ''closed reversed epsilon'' [there was once also a '''{{IPA|ɷ}}''' ''closed omega''], '''{{IPA|ɰ}}''' ''right-leg turned M'', '''{{IPA|ɺ}}''' ''turned long-leg R'' [there was once also a ''long-leg R''], '''{{IPA|ǁ}}''' ''double pipe'', and the obsolete '''{{IPA|ʗ}}''' ''stretched C''.
Several non-English letters have traditional names: '''{{IPA|ç}}''' ''C [[cedilla]]'', '''{{IPA|ð}}''' ''[[Eth (letter)|eth]]'' (also spelled ''edh''), '''{{IPA|ŋ}}''' ''[[engma]]'', '''{{IPA|ə}}''' ''[[schwa]]'', '''{{IPA|ǃ}}''' ''exclamation mark'', '''{{IPA|<nowiki>ǀ</nowiki>}}''' ''pipe''.
Other symbols are unique to the IPA, and have developed their own quirky names: '''{{IPA|ɾ}}''' ''fish-hook R'', '''{{IPA|ɤ}}''' ''[[ram's horns]]'', '''{{IPA|ʘ}}''' ''[[bull's eye]]'', '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' ''[[esh (letter)|esh]]'' [apparently never 'stretched ess'], '''{{IPA|ʒ}}''' ''[[ezh]]'' [sometimes also ''[[yogh]]''], '''{{IPA|ɧ}}''' ''hook-top heng''.
The '''{{IPA|ʔ}}''' is usually called by the sound it represents, ''glottal stop''. This is not normally a problem, because this symbol is seldom used to represent anything else. However, to specify the symbol itself, it is sometimes called a ''gelded question mark''.
===The diacritic marks===
Diacritics with traditional names:
:'''{{IPA|é}}''' ''[[Acute accent|acute]]'', '''{{IPA|ē}}''' ''[[macron]]'', '''{{IPA|è}}''' ''[[Grave accent|grave]]'', '''{{IPA|ê}}''' ''[[circumflex]]'', '''{{IPA|ě}}''' ''[[caron]], [[wedge]],'' or ''[[háček]]'', '''{{IPA|ë}}''' ''[[diaeresis]]'' or ''[[umlaut]]'', '''{{IPA|ĕ}}''' ''[[breve]]'', '''{{IPA|ẽ}}''' ''(superscript) [[tilde]]'', plus variants such as '''{{IPA|ḛ}}''' ''subscript tilde'', '''{{IPA|ɫ}}''' ''superimposed tilde'', etc.
Non-traditional diacritics:
:'''{{IPA|d̼}}''' ''seagull'', '''{{IPA|e˞}}''' ''hook'', '''{{IPA|e̽}}''' ''over-cross'', '''{{IPA|d ̚}}''' ''corner'', '''{{IPA|d̪}}''' ''bridge'', '''{{IPA|d̺}}''' ''inverted bridge'', '''{{IPA|d̻}}''' ''square'', '''{{IPA|e̥}}''' ''under-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̊}}''' ''over-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̜}}''' ''left half-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̹}}''' ''right half-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̟}}''' ''plus'', '''{{IPA|e̠}}''' ''under-bar'', '''{{IPA|e̯}}''' ''arch'', '''{{IPA|d̬}}''' ''subscript wedge'', '''{{IPA|e̝}}''' ''up tack'', '''{{IPA|e̞}}''' ''down tack'', '''{{IPA|e̘}}''' ''left tack'', '''{{IPA|e̙}}''' ''right tack'', '''{{IPA|d͡z}}''' ''tie bar'', '''{{IPA|ẹ}}''' ''under-dot'', '''{{IPA|n̩}}''' ''under-stroke''.
Diacritics are alternately named after their function: The bridge is also called the ''dental sign,'' the under-stroke the ''syllabicity sign,'' etc.
==Comparison to other phonetic notation==
The IPA is not the only phonetic transcription system in use. The other common Latin-based system is the [[Americanist phonetic notation]], devised for representing American languages, but used by some US linguists as an alternate to the IPA. There are also sets of symbols specific to [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Indic languages|Indic]], [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]], and [[Caucasian languages|Caucasian]] linguistics, as well as other regional specialies. The differences between these alphabets and IPA are relatively small, although often the special characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of diacritics or digraphs.
Other alphabets, such as [[Hangul]], may have their own phonetic extensions. There also exist featural phonetic transcription systems, such as [[Alexander Bell]]'s [[Visible Speech]] and its derivatives.
There is an extended version of the IPA for [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]] (extIPA), which has been included in this article, and another set of symbols used for voice quality (VoQS). There are also many personal or idiosyncratic extensions, such as [[#External links|Luciano Canepari's ''<sup><small>can</small></sup>IPA'']].
Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the [[ASCII]] character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Two notable systems are [[Kirshenbaum]] and [[SAMPA]] (or [[X-SAMPA]]). These systems are often used in electronic media, although their usage has been declining with the development of computer technology, specifically because of spreading support for [[Unicode]].
See also: [[Unicode and HTML]]
==See also==
{{Commons|{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}}}}
* [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]] explains those IPA symbols used to represent the phonemes of English.
* [[IPA chart for English]]: simplifed version.
* [[Pronunciation respelling for English]]: overview of several pronunciation guide systems used in English dictionaries.
* [[Tipa|TIPA]] provides IPA support for [[LaTeX]].
* [[SAMPA]], [[X-SAMPA]] and [[Kirshenbaum]] are other methods of mapping IPA designations into [[ASCII]].
* [[List of phonetics topics]]
* [[Uralic Phonetic Alphabet]] (UPA)
==External links==
* [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.html Official home page of the IPA]
* [http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/phon/learnipa.html Learning the IPA for English]
* [http://french.about.com/library/pronunciation/bl-ipa-french.htm French IPA characters]
===Free IPA font downloads===
*[http://scripts.sil.org/FontDownloadsGentium Gentium], a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman and italic typefaces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap.
*[http://scripts.sil.org/CharisSILfont Charis SIL], a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and bold typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols.
*[http://scripts.sil.org/DoulosSILfont Doulos SIL], a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman.
*[http://webmasterei.com/en/ipa/index SIL93] the legacy SIL IPA93 fonts (Manuscript and Sophia) recoded in Unicode.
*[http://www.travelphrases.info/gallery/Test_IPA.html Test page] for installed fonts. Includes alternate variants and tone letters.
===Keyboards===
* [http://www.linguiste.org/phonetics/ipa/chart/keyboard/ Online keyboard]
* [http://webmasterei.com/en/tools/ipa Online keyboard] and machine pronunciation
*[http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=ipa-sil_keyboard Downloadable IPA-SIL keyboard layout for Mac OS X] for [[Unicode]] IPA input
* [http://wikisophia.org/wiki/Wikitex#Tipa WikiTeX] supports editing IPA sequences directly in Wiki articles.
===Sound files===
* [http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/index.html Peter Ladefoged's Course in Phonetics (with sound files)]
**[http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/course/chapter1/chapter1.html Pronounceable IPA chart]
*[http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/vowels/contents.html An introduction to the sounds of languages]
* [http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/ipa-lab.htm IPA Lab] Chart with sound files at [[University of Victoria]]. (Works with [[QuickTime]].)
*[http://www.paulmeier.com/ipa/charts.html Flash version of IPA charts, with sound samples]
*[http://www.ling.hf.ntnu.no/ipa/full/ Another set of IPA sound samples]
===Charts===
* [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/fullchart.html IPA chart source]
* [http://www.linguiste.org/phonetics/ipa/chart/ IPA Chart] in Unicode and XHTML/CSS
----
* [http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPANumberChart96.pdf IPA number chart], at University of Victoria.
===Unicode===
Official Unicode PDF files:
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf Unicode chart for main IPA letters]
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U02B0.pdf Unicode chart for IPA modifier lett |
shing on 300 attempts during the regular season, a pro football record. The same defense registered fifty quarterback sacks, a team record that stands today, even though it was established in a 14-game season. They were the first [[American Football League]] team to win 13 games in a season. The 1964 defense also allowed only four touchdowns rushing all season, and started a string that would extend into the 1965 season: seventeen straight games without allowing an opponent to score a rushing touchdown. Eight members of the 1964 squad were on that year's AFL Eastern Division All-Star Team, including cornerback Butch Byrd. Three were eventually named to the American Football League's All-Time Team, and six to the second team. The only professional football player ever inducted to the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]], without ever playing in the NFL, was a member of the 1964 Bills; guard [[Billy Shaw]].
The Bills won [[AFL]] championships in both 1964 and 1965, were one of only three teams to appear in an AFL championship game for three consecutive years, and the only AFL team to play in the post-season for four straight years, 1963 through 1966. In addition to their defensive prowess, the Bills had offensive muscle as well, in stars such as fullback [[Cookie Gilchrist]], quarterbacks [[Jack Kemp]] and [[Daryle Lamonica]], and receivers [[Elbert Dubenion]] and [[Ernie Warlick]]. Tragedy struck the Bills when [[Bob Kalsu]], an offensive lineman, quit the team after his 1968 rookie season to serve in the [[Vietnam War]], where he was killed in action in 1970.
Before the 1969 season, the Bills drafted [[running back]] [[O.J. Simpson]], who would become the face of the franchise through the 1970s. The Bills became part of the NFL when the latter absorbed the AFL in a merger in 1970. In 1971, not only did the Bills finish in sole possession of the NFL's worst overall record at 1&ndash;13, but they also scored the fewest points (184) in the league that year while allowing the most (394); no NFL team has since done all three of those things in the same season in a non-strike year. [[Lou Saban]], who had coached the Bills' AFL championship teams, was re-hired in 1972.
1973 was a season of change: [[Joe Ferguson]] became their new quarterback, they moved into a new stadium, Simpson recorded a 2,000-yard season and was voted NFL MVP, and the team had its first winning record since 1966. The "Electric Company" of Simpson, [[Jim Braxton]], [[Paul Seymour (sports)|Paul Seymour]], [[Joe DeLamielleure]] as recounted in the locally-recorded hit "Turn on the Juice", lead a dramatic turnaround on the field. The team made the NFL playoffs for the first time in 1974, but lost in the first round to the eventual [[Super Bowl]] champion [[Pittsburgh Steelers]].
After a mediocre 1975 season the Bills had internal troubles in 1976, as the team dropped to the bottom of the AFC East, where they stayed for the rest of the 1970s. After the 1977 season Simpson was traded to the [[San Francisco 49ers]]. [[Chuck Knox]] was hired as head coach and he would end up leading the Bills back to the top.
1980 marked another breakthrough for the Bills. They beat the archrival [[Miami Dolphins]] for the first time in 11 years in their season opener, en route to winning their first AFC East title. The following season they lost their title to the Dolphins, but won their first NFL playoff game (over the [[New York Jets]]). They lost in the second round to the eventual AFC champion [[Cincinnati Bengals]]. The following year&mdash;the strike-shortened season of 1982&mdash;the Bills slipped to a 4&ndash;5 final record.
In the famous [[1983 NFL Draft|1983 draft]] the Bills selected quarterback [[Jim Kelly]] as their replacement to an aging Joe Ferguson, but Kelly decided to play in the upstart [[United States Football League]] instead. Knox left his coaching position to take a job with the [[Seattle Seahawks]], and new coach [[Kay Stephenson]] proved to be less than stellar. In 1984 and 1985 the Bills went 2&ndash;14.
===1986-1997===
After the [[USFL]]'s demise, Jim Kelly joined the Bills for the 1986 season, welcomed into town as a hero and a savior. He soon would prove to be worth the wait. Midway through the 1986 season, the Bills fired coach [[Hank Bullough]] and replaced him with [[Marv Levy]], the former head coach of the [[Kansas City Chiefs]]. Levy, along with general manager [[Bill Polian]] put together a receiving game featuring [[Andre Reed]] a defense led by first-overall draft pick [[Bruce Smith]], and a top-flight offensive line, led by center [[Kent Hull]] along with [[Jim Ritcher]], [[Will Wolfford]] and [[Howard Ballard]]. The Bills started marching back to the top.
After the strike year of 1987, in 1988, the rookie season of running back [[Thurman Thomas]], the Bills went 12&ndash;4 and finished atop the AFC East for the first of four consecutive seasons. After having an easy time with the [[Houston Oilers]] in the divisional playoff, they lost the AFC championship to the [[Cincinnati Bengals]]. 1989 was a relative disappointment, with a 9&ndash;7 record and a first-round playoff loss to the [[Cleveland Browns]]. The Bills had a chance to win the game as time was running out, but a Kelly pass was dropped in the corner of the end zone by [[Ronnie Harmon]].
In 1990 the Bills switched to a hurry-up offense, and it started one of the most successful runs in NFL history. The team finished 13&ndash;3 and blew out the Miami Dolphins and [[Los Angeles Raiders]] in the playoffs on their way to [[Super Bowl XXV]]. The Bills were overwhelming favorites to beat the [[New York Giants]], but the defensive plan laid out by coach [[Bill Parcells]] and defensive coordinator [[Bill Belichick]] kept Buffalo in check (and without the ball) throughout the game. The game featured many lead changes, and with the score 20&ndash;19 in favor of New York with eight seconds left, Bills kicker [[Scott Norwood]] attempted a 47-yard field goal. It went wide to the right, and the Giants emerged victorious; however, some criticized Levy for not calling one more offensive play in an effort to make the field goal try shorter.
The Bills steamrolled through the 1991 regular season as well, finishing 13&ndash;3 again and with Thurman Thomas winning the Offensive Player of the Year award. They also had an easy time with the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] in their first playoff game and beat the [[Denver Broncos]] in a defensive struggle in the AFC Championship. The Bills looked to avenge their heartbreaking Super Bowl loss a year earlier by playing the [[Washington Redskins]] in [[Super Bowl XXVI]], but it was not to be. The Redskins opened up a 24&ndash;0 halftime lead and never looked back, handing the Bills a 37&ndash;24 loss.
The Bills lost the 1992 AFC East title to the Miami Dolphins and Jim Kelly was injured in the final game of the regular season. Backup quarterback [[Frank Reich]] started their wild card playoff game against the [[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]], and they were down 35&ndash;3 early in the third quarter. Undaunted, the Bills scored touchdowns on several consecutive possessions to tie the game and force overtime. [[Steve Christie]] kicked the game-winning field goal in the extra session to cap the biggest comeback in NFL history, 41&ndash;38. They then handily defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers in the divisional playoff and upset the archrival Dolphins in the AFC Championship to advance to their third straight Super Bowl. [[Super Bowl XXVII]], played against the [[Dallas Cowboys]], turned out to be a mismatch. Buffalo committed 9 turnovers en route to a 52&ndash;17 loss. One of the sole bright spots for the Bills was Don Beebe's rundown and strip of Leon Lett after Lett had returned a fumble inside the Bills' 5 and was on his way to scoring. Lett held the ball out long enough for Beebe, who had made up a considerable distance to get to Lett, to knock it out of his hand.
The Bills won the AFC East championship in 1993 with a 12&ndash;4 record, and again won playoff games against the [[Los Angeles Raiders]] and [[Kansas City Chiefs]], setting up a rematch with the Cowboys in [[Super Bowl XXVIII]] on [[January 30]], [[1994]] . The Bills became the only team ever to play in four straight Super Bowls, and looked ready to finally win one when they led at halftime. A Thurman Thomas fumble returned for a touchdown by [[James Washington]] tied the game, and the Bills were stunned again, 30&ndash;13.
The Bills would not get a chance to make it five straight in 1994. The team stumbled down the stretch and finished 7&ndash;9, fourth in the division and out of the playoffs. Thus, the Bills became the only team in NFL history, to go to 4 straight Super Bowls, and lose all 4. See [[0 for 4 Curse]].
In 1995 Buffalo, with free agent linebacker [[Bryce Paup]] anchoring the defense, again made the playoffs with a 10&ndash;6 record, and defeated Miami in the wild card round. They would not get a chance to get back to the Super Bowl&mdash;the Pittsburgh Steelers, who went on to advance to the [[Super Bowl]], beat Buffalo in the divisional playoffs 40-21.
In 1996 the Bills saw their commanding lead in the AFC East race disappear to a surging [[New England Patriots]] team. They still made the playoffs, but as a wild card&mdash;and the first victim of the Cinderella [[Jacksonville Jaguars]], the first visiting team ever to win a playoff game in Buffalo. Jim Kelly retired after the season, signaling an end to the most successful era in Bills history. Thurman Thomas gave way to new running back [[Antowain Smith]]. Kelly's loss was felt in 1997, with the Bills stumbling to 6&ndash;10. Coach [[Marv Levy]] retired after the season.
===1998-present===
The Bills, under new coach [[Wade Phillips]] signed two [[quarterback]]s for the 1998 season, [[Rob |
d a legendary promoter and teacher of fencing in the post-war US; a student of Italo Santelli, he served as captain of the Hungarian fencing team at the London Olympics in 1948. He emigrated to the United States following the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956 and worked as a fencing coach at a number of colleges and universities, including the University of Southern California and Pomona College in Claremont, CA. He died in 2003 at the age of 99.
== Notable United States fencers and fencing masters ==
* [[Albert Axelrod]], bronze medallist in the [[1960]] [[Summer Olympic Games]] in Foil
* [[Daniel Bukantz]], Olympian, U.S. Foil Fencer, Member of the Jewish Sports Hall of Fame
* [[Gay Jacobsen D'Asaro]], 1976, 1980 Olympian U.S. Women's Foil Fencer (now Gay MacLellan)
* [[Michael D'Asaro Sr.]]
* [[Csaba Elthes]], legendary coach to 6 U.S. Olympic teams, immigrated from Hungary
* [[Fred Linkmeyer]]
* [[Michael Marx]] 5 x Olympian, Epee and Foil Coach, National Champion
* [[Helene Mayer]]
* [[Sharon Monplasir]]
* [[Sada Jacobson]], bronze medallist in the [[2004]] [[Summer Olympic Games]] in Sabre; first American female to be ranked #1 in the world, and the second American ever to be ranked #1 in the world.
* [[Ed Korfanty]], U.S. National women's sabre team coach, formerly Polish national coach, coach to 7 x Jr. World Sabre Champion Mariel Zagunis, 2004 Cadet Sabre champion, Caitlin Thomas, coach to 2000 and 2005 U.S. World Champion sabre team. Coach to 2004 Olympic Gold medallist Mariel Zagunis. 2002 and 2003 World Veterans Champion in Men's sabre.
*[[George S. Patton]], General and U.S. Army Master of the Sword. Designer of the M1913 Cavalry Saber. 1912 Stockholm Olympics in the first modern pentathlon competition (Ranked 1st in fencing - 8th overall).
*[[Janice Romary]], 1948, 1952, 1956, 1960, 1964, 1968 Olympian U.S. Foil Fencer
* [[Keeth Smart]], first American to be ranked #1 in the World, member of 2004 gold medal US Men's Sabre team at World Cup
* [[Peter Westbrook]], bronze medallist in the [[1984]] [[Summer Olympic Games]], 13-time [[United States|US]] National Men's Sabre Champion, author of ''Harnessing Anger'', founder of the Peter Westbrook Foundation, teaching and helping youth through sport.
* [[Mariel Zagunis]], gold medallist in the first ever Women's Sabre event at the [[2004]] [[Summer Olympic Games]] in Sabre; first American woman to win gold; first American to win gold since 1904
==Notable classical or historical fencers and fencing masters==
*[[Camillo Agrippa]]
*[[User:Miguel Andrade Gomes|Miguel Andrade Gomes - Portugal]]
*[[David Achilleus]]
*[[Keith Beattie]]
*[[Alberto Bomprezzi]]
*[[Adam A. Crown]]
*[[René Descartes]]
*[[Nick Evangelista]]
*[[William Gaugler]]
*[[Neville Gawley]]
*[[Sean Hayes (fencing instructor)|Sean Hayes]]
*[[Tom Leoni]]
*[[Paul MacDonald]]
*[[Ramon Martinez (fencing instructor)|Ramon Martinez]]
*[[Andrea Lupo Sinclair]]
*[[Chris Umbs]]
==See also==
*[[List of American epee fencers]]
*[[List of American sabre fencers]]
*[[List of American foil fencers]]
*[[USFA Hall of Fame]]
==External links==
; Governing bodies
*[http://www.fie.ch/ Fédération Internationale d'Escrime] The body responsible for all international fencing
*[http://www.ahfi.org/ Association for Historical Fencing] An international organization for traditional (classical & historical) fencing
*[http://www.usfca.org/usfca/ U.S. Fencing Coaches Association]
*[http://www.usfencing.org U.S. Fencing Association web site]
*[http://www.fencing.ca/ Canadian Fencing Federation]
*[http://www.britishfencing.com/ British Fencing Association]
*[http://www.ausfencing.org/ Australian Fencing Federation]
*[http://www.sportec.com/rfee/ Spanish Fencing Federation]
*[http://www.esgrimamallorca.com/ Balearic Fencing Federation]
*[http://www.knas.nl/ Dutch Fencing Federation KNAS]
*[http://www.federscherma.it Italian Fencing Federation FIS]
*[http://www.hunfencing.hu Hungarian Fencing Association]
; Other sites
*[http://www.fencing.net/ Fencing.Net] comprehensive fencing news site featuring articles on the state of the game, as well as an active forum for fencing discussion
*[http://www.fencingforum.com Fencing Forum] UK based fencing forum for fencing discussion
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Sports/Fencing/ Fencing Directory]
*[http://www.kmoser.com/classicalfencing.htm Classical Fencing and Historical Swordsmanship Resources] An extensive directory of traditional fencing groups and prominent individuals listed by geographic location
*[http://www.mysabah.com/2005_fencing/ Photos of Asian Fencing Championships in Borneo]
*[http://www.esgrimamex.com Esgrimamex] Mexican fencing website
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/by-newsgroup/rec/rec.sport.fencing.html Fencing FAQ] from rec.sport.fencing
*[http://digital.lib.msu.edu/collections/index.cfm?CollectionID=7 Classic books on fencing]
*[http://www.khsportsphotos.co.uk/fencing/ Fencing photo gallery]
*[http://www.fencingphotos.com FencingPhotos] Official photographer of the International Fencing Federation
*[http://www.anymartialart.org/09_Martial_Arts_Info/index.php?MArtID=117 AnyMartialArt.org] Fencing overview
*[http://www.guiafe.com.ar/argentina-pictures/categories.php?cat_id=112 Fencing Pictures]
*[http://www.askfred.net/ FRED: Fencing Results and Events Database] Site with current results for most tournaments in the U.S.A., as well as info on upcoming tournaments.
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page only addresses the Swiss physicist, for the man accused of espionage see [[Felix Bloch (alleged spy)]]''
[[Image:bloch.gif|frame|right|Felix Bloch.]]
'''Felix Bloch''' ([[October 23]], [[1905]] &ndash; [[September 10]], [[1983]]) was a Swiss born [[physicist]], working mainly in the [[United States|USA]].
Born in [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]. He was educated there and at the [[Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule]], also in Zürich. Initially studying engineering he soon changed to [[physics]]. Graduating in [[1927]] he continued his physics studies at the [[University of Leipzig]], gaining his doctorate in [[1928]]. He remained in German academia, studying with [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], [[Niels Bohr]] and [[Enrico Fermi]]. In [[1933]] he left [[Germany]], emigrating to work at [[Stanford University]] in [[1934]]. In [[1939]], he became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the [[United States]]. During [[World War II|WW II]] he worked on [[atomic energy]] at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]], before resigning to join the [[radar]] project at [[Harvard University]]. Post-war he concentrated on investigations into [[nuclear induction]] and [[nuclear magnetic resonance]], which are the underlying principles of [[magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]]. He and [[Edward Mills Purcell]] were awarded the [[1952]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for "their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements." {{fn|1}} In [[1954]]&ndash;[[1955]], he served for one unsatisfactory year as the first Director-General of [[CERN]]. In [[1961]], he was made [[Max Stein]] Professor of Physics at Stanford University.
==External links==
* http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1952/bloch-bio.html
==Footnotes==
*{{fnb|1}} - Sohlman, M (Ed.) ''Nobel Foundation directory 2003.'' Vastervik, Sweden: AB CO Ekblad; 2003.
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the use of the word in [[psycholog |
frica]]n [[Berber]] tribes who lived in the [[Atlas]] region and started arriving in the Canaries by sea c. 1000 BC. Two main problems remain to be solved in this field, though. Firstly, there is no archaeological or historical evidence to prove that either the Berber tribes of the Atlas Mountains or the Canarian pre-colonial population had any knowledge or made any use whatsoever of navigation techniques. This is particularly problematic considering that the Canary Islands are not visible from the African coast and the currents around the islands tend to lead the boats southwest and west, past the archipelago and into the Atlantic Ocean.
The second problem concerns absolute dating. Despite the fact that most scholars would now agree that the earliest reliable dates can be traced back to c. 1000 BC, different absolute dating technologies such as C<sup>14</sup> and thermoluminscence have provided the most variable results. Poor methodological practices in the past and an insufficient number of absolute datings carried out throughout the archipelago are mostly responsible for this sort of inconsistency and lack of information.
There still exists, however, a relatively large variety of theories regarding th origin of prehispanic Canarians. For instance, a group of scholars (mainly from the University of La Laguna, in Tenerife) are presently defending the theory that the origins of the Canarian populations are Punic-Phoenician. Álvarez Delgado, on the other hand, argues that the Canaries were uninhabited until 100 AD, when they were gradually discovered by Greek and Roman sailors. In the second half of the first century AD, Juba II abandoned North African prisoners on the islands, who eventually became the prehispanic Canarians. The fact that the first inhabitants were abandoned prisoners thus explains, according to Álvarez Delgado, their lack of navigation skills.
Although denied by certain scholars (cf. Abreu Galindo 1977: 297), specialisation of labour and a hierarchy system seem to have governed the social structures of the Canarian precolonial populations . In Tenerife the highest figure was known as the ''Mencey'', although, by the time the first Spanish incursions in the Canaries took place, Tenerife had already been divided into nine ''menceyatos'' (i.e. separate regions of the island controlled by its own Mencey), namely Anaga, ''Tegueste, Tacoronte, Taoro, Icod, Daute, Adeje, Abona and Güimar''. Despite the fact that all ''Menceys'' were independent and absolute owners of their territory within the island, it was the ''Mencey of Taoro'' who acted, according to the chronicles, as primus inter pares. Gran Canaria, on the other hand, appears to have been divided into two ''guanartematos'' (i.e. functionally, politically and structurally differentiated regions): ''Telde'' and ''Gáldar'', each governed by a ''Guanarteme''.
Influenced by cultural materialist and cultural ecologist approaches, numerous studies of precolonial Canarian social structures have emphasised the importance of the availability of natural resources on the islands, the different degrees of access to them and the varying forms of subsistence strategies in use by the different populations. Thus most scholars have tended to adopt a clear-cut distinction between the agriculturalist and the pastoralist societies and ways of life in the Canaries (cf. Diego Cuscoy 1963: 44; González Antón & Tejera Gaspar 1990: 78)-- a dichotomy which is perhaps rather over-simplistic, especially if we consider the great variety in microclimates and natural resources occurring, not only throughout the archipelago, but also within certain individual islands. In any case, this division has been applied (generally in an equally clear-cut fashion) to the islands of Tenerife and Gran Canaria, the former being described as a pastoralist society and the latter as an agriculturalist one.
The religious and cosmological beliefs of the indigenous Canarians have proven to be a particularly problematic field of the islands' archaeological and historical studies. Most of the present knowledge derives, once again, from the contradictory and biased chronicles, whose ambiguous affirmations and descriptions often make it rather difficult for scholars to distinguish between what was originally the product of the chroniclers' misinterpretations, consciously concealed data, or actual religious syncretism caused by a century of contacts with the missionaries and other Europeans before the Spanish colonisations. Moreover, there is remarkably little archaeological evidence available, for, although certain sites containing architectonic remains have been identified as sanctuaries, the indigenous Canarian people often performed their religious practices (i.e. mainly libations and animal sacrifices) in natural sanctuaries such as cliffs, mountains and places marked by particular striking geographical features or types of vegetation (especially the tree ''Dracaena Drago''), most of which will go unnoticed from an archaeological perspective.
===The Spanish Conquest===
In 1402, the conquest of the islands began, with the expedition of [[Juan de Bethencourt]] and [[Gadifer de la Salle]] to the island of Lanzarote, [[Normans | Norman]] nobles who were [[vassal|vassals]] of [[Henry III of Castile]]. From there, he conquered [[Fuerteventura]] and [[Hierro]]. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but recognised King Henry III as his overlord.
Béthencourt also established a base on the island of [[Gomera]], but it would be many years before the island was truly conquered. The people of Gomera, as well as the [[Gran Canaria]], [[Tenerife]], and [[La Palma]] people, resisted the Spanish invaders for almost a century.
The conquest of the Canaries, which took almost 100 years, set a precedent for the conquest of the [[New World]], with complete annhilation of the native culture and rapid assimilation to [[Christianity]]. Due to the topology and the resistance of the native Guanches, the conquest was not completed until 1496, when the conquest of Tenerife was completed and the Canaries were incorporated into the Castilian kingdom. Between 1448 and 1459, there was a crisis between Castile and Portugal over the control of the islands, when [[Maciot de Bethencourt]] sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's Prince [[Henry the Navigator]], an action that was not accepted by the natives or the Castilian residents of the island, who initiated a revolt and expelled the Portuguese.
After the conquest, the Spanish imposed a new economic model based on single-crop cultivation&mdash; first, [[sugar cane]], then [[wine]], an important trade item with [[England]]. In this era, the first institutions of government were founded. Both Gran Canaria, since [[6 March]] [[1480]] a colony of Castille (from 1556 of Spain), and Tenerife, a Spanish colony since 1495, had separate governors, except while 1589 - 1595 part of the Captaincy-general of Canary Islands, until 1625 when both became for part of Captaincy-general of Canarias.
The islands became a stopping point in the trade routes with America, Africa, and India, and the port of Las Palmas became one of the most important ports of the [[Spanish Empire]]. The towns of [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife|Santa Cruz]] and [[Las Palmas]], became a stopping point for the Spanish conquerors, traders, and missionaries on their way to the [[New World]]. This trade route brought great prosperity to some of the social sectors of the islands. The islands became quite wealthy and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over [[Europe]]. Magnificent palaces and churches were built on the island of La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. Of particular interest to visitors is the Church of El Salvador, one of the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 1500s.
===1700-1900===
However, because of the crises of single-crop cultivation in the 18th century and onward, the independence of Spain's American colonies in the 19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop, the [[cochinilla]], came into cultivation during this time, saving the island's economy. .
During the 19th century and the first half of the 20th, owing to economic crises in the archipelago, a series of emigrations took place, primarily for the Americas.
===Early 20. Century===
At the beginning of the 20th century, the English introduced a new cash-crop, the banana, the export of which was controlled by companies such as [[Fyffes]].
The rivalry between the elites of the cities of [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] and [[Las Palmas]] for the capital-ship of the islands would lead to the division of the archipelago in two provinces in 1927, though this has not laid to rest the rivalry between the two cities, which continues to this day.
During the time of the [[Second Spanish Republic]], workers' movements with marxist and anarchist ideologies began to develop, led by figures such as [[Jose Miguel Perez]] and Guillermo Ascanio. However, outside of a few municipalities, these organisations were a minority.
===The Franco Regime===
In 1936, [[Francisco Franco]] traveled to the Canaries as General Commandant. From the Canaries, he launched the military uprising of [[July 17]]. He quickly took control of the archipelago, with the exception of a few focal points of resistance on the island of [[La Palma]] and in the town of [[Vallehermoso]], on [[Gomera]] island. Despite the fact that there was never a proper war in the islands, they were one of the places where the post-war repression was most severe.
During the second world war, [[Winston Churchill]] prepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as a naval base, in the event of [[Gibraltar]] being invaded from the Spanish mainland.
Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organise until the late 1950s, which saw the formation of groups such as the [[Communist |
pecial default palette, accessible by not pressing any buttons. Any game which does not have a special default palette will default to the Right + A (Dark Green) pallette instead.
==Trivia==
* The Game Boy Horror used in ''[[Luigi's Mansion]]'' is modeled after the transparent Game Boy Color.
* The last Game Boy Color games released were ''[[Harry_Potter_and_the_Chamber_of_Secrets_(video_game)|Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets]]'' (November 2002) in the United States; and ''[[Hamtaro|Hamtaro: Ham-Hams Unite]]'' (January 2003) in Europe.
* The last Game Boy Color game released in the United States that was also compatible with the [[Game Boy]] and [[Super Game Boy]] was ''Dragon Warrior Monsters 2'' (September 2001). This gave the original Game Boy (1989-2001) one of the longest continous lifespans of any console, only bested by the [[Atari 2600]] (1977-1990) and the [[Neo-Geo]] (1990-2004).
==Screenshots==
<center>
<gallery>
Image:GBC Zelda Links Awakening DX.png|''[[The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening DX|Link's Awakening DX]]''<br />[[Nintendo]] ([[1998]])
Image:GBC R-Type DX.png|''[[R-Type|R-Type DX]]''<br />Bits Studio/[[Irem (company)|Irem]] ([[1999]])
Image:GBC Donkey Kong Country.png|''[[Donkey Kong Country]]''<br />[[Rare (video game company)|Rare]]/[[Nintendo]] ([[2000]])
Image:GBC Metal Gear Solid.png|''[[Metal Gear: Ghost Babel|Metal Gear Solid]]''<br />[[Konami]] ([[2000]])
</gallery>
</center>
==See also==
{{dedicated video game handheld consoles}}
* [[List of Game Boy Color games]]
* [[Game Boy Advance]]
* [[Game Boy]]
* [[Game Boy Printer]]
* [[Zilog Z80]]
{{Nintendo hardware|Game Boy Color}}
[[Category:Game Boy consoles]]
[[Category:Fifth-generation video game consoles]]
[[es:Game Boy Color]]
[[fr:Game Boy Color]]
[[ko:게임보이 칼라]]
[[it:Game Boy Color]]
[[nl:Game Boy Color]]
[[ja:ゲームボーイカラー]]
[[no:Game Boy Color]]
[[pl:Game Boy Color]]
[[pt:Game Boy Color]]
[[ru:Game Boy Color]]
[[sv:Game Boy Color]]
[[zh:Game Boy Color]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genosha</title>
<id>13098</id>
<revision>
<id>41220252</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T21:48:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ChrisTheDude</username>
<id>625916</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Best not to mention real world years as per the Marevl sliding timescale</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Genosha''' is a [[fictional country|fictional]] island nation in the [[Marvel Comics]] [[Marvel Universe|universe]]. Genosha was created by [[Chris Claremont]] and was first seen in ''Uncanny X-Men'' #235. It originally served as an [[allegory]] for [[slavery]] and later for [[South Africa]]n [[apartheid]] before becoming a mutant homeland and subsequently a disaster zone.
The island is located off the east coast of [[Africa]] and boasted a high standard of living, an excellent economy, and freedom from the political and racial turmoil that characterized neighboring nations. However, Genosha's prosperity was built upon the enslavement of its [[Mutant (fictional)|mutant]] population. Mutants in Genosha were the property of the state and children who were positively identified with the mutant gene were put through a process developed by [[David Moreau]], commonly known as the Genengineer, stripped of free will and made into mutates (a Marvel term for genetically-modified mutants as opposed to those who developed mutant powers naturally). The Genengineer was also capable of modifying certain mutant abilities in order to fulfill specific labor shortages. Citizenship in Genosha is permanent and the government does not recognize any emigration. Citizens who attempt to leave the country are tracked down and forcibly brought back to the island by the special police force known as [[Magistrates]] and mutant problems are handled by a special group known as the [[Press Gang]].
The foundations of Genoshan society has been upset in recent years due to the efforts of outside mutant interests. In the first storyline to feature the nation, some members of the [[X-Men]] were kidnapped by Genoshan Magistrates, under the order of the Geengineer and former [[X-Factor]] ally turned mutant hater, Cameron Hodge. Eventually, in the multi-issue, multi-title [[X-Tinction Agenda]] storyline, the X-Men and their allies rescued their teammates, [[Storm (comics)|Storm]] and [[Wolfsbane (comics)|Wolfsbane]], from Genoshan brainwashing, toppling the government and presumably killing Cameron Hodge in the process. A new Genoshan regime that promised better treatment of mutants was put in place. A period of general turmoil and a number of attacks by superhumans, including [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto's]] [[Acolytes (comics)|Acolytes]] who were unwilling to forgive the former Genoshan government for its crimes against mutants, followed.
The [[United Nations]] ceded the island nation to the powerful mutant [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]], after he demanded an entire mutants-only nation. Magneto and his Acolytes managed to reestablish a modicum of peace and stability only briefly until civil war broke out between him and the remaining human population on the island led by the [[Magistrates]]. Magneto defeated the magsitrates and restored order to the island.
Recently, the entire island was reduced to rubble and its mutant population decimated by [[Sentinels (comics)|Sentinels]] ordered by [[Cassandra Nova]]. Magneto and Xavier have since then joined forces to rebuild the island nation. A few survivors and newly arriving mutants that wish to help with the rebuilding process remain on the island.
[[Category:Marvel Comics locations]]
[[Category:Fictional countries]]
[[Category:X-Men]]
[[fr:Genosha]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grinnell College</title>
<id>13104</id>
<revision>
<id>41889999</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:33:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Babcockd</username>
<id>815791</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Re-added heading "Social Activities and Organizations," which got deleted a while ago.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{College information |
Width = 300 |
TableColor = #FF2400 |
TitleColor = black |
Name = Grinnell College |
Seal = Grinnell College Seal.jpg |
SealWidth = |
Motto = |
Established = [[1846]] |
SchoolType = [[Private college|Private]] |
Religion = none |
CurrentPresident = [[Russell K. Osgood]] |
Location = [[Grinnell, Iowa]], [[United States|USA]]
[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Grinnell,+IA&spn=0.060353,0.099967&t=k&hl=en Satellite Image]|
Enrollment = 1500 |
Faculty = 156 full-time
43 part-time |
Endowment = $1.4 billion (Sept '05)|
Campus = [[Rural]], 120 acres (486,000 m&sup2;) |
SportsTeam = Pioneers
[[Image:Honor_'G'.gif|50px|]]|
Colors = [[Scarlet (color)|Scarlet]] and Black|
Website = [http://www.grinnell.edu/ www.grinnell.edu]
}}
'''Grinnell College''' is a [[liberal arts college]] in [[Grinnell, Iowa|Grinnell]], [[Iowa]], [[USA]]. It was founded on [[June 10]], [[1846]], when a group of transplanted [[New England]] [[Congregationalist|Congregationalists]] with strong social-reformer backgrounds organized themselves as the Trustees of Iowa College. Grinnell College is consistently rated as one of the top twenty liberal arts colleges in the country by the magazine [[U.S. News & World Report]] and other publications. The college has the largest endowment of any liberal arts college, with $1.4 billion as of [[2005]].
[[Russell K. Osgood]] is the current president of Grinnell College.
== History ==
Grinnell College was founded as Iowa College in [[Davenport, Iowa]], in 1846 and was known by that name until 1909 when the Board of Trustees officially adopted its current name. Iowa College had moved from Davenport to the town of Grinnell in the mid-19th century, after difficulties with residents in Davenport forced the college to relocate. The college was invited by [[Josiah Bushnell Grinnell]] (to whom [[Horace Greeley]] purportedly gave his famous advice, "Go West, young man") to move to his newly-founded town, located at the intersection of two major railroads. Today a railroad still cuts across the college campus.
Grinnell was from its inception a progressive institution. It was the first college west of the [[Mississippi River]] to grant a bachelor's degree and among the first to admit women and African-Americans to its course of study. Grinnell served as a stop along the [[Underground Railway]] and [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] stopped in Grinnell prior to his raid on [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia]], in [[1859]].
In 1882, the campus was destroyed by a [[tornado]], or as such phenomena were referred to in those days, a [[cyclone]]. However, rebuilding began immediately and the student yearbook is today known as The Cyclone.
In the 20th century, Grinnell maintained its reputation for social action. The College was a center of the [[Social Gospel]] reform movement and Grinnell graduates included numerous prominent members of the [[New Deal]] Administration. The later parts of the [[1960s]] saw campus unrest and commencement was cancelled in [[1970]] after the shootings of student protesters at [[Kent State]] and [[Jackson State University]].
== Campus ==
Grinnell College is located in the town of [[Grinnell, Iowa]], roughly halfway between [[Des Moines, IA|Des Moines]] and [[Iowa City, IA|Iowa City]]. The campus features sixty-three buildings and students have access to an off-campus 365 acre (1.5 km&sup2;) environmental research area. The college is roughly subdivided into three sections: North Campus, East Campus, and South Campus. An active railroad divides the campus. Numerous building projects have been undertaken in recent years including a new athletics center, a performing arts center designed by [[César Pell |
ot;|<small>064A</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x064A;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|(implied kasra) yāʼ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ī}} / {{ArabDIN|iy}}
|[iː]
|}
{|
|-
| COLSPAN=2 | ''tanwiin letters:''
|-
| WIDTH=50 | {{Ar|ـًـٍـٌ}}
| used to produce the grammatical endings {{ArabDIN|/-an/, /-in/,}} and {{ArabDIN|/-un/}} respectively for [[desinence]]s with [[nunation]] in indefinite state (see [[I`rab]]) in classical Arabic (these desinences are no more spelled used in modern languages). {{Ar|ًـً}} is usually used in combination with {{Ar|ا}} ({{Ar|ـًا}}) or taa marbuta.
|}
== Numerals ==
{{main|Eastern Arabic numerals}}
There are two kinds of numerals used in Arabic writing; standard numerals and "East Arab" numerals, used in [[Iran]], [[Pakistan]] and [[India]]. In Arabic, these numbers are referred to as "Indian numbers" ({{Ar|أرقام هندية}} ''{{ArabDIN|arqām hindiyyah}}''). In most of present-day North Africa, the usual Western numerals are used; in medieval times, a slightly different set (from which, via Italy, Western "Arabic numerals" derive) was used. Unlike Arabic alphabetic characters, Arabic numerals are written from left to right.
{|
|-
|
{|
|-
| colspan="2" | Standard numerals
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|٠}}</font> || 0
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|١}}</font> || 1
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|*٢}}</font> || 2
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|٣}}</font> || 3
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|٤}}</font> || 4
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|٥}}</font> || 5
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|٦}}</font> || 6
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|٧}}</font> || 7
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|٨}}</font> || 8
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|٩}}</font> || 9
|}
|
{|
|-
| colspan="2" | East Arab numerals
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|۰}}</font> || 0
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|۱}}</font> || 1
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|۲}}</font> || 2
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|۳}}</font> || 3
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|۴}}</font> || 4
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|۵}}</font> || 5
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|۶}}</font> || 6
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|۷}}</font> || 7
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|۸}}</font> || 8
|-
| <font size=+2>{{Arabiyyah|۹}}</font> || 9
|}
|}
In addition, the Arabic alphabet can be used to represent numbers ([[Abjad numerals]]), a usage rare today. This usage is based on the [[#Abjadi order|Abjadi order]] of the alphabet. ''{{Semxlit|ʼalif}}'' is 1, {{Arabiyyah|ب}} ''{{Semxlit|bāʼ}}'' is 2, {{Arabiyyah|ج}} ''{{Semxlit|ǧīm}}'' is 3, and so on until {{Arabiyyah|ي}} ''{{Semxlit|yāʼ}}'' = 10, {{Arabiyyah|ك}} ''{{Semxlit|kāf}}'' = 20, {{Arabiyyah|ل}} ''{{Semxlit|lām}}'' = 30, ... {{Arabiyyah|ر}} ''{{Semxlit|rāʼ}}'' = 200, ..., {{Arabiyyah|غ}} ''{{Semxlit|ġayn}}'' = 1000. This is sometimes used to produce [[chronogram]]s. *Standard form of number 2 in Egypt is slightly different
== History ==
{{main|History of the Arabic alphabet}}
The Arabic alphabet can be traced back to the [[Nabatean alphabet]] used to write the [[Nabataean]] dialect of [[Aramaic]], itself descended from Phoenician. The first known text in the Arabic alphabet is a late fourth-century inscription from [[Jabal Ram]] (50 km east of [[Aqaba]]), but the first dated one is a trilingual inscription at [[Zebed]] in [[Syria]] from 512. However, the [[epigraph]]ic record is extremely sparse, with only five certainly [[pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions]] surviving, though some others may be pre-Islamic. Later, dots were added above and below the letters to differentiate them (the Aramaic model had fewer phonemes than the Arabic, and some originally distinct Aramaic letters had become indistinguishable in shape, so in the early writings 15 distinct letter-shapes had to do duty for 28 sounds!) The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic [[papyrus]] ([[PERF 558]]), dated April 643, although they did not become obligatory until much later. Important texts like the [[Qur'an|Qurʼan]] were frequently [[memorization|memorized]]; this practice, which survives even today, probably arose partially from a desire to avoid the great ambiguity of the script.
Yet later, vowel signs and [[hamza]]s were added, beginning sometime in the last half of the [[seventh century]], roughly contemporaneous with the first invention of Syriac and Hebrew [[vocalization]]. Initially, this was done by a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned by an [[Umayyad]] governor of [[Iraq]], [[Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]]: a dot above = ''{{Semxlit|a}}'', a dot below = ''{{Semxlit|i}}'', a dot on the line = ''{{Semxlit|u}}'', and doubled dots gave ''tanwin''. However, this was cumbersome and easily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted. The system was finalized around 786 by [[al-Farahidi]].
==Arabic alphabets of other languages==
Arabic script has been adopted for use in a wide variety of languages other than Arabic, including [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Urdu language|Urdu]]. Such adaptations may feature altered or new characters to represent [[phoneme]]s that do not appear in Arabic [[phonology]]. For example, the Arabic language lacks a {{IPA|[p]}} phoneme, so many languages add their own letter to represent {{IPA|[p]}} in the script, though the specific letter used varies from language to language. These modifications tend to fall into groups: all the [[India]]n and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] languages written in Arabic script tend to use the [[Persian alphabet|Persian modified letters]]]); whereas [[West Africa]]n languages tend to imitate those of [[Ajami script|Ajami]], and [[Indonesia]]n ones those of [[Jawi]]. The modified version of the Arabic script originally devised for use with Persian is known as the '''[[Perso-Arabic script]]''' by scholars.
=== Current uses of the alphabet for other languages ===
The Arabic alphabet is currently used for:
* [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] in Northern [[Iraq]]. (In [[Turkey]], the [[Latin alphabet]] is now used for Kurdish);
* [[Official language]] [[Persian language|Persian]] and regional languages including [[Azeri language|Azeri]], [[Sorani|Sorani-Kurdish]] and [[Baluchi]] in [[Iran]];
* Official languages [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]] and [[Pashto language|Pashto]] and regional languages including [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] in [[Afghanistan]];
* Official language [[Urdu language|Urdu]] and regional languages including [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (where the script is known as [[Shahmukhi]]), [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], and [[Baluchi language|Baluchi]] in [[Pakistan]];
* [[Urdu language|Urdu]] and [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] in [[India]] (see [[List of national languages of India]]);
* [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] (changed to Roman script in 1969 and back to a simplified, fully voweled, Arabic script in 1983), [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] and [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]] by a minority of Kyrgyz in the [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] in northwest [[China]];
* [[Malay language|Malay]] in the Arabic script known as [[Jawi]] is co-official in [[Brunei]], and used for religious purposes in [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Singapore]];
* [[Comorian language|Comorian]] (Comorian) in the [[Comoros]], currently side by side with the [[Latin alphabet]] (neither is official);
* [[Hausa language|Hausa]] for many purposes, especially religious (known as ''[[Ajami script|Ajami]]'');
* [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]], widely but unofficially; (another alphabet used is [[N'Ko]])
* [[Wolof language|Wolof]] (at [[zaouia]]s), known as ''[[Wolofal]]''.
* [[Tamazight]] and other [[Berber languages]] were traditionally written in Arabic in the [[Maghreb]]. There is now a competing 'revival' of neo-[[Tifinagh]].
=== Former uses of the alphabet for other languages ===
In the past, Arabic script has also been used to represent some languages now written with a different script, such as the [[Latin alphabet]]. Most education was once religious instead of governmental and uniform within a state, so choice of script was determined by the user's religion and Muslims would use Arabic script to write any language they used. See also [[Languages of Muslim countries]].
* [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] (as it was first written among the "[[Cape Malay]]s");
* [[Albanian language|Albanian]];
* [[Azeri language|Azeri]] in [[Azerbaijan]] (now written in the [[Latin alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]] scripts in [[Azerbaijan]]);
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] (among ethnic [[Tatars]]);
* [[Berber languages|Berber]] in North Africa, particularly [[Tachelhit language|Tachelhit]] in [[Morocco]] (still being considered, along with [[Tifinagh]] and Latin for [[Tamazight]]);
* [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]] (for some years: from [[October Revolution]] (1917) until 1928);
* [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] (only for literary purposes); (presently written in the [[Latin alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]] scripts)
* [[Chagatai language|Chaghatai]] across [[Central Asia]];
* [[Chechen language|Chechen]] (for some years: from [[October Revolution]] (1917) until 1928);
* [[Chinese languages|Chinese]] and [[Dungan language|Dungan]], among the Chinese [[Hui people|Hui]] [[Muslim]]s[http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~kmach/xiaoerjin/xiaoerjin-e.htm];
* [[Fulani language|Fulani]], where the script is known as [[Ajami script]];
* [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] in [[Kazakhstan]];
* [[Kyrgyz]] in [[Kyrgyzstan]];
* [[Malay language|Malay]] in [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]];
* [[Mozar |
[[David Morales]] remix is widely credited as the first record to bridge the gap between pop and house music. The trend of remixing pop records in this way continues today.
*[[49ers]] - Die Walkure
*[[Adeva]] - Respect; Warning
*[[Beatmasters]] - Rock da house
*[[Bizarre Inc]] - I'm Gonna Get You (ft [[Angie Brown]])
*[[Black Box]] - Ride on time; I don't know anybody else; Everybody; Strike it up
*[[Bomb The Bass]] - Beat Dis; Megablast; Bug Powder Dust
*[[Chip E.]] - Time 2 Jack
*[[Chip E.]] - Like This
*[[Chip E.]] - Godfather of House Music
*[[Coldcut]] - People hold on (ft [[Lisa Stansfield]])
*[[Crystal Waters]] - Gypsy Woman (she's homeless); Makin happy
*[[Daft Punk]] - [[Around the World (Daft Punk song)|Around the World]]
*[[D-Mob]] - We Call It Acieed; C'mon and Get My Love (feat. [[Cathy Dennis]])
*[[Double Dee]] - Found love
*[[Ecstasy]] - This is my House
*[[Farley Jackmaster Funk]] - Love Can't Turn Around
*[[Fingers Inc.]] - Can You Feel It
*[[Frankie Knuckles]] - Your Love
*[[Hardrive]]- Deep Inside
*[[Hithouse]] - Jack To The Sound Of The Underground
*[[Jaydee]] - Plastic Dreams
*[[J.M. Silk]] - Jack Your Body
*[[Jomanda]] - Got A Love For You; Make my body rock
*[[Kraze]] - The Party
*[[Krush]] - House Arrest
*[[Latino Party]] - Esta Loca; Tequila
*[[Lil' Louis]] - French Kiss; I'm hot for you
*[[M/A/R/R/S]] - Pump Up The Volume
*[[Mel & Kim]] - Respectable
*[[Natalie Cole]] - Pink Cadillac (remix)
*[[Nightcrawlers]] - Push the Feeling On
*[[Paul Simpson]] - Musical Freedom
*[[Raze]] - Break For Love
*[[Royal House]] - Can You Feel It; Party People
*[[S-Express]] - Theme from S-Express
*[[Stardust (band)|Stardust]] - Music Sounds Better With You (1998)
*: French house hit.
*[[Steve Silk Hurley]] - Jack Your Body
*[[Technotronic]] - Pump up the jam
*[[Ten City]] - Devotion; That's the way love is
*[[Yazz]] - Stand up for your love rights; The only way is up
==Musicology==
House music is uptempo music for dancing and has a comparatively narrow tempo range, generally falling between 118 [[beats per minute]] (bpm) and 135 bpm, with 127 bpm being about average since [[1996]].
Far and away the most important element of the house drumbeat is the (usually very strong, synthesized, and heavily equalized) [[kick drum]] pounding on every quarter note of the 4/4 bar, often having a "dropping" effect on the dancefloor. Commonly this is augmented by various kick fills and extended dropouts (aka breakdowns). Add to this basic kick pattern [[hihat]]s on the [[note value|eighth-note]] offbeats (though any number of [[note value|sixteenth-note]] patterns are also very common) and a [[snare drum]] and/or clap on beats 2 and 4 of every bar, and you have the basic framework of the house drumbeat.
This pattern is derived from so-called "[[four-on-the-floor (music)|four-on-the-floor]]" dance drumbeats of the 1960s and especially the 1970's [[disco]] drummers. Due to the way house music was developed by DJs mixing records together, producers commonly layer sampled drum sounds to achieve a larger-than-life sound, filling out the audio spectrum and tailoring the mix for large club sound systems.
[[Techno music|Techno]] and [[trance music|trance]], the two primary dance music genres that developed alongside house music in the mid 1980s and early 1990s respectively, can share this basic beat infrastructure, but usually eschew house's live-music-influenced feel and black or Latin music influences in favor of more synthetic sound sources and approach.
== Further reading ==
*Sean Bidder ''Pump Up the Volume: A History of House Music'', MacMillan, [[2002]], ISBN 0752219863
*Sean Bidder ''The Rough Guide to House Music'', Rough Guides, [[1999]], ISBN 1858284325
*Bill Brewster & Frank Broughton ''Last Night a DJ Saved My Life: The History of the Disc Jockey'', Grove Press, [[2000]], ISBN 0802136885
*Simon Reynolds ''Energy Flash: a Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture'', (UK title, Pan Macmillan, [[1998]], ISBN 0330350560), also released in US as ''Generation Ecstasy : Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture'' (US title, Routledge, [[1999]], ISBN 0415923735)
*Hillegonda C. Rietveld ''This is our House: House Music, Cultural Spaces and Technologies'', Ashgate, [[1998]], ISBN 1857422422
==Source==
*Peter Shapiro (2000) ''Modulations: A History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound'', ISBN 189102406X.
==Online Radio==
* [http://www.di.fm/deephouse/info/ Digitally Imported's House Music Broadcast]
* [http://www.danceamp.com/ DanceAmp - House Music Radio]
* [http://www.edmradio.com/ EDM Radio - Electronic Dance Music]
* [http://www.friskyradio.com/ Frisky Radio]
* [http://www.grooveradio.com Groove Radio]
* [http://www.housefm.net HouseFM]
* [http://www.m1live.com/ M1 Live Radio Broadcasting Dance Music]
* [http://www.netmusique.com Netmusique Radio]
* [http://www.newdetroitradio.com/ New Detroit Radio]
* [http://www.nulog.com Nulog.com - Lazy House Radio]
* [http://www.protonradio.com Proton Radio]
* [http://www.pr.fm Party Radio]
* [http://www.pulseradio.net Pulse Radio]
==See also==
*[[Styles of house music]]
==External links==
* [http://www.alfazen.com ''ALFAZEN.COM''] ALFAZEN.COM - Electronic Dance Music, feat. history, photos, interviews...
* [http://www.anthems.com/ ''Anthems.com''] - Dance music news plus DJ Mixes and a big dance music forum.
* [http://www.deephousepage.com ''Deep House Page''] Huge Archive of Classic House & Disco Mixes and Large Community of old school house heads
*[http://www.deeplydeep.com Deeplydeep.com] - Deephouse, acid house and minimal house net label.
* [http://www.djnetz.com/community/modules/arms/view.php?w=art&idx=87&page=1 ''Booming B. - My Lifelong Dream''] a German DJ goes to the birthplace of house music (with English diaries)
*[http://www.deepindub.org/ Deepindub.org] - release mixes made from tracks from different net labels. Each mix focuses on one particular label, and main styles are deep house and minimal house.
* [http://www.ddance.fm ''DDance.fm''] The finest dj's broadcasted 24/7.
* [http://www.djkennypalmer.co.uk ''DJ Kenny Palmer''] London based DJ who plays non commercial house and funky house. Website features DJ mixes, DJ chart, biography and booking details..
* [http://www.dancefrontdoor.co.uk/ DanceFrontDoor] - UK dance music news and reviews site
* [http://www.di.fm/edmguide/edmguide.html Ishkur's Guide to Electronic Music] &ndash; Flash-based site providing humorous summaries and audio examples of the different styles of modern electronic music, including many varieties of house.
* [http://deeprhythms.com ''Deeprhythms''], The premier deep house page.
*[http://www.djmitch.it Dj Mitch] - Deep and minimal house dj from the deepest Venice, Italy
*[http://www.DJChillX.com/ DJChillX.com] - Purchase The Classic House Mixes.
*[http://www.djonthemix.net/ Djonthemix.net] - Database and links related to house dj's.
* [http://www.elektromusik.com/house-radios ''Elektromusik.com''] Online Webradio directory including around 30 house radios.
* [http://www.flatandround.com ''Flat & Round''] Well respected deep/tech house label from Manchester, UK.
* [http://www.forpromotionalpurposesonly.net/ for promotional purposes only] - promote and listen to online house music
* [http://michbuze.club.fr/zik/house.htm House.c.la] - wma samples & music videos
* [http://www.housefreakz.com/ HouseFreakz] - Daily house music links for download
* [http://housemusicawards.com ''House Music Awards''] Awards for house music
* [http://www.housemusicforum.com ''HouseMusicForum.com''] the House Music Forum for all lovers from all over the world.
*[http://www.mix4mat.com/ mix4mat.com] - minimal house dj mixes, reviews, news.
*[http://www.masdeep.com Masdeep.com] - dedicated to deephouse music !.
*[http://www.musicismyworld.com/ Musicismyworld.com] - release mixes made from different fine selected great dj's. Main styles are Deep House, minimal house and soulful house.
* [http://netmusique.com ''Netmusique.com''] Netmusique Netradio - House music and live shows on the Housemusique channel.
* [http://planetsoulnetwork.com ''Planetsoul Network''], a non-commercial Deep House internet radio station
* [http://pitchforkmedia.com/features/weekly/05-11-28-house-and-techno.shtml From the Autobahn to I-94: The Origins of Detroit Techno and Chicago House] &ndash; reminiscences by techno and house innovators
* [http://www.rogie.net/ ''Rogie.net''] - Dj Mixes of Deep House and the core of the early House scene: Disco Music and Electronics that heavily influenced the House and Techno sound.
* [http://www.residentadvisor.net/ Resident Advisor] - RA is an online dance music magazine
* [http://www.twistedhouse.com ''Twisted House''] An international dance music magazine
* [http://www.thedjlist.com/ ''The DJ List''] - Hundreds of DJs categorized by genre, with loads of freely downloadble sessions.
* [http://www.trugroovez.com ''Trugroovez''] - Exclusive house mixes, record labels and dj sites.
* [http://www.undergroundhouse.net ''Underground House''] A community of over 14,000 members, features a massive archive of streaming dj mixes from some of the worlds most respected dj's. popular with industry people and clubbers alike.
* [http://www.vmix.fr ''Vmix''], The finest eclectic webradio and webzine from Paris
* [http://www.WorldDJ.com ''WorldDJ.com''] An online magazine, community and social networking hub dedicated to the global house and electronic dance music scene
{{Electronic_music-footer}}
[[Category:House music]]
[[Category:Electronic music genres]]
[[Category:Dance music]]
[[Category:Musical genres]]
[[cy:House]]
[[de:House]]
[[es:House]]
[[eo:Haŭso]]
[[fr:House]]
[[he:האוס]]
[[ko:하우스]]
[[it:House music]]
[[hu:House]]
[[nl:House]]
[[ja:ハウス (音楽)]]
[[no:House]]
[[pl:House]]
[[pt:House]]
[[ru:Хаус]]
[[simple:House music]]
[[fi:House]]
[[sv:House]]
[[zh:浩室]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hist |
={1+\sqrt{5} \over 2}.</math>
Assume this is a rational number ''n''/''m'' in lowest terms. Take ''n'' to be the length of the whole and ''m'' the length of the longer part. Then the length of the shorter part is ''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''m''. Then we have
:<math>{n \over m}={\mathrm{whole} \over \mathrm{longer}\ \mathrm{part}}
={\mathrm{longer}\ \mathrm{part} \over \mathrm{shorter}\ \mathrm{part}}
={m \over n-m}.</math>
But this puts a fraction already in lowest terms into ''lower terms''&mdash;a contradiction. Therefore the initial assumption that &phi; is rational is false.
== Transcendental and algebraic irrationals ==
[[Almost all]] irrational numbers are transcendental and all [[transcendental number]]s are irrational: the article on transcendental numbers lists several examples. ''e''<sup>''r''</sup> and &pi;<sup>''r''</sup> are irrational if ''r'' &ne; 0 is rational; ''e''<sup>&pi;</sup> is also irrational.
Another way to construct irrational numbers is as irrational [[algebraic number]]s, i.e. as zeros of [[polynomial]]s with integer coefficients: start with a polynomial equation
:''p''(''x'') = ''a<sub>n</sub> x<sup>n</sup>'' + ''a''<sub>''n''-1</sub> ''x''<sup>''n''&minus;1</sup> + ... + ''a''<sub>1</sub> ''x'' + ''a''<sub>0</sub> = 0
where the coefficients ''a''<sub>''i''</sub> are integers. Suppose you know that there exists some real number ''x'' with ''p''(''x'') = 0 (for instance if ''n'' is odd and ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> is non-zero, then because of the [[intermediate value theorem]]). The only possible rational roots of this polynomial equation are of the form ''r''/''s'' where ''r'' is a [[divisor]] of ''a''<sub>0</sub> and ''s'' is a divisor of ''a''<sub>''n''</sub>; there are only finitely many such candidates which you can all check by hand. If neither of them is a root of ''p'', then ''x'' must be irrational. For example, this technique can be used to show that ''x'' = (2<sup>1/2</sup> + 1)<sup>1/3</sup> is irrational: we have (''x''<sup>3</sup> &minus; 1)<sup>2</sup> = 2 and hence ''x''<sup>6</sup> &minus; 2''x''<sup>3</sup> &minus; 1 = 0, and this latter polynomial does not have any rational roots (the only candidates to check are ±1).
Because the algebraic numbers form a [[field (mathematics)|field]], many irrational numbers can be constructed by combining transcendental and algebraic numbers. For example 3&pi;+2, &pi; + &radic;<font style="text-decoration: overline">2</font> and ''e''&radic;<font style="text-decoration: overline">3</font> are irrational (and even transcendental).
== Logarithms ==
Perhaps the numbers most easily proved to be irrational are certain logarithms. Here is a proof by [[reductio ad absurdum]] that log<sub>2</sub>3 is irrational:
* Assume log<sub>2</sub>3 is rational. For some positive integers ''m'' and ''n'', we have log<sub>2</sub>3 = ''m''/''n''.
* It follows that 2<sup>''m''/''n''</sup> = 3.
* Raise each side to the ''n'' power, find 2<sup>''m''</sup> = 3<sup>''n''</sup>.
* But 2 to any integer power greater than 0 is even (because at least one of its prime factors is 2) and 3 to any integer power greater than 0 is odd (because none of its prime factors is 2), so the original assumption is false.
Similar cases such as log<sub>10</sub>2 can be treated similarly.
==Decimal expansions==
It is often erroneously assumed that mathematicians define "irrational number" in terms of decimal expansions, calling a number irrational if its [[decimal]] expansion neither repeats nor terminates. No mathematician takes that to be the definition, since the choice of base 10 would be arbitrary and since the standard definition is simpler and more well-motivated. Nonetheless it is true that a number is of the form ''n''/''m'' where ''n'' and ''m'' are integers, if and only if its decimal expansion repeats or terminates. When the [[long division]] algorithm that everyone learns in grammar school is applied to the division of ''n'' by ''m'', only ''m'' remainders are possible. If 0 appears as a remainder, the decimal expansion terminates. If 0 never occurs, then the algorithm can run at most ''m'' &minus; 1 steps without using any remainder more than once. After that, a remainder must recur, and then the decimal expansion repeats! Conversely, suppose we are faced with a [[recurring decimal]], for example:
:<math>A=0.7\,162\,162\,162\,\dots</math>
Since the length of the repitend is 3, multiply by 10<sup>3</sup>:
:<math>1000A=7\,16.2\,162\,162\,\dots</math>
and then subtract A from both sides:
:<math>999A=715.5\,.</math>
Then
:<math>A=\frac{715.5}{999}=\frac{7155}{9990}=\frac{135\times 53}{135\times 74}=\frac{53}{74}.</math>
(The "135" above can be found quickly via [[Euclidean algorithm|Euclid's algorithm]].)
== Open questions ==
It is not known whether &pi; + ''e'' and &pi; &minus; ''e'' are irrational or not. In fact, there is no pair of non-zero integers ''m'' and ''n'' for which it is known whether ''m''&pi; + ''ne'' is irrational or not.
It is not known whether 2<sup>''e''</sup>, &pi;<sup>''e''</sup>, <math>\pi^\sqrt{2}</math> or the [[Euler-Mascheroni gamma constant]] &gamma; are irrational.
== The set of all irrationals ==
The set of all irrational numbers is [[Uncountable set|uncountable]] (since the rationals are [[Countable set|countable]] and the reals are uncountable). The set of algebraic irrationals, that is, the non-transcendental irrationals, is countable. Using the [[absolute value]] to measure distances, the irrational numbers become a [[metric space]] which is not [[complete (topology)|complete]]. However, this metric space is [[homeomorphic]] to the complete metric space of all [[sequence]]s of positive integers; the homeomorphism is given by the infinite [[continued fraction]] expansion. This shows that the [[Baire category theorem]] applies to the space of irrational numbers.
== External links ==
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/IrrationalNumber.html Irrational Number.] From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.
[[Category:Irrational numbers]]
[[Category:Real numbers]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[bn:অমূলদ সংখ্যা]]
[[ca:Nombre irracional]]
[[cs:Iracionální číslo]]
[[da:Irrationale tal]]
[[de:Irrationale Zahl]]
[[es:Número irracional]]
[[eo:Neracionala nombro]]
[[fa:اعداد گنگ]]
[[fr:Nombre irrationnel]]
[[gl:Número irracional]]
[[ko:무리수]]
[[hr:Iracionalni brojevi]]
[[is:Óræðar tölur]]
[[it:Numero irrazionale]]
[[he:מספר אי רציונלי]]
[[la:Numerus irrationalis]]
[[lt:Iracionalusis skaičius]]
[[nl:Irrationaal getal]]
[[ja:無理数]]
[[no:Irrasjonalt tall]]
[[nn:Irrasjonalt tal]]
[[pl:Liczby niewymierne]]
[[pt:Número irracional]]
[[ru:Иррациональное число]]
[[sl:Iracionalno število]]
[[sr:Ирационалан број]]
[[fi:Irrationaaliluku]]
[[sv:Irrationella tal]]
[[tr:İrrasyonel sayılar]]
[[zh:無理數]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irreducible fraction</title>
<id>14822</id>
<revision>
<id>34235029</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T12:47:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''irreducible fraction''' is a [[vulgar fraction]] in which the [[numerator]] and [[denominator]] are smaller than those in any other equivalent fraction. To say a fraction is irreducible is the same as saying the fraction's value is '''in lowest terms'''.
Stating it more formally, a fraction <sup>a</sup>&#8260;<sub>b</sub> is irreducible if there is no other equivalent fraction <sup>c</sup>&#8260;<sub>d</sub> with c having an [[absolute value]] less than the absolute value of a (where a, b, c, and d are all integers).
For example, <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub>, <sup>5</sup>&#8260;<sub>6</sub>, and <sup>-101</sup>&#8260;<sub>100</sub> are all irreducible fractions. On the other hand, <sup>2</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub> is not irreducible since it is equal in value to <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub>, and the numerator of the latter (1) is less than the numerator of <sup>2</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub>.
It can be shown that a fraction <sup>a</sup>&#8260;<sub>b</sub> is irreducible if, and only if, a and b are [[coprime]] (relatively prime), or equivalently, if a and b have a [[greatest common divisor]] of 1.
A fraction that is not irreducible can be reduced by using the [[Euclidean algorithm]] to find the greatest common divisor of the numerator and the denominator, and then dividing both the numerator and the denominator by it.
[[Category:Fractions]]
[[Category:Elementary arithmetic]]
[[fr:Fraction irréductible]]
[[zh:最简分数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Information Theory</title>
<id>14824</id>
<revision>
<id>15912356</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Information theory]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isomorphism class</title>
<id>14826</id>
<r |
one succeeded him in power and popularity" and, before the end of the year, the new Legislative Assembly would adopt this "draconian" measure.
==== The Flight to Varennes ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Flight to Varennes]].''
Louis XVI, opposed to the course of the revolution, but rejecting the potentially treacherous aid of the other monarchs of Europe, cast his lot with General Bouillé, who condemned both the emigration and the assembly, and promised him refuge and support in his camp at [[Montmedy]].
On the night of [[June 20]], 1791, the royal family fled the Tuileries wearing the clothes of servants, while their servants dressed as nobles. However, the next day the overconfident king had the imprudence to show himself. Recognised and arrested at [[Varennes]] (in the [[Meuse]] ''[[département in France|département]]'') late on [[21 June]], he was paraded back to Paris under guard, and still wearing his rags.
[[Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve|Pétion]], [[Marie Victor de Fay, Marquis de Latour-Maubourg|Latour-Maubourg]], and [[Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave]], representing the Assembly, met the royal family at [[Épernay]] and returned with them. From this time, Barnave became a counselor and supporter of the royal family.
When they reached Paris, the crowd remained silent. The Assembly provisionally suspended the king. He and Queen [[Marie Antoinette]] remained held under guard.
==== The Last Days of the National Constituent Assembly ====
''For a more detailed discussion, please see [[French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly#The Last Days of the National Constituent Assembly|The Last Days of the National Constituent Assembly]].''
With most of the Assembly still favouring a [[constitutional monarchy]] rather than a [[republic]], the various groupings reached a compromise which left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to ''de facto'' abdication.
[[Jacques Pierre Brissot]] drafted a petition, insisting that in the eyes of the nation Louis XVI was deposed since his flight. An immense crowd gathered in the [[Champ-de-Mars]] to sign the petition. [[Georges Danton]] and [[Camille Desmoulins]] gave fiery speeches. The Assembly called for the municipal authorities to "preserve public order". The National Guard under Lafayette's command confronted the crowd. The soldiers first responded to a barrage of stones by firing in the air; the crowd did not back down, and Lafayette ordered his men to fire into the crowd, resulting in the killing of as many as fifty people.
In the wake of this massacre the authorities closed many of the patriotic clubs, as well as radical newspapers such as [[Jean-Paul Marat]]'s ''[[L'Ami du Peuple]]''. Danton fled to England; Desmoulins and Marat went into hiding.
Meanwhile, a renewed threat from abroad arose: [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Frederick William II of Prussia]], and the king's brother [[Charles X of France|Charles-Phillipe, comte d'Artois]] issued the [[Declaration of Pilnitz]] which considered the cause of Louis XVI as their own, demanded his total liberty and the dissolution of the Assembly, and promised an invasion of France on his behalf if the revolutionary authorities refused its conditions.
If anything, the declaration further imperiled Louis. The French people expressed no respect for the dictates of foreign monarchs, and the threat of force merely resulted in the militarisation of the frontiers.
Even before the "Flight to Varennes," the Assembly members had determined to debar themselves from the legislature that would succeed them, the [[French Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]]. They now gathered the various constitutional laws they had passed into a single constitution, showed remarkable fortitude in choosing not to use this as an occasion for major revisions, and submitted it to the recently restored Louis XVI, who accepted it, writing "I engage to maintain it at home, to defend it from all attacks from abroad, and to cause its execution by all the means it places at my disposal". The king addressed the Assembly and received enthusiastic applause from members and spectators. The Assembly set the end of its term for [[September 29]] [[1791]].
Mignet has written, "The constitution of 1791... was the work of the middle class, then the strongest; for, as is well known, the predominant force ever takes possession of institutions... In this constitution the people was the source of all powers, but it exercised none." [http://www.outfo.org/literature/pg/etext06/8hfrr10.txt]
=== The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the Monarchy ===
''For a more detailed description of the events of [[October 1]] [[1791]]&ndash;[[September 19]] [[1792]], see main article [[The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the French monarchy]].''
==== The Legislative Assembly ====
Under the Constitution of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy. The king had to share power with the elected [[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]], but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers.
The Legislative Assembly first met on [[October 1]], 1791, and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. In the words of the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]: "In the attempt to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, and a people debauched by safe and successful riot."
The Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165 [[Feuillant]]s (constitutional monarchists) on the [[Right-wing politics|right]], about 330 [[Girondist]]s (liberal republicans) and [[Jacobin]]s (radical revolutionaries) on the [[Left-wing politics|left]], and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with either faction.
Early on, the king vetoed legislation that threatened the ''émigrés'' with death and that decreed that every [[non-juror|non-juring clergyman]] must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, disagreements like this would lead to a [[constitutional crisis]].
==== War ====
The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with [[Austria]] and its allies. The King, the Feuillants and the Girondins specifically wanted to wage war. The King (and many Feuillants with him) expected war would increase his personal popularity; he also foresaw an opportunity to exploit any defeat: either result would make him stronger. The Girondins wanted to export the Revolution throughout Europe. Only some of the radical Jacobins opposed war, preferring to consolidate and expand the revolution at home. The Austrian emperor [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], brother of [[Marie Antoinette]], may have wished to avoid war, but he died on [[March 1]], [[1792]].
France declared war on [[Austria]] ([[April 20]] [[1792]]) and [[Prussia]] joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The [[French Revolutionary Wars]] had begun.
After early skirmishes went badly for France, the first significant military engagement of the war occurred with the Franco-Prussian [[Battle of Valmy]] ([[September 20]] 1792). Although heavy rain prevented a conclusive resolution, the French artillery proved its superiority. However, by this time, France stood in turmoil and the monarchy had effectively become a thing of the past.
==== Constitutional Crisis ====
[[image:French_Revolution-1792-8-10.jpg|thumb|August 10, 1792, Paris Commune]]
:''Main articles: [[10th of August (French Revolution)]], [[September Massacres]]''
On the night of [[August 10]] 1792, insurgents, supported by a new revolutionary [[Paris Commune (French Revolution)|Paris Commune]], assailed the Tuileries. The king and queen ended up prisoners and a rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy: little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins.
What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. When the Commune sent gangs of assassins into the prisons to butcher 1400 victims, and addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example, the Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until the [[French National Convention|Convention]], charged with writing a new constitution, met on [[September 20]], 1792 and became the new ''de facto'' government of France. The next day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. This date was later retroactively adopted as the beginning of [[Year One]] of the [[French Revolutionary Calendar]].
=== The Convention ===
[[Image:LouisXVIExecutionBig.jpg|thumb|Execution of Louis XVI]]
''For a more detailed description of the events of [[September 20]] [[1792]]&ndash;[[September 26]] [[1795]], see [[National Convention]].''
The legislative power in the new republic fell to a National Convention, while the executive power came to rest in the [[Committee of Public Safety]]. The Girondins became the most influential party in the Convention and on the Committee.
In the [[Brunswick Manifesto]], the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France. [[January 17]] [[1793]] saw King Louis condemned to death for "conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety" by a weak majority in Convention. The [[January 21]] execution led to more wars with other European countries. Louis' Austrian-born queen, Marie Antoinette, would follow him to t |
is own men; so grandly obedient that he put his life at his father's disposal; so firm in his reliance on God that his greatest concern through life was to honour the divine promise given to his race", Geikie's ''Hours'', etc.
==Christianity==
In the [[New Testament]], reference is made to his having been "offered up" by his father (Heb. 11:17; James 2:21), and to his blessing his sons (Heb. 11:20). As the child of promise, he is contrasted with [[Ishmael]] (Rom. 9:7, 10; Gal. 4:28; Heb. 11:18).
==Islam==
In Islam, he is called [[Ishaq]], and stories about him are found in the [[Qur'an]].
The story also appears in the Qur'an, except Islam asserts that [[Ishmael]] was the one to be sacrificed because he was the only son of Abraham at the time, not Isaac (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
''Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 &mdash; Please update as needed.''
[[Category:Torah people]]
[[Maori:Ihaka]]
[[ar:اسحاق]]
[[ca:Isaac]]
[[de:Isaak]]
[[el:Ισαάκ]]
[[es:Isaac]]
[[fr:Isaac]]
[[he:יצחק]]
[[la:Isaac]]
[[nl:Izaäk (Hebreeuwse Bijbel)]]
[[ja:イサク]]
[[no:Isak]]
[[pl:Izaak (Biblia)]]
[[pt:Isaac]]
[[ru:Исаак]]
[[sv:Isak (patriark)]]
[[zh:以撒]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Italian Football League</title>
<id>15193</id>
<revision>
<id>15912684</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-30T01:07:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angela</username>
<id>8551</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Italian football league system]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iduna</title>
<id>15195</id>
<revision>
<id>18366332</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-08T01:02:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haukurth</username>
<id>16226</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Clarification</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Iduna''' can mean several things:
* An alternative name for the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] goddess [[Iðunn]].
* [[Asteroid]] [[176 Iduna]] named after the goddess.
* The [[Iduna language]] of [[Papua New Guinea]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Infra-red radiation</title>
<id>15196</id>
<revision>
<id>15912687</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Infrared]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Infra-red</title>
<id>15197</id>
<revision>
<id>15912688</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Infrared]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indic</title>
<id>15198</id>
<revision>
<id>15912689</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-21T17:43:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dbachmann</username>
<id>86857</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge with Indo-Aryan languages</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Indo-Aryan languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Papua (Indonesian province)</title>
<id>15199</id>
<revision>
<id>42037639</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:45:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Birdmessenger</username>
<id>142230</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Geography */fixing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IndonesiaPapua2.png|frame|right|Map showing Papua province in Indonesia]]
'''Papua''' is a [[Provinces of Indonesia|province]] of [[Indonesia]] comprising part of the western half of the island of [[New Guinea]] and nearby islands (see also [[Western New Guinea]]). (The name ''Papua'' has had a somewhat confusing history: for details see the discussion under [[New Guinea]]). The name '''West Papua''' is preferred among nationalists who hope to separate from Indonesia and form their own country (the region was promised a referendum on independence from [[the Netherlands]]). The province was known as '''West Irian''' or '''Irian Barat''' from 1969 to 1973&mdash;''Irian'' is the [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] term for the island of New Guinea. It was then renamed '''Irian Jaya''' (roughly translated, "Victorious Irian") by [[Suharto]], a name that remained in official use until 2002. During the colonial era the region was known as '''Dutch New Guinea''' or '''[[Netherlands New Guinea]]'''.
The province originally covered the entire western half of New Guinea, but in 2003, the western portion of the province, on the [[Bird's Head Peninsula]], was declared by Jakarta as separate province named [[West Irian Jaya]]. The legality of this separation has been disputed as it appears to conflict with a law giving Special Autonomy status to Papua in the year 2000. The status of West Irian Jaya province is not yet resolved as of early 2006.
== Government ==
The nature of Indonesian government in Papua is controversial. International opinion varies a great deal. Some view it as naked [[colonialism]], others maintain that Indonesia represents a legitimate authority with a willing people. Frank expression of views is complicated by the delicate and troubled relationship many nations have with Indonesia. The [[Free Papua Movement]] strives for independence of the area from Indonesia.
According to the United States [http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/84.htm Country Studies - Library of Congress] report about Indonesian government structure:
:''"Since independence the nation has been centrally governed from Jakarta in a system in which the lines of authority, budget, and personnel appointment run outward and downward. Regional and local governments enjoy little autonomy. Their role is largely administrative: implementing policies, rules, and regulations. Regional officialdom is an extension of the Jakarta bureaucracy. The political goal is to maintain the command framework of the unitary state, even at the cost of developmental efficiency. Governments below the national level, therefore, serve essentially as subordinate administrative units through which the functional activities of Jakarta-based departments and agencies reach out into the country."''
In January 2006, 43 refugees landed on the coast of Australia and stated that the Indonesian military is carrying out a genocide in Papua. They have been transported to an Australian immigration detention facility on Christmas Island, 2600 km north-west of Perth, and 360 km south of the western head of Java. Their claims for asylum are currently being assessed.
In 1999 it was proposed to split the province into three government-controlled sectors, sparking Papuan protests (see [http://www.worldevangelical.org/persec_papua_21nov03.html external article]). In January 2003 President [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] signed an order dividing Papua into three provinces: [[Central Irian Jaya]] ([[Irian Jaya Tengah]]), Papua (or [[East Irian Jaya]], [[Irian Jaya Timur]]), and [[West Irian Jaya]] ([[Irian Jaya Barat]]). The formality of installing a local government for Jaraka in Irian Jaya Barat (West) took place in February 2003 and a governor was appointed in November; a government for Irian Jaya Tengah (central) was delayed from August 2003 due to violent local protests. The creation of this separate central province was blocked by Indonesian courts, who declared it to be unconstitutional and in contravention of the Papua's special autonomy agreement. The previous division into two provinces was allowed to stand as an established fact. (King, 2004, p. 91)
== Regions ==
[[Image:Papua, Indonesian province.JPG|right|thumb|280px|Map showing major Papuan cities]]
Indonesia structures regions by [[regency (Indonesia)|regencies]] and subdistricts within those. Though names and areas of control of these regional structures can vary over time in accord with changing political and other requirements, in 2005 Papua province consisted of 9 regencies. (''kabupaten'') <!--1 city (''kotamadya''), 117 subdistricts (''kecamatan''), 66 ''kelurahan'', and 830 villages (''desa'').-->
The regencies ("kabupaten") are: [[Mimika]]; [[Yapen-Waropen]]; [[Biak-Numfor]]; [[Nabire]]; [[Puncak Jaya]]; [[Paniai]]; [[Jayawijaya]]; [[Merauke]]; and [[Jayapura]]. In addition to these, the city of Jayapura also has the status of a regency.
[[Jayapura]], founded on [[7 March]] [[1910]] as ''Hollandia'', had by 1962 developed into a city with modern civil, educational, and medical services. Since Indonesian administration these services have been replaced by Indonesian equivalents such as the TNI (the army) replacing the Papua Battalion. The name of the city has been changed to Kotabaru, then to Sukarnopura and finally to its current official name. Papuans now like to call it Port Numbai, the name of the place before the arrival of foreigners.
Jayapura is the largest city, boasting a small but active tourism industry, it is built on a slope overlooking the bay. [[Cendrawasih University]] or [[Uncen]] campus at Abepura houses the [[University Museum]]. Both [[Tanjung Ria]] beach, near the market at Hamadi&mdash;site of the [[22 April]] 1944 [[Allies#World War II|Allied]] invasion during [[World War II]]&mdash;and the site of General [[Douglas MacArthur|Douglas MacArthur's]] World War II headquarters at Ifar Gunung have monuments commemorating the events.
== Geography ==
A central East-West [[mountain range]] dominates the geography of New Guinea, over 1600 [[kilometre|km]] in total length. The western section is around 600 km long and 100 k |
)]]
[[sv:Spole]]
[[ta:மின் தூண்டி]]
[[zh:电感元件]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Insulin pump</title>
<id>14899</id>
<revision>
<id>42139609</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:06:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.144.224.166|68.144.224.166]] ([[User talk:68.144.224.166|talk]]) to last version by Mustard</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Insulin_pump.jpg|thumb|right|Insulin pump]]
An '''insulin pump''' is a device used for administering [[insulin]] in the treatment of [[diabetes mellitus]].
The device consists principally of three parts :
* the pump itself including controls, processing module, and [[Battery (electricity)|batteries]]
* delivery tube to carry the insulin
* needle or more commonly a catheter inserted into the body subcutaneously
The insulin pump delivers a single type of fast-acting insulin in two ways :
* a basal (small) dose that is delivered constantly
* a bolus dose that is delivered before meals or to correct high blood [[glucose]] levels
[[Image:Insulin pump in use.jpg|thumb|right|Insulin pump in use]]
Because a single type of insulin is used, it is easier to determine the effect of a given dose by looking at the delivery profile of that insulin. Insulin pumps also make it possible to deliver much smaller amounts of insulin than can be injected using a syringe. This provides tighter control over blood sugar and [[HbA1c|Hemoglobin A1c]] levels, reducing the chance of [[Diabetes_mellitus#Long-term_complications|long-term complications]] associated with diabetes.
The amount of insulin delivered for a bolus is determined by the bloodsugar level and the grams of carbohydrates consumed. In all cases, delivery rates are determined by the user in consultation with his [[endocrinologist]]. Currently there is no means to automatically control the insulin delivery based on the blood glucose level of the user. However, the two main manufacturers of pumps, Medtronic (Paradigm, Minimed), and Roche Diagnostics (Disetronic H-Tron and D-Tron) are testing the concept of a closed-loop system but even if the concept is as promising as it appears there remains the legal problem of what happens if the system is incorrect. For example, continuous blood glucose monitoring technology can report very wide variances of blood glucose. Using the non-US measuring system of mmol/l a closed-system that detects glucose of say, 15 mmol/l might dispense 10u of fast acting insulin. If the patient has an actual glucose of 6 mmol/l (within the accepted glycaemic range), those 10 units of insulin could very quickly lead to hypoglycaemic [[coma]] which if not recognised and treated can kill very quickly. There is a lot more research to do on CBGM technology but the first closed-loop systems may be made available for clinical trials by mid-2006.
Use of insulin pumps is increasing as it provides an easier means to deliver multiple insulin injections for those using [[intensive insulinotherapy]]. It's also interesting to note that because of differences in health insurance and public funding, the US has about 150,000 pump users. In the UK, where public funding is limited, most patients have to self-finance their pumps. Because of this, there are maybe 1100 pump users in the UK by comparison.
==References==
* [http://www.diabetescaregroup.info/category/insulin-pump/ Diabetes Care Group blog on insulin pumps]
* [http://www.diabetes.org/type-1-diabetes/insulin-pumps.jsp American Diabetes Association guide to insulin pumps]
* [http://www.medicinenet.com/insulin_pump_for_diabetes_mellitus/article.htm Medicine.net guide for insulin pumps]
[[Category:Medical pumps]]
[[Category:Diabetes]]
[[cs:Inzulínová pumpa]]
[[he:משאבת אינסולין]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ISO 3166</title>
<id>14900</id>
<revision>
<id>31277838</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-14T02:35:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Agentsoo</username>
<id>80866</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[Standard]] to [[standardization]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3166''' is a three-part [[geographic coding]] [[standardization|standard]] for [[code|coding]] the names of [[country|countries]] and [[dependent area]]s, and the principal [[country subdivision|subdivisions]] thereof.
*[[ISO 3166-1]] codes for country and dependent area names, first published in [[1974]]
**[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] the famous two-letter [[country code]]s
**[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]] three-letter country codes
**[[ISO 3166-1 numeric]] three-digit country codes
*[[ISO 3166-2]] defines codes for the principal subdivisions of a country or dependent area.
**[[ISO 3166-2:2000-06-21]] Newsletter I-1
**[[ISO 3166-2:2002-05-21]] Newsletter I-2
**[[ISO 3166-2:2002-08-20]] Newsletter I-3
**[[ISO 3166-2:2002-12-10]] Newsletter I-4
**[[ISO 3166-2:2003-09-05]] Newsletter I-5
**[[ISO 3166-2:2004-03-08]] Newsletter I-6
**[[ISO 3166-2:2005-09-13]] Newsletter I-7
*[[ISO 3166-3]] defines codes for superseded ISO 3166-1 codes, first published in [[1998]].
==See also==
*[[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics]]
*[[Federal Information Processing Standard]]
*[[ISO 639]] (codes for languages)
*[[List of international license plate codes]]
==External links==
* From [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] website
** [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/index.html The ISO 3166/MA-Secretariat]
** [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/04background-on-iso-3166/you-and-iso3166.html ISO 3166 and You]
** [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/04background-on-iso-3166/implementations-of-iso3166-1.html Implementations of ISO 3166-1]
* [http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/codes/country.htm Country Codes]
* [http://www.statoids.com/wab.html Country Codes with comparison]
[[Category:ISO standards|#03166]]
<!--http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/-->
[[cs:ISO 3166-1]]
[[da:ISO 3166]]
[[de:ISO 3166]]
[[es:ISO 3166]]
[[eo:Landokodoj]]
[[fr:ISO 3166]]
[[ko:ISO 3166]]
[[id:ISO 3166]]
[[is:ISO 3166-1]]
[[it:ISO 3166-1]]
[[nl:ISO 3166-1]]
[[ja:ISO 3166]]
[[no:ISO 3166]]
[[pl:ISO 3166-1]]
[[pt:ISO 3166]]
[[ru:ISO 3166]]
[[sk:ISO 3166-1]]
[[sl:ISO 3166]]
[[fi:ISO 3166]]
[[sv:ISO 3166]]
[[tt:ISO 3166]]
[[th:ISO 3166-1]]
[[zh:ISO 3166-1]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interactive Fiction</title>
<id>14902</id>
<revision>
<id>15912429</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interactive_fiction]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ism</title>
<id>14903</id>
<revision>
<id>21008549</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-14T18:31:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
<id>135</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/142.104.250.115|142.104.250.115]] to last version by Timwi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[-ism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intensive insulinotherapy</title>
<id>14904</id>
<revision>
<id>38692862</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T00:33:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ανδρέας</username>
<id>469010</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Semantics of changing care: why "flexible" is replacing "intensive" therapy */ remove editor's comment</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Intensive insulinotherapy''' or '''flexible insulin therapy''' is a therapeutic regimen for [[diabetes mellitus]] treatment.<br>In North America in 2004, many endocrinologists prefer the term "flexible insulin therapy" to intensive therapy and use it to refer to any method of replacing [[insulin]] that attempts to mimic the pattern of insulin secretion of a working pancreas. See at end of article for how semantic distinctions reflect changing treatment.
===Rationale for intensive or flexible treatment===
Long-term studies like the [[UK Prospective Diabetes Study]] (''UKPDS'') and the [[Diabetes Control and Complications Trial]] (''DCCT'') showed that '''intensive insulinotherapy''' achieved blood glucose levels closer to non-diabetic people and that this was associated with reduced frequency and severity of blood vessel damage. Damage to large and small blood vessels ([[macroangiopathy|macro-]] and [[diabetic microangiopathy| microvascular damage]]) is central to the development of [[diabetic complications|complications of diabetes mellitus]].
This evidence convinced most physicians who specialize in diabetes care that an important goal of treatment is to make the biochemical profile of the diabetic patient (blood lipids, HbA1c, etc.) as close to the values of non-diabetic people as possible. This is especially true for young patients with many decades of life ahead.
===A general description of intensive or flexible therapy===
A working pancreas continually secretes small amounts of insulin into the blood to prevent the body from shifting into "starvation metabolism." This insulin is referred to as ''basal insulin secretion''.
However, most insulin produced each day is produced during the digestion of meals. Insulin levels rise immediately as we begin to eat, remaining higher than the basal rate for 1 to 4 hours. This meal-associated (''prandial'') insulin production is roughly proportional to the amount of carbohydrate in the meal.
Intens |
nstitution]], Governor of New Jersey (d. [[1806]])
*[[1754]] - [[George Crabbe]], English poet and naturalist (d. [[1832]])
*[[1798]] - [[Adam Mickiewicz]], Polish poet (d. [[1855]])
*[[1809]] - [[Kit Carson]], American frontiersman (d. [[1868]])
*[[1812]] - [[Karl Eduard Zachariae]], German jurist (d. [[1894]])
*[[1818]] - [[James Prescott Joule]], British physicist (d. [[1889]])
*[[1822]] - [[Matthew Arnold]], English poet (d. [[1888]])
*[[1837]] - [[Elisabeth of Bavaria]], Empress of Austria (d. [[1898]])
*[[1845]] - King [[George I of Greece]] (d. [[1913]])
*[[1867]] - [[Kantaro Suzuki]], 42nd [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (d. [[1948]])
*[[1868]] - [[Emanuel Lasker]], German chess player (d. [[1941]])
*[[1880]] - [[Johnny Gruelle]], American cartoonist and children's book writer (d. [[1939]])
*[[1881]] - [[Juan Ramón Jiménez]], Spanish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1958]])
*[[1886]] - [[Michael Curtiz]], Hungarian-born director (d. [[1962]])
*[[1895]] - [[E. Roland Harriman]], American financier (d. [[1978]])
*[[1898]] - [[Héctor Scarone]], Uruguayan footballer (d. [[1967]])
*1898 - [[Baby Dodds]], American jazz drummer (d. [[1959]])
*[[1905]] - [[Howard Hughes]], American film producer and inventor (d. [[1976]])
*[[1910]] - [[Fritz Leiber]], American writer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1914]] - [[Herbert Reinecker]], German writer
*[[1920]] - [[Evgeniya Rudneva]], Russian World War II heroine (d. [[1944]])
*[[1922]] - [[Ava Gardner]], American actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1923]] - [[George Patton IV]], American general (d. [[2004]])
*[[1924]] - [[Mohd. Rafi]], Indian actor and playback singer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1929]] - [[Mary Higgins Clark]], American author
*[[1931]] - [[Mauricio Kagel]], Argentine composer
*[[1937]] - [[Felix Miéli Venerando]], Brazilian football player
*[[1941]] - [[John Levene]], British actor
*[[1943]] - [[Tarja Halonen]], [[President of Finland]]
*[[1945]] - [[Lemmy Kilmister]], British singer, bassist ([[Motörhead]])
*1945 - [[Nicholas Meyer]], American author
*[[1949]] - [[Randy Neugebauer]], American politician
*[[1950]] - [[Dana Gioia]], American poet and chairman of the National Endowment for the Arts
*[[1955]] - [[Clarence Gilyard]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Hamid Karzai]], [[President of Afghanistan]]
*[[1960]] - [[Carol Vorderman]], British television presenter
*[[1963]] - [[Mary Ramsey]], American singer ([[10,000 Maniacs]])
*[[1966]] - [[Diedrich Bader]], American actor
*[[1969]] - [[Mark Millar]], Scottish comic book writer
*[[1971]] - [[Ricky Martin]], Puerto Rican singer
*[[1973]] - [[Eddie Pope]], American soccer player
*[[1974]] - [[Marcelo Salas]], Chilean footballer
*1974 - [[Ryan Seacrest]], American television host
==Deaths==
*[[820]] - [[Leo V]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (assassinated) (b. [[775]])
*[[1257]] - [[John I, Count of Hainaut]] (b. [[1218]])
*[[1453]] - [[John Dunstable]], English composer
*[[1524]] - [[Vasco da Gama]], Portuguese explorer
*[[1660]] - [[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange]] (b. [[1631]])
*[[1707]] - [[Noël Coypel]], French painter (b. [[1628]])
*[[1813]] - [[Empress Go-Sakuramachi of Japan]], (b.[[1740]])
*[[1863]] - [[William Makepeace Thackeray]], English writer (b. [[1811]])
*[[1865]] - Sir [[Charles Lock Eastlake]], English painter and writer (b. [[1793]])
*[[1868]] - [[Adolphe d'Archiac]], French paleontologist and geologist (b. [[1802]])
*[[1873]] - [[Johns Hopkins]], Baltimore philanthropist and businessman (b. [[1795]])
*[[1889]] - [[Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate]], Dutch poet and clergyman (b. [[1819]])
*[[1914]] - [[John Muir]], Scottish-born naturalist (b. [[1838]])
*[[1935]] - [[Alban Berg]], Austrian composer (b. [[1885]])
*[[1938]] - [[Bruno Taut]], German architect (b. [[1880]])
*[[1941]] - [[Siegfried Alkan]], German composer (b. [[1858]])
*[[1942]] - [[François Darlan]], vice-premier of Vichy France (b. [[1881]])
*[[1957]] - [[Norma Talmadge]], American actress (b. [[1893]])
*[[1972]] - [[Gisela Richter]], English art historian (b. [[1882]])
*[[1975]] - [[Bernard Herrmann]], American film composer (b. [[1911]])
*[[1977]] - [[Samael Aun Weor]], Columbian writer (b. [[1917]])
*[[1980]] - [[Karl Dönitz]], [[President of Germany]] (b. [[1891]])
*[[1982]] - [[Louis Aragon]], French writer (b. [[1897]])
*[[1984]] - [[Peter Lawford]], English actor (b. [[1923]])
*[[1986]] - [[Gardner Fox]], American writer (b. [[1911]])
*[[1987]] - [[Joop den Uyl]], [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] (b. [[1919]])
*[[1993]] - [[Norman Vincent Peale]], American writer (b. [[1898]])
*[[1994]] - [[John Boswell]], American historian (b. [[1947]])
*[[1997]] - [[Toshiro Mifune|Toshirô Mifune]], Japanese actor (b. [[1920]])
*[[1999]] - [[João Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo]], [[President of Brazil]] (b. [[1918]])
*[[2002]] - [[Kjell Aukrust]], Norwegian author (b. [[1920]])
*[[2004]] - [[Johnny Oates]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1946]])
*[[2005]] - [[Michael Vale]], [[United States|American]] commercial actor (b. [[1922]])
==Holidays and observances==
*December 24 is celebrated as the day before [[Christmas]], thus called [[Christmas Eve]].
*It is the day when food is traditionally set out for [[Santa Claus]] and his [[reindeer]]. Children around the world are urged to go to bed early so they are not awake when he arrives.
*In [[Finland]], [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]] among others, this is the day that presents are exchanged and opened.
*The [[Christmas Eve#Declaration of Christmas Peace|Declaration of Christmas Peace]] takes place in the Old Great Square of [[Turku]], [[Finland]]'s official [[Christmas City]], according to old traditions dating back to the [[Middle Ages]].
==External links==
* [http://groups.msn.com/965172qg02rbm4ek3a6e7udur5/_whatsnew.msnw Santa`s Lapland and Christmas Club]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/24 BBC: On This Day]
==Fictional events==
* [[2005]]: [[Pluto's Kiss]], a [[computer virus]], cripples the [[Internet]] and all computer networks. From the [[.hack]] franchise.
* [[2011]]: The Awakening occurs. From [[Shadowrun]] RPG.
----
[[December 23]] - [[December 25]] - [[November 24]] - [[January 24]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:24 Desember]]
[[ar:24 ديسمبر]]
[[an:24 d'abiento]]
[[ast:24 d'avientu]]
[[bg:24 декември]]
[[be:24 сьнежня]]
[[bs:24. decembar]]
[[ca:24 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 24]]
[[cv:Раштав, 24]]
[[co:24 di decembre]]
[[cs:24. prosinec]]
[[cy:24 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:24. december]]
[[de:24. Dezember]]
[[et:24. detsember]]
[[el:24 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:24 de diciembre]]
[[eo:24-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 24]]
[[fo:24. desember]]
[[fr:24 décembre]]
[[fy:24 desimber]]
[[ga:24 Nollaig]]
[[gl:24 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 24일]]
[[hr:24. prosinca]]
[[io:24 di decembro]]
[[id:24 Desember]]
[[ia:24 de decembre]]
[[is:24. desember]]
[[it:24 dicembre]]
[[he:24 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:24 Desember]]
[[ka:24 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:24 gòdnika]]
[[ku:24'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:24 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 24]]
[[lb:24. Dezember]]
[[li:24 december]]
[[hu:December 24]]
[[mk:24 декември]]
[[ms:24 Disember]]
[[nap:24 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:24 december]]
[[ja:12月24日]]
[[no:24. desember]]
[[nn:24. desember]]
[[oc:24 de decembre]]
[[os:24 декабры]]
[[pl:24 grudnia]]
[[pt:24 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:24 decembrie]]
[[ru:24 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 24.]]
[[sco:24 December]]
[[sq:24 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:24 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 24]]
[[sk:24. december]]
[[sl:24. december]]
[[sr:24. децембар]]
[[fi:24. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:24 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 24]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 24]]
[[tt:24. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 24]]
[[th:24 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:24 tháng 12]]
[[tr:24 Aralık]]
[[uk:24 грудня]]
[[wa:24 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 24]]
[[zh:12月24日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 24]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 26</title>
<id>8360</id>
<revision>
<id>42038387</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:55:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Skysmith</username>
<id>6995</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 26]]''' is the 360th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], 361st in [[leap year]]s. There are 5 days remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1481]] - [[Battle of Westbroek]] - [[Holland]] defeats troops of [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]].
*[[1620]] - [[Elizabeth Báthory]]'s crimes are uncovered.
*[[1620]] - [[Pilgrim Fathers]] land at what becomes [[New Plymouth]] in [[Massachusetts]].
*[[1776]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: The British are defeated in the [[Battle of Trenton]].
*[[1790]] - [[Louis XVI of France]] gives his public assent to [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]] during the [[French Revolution]].
*[[1792]] - The final trial of [[Louis XVI of France]] begins in [[Paris]].
*[[1793]] - [[Battle of Geisberg (1793)|Battle of Geisberg]]: [[France|French]] defeat [[Austria]]ns.
*[[1793]] - The wedding of Prince [[Friedrich Ludwig of Prussia]] and [[Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]] takes place.
*[[1825]] - Several [[Imperial Russia]] [[army]] [[commissioned officer|officer]]s lead circa 3000 [[soldier]]s on the Senate Square in the failed [[Decembrist revolt|Decembrist uprising]].
*[[1825]] - The [[Erie Canal]] opens.
*[[1848]] - The [[Phi Delta Theta]] fraternity is founded.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] diplomatic envoys [[James M. Mason]] and [[John Slidell]] are freed by the [[United States]] government, thus heading off a possible war between the United States and [[United Kingdom|Britain]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Battle of Chickasaw Bayou]] begins.
*[[1870]] - The 12.8-km long [[Fréjus Rail Tunnel]] through the Alps is completed.
*[[1898]] - [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie|Marie]] and [[Pierre Curie]] announce the isolation of [[radium]].
*[[1908]] - [[Jack Johnson (boxer) |
argue that this has reduced sabre to a two-man game of tag; others argue that this has made the game more sophisticated.
The other serious problem in sabre (universally acknowledged as a problem) is that of "whip-over". The flexibility of the blades is such that the momentum of a cut can often "whip" the end of the blade around the defender's parry. The low success rate of parries (compared to other weapons) is seen by many as impoverishing the tactical repertory of the weapon. In 2000 the [[FIE]] brought in rule changes requiring stiffer blades. This has improved matters but not eradicated the problem altogether. There has been talk of making the sabre guard smaller, in order to make attacks on preparation and counterattacks easier and thus slow down the momentum of the attack, giving the defender more of a chance.
Finally, the cut-out times deserve a mention. The cutout time is the maximum time allowed by the box between two hits registering as simultaneous (if this time is exceeded, only one light will appear). In épée this time is very short: 40 milliseconds. This means that, so far as human perception is concerned, the hits really do need to arrive at the same instant. In foil and sabre, where priority rules apply, the cutout times are considerably longer (hunderds of milliseconds). This was a source of two problems:
* Double lights are a frequent occurrence, making refereeing difficult. Too many decisions are disputed.
* Once again, the attacker gains an unreasonable advantage. It is possible to execute a long marching attack with only a hint of an arm extension, clearly inviting an attack on preparation, which is then followed by a delayed trompment.
For those reasons, in 2004-2005 the [[FIE]] slashed the cut-out times for foil and sabre from 750 milliseconds to 350 milliseconds and from 350 milliseconds to 120 millisends respectively. While these changes were controversial at first, the fencing community now seems to have accepted them. Some concerns remain at sabre, where immediate renewals frequently "time out" indirect ripostes.
== Non-electronic scoring ==
Prior to the introduction of electronic scoring equipment, the president of jury was assisted by four judges. Two judges were positioned behind each fencer, one on each side of the strip. The judges watched the fencer opposite to see if he was hit.
When a judge thought he saw a hit, he raised his hand. The president ([[referee]] or [[Tournament director|director]]) then stopped the bout and reviewed the relevant phases of the action, polling the judges at each stage to determine whether there was a touch, and (in foil and sabre) whether the touch was valid or invalid. Each judge had one vote, and the president had one and a half votes. Thus, two judges could overrule the president; but if the judges disagreed, or if one judge abstained, the president's opinion ruled.
Épée fencing was later conducted with red dye on the tip, easily seen on the white uniform. As a bout went on, if a touch was seen, a red mark would appear. Between the halts of the director, judges would inspect each fencer for any red marks. Once one was found, it was circled in a dark [[pencil]] to show that it had been already counted. The red dye was not easily removed, preventing any [[cheating]]. The only way to remove it was through certain acids such as [[vinegar]]. Thus, épée fencers became renowned for their reek of vinegar until the invention of electronic equipment.
== National governing bodies ==
'''Italy'''
In [[Italy]], the sport of fencing is governed by the [[Federazione Italiana Scherma]] ([[FIS]]). The organization's website is located here: [http://www.federscherma.it Federazione Italiana Scherma].
'''France'''
In [[France]], the sport of fencing is governed by the [[Federation Francaise d'Escrime]] ([[FFE]]). The organization's website is located here: [http://www.escrime-ffe.fr Federation Francaise d'Escrime].
'''Hungary'''
In [[Hungary]], the sport of fencing is governed by the [[Magyar Vívószövetség]] ([[MVSz]]). The organization's website is located here:
[http://www.hunfencing.hu Magyar Vívószövetség]
'''New Zealand'''
In [[New Zealand]], the sport of fencing is governed by [[Fencing New Zealand]] ([[FeNZ]])
'''Mexico'''
In [[Mexico]], the sport of fencing is governed by the [[Federacion Mexicana de Esgrima]] ([[FME]]). Clubs affiliate to each state's association, who are affiliated with the FME.
'''United States'''
In the [[United States]], the sport of fencing is governed by the [[United States Fencing Association]] ([[USFA]]).
'''United Kingdom'''
In the [[United Kingdom]], fencing is governed by the [[British Fencing Association]] ([[BFA]]).
The 'Home Nations' of Wales, England, Northern Ireland and Scotland have their own governing bodies under the auspices of the BFA: [http://www.welshfencing.org Welsh Fencing], [http://www.englandfencing.co.uk England Fencing], the [http://www.nifu.co.uk Northern Ireland Fencing Union] and [http://www.scottish-fencing.com Scottish Fencing] respectively.
== Collegiate fencing ==
Colligiate fencing has existed for a long time in the US. Some of the earliest programs came from the [[Ivy League]] schools, but now there are over a hundred fencing programs nation wide. Both clubs and varsity teams participate in the sport, however only the varsity teams may participate in the [[NCAA]] championship tournament. Due to the lack of schools in fencing, the teams actually fence inter-division (teams from Division III schools to Division I), and all divisions participate in the NCAA Championships. In [[2005]] [[University of Notre Dame|Notre Dame]] edged out [[Ohio State University|Ohio State]] to win the championship.
Collegiate fencing tournaments are "team tournaments" in a sense, but contrary to what many people expect, collegiate meets are not run as 45-touch relays. Schools compete against each other one at a time. In each weapon and gender, three fencers from each school fence each other in five-touch bouts. (Substitutions are allowed, so more than three fencers per squad can compete in a tournament.) A fencer's individual results in collegiate tournaments and regional championships are used to select the fencers who will compete in NCAA championships. Individual results for fencers from each school are combined to judge the school's overall performance and to calculate how it placed in a given tournament.
*[[List of NCAA Fencing Schools]]
*[[List of club-level US collegiate fencing programs]]
== High school fencing ==
The practice of competitive fencing on the high school level is considered a small, local sport of the North Eastern region of the United States, particularly in New Jersey. The majority of schools in these areas do not have fencing programs, and it is traditionally run at only some schools. The sport of fencing is considered rather costly on the high school level, as many competetive high school teams are of private academies, who strive to excel at the sport through use of recruiting programs and talent scouts.
Instead of fencing for a school at this level, most fencers choose to fence for a club, and may only fence at a school part time.
== Notable modern fencers and fencing masters ==
* [[Christian d'Oriola]], 4 times world champion, 2 olympic titles plus many team titles
* [[Péter Fröhlich]], Hungarian master and Olympic coach
* [[Aladar Gerevich]] - Hungarian sabreur who is the only athlete to win the same Olympic event six times.
* [[Sergei Golubitsky]], World foil champion three consecutive times
* [[Pavel Kolobkov]], Russian World Champion and Olympic Champion
* [[Viktor Krovopouskov]] - a Soviet sabreur, four-time Olympic Gold medalist
* [[Ju-Jie Luan]], Chinese fencer and coach, gold medallist for Women's Foil at the [[1984]] [[Summer Olympic Games]]
* [[Edoardo Mangiarotti]] of Italy has won more Olympic titles and World championships than any other fencer in the history of the sport.
* [[Aldo Nadi]], gold and silver medallist in the [[1920]] [[Summer Olympic Games]], well-known fencing master, and author of the classic texts, ''On Fencing'' and "The Living Sword".
* [[Nedo Nadi]], Aldo's brother and winner of 6 Olympic Gold medals
* [[Vladimir Nazlymov]] - Soviet sabre fencer/coach, 10-time world champion, three-time Olympic Team Gold medallist (1968, 1976, 1980). Twice named the world's best sabre fencer by the International Fencing Federation. Currently, head fencing coach of The Ohio State University fencing team.
* [[Boris Onishchenko]], Russian modern pentathlete, individual silver medallist and team gold medallist in 1972, disqualified in 1976 for using a rigged weapon.
* [[Mark Rakita]] - a Soviet sabreur, Olympic Gold medalist, David Tyshler's pupil and a highly successful coach in his own right (pupils include Victor Krovopouskov and Victor Sidjak)
* [[Alexander Romankov]]
* [[Italo Santelli]], the fencing master who revolutionized sabre fencing with the "Hungarian" style in the [[1920s]].
* [[Giorgio Santelli]], Italo's son, founder of the Santelli salle in [[New York City]], coach to 5 U.S. Olympic teams, legendary fencing teacher, Olympic gold medallist.
* [[Viktor Sidjak]] - a Soviet sabreur, four-time Olympic Gold medalist
* [[László Szabó (fencing master)|László Szabó]], the Hungarian master who defined a system for developing coaches and wrote the defining Fencing and the Master, the only direct student of the legendary Italo Santelli to write of what he learned. Teacher of Olympic and World champions.
* [[David Tyshler]] - a member of the first generation of internationally successful Soviet fencers, best known for his achievements as a coach, one of the great theorists of the Soviet school of fencing
* [[Imre Vass]], who authored the definitive guide to épée fencing
* [[Bela Valter]], Hungarian master and Olympic coach
* [[Francis Zold (1904-2003)]], Hungarian fencing master an |
'', '''Ricardo Reis''' and semi-heteronym '''Bernardo Soares'''. The heteronyms possess distinct temperaments, philosophies, appearances and writing styles. According to Pessoa, the heteronym closest to his personality was Bernardo Soares, the author of ''Book of Disquiet''. (For a more comprehensive discussion of the genesis of the heteronyms see: [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/letter.html Genesis of Heteronyms])
== Alberto Caeiro ==
:''I have no ambitions and no desires.''
:''To be a poet is not my ambition,''
:''It's my way of being alone.''
:&ndash; Alberto Caeiro: 'The Keeper of Sheep'
Alberto Caeiro is Pessoa's first great heteronym.
The best summarization of Caeiro is given by Pessoa himself: "He sees things with the eyes only, not with the mind. He does not let any thoughts arise when he looks at a flower... the only thing a stone tells him is that it has nothing at all to tell him... this way of looking at a stone may be described as the totally unpoetic way of looking at it. The stupendous fact about Caeiro is that out of this sentiment, or rather, absence of sentiment, he makes poetry."
What makes Caeiro such an original poet is the way he apprehends existence. He does not question anything whatsoever; he calmly accepts the world as it is. The recurrent themes to be found in nearly all of Caeiro's poems are "wide-eyed child-like wonder at the infinite variety of nature", as noted by a critic. He is free of [[metaphysical]] entanglements. Central to his world-view is the idea that in the world around us, all is surface: things are precisely what they seem, there is no hidden meaning anywhere.
He manages thus to free himself from the anxieties that batter his peers; for Caeiro, things simply exist and we have no right to credit them with more than that. Our unhappiness, he tells us, springs from our unwillingness to limit our horizons. As such, Caeiro attains happiness by not questioning, and by thus avoiding doubts and uncertainties. He apprehends reality solely through his eyes, through his senses. What he teaches us is that if we want to be happy we ought to do the same. [[Octavio Paz]] called him "the innocent poet". Paz made a shrewd remark on the heteronyms: "In each are particles of negation or unreality. Reis believes in form, Campos in sensation, Pessoa in symbols. Caeiro doesn't believe in anything. He exists."
Poetry before Caeiro was essentially interpretative; what poets did was to offer us an interpretation of their perceived surroundings; Caeiro does not do this. Instead, he attempts to communicate his senses, his feelings to us, without any interpretation whatsoever.
Caeiro teaches us to apprehend Nature differently; he asks of us, simply, to see what is before us. Poets before him would have made use of intricate metaphors to describe what was before them; not so Caeiro: his self-appointed task is to bring these objects to the reader's attention, as directly and simply as possible. Caeiro sought a direct experience of the objects before him.
It does not surprise us that Caeiro has been called an anti-intellectual, anti-Romantic, anti-subjectivist, anti-metaphysical...an anti-poet, by critics; Caeiro simply--is. He is in this sense very unlike his creator Fernando Pessoa: Pessoa was besieged by metaphysical uncertainties; these were, to a large extent, the cause of his unhappiness; not so Caeiro: his attitude is anti-metaphysical; he avoided uncertainties by adamantly clinging to a certainty: his belief that there is no meaning behind things. Things, for him, simply--are.
Caeiro represents a primal vision of reality, of things. He is the pagan incarnate. Indeed Caeiro, Richard Zenith tells us, was not simply a pagan but 'paganism itself'.
The critic Jane M. Sheets, sees the insurgence of Caeiro--who was Pessoa's first major heteronym-- as essential in founding the later poetic personas: "By means of this artless yet affirmative anti-poet, Caeiro, a short-lived but vital member of his coterie, Pessoa acquired the base of an experienced and universal poetic vision. After Caeiro's tenets had been established, the avowedly poetic voices of Campos, Reis and Pessoa himself spoke with greater assurance."
== Ricardo Reis ==
:''As long as I feel the full breeze in my hair''
:''And see the sun shining bright on the leaves,''
:''I will not ask for more.''
:''What better thing could destiny give me''
:''Than the sensual passing of life in moments''
:''Of ignorance like this?''
:&ndash; Ricardo Reis
Reis sums up his philosophy of life: he admonishes: 'see life from a distance. never question it. there's nothing it can tell you.' Like Caeiro, Reis defers from questioning life; his philosophy entails the avoidance of pain; man for him should seek tranquillity and calm above all else. Richard Zenith notes Reis' recurrent themes: 'the brevity of life, the vanity of wealth and struggle, the joy of simple pleasures, patience in time of trouble, and avoidance of extremes.'
He is in a sense a passive poet: his philosophy is one of resignation. Is his stance a product of weariness? He lacks the joviality which characterizes Caeiro. Reis's poetry, as noted by a critic, is austere and cerebral. He is detached, intellectual, like his creator Fernando Pessoa. Pessoa's heteronyms in one way or another represent aspects of the poet himself. Reis represents Pessoa's wish for measure and sobriety; a world free of troubles and respite.
Reis, a pagan, is decidedly un-Christian: he casts off the fetters of Christianity which he feels encumber his existence; instead he chooses to worship the ancient Greek gods. He chants: 'Your dead gods tell me nothing I need to know. Without love or hatred I dismiss the crucifix from my way of being.'
Reis is a modern pagan who urges one to seize the day and accept fate with tranquility. 'Wise is the one who does not seek', he says; and continues: 'the seeker will find in all things the abyss, and doubt in himself.' In this sense Reis shares essential affinities with Caeiro.
The essential difference between the two is that while Caeiro's predominant attitude is that of joviality, Reis is marked by melancholy; he is saddened by the impermanence of all things. And while it is true that Caeiro can be sad, his is of a different kind. 'My sadness,' Caeiro says, 'is a comfort for it is natural and right.'
== Álvaro de Campos ==
:''Não sou nada.''
:''Nunca serei nada.''
:''Não posso querer ser nada.''
:''À parte isso, tenho em mim todos os sonhos do mundo.''
: (''I'm nothing.''
:''I'll always be nothing.''
:''I can't want to be something.''
:''But I have in me all the dreams of the world.'')
:&ndash; Álvaro de Campos: 'Tabacaria' ('The Tobacco Shop')
Álvaro de Campos is undoubtedly Pessoa's greatest heteronym. 'Campos,' as Zenith notes, 'was the most substantial of Pessoa's heteronyms and the one closest to his true heart and person...he was in many ways a larger-than-life version of his creator.' Of the three heteronyms he is the one who feels the strongest; his motto was 'to feel everything in every way.' 'The best way to travel,' he wrote, 'is to feel.'
Campos manifests two contrary impulses: on the one hand: a feverish desire to be everything and everyone, declaring that 'in every corner of my soul stands an altar to a different god.' The second impulse is toward a state of isolation and a sense of nothingness.
Of the first of these impulses: Campos is possessed of the Whitmanian desire to 'contain multitudes'. Critics have noted how 'Whitman's influence is apparent in part in the sheer vitality of these poems, in the zest for experience which they express.' Indeed Campos has in many respects outdone his precursor in 'containing multitudes': it seems that the entire cosmos is not enough for him to 'contain'. After chanting all the places, all the ports, all the sights he's seen.... 'Of all this,' he remarks, 'which is so much, is nothing next to what I want.'
One of the poet's constant preoccupations is that of identity: he does not know who he is. The problem, it seems, is not that he doesn't know what to be; on the contrary: he wants to be too much, everything; short of achieving this he despairs. Unlike Caeiro, who asks nothing of life, he asks too much. In his poetic meditation 'Tobacco Shop' he asks:
:''How should I know what I'll be, I who don't know what I am?''
: Be what I think? But I think of being so many things!''
Campos can be manic-depressive, exultant, violent, dynamic; he quests for nowhere and everywhere at once. His is an agonized doubt at the wasting of life-- at life, everything. For a critic he is 'par excellence the poet appalled by the emptiness of his own existence, lethargic, lacking in will-power, seeking inspiration, or at all events finding it, in semi-conscious states, in the twilight world between waking and sleeping, in dreams and in drunkenness.'
== Fernando Pessoa-himself ==
:''The poet is a faker''
:''Who's so good at his act''
:''He even fakes the pain''
:''Of pain he feels in fact''
:&ndash; Fernando Pessoa-himself: Autopsychography
'Fernando Pessoa-himself' is not the 'real' Fernando Pessoa. Like Caeiro, Reis and Campos-- Pessoa-himself embodies only aspects of the poet. As will be seen Fernando Pessoa's personality is not stamped in any given voice; his personality is diffused through the heteronyms. For this reason 'Fernando Pessoa-himself' stands apart from the poet proper.
In reading the poetry of Pessoa-himself we shall realize that he shares many essential affinities with his peers, Caeiro and Campos in particular. Lines crop up in his poems that may as well be ascribed to Campos or Caeiro. It is useful to keep this in mind as we read this exposition.
The critic Leland Guyer sums up Pessoa-himself: "the poetry of the orthonymic Fernando Pessoa normally possesses a measured, regular form and appreciation of the musicality of verse. |
X''." In general, it is impossible to prove that ''F'' exists without the axiom of choice, but this seems to have gone unnoticed until Zermelo.
Not every situation requires the axiom of choice. For finite sets ''X'', the axiom of choice follows from the other axioms of set theory. In that case it is equivalent to saying that if we have several (a finite number of) boxes, each containing at least one item, then we can choose exactly one item from each box. Clearly we can do this: We start at the first box, choose an item; go to the second box, choose an item; and so on. There are only finitely many boxes, so eventually our choice procedure comes to an end. The result is an explicit choice function: a function that takes the first box to the first element we chose, the second box to the second element we chose, and so on. (A formal proof for all finite sets would use the principle of [[mathematical induction]].)
For certain infinite sets ''X'', it is also possible to avoid the axiom of choice. For example, suppose that the elements of ''X'' are sets of natural numbers. Every nonempty set of natural numbers has a least element, so to specify our choice function we can simply say that it takes each set to the least element of that set. This gives us a definite choice of an element from each set and we can write down an explicit expression that tells us what value our choice function takes. Any time it is possible to specify such an explicit choice, the axiom of choice is unnecessary.
The difficulty appears when there is no natural choice of elements from each set. If we cannot make explicit choices, how do we know that our set exists? For example, suppose that ''X'' is the set of all non-empty subsets of the [[real number]]s. First we might try to proceed as if ''X'' were finite. If we try to choose an element from each set, then, because ''X'' is infinite, our choice procedure will never come to an end, and consequently, we will never be able to produce a choice function for all of ''X''. So that won't work. Next we might try the trick of specifying the least element from each set. But some subsets of the real numbers don't have least elements. For example, the open interval (0,1) does not have a least element: If ''x'' is in (0,1), then so is ''x''/2, and ''x''/2 is always strictly smaller than ''x''. So taking least elements doesn't work, either.
The reason that we are able to choose least elements from subsets of the natural numbers is the fact that the natural numbers are [[well-order]]ed: Every subset of the natural numbers has a unique least element. Perhaps if we were clever we might say, "Even though the usual ordering of the real numbers does not work, it may be possible to find a different ordering of the real numbers which is a well-ordering. Then our choice function can choose the least element of every set under our unusual ordering." The problem then becomes constructing such an ordering, and it turns out that every set can be well-ordered if and only if the axiom of choice is true.
A proof requiring the axiom of choice is always [[nonconstructive proof|nonconstructive]]: even if the proof produces an object then it is impossible to say exactly what that object is. Consequently, while the axiom of choice asserts that there is a well-ordering of the real numbers, it does not give us an example of one. Yet the reason why we chose above to well-order the real numbers was so that for each set in ''X'', we could explicitly choose an element of that set. If we cannot write down the well-ordering we are using, then our choice is not very explicit. This is one of the reasons why some mathematicians dislike the axiom of choice. For example, [[constructivism (mathematics)|constructivists]] posit that all existence proofs should be totally explicit; it should be possible to construct anything that exists. They reject the axiom of choice because it asserts the existence of an object without telling what it is.
== Independence of AC ==
By work of [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Paul Cohen]], the axiom of choice is [[logically independent]] of the other axioms of [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]] (ZF). This means that neither it nor its negation can be proven to be true in ZF. Consequently, assuming the axiom of choice, or its negation, will never lead to a contradiction that could not be obtained without that assumption.
So the decision whether or not it is appropriate to make use of the axiom of choice in a proof cannot be made by appeal to other axioms of set theory. The decision must be made on other grounds.
One argument given in favor of using the axiom of choice is that it is convenient to use it: using it cannot hurt (cannot result in contradiction) and makes it possible to prove some propositions that otherwise could not be proved.
The axiom of choice is not the only significant statement which is independent of ZF. For example, the [[generalized continuum hypothesis]] (GCH) is not only independent of ZF, but also independent of ZF plus the axiom of choice (ZFC). However, ZF plus GCH implies AC, making GCH a strictly stronger claim than AC, even though they are both independent of ZF.
One reason that some mathematicians dislike the axiom of choice is that it implies the existence of some bizarre counter-intuitive objects. An example of this is the [[Banach–Tarski paradox]] which says in effect that it is possible to "carve up" the 3-dimensional solid unit ball into finitely many pieces and, using only rotation and translation, reassemble the pieces into two balls each with the same volume as the original. Note that the proof, like all proofs involving the axiom of choice, is an existence proof only: it does not tell us how to carve up the unit sphere to make this happen, it simply tells us that it can be done.
On the other hand, the [[negation]] of the axiom of choice is also bizarre. For example, the statement that for any two sets ''S'' and ''T'', the [[cardinality]] of ''S'' is less than or equal to the cardinality of ''T'' or the cardinality of ''T'' is less than or equal to the cardinality of ''S'' is equivalent to the axiom of choice. Put differently, if the axiom of choice is false, then there are sets ''S'' and ''T'' of incomparable size: neither can be mapped in a one-to-one fashion onto a subset of the other.
A third possibility is to prove theorems using neither the axiom of choice nor its negation, a tactic preferred in constructive mathematics. Such statements will be true in any [[model theory|model]] of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, regardless of the truth or falsity of the axiom of choice in that particular model. This renders any claim that relies on either the axiom of choice or its negation undecidable. For example, under such an assumption, the Banach–Tarski paradox is neither true nor false: It is impossible to construct a decomposition of the unit ball which can be reassembled into two unit balls, and it is also impossible to prove that it can't be done. However, the Banach–Tarski paradox can be rephrased as a statement about models of ZF by saying, "In any model of ZF in which AC is true, the Banach–Tarski paradox is true." Similarly, all the statements listed below under [[#Results requiring AC|Results requiring AC]] are undecidable in ZF, but since each is provable in any model of ZFC, there are models of ZF in which each statement is true.
== Weaker forms of AC ==
There are several weaker statements which are not equivalent to the axiom of choice, but which are closely related. A simple one is the [[axiom of countable choice]], which states that a choice function exists for any countable set ''X''. This usually suffices when trying to make statements about the real numbers, for example, because the rational numbers, which are countable, form a dense subset of the reals. See also the [[Boolean prime ideal theorem]], the [[ultrafilter lemma]], the [[axiom of dependent choice]], and the [[Uniformization (set theory)|axiom of uniformization]].
== Results requiring AC (or weaker forms) ==
One of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics that it shows up. There are also a remarkable number of important statements that, assuming the axioms of ZF but neither AC nor ¬AC, are equivalent to the axiom of choice. The most important among them are [[Zorn's lemma]] and the [[well-ordering theorem]]: every set can be well-ordered. In fact, Zermelo initially introduced the axiom of choice in order to formalize his proof of the well-ordering principle. Here are some statements that require the axiom of choice in the sense that they are not provable from ZF but are provable from ZFC (ZF plus AC). Equivalently, these statements are true in all models of ZFC but false in some models of ZF.
* [[Set theory]]
** Any [[union (set theory)|union]] of [[countable|countably many]] countable sets is itself countable.
** If the set ''A'' is [[infinite]], then there exists an [[injective function|injection]] from the [[natural number]]s '''N''' to ''A''.
** If the set ''A'' is infinite, then ''A'' and ''A''×''A'' have the same [[cardinality]]. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))''
** [[Trichotomy]]: If two sets are given, then they either have the same cardinality, or one has a smaller cardinality than the other. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))''
** The product of any nonempty family of nonempty sets is nonempty. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))''
** Every infinite [[determinacy#Basic notions|game]] <math>G(T,X)</math> where <math>X</math> is either [[open set|open]] or [[closed set|closed]] is [[determinacy#Basic notions|determined]].
* [[Measure theory]]
** The [[Vitali set|Vitali theorem]] on the existence of [[non-measurable set]]s.
** The [[Hausdorff paradox]].
** The [[Banach–Tarski paradox]] |
everyone US$0.25 per end-user system (like a car or computer) that uses any 1394 technology.
== See also ==
* [[HAVI]], FireWire to control Audio and Video hardware.
* [[Universal Serial Bus]] (USB)
== External links ==
*[http://www.1394ta.org/ 1394 Trade Association]
*[http://www.mpegla.com/1394/ 1394 LA] MPEG LA administers the rights for patented inventions necessary to implement IEEE 1394.
*[http://www.apple.com/firewire/ Apple FireWire Technology]
*[http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/1394/c/ IEEE p1394c Working Group website]
*[http://www.barefeats.com/usb2.html USB 2.0 vs FireWire] &mdash; performance benchmarks of external drives using Macs
*[http://www.wiebetech.com/pressreleases/FireWirePortFailures.htm ''FireWire Port Failures in Host Computers and Peripheral Devices'' by James Wiebe]
*[http://www.pcworld.com/howto/article/0,aid,14371,00.asp PC World article on IEEE 1394]
*[http://fwdepot.com/firewiredepot/firmware/firmware.html FireWire Firmware and utilities by FireWireDepot]
*[http://www.interfacebus.com/Design_Connector_Firewire.html FireWire pinouts]
*[http://www.linux1394.org FireWire support for Linux]
== References ==
* {{cite book | author = IEEE p1394 Working Group | title = IEEE Std 1394-1995 High Performance Serial Bus | publisher = IEEE | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0-7381-1203-8 }}
* {{cite book | author = IEEE p1394a Working Group | title = IEEE Std 1394a-2000 High Performance Serial Bus - Amendment 1 | publisher = IEEE | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-7381-1958-X }}
* {{cite book | author = IEEE p1394b Working Group | title = IEEE Std 1394b-2002 High Performance Serial Bus - Amendment 2 | publisher = IEEE | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-7381-3253-5 }}
* {{cite book | author = INCITS T10 Project 1467D | title = Information technology — Serial Bus Protocol 3 (SBP-3) | publisher = ANSI INCITS | year = 2004 | id = ANSI INCITS 375-2004 }}
* {{cite book | first = Don | last = Anderson | title = FireWire System Architecture | publisher = MindShare, Inc. | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-201-48535-4 }}
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<page>
<title>Fundamental tone</title>
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<timestamp>2004-04-13T01:47:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hyacinth</username>
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<title>Fundamental dimensions</title>
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<timestamp>2002-06-21T11:51:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.253.40.214</ip>
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<comment>redir</comment>
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<title>Fundamental dimensions/Forum</title>
<id>11614</id>
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<id>15909350</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T17:12:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Fundamental unit]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental unit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finite field</title>
<id>11615</id>
<revision>
<id>41782059</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:37:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>142.150.204.138</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The first few finite fields */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a '''finite field''' or '''Galois field''' (so named in honor of [[Évariste Galois]]) is a [[field (mathematics)|field]] that contains only finitely many elements. Finite fields are important in [[number theory]], [[algebraic geometry]], [[Galois theory]], [[cryptography]], and [[coding theory]]. The finite fields are completely known, as will be described below.
== Classification ==
Since every field of [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] 0 contains the [[rational number|rationals]] and is therefore infinite, all finite fields have [[prime number|prime]] characteristic, and hence cardinality ''p''<sup>''n''</sup> for some prime p and positive integer n (since the field is a vector space over the subfield of cardinality p generated by the element 1). (As an aside, the converse is not true &mdash; there exist infinite fields of prime characteristic.)
For a prime ''p'', the [[integer|integers]] [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] ''p'' form a field with ''p'' elements, denoted '''Z'''/''p'''''Z''', '''F'''<sub>''p''</sub> or '''GF'''(''p''). (Sometimes '''Z'''<sub>''p''</sub> is used, but this can cause confusion with the ring of [[p-adic number|p-adic integers]].) Every field with ''p'' elements is [[isomorphism | isomorphic]] to this one.
If ''q'' = ''p''<sup>''n''</sup> is a [[prime power]], then there exists [[up to]] isomorphism exactly one field with ''q'' elements, written as '''F'''<sub>''q''</sub> or '''GF'''(''q''). It can be constructed as follows: find an [[irreducible polynomial]] ''f''(''T'') of degree ''n'' with coefficients in '''GF'''(''p''), then define '''GF'''(''q'') = '''GF'''(''p'')[''T''] / <''f''(''T'')>. Here, '''GF'''(''p'')[''T''] denotes the [[ring (algebra)|ring]] of all [[polynomial|polynomials]] with coefficients in '''GF'''(''p''), <''f''(''T'')> denotes the [[ring ideal]] generated by ''f''(''T''), and the quotient is meant in the sense of [[ring ideal|factor rings]] - the set of polynomials with coefficients in '''GF'''(''p'') on division by ''f''(''T''). The polynomial ''f''(''T'') can be found by factoring the polynomial ''T''<sup>&nbsp;''q''</sup>-''T'' over '''GF'''(''p''). The field '''GF'''(''q'') contains '''GF'''(''p'') as a subfield.
There are no other finite fields.
== Examples ==
The polynomial ''f''(''T'') = ''T''<sup>&nbsp;2</sup> + ''T'' + 1 is irreducible over '''GF'''(2), and '''GF'''(4) = '''GF'''(2)[''T''] / <''T''<sup>2</sup>+''T''+1> can therefore be written as the set {0, 1, ''t'', ''t''+1} where the multiplication is defined (modularly) by ''t''<sup>2</sup> + ''t'' + 1 = 0. For example, to determine ''t''<sup>3</sup>, note that ''t''(''t''<sup>2</sup> + ''t'' + 1) = 0; so ''t''<sup>3</sup> + ''t''<sup>2</sup> + ''t'' = 0, and thus ''t''<sup>3</sup> + ''t''<sup>2</sup> + ''t'' + 1 = 1, so ''t''<sup>3</sup> = 1. Similarly, since the characteristic of the field is 2 - coefficients are in '''GF'''(2), we can calculate powers of ''t'' in this instance by noting first that ''t''<sup>2</sup>+''t''+1=0, and then ''t''<sup>2</sup>=''t''+1. Then ''t''<sup>3</sup> = ''t''(''t''<sup>2</sup>) = ''t''(''t''+1) = ''t''<sup>2</sup>+''t'' = (''t''+1)+''t'' = 1 as before.
In order to find the multiplicative inverse of ''t'' in this field, we have to find a polynomial ''p''(''T'') such that ''T'' * ''p''(''T'') = 1 modulo ''T''<sup>&nbsp;2</sup> + ''T'' + 1. The polynomial ''p''(''T'') = ''T'' + 1 works, and hence 1/''t'' = ''t'' + 1. Note that the field '''GF'''(4) is completely unrelated to the ring '''Z'''<sub>4</sub> of integers modulo 4.
To construct the field '''GF'''(27), we start with the irreducible polynomial ''T''<sup>&nbsp;3</sup> + ''T''<sup>&nbsp;2</sup> + ''T'' - 1 over '''GF'''(3). We then have '''GF'''(27) = {''at''<sup>2</sup> + ''bt'' + ''c'' : ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' in '''GF'''(3)}, where the multiplication is defined by ''t''<sup>&nbsp;3</sup> + ''t''<sup>&nbsp;2</sup> + ''t'' - 1 = 0, or working from the rearrangement of the above in isolating the ''t''<sup>3</sup> term.
== Properties and facts ==
If ''F'' is a finite field with ''q'' = ''p''<sup>''n''</sup> elements (where ''p'' is prime), then
:''x''<sup>''q''</sup> = ''x''
for all ''x'' in ''F''. Furthermore, the map
:''f'' : ''F'' &rarr; ''F''
defined by
:''f''(''x'') = ''x''<sup>''p''</sup>
is [[bijective]] and a [[homomorphism]], and is therefore an [[automorphism]]. It is called the [[Frobenius automorphism]], after [[Ferdinand Georg Frobenius]].
The Frobenius automorphism has order ''n'', so that the [[cyclic group]] it generates is the full [[group (mathematics)|group]] of automorphisms of the field.
The field '''GF'''(''p<sup>m</sup>'') contains a copy of '''GF'''(''p<sup>n</sup>'') if and only if ''n'' [[divisor|divides]] ''m''. The reason for the if direction is that there exist irreducible polynomials of every degree over '''GF'''(''p<sup>m</sup>'').
If we actually construct our finite fields in such a fashion that '''GF'''(''p<sup>n</sup>'') ''is contained in'' '''GF'''(''p<sup>m</sup>'') whenever ''n'' divides ''m'', then we can form the [[union (set theory)|union]] of all these fields. This union is also a field, albeit an infinite one. It is the [[algebraic closure]] of each of the fields '''GF'''(''p<sup>n</sup>''). Even if we don't construct our fields this way, we can still speak of the [[algebraic closure]], but some more delicacy is required in its construction.
== Applications ==
The multiplicative |
nother attorney. His mentor was [[Richard Stockton (1730-1781)]], who later signed the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and was coincidentally married to Elias' sister [[Annis Boudinot Stockton]]. In 1760 he was admitted to the bar, and began his practice in [[Elizabeth, New Jersey]]. He owned land adjacent to the road from Elizabethtown to Woodbridge, NJ.
Then on [[April 21]], [[1762]] he married Richard's sister, Hannah Stockton (1736-1808). Elias and Hannah would have only one child, [[Susan Boudinot Bradford]]. Susan married [[William Bradford (1755-1795)|William Bradford]] who became Chief Justice of [[Pennsylvania]] and Washington's [[Attorney General]]. After Bradford's death in 1795, Susan came back to make her home with her father and edit his papers, which are a light into the events of the Revolutionary era. Elias' only brother, Elisha, became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey.
In [[1805]] Elias moved his family to a new home in [[Burlington, New Jersey]] and lived there the rest of his life. In his later years he invested and speculated in land. He owned large tracts in [[Ohio]] including most of [[Green Township, Hamilton County, Ohio|Green Township]] in what is now the western suburbs of [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]]. On his death he willed 13,000 acres to the city of Philadelphia for parks and city needs.
Boudinot died at home in Burlington on [[October 24]], [[1821]]. He is buried in St. Mary's Episcopal Churchyard on West Broad Street there.
==Political career==
Boudinot became a prominent lawyer and his practice prospered, As the revolution drew near, he aligned with the [[Whigs]], and was elected to the New Jersey provincial assembly in 1775. In the early stages of the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] he was active in promoting enlistment and several times loaned money to field commanders for supplies. Elias also became one of the focal points for rebel spies, who were sent to Staten Island and Long Island to observe and report on movements of specific British garrisons and regiments. To this day, much of what he organized remains a "secret" worth discovery and telling.
On [[May 5]], [[1777]] General [[George Washington]] asked for him to be made commissary general for prisoners. Congress through the board of war concurred. Boudinot was made a Colonel in the [[Continental Army]] for this task. He held this job until other responsibilities force him to resign in July of [[1778]]. The commissary was responsible not just for enemy prisoners, but for supplying American prisoners held by the British. ''See: [[American Revolution prisoners of war]].''
In November of 1777, the New Jersey legislature named Boudinot as one of their delegates to the [[Continental Congress]]. His duties as Commissary prevented his attendance, so in May of 1778 he submitted his resignation, and by early July he was replaced and able to attend his first meeting on [[July 7]], [[1778]]. He maintained his concerns for the welfare of prisoners of war throughout his term as a delegate. His first term ended that year.
In 1781 Elias returned to the Congress, and this term lasted through 1783.He was elected the [[President of the Continental Congress]] for the November 1782 to November 1783 term. Some later analysts have ''incorrectly'' claimed him as the '''First President of the United States''', an honor he shares with [[John Hanson]]. The basis for the claim in his name is that the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]], in which [[Great Britain|Britain]] recognized American independence, was concluded during his term as president of the Congress. But news of the event didn't get to Congress until after his term, and the United States didn't ratify the treaty until [[January 14]], [[1784]].
When the United States government was formed in [[1789]], New Jersey sent Elias Boudinot to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. He was elected to the second and third congresses as well, where he generally supported the administration, but refused to join the growing forces that led to formal political parties. In [[1794]] he declined to serve another term, and left Congress in early [[1795]]. In October of 1795, President Washington appointed him the Director of the [[United States Mint]], a position he held until his retirement in [[1805]]. After many turbulent decades in law and politics, he was to recall the metallurgic skill learned in his father's [[silversmith]]y. Under his administration the first US coinage was minted, the beauty of which is sought after by collectors willing to pay many thousands, or even millions, of dollars for any specimen, most notably the 1804 silver dollar. He was scrupulous in his accounting, as reported to Congress, and left the US Mint in excellent order for the future.
==Later public service==
In addition to political office Elias supported many civic, religious, and educational causes during his life. He is intimately connected with [[Princeton University]]. In Revolutionary times, Princeton was the ''College of New Jersey'', and Boudinot served as one of its trustees for nearly half a century, from [[1772]] until [[1821]]. When the Continental Congress was forced to leave Philadelphia in 1783 while he was its president, he moved the meetings to [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] where they met in the University's Nassau Hall.
A devout Episcopalian, Boudinot supported missions and missionary work. To that end he was one of the founders of the American Bible Society, and served as its President after 1816. He argued for the rights of black and [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]] citizens, and sponsored students to the Board School for Indians in [[Connecticut]]. One of these, a young Cherokee named ''Gallegina Watie'', stayed with him while traveling to the school. The two so impressed each other that Gallegina asked for and was given permission to use his name, and was afterward known as [[Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)|Elias Boudinot]].
==Legacy==
Elias Boudinot Elementary School in [[Burlington, New Jersey]] is named after him.
==Quotes==
* “Be religiously careful in our choice of all public officers... and judge of the tree by its fruits.”
==External links==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=B000661 Boudinot's Congressional Biography]
==Further reading==
*J. J. Boudinot; ''The Life, Public Services, Addresses and Letters of Elias Boudinot''; New York, 1896.
*George Boyd; ''Elias Boudinot: Patriot and Statesman, 1740-1821;'' Westwood, Connecticut, 1969, Greenwood Publishing, ISBN 0837113458.
*Joseph Lee Boyle; ''Their Distress is Almost Intolerable: The Elias Boudinot Letterbook, 1777-1778''; 2002, Heritage Books (paperback), ISBN 0788422103.
{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[President of the Continental Congress|President of the United States in Congress Assembled]]| before=[[John Hanson]]| after=[[Thomas Mifflin]]| years=[[November 4]], [[1782]] &ndash; [[November 2]], [[1783]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1740 births|Boudinot, Elias]]
[[Category:1821 deaths|Boudinot, Elias]]
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[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Boudinot, Elias]]
[[Category:Directors of the United States Mint|Boudinot, Elias]]
[[Category:French Americans|Boudinot, Elias]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from New Jersey|Boudinot, Elias]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Electromagnetic spectrum</title>
<id>10134</id>
<revision>
<id>42042449</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:52:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wayward</username>
<id>184087</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/85.12.76.1|85.12.76.1]] ([[User talk:85.12.76.1|talk]]) to last version by Wayward</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:spectrum.png|right|frame|'''Legend:'''<br />
&gamma; = [[Gamma ray]]s<br />
HX = Hard [[X-ray]]s<br />
SX = Soft X-Rays<br />
EUV = Extreme [[ultraviolet]]<br />
NUV = Near ultraviolet<br />
[[Visible light]]<br />
NIR = Near [[infrared]]<br />
MIR = Moderate infrared<br />
FIR = Far infrared<br />
<br />
'''[[Radio waves]]:'''<br />
EHF = [[Extremely high frequency]] (Microwaves)<br />
SHF = [[Super high frequency]] (Microwaves)<br />
UHF = [[Ultrahigh frequency]]<br />
VHF = [[Very high frequency]]<br />
HF = [[High frequency]]<br />
MF = [[Medium frequency]]<br />
LF = [[Low frequency]]<br />
VLF = [[Very low frequency]]<br />
VF = [[Voice frequency]]<br />
ELF = [[Extremely low frequency]]]]
The '''electromagnetic spectrum''' is the range of all possible [[electromagnetic radiation]]. Also, the "electromagnetic spectrum" (usually just ''spectrum'') of an object is the range of electromagnetic radiation that it [[emission|emits]], [[reflection|reflects]], or transmits.
The electromagnetic spectrum, shown in the table, extends from frequencies used in the electric power grid (at the long-wavelength end) to gamma radiation (at the short-wavelength end), covering wavelengths from thousands of [[kilometre]]s down to fractions of the size of an [[atom]]. It is commonly said that EM waves beyond these limits are uncommon, although this is not actually true. The 22-year sunspot cycle, for instance, produces radiation with a period of 22 years, or a frequency of 1.4*10<sup>-9</sup> Hz. At the other extreme, photons of arbitrarily high frequency may be produced by colliding electrons with positrons at appropriate energy. 10<sup>24</sup> Hz photons can be produced today with man-made accelerators. In our universe the short wavelength limit is likely to be the [[Planck length]], and |
g clever hunters -- they have been observed hunting prey in relays, or even blocking a potential escape route for prey. Their voice is characterized by an unusual chirping or squeaking sound, similar to a bird. Their need for a large territory has led to the situation where today they are threatened with extinction. Their relatively small physique also makes them vulnerable to attacks by their competitors, [[lion]]s and [[hyena]]s. They tend to be elusive and unlike most other members of the [[Canidae|dog family]], are extremely difficult to tame.
They have a highly complex social system, within which related adult members cooperate to produce a single litter of pups annually. Most populations have more males than females because more male pups appear in litters; it is very unusual among mammals to have this kind of gender bias. Wild dogs will often regurgitate meat to other members of the group: older dogs, the young, and adults that have stayed behind to guard the young during hunting sojourns.
The current estimate for remaining wild dogs in the wild is approximately 5,600. Of these, the majority live in the two remaining large populations associated with the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania and the population centered in northern Botswana and eastern Namibia. Isolated populations persist in Zambia, Kenya, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
(The photos displayed with this entry are of wild dogs in captivity.)
==See also==
[[Dhole]] - Indian Wild Dog
[[Category:Canines]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[bg:Хиеново куче]]
[[da:Hyænehund]]
[[de:Afrikanischer Wildhund]]
[[es:Lycaon pictus]]
[[fr:Lycaon (mammifère)]]
[[he:זאב טלוא]]
[[it:Lycaon pictus]]
[[ja:リカオン]]
[[lt:Afrikos hieninis šuo]]
[[nl:Afrikaanse wilde hond]]
[[no:Afrikansk villhund]]
[[ru:Гиеновидная собака]]
[[sr:Дивљи пас]]
[[sv:Afrikansk vildhund]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Aage Niels Bohr</title>
<id>2201</id>
<revision>
<id>40067029</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T22:10:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josteinn</username>
<id>570474</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bohr.gif|right|frame|Aage Niels Bohr]]
'''Aage Niels Bohr''' (born in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]] on [[June 19]], [[1922]]) is the son of Margrethe and [[Niels Bohr]]. Growing up among [[physicists]] like [[Wolfgang Pauli]] and [[Werner Heisenberg]], he became a notable [[nuclear physics|nuclear physicist]] in his own right, being awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in [[1975]]. In 1946 he became an associate at the [[Niels Bohr Institute]] of [[Theoretical Physics]] at the [[University of Copenhagen]]. He served as the director of the institute from [[1963]] to [[1970]].
In [[1948]] Bohr worked with [[Ben Roy Mottelson|Ben Mottelson]] and [[James Rainwater|Leo James Rainwater]] in [[Copenhagen]] to summarize the current knowledge of nuclear structure in a [[monograph]]. The first volume, Single-Particle Motion, appeared in [[1969]], and the second volume, Nuclear Deformations, in [[1975]]. Their efforts on this project and their collaboration on nuclear theory led all three of them to receive the [[1975]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], for research on the quantum mechanical description of [[nucleons]] orbiting inside a wobbly rotating droplet.
==External links==
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/aage_niels_bohr.html Aage Niels Bohr]
{{physicist-stub}}
[[Category:1922 births|Bohr, Aage Niels]]
[[Category:Living people|Bohr, Aage Niels]]
[[Category:Danish scientists|Bohr, Aage Niels]]
[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Bohr, Aage]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physics winners|Bohr, Aage Niels]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Bohr, Aage Niels]]
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[[id:Aage N. Bohr]]
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[[zh:艾吉·尼尔斯·玻尔]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Analytic geometry</title>
<id>2202</id>
<revision>
<id>33271510</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-30T17:42:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.157.99.22</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Analytic geometry''', also called '''coordinate geometry''' and earlier referred to as '''Cartesian geometry''', is the study of [[geometry]] using the principles of [[algebra]]. Usually the [[Cartesian coordinate system]] is applied to manipulate [[equation]]s for planes, lines, curves, and circles, often in two and sometimes in three dimensions of measurement. As taught in school books, analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining geometrical shapes in a numerical way, and extracting numerical information from that representation. The numerical output, however, might also be a [[Vector (spatial)|vector]] or a [[geometric shape|shape]]. Some consider that the introduction of analytic geometry was the beginning of modern [[mathematics]].
[[René Descartes]] is popularly regarded as having introduced the foundation for the methods of analytic geometry in [[1637]] in the appendix titled ''Geometry'' of the titled ''Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason in the Search for Truth in the Sciences'', commonly referred to as ''[[Discourse on Method]]''. This work, written in his native language ([[French language|French]]), and its philosophical principles, provided the foundation for [[calculus]] in Europe.
==Important themes of analytical geometry==
* [[vector space]]
* definition of the [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]
* [[distance]] problems
* the [[dot product]], to get the angle of two vectors
* the [[cross product]], to get a perpendicular vector of two known vectors (and also their spatial volume)
* [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] problems
Many of these problems involve [[linear algebra]]
== Example ==
Here is an example of a problem from the [[USAMTS]] that can be solved via analytic geometry:
'''Problem:''' In a convex pentagon <math>ABCDE</math>, the sides have lengths <math>1</math>, <math>2</math>, <math>3</math>, <math>4</math>, and <math>5</math>, though not necessarily in
that order. Let <math>F</math>, <math>G</math>, <math>H</math>, and <math>I</math> be the midpoints of the sides <math>AB</math>, <math>BC</math>, <math>CD</math>, and <math>DE</math>, respectively.
Let <math>X</math> be the midpoint of segment <math>FH</math>, and <math>Y</math> be the midpoint of segment <math>GI</math>. The length of
segment <math>XY</math> is an integer. Find all possible values for the length of side <math>AE</math>.
'''Solution:''' Let <math>A</math>, <math>B</math>, <math>C</math>, <math>D</math>, and <math>E</math> be located at <math>A(0,0)</math>, <math>B(a,0)</math>, <math>C(b,e)</math>, <math>D(c,f)</math>, and <math>E(d,g)</math>.
Using the [[midpoint]] formula, the points <math>F</math>, <math>G</math>, <math>H</math>, <math>I</math>, <math>X</math>, and <math>Y</math> are located at
:<math>F\left(\frac{a}{2},0\right)</math>, <math>G\left(\frac{a+b}{2},\frac{e}{2}\right)</math>, <math>H\left(\frac{b+c}{2},\frac{e+f}{2}\right)</math>, <math>I\left(\frac{c+d}{2},\frac{f+g}{2}\right)</math>, <math>X\left(\frac{a+b+c}{4},\frac{e+f}{4}\right)</math>, and <math>Y\left(\frac{a+b+c+d}{4},\frac{e+f+g}{4}\right).</math>
Using the [[distance]] formula,
:<math>AE=\sqrt{d^2+g^2}</math>
and
:<math>XY=\sqrt{\frac{d^2}{16}+\frac{g^2}{16}}=\frac{\sqrt{d^2+g^2}}{4}.</math>
Since <math>XY</math> has to be an [[integer]],
:<math>AE\equiv 0\pmod{4}</math>
(see [[modular arithmetic]]) so <math>AE=4</math>.
==Other uses==
'''Analytic geometry''', for [[algebraic geometry|algebraic geometers]], is also the name for the theory of (real or) [[complex manifold]]s and the more general '''analytic spaces''' defined locally by the vanishing of [[analytic function]]s of [[several complex variables]] (or sometimes real ones). It is closely linked to algebraic geometry, especially through the work of [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] in ''[[GAGA]]''. It is strictly a larger area than algebraic geometry, but studied by similar methods.
[[Category:Geometry]]
[[Category:Algebraic geometry]]
[[ca:Geometria analítica]]
[[de:Analytische Geometrie]]
[[et:Analüütiline geomeetria]]
[[es:Geometría analítica]]
[[fr:Géométrie analytique]]
[[io:Analizala geometrio]]
[[it:Geometria analitica]]
[[he:גאומטריה אנליטית]]
[[nl:Analytische meetkunde]]
[[ja:解析幾何学]]
[[pl:Geometria analityczna]]
[[pt:Geometria analítica]]
[[fi:Analyyttinen geometria]]
[[sv:Analytisk geometri]]
[[vi:Hình học giải tích]]
[[tr:Analitik geometri]]
[[uk:Аналітична геометрія]]
[[zh:解析几何]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Religious denominations in Poland</title>
<id>2203</id>
<revision>
<id>30221229</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-05T13:51:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The constitution of [[Poland]] provides for [[freedom of religion]], and the Polish government generally respects this right in p |
e names of [[Legio VIII Augusta|VIII ''Augusta'']], [[Legio IX Hispana|IX ''Hispana'']], and [[Legio XII Fulminata|XII ''Fulminata'']]
* Legions levied for the civil war &ndash; legions later known as [[Legio I|I ''Germanica'']], [[Legio III Gallica|III ''Gallica'']], and [[Legio IV Macedonica|IV ''Macedonica'']]
==Battle==
Both commanders realized that if one army was able to flank the other and force them to fight on two sides, they would probably win. As such, both commanders put a substantial amount of effort into ensuring that the other would be unable to 'sneak around to the back'. The battle was held with the [[Enipeus|River Enipeus]] to Caesar's left, ensuring that neither side would be able to move around the other army on Caesar's left. The most important part of the battle was to happen on Caesar's right. Pompey hoped to win by using his superior cavalry to mount a two-front attack on Caesar's forces. As such, he placed a large contingent of cavalry on Caesar's right, with light forces consisting of [[sling (weapon)|slinger]]s (''funditores'') and [[archery|archer]]s (''sagitarii''). Caesar placed his cavalry on his right, with the fourth battle line in reserve behind it.
===Deployment===
Caesar opened the battle with three battle lines, and a fourth in reserve. [[Mark Antony]] was given command of Caesar's troops by the river. The center of Caesar's army was commanded by [[Domitius Calvinus]]. The commander of the right wing of Caesar's army was [[Publius Sulla]], while [[Ahenobarbus]] commanded the right side of Pompey's force. Caesar was greatly-outnumbered in cavalry. To make matters worse for Caesar, [[Titus Labienus]] controlled the far-left wing of Pompey's army. Titus Labienus had been one of Caesar's legion commanders in Gaul, and knew Caesar better than any other general on the field that day. Light and heavy infantry were deployed near the river on both sides. The majority of the battle was a clash between heavy infantry.
===Conflict===
When the two generals had finished deploying their troops, the heavy infantry began to close. Pompey ordered his soldiers not to charge (against the standards of the day) in an effort to tire out Caesar's troops; however, this tactic backfired as Pompey's multi-lingual forces were unable to receive orders easily, and Caesar's troops stopped halfway, leaving Pompey's troops confused. Caesar's veteran centurions, forseeing Pompey's trap, stopped halfway on their charge, and allowed their lines to rest. Pompey's fresh legionaries and Caesar's veteran troops created a stalemate in the center. By the river, the [[light infantry]] skirmished, before the [[Roman legion|heavy infantry]] closed. Titus Labienus led a cavalry charge, and succeeded in pushing back Caesar's cavalry and light infantry. However, when confronted by Caesar's fourth line of heavy infantry, Labienus' charge was pushed back, and the light infantry and cavalry of Pompey's right were pushed into the foothills of [[Mount Dogandzis]]. Caesar's fourth battle line wheeled into Pompey's rear at the same moment when Caesar pushed a fresh line of troops into battle. Now facing Caesar's fresh third line at the center of the battle and the attack from behind from Caesar's fourth line, Pompey saw that his defeat was at hand. Caesar deployed his experienced ''pilae'', the javelin throwers, against the threat of the large cavalry force of Pompey, telling them to thrust their javelins at the riders instead of throwing them. Pompey fled the battle while his troops were defeated under pressure. Caesar ransacked Pompey's camp, and took control of the remainder of Pompey's army.
==Aftermath==
Pompey fled from Pharsalus to [[Egypt]], where he was assassinated on the order of [[Pharaoh]] [[Ptolemy XIII]]. The Battle of Pharsalus ended the wars of the [[First Triumvirate]], and left Caesar 'supreme commander' of the Roman World. Caesar spent the next few years 'mopping up' remnants of the [[Senatorial Faction]]. After finally completing this task, he was assassinated in a conspiracy arranged by [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]].
==Further reading==
*William E. Gwatkin, Jr., ''Some Reflections on the Battle of Pharsalus'', Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 87. (1956), pp. 109-124.
[[Category:Battles of the Roman Republic|Pharsalus]]
[[Category:48 BC]]
[[de:Schlacht von Pharsalos]]
[[el:Μάχη των Φαρσάλων]]
[[es:Batalla de Farsalia]]
[[eo:Batalo de Farsalio]]
[[nl:Slag bij Pharsalus]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Farsalos]]
[[fi:Farsaloksen taistelu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beta rays</title>
<id>4006</id>
<revision>
<id>15902308</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trelvis</username>
<id>15</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving content to better name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Beta particle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bungee software</title>
<id>4007</id>
<revision>
<id>15902309</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peter Winnberg</username>
<id>17</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bungie Studios]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhagavad Gita</title>
<id>4008</id>
<revision>
<id>41911891</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:49:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GourangaUK</username>
<id>715857</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* On Raja Yoga */ rv spelling error</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Hindu scriptures}}
The '''Bhagavad Gita''' ([[Sanskrit]]: '''&#2349;&#2366;&#2327;&#2357;&#2342;&#2381; &#2327;&#2368;&#2340;&#2366;''' - ''Bhāgavad G&#299;tā'') is revered as a sacred text of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]]. The name 'Bhagavad Gita', when translated into [[English Language|English]], literally means 'Song of God'. Its written format is that of a poem which is 700 verses long, originating from the famous [[puranic]] [[Epic poetry|epic]] [[Mahabharata]] (''Bhishma Parva'' chapters 23 &ndash; 40).
Commonly referred to as ''The Gita'', it is a conversation between [[Krishna]] and [[Arjuna]] which takes place on a battlefield, just prior to the start of a [[Kurukshetra war|climactic war]]. During the conversation, [[Krishna]] proclaims that he is God Himself ([[Bhagavan]]), and at the request of [[Arjuna]], displays his [[divine]] form, which is described as [[Eternity|timeless]], that leaves the latter awestruck. The conversation summarizes a number of different [[Yoga|Yogic]] and [[Vedantic]] philosophies, explaining the meaning and purpose of life and existence. The Bhagavad Gita refers to itself as an '[[Upanishad]]', and is sometimes called ''G&#299;topani&#351;ad''.
It is not exactly clear when the Bhagavad Gita was written. Astronomical [http://www.boloji.com/astro/00325.htm evidence] cited in the Mahabharata place the incidents upon which the Gita is based in the year [[3137 BCE]], while the [[Purana]]s suggest a date of ''c.'' [[1924 BCE]]. Scholars place the actual writing of the Gita in the latter half of the [[1st millennium BC]] (roughly [[4th century BC]]), making it a contemporary of the older [[Upanishad]]s.
==Background==
[[Image:Gita1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Krishna]] to [[Arjuna]]: ''Behold My mystic opulence!''
<br><small>''Artwork © courtesy of [http://www.krishna.com The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]''</small>]]
The discourse on the Bhagavad Gita begins before the start of the climactic battle at [[Kurukshetra_war|Kurukshetra]]. It begins with the [[kshatriya]] prince [[Arjuna]], as he becomes filled with doubt on the battlefield. Realising that his enemies are his own relatives, beloved friends, and revered teachers, he turns to his charioteer and [[Guru|guide]], Sri [[Krishna]] (an [[avatar]] of Sri [[Vishnu]]), for advice.
[[Krishna]] counsels [[Arjuna]], beginning with the tenet that the human [[Soul]] is immortal, and human death on the battlefield is just the shedding of the body, but the soul is permanant. Krishna goes on to expound on the yogic paths of devotion, action, meditation and knowledge. Fundamentally, the Bhagavad Gita proposes that true enlightenment comes from growing beyond identification with the [[Ego]], the little Self, and that one must identify with the Truth of the immortal Self, (the soul or [[Atman]]), the ultimate Divine Consciousness. Through detachment from the personal Ego, the [[Yogi]], or follower of a particular path of [[Yoga]], is able to transcend his mortality and attachment from the material world, and see the Infinite (the [[Brahman]]).
To demonstrate the infinity of the unknowable [[Brahman]], Krishna grants Arjuna the boon of cosmic vision (albeit temporary), and allows the prince to see Him in all his Divine Glory. He reveals that He is fundamentally both the ultimate essence of ''Being'' in the universe, and also its material body. This is called the [[Vishvarupa]]/Viratrupa.
==The Scripture of Yoga==
The Gita addresses the discord between the senses and the intuition of cosmic unity. It speaks of the Yoga of equanimity, a detached outlook. The term Yoga covers a wide range of meanings, but in the context of the Bhagavad Gita, describes a unified outlook, serenity of mind, skill in action, and the ability to stay attuned to the glory of the Self (Atman), which is of the same essence as the basis of Being (Brahman). According to Krishna, the root of all suffering and discord is the agitation of the mind caused by desire. The only way to douse the flame of desire is by stilling the mind through discipline of the senses and the intellect.
However, abstinence from action is regarded as being just as |
TD><FONT SIZE="1">812,421</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">952,500</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Canada-French</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">82</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Canada-Other</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">83</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Newfoundland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">84</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Northern America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,087</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,568</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">85</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Region or country not reported</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">808,158</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">887,343</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">315,732</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">59,890</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">86</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Born at sea</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Not reported</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<P>
<TABLE CELLPADDING="5" BORDER="1">
<TR ALIGN="right" VALIGN="bottom">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">Line<BR>
number</TD>
</TD><TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Region and country or area</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1930</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1920</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1910</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1900</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1890</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1880</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1870</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1860</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1850</TD>
</TD><TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">Line<BR>
number</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>1</STRONG></TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<STRONG>Total</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>14,204,149</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>13,920,692</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>13,515,886</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>10,341,276</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>9,249,547</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>6,679,943</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>5,567,229</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>4,138,697</STRONG></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>2,244,602</STRONG></TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1"><STRONG>1</STRONG></TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">Reported by region and/or country</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,197,553</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,911,767</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,506,272</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,330,534</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,243,535</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,675,875</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,563,637</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,134,809</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,202,625</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,784,010</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,916,048</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">11,810,115</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,881,548</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,030,347</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,751,823</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,941,049</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,807,062</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,031,867</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Northern and Western Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,850,256</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,241,916</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,306,325</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,204,649</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">7,288,917</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,499,889</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,845,679</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,773,347</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">2,022,195</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Northern Europe</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,415,551</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,501,149</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,953,947</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,917,815</TD&g |
tion, which came to be called the "Boneshaker", featured a heavy steel frame on which they mounted wooden wheels with iron tires. Lallement emigrated to America, where he recorded a patent on his bicycle in 1866 in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]. The Boneshaker was further refined by James Starley in the 1870s. He mounted the seat more squarely over the pedals, so that the rider could push more firmly, and further enlarged the front wheel to increase the potential for speed. With tires of solid rubber, his machine became known as the ''ordinary''. British cyclists likened the disparity in size of the two wheels to their coinage, nicknaming it the ''[[penny-farthing]]''. The primitive bicycles of this generation were difficult to ride, and the high seat and poor weight distribution made for dangerous falls.
''[[Image:BicyclePlymouth.jpg|left|thumb|Bicycle in Victorian Plymouth, with a predecessor of the Starley diamond-frame]]''
The subsequent ''dwarf ordinary'' addressed some of these faults, by adding gearing, reducing the front wheel diameter, and setting the seat further back with no loss of speed. Having to both pedal and steer via the front wheel remained a problem. Starley's nephew, [[J. K. Starley]], J. H. Lawson, and Shergold solved this problem by introducing the ''chain'' and producing rear-wheel drive. These models were known as ''dwarf safeties'', or ''safety bicycles'', for their lower seat height and better weight distribution. Starley's 1885 Rover is usually described as the first recognizably modern bicycle. Soon the ''seat tube'' was added, creating the double-triangle, ''diamond frame'' of the modern bike.
While the Starley design was much safer, the return to smaller wheels made for a bumpy ride. The next innovations increased comfort and ushered in the 1890s ''Golden Age of Bicycles''. In 1888 Scotsman [[John Boyd Dunlop]] introduced the [[pneumatic tire]], which soon became universal. Shortly thereafter the rear [[freewheel]] was developed, enabling the rider to coast without the pedals spinning out of control. This refinement led to the 1898 invention of ''coaster brakes''. [[Derailleur gears]] and hand-operated, [[Bicycle brake systems|cable-pull brakes]] were also developed during these years, but were only slowly adopted by casual riders. By the turn of the century, bicycling clubs flourished on both sides of the Atlantic, and touring and racing were soon the rage.
''[[Image:Bamboobike.jpg|thumb|American bike from 1896. The frame made of [[bamboo]]]]''
Successful early bicycle manufacturers included Englishman [[Frank Bowden]] and German builder Ignaz Schwinn. Bowden started the [[Raleigh (bicycle)|Raleigh]] company in Nottingham in the 1890s, and soon was producing some 30,000 bicycles a year. Schwinn emigrated to the United States, where he founded his similarly successful company in Chicago in 1895. [[Schwinn Bicycle Company|Schwinn]] bicycles soon featured widened tires and spring-cushioned, padded seats, sacrificing some efficiency for increased comfort. Facilitated by connections between European nations and their overseas colonies, European-style bicycles were soon available worldwide. By the mid-20th century bicycles had become the primary means of transportation for millions of people around the globe.
[[Image:Amsterdam-flowerbike.jpg|thumb|A more-than-typical Amsterdam 'granny bike']]
In many western countries the use of bicycles levelled off or declined, as motorized transportation became affordable and car-centred policies led to an increasingly hostile road environment for bicycles. In North America, bicycle sales declined markedly after 1905, to the point where by the 1940s, they had largely been relegated to the role of children's toys. In other parts of the world however, such as [[China]], [[India]], and European countries such as [[Germany]], [[Denmark]], and the [[Netherlands]], the traditional utility bicycle remained a mainstay of transportation, its design only gradually changing to incorporate hand-operated brakes and internal hub gears allowing up to seven speeds. In the Netherlands, such so-called 'granny bikes' have remained popular, and are again in production. Especially in [[Amsterdam]] they are often colourfully painted and/or otherwise decorated.
[[Image:Mountain bicycle.jpg|thumb|left|This ''[[Mountain bike|mountain bicycle]]'' features oversized tires, a sturdy frame, front shock absorbers, and handlebars oriented perpendicular to the bike's axis]]
In North America, increasing consciousness of physical fitness and environmental preservation spawned a renaissance of bicycling in the late 1960s. Bicycle sales in the United States boomed, largely in the form of the [[racing bicycle]]s long used in such events as the hugely popular [[Tour de France]]. Sales were also helped by a number of technical innovations that were new to the US market, including higher performance steel alloys and gearsets with an increasing number of gears. While 10-speeds were the rage in the 1970s, 12-speed designs were introduced in the 1980s, and today most bikes feature 18 or more speeds. By the 1980s these newer designs had driven the [[three-speed bicycle]] from the roads. In the late 1980s the [[mountain bike]] became particularly popular, and in the 1990s something of a major fad. These task-specific designs led many American recreational cyclists to demand a more comfortable and practical product. Manufacturers responded with the [[hybrid bicycle]], which restored many of the features long enjoyed by riders of the time-tested European [[utility bicycle|utility bikes]].
==Technical aspects==
[[Image:Bicycle.jpg|frame|Reflectors for night riding are one of many available safety accessories]]
===Legal requirements===
The 1968 [[Vienna Convention on Road Traffic]] considers a bicycle to be a vehicle, and a person controlling a bicycle is considered a driver. The traffic codes of many countries reflect these definitions and demand that a bicycle satisfy certain legal requirements, including licencing, before it can be used on public roads. In many jurisdictions it is an offence to use a bicycle that is not in roadworthy condition and which does not have functioning front and rear [[bicycle brake systems|brakes]]. In some places, bicycles must have functioning front and rear [[bicycle lighting|lights]] or ''lamps''. As some generator or dynamo-driven lamps only operate while moving, rear [[retroreflectors|reflectors]] are frequently also mandatory. Since a moving bicycle makes very little noise, in many countries bicycles must have a warning bell for use when approaching pedestrians, equestrians and other bicyclists.
===Construction and parts===
====Frame====
{{main|Bicycle frame}}
Nearly all modern [[upright bicycle]]s feature the ''diamond frame'', composed of two [[triangle]]s: the front triangle and the rear triangle. The front triangle consists of the head tube, top tube, down tube and seat tube. The head tube contains the [[headset (bicycle part)|headset]], the interface with the [[bicycle fork|fork]]. The top tube connects the head tube to the seat tube at the top, and the down tube connects the head tube to the [[bottom bracket]]. The rear triangle consists of the seat tube and paired chain stays and seat stays. The chain stays run parallel to the [[bicycle chain|chain]], connecting the bottom bracket to the rear dropouts. The seat stays connect the top of the seat tube (often at or near the same point as the top tube) to the rear dropouts.
Historically, women's bicycle frames had a top tube that connected in the middle of the seat tube instead of the top, resulting in a lower standover height. This allowed the rider to dismount while wearing a skirt or dress. Although some women's bicycles continue to use this frame style, there is also a hybrid form, the ''mixte'' or ''step-through frame'', which also allows easier mounting and dismounting for both male and female riders.
Historically, materials used in bicycles have followed a similar pattern as in aircraft, the goal being strength and low weight. Since the late 1930s alloy steels have been used for frame and fork tubes in higher quality machines. [[Celluloid]] found application in mudguards, and aluminium alloys are increasingly used in components such as handlebars, seat stems (also known as seatposts), and brake levers. In the 1980s [[aluminium]] alloy frames became popular, and their affordability now makes them common. More expensive [[carbon fibre]] and [[titanium]] frames are now also available, as well as advanced steel alloys.
====Drivetrain====
{{details|bicycle gearing}}
The ''drivetrain'' begins with [[bicycle pedal|pedals]] which rotate the [[crankset]], which fit into the [[bottom bracket]]. Attached to the crank is the ''chainring'' which drives the [[bicycle chain|chain]], which in turn rotates the rear wheel via the rear [[sprocket]]s. Between the chain and rear wheel may be interspersed various [[bicycle gearing | gearing systems]], described below, which vary the number of rear wheel revolutions produced by each turn of the pedals.
Since cyclists' legs produce a limited amount of power most efficiently over a narrow range of ''[[Cadence (cycling)|cadences]]'', a variable [[gear ratio]] is needed to maintain an optimum pedaling speed while covering varied terrain. The gear systems are hand-operated, via cables (or rarely, hydraulics), and are of two types.
* ''Internal [[hub gear]]ing'' works by [[Epicyclic gearing|planetary, or epicyclic, gearing]], in which the outer case of the hub gear unit turns at a different speed relative to the rear axle depending on which gear is selected. Rear hub gears may offer 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, or 14 speeds. Bottom bracket fittings offer a choice of 2 speeds.
* ''External gearing'' utilizes [[derailleur gear|derailleurs]], which can be placed on both the front ''chainring'' and on the rear ''cluster'' or ''casset |
lm Festival''', also called the '''"Berlinale"''', is one of the most important [[film festival]]s in [[Europe]] and the world. It is the film festival with most visitors worldwide. It is held annually in February (in [[2006]] from [[February 9]] until [[February 19]]) and has been arranged since [[1951]].
The [[jury]] always places special emphasis on representing [[film]]s from all over the world, from the former [[Eastern Block]] countries as well as from Western countries. The awards are called the Golden and Silver Bears (the Bear is the symbol of [[Berlin]]).
==List of winners==
*[[Berlinale Camera]]
*[[Honorary Golden Bear]]
=== Golden Bear ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year || Film
! Director || Country
|-
| [[2006]] || ''[[Grbavica (film)|Grbavica]]''
| [[Jasmila Žbanić]] || [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
|-
| [[2005]] || ''[[U-Carmen e-Khayelitsha]]''
| [[Marc Dornford-May]] || [[South Africa]]
|-
| [[2004]] || ''[[Head-On]]''
| [[Fatih Akin]] || [[Germany]]/[[Turkey]]
|-
| [[2003]] || ''[[In This World]]''
| [[Michael Winterbottom]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top" | [[2002]] || ''[[Spirited Away]]''
| [[Miyazaki Hayao|Hayao Miyazaki]] || [[Japan]]
|-
| ''[[Bloody Sunday (film)|Bloody Sunday]]''
| [[Paul Greengrass]] || [[United Kingdom|UK]]/[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
|-
| [[2001]] || ''[[Intimacy (2001 film)|Intimacy]]''
| [[Patrice Chéreau]] || [[France]]
|-
| [[2000]] || ''[[Magnolia_(movie)|Magnolia]]''
| [[Paul Thomas Anderson]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1999]] || ''[[The Thin Red Line (1998 film)|The Thin Red Line]]''
| [[Terrence Malick]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1998]] || ''[[Central do Brasil (Movie)|Central Station]]''
| [[Walter Salles]] || [[Brazil]]
|-
| [[1997]] || ''[[The People vs. Larry Flynt]]''
| [[Milos Forman]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1996]] || ''[[Sense and Sensibility (film)|Sense and Sensibility]]''
| [[Ang Lee]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1995]] || ''[[Fresh Bait]]''
| [[Bertrand Tavernier]] || [[France]]
|-
| [[1994]] || ''[[In the Name of the Father]]''
| [[Jim Sheridan]] || [[United Kingdom|UK]]/[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
|-
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top" | [[1993]] || ''[[The Women from the Lake of Scented Souls]]''
| [[Xie Fei]] || [[People's Republic of China|China]]
|-
| ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]''
| [[Ang Lee]] || [[Taiwan]]
|-
| [[1992]] || ''[[Grand Canyon (film)|Grand Canyon]]''
| [[Lawrence Kasdan]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1991]] || ''[[La Casa del sorriso]]''
| [[Marco Ferreri]] || [[Italy]]
|-
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top" | [[1990]] || ''[[Music Box (film)|Music Box]]''
| [[Costa-Gavras]] || [[United States]]
|-
| ''[[Larks on a String]]''
| [[Jiri Menzel]] || [[Czechoslovakia]]
|-
| [[1989]] || ''[[Rain Man]]''
| [[Barry Levinson]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1988]] || ''[[Red Sorghum]]''
| [[Yimou Zhang]] || [[People's Republic of China|China]]
|-
| [[1987]] || ''[[Tema]]''
| [[Gleb Panfilov]] || [[Soviet Union]]
|-
| [[1986]] || ''[[Stammheim]]''
| [[Reinhard Hauff]] || [[West Germany]]
|-
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top" | [[1985]] || ''[[Die Frau und der Fremde]]''
| [[Rainer Simon]] || [[East Germany]]
|-
| ''[[Wetherby (film)|Wetherby]]''
| [[David Hare]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| [[1984]] || ''[[Love Streams]]''
| [[John Cassavetes]] || [[United States]]
|-
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top" | [[1983]] || ''[[Ascendancy]]''
| [[Edward Bennett]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| ''[[The Beehive (1982 film)|The Beehive]]''
| [[Mario Camus]] || [[Spain]]
|-
| [[1982]] || ''[[Veronika Voss]]''
| [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]] || [[West Germany]]
|-
| [[1981]] || ''[[Faster, Faster]]''
| [[Carlos Saura]] || [[Spain]]
|-
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top" | [[1980]] || ''[[Heartland]]''
| [[Richard Pearce]] || [[United States]]
|-
| ''[[Palermo or Wolfsburg]]''
| [[Werner Schroeter]] || [[West Germany]]
|-
| [[1979]] || ''[[David (film)|Daivd]]''
| [[Peter Lilienthal]] || [[West Germany]]
|-
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:top" | [[1978]] || ''[[Trout (film)|Trout]]''
| [[José Luis García Sánchez]] || [[Spain]]
|-
| ''[[What Max Said]]''
| [[Emilio Martínez Lázaro]] || [[Spain]]
|-
| [[1977]] || ''[[Ascent (film)|Ascent]]''
| [[Larisa Shepitko]] || [[Soviet Union]]
|-
| [[1976]] || ''[[Buffalo Bill and the Indians]]''
| [[Robert Altman]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1975]] || ''[[Adoption (film)|Adoption]]''
| [[Márta Mészáros]] || [[Hungary]]
|-
| [[1974]] || ''[[The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz]]''
| [[Ted Kotcheff]] || [[Canada]]
|-
| [[1973]] || ''[[Distant Thunder]]''
| [[Satyajit Ray]] || [[India]]
|-
| [[1972]] || ''[[The Canterbury Tales (film)|The Canterbury Tales]]''
| [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] || [[Italy]]
|-
| [[1971]] || ''[[The Garden of the Finzi-Continis]]''
| [[Vittorio De Sica]] || [[Italy]]/[[West Germany|W. Germany]]
|-
| [[1970]] || N/A
| N/A || N/A
|-
| [[1969]] || ''[[Rani Radovi]]''
| [[Zelimir Zilnik]] || [[Yugoslavia]]
|-
| [[1968]] || ''[[Ole dole doff]]''
| [[Jan Troell]] || [[Sweden]]
|-
| [[1967]] || ''[[Le départ]]''
| [[Jerzy Skolimowski]] || [[Belgium]]
|-
| [[1966]] || ''[[Cul-de-sac]]''
| [[Roman Polanski]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| [[1965]] || ''[[Alphaville]]''
| [[Jean-Luc Godard]] || [[France]]/[[Italy]]
|-
| [[1964]] || ''[[Susuz Yaz]]''
| [[Ismail Metin]] || [[Turkey]]
|-
| [[1963]] || ''[[Il Diavolo]]''
| [[Gian Luigi Polidoro]] || [[Italy]]
|-
| [[1962]] || ''[[A Kind of Loving]]''
| [[John Schlesinger]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| [[1961]] || ''[[La notte]]''
| [[Michelangelo Antonioni]] || [[Italy]]
|-
| [[1960]] || ''[[El lazarillo de tormes]]''
| [[César Ardavin]] || [[Spain]]
|-
| [[1959]] || ''[[Les cousins]]''
| [[Claude Chabrol]] || [[France]]
|-
| [[1958]] || ''[[Smultronstället]]''
| [[Ingmar Bergman]] || [[Sweden]]
|-
| [[1957]] || ''[[Twelve Angry Men]]''
| [[Sidney Lumet]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1956]] || ''[[Invitation To The Dance]]''
| [[Gene Kelly]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1955]] || ''[[Die Ratten]]''
| [[Robert Siodmak]] || [[Federal Republic of Germany]]
|-
| [[1954]] || ''[[Hobson's Choice]]''
| [[David Lean]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| [[1953]] || ''[[Le salaire de la peur]]''
| [[Henri-Georges Clouzot]] || [[France]]/[[Italy]]
|-
| [[1952]] || ''[[Hon dansade en sommar]]''
| [[Arne Mattsson]] || [[Sweden]]
|}
== See also ==
*[[Academy Awards]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.berlinale.de Official website]
*[[:de:Goldener Bär|Goldener Bär]] from the German-language Wikipedia; includes winners since [[1951]]
[[Category:Cinema of Germany]]
[[Category:Film awards]]
[[Category:Film festivals]]
[[af:Berlinale]]
[[bs:Berlinare]]
[[da:Filmfestivalen i Berlin]]
[[de:Internationale Filmfestspiele Berlin]]
[[es:Festival Internacional de Cine de Berlín]]
[[eo:Berlinale]]
[[fr:Berlinale]]
[[it:Festival di Berlino]]
[[ja:ベルリン国際映画祭]]
[[no:Filmfestivalen i Berlin]]
[[pl:Festiwal Filmowy w Berlinie]]
[[pt:Festival de Berlim]]
[[sk:Berlinale]]
[[hu:Berlini Nemzetközi Filmfesztivál]]
[[zh:柏林电影节]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bible</title>
<id>3390</id>
<revision>
<id>42130754</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:48:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KHM03</username>
<id>189278</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ rm spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
The '''Bible''' (Hebrew &#1514;&#1504;&#1524;&#1498; [[tanakh]], Greek η Βίβλος [''hē biblos''] ) (sometimes '''The [[Holy]] Bible''', '''The Book''', '''Good Book''', '''[[Word of God]]''', '''The Word''' '''[[Scripture]]'''), from [[Greek language|Greek]] (τα) βίβλια, ''(ta) biblia'', "(the) books", is the classical name for the [[Hebrew Bible]] of [[Judaism]] or the combination of the [[Old Testament]] and [[New Testament]] of [[Christianity]] ("The Bible" actually refers to two testaments of Scripture). The term has come to be applied to any [[sacred]] [[scripture]]s. Many [[Christian]] [[English language|English]] speakers refer to the Bible as "the good book" (''[[Gospel]]'' means "good news"). Many people claim that the Bible is the revealed word of [[God]], or an authoritative record of the relationship between God, the world and [[Human|mankind]].
Both Bibles have been the most widely distributed of books. It has also been translated more times and into more languages (more than 2,100 languages) than any other book. It is said that more than five billion copies of the Bible have been sold since 1815, making it the best-selling book of all-time.
Because of Christian domination of Europe from the late [[Roman era]] to the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the Christian Bible has influenced not only religion but language, law and, until the [[Early modern Europe|modern era]], the [[natural philosophy]] of mainstream [[Western world|Western Civilization]]. The Age of Enlightenment and the [[Scientific Revolution]] in Europe and America brought skepticism regarding the divine origin and historical accuracy of the Bible. Although some critical scholars, including archeologists, continue to use the Bible as a point of reference in the study of ancient Near Eastern history, most have come to view it as a cultural and literary document.
Although the term "Bible" is most often used to refer to Jewish and Christian scriptures, "Bible" is sometimes used to describe scriptures of other faiths. Thus the ''[[Guru Granth Sahib]]'' is often referred to as the "[[Sikhism|Sikh]] Bible". In the early years after the publication of the [[Book of Mormon]] in 1830, it was sometimes known as the "Golden Bible". The word "bible" (in [[lower case]]) is also used to refer to any [[tome]] that incorpo |
?id=15 Honda FR-V - Dots - TV Advert]
** [http://www.ephinx.com/tvadverts/tvadvert.php?id=4 Honda - Yume no Chikara - TV Advert]
** [http://www.joy-machine.co.uk Honda - HR-V 'Joy Machine' - TV Adverts]
== References ==
* "Move Over, Volvo: Honda Sets New Safety Standard for Itself", an article in the "News" section of the March, [[2004]] issue of ''[[Motor Trend]]'', on [[page]] 32
* [http://world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2004/46.html 2004 Annual Corporate Report]
* The story of Honda's entry and growth in the American market is documented in [[Terry Sanders]]' film [[The Japan Project: Made in Japan]].
{{Honda}}
[[Category:Honda]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]
[[Category:Scooter manufacturers]]
[[Category:Moped manufacturers]]
[[Category:Engine manufacturers]]
[[Category:Boat builders]]
[[Category:Companies of Japan]]
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[[ar:هوندا]]
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[[da:Honda]]
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[[eo:Honda]]
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[[fi:Honda]]
[[sv:Honda]]
[[zh:本田技研工业股份有限公司]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Team handball</title>
<id>13730</id>
<revision>
<id>41613428</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:49:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>151.188.16.19</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Field and ball */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Handball}}
'''Handball''' (also known as '''team handball''', '''field handball''' or '''Olympic handball''') is a [[team sport]] where two teams of seven players each (six players and a goalkeeper) pass and bounce a ball trying to throw it in the goal of the opposing team.
The game is similar to [[football (soccer)|football]] (soccer), regardless of the basic method of handling the ball which is inverse from football. It has been played internationally since the first half of the 20th century.
==Field and ball==
Handball is played on a field forty meters long by twenty meters wide, with a dividing line in the middle and a goal in the center of either end. The goals are surrounded by a near-semicircular line that is generally six meters away from the goal. There is also a dashed near-semicircular line that is nine meters away from the goal.
Only the defending [[goalkeeper]] is allowed to step inside the six meter perimeter, though any player may attempt to catch and touch the ball in the air within it. If a player should find himself in contact inside the goal perimeter he must immediately take the most direct path out of it. Should a defender make contact with an attacker while in the goal perimeter, their team is penalized with a direct attempt at the goal, with only one attacker on the seven-meter line and the defending goalkeeper involved.
The ball is smaller than a [[football (ball)|football]] in order for the players to be able to hold and handle it with a single hand (though contact with both hands is perfectly allowed). It is transported by bouncing it between hands and floor &mdash; much as in [[basketball]]. A player may only hold the ball for three seconds and may only take three steps with the ball in hand.
==Game play==
A standard match duration consists of two periods of 30 minutes each, during which each team may call one time-out. Normal league games are usually allowed to end in a draw, but in knockout tournaments, such as the final stages of the Olympics etc, if a game ends in a tie, two extension periods of 10 minutes are played, and if each of them ends in a tie as well, the tie-break is an individual shootout from the 7-meter line.
The game is quite fast and includes much contact as the defenders try to bodily stop the attackers from approaching the goal. Only frontal contact by the defenders is allowed; when a defender stops an attacker with their arms on the side, the play is stopped and restarted from the nine meter line, with the attacking team in possession. If the contact between the players is particularly rough (even if it is indeed frontal), the [[referee]]s may award a nine-meter penalty to the attacking team, or a seven-meter penalty. In more extreme cases, they give the defender a [[yellow card|yellow]] (warning) or a [[red card]] (permanent expulsion). For rough fouls they can also order two-minute expulsions, and the third two-minute punishment for the same player automatically leads to a red card expulsion.
Conversely, if the attacker is at fault the possession of the ball can be awarded to the defending team. Players may also cause the possession to be lost if they make more than three steps per one bounce of the ball off the floor.
The usual formations of the defense are the so-called 6-0, when all the defense players are within the 6 meter and 9 meter lines; the 5-1, when one of the players cruises outside the 9 meter perimeter, usually targeting the center forwards; and the least common 4-2 when there are two such defenders. The usual attacking formation includes two wingmen, a center-left and a center-right which usually excel at high jumps and shooting over the defenders, and two centers, one of which tends to intermingle with the defense (somewhat similar to the hole set (anchor) in [[water polo]]), disrupting the defense formation, and the other being the playmaker (similar to basketball).
==History==
Team handball has origins reaching as far back as the [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]: ''urania'' in [[ancient Greece]], ''harpaston'' in [[ancient Rome]], ''fangballspiel'' in medieval [[Germany]], etc. There are also records of handball-like games in medieval [[France]], and among the [[Inuit]]s on [[Greenland]], in the [[Middle Ages]]. By the 19th century, there existed similar games of ''haandbold'' from [[Denmark]], ''hazena'' in [[Bohemia]] and [[Slovakia]], ''gandbol'' in [[Ukraine]], ''torball'' in [[Germany]], as well as versions in [[Ireland]] and [[Uruguay]].
The team handball game as we know it today was formed by the end of the [[19th century]] in northern [[Europe]], primarily [[Denmark]], [[Germany]] and [[Sweden]]. The Dane Holger Nielsen drew up rules for a handball game (''håndbold'') in [[1898]] (and published them in [[1906]]), and R.N. Ernst did something similar in [[1897]].
The first set of team handball rules was published on [[October 29]], [[1917]] by Max Heiser, Karl Schelenz and Erich Konigh from Germany. After [[1919]] these rules were further improved by Karl Schelenz. The first international games were played under these rules, between Germany and Belgium for men in [[1925]] and Germany and Austria for women in [[1930]].
In [[1926]], the Congress of the International Amateur Athletics Federation nominated a committee to draw up international rules for field handball. The International Amateur Handball Federation was formed in [[1928]]. The International Handball Federation was formed later in [[1946]]
Men's field handball was played at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]] in [[Berlin]] at the special request of [[Adolf Hitler]]. It was removed from the list of sports, to return as team handball in [[1972]] for the [[1972 Summer Olympics]] in [[Munich]]. Women's team handball was added as an Olympic discipline in [[1976]], at the [[1976 Summer Olympics]].
The International Handball Federation has organized Men's World Championships in 1938, and then every two, three or sometimes four years since the [[World War II]]. The Women's World Championships have been played since [[1957]]. The IHF also organizes Women's and Men's Junior World Championships.
The IHF reports to have 150 member federations representing approximately 800,000 teams and more than nearly 19 million sportsmen and women.
==International tournaments==
* [[Handball at the Summer Olympics]]
* [[World Men's Handball Championship]]
* [[World Women's Handball Championship]]
* [[European Men's Handball Championship]]
* [[European Women's Handball Championship]]
* [http://www.usateamhandballwomen.com/Competition/usacup.html USA Cup Women's International Tournament]
==External links==
* [http://www.ihf.info/ International Handball Federation]
* [http://www.national-handball-teams.com/ National Handball Teams]
[[Category:Team handball|*]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Team sports]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[ar:كرة يد]]
[[ca:Handbol]]
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[[ja:ハンドボール]]
[[no:Håndball]]
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[[sk:Hádzaná]]
[[sl:Rokomet]]
[[fi:Käsipallo]]
[[sv:Handboll]]
[[tr:Hentbol]]
[[zh:手球]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hilbert's basis theorem</title>
<id>13733</id>
<revision>
<id>27585905</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-07T03:13:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BeteNoir</username>
<id>442726</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Refined categorization</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Hilbert's basis theorem''', first proved by [[David Hilbert]] in [[1888]], states that, if ''k'' is a [[field (mathematics)|field]], then every [[Ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] in the [[ring (algebra)|ring]] of multivariate [[polynomial|polynomials]] ''k''[''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>''n''</sub>] is [[finitely generated module|finitely generated]]. This can be translated into [[algebraic geometry]] as follows: every [[algebraic variety|variety]] over ''k'' can be described as the set of common roots of finitely many polynomial equations.
Hilbert produced an innovative proof by contradiction using [[mathematical induction]]; his method does not give an [[algorithm]] to produce the finitely many basis polynomials for a given ideal: it on |
tes were frequent (Ezra, ix. 1; I Esd. viii. 69, and elsewhere).
Little mention is made of the Ammonites through the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and early [[Hellenistic]] periods. Their name appears, however, during the time of the [[Maccabees]]. The Ammonites, with some of the neighbouring tribes, did their utmost to resist and check the revival of the Jewish power under [[Judas Maccabaeus]] ([[1 Maccabees]] v. 6; cf. [[Josephus]] ''Ant. Jud.'' xii. 8. 1.).
It is stated (I Macc. v. 6) that the Ammonites under [[Timotheus (Ammon)|Timotheus]] were defeated by Judas; but it is possible that, after the exile, the term Ammonite denoted all peoples living in the former country of Ammon and Gad. [[Ezekiel]] xxv. 4-5 seems to mark the beginning of an immigration of tribes from the [[Arabian]] desert (''cf.'' Neh. ii. 19, iv. 7, Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 9, § 1).
The last notice of the Ammonites themselves is in [[Justin Martyr]] (''Dial. cum Tryph.'' sec. 119), where it is affirmed that they were still a numerous people.
==[[Language]]==
''Main Article: [[Ammonite language]]''
The few Ammonite names that have been preserved (Nahash, [[Hanun]], and those mentioned above; [[Zelek]] in 2 Samuel 23:37 is textually uncertain) testify, in harmony with other considerations, that their language was [[Semitic]], closely allied to the [[Hebrew language]] and the [[Moabite language]].
==[[Religion]]==
Of the customs, religion, and constitution of the Ammonites, little is known. The frequent assumption that, living on the borders of the desert, they remained more pastoral than the Moabites and Israelites, is unfounded (Ezek. xxv. 4, II Chron. xxvii. 5); the environs of Rabbah, at least, were fertile and were tilled. In regard to other cities than Rabbah, see Judges, xi. 33; II Sam. xii. 31. Of their gods the name of only the chief deity, [[Milcom]] (sometimes given as [[Moloch]]), as in I Kings, xi. 5 [LXX. 7], 33; I Kings, xi. 7; II Kings, xxiii. 13). In Jer. xlix. 1, 3, "Malcam" is to be translated by "Milcom" (the god) and not as in A. V., "their king." In the Bible Milcom is described as having been worshipped with [[human sacrifice]].
From the names of their kings, it seems logical that the [[cult]] of the [[Baal]]im probably coexisted in Ammon, as, possibly, that of [[El (god)|El]]. The name Tobiah suggests that [[YHWH]] may have been worshipped in Ammon as well; possibly this was an import from the era of Israelite domination. Other inscriptions and names suggest the possibility that such gods as the [[Edomite]] deity [[Kaus]] had Ammonite cults.
==Economy==
Like its sister-kingdom of Moab, Ammon was the source of numerous natural resources, including [[sandstone]] and [[limestone]]. It had a productive agricultural sector and occupied a vital place along the [[King's Highway (ancient)|King's Highway]], the ancient trade route connecting Egypt with [[Mesopotamia]], [[Syria]], and [[Anatolia]]. As with the Edomites and Moabites, trade along this route gave them considerable revenue.
==In [[Jewish law]]==
The Ammonites, still numerous in the south of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] in the second Christian century according to Justin Martyr ("Dialogus cum Tryphone," ch. cxix.), presented a serious problem to the [[Pharisees]] because many marriages with Ammonite and Moabite wives had taken place in the days of Nehemiah (Neh. xiii. 23). Still later, it is not improbable that when Judas Maccabeus had inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Ammonites, Jewish warriors took Ammonite women as wives, and their sons, sword in hand, claimed recognition as Jews notwithstanding the law (Deut. xxiii. 4) that "an Ammonite or a Moabite shall not enter into the congregation of the Lord." Such a condition or a similar incident is reflected in the story told in the [[Talmud]] (Yeb. 76b, 77a; Ruth R. to ii. 5) that in the days of King Saul the legitimacy of David's claim to royalty was disputed on account of his descent from Ruth, the Moabite; whereupon [[Ithra]], the Israelite (II Sam. xvii. 25; compare I Chron. ii. 17), girt with his sword, strode like an Ishmaelite into the schoolhouse of [[Jesse]], declaring upon the authority of [[Samuel]], the prophet, and his [[bet din]] (court of justice), that the law excluding the Ammonite and Moabite from the Jewish congregation referred only to the men—who alone had sinned in not meeting Israel with bread and water—and not to the women. The story reflects actual conditions in pre-Talmudic times, conditions that led to the fixed rule stated in the [[Mishnah]] (Yeb. viii. 3): "Ammonite and Moabite men are excluded from the Jewish community for all time; their women are admissible."
The fact that Rehoboam, the son of King Solomon, was born of an Ammonite woman (I Kings, xiv. 21-31) also made it difficult to maintain the [[Messiah|messianic]] claims of the [[Davidic line|house of David]]; but it was adduced as an illustration of divine [[Divine providence|Providence]] which selected the "two doves," [[Ruth]], the Moabite, and Naamah, the Ammonite, for honorable distinction (B. Ḳ. 38b).
==Resources==
*[http://www.hostkingdom.net/Jordan.html#Ammon Ammon on Bruce Gordon's Regnal Chronologies] (also at [http://ellone-loire.net/obsidian/Jordan.html#Ammon])
*[http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/his_testament.html Jordanian government site on ancient Trans-Jordanian kingdoms]
*[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Ammonites.html Ancient Biblical Ammonites]
*[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Umayri_Keramim.html Tel Umayri]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01431b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1414&letter=A Jewish Encyclopedia article]
{{eastons}}
{{1911}}
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}
[[Category:Ammon]]
[[Category:Ancient Israel and Judah]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:History of Jordan]]
[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[Category:Torah people]]
[[ca:Ammonites]]
[[de:Ammoniter]]
[[he:עמון]]
[[ru:Аммонитяне]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ammonius Hermiae</title>
<id>1723</id>
<revision>
<id>39511401</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T00:31:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BDAbramson</username>
<id>196446</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ammonius Hermiae''' ([[5th century]] AD) was a [[Byzantine Empire|Greek]] [[philosopher]], and the son of [[Hermias]] or Hermeias, a fellow-pupil of [[Proclus]]. He taught at [[Alexandria]], and had among his scholars [[Asclepius]], [[John Philoponus]], [[Damascius]] and [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]].
Of his reputedly numerous writings, his commentaries on [[Plato]] and [[Ptolemy]] are lost, but we have:
#A commentary on the ''Isagoge'' of [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (Venice, 1500 fol.);
#A commentary on the ''Categories'' (Venice, 1503 fol.), the authenticity of which is doubted by [[C. A. Brandis]];
#A commentary on the ''De Interpretatione'' (Venice, 1503 fol.). They are printed in Brandis's [[scholia]] to Aristotle, forming the fourth volume of the [[Berlin]] Aristotle; they are also edited (1891-1899) in A. Busse's ''Commentaria in Aristot. Graeca''. The special section on fate was published separately by [[J. C. Orelli]], ''Alex. Aphrod., Ammonii, et aliorum de Fato quae supersunt'' (Zurich, 1824).
#Other commentaries on the Topics and the first six books of the [[Metaphysics]] of [[Aristotle]] still exist in manuscript.
A life of Aristotle, ascribed to Ammonius, but with more accuracy to [[John Philoponus]], is often prefixed to editions of Aristotle. It has been printed separately, with Latin translation and scholia, at [[Leiden]], 1621, at [[Helmstedt]], 1666, and at [[Paris]], 1850.
Of the value of the logical writings of Ammonius there are various opinions. K. Prantl speaks of them with great, but hardly merited, contempt.
For a list of his works see [[Johann Albert Fabricius|J. A. Fabricius]], ''Bibliotheca Graeca,'' v. 704-707: [[C. A. Brandis]], ''Uber d. Reihenf. d. Bucher d. Aristot. Org.,'' 283 f.; [[K. Prantl]], ''Gesch. d. Logik,'' i. 642.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Latin authors]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ammonius Saccas</title>
<id>1724</id>
<revision>
<id>37530826</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T16:25:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andrew c</username>
<id>704413</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ammonius Saccas''' ([[3rd century|3rd century AD]]) was a Greek [[philosopher]] of [[Alexandria]], often called the founder of the [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic school]].
Of humble origin, he appears to have earned a livelihood as a [[Porter (carrier)|porter]] at the docks of Alexandria; hence his nickname of "Sack-bearer" (''Sakkas,'' for ''sakkoforos''). The details of his life are unknown. After long study and meditation, Ammonius opened a school of philosophy in Alexandria, where his principal pupils were [[Herennius]], the two [[Origen]]s, [[Cassius Longinus]] and [[Plotinus]]. As he designedly wrote nothing, and, with the aid of his pupils, kept his views secret after the manner of the [[Pythagoreans]], his philosophy must be inferred mainly from the writings of Plotinus. As [[Eduard Zeller]] points out, however, there is reason to think that his doctrines were closer to those of the earlier [[Platonic idealism|Platonists]] than to those of Plotinus. [[Hierocles of Alexandria|Hierocles]], writing in the [[5th century]], states that Ammonius' fundamental doctrine was an eclecticism, derived from a critical study of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]. His admirers credited him with having reconciled the quarrels of the two great schools. His death is variously given between AD [[240]] |
on of a natural-looking [[areola]] and [[nipple]]. This procedure may involve the use of [[breast implant|implants]].
==Overview==
Though this procedure was recently out of the question after [[surgery|surgical]] procedures such as [[mastectomy]], this type of [[cosmetic surgery]] is becoming more common. Though most health plans cover the cost for this operation in the [[United States|US]], some do not, considering it to be cosmetic; paying for this procedure oneself may be very costly. However, most plans do cover this procedure as the cost may outweigh the converse cost of [[Psychotherapy|counseling]] for the individual as they try to cope with the emotional adjustment of losing a breast.
For individuals who have undergone a mastectomy due to [[cancer]], they are only eligible for this procedure if the disease was eliminated due to the breast removal. It is possible for this procedure to be carried out immediately following the mastectomy, so the individual awakes with the newly formed breast already in place. As with many other procedures, those with [[high blood pressure]], [[obesity|obese]] individuals or those who [[Tobacco smoking|smoke]] are poor candidates for this operation.
Breast reconstruction is a large undertaking. Most procedures take several operations. Sometimes these follow-up surgeries are spread out over weeks or months. If an implant is used, the individual runs the same risks and complications as those who use them for [[breast augmentation]].
==Techniques==
There are many methods for breast reconstruction. The two most common are:
*'''Skin expansion''' By far the most common method, the surgeon inserts a small balloon expander beneath the skin and periodically, over weeks or months, injects a [[saline (medicine)|saline]] solution to slowly expand the overlaying [[skin]] (see [[tissue expansion]]). Once the expander has reached an acceptable size, it may be removed and replaced with a more permanent implant. Reconstruction of the [[areola]] and [[nipple]] are performed in a separate operation after the skin has stretched to its final size.
*'''Flap reconstruction''' The second most common procedure uses tissue from other parts of the patient's body, such as the [[back]], [[buttocks]], [[thigh]] or [[abdomen]]. This procedure may be performed by leaving the donor tissue connected to the original site to retain its blood supply (the vessels are tunnelled beneath the skin surface to the new site) or it may be cut off and new blood supply may be connected. This procedure has the downside of leaving scar tissue in both the donor and breast area, but avoids the risks of breast implants. Flaps generally tolerate [[radiotherapy]] better than implants which tend to develop capsule when irradiated.
The [[latissimus dorsi]] muscle is the donor available on the back. It is a large flat muscle which can be employed without loss of function. It can be moved into the breast defect still attached to its blood supply under the arm pit (axilla). The amount of tissue available is not enough to reconstruct a large breast so an implant may be required as well.
The abdominal flap for breast reconstruction is the TRAM flap or its technically distinct variant the DIEP flap. Both use the tummy bulge between the belly button and the pubic hair. The DIEP always, and the TRAM usually requires microsurgical techniques. Both can provide loads of tissue to reconstruct large breasts. The contour of the lower abdomen is reliably improved by these procedures which remove the same tissue as and [[abdominoplasty]] (tummy tuck.)
*'''Nipple Reconstruction''' Nipple reconstruction is usually delayed until after the breast mound reconstruction is completed so that the positioning can be planned precisely. Usually a nipple is made from local tissue and a skin graft is used for the areola. The new areola will require tattooing to get colour match with the other side.
*'''The other breast''' One of the challenges in breast reconstruction is to match the reconstructed breast to the mature breast on the other side (often fairly 'ptotic' - droopy.) This often requires a lift ([[mastopexy]]) or [[breast reduction|reduction]] of the other breast. Occasionally women may request an [[breast augmentation|augmentation]] of the other breast at the same time as their cancer reconstruction.
==Follow-up==
Recovery from skin expansion is generally faster than with flap reconstruction, but both take three to six weeks to recover from and both require follow-up surgeries in order to construct a new areola and nipple. Most [[scar]]s will not disappear completely, but the better the quality of the reconstruction, the less noticeable and distracting the scars will be. All recipients of these operations should refrain from strenuous [[sport]]s, overhead lifting and [[human sexual behavior|sexual activity]] during the recovery period (three to six weeks).
==See also==
* [[Breast reduction]]
* [[Breast implant]]
==External links==
*[http://www.plasticsurgery.org/public_education/procedures/BreastReconstruction.cfm ''Breast Reconstruction Following Breast Removal''] from the American Society of Plastic Surgeons
*[http://aboutplastic.surgery.uiowa.edu/surgery/plastic/brecon.html In-depth breast reconstruction discussion] from the University of Iowa
*[http://www.phudson.com/BREASTRECON/recofaq.html A breast reconstruction FAQ]
[[Category:Plastic surgery]]
[[Category:Breast]]
[[Category:Gynecology]]
[[nl:Borstvergroting]]
[[zh:胸部重建]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bob Diamond</title>
<id>4424</id>
<revision>
<id>37788939</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T03:42:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crystallina</username>
<id>429935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Robert "Bob" Diamond''' is an engineer, [[urban exploration|urban explorer]], and historical Brooklyn transit advocate.
He rediscovered the [[Atlantic Avenue Tunnel]] in [[1981]] and began the [[Brooklyn Historic Railway Association]] in [[1982]]. Its building in Red Hook serves as the [[Brooklyn Trolley Museum]].
{{US-engineer-stub}}
{{tram-stub}}
{{explorer-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brooklyn Historic Railway Association</title>
<id>4425</id>
<revision>
<id>29702790</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-30T16:10:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>N2xjk</username>
<id>345132</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>mention disposition of PCC cars</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Brooklyn Historic Railway Association''''s (BHRA) shop, [[trolley barn]] and offices are located in [[Red Hook, Brooklyn|Red Hook]], [[Brooklyn, New York]], on the historic Beard Street Piers (circa [[1870]]). BHRA had a fleet of 16 [[trolley]]s (15 [[PCC streetcar|PCC trolley]]s and a leased [[1897]] trolley car from [[Oslo, Norway]]). Restoration of Brooklyn's trolley routes was hampered due to the [[NYC Department of Transportation]] (DOT) withdrawing its support from the project. Construction was stopped on a 7-block extension to the line due to the removal and scrapping of rails, ties, and other items of railroad equipment by the DOT, which were stored on land that was slated for the "Fairway" supermarket project.
The BHRA's origin began with the rediscovery of the [[Atlantic Avenue Tunnel]] by [[Bob Diamond]] in [[1980]]. BHRA was formed in [[1982]] to restore the historic tunnel. The Atlantic Avenue Tunnel (constructed in [[1844]]) is the world's oldest [[metro|subway]] tunnel. BHRA successfully filed and received designation for the tunnel on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].
As of [[June 30]], [[2003]], BHRA was ordered to remove and fill in all trolley tracks on public streets by the DOT. The DOT revoked consent for the project to proceed or exist on city streets. Shortly thereafter, BHRA completely ceased operation. Most of the PCC trolleys were removed from Brooklyn. Only the trolleys that are on the Beard Street Pier itself remain. The disposition of the last few trolleys is pending. The BHRA organized tours of the Atlantic Avenue Tunnel have also ended. A new, separate organization, Brooklyn City Streetcar Company, has been formed to attempt to return trolleys to other parts of Brooklyn.
==External links==
*[http://www.lostnewyorkcity.com/buildingphotos/Plate-51-b.html The Cable Building] (New York City) Broadway Cable car line.
*http://www.sptc.spb.ru/bhra.htm
*http://donross.railspot.com/dr205.htm
*http://www.forgotten-ny.com/TROLLEYS/redhook/redhook.html
*http://brooklynstreetcar.org Brooklyn City Streetcar Company
[[Category:Brooklyn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brownian movement</title>
<id>4426</id>
<revision>
<id>15902693</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brownian motion]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beta-lactam</title>
<id>4427</id>
<revision>
<id>35073832</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T22:41:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Admrboltz</username>
<id>168201</id>
</contributor>
<comment>-dead poic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''beta-lactam''' ([[β]]-lactam) or '''penam''' is a [[lactam]] with a [[heteroatomic]] [[ring structure]], consisting of three [[carbon]] atoms and one [[nitrogen]] [[atom]] (Fig. 1). The beta-lactam ring is part of several [[antibiotic]]s, such as [[penicillin]], which are therefore also called ''[[beta-lactam antibiotic]]s''. These antibiotics work by inhibiting the bacterial [[ |
==Self-modification===
Most modern antivirus programs try to find virus-patterns inside ordinary programs by scanning them for so-called ''virus signatures''. A signature is a characteristic byte-pattern that is part of a certain virus or family of viruses. If a virus scanner finds such a pattern in a file, it notifies the user that the file is infected. The user can then delete, or (in some cases) "clean" the infected file. Some viruses employ techniques that make detection by means of signatures difficult or impossible. These viruses modify their code on each infection. That is, each infected file contains a different variant of the virus.
==== Simple self-modifications ====
In the past, some viruses [[Self-modifying code|modified themselves]] only in fairly simple ways. For example, they regularly exchanged subroutines in their code. This poses no problems to a somewhat advanced virus scanner however.
====Encryption with a variable key====
A more advanced method is the use of simple [[encryption]] to encipher the virus. In this case, the virus consists of a small decrypting module and an encrypted copy of the virus code. If the virus is encrypted with a different key for each infected file, the only part of the virus that remains constant is the decrypting module. In this case, a virus scanner cannot directly detect the virus using signatures, but it can still detect the decrypting module, which still makes indirect detection of the virus possible.
Mostly, the decryption techniques that these viruses employ are fairly simple and mostly done by just [[xor]]ing each byte with a randomized key that was saved by the parent virus. The use of XOR-operations has the additional advantage that the encryption and decryption routine are the same (a xor b = c, c xor b = a.)
====Polymorphic code====
[[Polymorphic code]] was the first technique that posed a serious threat to virus scanners. Just like regular encrypted viruses, a polymorphic virus infects files with an encrypted copy of itself, which is decoded by a decryption module. In the case of polymorphic viruses however, this decryption module is also modified on each infection. A well-written polymorphic virus therefore has no parts that stay the same on each infection, making it impossible to detect directly using signatures. Anti-virus software can detect it by decrypting the viruses using an emulator, or by statistical [[pattern analysis]] of the encrypted virus body. To enable polymorphic code, the virus has to have a [[polymorphic engine]] (also called ''mutating engine'' or ''mutation engine'') somewhere in its encrypted body. See [[Polymorphic code]] for technical detail on how such engines operate.
Some viruses employ polymorphic code in a way which constrains the mutation rate of the virus significantly. For example, a virus can be programmed to mutate only slightly over time, or it can be programmed to refrain from mutating when it infects a file on a computer that already contains copies of the virus. The advantage of using such ''slow polymorphic'' code is that it makes it more difficult for anti-virus professionals to obtain representative samples of the virus, because bait files that are infected in one run will typically contain identical or similar samples of the virus. This will make it more likely that the detection by the virus scanner will be unreliable, and that, as a result of this, some instances of the virus may be able to avoid detection.
====Metamorphic code====
To avoid being detected by emulation, some viruses rewrite themselves completely each time they are to infect new executables. Viruses that use this technique are said to be [[metamorphic code|metamorphic]]. To enable metamorphism, a '''metamorphic engine''' is needed. A metamorphic virus is usually very large and complex. For example, [[W32/Simile]] consisted of over 14000 lines of [[Assembly language|assembly code]], 90% of it part of the metamorphic engine.
==Viruses and legitimate software==
===The vulnerability of operating systems to viruses===
Another analogy to biological viruses: just as [[genetic diversity]] in a population decreases the chance of a single disease wiping out a population, the diversity of software systems on a network similarly limits the destructive potential of viruses.
This became a particular concern in the 1990s, when [[Microsoft]] gained market dominance in desktop operating systems and [[office suite]]s. Users who use Microsoft software (especially networking software such as [[Microsoft Outlook]] and [[Internet Explorer]]) are especially vulnerable to the spread of viruses. Microsoft software is targeted by virus writers due to their desktop dominance, and is often criticized for including many errors and holes for virus writers to exploit. Integrated applications, applications with scripting languages with access to the file system (for example [[Visual Basic Script]] (VBS), and applications with networking features) are also particularly vulnerable.
Although Windows is by far the most popular operating system for virus writers, some viruses also exist on other platforms. It is important to note that any operating system that allows third-party programs to run can theoretically run viruses. However, some operating systems are less secure than others. Unix-based OSes (and NTFS-aware applications on Windows NT based platforms) only allow their users to run executables within their protected space in their own directories.
Windows and Unix have similar scripting abilities, but while Unix natively blocks normal users from having access to make changes to the operating system environment, Windows does not. In [[1997]], when a virus for Linux was released – known as "[[Bliss (virus)|Bliss]]" – leading antivirus vendors issued warnings that [[Unix-like]] systems could fall prey to viruses just like Windows. [http://math-www.uni-paderborn.de/~axel/bliss/mcafee_press.html] The Bliss virus may be considered characteristic of viruses – as opposed to worms – on Unix systems. Bliss requires that the user run it explicitly, and it can only infect programs that the user has the access to modify. Unlike Windows users, most Unix users do not log in as the administrator user except to install or configure software; as a result, even if a user ran the virus, it could not harm their operating system. The Bliss virus never became widespread, and remains chiefly a research curiosity. Its creator later posted the source code to Usenet, allowing researchers to see how it worked. [http://math-www.uni-paderborn.de/~axel/bliss/]
===The role of software development===
Because software is often designed with security features to prevent unauthorized use of system resources, many viruses must exploit [[software bug]]s in a system or application to spread. Software development strategies which produce large numbers of bugs will generally also produce potential exploits.
Closed-source software development, as practiced by Microsoft and other [[proprietary software]] companies, is seen by many as a security weakness. [[Open source]] software such as Linux, for example, allows all users to look for and fix security problems without relying on a single vendor. Some advocate that proprietary software makers practice [[vulnerability disclosure]] to improve this weakness.
On the other hand, some claim that open source development exposes potential security problems to virus writers, hence increases in the prevalance of exploits. They counter claims that popular closed source systems such as [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] are often exploited by claiming that these systems are only commonly exploited due to their popularity and the potential widespread effect such an exploit will have.
===Anti-virus software and other countermeasures===
Many users install [[anti-virus software]] that can detect and eliminate known viruses after the computer [[downloads]] or runs the executable. They work by examining the contents of the computer's memory (its [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], and [[boot sector]]) and the files stored on fixed or removable drives (hard drives, floppy drives), and comparing those files against a [[database]] of known virus "signatures". Some anti-virus programs are able to scan opened files in addition to sent and received emails 'on the fly' in a similar manner. This practice is known as "on-access scanning." Anti-virus software does not change the underlying capability of host software to transmit viruses. There have been attempts to do this but adoption of such anti-virus solutions can void the warranty for the host software. Users must therefore update their software regularly to [[patch (computing)|patch]] security holes. Anti-virus software also needs to be regularly updated in order to gain knowledge about the latest threats and hoaxes.
==See also==
*[[Malware]]
*[[List of computer viruses]]
*[[List of computer virus hoaxes]]
*[[List of trojan horses]]
*[[Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms]]
*[[Turing completeness]]
*[[Black hat|Cracking]]
*[[Security through obscurity]]
*[[Spam (electronic)|Spam]]
*[[Melissa (computer worm)|Melissa worm]], [[ILOVEYOU (computer virus)|ILOVEYOU]]
*[[Cryptovirology]]
==External links==
===Anti virus===
* [http://www.windowsonecare.com/ Microsoft has OneCare Live, designed to protect your computer against viruses.]
* [http://www.softpanorama.org/Malware/index.shtml Softpanorama (slightly skeptical) Viruses, Worms and Spyware Defense Strategy]
* [http://www.all.net/books/virus/part5.html Fred Cohen's 1984 paper]
* [http://www.sophos.com/virusinfo/explained/ Virus glossary and best practice]
* [http://www.bullguard.com/virus/ Virus Information], by [[BullGuard]]
* [http://librenix.com/?inode=80 An editorial on beneficial viruses (con)]
* [http://www.windowsecurity.com/articles/Protecting_Email_Viruses_Malware.html Email Viruses] - an article about how to protect you |
Électromagnétisme]]
[[gl:Electromagnetismo]]
[[he:אלקטרומגנטיות]]
[[hu:Elektromágneses kölcsönhatás]]
[[ia:Electromagnetismo]]
[[id:Elektromagnetisme]]
[[is:Rafsegulfræði]]
[[it:Elettromagnetismo]]
[[ja:電磁気学]]
[[ko:전자기학]]
[[lb:Elektromagnetismus]]
[[nl:Elektromagnetisme]]
[[nn:Elektromagnetisme]]
[[pl:Elektrodynamika klasyczna]]
[[pt:Electromagnetismo]]
[[ro:Electricitatea şi magnetismul]]
[[ru:Электродинамика]]
[[sl:Elektrika in magnetizem]]
[[sr:Електромагнетизам]]
[[sv:Elektromagnetism]]
[[ta:மின்காந்தவியல்]]
[[th:ทฤษฎีแม่เหล็กไฟฟ้า]]
[[tr:Elektromanyetik Kuvvet]]
[[uk:Електродинаміка класична]]
[[zh:电磁学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euphemism</title>
<id>9534</id>
<revision>
<id>42053357</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:59:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ncsaint</username>
<id>353068</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* The "euphemism treadmill" */ punctuation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''euphemism''' is an expression intended by the speaker to be less offensive, disturbing, or troubling to the listener than the word or phrase it replaces, or in the case of [[#Doublespeak|doublespeak]] to make it less troublesome for the speaker.
When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. Euphemisms are often used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemism is used in [[public relations]] and [[politics]], where it is sometimes disparagingly called doublespeak. There are also superstitious euphemisms, based (consciously or subconsciously) on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not speaking the word "cancer"; see [[#Etymology|Etymology]] and [[#Common examples|Common examples]] below) and religious euphemisms, based on the idea that some words are sacred, or that some words are spiritually imperiling (''taboo''; see [[#Etymology|Etymology]] and [[#Religious euphemisms|Religious euphemisms]] below).
==Etymology==
{{wiktionarypar|euphemism}}
The word '''euphemism''' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''euphemos'', meaning "auspicious/good/fortunate speech" which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words ''eu'' (&#949;&#965;), "good/well" + ''pheme'' (&#966;&#942;&#956;&#951;) "speech/speaking". The ''eupheme'' was originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud (see [[taboo]]). The primary example of taboo words requiring the use of a euphemism are the unspeakable names for a deity, such as [[Persephone]], [[Hecate]], [[Nemesis (mythology)|Nemesis]] or [[Yahweh]]. By speaking only words favorable to the gods or spirits, the speaker attempted to procure good fortune by remaining in good favor with them.
[[Historical linguistics]] has revealed traces of '''taboo deformations''' in many languages. Several are known to have occurred in [[Indo-European]], including the original Indo-European words for ''[[bear]]'' (''*rtkos''), ''[[wolf]]'' (''*wlk<sup>w</sup>os''), and ''[[deer]]'' (originally, ''hart''). In different Indo-European languages, each of these words has a difficult [[etymology]] because of taboo deformations &mdash; a euphemism was substituted for the original, which no longer occurs in the language. An example is the Slavic root for ''bear''&mdash;''*medu-ed-'', which means "honey eater".
In some [[Austronesian languages|languages of the Pacific]], using the name of a deceased chief is taboo. Amongst Australian Aboriginal people, it was forbidden to ever use the name or image of the deceased, so that today the Australian Broadcasting Commission publishes an apology to indigenous people for using names or images of people who have recently died. Since people are often named after everyday things, this leads to the swift development of euphemisms. These languages have a very high rate of vocabulary change. (Dyen, Isidore, A. T. James & J. W. L. Cole. 1967. Language divergence and estimated word retention rate. Language 43/1: 150-171.)
==The "euphemism treadmill"==
Euphemisms often evolve over time into [[taboo word]]s themselves through a process described by [[W.V.O. Quine]], and more recently dubbed 'the ''euphemism treadmill''' by [[Steven Pinker]]. (''cf.'' [[Gresham's Law]] in [[economics]]).
Words originally intended as euphemisms may lose their euphemistic value, acquiring the negative connotations of their referents. In some cases, they may be used mockingly and become [[dysphemism|dysphemistic]].
For example the term "[[concentration camp]]" to describe camps used to house civilian prisoners was used by the British during the [[Second Boer War]], primarily because it sounded bland and inoffensive. However, after the [[Third Reich]] used the expression to describe their death camps, the term gained enormous negative connotation. Since then new terms have been invented as euphemisms for them, such as [[internment camps]], resettlement camps, etc.
Also, in some versions of English, ''toilet room'', itself a euphemism, was replaced with ''bathroom'' and ''water closet'', which were replaced (respectively) with ''rest room'' and ''W.C.''
Connotations easily change over time. ''Idiot'' was once a neutral term, and ''moron'' a similar one. <!--could use indications of their original meanings here: they meant having the mental capacity of a child, and the difference is that they refer to different-age children's capacity.--> Negative senses of a word tend to crowd out neutral ones, so the word ''retarded'' was pressed into service to replace them. Now that too is considered rude, used commonly as an insult of a person, thing, or idea. As a result, new terms like ''mentally challenged'' or ''special'' have replaced ''retarded''. In a few decades, calling someone ''special'' may well be a grave insult, and indeed among many young school students, it is already a common term of abuse, if not yet a particularly grave one. A similar progression occurred with
:''crippled &rarr; handicapped &rarr; disabled &rarr; differently-abled
although in that case the meaning has also broadened; a dyslexic or colorblind person would not be termed ''crippled''. In the early 1960s, [[Bill Veeck]], who was missing part of a leg, argued against the then-favored euphemism "handicapped", saying he preferred "crippled" because it was merely descriptive and did not carry connotations of limiting one's capability the way "handicapped" (and, in fact, all of its subsequent euphemisms) seem to do. In some cases, differently-abled would be the only accurate description of a person in any case: individuals with [[Asperger Syndrome]], an [[Autistic spectrum]] disorder, generally have a much lower [[emotional intelligence|EQ]] than non-autistics; in contrast their [[IQ]] tends to be above average. Likewise congenital amputee [[Kyle Maynard]] is one of the top wrestlers in his age/weight class in the US, despite having vestigial arms and legs, turning his much lower centre of gravity and superior strength into significant advantages. In March 2005 Kyle did a modified benchpress of 360Lbs - almost 26st or 163.44Kg - and claimed the title of "world's strongest teenager".
It can apply to naming of racial or ethnic groups as well, when proposed euphemisms become successively "corrupted". For example: ''negro'' &rarr; ''colored'' &rarr; ''black'' &rarr; ''African-American'' <!--"Nigger" has never been a euphemism. It has been a racist insult since it was first formulated.-->
A complementary "[[Dysphemism#The "dysphemism treadmill"|dysphemism treadmill]]" exists, but is more rarely observed. One modern example is the word "[[sucks]]." "That sucks" began as American slang for "that is very unpleasant", and is shorthand for "that sucks dick." It developed over the late-[[20th century]] from being an extremely vulgar phrase to near-acceptability. A similar phenomenon happened with "jerk", which began as "jerk-off" (itself a reference to masturbation), in reference to someone who was boorish or stupid, and was a forbidden term in public media, but is now acceptable (for example, the [[Steve Martin]] film ''[[The Jerk]]'').
==Classification of euphemisms==
Many euphemisms fall into one or more of these categories:
* Terms of foreign and/or technical origin (''derriere'', ''copulation'', ''perspire'', ''urinate'', ''security breach'', ''mierda de toro'')
* Abbreviations (''SOB'' for "son of a bitch", ''BS'' for "bullshit", ''TS'' for "tough shit")
* Abstractions (''it'', ''the situation'', ''go'', ''left the company'', ''do it'')
* Indirections (''behind'', ''unmentionables'', ''privates'', ''live together'', ''go to the bathroom'', ''sleep together'')
* Mispronunciation (''goldarnit'', ''freakin'', ''shoot'' - ''See'' [[minced oath]])
* Plays on abbreviations (''barbecue sauce'' for "bull shit", ''sugar honey ice tea'' for "shit", ''Maryland farmer'' for "motherfucker", ''see you next Tuesday'' for "cunt")
* Phonetic alphabet (''Foxtrot'' for "fuck", ''Whiskey Tango Foxtrot'' for "What the fuck?", ''Bravo Sierra'' for "bullshit")
There is some disagreement over whether certain terms are or are not euphemisms. For example, sometimes the phrase ''visually impaired'' is labeled as a [[politically correct]] euphemism for ''[[blindness|blind]]''. However, visual impairment can be a broader term, including, for example, people who have partial sight in one eye, a group that would be excluded by |
4)
* ''[[Drunk (film)|Drunk]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Empire (1964 film)|Empire]]'' (1964)
* ''[[The End of Dawn]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Lips (film)|Lips]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Mario Banana I]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Mario Banana II]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Messy Lives]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Naomi and Rufus Kiss]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Tarzan and Jane Regained... Sort of]]'' (1964)
* ''[[The Thirteen Most Beautiful Boys]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Beauty No. 2|Beauty #2]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Bitch (film)|Bitch]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Camp (1965 film)|Camp]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Harlot (film)|Harlot]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Horse (film)|Horse]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Kitchen (film)|Kitchen]]'' (1965)
* ''[[The Life of Juanita Castro]]'' (1965)
* ''[[My Hustler]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Poor Little Rich Girl]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Restaurant (film)|Restaurant]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Space (film)|Space]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Taylor Mead's Ass]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Vinyl (1965 film)|''Vinyl'']]'' (1965)
* ''[[Screen Test (film)|Screen Test]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Screen Test No. 2|Screen Test #2]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Ari and Mario]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Hedy]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Kiss the Boot]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Milk (film)|Milk]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Salvador Dalí (film)|Salvador Dalí]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Shower (film)|Shower]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Sunset (film)|Sunset]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Superboy (film)|Superboy]]'' (1966)
* ''[[The Closet (1966 film)|The Closet]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Chelsea Girls]]'' (1966)
* ''[[The Beard]]'' (1966)
* ''[[More Milk, Yvette]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Outer and Inner Space]]'' (1966)
* ''[[The Velvet Underground and Nico (film)|The Velvet Underground and Nico]]'' (1966)
* ''[[The Andy Warhol Story]]'' (1967)
* ''[[Tiger Morse]]'' (1967)
* ''[[**** (film)|****]]'' (1967)
* ''[[Imitation of Christ (film)|The Imitation of Christ]]'' (1967)
* ''[[The Nude Restaurant]]'' (1967)
* ''[[Bike Boy]]'' (1967)
* ''[[I, a Man]]'' (1967)
* ''[[San Diego Surf]]'' (1968)
* ''[[The Loves of Ondine]]'' (1968)
* ''[[Blue Movie]]'' (1969)
* ''[[Lonesome Cowboys]]'' (1969)
* ''[[L'Amour]]'' (1972)
=== Books and Print ===
Warhol "wrote" several books.
*''[[A, a novel]]'' (1968, ISBN 0-8021-3553-6) is a literal transcription - containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling - of audio recordings of [[Ondine]] and several of Andy Warhol's friends hanging out at the Factory, talking, going out.
*''[[The Philosophy of Andy Warhol; from A to B and back again]]'' (1975, ISBN 0-15-671720-4) - according to Pat Hackett's introduction to ''The Andy Warhol Diaries'', Pat Hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations, sometimes (when Warhol was traveling) using audio cassettes that Andy Warhol gave her. Said cassettes contained conversations with [[Brigid Berlin]] (aka Brigid Polk) and former ''Interview'' magazine editor [[Bob Colacello]].
*''[[Popism: The Warhol Sixties]]'' (1980, ISBN 0-15-672960-1), authored by Warhol and [[Pat Hackett]] is a retrospective view of the sixties and the role of Pop Art.
*''[[The Andy Warhol Diaries]]'' (1989, ISBN 0-446-39138-7, edited by Pat Hackett) is an edited diary that was dictated by Warhol to Hackett in daily phone conversations. Warhol started keeping a diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited.
Warhol created the fashion magazine ''[[Interview (magazine)|Interview]]'' that is still published today. The loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother, Julia Warhola, who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces.
===Other Media===
As stated, although Andy Warhol is most known for his paintings and films, he has authored works in many different media.
* Drawing: Warhol started his carreer drawing commercial illustrations in "blotted-ink" style for warehouses and magazines. Most well known are his pictures of shoes. Some of his drawings were published in little booklets, like "Yum, Yum, Yum" (about food), "Ho, Ho, Ho" (about Christmas) and (of course) "Shoes, Shoes, Shoes". His most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably "The Gold Book", compiled of sensitive, personal drawings of young men. "The Gold Book" is thus dubbed because of the leaf-gold that decorates the pages.
* Sculpture: Warhol's most famous sculpture is probably his "Brillo Boxes"; silkscreened wooden replicas of Brillo soap boxes. Other famous works include the "Silver Floating Pillows"; gas-filled, silver, pillow-shaped balloons that were floated out of the window during the presentation.
* Audio: At one point Warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went, taping everything everybody said and did. He referred to this device as his "wife". Some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work. Another audio-work of Warhol's was his "Invisible Sculpture," a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room. Warhol's cooperation with the musicians of The Velvet Underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer.
* Television: Andy Warhol dreamed of a television show that he wanted to call "The Nothing Special", a Special about his favorite subject: Nothing. Later in his career he did create two cable television shows, "Andy Warhol's TV" in 1982 and "Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes" for MTV in 1986. Besides his own shows he regularly made guest-appearances in shows like "Love Boat".
* Fashion: Warhol is quoted for having said: "I'd rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall, than put a painting, wouldn't you?" One of his most well-known Superstars, Edie Sedgwick, aspired to be a fashion designer, and his good friend Halston was a famous one. Warhol's work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses, a short sub-career as a catwalk-model and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion (shoes) as a subject.
* Performance Art: Warhol and his friends staged happenings; theatrical multimedia presentations during parties, containing music, film, slide projections and Gerard Malanga in an S&M outfit cracking a whip. The [[Exploding Plastic Inevitable]] is the culmination of this area of his work.
* Photography: To produce his silkscreens, Warhol made photographs or had them made by his friends and assistants. These pictures were mostly taken with a specific model of Polaroid camera that Polaroid kept in production especially for Warhol. This photographic approach to painting and his snapshot method of taking pictures has had a great effect on artistic photography. His late oeuvre contains black and white photos sewn together.
=== Product ===
In many of his efforts Warhol has taken the position of a producer or director, rather than a creator. From an artist he gradually became the person that determined the direction and was the public face of a company, having a staff of sorts to do the actual labor involved in his products. He would coin an idea and oversee its execution, his Factory evolved from an atelier into an office.
As this position proved to work out, he found himself able to expand his activities into other fields. He founded the gossip magazine Interview, creating a stage for celebrities he "endorsed" and creating jobs for his friends. He adopted the young painter Jean-Michel Basquiat, and the band The Velvet Underground and presented them to the public as his latest interest, cooperating with them, shaping their public personas. He would produce things and people, and they were part of his artistic product. He endorsed products, appeared in commercials, made business deals and even "sold" the film-making branch of his company when he decided to spend less time filming himself.
In this respect Warhol talked about "Art Business" and "Business Art", and how he thought business was the best type of art. This was a radical new stance, as artists had always presented themselves as flamboyant, individual, visionairy outsiders - commenting on the normal part of society, but never really being a part of it. And receiving appreciation for that position on basis of their idealism, rare talents and personalities. Warhol and other pop-artists helped redefine the artist's position as professional, commercial, popular; a logical and valuable part of society. He did this using methods, imagery and talents that were (or at least seemed to be) available to everyone. Perhaps that has been the most meaningful result of (his) Pop Art: a philosophical and practical incorporation of art into society, art as a product of society.
=== Museums ===
The [[Andy Warhol Museum]] is located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is the largest American art museum dedicated to a single artist, holding more than 4,000 works by the artist himself.
Among others, Andy's brother, John Warhola, and the Warhol Foundation in New York, established in 1991 the Warhol Family Museum of Modern Art in the remote town of [[Medzilaborce]], [[Slovakia]]. Andy's mother, Julia Warhola, was born 15 kilometers away in the village of Mikova. The museum houses several originals donated mainly by the Andy Warhol Foundation in New York and also personal items donated by Warhol's relatives
=== Further Reading on Warhol ===
Jennifer Doyle, Jonathan Flatley, and [[José Esteban Muñoz]], <u>Pop Out: Queer Warhol</u> (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996).
Fred Lawrence Guiles, <u>Lover at the Ball: The Life of Andy Warhol</u> (New York: Bantam, 1989).
[[Wayne Koestenbaum]], <u>Andy Warhol</u> (New York: Penguin, 2003).
Richard Meyer, <u>Outlaw Representation</u> (New York: Beacon, 2003).
Steven Watson, <u>Factory Made: Warhol and the Sixties</u> (New York: Pantheon, 2003).
== See also ==
* [[Electric Circus (nightclub)]] - Warhol had a section called "La Dom" on a lower floor
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons |
ncarnation#As used in the Christian tradition|pre-incarnate]] [[Jesus]] as a divine being but nonetheless created by (and consequently inferior to) the Father at some point, before which the Son did not exist. In English-language works, it is sometimes said that Arians believe that Jesus is or was a "creature"; in this context, the word is being used in its original sense of "created being."
The conflict between Arianism and the [[Trinitarianism|Trinitarian]] beliefs was the first major doctrinal confrontation in the Church after the legalization of Christianity by Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]]. Controversy over Arianism extended over the greater part of the fourth century and involved most church members, simple believers and monks as well as bishops and emperors. While Arianism did dominate for several decades in the family of the Emperor, the Imperial nobility and higher ranking clergy, in the end it was Trinitarianism which prevailed theologically and politically at the end of the fourth century, and which has since been a virtually uncontested doctrine in all major branches of the Eastern and Western Church. Arianism, which had been taught by the Arian missionary [[Ulfilas]] to the Germanic tribes, did linger for some centuries among several Germanic tribes in western Europe, especially [[Goths]] and [[Langobards]] but did not play any significant theological role thereafter.
==Beliefs==
Because most contemporary written material on Arianism was written by its opponents, the nature of Arius' teachings are difficult to define precisely today. The letter of [[Auxentius]][http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/auxentius.trans.html], a [[4th century]] Arian [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]], regarding the missionary [[Ulfilas]], gives the clearest picture of Arian beliefs on the nature of the [[Trinity]]: God the Father ("unbegotten"), always existing, was separate from the lesser Jesus Christ ("only-begotten"), born before time began and creator of the world. The Father, working through the Son, created the Holy Spirit, who was subservient to the Son as the Son was to the Father. The Father was seen as "the only true God." I Corinthians 8:5-6 was cited as proof text:
:"Indeed, even though there may be so-called gods in heaven or on earth — as in fact there are many gods and many lords — yet for us there is one God (''theos''), the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist, and one Lord (''kyrios''), Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist." (NRSV)
== The Council of Nicea and its aftermath ==
In [[321]] Arius was denounced by a [[synod]] at Alexandria for teaching a heterodox view of the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. Because Arius and his followers had great influence in the schools of Alexandria &mdash; counterparts to modern universities or seminaries &mdash; their theological views spread, especially in the eastern Mediterranean. By [[325]] the controversy had become significant enough that Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the [[First Council of Nicea|First]] [[Ecumenical council|Council]] of [[Nicaea]] (modern Iznik, Turkey), which condemned Arius' doctrine and formulated the [[Nicene Creed]], which is still recited in [[Catholicism|Catholic]], [[Orthodox]], and some [[Protestant]] services. The Nicene Creed's central term, used to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son, is [[ousia|homoousios]], meaning "of the same substance" or "of one being". (The [[Athanasian Creed]] is less often used but is a more overtly anti-Arian statement on the Trinity.)
Constantine exiled those who refused to accept the Nicean creed &mdash; Arius himself, the deacon [[Euzoios]], and the Libyan bishops [[Theonas of Ptolemais]] and [[Secundus of Mamarica]] &mdash; and also the bishops who signed the creed but refused to join in Arius' condemnation, [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]] and [[Theognis of Nicea]]. The Emperor also ordered all copies of the ''Thalia'', the book in which Arius had expressed his teachings, to be [[Book burning|burned]]. This ended the open theological dispute for a few years, though under the surface opposition to the Nicean creed remained.
Though he was committed to maintaining what the church had defined at Nicea, Constantine was also bent on pacifying the situation and eventually became more lenient towards those condemned and exiled at the council. First he allowed Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was a prot&eacute;g&eacute; of his sister, and Theognis to return once they had signed an ambiguous statement of faith. The two, and other friends of Arius, worked for Arius' rehabilitation. At the synod of Tyre in [[335]] they brought accusations against Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, the primary opponent of Arius; after this, Constantine had [[Athanasius]] banished, since he considered him an impediment to reconciliation. In the same year, the synod of Jerusalem readmitted Arius to communion, and in [[336]], Constantine allowed Arius to return to his hometown. Arius, however, died on the day he was scheduled to depart from Constantinople. Eusebius and Theognis remained in the Emperor's favour, and when Constantine, who had been a [[catechumen]] much of his adult life, accepted [[baptism]] on his deathbed, it was from Eusebius of Nicomedia.
== The theological debates reopen ==
The Council of Nicea had not ended the controversy, as many bishops of the Eastern provinces disputed the ''homoousios'', the central term of the Nicene creed, as it had been used by [[Paul of Samosata]], who had advocated a [[Monarchianism|monarchianist]] [[Christology]]. Both the man and his teaching, including the term ''homoousios'', had been condemned by synods in Antioch in [[269]].
Hence, after Constantine's death in [[337]], open dispute resumed again. Constantine's son Constantius II, who had become Emperor of the eastern part of the Empire actually encouraged the Arians and set out to reverse the Nicene creed. His advisor in these affairs was Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had already at the Council of Nicea been the head of the Arian party, who also was made bishop of Constantinople.
Constantius used his power to exile bishops adhering to the Nicene creed, especially [[Athanasius]] of Alexandria, who fled to Rome. In [[355]] Constantius became the sole Emperor and extended his pro-Arian policy towards the western provinces, frequently using force to push through his creed, even exiling [[Pope Liberius]].
As debates raged in an attempt to come up with a new formula, three camps evolved among the opponents of the Nicene creed. The first group mainly opposed the Nicene terminology and preferred the term ''homoiousios'' (alike in substance) to the Nicene ''homoousios'', while they rejected Arius and his teaching and accepted the equality and coeternality of the persons of the Trinity. Because of this centrist position, and despite their rejection of Arius, they were called "semi-Arians" by their opponents. The second group also avoided invoking the name of Arius, but in large part followed Arius' teachings and, in another attempted compromise wording, described the Son as being like (''homoi'') the Father. A third group explicitly called upon Arius and described the Son as unlike (''anhomoi'') the Father. Constantius wavered in his support between the first and the second party, while harshly persecuting the third.
The debates between these groups resulted in numerous synods among them [[Sardica]] in [[343]], the council of Sirmium in [[358]] and the double council of Rimini and Selecia in [[359]], and no less than fourteen further creed formulas between 340 and 360, and the pagan observer Ammianus Marcellinus commented sarcastically: "The highways were covered with galloping bishops." None of these attempts were acceptable to the defenders of Nicene orthodoxy: writing about the latter councils, Saint [[Jerome]] remarked that the world "awoke with a groan to find itself Arian."
After Constantius' death in [[361]], his successor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], a devotee of [[Paganism|Rome's pagan gods]], declared that he would no longer attempt to favor one church faction over another, and allowed all exiled bishops to return; this had the objective of further increasing dissension among Christians. The Emperor [[Valens]], however, revived Constantius' policy and supported the "Homoian" party, exiling bishops and often using force. During this persecution many bishops were exiled to the other ends of the Empire, (e.g., [[Hilarius of Poitiers]] to the Eastern provinces). These contacts and the common plight subsequently led to a rapprochement between the Western supporters of the Nicene creed and the ''homoousios'' and the Eastern semi-Arians.
After Valens' death in the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of]] [[Adrianople]] in [[378]], the accession of [[Theodosius I]], who adhered to the Nicene creed, allowed for settling the dispute in [[381]]: at the [[Second Ecumenical Council]] in Constantinople, a group of mainly Eastern bishops assembled and accepted the Nicene Creed, which was supplemented in regard to the [[Holy Spirit]]. This is generally considered the end of the dispute about the Trinity and the end of Arianism among the Roman, non-Germanic peoples.
== Nicene Christianity becomes the state religion of Rome ==
{{cleanup-merge}}
In the 4th century, the Christian Church in the Roman Empire was wracked with controversy over the nature of the [[Trinity]]. In 325 AD, the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicea]] had condemned the teachings of the theologian [[Arius]]: that Jesus was a created being and inferior to God the Father, and that the Father and Son were of a similar substance (''homoiousion'' in Greek) but not identical. The Co |
ohn McCain]], American politician
*[[1937]] - [[James Florio]], Governor of New Jersey
*[[1938]] - [[Elliott Gould]], American actor
*1938 - [[Robert Rubin]], [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]]
*[[1939]] - [[William Friedkin]], American film director
*1939 - [[Joel Schumacher]], American film director
*[[1940]] - [[Gary Gabelich]], race car driver and land world speed record holder
*[[1941]] - [[Robin Leach]], English television host
*[[1946]] - [[Bob Beamon]], American jumper
*[[1958]] - [[Michael Jackson]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1958]] - [[Lenny Henry]], British Comic
*[[1959]] - [[Ernesto Rodrigues]], Portuguese composer
*[[1959]] - [[Akkineni Nagarjuna]], Telugu film actor
*1959 - [[Timothy Perry Shriver]], American chairman of the Special Olympics
*[[1961]] - [[Carsten Fischer]], German field hockey player
*[[1962]] - [[Rebecca De Mornay]], American actress
*[[1963]] - [[Elizabeth Fraser]], English singer ([[Cocteau Twins]])
*[[1969]] - [[Me'Shell NdegéOcello]], American singer
*1969 - [[Joe Swail]], Northern Irish snooker player
*[[1970]] - [[Jacco Eltingh]], Dutch tennis player
*[[1971]] - [[Carla Gugino]], American actress
*[[1976]] - [[Stephen Carr]], Irish footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Celestine Babayaro]], Nigerian footballer
*[[1979]] - [[Chieu Luu]], Canadian journalist
*[[1980]] - [[David Desrosiers]], Canadian musician ([[Simple Plan]])
*[[1981]] - [[Lanny Barbie]], Canadian [[porn star]]
*[[1985]] - [[Dušan Jocić]], Serbian Warlord
==Deaths==
*[[886]] - [[Basil I]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[811]])
*[[1093]] - [[Hugh I, Duke of Burgundy]] (b. [[1057]])
*[[1395]] - Duke [[Albert III of Austria]] (b. [[1349]])
*[[1435]] - [[Isabeau de Bavière]], queen of [[Charles VI of France]] (b. [[1371]])
*[[1442]] - [[John VI, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1389]])
*[[1526]] - King [[Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia]] (killed in battle) (b. [[1506]])
*[[1533]] - [[Atahualpa]], last Inca ruler of Peru
*[[1542]] - [[Cristovão da Gama]], Portuguese soldier (born c.[[1510s|1516]])
*[[1657]] - [[John Lilburne]], English dissenter
*[[1712]] - [[Gregory King]], English statistician (b. [[1648]])
*[[1769]] - [[Edmund Hoyle]], English author and teacher (b. [[1672]])
*[[1780]] - [[Jacques-Germain Soufflot]], French architect (b. [[1713]])
*[[1799]] - [[Pope Pius VI]] (b. [[1717]])
*[[1877]] - [[Brigham Young]], American religious leader and western settler (b. [[1801]])
*[[1904]] - [[Murad V]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1840]])
*[[1930]] - [[William Archibald Spooner]], English writer (b. [[1844]])
*[[1935]] - [[Astrid of the Belgians|Queen Astrid of Belgium]] (b. [[1905]])
*[[1947]] - [[Manolete]], Spanish bullfighter (b. [[1917]])
*[[1966]] - [[Sayyid Qutb]], Egyptian theoretician (b. [[1906]])
*[[1968]] - [[Ulysses S. Grant III]], American soldier and planner (b. [[1881]])
*[[1972]] - [[Lale Andersen]], German singer (b. [[1905]])
*[[1975]] - [[Eamon de Valera]], first [[Taoiseach]] and third [[President of Ireland]] (b. [[1882]])
*[[1981]] - [[Lowell Thomas]], American writer and broadcaster (b. [[1892]])
*[[1982]] - [[Ingrid Bergman]], Swedish actress (b. [[1915]])
*[[1987]] - [[Lee Marvin]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[1989]] - [[Peter Scott]], English explorer, naturalist, and painter (b. [[1909]])
*[[2003]] - Ayatollah [[Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim]], Iraqi political leader (b.[[1939]])
*[[2004]] - [[Hans Vonk]], Dutch conductor (b. [[1942]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] and [[Calendar of Saints|Roman Catholic Church]] commemorate the beheading of [[John the Baptist]] with a feast day
*[[Slovakia]] - [[Slovak National Uprising]] Day ([[1944]], against the Nazi's)
*[[United States]] - Hurricane Awareness Day (in response to [[Hurricane Katrina]])
==Fictional==
* The day the running stopped for fugitive [[Richard Kimble]] - [[29 August]] [[1967]].
* Judgment Day in the movie ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' - [[29 August]] [[1997]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/29 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 28]] - [[August 30]] - [[July 29]] - [[September 29]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:29 Augustus]]
[[ar:29 أغسطس]]
[[an:29 d'agosto]]
[[ast:29 d'agostu]]
[[bg:29 август]]
[[be:29 жніўня]]
[[bs:29. august]]
[[ca:29 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 29]]
[[cv:Çурла, 29]]
[[co:29 d'aostu]]
[[cs:29. srpen]]
[[cy:29 Awst]]
[[da:29. august]]
[[de:29. August]]
[[et:29. august]]
[[el:29 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:29 de agosto]]
[[eo:29-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 29]]
[[fo:29. august]]
[[fr:29 août]]
[[fy:29 augustus]]
[[ga:29 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:29 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 29일]]
[[hr:29. kolovoza]]
[[io:29 di agosto]]
[[id:29 Agustus]]
[[ia:29 de augusto]]
[[ie:29 august]]
[[is:29. ágúst]]
[[it:29 agosto]]
[[he:29 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:29 Agustus]]
[[ka:29 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:29 zélnika]]
[[ku:29'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 29]]
[[lb:29. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 29]]
[[mk:29 август]]
[[ms:29 Ogos]]
[[nap:29 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:29 augustus]]
[[ja:8月29日]]
[[no:29. august]]
[[nn:29. august]]
[[oc:29 d'agost]]
[[pl:29 sierpnia]]
[[pt:29 de Agosto]]
[[ro:29 august]]
[[ru:29 августа]]
[[sco:29 August]]
[[sq:29 Gusht]]
[[scn:29 di austu]]
[[simple:August 29]]
[[sk:29. august]]
[[sl:29. avgust]]
[[sr:29. август]]
[[fi:29. elokuuta]]
[[sv:29 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 29]]
[[tt:29. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 29]]
[[th:29 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:29 tháng 8]]
[[tr:29 Ağustos]]
[[uk:29 серпня]]
[[wa:29 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 29]]
[[zh:8月29日]]
[[pam:Agostu 29]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 30</title>
<id>1794</id>
<revision>
<id>41841633</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:20:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
<id>603177</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.8.54.32|210.8.54.32]] to last version by Rklawton</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=30}}
|}
'''August 30''' is the 242nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (243rd in leap years), with 123 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[711]] - [[K'inich K'an Joy Chitam]], king of the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] city of [[Palenque]], disappears from history. He was probably taken prisoner by a rivalling city state.
*[[1574]] - [[Guru Ram Das]] became the Fourth Sikh Guru/Master
*[[1590]] - [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] enters [[Edo Castle]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: August 1, 1590)
*[[1813]] - [[Battle of Kulm]]: [[France|French]] forces defeated by [[Austria]]n-[[Prussia]]n-[[Russia]]n alliance
* 1813 - [[Creek War]]: [[Creek people|Creek]] [[Red Sticks]] carried out the [[Fort Mims Massacre]].
*[[1850]] - [[Honolulu, Hawaii]], becomes a city
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Richmond, Kentucky]]: [[Confederate States of America|Confederates]] under [[Edmund Kirby Smith]] rout a [[Union Army|Union army]] under General [[Horatio Wright]]
*[[1862]] - American Civil War: Union forces are defeated in [[Second Battle of Bull Run]]
*[[1873]] - [[Austrian]] explorers [[Julius von Payer]] and [[Karl Weyprecht]] discover the archipelago of [[Franz Joseph Land]] in the [[Arctic Sea]].
*[[1909]] - [[Burgess Shale]] fossils discovered by [[Charles Doolittle Walcott]]
*[[1914]] - [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)|Battle of Tannenberg]]
*[[1918]] - [[Fanya Kaplan]], an [[assassin]], shoots and seriously injures [[Bolshevik]] leader [[Vladimir Lenin]]. This, along with the assassination of Bolshevik senior official [[Moisei Uritsky]] days earlier, prompts the decree for [[Red Terror]].
*[[1922]] - [[Battle of Dumlupinar]], final battle in [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]] ("[[Turkish War of Independence]]")
*[[1941]] - [[Siege of Leningrad]] begins.
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Alam Halfa]] begins.
*[[1945]] - [[Hong Kong]] is liberated from Japan by British Forces.
*1945 - Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces, [[Douglas MacArthur|General Douglas MacArthur]] lands at [[NAF Atsugi|Atsugi Air Force Base]].
*[[1962]] - [[Japan]] conducts a test of the [[NAMC YS-11]], its first aircraft since the [[World War II|war]] and its only successful commercial aircraft from before or after the war.
*[[1963]] - Hotline between U.S. and Soviet leaders goes into operation.
*[[1965]] - [[Casey Stengel]] announces his retirement from baseball
*1965 - [[Rock and roll|Rock]] musician [[Bob Dylan]] releases his influential album ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]'' featuring the song "Like a Rolling Stone."
*[[1967]] - [[Thurgood Marshall]] is confirmed as the first [[African American]] Justice of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]].
*[[1974]] - A [[Belgrade]]-[[Dortmund]] express train derails at the main train station in [[Zagreb]] killing 153 passengers.
*[[1976]] - [[Tom Brokaw]] becomes news anchor of the ''[[The Today Show|Today Show]]''.
*[[1984]] - [[STS-41-D]]: The [[Space Shuttle]] ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'' takes off on its maiden voyage.
*[[1990]] - [[Tatarstan]] declares independence from the [[RSFSR]].
*[[1991]] - [[Azerbaijan]] declares independence from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].
*[[1992]] - [[Michael Schumacher]] wins his first [[Formula One]] race at the [[1992 Belgian Grand Prix|Belgian Grand Prix]].
*[[1993]] - ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]'' debuts on [[CBS]].
*[[1999]] - [[East Timor]]ese vote for independence in a referendum.
*[[2002]] - The [[Tandy Center Subway]] in [[Fort Worth, Texas]], ceases to operate.
*[[2005]] - The [[17th Street Canal]] in New Orleans is breached during [[Hurricane Katrina]], leading to massive flooding and destruction.
==Births==
*[[1334]] - King [[Peter I of Castile]] (d. [[1369]])
*[[1377]] - [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rukh]], ruler of Persia and Transoxonia ( |
th a large number of bacteria, even a normal heart valve may be infected. A more virulent organism (such as ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'') is usually responsible for infecting a normal valve.
Intravenous drug users tend to get their right heart valves infected because the [[vein]]s that are injected enter the right side of the heart. The injured valve is most commonly affected when there is a pre-existing disease. (In rheumatic heart disease this is the aortic and the mitral valves, on the left side of the heart.)
===Clinical and pathological features===
*Fever (often spiking)
*Continuous presence of micro-organisms in the bloodstream determined by serial collection of blood cultures
*Vegetations on valves on [[echocardiography]]
*Septic emboli, causing circulatory problems ([[stroke]], [[gangrene]] of fingers)
*[[Chronic renal failure]]
*[[Osler's node]]s (painful subcutaneous lesions in the distal fingers)
*[[Janeway lesion]]s (painless hemorrhagic cutaneous lesions on the palms and soles)
*[[Roth spot]]s on the [[retina]]
*Conjunctival petechiae
*A new or changing heart murmur, particularly murmurs suggestive of valvular incompetence
===Micro-organisms responsible===
Many types of organism can cause infective endocarditis. These are generally isolated by [[blood culture]], where the patient's blood is removed, and any growth is noted and identified.
Alpha-haemolytic [[Streptococcus|streptococci]], that are present in the mouth will often be the organism isolated if a dental procedure caused the bacteraemia.
If the bacteraemia was introduced through the skin, such as contamination in surgery, during catheterisation, or in an IV drug user, ''Staphylococcus aureus'' is common.
A third important cause of endocarditis is ''[[Enterococcus|Enterococci]]''. These bacteria enter the bloodstream as a consequence of abnormalities in the gastrointestinal or urinary tracts. ''[[Enterococcus|Enterococci]]'' are increasingly recognized as causes of nosocomial or hospital-acquired endocarditis. This contrasts with alpha-haemolytic streptococci and ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' which are causes of community-acquired endocarditis.
Some organisms, when isolated, give valuable clues to the cause, as they tend to be specific.
*''[[Candida albicans]]'', a [[yeast]], is associated with IV drug users and the [[immunocompromised]].
*''[[Pseudomonas]]'' species, which are very resilient organisms that thrive in water, may contaminate street drugs that have been contaminated with drinking water.
*''[[Streptococcus bovis]]'', which is part of the natural flora of the bowel, tends to present when the patient has bowel cancer.
* [[HACEK organisms]] are a group of bacteria that live on the dental gums, and are associated with IV drug users who contaminate their needles with saliva.
===Treatment===
High dose [[antibiotic]]s are administered by the intravenous route to maximize diffusion of antibiotic molecules into vegetation(s) from the blood filling the chambers of the heart. This is necessary because neither the heart valves nor the vegetations adherent to them are supplied by blood vessels. Antibiotics are continued for a long time, typically two to six weeks. Surgical removal of the valve is necessary in patients who fail to clear micro-organisms from their blood in response to antibiotic therapy, or in patients who develop cardiac failure resulting from destruction of a valve by infection. A removed valve is usually replaced with an artificial valve which may either be mechanical (metallic) or obtained from an animal such as a pig; the latter are termed bioprosthetic valves.
Infective endocarditis is associated with a 25% mortality.
== Non-infective endocarditis ==
Non-infective or marantic endocarditis is [[rare disease|rare]]. A form of sterile endocarditis is termed [[Libman-Sacks endocarditis]]; this form occurs more often in patients with [[lupus erythematosus]] and the [[antiphospholipid syndrome]]. Non-infective endocarditis may also occur in patients with cancers, particularly mucinous adenocarcinoma.
==External links==
* [http://heartcenter.seattlechildrens.org/conditions_treated/endocarditis.asp Endocarditis information] from Seattle Children's Hospital Heart Center
[[Category:Valvular heart disease]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euler's conjecture</title>
<id>9660</id>
<revision>
<id>37351550</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T12:35:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tosha</username>
<id>37304</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Euler's conjecture''' is a [[conjecture]] in [[mathematics]] related to [[Fermat's last theorem]] which was proposed by [[Leonhard Euler]] in [[1769]]. It states that for every [[integer]] ''n'' greater than 2, the sum of ''n''<tt>-</tt>1 ''n''th powers of positive integers cannot itself be an ''n''th power.
The conjecture was disproven by [[L. J. Lander]] and [[Thomas Parkin|T. R. Parkin]] in [[1966]] when they found the following counterexample for ''n'' = 5:
::27<sup>5</sup> + 84<sup>5</sup> + 110<sup>5</sup> + 133<sup>5</sup> = 144<sup>5</sup>.
In [[1988]], [[Noam Elkies]] found a method to construct counterexamples for the ''n'' = 4 case. His smallest counterexample was the following:
::2682440<sup>4</sup> + 15365639<sup>4</sup> + 18796760<sup>4</sup> = 20615673<sup>4</sup>.
[[Roger Frye]] subsequently found the smallest possible ''n'' = 4 counterexample by a direct computer search using techniques suggested by Elkies:
::95800<sup>4</sup> + 217519<sup>4</sup> + 414560<sup>4</sup> = 422481<sup>4</sup>.
{{Numtheory-stub}}
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[[Category:Conjectures]]
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[[sv:Eulers förmodan]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Exodus</title>
<id>9662</id>
<revision>
<id>41888456</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:05:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Construction of a Tabernacle, vestments, and associated ritual objects (35-40) */ Disambig [[congregation (worship)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the second book in the Torah. Discussion of [[the exodus]], a major event in the book, is in a separate article. For other uses of the name, see [[Exodus (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Torah}}
'''Exodus''' is the second book of the [[Torah]] (the [[Pentateuch]]) and also the [[Tanakh]] (the [[Hebrew Bible]]), and the Christian [[Old Testament]]. The major events of the book concern [[the Exodus]], a departure of [[Hebrew people|Hebrew]] [[slavery|slaves]] from [[Egypt]], under the [[leadership]] of [[Moses]].
Jews call the book by its first words ''Ve-eleh shemoth'' (i.e., "and these are the names") or simply "Shemoth" שמות. The [[Septuagint]] designates the second book of the [[Pentateuch]] as "Exodus", meaning "departure" or "out-going". The [[Latin| Latin]] translation adopted the name, which thence passed into other languages. As a result of the theme of the first half of the book, the term "an exodus" has come to mean a departure of a great number of people.
==Summary==
The book is generally broken into six sections:
*The account of the growth of the Israelites into a peoples, their enslavement in Egypt, and eventual escape (1-12)
*The journey from Egypt to [[Mount Sinai]] (13-18)
*The formation of a covenant between [[Yahweh]] and the people, and its associated laws (19-24)
*Intricate instructions for the construction of a tabernacle, priestly robes, and other ritual objects (25-31)
*The episode of the [[golden calf]], and the regiving of the law (32-34)
*The construction of the tabernacle, priestly robes, and other ritual objects (35-40)
A major [[Chiastic structure]] runs throughout the second half of Exodus, centred on the episode of the golden calf.
===The Israelites and their escape from slavery (1-14)===
A new [[Pharaoh]], who ''knew not [[Joseph]]'', becomes concerned about the military implications of the large increase in the Israelite population, and oppresses them with forced labour, ordering the Hebrew [[midwife|midwives]] to kill all male babies. However, a daughter of Pharaoh finds the male infant of a [[Levite]], calling him ''Moses'' (translating as ''drawn from the water''). Moses is brought up as an [[Egyptian]], but eventually sympathises with the suffering Israelites, slaying an Egyptian overseer.
Fleeing the country, [[Moses' exile]] takes him to [[Midian]], becoming shepherd to the priest [[Jethro]], and marrying his daughter, [[Zipporah]]. As he feeds the sheep on [[Mount Horeb]], God appears to him from a [[burning bush]], which fails to turn to ash. Yahweh orders Moses to demand the release of the Israelites from Pharaoh, and gives him the power to perform [[Miracles of Moses|two magical signs]], to show his authority. [[Aaron]], mentioned for the first time, and identified as Moses' brother, is appointed to assist him. On his return to Egypt, God tries to kill Moses, but [[Zipporah at the inn|Zipporah, at the inn]], decides to [[circumcision|circumc |
usly, [[Roger Penrose]]) have suggested that the human mind might be the result of quantum hypercomputation, although there is little scientific evidence for this theory.
There are many other technical possibilities which fall outside or between these three categories, but these serve to illustrate the range of the concept.
==References==
*Bernstein, E. & Vazirani, U. ''Quantum complexity theory'', SIAM Journal on Computing 26(5) (1997) 1411?1473
*[[Alonzo Church|Church, A.]], 1932, "A set of Postulates for the Foundation of Logic", ''Annals of Mathematics'', second series, 33, 346-366.
*Church, A., 1936, "An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory", ''American Journal of Mathematics'', 58, 345-363.
*Church, A., 1936, "A Note on the Entscheidungsproblem", ''Journal of Symbolic Logic'', 1, 40-41.
*Church, A., 1941, ''The Calculi of Lambda-Conversion'', Princeton: Princeton University Press.
*[[Willem Fouché|Fouché, W.]], ''Arithmetical representations of Brownian motion'', J. Symbolic Logic 65 (2000) 421-442
*[[Kurt Gödel|Gödel, K.]], 1934, "On Undecidable Propositions of Formal Mathematical Systems", lecture notes taken by Kleene and Rosser at the Institute for Advanced Study, reprinted in Davis, M. (ed.) 1965, ''The Undecidable'', New York: Raven.
*[[Jacques Herbrand|Herbrand, J.]], 1932, "Sur la non-contradiction de l'arithmétique", ''Journal fur die reine und angewandte Mathematik'', 166, 1-8.
*[[Douglas Hofstadter|Hofstadter, Douglas R.]], ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid]]'', Chapter 17.
*[[Stephen Cole Kleene|Kleene, S.C.]], 1935, "A Theory of Positive Integers in Formal Logic", ''American Journal of Mathematics'', 57, 153-173, 219-244.
*Kleene, S.C., 1936, "Lambda-Definability and Recursiveness", ''Duke Mathematical Journal'' 2, 340-353.
*[[Andrey Markov|Markov, A.A.]], 1960, "The Theory of Algorithms", ''American Mathematical Society Translations'', series 2, 15, 1-14.
*[[Alan Turing|Turing, A.M.]], 1936, "[http://www.abelard.org/turpap2/tp2-ie.asp On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem]", ''Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society'', Series 2, 42 (1936-37), pp.230-265.
*Pour-El, M.B. & Richards, J.I., 1989, ''Computability in Analysis and Physics'', [[Springer Verlag]].
* [[Martin Davis]] editor, ''The Undecidable, Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems And Computable Functions'', Raven Press, New York, 1965. All the original papers are here including those by Godel, Church, Rosser, Kleene, and Post. Those referenced above can be found in this collection. Valuable commentary by Davis prefaces most papers.
==See also==
*[[Computability theory (computation) | Computability theory]]
*[[Decidable|Decidability]]
*[[Computability logic]]
==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/church-turing/ Detailed info on the Church–Turing Hypothesis] ([[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]])
[[Category:Recursion theory]]
[[Category:Alan Turing]]
[[Category:Theory of computation]]
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[[ru:Тезис Чёрча — Тьюринга]]
[[zh:邱奇-图灵论题]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chomsky</title>
<id>6856</id>
<revision>
<id>18453932</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-09T08:34:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.13.37.43</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Noam_Chomsky]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer multitasking</title>
<id>6857</id>
<revision>
<id>42001614</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:41:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.94.6.28</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>apostrophe</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In computing, '''multitasking''' is a method by which multiple tasks, also known as [[Computer process|processes]], share common processing resources such as a [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. In the case of a computer with a single CPU, only one task is said to be ''running'' at any point in time, meaning that the CPU is actively executing instructions for that task.
Multitasking solves the problem by [[scheduling]] which task may be the one running at any given time, and when another waiting task gets a turn. The act of reassigning a CPU from one task to another one is called a [[context switch]].
When context switches occur frequently enough the illusion of [[Parallel computing|parallelism]] is achieved.
Even on computers with more than one CPU (called [[multiprocessor]] machines), multitasking allows many more tasks to be run than there are CPUs.
Operating systems may adopt one of many different [[scheduling|scheduling strategies]], which generally fall into the following categories:
* In ''multiprogramming'' systems, the running task keeps running until it performs an operation that requires waiting for an external event (e.g. reading from a tape) or until the computer's scheduler forcibly swaps the running task out of the CPU. Multiprogramming systems are designed to maximize CPU usage.
* In ''[[time-sharing]]'' systems, the running task is required to relinquish the CPU, either voluntarily or by an external event such as a [[hardware interrupt]]. Time sharing systems are designed to allow several programs to execute apparently simultaneously.
* In ''real-time'' systems, some waiting tasks are guaranteed to be given the CPU when an external event occurs. Real time systems are designed to control mechanical devices such as industrial robots, which require timely processing.
Nowadays, the term ''time-sharing'' is seldom used, being replaced by simply ''multitasking''.
== Multiprogramming ==
In the early days of computing, CPU time was expensive, and [[peripheral]]s very slow. When the computer ran a program that
needed access to a peripheral, the CPU would have to stop executing program instructions while the peripheral processed the
data. This was deemed very inefficient.
The first efforts to create multiprogramming systems took place in the 1960s. Several different programs were loaded in the
computer memory, and the first one began to run. When the first program reached an instruction waiting for a peripheral,
the context of this program was stored away, and the second program in memory was given a chance to run. The process continued
until all programs finished running.
Multiprogramming doesn't give any guarantee that a program will run in a timely manner. Indeed, the very first program
may very well run for hours without needing access to a peripheral. As there were no users waiting at an interactive
terminal, this was no problem: users handed a deck of punched cards to an operator, and came back a few hours later
for printed results. Multiprogramming greatly reduced the waiting.
== Cooperative multitasking/time-sharing ==
When computer usage evolved from batch mode to interactive mode, multiprogramming was no longer a suitable approach. Each
user wanted to see his program running as if it was the only program in the computer. Time sharing had to be used.
Early multitasking systems consisted of suites of related applications that voluntarily ceded time to each other. This approach, which was eventually supported by many computer [[operating system]]s, is today known as [[Co-operative_multitasking|cooperative multitasking]]. Although it is rarely used in larger systems, [[Microsoft Windows]] prior to [[Windows 95]] and [[Windows NT]], and [[Mac OS]] prior to [[Mac OS X]] both used cooperative multitasking to enable the running of multiple applications simultaneously.
Cooperative multitasking has many shortcomings. For one, a cooperatively multitasked system must rely on each process to regularly give time to other processes on the system. A poorly designed program, or a "hung" process, can effectively bring the system to a halt. The design requirements of a cooperatively multitasked program can also be onerous for some purposes, and may result in irregular (or inefficient) use of system resources. To remedy this situation, most time-sharing systems quickly evolved a more advanced approach known as [[Pre-emptive_multitasking|preemptive multitasking]].
{{mergefrom|Co-operative_multitasking}}
== Preemptive multitasking/time-sharing ==
Preemptive multitasking allows the computer system to more reliably guarantee each process a regular "slice" of operating time. It also allows the system to rapidly deal with important external events like incoming data, which might require the immediate attention of one or another process.
At any specific time, processes can be grouped into two categories: those that are waiting for input or output (called "[[IO bound|I/O bound]]"), and those that are fully utilizing the CPU ("[[CPU bound]]"). In early systems, processes would often "poll", or "busywait" while waiting for requested input (such as disk, keyboard or network input). During this time, the process was not performing useful work, but still maintained complete control of the CPU. With the advent of interrupts and preemptive multitasking, these I/O bound processes could be "blocked", or put on hold, pending the arrival of the necessary data, allowing other processes to utilize the CPU. As the arrival of the requested data would generate an interrupt, blocked processes could be guaranteed a timely return to execution.
Although multitasking techniques were originally developed to allow multiple users to share a single machine, it soon became apparent that multitasking was useful regardless of the number of users. Many operating systems, from mainframes down to single-user personal computers, have |
uth African Advertising Research Foundation]].}}
{{Table Mobile phone standards}}
'''Advanced Mobile Phone System''' or '''AMPS''' is the [[analog signal|analog]] [[mobile phone]] system standard developed by [[Bell Labs]], and officially introduced in the [[Americas]] in 1984. Though analog is no longer considered advanced at all, the relatively seamless [[cellular]] [[switching]] [[technology]] AMPS introduced was what made the original mobile [[radiotelephone]] practical, and was considered quite advanced at the time.
==Technology==
It was a first-generation technology, using [[FDMA]] which meant each cell site would transmit on different frequencies, allowing many cell sites to be built near each other. However it had the disadvantage that each site did not have much capacity for carrying calls. It also had a poor [[security]] system which allowed people to steal a phone's serial code to use for making illegal calls. It was later replaced by the newer Digital [[TDMA]] systems, such as [[Digital AMPS]] and [[GSM]], which brought improved security as well as increased capacity.
AMPS was originally standardized by ANSI as EIA/TIA/IS-3. This was later superseded by EIA/TIA-553 and TIA interim standard IS-91.
==Frequency bands==
AMPS cellular service operates in the 800 [[MHZ]] [[FM]] band. For each market area, the FCC allowed two licensee (networks) known as "A" and "B" carriers. Each carrier within a market uses a specified "block" of frequencies consisting of 21 control channels and 395 voice channels. Originally, the B (wireline) side license was usually owned by the local phone company such as a "Baby Bell" (Ameritech), and the A (non-wireline) license was made available to private companies such as Cellular One. At the inception of cellular in 1984, the [[Federal Communications Commission]] had granted each carrier within a market 333 channels (666 channels total). By the late 1980's, the cellular industry's subscriber base had grown into the millions across America and it became necessary to add channels for additional capacity. In 1989, the [[Federal Communications Commission]] granted carriers an expansion from the current 666 channels to the now 832 (416 per carrier). The additional frequency was available in the upper 800 MHz band which also was home to UHF channels 70-83. This meant that these UHF channels could no longer be used for UHF TV transmission as these frequencies were to be used for AMPS transmission.
The anatomy of each channel is composed of 2 [[frequency|frequencies]]. 416 of these are in the 824~849 MHz range for transmissions from mobile stations to the base stations, paired with 416 frequencies in the 869~894 MHz range for transmissions from base stations to the mobile stations. Each cell site will use a subset of these channels, and must use a different set than neighboring cells to avoid interference. This significantly reduces the number of channels available at each site in real-world systems. Each AMPS frequency is 30kHz wide.
==Introduction of digital TDMA==
Later, many AMPS networks were partially converted to what became (incorrectly) known as '''TDMA''', a [[digital]], [[2G]] standard used mainly by [[Cingular Wireless]] and [[U.S. Cellular]]. The misuse of the term '''TDMA''' (which is a type of channel sharing scheme) to refer to a particular access protocol has caused some confusion. The first version of the TDMA standard was known as [[IS-54]].
==Introduction of GSM and CDMA==
AMPS and TDMA are now being phased out in favor of either [[CDMA]] or [[GSM]] which allow for higher capacity data transfers for services such as [[WAP]], [[Multimedia Messaging System]] (MMS), and wireless Internet Access. The major difference between the two options is that CDMA has a much higher capacity then GSM, as well as some other features (i.e. being able to talk to six different cell sites simultaneously, and a higher bitrate [[Vocoder]]). There are some phones capable of supporting AMPS, TDMA and GSM all in one phone (using the [[GAIT (wireless)|GAIT]] standard; see the [[Nokia 6340]], for example); however, AMPS/CDMA phones supports nearly seamless roaming between CDMA and AMPS (with the loss of some features when in AMPS mode, such as text messaging) while GAIT phones cannot.
==The Future of AMPS==
AMPS is the most extensive and reliable wireless coverage available for nationwide service in North America. Even today, analog continues to provide the widest range of coverage across the U.S. and Canada. However, in 2002, the [[FCC]] made the drastic desicion to no longer require A and B carriers to support AMPS cellular service as of March 1, 2008. Since the AMPS standard is analog technology, it suffers from an inherently inefficient use of the frequency spectrum. All AMPS carriers have converted most of their consumer base to a digital standard such as CDMA or GSM and continue to do so at a rapid pace. Digital technologies such as CDMA support multiple voice calls on the same channel, superior call qualiy, enhanced features such as two-way text messaging, voicemail indicator, internet, and GPS services; whereas, AMPS can only support one call per channel and a basic one-way short message service.
[[OnStar]] still heavily relies on North American AMPS service for its subscribers because it provides the best and most reliable coverage and their entire system was built around analog cellular technology. Thankfully, cellular companies who own an A or B license (such as Verizon and Alltel) must still provide reliable analog service until March 1, 2008. However after that point, most cellular companies will be eager to shut down AMPS and use the remaining channels for even more capacity and enhanced data services. [[OnStar]] is currently in a digital transition but warns customers who cannot be upgraded to digital that their service will permanetly expire on February 1, 2008.
==Analog system in Europe==
'''Total Access Communication System''' or '''TACS''' is the [[Europe]]an version of AMPS. '''ETACS''' was an extended version of TACS with more channels. TACS and ETACS are now obsolete in Europe, having been replaced by the more scalable and all-digital [[GSM]] system. Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT) is another analogue cellular standard that was widely used in Europe mainly in the nordic countries (Norway Denmark Sweden). The NMT system was set in use in the early 1980's and is now completely replaced by GSM and WCDMA. The NMT system operates in the 450 and 900 Mhz band.
==Companies using AMPS==
*[[Telecom New Zealand]] - Telecom customers are in the process of migrating over to the new [[CDMA]] service. The old AMPS/[[D-AMPS]] system is due to be phased out in 2007. Since the establishment of the AMPS service in 1987 the network had always had the largest coverage of any network in [[New Zealand]]. In recent times, however, Digital [[GSM]] and CDMA coverage has matured enough to match or exceed AMPS coverage in many areas. Unfortunately some areas may lose mobile phone service when the AMPS network goes offline.
*[[Verizon Wireless]] - Although most Verizon customers use digital services, the backup AMPS network is still in service. Verizon has been noted they are eager to quickly shut down the analog system when the FCC mandate allows.
*[[Bell Mobility]], [[Telus Mobility]] and [[Rogers Wireless]] all operate AMPS networks in Canada, though they have since been overlaid with digital services.
*[[Alltel]] - In 2005 they disclosed that only 15% of their total customer base are still using the existing analog network. The company has not made any official announcements as to when analog service will be discontinued. One plan involves only keeping analog service active in rural or outlying areas until digital service is fully developed. With the recent acquisition of Western Wireless, Alltel now takes the claim of the "largest network in America." This being true, oddly enough because of wide analog coverage in rural areas.
[[Category: mobile telephony standards]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AMPS</title>
<id>2816</id>
<revision>
<id>15901203</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-28T15:12:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Radiojon</username>
<id>15970</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Advanced Mobile Phone System]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aerodynamics</title>
<id>2819</id>
<revision>
<id>42064785</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:48:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Encyclopediarocketman</username>
<id>1017994</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Aerodynamic forces on aircraft */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aerodynamics''' is a branch of [[fluid dynamics]] concerned with the study of gas flows. The solution of an aerodynamic problem normally involves calculating for various properties of the flow, such as [[velocity]], [[pressure]], [[density]], and [[temperature]], as a function of space and time. Understanding the flow pattern makes it possible to calculate or approximate the [[force|forces]] and [[moment (physics)|moments]] acting on bodies in the flow. This mathematical analysis and empirical approximation form the scientific basis for [[heavier than air flight|heavier-than-air flight]].
Aerodynamic problems can be classified in a number of ways. The flow environment defines the first classification criterion. ''External'' aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the [[lift (force)|lift]] and [[drag (physics)|drag]] on an [[airplane]], the [[shock wave]]s that form in front of the nose of a [[rocket]] or the flow of air over a hard drive h |
reject any viewpoints that could have Nazi overtones. The right also had strong sympathies towards Israel as they saw the Israeli-Palestinian conflict to be in many ways similar to France's war with Algerian separatists.
This all changed dramatically with the coming of [[Charles de Gaulle]] to power. De Gaulle's foreign policy was centered around an attempt to limit the power and influence of both superpowers, and at the same time increase France's international prestige. De Gaulle hoped to move France from being a follower of the United States to becoming the leading nation of a large group of non-aligned countries. The nations de Gaulle looked at as potential participants in this grouping were those in France's traditional spheres of influence: Africa and the Middle East. The former French colonies in eastern and northern Africa were quite agreeable to these close relations with France. These nations had close economic and cultural ties to France, and they also had few other suitors amongst the major powers. This new orientation of French foreign policy also appealed strongly to the leaders of the Middle East. None of them wanted to be dominated by either of the superpowers, and they supported France's policy of trying to balance the US and the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and to prevent either from becoming dominant in the region. The Middle Eastern leaders wanted to be free to pursue their own goals and objectives, and did not want to be chained to either alliance block. De Gaulle hoped to use this common foundation to build strong relations between the nations. He also hoped that good relations would improve France's trade with the region. De Gaulle also imagined that these allies would look up to the more powerful French nation, and would look to it in leadership in matters of foreign policy.
The end of the Algerian conflict in [[1962]] accomplished much in this regard. France could not portray itself as a leader of the oppressed nations of the world if it still was enforcing its colonial rule upon another nation. The battle against the Muslim separatists that France waged in favour of the minority of white settlers was an extremely unpopular one throughout the Muslim world. With the conflict raging it would have been next to impossible for France to have had positive relations with the nations of the Middle East. The Middle Eastern support for the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]] guerillas was another strain on relations that the end of the conflict removed. Most of the financial and material support for the FLN had come from the nations of the Middle East and North Africa. This was especially true of Nasser's Egypt, which had long supported the separatists. Egypt is also the most direct example of improved relations after the end of hostilities. The end of the war brought an immediate thaw to Franco-Egyptian relations, Egypt ended the trial of four French officers accused of espionage, and France ended its trade embargo against Egypt.
In 1967 de Gaulle completely overturned France's Israel policy. De Gaulle and his ministers reacted very harshly to Israel's actions in the [[Six Day War]]. The French government and de Gaulle condemned Israel's treatment of refugees, warned that it was a mistake to occupy the [[Palestinian]] areas, and also refused to recognize the Israeli control of [[Jerusalem]]. The French government continued to criticize Israel after the war and de Gaulle spoke out against other Israeli actions, such as the operations against the [[PLO]] in Lebanon. France began to use its veto power to oppose Israel in the UN, and France sided with the Arab states on almost all issues brought to the international body. Most importantly of all, however, de Gaulle's government imposed an arms embargo on the Israeli state. The embargo was in fact applied to all the combatants, but very soon France began selling weaponry to the Arab states again. As early as 1970 France sold Libya a hundred [[Dassault Mirage]] fighter jets. However, after 1967 France continued to support Israel's right to exist, as well as Israel's many preferential agreements with France and the [[European Economic Community]].
De Gaulle launched the immense shift in policy from one favouring Israel to one favouring the Arab states for a combination of reasons. It was becoming obvious that the strengthening alliance between the United States and Israel would soon make France's role as an ally mostly irrelevant. The US could always provide Israel with more money and with higher levels of military technology. For France to play an important role in the region it seemed supporting the Arab side would give it more leverage in the future. Trade considerations also came into play. The Arab states at the time had a combined population of over a hundred million, compared to only three million in Israel. As de Gaulle memoirs show he was personally quite sympathetic to Israel, but he saw it in the interest of France to distance the two nations. For the pursuit of political and economic ends de Gaulle crafted a new Middle Eastern policy that discontinued support for Israel and instead pursued close relations with the Arab states.
Also important was the increase in foreign aid spending by the French government. France increased its expenditures greatly to become second only to the United States in total aid amongst the Western powers but first on a per capita basis. By 1968 France was paying out $855 million dollars per year in aid far more than either [[West Germany]] or the United Kingdom. The vast majority of French aid was directed towards Africa and the Middle East, usually either as a lever to promote French interests or to help with the sale of French products (e.g. arms sales). France also increased its expenditures on other forms of aid sending out skilled individuals to developing countries to provide technical and cultural expertise.
The combination of aid money, arms sales, and diplomatic alignments helped to erase the memory of the Suez Crisis and the Algerian War in the Arab world and France successfully developed amicable relationships with the governments of many of the Middle Eastern states. Nasser and de Gaulle, who shared many similarities, cooperated together on limiting American power in the region. Nasser proclaimed France as the only friend of Egypt in the west. France and Iraq also developed a close relationship with business ties, joint military training exercises, and French assistance in Iraq's nuclear program in the 1970s. France's relations with its former colony Syria were improved, and eroded cultural links were partially restored.
In terms of trade France did receive some benefits from the improved relations with the Middle East. French trade with the Middle East increased by over fifty percent after de Gaulle's reforms. The weaponry industries benefited most as France soon had lucrative contracts with many of the regimes in the Middle East and North Africa, though these contracts account for a negligible part of France's economy.
De Gaulle had hoped that by taking a moderate path and not strongly supporting either side France could become integral to the Middle East peace process. However, peace negotiations between Israel, the Palestinians, and the Arab powers have almost always involved representatives of the one or both of the superpowers, but France has been universally excluded. In the Camp David accords between Sadat and Begin US President Jimmy Carter played an immense role, the French played virtually none. The French foreign minister complained that a separate peace between Israel and Egypt would not benefit Middle East peace, but none of the leaders involved were particularly concerned about what the French government thought. This pattern has repeated itself frequently. The Oslo Accords, the Israeli-Jordanian Peace Treaty, and others were all negotiated and written with no input at all from France. When France does try to intervene it is looked on as unhelpful by the US and Israel, and these nations have rejected all major French peace proposals. Chirac's visit to the Middle East in 1996 annoyed the Americans and Israelis, and had no lasting impact on the peace process.
France is one of the West's most frequent targets of Islamic terrorism. Throughout the period since de Gaulle left power there have been a number of attacks against French targets. There have been hijackings, such as those of an Air France plane to Uganda in 1976, and one to perhaps be crashed into the [[Eiffel Tower]] in 1994 (see [[Air France Flight 8969]]). Another plane was blown up over the Sahara in 1989, killing many French citizens. There have also been bombings in France such as those in 1986 or that against the [[Jo Goldenberg]] Jewish restaurant in 1982. In [[1995]], Algerian militants of the [[Armed_Islamic_Group|GIA]] launched a [[1995 Islamist terror bombings in France|terror bombing campaign]] against the French public.
===Africa===
France plays a significant role in Africa, especially in its former [[colonies]], through extensive aid programs, commercial activities, military agreements, and cultural impact. In those former colonies where the French presence remains important, France contributes to political, military, and social stability.
In [[2002]] and [[2003]], France participated in military interventions in [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Liberia]] and the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], helping in the evacuation of foreign residents and the protection of civilians from warring factions.
===Asia===
France has extensive political and commercial relations with Asian countries, including [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Southeast Asia]] as well as an increasing presence in regional fora. France was instrumental in launching the [[Asia-Europe Meeting]] (ASEM) process which could eventually emerge as a competitor to [[APEC]]. France is seeking to broaden its commercial prese |
conclusion: lacking a natural explanation, we assume intelligent cause. They contend most scientists would reply that unexplained is not unexplainable, and that "we don't know yet" is a more appropriate response than invoking a cause outside of science.{{ref|ncseweb_03}} Particularly, [[Michael Behe]]'s demands for ever more detailed explanations of the historical evolution of molecular systems seem to assume a [[dichotomy]] where either evolution or design is the proper explanation, and any perceived failure of evolution becomes a victory for design. In scientific terms, "absence of [[evidence]] is not evidence of absence" for naturalistic explanations of observed traits of living [[organisms]]. Scott and Branch also contend that the supposedly novel contributions proposed by intelligent design proponents have not served as the basis for any productive scientific research.
Intelligent design has also been characterized as a "[[God of the gaps]]" argument, which has the following form:
:*There is a gap in scientific knowledge.
:*The gap is filled with acts of God (or [[Intelligent designer]]) and therefore proves the existence of God (or [[Intelligent designer]]).
A [[God-of-the-Gaps]] argument is the [[theological]] version of an [[argument from ignorance]]. The key feature of this type of argument is that it merely answers outstanding questions with explanations (often [[supernatural]]) that are unverifiable and ultimately themselves subject to unanswerable questions.
====Improbable versus impossible events====
In "Innumeracy: Mathematical Illiteracy and its Consequences", [[John Allen Paulos]] suggests that the apparent improbability of a given scenario cannot necessarily be taken as an indication that this scenario is therefore more unlikely than any other potential one: "Rarity by itself shouldn't necessarily be evidence of anything. When one is dealt a bridge hand of thirteen cards, the probability of being dealt that particular hand is less than one in 600 billion. Still, it would be absurd for someone to be dealt a hand, examine it carefully, calculate that the probability of getting it is less than one in 600 billion, and then conclude that he must not have been dealt that very hand because it is so very improbable."
This argument can be seen as a rebuttal to those advocates of intelligent design who claim that only a sentient creator could have arranged the universe in such a way as to be conducive to life (see for example [[Intelligent Design#Specified complexity|specified complexity arguments]] or [[Intelligent design#Fine-tuned universe|fine-tuning arguments]]). In this context, the probability of life "evolving" rather than having been "created" may appear unlikely at first sight, but the evidence that this is the case could be argued to be so widespread, deep, and heavily scrutinized that it would be illogical to conclude that any other (and arguably less scientifically compelling) hypothesis should take its place as the primary theory.
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* [[Argument from evolution]]
* [[Argument from poor design]]
* [[Clockmaker hypothesis]]
* [[Cosmological argument]]
* [[Creation science]]
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Flying Spaghetti Monsterism]]
* [[Evolutionary algorithm]]
{{col-2}}
* [[Incompetent design]]
* [[Intelligent design movement]]
* [[Intelligent falling]]
* [[List of works on intelligent design]]
* [[Natural theology]]
* [[Neo-Creationism]]
* [[Teleological argument]]
{{col-end}}
* [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District et. al.|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District summing up (introduction)]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 2: context|2: context]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 3: disclaimer|3: disclaimer]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science|4: whether ID is science]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 5: promoting religion|5: promoting religion]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion|6: curriculum, conclusion]].
==Notes and references==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<!-- Intro -->
# {{note|id_def}} Discovery Institute, Center for Science and Culture. Questions about Intelligent Design: What is the theory of intelligent design? "''The theory of intelligent design holds that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection.'' "[http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php#questionsAboutIntelligentDesign]
#{{note|proponents_affiliated}} "Q. Has the Discovery Institute been a leader in the intelligent design movement? A. Yes, the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture. Q. And are almost all of the individuals who are involved with the intelligent design movement associated with the Discovery Institute? A. All of the leaders are, yes." [[Barbara Forrest]], 2005, testifying in the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]] trial. [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day6pm.html]
# {{note|intro_meyer}} Stephen C. Meyer, 2005. ''The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design: The Methodological Equivalence of Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic Origins Theories''. Ignatius Press. [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=1780]. See also [[Darwin's Black Box]].
# {{note|overwhelming}} See [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 83 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83]]. The Discovery Institute's [http://www.dissentfromdarwin.org/ Dissent From Darwin Petition] has been signed by about 500 scientists. The AAAS, the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml firmly rejects ID]. More than 70,000 Australian scientists and educators [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html condemn teaching of intelligent design in school science classes]. [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8408_statements_from_scientific_and_12_19_2002.asp List of statements from scientific professional organizations] on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism.
#{{note|id_junkscience_1}}[http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution&mdash;Why intelligent design isn't.] H. Allen Orr. Annals of Science. New Yorker May 2005. Also, [[Robert T. Pennock]] ''Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism'' ISBN 026216180X, ISBN 0262661659.
#{{note|nas_id_creationism_1}} "[http://www.nap.edu/books/0309064066/html/25.html Creationism, Intelligent Design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science]" In ''Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition'' National Academy of Sciences, 1999
<!-- In summary -->
#{{note|id_goal_putative}} "ID's rejection of naturalism in any form logically entails its appeal to the only alternative, supernaturalism, as a putatively scientific explanation for natural phenomena. This makes ID a religious belief. In addition, my research reveals that ID is not science, but the newest variant of traditional American creationism. With only a few exceptions, it continues the usual complaints of creationists against the theory of evolution and comprises virtually all the elements of traditional creationism." [[Barbara Forrest]] April 2005 Expert Witness Report. ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]''. [http://www2.ncseweb.org/kvd/experts/FORREST_EXPERT_REPORT.pdf]
#{{note|dembski_adequately_explained}} Dembski. The Design Revolution. pg. 27 2004
<!-- Origin of concept -->
# {{note|heraclitus}} Heraclitus of Ephesus, The G.W.T. Patrick translation [http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/heraclitus/herpatu.htm#2]
# {{note|natura_deorum}} [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/nd.shtml The Latin Library, Cicero]
# {{note|five_ways}} Thomas Aquinas, 1265-1272. ''Summa Theologiae''. "[http://www.faithnet.org.uk/AS%20Subjects/Philosophyofreligion/fiveways.htm Thomas Aquinas' 'Five Ways']" In ''faithnet.org.uk'', He [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 2: context#Page 24 of 139|framed the argument as a syllogism]]: Wherever complex design exists, there must have been a designer; nature is complex; therefore nature must have had an intelligent designer.
<!-- Origin of term -->
# {{note|1868}} ''Elements of Physical Geography'', by John Brocklesby
#{{note|times1873}} 'The British Association', ''The Times'', Saturday, 20 September, 1873; pg. 10; col A.
#{{note|times1982}} 'Evolution according to Hoyle: Survivors of disaster in an earlier world', By Nicholas Timmins, ''The Times'', Wednesday, 13 January, 1982; pg. 22; Issue 61130; col F.
#{{note|safire2005}} William Safire. 'On Language: Neo-Creo.' ''The New York Times.'' August 21, 2005.[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/21/magazine/21ONLANGUAGE.html?position=&ei=5090&en=f2de0d764cc7e0e8&ex=1282276800&adxnnl=1&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=print&adxnnlx=1132902202-gyP0H4EZfG7IeNHPMWlcBw]
#{{note|first_id_book}} [http://www.nabt.org/sub/evolution/panda1.asp National Association of Biology Teachers: A Reader's Guide to Of Pandas and People] [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8442_1_introduction_iof_pandas__11_23_2004.asp National Center for Science Education: Of Pandas and People, the foundational work of the 'Intelligent Design' movement]
<!-- IC -->
#{{note|MillerIC}} Irreducible complexity of these examples is disputed, see Kitzmiller p 76-78, or see part 39:30--51:20 of this [http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/01/ken_miller_webc.html video presentation by Ken Miller]
<!-- SC -->
#{{not |
ces):'''
59.9% (1999 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
4.2 million
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 30%, industry 25%, services 45% (1999 est.)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
12% with widespread underemployment (November 1998 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
planned $5.1 billion (not including revenue from potential privatizations)
<br>''expenditures:''
$5.1 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1999)
'''Industries:'''
[[petroleum]], food processing, textiles, metal work, paper products, wood products, chemicals, plastics, fishing, lumber
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.4% (1997 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
9,657 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
27.96%
<br>''hydro:''
72.04%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
8,981 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[banana]]s, [[coffee]], [[cocoa]], [[rice]], [[potato]]es, [[manioc]] ([[tapioca]]), [[plantain]]s, [[sugarcane]]; [[cattle]], [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[pig]]s, [[beef]], [[pork]], [[dairy]] products; balsa wood; fish, [[shrimp]]
'''Exports:'''
$4.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[petroleum]], [[banana]]s, [[shrimp]], [[coffee]], [[cocoa]], cut flowers, fish
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[United States]] 39%, [[Colombia]] 7%, [[Italy]] 6%, [[Peru]] 5%, [[Chile]] 3% (1998)
'''Imports:'''
$2.8 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, raw materials, fuels; consumer goods
'''Imports - partners:'''
[[United States]] 39%, [[Colombia]] 11%, [[Japan]] 9%, [[Venezuela]] 5%, [[Mexico]] 3% (1998)
'''Debt - external:'''
$15.3 billion (1999)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$695.7 million (1995)
'''Currency:'''
US Dollar ($)
(previous currency: 1 [[sucre (currency)|sucre]] (S/) = 100 centavos)
'''Exchange rates:'''
No longer applicable.
(Previously: sucres (S/) per US$1 - 24,860.7 (January 2000), 11,786.8 (1999), 5,446.6 (1998), 3,988.3 (1997), 3,189.5 (1996), 2,564.5 (1995))
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
==See also==
*[[Ecuador]]
* [[Economy of South America]]
{{SACN}}
{{WTO}}
{{South America in topic|Economy of}}
[[Category:WTO members|Ecuador]]
[[Category:Economy of Ecuador| ]]
[[fr:économie de l'Équateur]]
[[pt:Economia do Equador]]
[[ru:Category:&#1069;&#1082;&#1074;&#1072;&#1076;&#1086;&#1088;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Ecuador</title>
<id>9340</id>
<revision>
<id>40447904</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T16:55:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
1,677,900 (Sep 2005)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
5,221,600 (Aug 2005)
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''general assessment:''
generally elementary but being expanded
<br>''domestic:''
facilities generally inadequate and unreliable
<br>''international:''
satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 277, FM 526 (plus 348 repeaters), shortwave 25 (Sept. 2005)
'''Radios:'''
5 million (2001)
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
323 (including repeaters) (2005)
'''Televisions:'''
2.5 million (2001)
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
61 (Sep 2005)
'''Internet users:'''
548,000 (Sep 2005)
'''[[Country codes|Internet country code]]:''' .ec
*Source: [http://www.supertel.gov.ec Superintendence of Telecommunications], Control telecommunications services
:''See also :'' [[Ecuador]]
{{South America in topic|Communications in}}
[[Category:Communications in Ecuador| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Ecuador</title>
<id>9341</id>
<revision>
<id>40449392</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:09:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
<br>''total:''
812 km (single track)
<br>''narrow gauge:''
812 km 1.067-m gauge
=== Railway links in adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Colombia|Colombia]] &ndash; no
* [[Transportation in Peru|Peru]] &ndash; no
== [[Highway]]s ==
<br>''total:''
43,197 km
<br>''paved:''
8,165 km
<br>''unpaved:''
35,032 km (1999 est.)
== [[Waterway]]s ==
1,500 km
== [[Pipeline]]s ==
[[crude oil]] 800 km; [[petroleum]] products 1,358 km
== Ports and harbors ==
=== Pacific Ocean ===
[[Esmeraldas]], [[Guayaquil]], [[La Libertad, Guayas|La Libertad]], [[Manta]], [[Puerto Bolívar]], [[San Lorenzo]]
== [[Merchant marine]] ==
<br>''total:''
29 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 233,151 GRT/388,750 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
chemical tanker 2, liquified gas 1, passenger 4, petroleum tanker 22 (1999 est.)
== [[Airport]]s ==
182 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
57
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
2
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
5
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
17
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
13
<br>''under 914 m:''
20 (1999 est.)
=== Airports &ndash; with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
125
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
36
<br>''under 914 m:''
89 (1999 est.)
=== [[Heliport]]s ===
1 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Ecuador]]
{{CIAfb}}
{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Ecuador| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Ecuador</title>
<id>9342</id>
<revision>
<id>41765493</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:13:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gurch</username>
<id>241822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Antartic -> Antarctic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
Army (Ejercito Ecuatoriano), Navy (Armada Ecuatoriana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Ecuatoriana), National Police (Policia Nacional)
'''Military manpower - military age:'''
20 years of age
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
3,468,678 (2002 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
2,337,944 (2002 est.)
'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
<br>''males:''
132,978 (2002 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$720 million (FY98)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
3.4% (FY98)
==References and Links==
*[[Ecuador]]
[[Category:Military of Ecuador| ]]
The Ecuadorian Army maintains presence in Continental Ecuador, Galapagos (the islands region) and the Antarctic at the "Pedro Vicente Maldonado" Navy Biological Research Station.
The Ecuadorian Air force and Army are divided into Military Zones, each zone is defended by two or more Armies and a fighter wing. Regarding the navy this is divided into Naval Zones, each zone has the presence of Battlegroups ready for combat when the Center for Combined Military Actions calls them.
The Ecuadorian Armed Forces have the President of the Republic as their Supreme Commander in Chief, the president is advised by the Minister of Defense (this is always an Active or Pasive duty General or Admiral) and The N.S.C (National Security Council).
== Ministry of Defense ==
The Ecuadorian Ministry of Defense deals with the Administrative, Financial and day to day matters of the Armed Forces, by law all the information regarding the Budget, expenditures and any other matter regarding the operation of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces is Classified material. In case someone needs this kind of information, his or her request must be cleared by the Minister.
== National Security Council ==
The N.S.C. advises the President of the Republic on purchases, implementation of new technologies, Exercises and defense policy. It is presided by the Defense Minister, Senior Generals and Admirals, the Commander of the National Police and a representative of the Ministry of Economy.
{{South America in topic|Military of}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Ecuador</title>
<id>9343</id>
<revision>
<id>40448642</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:02:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Ecuador]] always has placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international problems. Ecuador is a member of the [[United Nations]] (and most of its specialized agencies) and the [[Organization of American States]] and also is a member of many regional groups, including the [[Rio Group]], the [[Latin American Economic System]], the [[Latin American Energy Organization]], the [[Latin American Integration Association]], and the [[Andean Pact]].
Ecuador's [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute|border dispute]] with [[Peru]], festering since the independence era, has been the nation's principal foreign policy issue. For more than 50 years, Ecuador maintained that the 1942 [[Rio Protocol of Peace, Friendship and Boundaries]] left several issues unresolved. For example, it asserted that geographic features in the area of the [[Cenepa River]] valley did not match the topographical descriptions in the Protocol, thus making demarcation of the boundary there "inexecutable."
This long-running border dispute occasionally erupted into armed hostility along the undemarcated sections. The most seri |
ly one of the predecessors of the Christian holiday of [[Candlemas]].
Imbolc is conventionally celebrated on [[1 February]] although the Celtic festival commenced on [[January 31]]. In more recent times the occasion has been generally celebrated by modern pagans on Feb. 1 or 2. Some neopagans relate this celebration to the midpoint between the [[winter solstice]] and spring [[equinox]], which actually falls on Feb. 4 or 5.
==Celtic origins==
Evidence of how Imbolc was celebrated in Ireland derives from folklore collected during the 19th and early 20th century in rural Ireland and Scotland, compared with studies of similar customs in Scandinavia. Like other festivals of the Celtic calendar in [[Irish mythology]], Imbolc was celebrated on the eve of [[1 February]], which marked the beginning of the day according to Celtic custom.
The festival was traditionally associated with the onset of lactation of ewes, soon to give birth to the spring lambs. This could vary by as much as two weeks before or after the start of February.
The name, in the Irish language, means "in the belly" (''i mbolg''), referring to the pregnancy of ewes, and is also a Celtic term for spring. Another name is '''Oimelc''', meaning "ewe's milk"; also [[Brigid]], referring to the Celtic [[goddess]] of [[smith]]craft, to whom the day is sacred.
That Imbolc was an important time to the ancient inhabitants of Ireland can be seen at the [[Mound of the Hostages]] in [[Tara, Ireland]]. Here, the inner chamber is perfecty aligned with the rising sun of both Imbolc and [[Samhain]].
The holiday is a festival of light, reflecting the lengthening of the day and the hope of spring. It is traditional to light all the lamps of the house for a few minutes on Imbolc, and rituals often involve a great deal of [[candle]]s.
==St. Brigid's day==
In the modern [[Irish Calendar]], Imbolc is variously known as the Feast of St. [[Brigid of Ireland|Brigid]] (Secondary Patron of Ireland) and Lá Feabhra - the first day of [[Spring (season)|Spring]].
One view is that Christianity in an attempt to reconcile the popularity of this festival with its own traditions, took over the feast of Imbolc and effectively redesignated it as St Brigid's day.
One folk tradition that continues in both Christian and Pagan home on St. Brigid's Day (or Imbolc) is that of the Brigid's Bed. The young girls of the household or village create a corn dolly, adorning it with ribbons and baubles. The older women then make a bed for Bridig to lay in. On St. Brigid's Eve (Jan. 31), the young women gather together in one house to stay up all night with the corn dolly, and are later visited by all the young men of the community who must treat them and the corn dolly with respect. Meanwhile, the older women of the community stay at home and perform other ceremonies.
Before going to bed, each household completely douses its hearth and rakes the ashes smooth. In the morning, they look for some kind of mark on the ashes, a sign that Brigid has passed that way in the night or morning.
On the following day, the Bride's Bed is brought from house to house, where she is welcomed with great honor. Since Brigid represents the Life Force that will bring people from the backside of winter into spring, her presence is very important at this time of year. People often will tap her effigy with an ash wand as well, perhaps an old remnant of more potent fertility rites that were once practiced.
==Modern Neopaganism==
Today, most modern neopagans celebrate it on the 1st or 2nd, the 2nd being more popular in [[ North America| America]], perhaps because of the holiday's later identification with [[Candlemas]]. In the southern hemisphere it is celebrated in August.
Some modern Pagans argue that the [[Christianity|Christian]] feast of [[Candlemas]], whose date depends upon [[Christmas]], was a [[Christianization]] of the feast of Imbolc. On the other hand, there is no evidence that Imbolc was celebrated in pre-Christian times anywhere other than in [[Ireland]] whereas the celebration of Candlemas began in the eastern [[Mediterranean]].
Imbolc is often defined as a [[cross-quarter day]] midway between the [[winter solstice]] ([[Yule]]) and the [[spring equinox]] ([[Ostara]]), and the precise midpoint is half way through [[Aquarius]] (in the northern hemisphere) or [[Leo]] (in the southern hemisphere). By this definition Imbolc in the northern hemisphere coincides with [[Lughnasadh]] in the southern hemisphere.
Fire is important for this festival as [[Brigid]] (also known as [[Bride]], [[Brigit]], [[Brid]]) is the [[Goddess]] of fire, healing and fertility. The lighting of fires represents the increasing power of the Sun over the coming months.
References to the festival of the growing light can even be traced to modern America in the [[Groundhog Day]] custom on February 2. If the groundhog sees his shadow on this morning and is frightened back into his burrow, it means there will be six more weeks of winter. The custom comes directly from [[Europe]], and [[Scotland]] in particular, where an old couplet goes:
''
If Candlemas Day is bright and clear, there'll be two winters in the year.''
During the Winter, the [[Maiden]] is with the [[Dark Lord]] and the land is bare.
Imbolc is also a German acronym for ''Internationale magische Bildungsstätte für okkulte Lebenskunst und Credo''.[http://www.magieausbildung.de]
==References==
Further reading:
*Nora Chadwick, ''The Celts'' (Penguin, 1970) p. 181.
*Séamas Ó Catháin, ''Festival of Brigit'' 1995.
See also:
*[[Ostara|spring equinox (Ostara)]],
*[[Bealtaine]],
*[[Litha|summer solstice (Litha)]],
*[[Lughnasadh]],
*[[Mabon|autumn equinox (Mabon)]],
*[[Samhain]]
*[[Yule|winter solstice (Yule)]].
[[Category:Neopagan holidays]]
==External links==
*[http://wiccaweb.com/sabbats.php] - The eight major Sabbats including Imbolc
*[http://wicca.timerift.net/sabbat.html] - The Sabbats including Imbolc
*[http://www.celticloreandmagic.com/holidays/imbolc.htm] - Celebrate Imbolc
*[http://www.celticloreandmagic.com/meditations/brigid-imbolc.htm] - An Imbolc Meditation
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/paganism/festivals/imbolc.shtml BBC: Religion & Ethics: Imbolc]
*[http://www.applewarrior.com/celticwell/ejournal/imbolc/yesterdays.htm Francine Nicholson, 1999. "Imbolc in Yesterday's Ireland and Scotland"]
[[es:Imbolc]]
[[de:Imbolc]]
[[fr:Imbolc]]
[[it:Imbolc]]
[[pt:Imbolc]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Isaiah</title>
<id>15088</id>
<revision>
<id>41197134</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:45:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ghirlandajo</username>
<id>147410</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Critical Scholarship */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Isaiah.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Isaiah the Prophet in Hebrew Scriptures was depicted on the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo.]]
'''Isaiah''' or '''Yeshayáhu''' ('''&#1497;&#1456;&#1513;&#1473;&#1463;&#1506;&#1456;&#1497;&#1464;&#1492;&#1493;&#1468;''' "Salvation of/is [[Tetragrammaton|the Lord]]", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Y&#601;&#X161;a&#703;yáhu''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Y&#601;&#X161;a&#703;&#259;y&#257;hû''', [[Greek language|Greek]] '''Esaias''') was the son of [[Amoz]], and commonly considered the author of the [[Book of Isaiah]]. His ease of access to the king and other leaders (ref. Isa. 7:3; 8:2), taken with traditional sources which tell us that Isaiah was the cousin of [[Uzziah]] and therefore of [[royal]] [[lineage]], suggests he was of a family of high rank.
Isaiah was married to a woman referred to as "the prophetess" (8:3). Why she is called this is disputed. Some believe she may have carried out a prophetic ministry in her own right, like [[Deborah]] ([[Judges]] 4:4) and [[Huldah]] ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 22:14-20). Others maintain, however, that it was simply because she was the wife of "the prophet" (Isa. 38:1),and not because she was herself endowed with the prophetic gift. Isaiah had by her two sons, who bore symbolic names (Isa. 8:18) - [[Shear-jashub]], 'Remnant will return' (7:3) and [[Maher-shalal-hash-baz]], 'To speed the spoil he hasteneth the prey' or, 'Destruction is imminent'(8:1-4).
He exercised the functions of his office during the reigns of [[Uzziah]] (or Azariah), [[Jotham of Judah|Jotham]], [[Ahaz]], and [[Hezekiah]] (1:1), the kings of [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. Uzziah reigned fifty-two years in the middle of the [[8th century BC]], and Isaiah must have begun his career a few years before Uzziah's death, probably in the [[740s BC]]. He lived till the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, and in all likelihood outlived that monarch (who died [[690s BC|698 BC]]), and may have been contemporary for some years with [[Manasseh]]. Thus Isaiah may have prophesied for the long period of at least sixty-four years.
[[Image:Ugolino di Nerio 001.jpg|thumb|left|The Prophet Isaiah, by Ugolino di Nerio]]
His first call to the prophetical office is not recorded. A second call came to him "in the year that [[Uzziah|King Uzziah]] died" (Isa. 6:1). He exercised his ministry in a spirit of uncompromising firmness and boldness in regard to all that bore on the interests of religion. He conceals nothing and keeps nothing back from fear of man. He was also noted for his spirituality and for his deep-toned reverence toward "the holy One of Israel." Isaiah and [[Micah]] were contemporaries (see Isa. 1:1 and Micah 1:1). They concentrated their prophecies mainly on Judah and Jerusalem (Isa. 1:1). [[Amos]] and [[Hosea]] preceded Isaiah (Amos 1:1; Hosea 1:1) and they prophesied mainly against the Northern tribes of Israel.
In early youth Isaiah must have been moved by the invasion of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]] by the |
ributions/24.81.3.173|24.81.3.173]] ([[User talk:24.81.3.173|talk]]) to last version by Super-Magician</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|Go|go}}
'''[[Go (verb)]]''' is a commonly used verb
Games:
* [[Go (board game)]], a Chinese board game
* [[Go (game show)|''Go'' (game show)]], a television game show of the early 1980s
Companies and organizations:
* [[Go (TV channel)]], in South Africa
* [[GO.com]], Walt Disney's internet portal
* [[GO Corporation]], a pen-based computing company
* [[Go Fly]], a British airline
* [[GO Transit]], Ontario, Canada's provincial transit service
Motion pictures, radio and music:
* ''[[Go!]]'', an album by the rock band Letters To Cleo
* [[Go (1999 film)|''Go'' (1999 film)]], an American motion picture
* [[Go (2001 film)|''Go'' (2001 film)]], a Japanese motion picture
* [[Go (radio)]], a Canadian radio program
* [[Go (Sarah Bettens)|''Go'' (Sarah Bettens)]], a mini-album
* [[Go (Vertical Horizon album)|''Go'' (Vertical Horizon album)]]
* [[Go (Dexter Gordon album)|''Go'' (Dexter Gordon album)]]
People:
* [[Go Nagai]], a Japanese comic artist
* [[Go Seigen]], a go player
* "Go", a Japanese pseudonym; see [[art-name]]
* Go Mifune, the main protagonist in ''[[Speed Racer]]''
Symbols, codes and abbreviations:
* [[Glorioso Islands]] (FIPS country code)
* [[Gigaoctet]], a unit of quantity of information
* [[Gene Ontology]], which describes gene and protein function
Anime and Manga
* [[Hikaru no Go]], a popular Go Anime and Manga
{{2LCdisambig}}
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[de:Go]]
[[fr:Go]]
[[id:Go]]
[[it:Go]]
[[ko:GO]]
[[ja:GO]]
[[nl:Go]]
[[simple:Go]]
[[th:GO]]
[[tr:Go]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gothenburg</title>
<id>11861</id>
<revision>
<id>41756327</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:51:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>*drew</username>
<id>91902</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+id:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{Infobox_Kommun2|
name=Gothenburg|
fullname=Göteborgs stad|
isocode=&nbsp;|
centre=City|
capital=Gothenburg|
governor=|
county=[[Västra Götaland County]]|
province=[[Västergötland]], [[Bohuslän]]|
arearank=183rd|
area=451|
areapercent=x.x|
population_as_of=2005|
populationrank=2nd|
population=485,000|
populationpercent=x.x|
populationdensity=1060.0|
coatofarms=[[Image:City of Gothenburg.png|90px]]|
map=[[Image:Göteborg in Sweden.png|180px]]|
locationReadable=57° 42´ N, 11° 55´ E|
location=57_42_N_11_55_E|
}}
'''Gothenburg''' ([[Swedish language|Swedish]]: {{Audio|sv-Göteborg.ogg|''Göteborg''}}) {{IPA|/ˌjœtɛ'bɔrj/}}) is a [[City status in Sweden|city]] and [[Municipalities of Sweden|municipality]] on the west-coast of [[Sweden]], in the [[Counties of Sweden|County]] of [[Västra Götaland County|Västra Götaland]]. As of [[2005]], the population amounted to 485,000 in the actual city and 872,000 in the [[Metropolitan Gothenburg|metropolitan area]] making it the second largest city in Sweden, after [[Stockholm]]. Gothenburg is the seat of residence for the county, which itself is located in the historical province of [[Västergötland]].
==History==
[[Image:Arkeologi - Rekonstruktionsritning av staden Nya Lödöse.jpg|thumb|left|Nya Lödöse (New Lödöse) at the end of the 16th century.]]
[[Image:Carl Milles Poseidon 01.jpg|thumb|300px|The statue of [[Poseidon]] by [[Carl Milles]] at [[Götaplatsen]] is a frequently used symbol of the city.]]
In the Middle Ages the town of [[Lödöse]] - 40 kilometers north of present day Gothenburg up the [[Göta älv]] - served as trade centre and port to the west. For strategic reasons (the Norwegian [[Båhus Fortress|Bohus Fortress]] was a threat further down the river) the town was moved closer to the sea. But the new settlement, Nya Lödöse (New Lödöse), also had its problems and the town dwellers had to seek protection at the old [[Älvsborg Fortress]].
In the early [[17th century]] Sweden controlled only one point on the western coastline. An attempt in [[1607]] to found a city by the name of Gothenburg on the nearby island of [[Hisingen]] had failed due to the [[Kalmar War]], but the second attempt in [[1621]], by King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] (Gustaf II Adolf), was successful. Following the successive wars, by [[1658]] all the [[Denmark|Danish]] eastern [[Terra Scania|provinces]] were ceded to Sweden, by the [[Treaty of Roskilde]]; it meant that [[Halland]], south of Gothenburg, and Bohus county ([[Bohuslän]]), north of Gothenburg, became Swedish - making Gothenburg's position less exposed and enabling the town to grow into an important port and trade centre on the west coast.
In the 18th century the [[Swedish East India Company]] in Gothenburg became the largest trading company in Sweden.
In [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Scots language|Scots]], [[German language|German]] and [[English language|English]]- languages with a long history of being spoken in the trade and maritime-oriented city - the name ''Gothenburg'' (with varying [[pronunciation]]s) was traditionally used for the city, while the [[French language|French]] form of the city name is ''Gothembourg''. These traditional forms are now widely replaced with the use of the Swedish form ''Göteborg''.
==Politics==
The [[legislative]] body of Gothenburg is the [[City Council]] with 81 members elected by [[proportional representation]] for a four-year term. The council appoints an [[executive (government)|executive]] 13-member [[Board of Commissioners]], headed by the [[mayor]]. Currently, the mayor of Gothenburg is [[Göran Johansson]], from the [[Swedish Social Democratic Party|Social Democratic Party]]
The municipality is subdivided into 21 [[borough]]s, which carry responsibility for [[primary school]], social, leisure, and cultural services within their respective areas. A point of some controversy is the fact that the borough councils do not reflect the local majority, but follow the majority at City Hall for the entire municipality. In the [[Elections in Sweden|election]] of [[1998]] three boroughs -- [[Askim]], [[Torslanda]] and [[Älvsborg]] -- held local referenda on forming their own municipalities, but their petitions were rejected by the [[Government of Sweden]].
<table><tr><td>
*[[Askim, Sweden|Askim]]
*[[Backa, Sweden|Backa]]
*[[Bergsjön]]
*[[Biskopsgården]]
*[[Gothenburg City Centre|Centre]]
*[[Frölunda]]
*[[Gunnared]]
<td>
*[[Härlanda]]
*[[Högsbo]]
*[[Kortedala]]
*[[Kärra-Rödbo]]
*[[Linnéstaden]]
*[[Lundby]]
*[[Lärjedalen]]
<td>
*[[Majorna]]
*[[Styrsö]]
*[[Torslanda]]
*[[Tuve-Säve]]
*[[Tynnered]]
*[[Älvsborg, Sweden|Älvsborg]]
*[[Örgryte]]
</table>
==Geography==
[[Image:Gothenburgharbour.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Göta älv and the city viewed from the Älvsborg bridge]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Gothenburg]]''
Situated on the western coast by [[Kattegatt]], an arm of the [[North Sea]], at the outlet of the river [[Göta älv]] and the [[Göta Canal]]. Due to the [[Gulf Stream]] the city has a mild climate and quite a lot of rain. The [[archipelago]] of Gothenburg consists of rough, barren rocks and cliffs, which also is typical for the coast of [[Bohus County]].
The Gothenburg Metropolitan Area extends to the municipalities of [[Ale, Sweden|Ale]], [[Härryda]], [[Kungälv]], [[Lerum]], [[Mölndal]], [[Partille]], [[Stenungsund]], [[Tjörn]], [[Öckerö]] in [[Västra Götaland County]] and [[Kungsbacka]] in [[Halland County]].
==Transportation==
[[Image:Göteborg spårvagn.jpg||thumb|right|300px|Gothenburg's popular [[tram]]s travel the wide streets (the one shown here is a vintage tram used mostly by tourists)]]
The main airport is located at [[Gothenburg-Landvetter Airport|Landvetter]], 20 km east of Gothenburg. The smaller [[Gothenburg City Airport]] lies 14 km northwest of the city. Other major transportation hubs are ''Centralstationen'' ("the Central Station") and the [[Nils Ericson Terminal]] with trains and buses to various destinations in Sweden, as well as connections to [[Oslo]] and [[Copenhagen]]. Several ferry lines run to/from [[Fredrikshavn]], [[Kiel]], [[Kristiansand]] and [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]].
Gothenburg is a logistic centre, with transports by train and truck from Sweden and Norway to Gothenburg harbor which is by far the largest port in Skandanavia.
==Demographics==
Gothenburg, as most Swedish metropolitan areas, has a large immigrant population. According to SCB in 2005, there is 93,965 immigrants resident in Gothenburg, which is about 20% of the population, out of which 10% is from [[Iran]] and 9% from [[Finland]]. The Iranian population, as well as other immigrants from the [[Middle East]] (notably [[Iraq]]) and former [[Yugoslavia]], is concentrated in [[Angered]] (most notably [[Bergsjön]], Hjällbo and Hammarkullen) and other suburbs in the north east. This has recieved criticism from the Intergrations Verket, since these areas are becoming more and more subjects of [[segregation]].
==Economy==
By its naturally advantageous location, Gothenburg houses the largest and most important [http://www.portgot.se/ harbor] installation in [[Scandinavia]]. Trade and shipping have always been important businesses and in the [[18th century]], the city was the home to the [[Swedish East India Company]]. Industry developed into an important business, e.g., [[SKF]], [[Volvo]] and [[Ericsson]].
The blue collar industries dominated until the late 80's when shipyards started to shut down. Today the town has a mix of hi tech industries with Volvo Car being the largest employer and a number of smaller computer software vendors.
==Universities==
''Main article: [[Universities in Sweden]]''
*[[Gothenburg University]]
*[[Chalmers University of Technology]]
*[[IT University of Göteborg]]
*[[Gothenburg School of Economics and Commercial Law]]
==Sites of interest==
[[Image:Goteborg.jpg|thumb|left|2 |
]]'').
The group "[[mammal|mammalia]]" are named for their mammary glands because one of the defining characteristics of mammals is that they nurse their young. Of all the features distinguishing the mammals from other animals, Linnaeus may have picked this one because of his views on the importance of natural motherhood. He campaigned against the practice of [[wet nurse|wet nursing]], declaring that even aristocratic women should be proud to nurse their own children.
In [[1739]] Linnaeus married Sara Morea, daughter of a physician. He ascended to the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany. He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals. The last may seem somewhat odd, but the theory of [[evolution]] was still a long time away. Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the elements of the natural world. Still, Linnaeus' research had begun to take science on a path that diverged from what had been taught by religious authorities; the local Lutheran [[Archbishop]] had accused him of "impiety." In a letter [http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_txt.php?id_letter=L0783] to [[Johann Georg Gmelin]] dated [[February 25]], [[1747]], Linnaeus wrote:
{|
| width="43%" valign="top" |
* Original Latin
''Non placet, quod Hominem inter ant[h]ropomorpha collocaverim, sed homo noscit se ipsum. Removeamus vocabula. Mihi perinde erit, quo nomine utamur. Sed quaero a Te et Toto orbe differentiam genericam inter hominem et Simiam, quae ex principiis Historiae naturalis. Ego certissime nullam novi. Utinam aliquis mihi unicam diceret! Si vocassem hominem simiam vel vice versa omnes in me conjecissem theologos. Debuissem forte ex lege artis.''
| width="3%" |
| valign="top" |
* English Translation
''It is not pleasing to me that I must place [[humans]] among the [[primates]], but man is intimately familiar with himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name is applied. But I desperately seek from you and from the whole world a general difference between men and [[simians]] from the principles of [[Natural History]]. I certainly know of none. If only someone might tell me one! If I called man a [[Simia|simian]] or vice versa I would bring together all the [[theologians]] against me. Perhaps I ought to, in accordance with the law of the discipline [of Natural History].''
|}
The Swedish king, [[Adolf Frederick of Sweden|Adolf Fredrik]], ennobled Linnaeus in [[1757]], and after the privy council had confirmed the ennoblement Linnaeus took the surname '''von Linné''', later often signing just '''Carl Linné'''. His father, born Nils Ingemarsson, had adopted the Latin surname Linnaeus as more appropriate for a [[clergy]]man on his matriculation at [[Lund University]]; the name deriving from the [[Small-leaved Lime|lime]] [http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/di/tilia/tilia/tilicor.html] tree after which the family farm, Linnagård, took its name.
Declining in his later years, Linnaeus suffered from a series of strokes in 1774. He died four years later, in 1778.
== Linnaean taxonomy ==
[[image:Systema Naturae cover.jpg|thumb|right|Title page of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''.]]
Although taxonomists, in almost any biological field, are familiar with the work of Carolus Linnaeus, his contribution to taxonomy goes far beyond contributing so-called scientific names to many of the world's plants and animals. Linnaeus developed, during the great [[18th century]] expansion of natural history knowledge, what became known as the '''[[Linnaean taxonomy]]'''; the system of [[scientific classification]] now widely used in the [[biology|biological sciences]].
The Linnaean system classified living things within a [[hierarchy]], starting with two [[Kingdom_(biology)|kingdoms]]. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, families, genera (singular: genus), and species (singular: species). Since then a few other ranks have been added, most notably phyla (singular: phylum) or divisions between kingdoms and classes. Groups of organisms at any rank are now called ''taxa'' (singular: taxon) or ''taxonomic groups''.
The task of identifying and describing all living species is called the [[Linnaean enterprise]] by modern ecologists.
His groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics. Although the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since Linnaeus' conception, as well as the principles behind them, he is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics.
Linnaeus was also a pioneer in defining the concept of "[[race]]". He proposed that inside of ''Homo sapiens'', there were four subcategories. These categories are, ''Americanus'', ''Asiaticus'', ''Africanus'', and ''Europeanus''. They were based on place of origin at first, and later skin color. Each race had certain characteristics that members supposedly had. Native Americans were reddish, stubborn, and angered easily. Africans were black, relaxed and negligent. Asians were sallow, avaricious, and easily distracted. Europeans were white, gentle, and inventive. Linnaeus's races were clearly skewed in favour of Europeans. Over time, this classification led to a racial hierarchy, in which Europeans were at the top.
== Students==
His students include such renowned botanists as [[Pehr Kalm]] (from [[Finland]]) and [[Daniel Solander]] (from [[Sweden]]).
== Other accomplishments ==
[[Image:Autograph of Carolus Linnaeus.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Signature]] of Carolus Linnaeus (Carl v. Linné).]]
[[Image:100 kronor swedish.jpg|thumb|250px|Carolus Linnaeus pictured on the Swedish 100 [[Swedish krona|kronor]] bank note]]
*Linnaeus is considered one of the finest writers of Swedish prose. His travel journals contain pithy notes on everything of interest he encountered, not just plants. He didn't just write from personal interest, but as a reporter to the enlightened scientific and political public. His journey to sub-Arctic Lapland is notable for exotic and adventurous episodes. He also composed some down-to-earth sex-instruction lectures published as "Om sättet att tillhopa gå" [How to go together].
*Linnaeus' original botanical garden may still be seen in [[Uppsala]].
*He originated the practice of using the &#9794; - (shield and arrow) [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and &#9792; - (hand mirror) [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] glyphs as the symbol for [[male]] and [[female]].
*His picture can be found on the current Swedish 100 [[swedish krona|kronor]] bank notes [http://www.riksbank.com/templates/Page.aspx?id=10571].
*Linnaeus was one of the founders of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]].
*Linnaeus is the only botanist currently referred to by a single initial: L. (Previously, the abbreviation assigned was Linn.) In [[botany]], the names, abbreviated, of the botanists who first describe and codify a species follow immediately after the scientific name. For example, ''Cocos nucifera'' L. is the complete scientific name for the [[coconut]], with the "L." referring to Carolus Linnaeus.
*Linnaeus was said to be a man of great social skills. [[Erik Axel Karlfeldt]]'s words "han talte med bönder på bönders vis, och med lärde män på latin" [he talked to [[peasant]]s as peasants do, and to learned men in [[Latin]]] give a good characterization of his manner.
*He was one of the pioneers in the field of [[chronobiology]], and created the "[[Petal Time Clock]]". His findings found that different species of flowers open at different times everyday. For example, he discovered that the [[hawksbeard]] plant, opened its flowers at 6:30 am, whereas another species, the [[hawkbit]], did not open its flowers until 7 am. After much research into this, he soon concluded that one could tell the time of day simply by watching the flowers in their garden. This method of keeping time did not catch on with everyone.
== See also ==
*[[Carolus Linnaeus the Younger]]. Linnaeus's son, also named Carl Linnaeus and also a botanist, is commonly so referred with ''filius'' (abbreviated "L. f.") to distinguish him from his famous father.
*[[Linnean Society of London]]
*[[Linnaeus Arboretum]]
*[[Jonas C. Dryander]]
*[[Carl Peter Thunberg]]
*[[Frederik Hasselquist]]
*[[Peter Artedi]]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Carolus Linnaeus}}
*[http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/LTeng.html Linnaeus Botanical Garden]
*[http://www.systbot.uu.se/information/history/linnaeus.htm Biography] at the Department of Systematic Botany, [[Uppsala University|University of Uppsala]]
*[http://linnean.org/index.php?id=47 Biography] at The Linnean Society of London
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html Biography] at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
*[http://linnaeus.c18.net/ The Linnaean Correspondence]
*[http://www.pearl-guide.com/forum/showthread.php?p=1625#post1625/ Carl Linnaeus - The World's First Round Cultured Pearls]
{{botanist|L.|Linnaeus, Carolus Linnaeus}}
[[Category:1707 births|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:1778 deaths|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish botanists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish biologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish mammalogists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish ornithologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish physicians|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish people|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Botanists with author abbreviations|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Algologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Arachnologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Bryologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Pteridologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Mycologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
{{Persondata
|NAME=Linnaeus, Carolus
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Linné, Carl von
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[botanist]] and [[ph |
the social, political, or economic dynamics of a small region such as a province or a village with little effort made to create a master narrative
which would be generalizable to all of China.
Also, such current scholars attempt to assess source material more critically. For example, for a long period it was assumed that Imperial China had no system of [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] because the law codes did not have explicit provisions for civil lawsuits. However, more recent studies which use the records of civil magistrates suggest that China did in fact have a very well developed system of civil law in which provisions of the criminal code were interpreted to allow civil causes of action. Another example of the more critical view taken toward source material has been anti-merchant statements made by intellectuals in the mid-Qing dynasty. Traditionally these have been interpreted as examples of government hostility toward commerce, but more result studies which use source material such as magistrate diaries and genealogical records, suggest that merchants in fact had a powerful impact on government policies and that the division between the world of the merchant and the world of the official was far more porous than traditionally believed. In fact there is a growing consensus that anti-merchant statements in the mid-Qing dynasty should be taken as evidence of a substantial erosion in the power and freedom of action of officials.
Finally, current scholars have taken an increasing interest in the lives of common people and to tap documentary and historical evidence that was previously not analyzed. Examples of these records include a large mass of governmental and family archives which have not yet been processes, economic records such as census records, price records, land surveys, and tax records. In addition there are large numbers of cultural artifacts such as vernacular novels, how-to books, and children's books, which are in the process of being analyzed for clues as to how the average Chinese (if there was such as thing) lived.
=== Periodization ===
:[[Early Imperial China]]
:[[Mid-Imperial China]]
:[[Late Imperial China]]
[[Category:History of China]]
[[Category:Historiography]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Communist Party of China</title>
<id>7175</id>
<revision>
<id>41939657</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:39:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kikodawgzz</username>
<id>671228</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the People's Republic of China}}
{{clearright}}
The '''Communist Party of China (CPC)''' or '''Chinese Communist Party (CCP)''' ({{zh-stp |s=中国共产党 |t=中國共産黨 |p=Zhōngguó Gòngchǎndǎng}}) is the ruling [[political party]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]. The party was founded in [[1921]], and fought the [[Kuomintang]] during the [[Chinese Civil War]]. With more than 63 million members, the CPC is the largest political party in the world.
From [[The Sixties]] until the death of its principal leader, [[Mao Tse-Tung]], the CPC was the main inspiration for the worldwide [[communism|communist]] [[social movement]]. It developed policies and ideas that came to be known as [[Maoism]], and during the 1960s and 1970s it represented a powerful branch of communism that existed in opposition to the [[Soviet Union]], the policies of which it considered "[[revisionism|revisionist]]". Following the death of Mao in 1976, however, the CPC moved towards [[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]]; see [[Chinese economic reform]]. Today, the CPC is generally considered to have lost the influence it had a generation ago. Its current policies are fiercely rejected as [[capitalist]] by original [[Maoist]]s and by adherents of other brands of [[Chinese Neo-Leftism]].
The Party supports a [[single-party state]]. Since the 1990s, as its commitment to [[Marxism|Marxist]] ideology has appeared to wane, the party has begun to increasingly invoke [[Chinese nationalism]] as a legitimizing principle, including the use of the [[cult of personality]] around [[Mao Zedong]], which been shifted to assist in the proliferation of nationalist sentiment as opposed to the [[socialist]] construction for which it was originally created. This shift in policy has led to strong opposition not only from [[Maoist]] opponents within China, but also to independence movements such as [[Taiwan independence]] and [[International Tibet Independence Movement|Tibetan independence]]. Since 2003, however, the invocation of Mao as a national unifying force has led to a warming of relations with the CCP's former enemy the [[Kuomintang]].
Today, [[tertiary education|college-educated people]] within the People's Republic of China are said to be more likely to join because of economic benefits from membership [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/china/v002/2.2walder.html]. In periods of relative liberalization, the influence of people and organizations outside the formal party structure has tended to increase.
==Brief History==
[[Image:Flagge der KP Chinas.png|150px|right|thumb|Communist Party of China flag]]
The CPC was initially founded by [[Chen Duxiu]] and [[Li Dazhao]] in [[Shanghai]] in [[1921]] as a study society and an informal network. There were informal groups in China in 1920, and also overseas, but the official beginning was the 1st Congress in June [[1921]], attended by 12 men. [[Mao Zedong]] was present as one of two delegates from a Hunan Communist group, which had maybe 10 members out of 53 for all China.
Under the guidance of the [[Soviet Union]], the party was reorganized along Leninist lines in 1923, while party members were encouraged to join the [[Kuomintang]] as individual members in preparation for the [[Northern Expedition]].
The party was very small at first, but grew intermittently through the [[Chinese Civil War]] and the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945). Maybe 4 members in 5 were killed in 1927 when the alliance with the [[Kuomintang]] broke down. [[Mao Zedong]] achieved success using [[Mobile Warfare]], which was rejected by the leadership and then resumed on the famous [[Long March]]. The outside world first got a clear view of the Chinese Communists through [[Edgar Snow]]'s [[Red Star Over China]].
After 1945, the civil war resumed and the [[Kuomintang]] collapsed, marking the [[Chinese Revolution]] whence Mao proclaimed the [[People's Republic of China]] in [[Beijing]] in October [[1949]].
==Role within the People's Republic of China==
The CPC is one of the three centers of power within the [[People's Republic of China]], the other two being the state apparatus and the [[People's Liberation Army]].
The relationship between party and state is somewhat different than that of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], in which the party controlled the state. In the current PRC structure, power derives from the state position, but key state positions are invariably held by members of the party and the party through its organization department makes crucial decisions on who occupies what position. However, in contrast to the Soviet situation where the party had extra-legal authority, since the early-1990's, it is has been established that the party is subject to [[rule of law]] and is therefore subject to the authority of the state and the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]].
==Organization==
The party's organizational structure was destroyed during the [[Cultural Revolution]] launched by [[Mao Zedong]] and rebuilt afterwards by [[Deng Xiaoping]], who subsequently initiated "[[Socialism with Chinese Characteristics]]" and brought all state apparatuses back under the control of the CPC.
Theoretically, the party's highest body is the [[National Congress of the Communist Party of China]], which meets at least once every 5 years. The primary organs of power in the Communist Party which are listed in the [[Constitution of the Communist Party of China|party constitution]] include:
* The [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China|Politburo Standing Committee]], which currently consists of nine members;
* The [[Politburo of the Communist Party of China|Politburo]], consisting of 22 full members (including the members of the Politburo Standing Committee);
* The [[Secretariat of the Communist Party of China|Secretariat]], the principal administrative mechanism of the CPC, headed by the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of China]];
* The [[Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China|Central Military Commission]] (a parallel organization of the government institution of the same name);
* The [[Discipline Inspection Commission of the Communist Party of China|Discipline Inspection Commission]], which is charged with rooting out [[Political corruption|corruption]] and malfeasance among party cadres.
Other central organizations include
* The International Liaison Department
* The [[United Front]] Work Department
* The Organization Department
* The [[Propaganda Department]]
Also important are "[[leading small group]]s," which are committees of high ranking party members within state agencies. These can be extremely powerful, particularly in the area of [[Foreign relations of China|foreign policy]].
Every five years, the Communist Party of China holds a ''National Congress''. Formally, the Congress serves two functions: to approve changes to the Party constitution and to elect a [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of China|Central Committee]], about 300 strong. The Central Committee in turn elects the [[Politburo of the Communist Party of China|Politburo]]. In practice, positions within the Central Committee and Politburo are determined before a Party Congress, and the main purpose of the Congress is to announce the party policies and vision for the direction of China in the |
he Pinochet coup, Chilean human rights lawyers filed a criminal case against Kissinger along with [[Augusto Pinochet]], former Bolivian general and president [[Hugo Banzer]], former Argentine general and dictator [[Jorge Rafael Videla]], and former Paraguayan president [[Alfredo Stroessner]] for alleged involvement in Operation Condor. The case was brought on behalf of some fifteen victims of Operation Condor, ten of whom were Chilean.
In late 2001, the [[Brazil]]ian government canceled an invitation for Kissinger to speak in [[São Paulo]] because it could no longer guarantee his immunity from judicial action.
[[Kenneth Maxwell]]'s review, in ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' November/December 2003, of [[Peter Kornbluh]]'s book ''The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability'', discussed Kissinger's relationship with [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s regime, in particular concerning operation Condor and [[Orlando Letelier]]'s assassination, in Washington, D.C., in 1976.
=== Asia ===
In 2002, during a brief visit to the UK, a petition for Kissinger's arrest was filed by the High Court in London based on Indochinese civilian casualties and environmental damage resulting from U.S. bombing campaigns in North Vietnam and Cambodia in the period between 1969 and 1975. Simultaneously, Spanish judge [[Baltasar Garzón]], who had engaged in a failed attempt to get Pinochet extradited from the [[United Kingdom]] for questioning, requested that [[Interpol]] detain Kissinger for questioning. British authorities refused his request.
East Timor Action Network (ETAN) activists have repeatedly sought to question Kissinger during his book tours for his role in the Ford administration in supporting Suharto and the Indonesian occupation and genocide of the Timorese in 1975. Transcripts of Ford and Kissinger's greenlight for the invasion are available on the National Security Archive. [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/]
In 2005, the [[State Department]] released tapes of conversations between [[Nixon]] and [[Kissinger]] which indicated Kissinger had knowledge of the 1971 [[1971 Bangladesh massacres|Bangladesh massacres]], and that he strove to keep it out of the media and keep [[India]] from intervening. The Nixon administration considered it more important to support [[Pakistan]] during the crisis, because it was a [[SEATO]] and [[CENTO]] ally, against non-aligned India.
==Business interests and public service==
Kissinger owns a consulting firm, [[Kissinger and Associates]], and is a partner in [[Kissinger McLarty Associates]] with [[Mack McLarty]], former [[White House Chief of Staff|Chief of Staff]] to President [[Bill Clinton]]. He also serves on various [[board of directors|boards of directors]], including [[Hollinger International]], a [[Chicago]]-based newspaper group.
In 1998, Kissinger became an honorary citizen of [[Fürth]], Germany, his hometown. He has been a life-long supporter of the ''Spielvereinigung Fürth'' football club.
He served as Chancellor of the [[College of William and Mary]] from [[February 10]], [[2001]] to the Summer of 2005.
From 1995 to 2001 he served on the board of directors for [[Freeport-McMoRan]], a [[multinational corporation|multinational]] copper and gold producer with significant mining and milling operations in [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]], Indonesia. In February 2000 then-president of Indonesia [[Abudrrahman Wahid]] appointed Kissinger as a political advisor. He also serves as an honorary advisor to the United States-[[Azerbaijan]] [[Chamber of commerce|Chamber of Commerce]].
==See also==
*''[[Détente]]''
* [[Operation Condor]]
* [[Operation Gladio]]
* [[Realpolitik]]
* [[Realism in international relations]]
* [[Vietnam War]]
* [[Yom Kippur War]]
==Bibliography==
*'''Foreign policy'''
**''Rescuing the World: The Life and Times of Leo Cherne'' by Andrew F. Smith, Henry A. Kissinger (2002) ISBN 0791453790
** [[Does America Need a Foreign Policy?: Toward a Diplomacy for the 21st Century (2001)]] ISBN 0684855674
** [[Diplomacy (Kissinger)]] (1994) ISBN 067165991X
**''On Men and Power: A Political Memoir'' by Helmut Schmidt, Henry Kissinger (1990) ISBN 0224027158
**''Observations: Selected Speeches and Essays 1982-1984'' (1985) ISBN 0316496642
**''For the Record: Selected Statements 1977-1980'' (1981) ISBN 0316496634
**''American Foreign Policy: Three Essays'' (1974) ISBN 0393055256
**''[[A World Restored]]: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace, 1812-22'' (1973) ISBN 0395172292
**''The Troubled Partnership: A Re-Appraisal of the Atlantic Alliance''(1965) ISBN 0070348952
**''The Necessity for Choice: Prospects of American Foreign Policy'' (1961) ISBN 0060124105
**''Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy'' (1957)
*'''Memoirs'''
**''Crisis: The Anatomy of Two Major Foreign Policy Crises: Based on the Record of Henry Kissinger's Hitherto Secret Telephone Conversations'' (2003) ISBN 0743249100
**''Vietnam: A Personal History of America's Involvement in and Extrication from the Vietnam War'' (2002) ISBN 0743219163
**''Kissinger Transcripts: The Top Secret Talks With Beijing and Moscow'' by Henry Kissinger, William Burr (1999) ISBN 1565844807
**''Years of Renewal'' (1999) ISBN 0684855712
**''Years of Upheaval'' (1982) ISBN 0316285919
**''The White House Years'' (1979) ISBN 0316496618
*'''Biographies'''
**''The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy'' by Jussi M. Hanhimaki (2004) ISBN 0195172213
**''Kissinger: A Biography'' by Walter Isaacson (1992) ISBN 0671663232
**''The Nixon-Kissinger Years: Reshaping of America's Foreign Policy'' by Richard C. Thornton (1989) ISBN 0887020518
**''The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House'' by [[Seymour Hersh]] (1983) ISBN 0671447602
**''Kissinger'' by Marvin L. Kalb, Bernard Kalb (1974) ISBN 0316482218
**''Kissinger on the Couch'' by Phyllis Schlafly (1974) ISBN 0870002163
**''Kissinger: Portrait of a Mind'' by Stephen Richards Graubard (1973) ISBN 0393054810
===Historiography===
* Jussi M. Hanhimäki, "'Dr. Kissinger' or 'Mr. Henry'? Kissingerology, Thirty Years and Counting," ''Diplomatic History'' November 2003 - Vol. 27 Issue 5 pp 637-76
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
<!-- official and semi-official biographical -->
* [http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1973/kissinger-bio.html Nobel Prize: Biography of Henry Kissinger]
<!--Kissinger speaks/writes-->
* [http://www.npr.org/programs/npc/2002/020305.hkissinger.html NPR: Kissinger Speech at National Press Club]. Towards the end [55:55], he responds to Hitchens.
<!-- anti-Kissinger, by elected U.S. officials or international agencies-->
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/20kiss.htm The BCCI Affair] A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, by Senator [[John Kerry]] and Senator [[Hank Brown]], December 1992 102d Congress 2d Session Senate Print 102-140.
* [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/congress/1991/h910502g.htm Kissinger Associates, BNL, and Iraq] [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] speech in Congress, May 2, 1991.
<!-- anti-Kissinger, but solidly documentary -->
* [http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/dobrynin.htm The National Security Archive: The Kissinger Telcons]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ The National Security Archive:The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971]
* [http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Henry_Kissinger.php Kissinger's political donations]
<!-- anti-Kissinger, from established press sources -->
* Marcus Gee. [http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0611-03.htm Is Henry Kissinger a War Criminal?], ''[[Toronto Globe & Mail]]'', June 11, 2002.
* [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/01/23/wls-goldin.php Henry: Portrait of a Serial Kissinger] &ndash; ''[[LA Weekly]]'' article on [[Christopher Hitchens|Hitchens]]'s ''The Trial of Henry Kissinger''
<!-- anti-Kissinger film -->
* Official site of the film [http://www.thetrialsofhenrykissinger.com/trials.html ''The Trials of Henry Kissinger''] ([[Macromedia Flash|Flash]])
<!-- Other anti-Kissinger -->
* [http://etan.org/news/kissinger/default.htm Kissinger-related material] on the site of [[East Timor Action Network]]
* [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Kissinger/HKissinger.html Henry Kissinger page] on www.thirdworldtraveler.com. Extensive anti-Kissinger link collection
{{start box}}
{{succession box
| before = [[Walt Rostow]]
| title = [[United States National Security Advisor]]
| years = 1969&mdash;1974
| after = [[Brent Scowcroft]]}}
{{succession box
| before = [[William P. Rogers]]
| title = [[United States Secretary of State]]
| years = 1973&mdash;1977
| after = [[Cyrus Vance]]}}
{{succession box
| title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize winner]]
| before = [[Willy Brandt]] <br> (1971)
| after = [[Sean MacBride]] <br> [[Eisaku Sato]]
| years =1973}}
{{end box}}
{{USSecState}}
[[Category:1923 births|Kissinger, Henry A.]]
[[Category:Living people|Kissinger, Henry A.]]
[[Category:American diplomats|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Cold War|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Council on Foreign Relations member|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United States|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Foreign-born US political figures|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Geopoliticians|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Gladio|Kissinger]]
[[Category:History of anti-communism in the United States|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:History of Chile|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:History of foreign relations of the United States|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:History of South America|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Jewish-American politicians|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Operation Condor|Kissinger]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Fre |
reference frame). They are the first examples of large amounts of mass moving at close to the speed of light. Earth-bound laboratories have only been able to accelerate small "handfuls" of elementary particles to such speeds.
=== Quantum mechanics ===
Certain phenomena in [[quantum mechanics]], such as [[quantum entanglement]], appear to transmit information faster than light. These phenomena do not allow true communication; they only let two observers in different locations see the same event simultaneously, without any way of controlling what either sees. The fact that the laws of physics seem to conspire to prevent superluminal communications via quantum mechanics is very interesting and somewhat poorly understood.
The speed of light can have any value within the limits of the [[uncertainty principle]] as demonstrated in any [[Feynman diagram]] that draws a photon at any angle other than 45 degrees. To quote [[Richard Feynman]]
:''"... there is also an amplitude for light to go faster (or slower) than the conventional speed of light. You found out in the last lecture that light doesn't go only in straight lines; now, you find out that it doesn't go only at the speed of light! It may surprise you that there is an amplitude for a photon to go at speeds faster or slower than the conventional speed, ''c''"'' (from Feynman's book ''QED'', chapter 3, page 89).
However, this does not imply the possibility of superluminal information transmission, as no photon can have an average speed in excess of the speed of light.
There have been various reports in the popular press of experimentally based of faster-than-light transmission in optics &mdash; most often in the context of a kind of [[Quantum tunnelling|quantum tunneling]] phenomenon. Usually, such reports deal with a [[phase velocity]] or [[group velocity]] faster than the vacuum velocity of light. But recall from above, that a superluminal ''[[phase velocity]]'' cannot be used for faster-than-light transmission of information. There has sometimes been confusion concerning the latter point.
As it is currently understood, quantum mechanics is completely consistent with special relativity, and doesn't allow for faster-than-light communication.
==See also==
*[[:Category:Faster-than-light travel]]
*[[:Category:Faster-than-light communication]]
==External links==
*[http://www.wbabin.net/sfarti/sfarti10.pdf Debunking Superluminal Effects] A simple explanation within the framework of special relativity
*[http://www.rp-photonics.com/superluminal_transmission.html Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology on "superluminal transmission"], with more details on phase and group velocity, and on causality
*[http://dustbunny.physics.indiana.edu/~dzierba/HonorsF97/Week1/NYTJuly22.html July 22, 1997, The New York Times Company: Signal Travels Farther and Faster Than Light] Quote: "..."We find," [http://physics.berkeley.edu/research/faculty/Chiao.html Chiao] said, "that a barrier placed in the path of a tunneling particle does not slow it down. In fact, we detect particles on the other side of the barrier that have made the trip in less time than it would take the particle to traverse an equal distance without a barrier -- in other words, the tunneling speed apparently greatly exceeds the speed of light. Moreover, if you increase the thickness of the barrier the tunneling speed increases, as high as you please..."
*[http://www.aei-potsdam.mpg.de/~mpoessel/Physik/FTL/tunnelingftl.html Markus Pössel: Faster-than-light (FTL) speeds in tunneling experiments: an annotated bibliography] Quote: "...An experiment of theirs, where a single [[photon]] tunnelled through a barrier and its tunneling speed (not a signal speed!) was 1.7 times light speed, is described in Steinberg, A.M., Kwiat, P.G. & R.Y. Chiao 1993: "Measurement of the Single-Photon Tunneling Time" in Physical Review Letter 71, S. 708--711..."
*[http://www.physicsguy.com/ftl/ Relativity and FTL (=Superluminal motion) Travel Homepage]
*[http://www.yellowknife.com/warp/ The Warp Drive: Hyper-Fast Travel Within General Relativity, Miguel Alcubierre Class. Quantum Grav. 11 (1994), L73-L77] Quote: "...It is shown how, within the framework of general relativity and without the introduction of [[wormhole]]s, it is possible to modify a [[spacetime]] in a way that allows a spaceship to travel with an arbitrarily large speed..."
*[http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/research/warp/warpstat.html NASA: Status of "Warp Drive" Maturity - speculation]
*[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SpeedOfLight/FTL.html Usenet Physics FAQ: is FTL travel or communication Possible?]
*[http://www.mth.kcl.ac.uk/~streater/GS.html Critique of Geometro-Stochastic Theory]
*[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Superluminal.html Superluminal]
*[http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181h/projects/98/lightspeed/group.htm The Speed of Light: How Fast Can We Go?]
*[http://www.gallup.unm.edu/~smarandache/physics.htm Smarandache Hypothesis] that there is no speed barrier and one can construct arbitrary speeds
*[http://www.theculture.org/rich/sharpblue/archives/000089.html Relativity, FTL and causality]
*[http://www.safalra.com/science/relativity/tachyons.html Tachyon Theory] - the mathematics of tachyon theory. Quote: "To send a message faster than light using tachyons, we would have to encode the message on a localised tachyon field, and then send it off at superluminal speed. But this is impossible as local tachyon disturbances are subluminal, and superluminal tachyon disturbances cannot be localised."
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Relativity]]
[[Category:Warp drive theory]]
[[Category:Physics in fiction]]
[[Category:Interstellar travel]]
[[cs:Nadsvětelná rychlost]]
[[da:Overlyshastighed]]
[[de:Überlichtgeschwindigkeit]]
[[ja:超光速航法]]
[[pl:Prędkość nadświetlna]]
[[ru:Сверхсветовое движение]]
[[zh:超光速]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FTL</title>
<id>11440</id>
<revision>
<id>15909185</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-26T09:13:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eisnel</username>
<id>73851</id>
</contributor>
<comment>This was a duplicate page about FTL Games. This makes much more sense redirecting to Faster-than-light article. "FTL Games", not "FTL" is the name of the company. This is a TLA for faster-than-light.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Faster-than-light]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FidoNet</title>
<id>11442</id>
<revision>
<id>40177406</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T19:33:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ceyockey</username>
<id>150564</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Disputes */ removed bolding added in my edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the BBS network. For the ISP, see [[Fido.net]].''
[[Image:FidoNet.png|right|thumb|104px|The FidoNet logo]]
'''FidoNet''' is an inter-connecting file and message transport system that was used by [[bulletin board system]]s. The network still exists today, but is dwindling in size and organization, due to the lack of callers to [[Bulletin board system|BBS]] systems that it was developed to serve, and the closing of most of those systems as a result.
FidoNet was originally founded in [[1984]] by [[Tom Jennings]] of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]] as a means to network together BBSes that used his own "Fido" BBS software. Over time, [[list of BBS software|other BBS software]] was independently adapted to support the relevant FidoNet [[protocol (computing)|protocols]], and the network became a popular means for [[hobby|hobbyist]] computer users to communicate. FidoNet was non-commercial, and mostly popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them [[hacker]]s and [[amateur radio|radio amateurs]], before the [[Internet]] became accessible and inexpensive.
==Fidonet organizational structure==
Fidonet is governed in a hierarchical structure according to FidoNet policy [http://www.fidonet.us/policy4.html], with designated coordinators at each level to manage the administration of fidonet nodes and resolve disputes between members. Network coordinators are responsible for managing the individual nodes within their area, usually a city or similar sized area. Regional coordinators are responsible for managing the administration of the network coordinators within their region, typically the size of a state, or small country. Zone coordinators are responsible for managing the administration of all of the regions within their zone. The world is divided into six zones, the coordinators of which elect one of themselves to be the "International Coordinator" of FidoNet.
==Technical structure==
FidoNet was historically designed to use modem-based [[Dial-up access|dial-up]] access between bulletin board systems, and much of its policy and structure reflected this.
The FidoNet system officially referred only to transfer of "Netmail"&mdash;the individual private messages between people using bulletin boards&mdash;including the protocols and standards with which to support it. A netmail message would contain the name of the person sending, the name of the intended recipient, and the respective FidoNet addresses of each. The FidoNet system was responsible for routing the message from one system to the other, with the bulletin board software on each end being responsible for ensuring that only the intended recipient could read it. Due to the hobbyist nature of the network, any privacy between sender and recipient was only the result of politeness from the owners of the FidoNet systems involved in the mail's transfer. It was common, however, for system operators to reserv |
fringes the copyright in their obscure work. Taking some precautionary steps may help to establish independent creation and authorship.
For example, when a web designer designs a webpage (based upon his own work) under a [[contract for services]], the webmaster owns the copyright in at least the underlying code of that website. A common and simple practice to obtain evidence in favour of authorship is to place the copyright material in an envelope or package together with a document signed by several people stating that they have examined the work prior to it being sealed and that in their opinion it is original. Once this is done the package is mailed to the owner by recorded delivery, which helps to establish when the work was created, who the originator of the work is and that there are signatory validators prepared to state that it is original. Once this process is complete the package and contents may be able to be used in a court of law as evidence if necessary.
==United States copyright law==
:''Main article: [[United States copyright law]]''
[[Article One of the United States Constitution|Article I]], Section 8 of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution for the United States]] gives the [[United States Congress]] the power “to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.” Congress first exercised this power with the enactment of the [[Copyright Act of 1790]], and has changed and updated statutory copyright law multiple times since. The [[United States Copyright Act of 1976|Copyright Act of 1976]], though it has been modified since its enactment, forms the basis of copyright law in the United States today.
*{{usc|17|105}}, witholds copyright protection from all publications produced by the United States Government, and its agents or employees while in their employment. The specific language is as follows:
*'''"Copyright protection under this title is not available for any work of the United States Government, but the United States Government is not precluded from receiving and holding copyrights transferred to it by assignment, bequest, or otherwise."'''
*However, nothing in the law prohibits the United States Government from limiting commercial access to any work produced under 17 U.S.C. § 105, and there are specific prohibitions against automatic access to work otherwise covered under 17 U.S.C. § 105 for commercial purposes.
USA federal laws are in the [[public domain]] and no copyright attaches. The same is true of court decisions. It is not difficult to see the motivations behind this:
:''The citizens are the authors of the law, and therefore its owners, regardless of who actually drafts the provisions, because the law derives its authority from the consent of the public, expressed through the democratic process.'' (''State of Georgia v Harrison Co'', 548 F Supp 110, 114 (ND Ga 1982))
:''Edicts of government, such as judicial opinions, administrative rulings, legislative enactments, public ordinances, and similar official legal documents are not copyrightable for reasons of public policy. This applies to such works whether they are Federal, State, or local as well as to those of foreign governments.'' (The Compendium of Copyright Office Practices (Compendium II) section 206.01[[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/law/copyright/faq/part3/]] Paragraph 3.6 at 14 February 2006)
The decisions of the courts, and legislation, would ensure that laws would be subject to copyright law, in some respects. The American threshold for copyright protection does contain requirements of both originality and creativity. According to the [[United States Supreme Court]] in ''Harper & Row Publishers Inc v Nation Enterprises'', a work “must be original to the author”. The United States Supreme Court has also interpreted Article I, § 8, cl 8 of the United States Constitution as requiring “independent creation plus a modicum of creativity”.
In the United States of America the exclusion of legislation from the scope of copyright laws dates to 1834, when the Supreme Court interpreted the first federal copyright laws and held that “no reporter has or can have any copyright in the written opinions delivered by this Court … “ In the same case it was argued – and accepted by the Court – that “it would be absurd, for a legislature to claim the copyright; and no one else can do it, for they are the authors, and cause them to be published without copyright … Statutes were never copyrighted.” Further, “it is the bounden duty of government to promulgate its statutes in print”. Counsel emphasised the governing policy that “all countries … subject to the sovereignty of the laws” hold the promulgation of the laws, from whatever source, “as essential as their existence.” “If either statutes or decisions could be made private property, it would be in the power of an individual to shut out the light by which we guide our actions.” (''Wheaton v Peters'', 33 US (8 Pet) 591, 668 (1834))
That the public interest is the primary determinant is clear from ''Banks v Manchester'' (128 US 244, 9 S Ct 36 (1888)). In this the United States Supreme Court denied a copyright to a court reporter in his opinions of the [[Ohio Supreme Court]], on the grounds that “There has always been a judicial consensus, from the time of the decision in the case of ''Wheaton v Peters'', that no copyright could, under the statutes passed by [[Congress]], be secured in the products of the labour done by judicial officers in the discharge of their judicial duties. The whole work done by the judges constitutes the authentic exposition and interpretation of the law, which, binding every citizen, is free for publication to all, whether it is a declaration of unwritten law, or an interpretation of a constitution or statute.”
The law, as thus widely defined, is in the public domain, and therefore not amenable to copyright. In ''Howell v Miller'', (91 F 129 (1898)) Justice Harlan denied an injunction sought for the compiler of [[Michigan]] [[statutes]], holding that “no one can obtain the exclusive right to publish the laws of the state in a book prepared by him.” The question of formal ownership of the text of laws and decisions is perhaps secondary to the question of the dissemination of the law.
==Obtaining and enforcing copyright==
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the [[United Kingdom]] there has to be some 'skill, originality and work' which has gone into it. However, even fairly trivial amounts of these qualities are sufficient for determining whether a particular act of copying constitutes an infringement of the author's original expression. In [[Australia]], it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work.
In the [[United States]], copyright has relatively recently been made automatic, which has had the effect of making it more like a property right. Thus, as with property, a copyright need not be granted or obtained through official registration with the government. Once an idea has been reduced to material form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape or a letter), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce his or her exclusive rights. However, while a copyright need not be officially registered for the copyright owner to begin exercising his exclusive rights, registration of works (where the laws of that jurisdiction provide for registration) does have its benefits: serving as [[prima facie]] evidence of a valid copyright and enabling the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees (whereas in the USA, for instance, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits). The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the actual author rather than the author himself if the work is a "[[work for hire]]". Again, this principle is widespread; in [[English law]] the ''Copyright Designs and Patents Act'' 1988 provides that where a work in which copyright subsists is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically assigned to the employer.
Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but may now become more commonplace as the copyright collectives like the [[RIAA]] are more and more targeting the [[file sharing]] home Internet user. Thus far however, these cases have usually been settled outside of court, with demands of payment of several thousand dollars accompanied by nothing more than a threat to sue the file sharer, thus such cases do not even make it to civil law courts in reality.
Absence of the copyright symbol does not mean that the work is not covered by copyright.
===Copyright notices===
In some jurisdictions, in order to obtain a copyright when a work such as a book or movie is created the work generally should contain a ''copyright notice''. This notice is comprised by a letter c inside a circle (''i.e.'', ©), or the word "copyright", followed by the year(s) of the copyright and the name of the copyright holder. Certain alternative formats were permitted for certain types of works. A copyright notice serves to inform any potential users that the work is copyrighted.
This requirement was generally the result of previous United States statutory requirements, but since 1989 in the U.S., the use of copyright notices has become optional. With the ex |
VIII of England]] and [[Pope Clement VII]] over Henry's wish to have his marriage to [[Catherine of Aragon]] annulled. The [[Act in restraint of Appeals]] (1533) explicitly stated that
:Where by divers sundry old authentic histories and chronicles it is manifestly declared and expressed that this realm of England is an empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one supreme head and king, having the dignity and royal estate of the [[imperial crown]] of the same.{{ref|Act_in_restraint_of_Appeals}}
The next year the Act of Supremacy (1534) explicitly tied the head of church to the imperial crown:
:The only supreme head in earth of the [[Church of England]] called Anglicana Ecclesia, and shall have and enjoy annexed and united to the imperial crown of this realm.{{ref|Act_of_Supremacy}}
The an Act by the Irish Parliament in 1541 (effective 1542) changed the traditional title used by the Monarchs of England for the reign over Ireland, from [[Lord of Ireland]] to [[King of Ireland]] and naming Henry head of the Church of Ireland, for similar reasons.
During the [[English Interregnum]] these laws were annulled, but the acts which caused the laws to be in abeyance were themselves, deemed to be null and void by the Parliaments of the [[English Restoration]], so by act of Parliament [[The Crown]] of England and (later the British and UK crowns) are imperial crowns.
*Britain - also heir to its Indian colony
In [[1801]] when [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] was united with the [[Kingdom of Ireland]], it was proposed that [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] become [[Emperor of the British and Hanoverian Dominions]], and therefore Emperor of the [[British Empire]]. George III however rejected the idea, favouring the traditional title of king.
When a royal marriage made it obvious to the British in [[1877]] that their [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] would be outranked by her [[Victoria, Princess Royal and Empress Frederick|own daughter]] who would someday become German Empress, the British government led by [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield|Benjamin Disraeli]], conferred the additional title ''[[Empress of India]]'' by an Act of Parliament; it was also formally justified as the expression of Britain succeeding as [[paramount ruler]] of the subcontinent the former Mughal '[[Padishah]] of Hind', using indirect rule through hundreds of [[princely state]]s formally under protection, not colonies, but accepting the British Sovereign as their 'feudal' suzerain. That title was relinquished by [[George VI of the United Kingdom|George VI]] with effect from [[August 15]] [[1947]], when [[India]] was granted independence.
The [[Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927]] in which it was agreed that the United Kingdom and the dominions were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]]". This in effect along with the [[Statute of Westminster, 1931]] marked the beginning of the end of the British Empire and set the basis for the continuing relationship between the [[Commonwealth Realms]] and the structure of the Crown.
=====Byzantium's Orthodox heir: Russia=====
In [[1472]], the last Byzantine emperor's niece, [[Sophia Paleologue]], married [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]], grand duke of Moscow, who began championing the idea of Russia being the successor to the Byzantine Empire. Their grandson [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]] crowned himself [[Tsar of Russia|tsar]] in [[16 January]], [[1547]].
On [[31 October ]], [[1721]] [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]] was crowned emperor as well. He based his claim partially upon a letter discovered in [[1717]] written in [[1514]] from [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] to [[Vasili III of Russia|Vasili III]], Sophia's son and Ivan IV's father, in which the Holy Roman Emperor used the term in referring to Vasili. The title has not been used in [[Russia]] since the abdication of Emperor [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] on [[15 March]], [[1917]].
[[Imperial Russia]] produced four reigning empresses, all in the [[eighteenth century]].
===(Post-)colonial emperors modeled on Europe===
====The Post-columbian Americas====
[[Image:Dpedro2-emp.png|Pedro II of Brazil on an anual opening of the Congress|thumb|right|240px|Pedro II Emperor of Brazil in [[regalia]] at the opening of the General Assembly (oil painting by [[Pedro Américo de Figueiredo e Melo|Pedro Américo]]).]]
=====Brazil=====
[[Brazil]] declared independence from [[Portugal]] in [[1822]], and made [[Pedro I of Brazil|Dom Pedro]], eldest son of the then-King of Portugal, who was acting as [[regent]], Emperor as Pedro I on [[12 October]]. The empire came to an end with the overthrow of Emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]] in [[1889]].
=====Haiti=====
[[Haiti]] was declared an empire by its ruler, [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]], who made himself Jacques I, in [[20 May]], [[1805]]. He was assassinated the next year. Haiti again became an empire from [[1849]] to [[1859]] under [[Faustin Soulouque]].
=====Mexico=====
[[Image:Edouard Manet 022.jpg|150px|thumb|The execution of Emperor Maximilian (1867) - painting by [[Édouard Manet]].]]
In [[Mexico]], there were two short-lived attempts to create an Empire. [[Agustín de Iturbide]], the general who helped secure Mexican independence from Spanish rule, was proclaimed Emperor Agustín I in [[12 July]], [[1822]], but was overthrown the next year.
In [[1863]], the invading French, in alliance with Mexican conservatives, proclaimed an empire and invited [[Maximilian of Mexico|Archduke Maximilian]], younger brother of the Austrian Emperor, to become emperor as Maximilian I. The childless Maximilian also adopted Agustín's grandson as his heir to bolster his claim. After the withdrawal of French protection in [[1867]], Maximilian was captured and executed by liberal forces.
====Central African Empire====
In [[1976]], President [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]] of the [[Central African Republic]], proclaimed the country to be the '''[[Central African Empire]]''', and made himself Emperor as Bokassa I. The expenses of his coronation ceremony actually bankrupted the country. He was overthrown three years later and the republic was restored.
==History on other imperial traditions==
===Pre-Columbian American traditions===
====Aztec Emperors====
The only [[pre-Columbian]] North American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the [[Hueyi Tlatoani]] of the [[Aztec Empire]] ([[1375]]&ndash;[[1521]]). Spanish [[conquistador]] [[Hernán Cortés]] slew Emperor [[Cuauhtémoc]] and installed puppet emperors who became vassals for [[Spain]]. Mexican [[Maximilian of Mexico|Emperor Maximilian]] built his palace over the ruins of the Aztec one at [[Chapultepec]].
====Inca Emperors====
The only pre-Columbian South American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the [[Sapa Inca]] of the [[Inca Empire]] ([[1438]]&ndash;[[1533]]). Spanish conquistador [[Francisco Pizarro]], conquered the Inca for the royal crown of Spain, killed Emperor [[Atahualpa]], and installed puppets as well.
===Pre-colonial Africa:===
====Ethiopia====
:''see: [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]''
In [[Ethiopia]], the [[Solomonid dynasty]] used, beginning in [[1270]], the title of "{{IPA|Nəgusä Nägäst}}" which also translates to Emperor and is literally "King of Kings". The use of the ''king of kings'' style might however already have started a millennium earlier in this region. Another title used by this dynasty was "[[Itegue Zetopia]]".
"Itegue" translates as Empress, and was also used by the only female reigning Empress, [[Zauditu of Ethiopia|Zauditu]], along with the official title ''Negiste Negest'' (Queen of Kings).
In [[1936]], the Italian king [[Victor Emmanuel III]] took the title of [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] when that country was under Italian occupation and made part of a colonial entity . After the defeat of the Italians by the [[United Kingdom|British]] ([[1941]]), [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie]] was restored to the throne but Victor Emmanuel did not relinquish his claim to the title until [[1943]].
Haile Selassie had an unusual sort of godhead status after the [[second world war]] (see [[rastafari]]) which he did not endorse and was not of Ethiopian tradition. He was deposed in [[1974]], the imperial title ending the next year when his son, who had succeeded him, was deposed and exiled.
===Far East===
====Chinese subcontinent====
=====Qin tradition=====
:''see: [[Emperor of China]]''
[[Image:Xian guerreros terracota detalle.JPG|thumb|360px|Warriors from the [[Terracotta Army]] guarding the tomb of [[Qin Shi Huang]], China's first Emperor]]
In [[221 BC]], Ying Zheng, who was [[Chinese sovereign|king]] of [[Qin dynasty|Qin]] at the time, proclaimed himself ''[[Shi Huangdi|shi huangdi]]'', which translates as "first emperor". ''Huangdi'' is composed of ''huang'' ("august one") and ''di'' ("sage-king"), and referred to legendary/mythological sage-emperors living several millennia earlier, of which three were ''huang'' and five were ''di'' (the ''s&#257;nhuáng w&#468;dì'', sometimes speled ''ti'', see: [[The Three August Ones and the Five Emperors]]). Thus Zheng became [[Qin Shi Huang]], abolishing the system where the ''huang''/''di'' titles were reserved to dead and/or mythological rulers.
The imperial title continued in [[China]] until the [[Qing dynasty]] was overthrown in [[1912]]. The title was briefly revived from [[January 1]], [[1916]] to [[March 22]], [[1916]] by President [[Yuan Shikai]] and again in early [[July]] , [[1917]] when General Zhang Xun attempted to restore last Qi |
.5% in [[1997]]) and is forecast to continue to do so in the foreseeable future. Economic prospects are good over the long term, and real growth in [[1998]] is expected to reach 3.0%.
Trade is vital to the Cypriot economy--the island is not self-sufficient in food and has few natural resources--and the trade deficit continues to grow. Exports rose by 1.3% in 1997, while imports rose by 2.2%, resulting in a trade deficit of $2.1 billion (2.7% higher than the previous year). Cyprus must import fuels, most raw materials, heavy machinery, and transportation equipment. More than 50% of its trade is with the European Union (especially the [[UK|U.K.]]); the Middle East receives 20% of exports. Cyprus signed an [[European Union Association Agreement|Association Agreement]] with the [[European Union]] (EU) in [[1972]], which resulted in the establishment of a [[Customs Union]] between the two sides. Cyprus applied for full EU membership in [[1990]] and has since linked the [[Cyprus pound]] to the [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU). EU accession negotiations started on [[March 31]], [[1998]]. In [[1991]], Cyprus introduced a [[Value Added Tax]] (VAT), which is currently 15% in line with the EU minimum. Cyprus ratified the new world trade agreement ([[GATT]]) in [[1995]] and began implementing it fully on [[January 1]], [[1996]].
On [[May 1|May 1st]] [[2004]], Cyprus became a full member of the EU.
The economic benefits of EU accession to Cyprus, as a whole, are quite substantial. Cyprus goods and services will have access to a huge single market consisting of some of the most advanced countries in [[Europe]]. Cyprus’ participation in the Union’s internal market, an area where free movement of goods, services, persons and goods is ensured, will lead in the long term to a more efficient allocation of factors of production towards activities in which Cyprus possesses comparative advantages. This will have positive repercussions on growth and employment.
Cyprus will have a share in the growth and development of the EU economy. It will attract investment from the EU in activities in which Cyprus possesses comparative advantages, thus accelerating the transformation of Cyprus into a regional business centre. Moreover Cyprus will benefit from increased EU financial assistance.
In the new age of globalisation and world economic integration, in an era marked by a technological revolution, which encompasses all sectors of the economy, the key to success is competitiveness coupled with high quality manufactured goods and services and the ability to adjust quickly to the ever changing preferences of the consumers.
Cyprus has the fourth-largest [[ship registry]] in the world, with 2,758 ships and 25.5 million [[Gross Register Tonnage|gross registered tons]] (GRTs). It is an open registry and includes ships from more than 43 countries, including [[Greece]], [[Germany]], and [[Russia]].
===Export opportunities===
Cyprus has been liberalizing its trade regime by eliminating import quotas and licenses and lowering tariffs on most products as a result of its obligations under the new world trade agreement and its Customs Union agreement with the European Union. As a result, U.S. products are becoming more competitive in Cyprus and prospects for further expansion of bilateral trade ties are excellent.
Government computerization and telecommunications development, two of the priorities of the government's 5-year development plan (1994-1998), provide excellent opportunities for U.S. exports. Sales of computer-assisted design systems, new capital equipment for textile, clothing, footwear production, medical equipment, environmental equipment, and services are also expected to grow. [[USA|U.S.]] pressure resulted in the adoption of a new copyright law in 1994 and a new patent law in 1998.
===Investment climate===
In February [[1997]], the government revised its policy on foreign direct investment, permitting 100% foreign ownership in certain cases. Regulations on foreign portfolio investment in the Cyprus Stock Exchange also have been liberalized. Additionally, Cyprus passed a modern banking law in July 1997, incorporating all the provisions and directives of the EU for the prudential supervision of credit institutions.
Cyprus has concluded treaties on double taxation with 26 countries, including the U.S., and has removed exchange restrictions on current international transactions. Non-residents and foreign investors may freely repatriate proceeds from investments in Cyprus.
===Offshore sector===
The 1,049 full-fledged offshore companies--which are located in Cyprus but conduct business abroad only--qualify for various tax- and duty-free concessions. Foreign exchange earnings from offshore companies rose to $346 million in [[1997]]. There are about 40 U.S.-owned firms in Cyprus; about half operate exclusively on an offshore basis.
U.S. firms are mainly engaged in the regional marketing of [[computer]]s, computer graphics, [[telecommunications]], [[printing]] equipment, household products, and soft drinks. Since 1994, re-entry visa provisions have been streamlined and 3-year work permits have been introduced for offshore employees.
===Trade between Cyprus and the United States===
The U.S. embassy in [[Nicosia]] sponsors a popular pavilion for American products at the annual Cyprus International State Fair, hosts the Commercial Awards dinner, and organizes other events to promote U.S. products throughout the year. Total U.S. exports to Cyprus were about $700 million in 1997 (compared with $670 million in 1996), making the U.S. Cyprus' number-one supplier of total imports for the third year in a row. Exports include American tobacco and tobacco products, automatic data processing and other machinery, and cereals. Principal U.S. imports from Cyprus consist of clothing, footwear, steel tubes and pipes, dairy products, and various food items.
===Turkish Cypriot economy===
The economic disparity between the two communities is pronounced. Although the Turkish Cypriot area operates on a free-market basis, the lack of private and governmental investment, shortages of skilled labor and experienced managers, plus inflation and the devaluation of the Turkish lira (which the [[Turkish Cypriot]]s use as their currency) continue to plague the economy. A Greek-Cypriot-organized economic boycott of the Turkish Cypriot region also has negatively affected the Turkish Cypriot economy.
Turkey is, by far, the main trading partner of the "T.R.N.C.," supplying 55% of imports and absorbing 48% of exports. In a landmark case, the [[European Court of Justice]] (ECJ) ruled on [[July 5]], 1994, against the British practice of importing produce from Northern Cyprus based on certificates of origin and phytosanitary certificates granted by "T.R.N.C." authorities. The ECJ decision stated that only goods bearing certificates of origin from the Government of Cyprus could be recognized for trade by EU member countries. That decision resulted in a considerable decrease of Turkish Cypriot exports to the EU: from $36.4 million (or 66.7% of total Turkish Cypriot exports) in 1993 to $24.7 million in 1996 (or 35% of total exports) in 1996. Even so, the EU continues to be the "T.R.N.C.'s" second-largest trading partner, with a 24.7% share of total imports and 35% share of total exports.
Assistance from Turkey is the mainstay of the Turkish Cypriot economy. Under the latest economic protocol (signed [[January 3]], 1997), Turkey undertakes to provide Turkish Cypriots loans totaling $250 million for the purpose of implementing projects included in the protocol related to public finance, tourism, banking, and privatization. Fluctuation in the Turkish lira, which loses about 50% of its value against the U.S. dollar every year, continues to exert downward pressure on the Turkish Cypriot standard of living.
Turkish Cypriot seperatist authorities have instituted a free market in foreign exchange and authorize residents to hold foreign-currency denominated bank accounts. This encourages transfers from Turkish Cypriots living abroad.
'''GDP:'''
Greek Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $9 billion; Turkish Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $820 million (1998 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 3.7%
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
|-----
! style="background:#efefef;" | Year
! style="background:#efefef;" | GDP <br /> <small>in billions of USD PPP <br /> </small>
! style="background:#efefef;" | % GDP Growth
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2002
| 14.397 || 2.1
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2003
| 14.953 || 1.9
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2004
| 15.764 || 3.7
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2005
| 16.745 || 3.8
|- align="right"
! align="left"|2006
| 17.772 || 4.0
|- align="right"
|}
Turkish Cypriot area: 5.3% (1998 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
Greek Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $15,400; Turkish Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $5,000 (1998 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
Greek Cypriot area: agriculture 6.3%, industry 22.4%, services 71.3%; Turkish Cypriot area: [[agriculture]] 11.8%, [[industry]] 20.5%, services 67.7% (1998)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
Greek Cypriot area: 2.3% (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 66% (1998 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 289,400; Turkish Cypriot area: 80,200 (1998)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
Greek Cypriot area: services 66.6%, industry 23.2%, agriculture 10.2% (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: services 55.4%, indus |
[[Sixty Years' War]] for control of the Great Lakes
*[[International Boundary Waters Treaty]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cglg.org/ Council of Great Lakes Governors]
*[http://www.great-lakes.net/ Great Lakes Information Network]
*[http://www.glc.org/ Great Lakes Commission]
*EPA: [http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/ Great Lakes National Program Office]
*Environment Canada&mdash;Ontario Region: [http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/greatlakes/default.asp?lang=En&n=7E5E6AF1-1 Our Great Lakes]
*[http://www.midwestlakes.org/ Midwest Lakes Policy Center]
*[http://www.ijc.org/ International Joint Commission]
*[http://www.nature.org/greatlakes The Nature Conservancy's Great Lakes Program]
*[http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/index.html EPA's Great Lakes Atlas]
{{greatlakes}}
{{Region}}
[[Category:Great Lakes|*]]
[[zh-min-nan:Gō·-toā-ô·]]
[[ca:Grans Llacs d'Amèrica del Nord]]
[[cs:Velká jezera]]
[[cy:Y Llynnoedd Mawr]]
[[da:Store søer (Nordamerika)]]
[[de:Große Seen]]
[[et:Suur järvistu]]
[[es:Grandes Lagos]]
[[eo:Grandaj Lagoj]]
[[fr:Grands Lacs (Amérique du Nord)]]
[[gl:Grandes Lagos, América do Norte]]
[[ko:오대호]]
[[is:Vötnin miklu]]
[[it:Grandi Laghi (America)]]
[[he:הימות הגדולות]]
[[la:Lacus Magni]]
[[hu:Nagy-tavak]]
[[mk:Големите езера]]
[[nl:Grote Meren]]
[[ja:五大湖]]
[[no:De store sjøer]]
[[pl:Wielkie Jeziora Północnoamerykańskie]]
[[pt:Grandes Lagos]]
[[ru:Великие озёра]]
[[simple:Great Lakes]]
[[sk:Veľké kanadské jazerá]]
[[sl:Velika jezera]]
[[sr:Велика језера]]
[[fi:Suuret järvet]]
[[sv:Stora sjöarna]]
[[uk:Великі Озера]]
[[zh:五大湖]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goethe</title>
<id>12011</id>
<revision>
<id>15909719</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-14T05:28:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snoyes</username>
<id>8289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted to last edit by Rmhermen</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>German</title>
<id>12012</id>
<revision>
<id>42051464</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:39:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add one</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''German''' usually refers to: __NOTOC__
Anything related to [[Germany]] and its people, especially
*[[German language]]
*[[German people]], collectively or individually
*a citizen of the Federal Republic of [[Germany]], see [[German nationality law]]
'''German''' may also refer to:
People:
*[[Edward German]], a musical composer
*[[Lindsey German]], a British activist
*[[Michael German]], a British politician
Places:
*[[German, New York]], a town in the United States
*[[German Flatts, New York]]
*[[German Township, Pennsylvania]]
*[[German (parish)|German]] a parish in the [[Isle of Man]]
{{disambig}}
[[als:Deutsch]]
[[de:Deutsch]]
[[simple:German]]
[[th:เยอรมัน]]
[[zh:德意志]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Girth</title>
<id>12013</id>
<revision>
<id>31397665</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-15T00:00:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nportlock</username>
<id>565808</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''A [[Girth (tack)|girth]] is also a piece of equipment used to hold the saddle on a horse.''
'''Girth''' generally refers to the [[circumference]] of a cylindrical object, such as a tree trunk.
In [[graph theory]], the '''girth''' of a graph is the length of the shortest [[glossary of graph theory#Cycle|cycle]] contained in the graph. If the graph doesn't contain any cycles, its girth is defined to be [[infinity]].
For example, a 4-cycle (square) has girth 4. A grid has girth 4 as well, and a triangular mesh has girth 3.
A [[cubic graph]] of girth <math>g</math> that is as small as possible is known as a <math>g</math>-[[cage graph]]. The [[Petersen graph]] is the unique 5-cage (it is the smallest cubic graph of girth 5). The [[Heawood graph]] is the unique 6-cage, and the [[Tutte eight cage]] is the unique 8-cage.
<gallery>
Image:Petersen graph.svg|The [[Petersen graph]], of girth 5
Image:Heawood graph.svg|The [[Heawood graph]], of girth 6
Image:Tutte eight cage.png|The [[Tutte eight cage]], of girth 8
</gallery>
[[Category:Graph theory]]
[[pl:Obwód grafu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gun safety</title>
<id>12015</id>
<revision>
<id>42025273</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:58:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>J-Star</username>
<id>92220</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Point the muzzle away from non-targets */ Consistency edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''(For discussions on politics concerning firearms and gun safety, see [[Gun Politics]] or [[Talk:Gun Politics]]. This page only deals with non-political aspects of gun safety.)''
'''Gun safety''' is a collection of rules and recommendations that can be applied when handling [[Firearm|firearms]]. The purpose of gun safety is to eliminate or minimize the risks of unintentional damage, injury and/or death caused by improper handling of firearms.
== Gun safety rules and mindset ==
[[Image:Gun_safety.jpg|thumb|Example of safe gun use. The gun is pointed at the ground and the handler's finger is off the trigger.]]
Gun safety training seeks to instill a certain mindset and appropriate habits, or rules. The mindset is that firearms are inherently dangerous and must always be handled with care. Handlers are taught to treat firearms with respect for their destructive capabilities, and strongly discouraged from playing or toying with firearms, a common cause of accidents.
The rules of gun safety follow from this mindset. While there are many variations, the following rules are those most commonly taught during gun safety training:
*Always treat firearms as if they are loaded, not safetied, and ready to fire.
*Always point the [[Muzzle (firearm)|muzzle]] away from anything and everything which you do not intend to fire upon.
*Always keep your fingers away from the trigger until you are ready to fire.
*Always be sure of your target and its surroundings.
=== Treat firearms as if they are loaded ===
This rule is a matter of proper mindset rather than a specific habit. Many firearm accidents result from the handler believing a firearm is emptied, safetied, or otherwise not ready to fire when in fact it is ready. If a handler always treats firearms as capable of being fired at any time, the handler is more likely to take precautions to prevent an unintentional discharge and to avoid damage or injury if one does occur.
The phrase "The gun is always loaded" is often used. The purpose is to discourage mental habits such as "I know my gun is empty so (some unsafe practice) is OK." Inexperienced handlers often think this way and accidents can happen as a result. A gun safety instructor can respond to such reasoning by restating the rule: "No, your gun is '''always''' loaded".
=== Point the muzzle away from non-targets ===
This rule is intended to minimize the damage caused by an unintended discharge. The first rule teaches that a firearm must be assumed to be ready to fire. This rule goes beyond that and says "Since the firearm might fire, assume that it '''will''' and make sure no harm occurs when it does".
A consequence of this rule is that any kind of playing or "toying" with firearms is prohibited. Playfully pointing firearms at people or other non-targets violates this rule.
Two natural "safe" directions to point the muzzle are upwards (at the sky) and downwards (at the ground). Both have their advantages and disadvantages. Firing at the ground may result in a [[ricochet]] or cause hazardous fragments to be flung at people or material. Aiming upwards eliminates this risk but replaces it with the risk that the bullet may cause damage when it comes down to the ground again. Indeed, several accidents have been caused by discharging firearms into the air. It is also possible that the muzzle will inadvertently be pointed at a non-target such as someone's head or an [[aircraft]]. [http://aviation-safety.net/news/newsitem.php?id=1361]
When passing a firearm to another person, it should be passed such that the muzzle of the weapon does not point at, or "flag", the recipient or any bystander. If the situation permits it is often concidered good practice to show the firearm with the magazine removed, the breech unloaded and locked open before handing it over to the recipient. It is known as "show clear".
=== Keep fingers off the trigger ===
This rule is intended to prevent an undesired discharge. Normally a firearm is discharged by pressing its [[trigger]]. A handler's finger may involuntary move for any of several reasons: being startled, not keeping full attention on body movements, or physiological reasons beyond conscious control such as [[spasm]]s. Handlers are therefore taught to minimize the harmful effects of such a motion, by keeping the finger off the trigger.
The trigger guard and area above the trigger of a firearm presents a natural point for a handler to keep their finger out straight alongside the weapon, so as not to violate this rule (see picture above). A properly indexed trigger finger also helps remind the person holding the gun of the direction of the muzzle.
In [[popular culture]], such as [[Film|movies]] and [[Television|TV shows]], this rule is often violated, even by characters who would be trained in gun safety such as [[Soldier|military personnel]] or [[Police|law enforcement officers]].
=== Be sure of your target ===
This rule is intended to eliminate or minimize damage to non-targets when a firearm is intentionally discharged. Unintended da |
p Color Space Conversion Formulas]
* [http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-space-conversion.htm Color Space Conversion]: conceptual understanding for photographers using detailed visualizations
* [http://www.yafla.com/dforbes/yaflaColor/ColorRGBHSL.aspx yaflaColor]: HSL-RGB Conversion and exploration
* [http://www.couleur.org/index.php?page=transformations Color Space Visualization]
[[Category:Color space|Color space]]
[[Category:Color]]
[[Category:Image processing]]
[[de:Farbraum]]
[[ko:색 공간]]
[[it:Spazio dei colori]]
[[nl:Kleurruimte]]
[[ja:色空間]]
[[pt:Color space]]
[[fi:Väriavaruus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cortex</title>
<id>6082</id>
<revision>
<id>26895641</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-30T17:42:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>contrast with [[medulla]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Cortex''''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[bark]]'') in general means the outer layer (contrast with [[medulla]]). It has different specific meanings, depending on the context:
*In [[neuroanatomy]]:
** the [[cerebral cortex]] (often simply called "cortex") is the thin wrinkled outermost layer of the [[brain]]. It is rich in [[neuron]]s and is the site of most sophisticated neural processing.
** the [[cerebellar cortex]] is the outermost layer of the [[cerebellum]]
*In [[botany]], the [[cortex (botany)|cortex]] is the outer portion of the [[plant stem|stem]] or [[root]] of a plant.
*In [[anatomy]] and [[zoology]], the [[cortex (anatomy)|cortex]] is the outermost (or "superficial") layer of an [[organ (anatomy)|organ]].
*In [[lithic analysis]] in [[archaeology]], the [[cortex (archaeology)|cortex]] is the outer layer of [[rock (geology)|rock]] formed on the exterior of raw materials by chemical and mechanical weathering processes.
*In the [[television series]] ''[[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]]'', the 'cortex' is the interplanetary equivalent of the [[Internet]].
See also: [[Cordtex]].
{{disambig}}
[[da:Kortex]]
[[de:Cortex]]
[[ja:&#22823;&#33075;&#30382;&#36074;]]
[[nl:Cortex]]
[[pt:Córtex]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Collection</title>
<id>6084</id>
<revision>
<id>34890440</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T14:40:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Batmanand</username>
<id>131948</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambig correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
In common usage, a '''collection''' is any group of items that has one or more properties in common, usually brought together for some specific purpose. See [[Collecting]] and [[Collectible]]s.
The term can also be used more specifically:
*In [[mathematics]], collection is not precisely defined, but can refer to various objects. Most often it refers to a [[set]], [[class (set theory)|class]], [[family (mathematics)|family]], or [[multiset]].
*[[Collection (horse)|Collection]] in [[equestrianism]] describes a way in which horses move and hold themselves.
*In [[museum]]s and [[Art gallery|art galleries]], the [[Collection (museum)|collection]] of objects in a particular field forms the core basis for the museum.
*In [[music]], specifically [[diatonic set theory]], a collection is similar to a [[tone row]]; see [[generated collection]].
*In a church the collection is the money collected from the congregation during a service. The congregation normally place their donation into a collection plate or bag which is passed around and returned to the priest.
*At the [[University of Oxford]], [[Collection (Oxford Colleges)|Collections]] are exams given by a student's college to determine their ongoing performance.
{{disambig}}
[[zh:&#25910;&#34255;]]
[[de:Sammlung]]
[[es:Colección]]
[[io:Kolektajo]]
[[nl:verzameling]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cauchy sequence</title>
<id>6085</id>
<revision>
<id>40973655</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T05:21:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
<id>153314</id>
</contributor>
<comment>explain the case of real numbers first. Sectioning.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematical analysis]], a '''Cauchy sequence''', named after [[Augustin Cauchy]], is a [[sequence]] whose elements become ''close'' as the sequence progresses. To be more precise, by dropping a finite number of elements from the start of the sequence we can make the [[metric (mathematics)|distance]] between any two remaining elements arbitrarily small.
Cauchy sequences require the notion of distance so they can only be defined in a [[metric space]]. Generalizations to more abstract [[uniform spaces]] exist in the form of [[Cauchy filter]] and [[Cauchy net]].
They are of interest because in a [[complete space]], all such sequences [[limit of a sequence|converge to a limit]], and one can test for "Cauchiness" without knowing the value of the limit (if it exists), in contrast to
the [[limit of a sequence#Formal definition|definition of convergence]].
==Cauchy sequence of real numbers==
A sequence
:<math>x_1, x_2, x_3, \ldots </math>
of [[real number]]s is called '''Cauchy''', if for every [[positive and negative numbers|positive]] real number ''r'' > 0 there is a positive [[integer]] ''N'' such that for all integers ''m'',''n'' > ''N'' one has
:<math>|x_m - x_n| < r, </math>
where the vertical bars denote the [[absolute value]].
== Cauchy sequence in a metric space ==
In the same way one can define Cauchy sequences of rational numbers and complex numbers. More generally, one may define Cauchy sequences in any metric space; then <math>|x_m - x_n| </math> is replaced by the ''distance'' <math>d(x_m, x_n) </math> between <math>x_m</math> and <math>x_n</math>.
Formally, given a [[metric space]] (''M'', ''d''), a sequence
:<math>x_1, x_2, x_3, \ldots </math>
is Cauchy, if for every positive [[real number]] ''r'' > 0 there is an [[integer]] ''N'' such that for all integers ''m'',''n'' > ''N'', the distance
:<math>d(x_m, x_n)</math>
is less than ''r''. Roughly speaking, the terms of the sequence are getting closer and closer together in a way that suggests that the sequence ought to have a [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] in ''M''. Nonetheless, this may not be the case.
== Completeness ==
A metric space ''X'' in which every Cauchy sequence has a limit (in ''X'') is called [[complete space|complete]].
=== Example: real numbers ===
The [[real number]]s are complete, and the standard construction of the real numbers involves Cauchy sequences of [[rational number]]s.
=== Counter-example: rational numbers ===
The [[rational number]]s '''Q''' are not complete (for the usual distance):
There are sequences of rationals that converge (in '''R''') to [[irrational number]]s; these are Cauchy sequences having no limit in '''Q'''.
For example:
* The sequence defined by ''x<sub>0</sub> = 1'', ''x<sub>n+1</sub>'' = (''x<sub>n</sub>'' + 2/''x<sub>n</sub>'')/2 consists of rational numbers (1, 3/2, 17/12,...), which is clear from the definition; it converges to the [[irrational number|irrational]] square root of two, see [[Methods_of_computing_square_roots#Babylonian_method|Babylonian method of computing square root]].
* The values of the exponential, sine and cosine functions, exp(''x''), sin(''x''), cos(''x''), are irrational for any rational value of ''x''&ne;0, but are defined as limit of a rational sequence which is their [[Maclaurin series]].
=== Other properties ===
Every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence, and every Cauchy sequence is [[bounded function|bounded]]. If <math>f \colon M \rightarrow N</math> is a [[uniformly continuous]] map between the metric spaces ''M'' and ''N'' and (''x''<sub>''n''</sub>) is a Cauchy sequence in ''M'', then <math>(f(x_n))</math> is a Cauchy sequence in ''N''. If <math>(x_n)</math> and <math>(y_n)</math> are two Cauchy sequences in the rational, real or complex numbers, then the sum <math>(x_n + y_n)</math> and the product <math>(x_n y_n)</math> are also Cauchy sequences.
==Generalizations==
=== Cauchy sequences in topological vector spaces ===
There is also a concept of Cauchy sequence for a [[topological vector space]] ''X'': Pick a [[local base]] ''B'' for ''X'' about 0; then (''x''<sub>''k''</sub>) is a Cauchy sequence if for all members ''V'' of ''B'', there is some number ''N'' such that whenever
''n'',''m'' > ''N'',
''x''<sub>''n''</sub> - ''x''<sub>''m''</sub> is an element of ''V''. If the topology of ''X'' is compatible with a [[translation-invariant metric]] ''d'', the two definitions agree.
=== Cauchy sequences in groups ===
There is also a concept of Cauchy sequence in a group ''G'':
Let ''H''=(''H<sub>r</sub>'') be a decreasing sequence of normal subgroups of ''G'' of finite [[index of a subgroup|index]].
Then a sequence (''x<sub>n</sub>'') in ''G'' is said to be Cauchy (w.r.t. ''H'') [[iff]] for any ''r'' there is ''N'' such that ''&forall;m,n > N, x<sub>n</sub> x<sub>m</sub><sup>-1</sup> &isin; H<sub>r</sub>''.
The set ''C'' of such Cauchy sequences forms a group (for the componentwise product), and the set ''C<sub>0</sub>'' of null sequences (s.th. ''&forall;r, &exist;N, &forall;n > N, x<sub>n</sub>&isin;H<sub>r</sub>'') is a normal subgroup of ''C''. The [[factor group]] ''C/C<sub>0</sub>'' is called the completion of ''G'' w.r.t. ''H''.
On |
ntext</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
'''International English''' is the concept of the [[English language]] as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and the movement towards an international standard for the language. It is sometimes referred to as ''Global English'', ''World English'' or ''[[Standard English]]''. Sometimes these terms refer simply to the array of varieties of English spoken throughout the world; sometimes they refer to a desired standardisation. However, consensus on the terminology and path to standardisation has not been reached.
== Historical context ==
The modern concept of International English does not exist in isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the English language.
The language of [[England]] came to dominance throughout the island of [[Great Britain]] during the Middle Ages and in [[Ireland]] during the 18th century and, especially, the 19th century. In the modern era, printing led to the gradual standardisation of English, and particularly the use of the [[prestige dialect]] of the English ruling classes.
The establishment of the first permanent English-speaking colony in [[North America]] in [[1607]] was a major step towards the globalisation of the language. [[British English]] was only partially standardised when the American colonies were established. Isolated from Britain by the Atlantic Ocean, the settlements evolved a distinct standard form of [[American English]]. In particular, [[Noah Webster]]'s reform of American-English spelling in the early [[19th century]] gave rise to the main division in English spelling that exists today.
In the [[18th century]], British colonialism focused on the [[southern hemisphere]]. The standardisation of [[British English]] was more settled than it had been in the previous century, and this confident English was brought to [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on speakers of other languages in the various parts of the [[British Empire]]. The first form can be seen in [[New Zealand English]], and the latter in [[Indian English]]. The term [[Commonwealth English]] refers to these groups of English dialects.
The English-speaking nations of [[Canada]] and the [[Caribbean]] are caught between historical connections with British and Commonwealth English, and geographical connections with U.S. English. In some things, and more formally, they tend to follow British standards, in others they follow the U.S. standard.
More recently, American English has become predominant as the preferred version of English in many countries that previously either had no preferred form, or preferred some variant of British English. Since World War II, for example, the governments of China (though not Hong Kong) and Japan have generally used American English, though in the case of China, the puncuation is a mixture of both American and British.
The ebb and flow between the standardisation of the language and its diversification have been ever present throughout its history. The flagship of the former is intelligibility and practicality, while the latter has cultural autonomy and flexibility.
== Modern global language ==
There is a distinction between English as spoken as a [[native language]] around the world (in the [[USA]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]] and so forth) and as a non-native language spoken as a regional or global [[lingua franca]].
A second distinction is made between those countries where non-native English has official or historical importance (''special significance'', for example, in [[Pakistan]] and [[Uganda]]), and those where it does not (for example, in [[Japan]] and [[Peru]]).
In the terminology of [[Language education|English language teaching]] (ELT), we have:
* English as a native language (ENL), also called ''first language'' (L1).
* [[English as an additional language]] (EAL) or English for speakers of other languages (ESOL):
** English as a second language ([[TESL|ESL]]) in an environment where English has a ''special significance'', also called ''second language'' (L2).
** English as a foreign language (EFL) in places where it has no ''special significance'', also called ''third language'' (L3).
English as a second language might refer either to acquisition of the language in southern India, where it is a prominent, regional lingua franca, or the acquisition of the language by a speaker of another language in a predominantly English-speaking country (a Brazilian living in Barbados, for instance). It may not be an individual's actual second language, but perhaps third or fourth.
In the context of language teaching, English as an additional language (EAL) usually is based on the standards of either British/Commonwealth English or American English. English as an international language (EIL) is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to communicate internationally.
The term ''International English'' is used in the ''International English Language Testing System'' ([[IELTS]]), an English-language definition and evaluation system owned, developed and delivered through the partnership of the [[British Council]], [[IDP Education Australia]]: IELTS Australia and the [[University of Cambridge]] ESOL Examinations. Though concentrating on a kind of English understood almost everywhere, the basic standard is taken to be [[Commonwealth English]].
== Varying concepts ==
=== Universality and flexibility ===
International English sometimes refers to English as it is actually being used and developed in the world; as a language owned not just by native speakers, but by all those who come to use it.
<blockquote>Basically, it covers the English language at large, often (but not always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard. It is certainly also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use, and study of English as the world's lingua franca ('TEIL: Teaching English as an International Language'), and especially when the language is considered as a whole in contrast with ''American English'', ''British English'', ''South African English'', and the like. &mdash;&nbsp;McArthur (2002, p.&nbsp;444&ndash;45)</blockquote>
It especially means English words and phrases generally understood throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. The importance of non-native English language skills can be recognised behind the long-standing joke that the international language of science and technology is broken English.
=== Neutrality ===
International English reaches towards cultural neutrality. This has a practical use:
<blockquote>"What could be better than a type of English that saves you from having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets! Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it an attractive idea&nbsp;&mdash; both often concerned that their English should be neutral, without British or American or Canadian or Australian colouring. Any regional variety of English has a set of political, social and cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called 'standard' forms." &mdash;&nbsp;Peters (2004, ''International English'')</blockquote>
According to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of English that minimises the aspects defined by either the colonial [[imperialism]] of Victorian Britain or the [[cultural imperialism]] of the 20th century United States. While British [[colonialism]] laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and British colonial influence.
The development of International English often centres around academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative and flowery use of the language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general.
=== Opposition ===
The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by many as a kind of [[cultural imperialism]], whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms.
Robert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his ''Linguistic Imperialism'' (1992). Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English are in fact faced with the dual standard of American English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes.
Edward Trimnell, author of ''Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One'' (2005) argues that the international version of English is only adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that native English-speakers have become "dependent on the language skills of others" by placing their faith in international English.
=== Appropriation theory ===
There are also some who reject both linguistic imperialism and Crystal's theory of the neutrality of English. They argue that the phenomenon of the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of [[appropriation]] (e.g. Spichtinger 2000), that is English used for local purposes around the world. Demonstrators in non-English speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV-audiences around the globe, for instance.
In English language teaching Bobda shows how [[Cameroon]] has moved away from a mono-cultural |
[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete S. Poirée]]
|{{RUS}}<br />[[Olga Pyleva]]<br />[[Galina Koukleva]]<br />[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]<br />[[Albina Akhatova]]
|-
|2006
|{{RUS}}<br />[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets]]<br />[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]<br />[[Olga Zaitseva]]<br />[[Albina Akhatova]]
|{{GER}}<br />[[Martina Glagow]]<br />[[Andrea Henkel]]<br />[[Katrin Apel]]<br />[[Kati Wilhelm]]
|{{FRA}}<br />[[Delphyne Peretto]]<br />[[Florence Baverel-Robert]]<br />[[Sylvie Becaert]]<br />[[Sandrine Bailly]]
|}
==See also==
*[[Biathlon World Championships]]
*[[Biathlon World Cup champions]]
*[[Lists of Olympic medalists]] in several sports
[[Category:Biathlon at the Olympics|*Medalists]]
[[Category:Olympic medalists by sport|Biathlon]]
[[Category:Olympic biathletes]]
[[Category:Winter Olympics medalists|*Biathlon]]
[[Category:Lists of sportspeople]]
[[cs:Olympijské medaile v biatlonu]]
[[no:OL-medaljører i skiskyting]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biathlon World Championships</title>
<id>5039</id>
<revision>
<id>42060897</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:10:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wernher</username>
<id>19431</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Relay (4 &times; 7.5/6 km) */ romanization corrs; lk piping as per husbands' surnames</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The first '''[[Biathlon]] World Championship (BWCH)''' was held in [[1958]], with individual (official) and relay (unofficial) contests for men. The number of events has grown significantly over the years. Beginning in [[1984]], women biathletes had their own World Championships, and finally, from [[1989]], both genders have been participating in joint BWCHs.
== BWCH venues ==
The season's BWCHs takes place during February or March. Some years it has been necessary to schedule parts of the Championships at other than the main venue because of weather and/or snow conditions. Full, joint BWCHs have never been held in [[Winter Olympic Games|Olympic Winter Games]] seasons. BWCHs in non-IOC events, however, have been held in Olympic seasons. In 2005, the then new event of Mixed Relay (two legs done by women, two legs by men) was arranged separately from the ordinary Championships.
Arranged Championships:
*1958 [[Saalfelden]], [[Austria]]
*1959 [[Courmayer]], [[Italy]]
*1961 [[Umeå]], [[Sweden]]
*1962 [[Hämeenlinna|Hämeenlinna-Tavastehus]], [[Finland]]
*1963 [[Seefeld, Tirol|Seefeld]], [[Austria]]
*1965 [[Elverum]], [[Norway]]
*1966 [[Garmisch-Partenkirchen]], [[West Germany]]
*1967 [[Altenberg, Germany|Altenberg]], [[East Germany]]
*1969 [[Zakopane]], [[Poland]]
*1970 [[Östersund|Östersund]], [[Sweden]]
*1971 [[Hämeenlinna|Hämeenlinna-Tavastehus]], [[Finland]]
*1973 [[Lake Placid, New York]], [[United States|USA]]
*1974 [[Minsk]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]]
*1975 [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]], [[Italy]]
*1976 [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]], [[Italy]] (Sprint)
*1977 [[Lillehammer|Lillehammer-Vingrom]], [[Norway]]
*1978 [[Hochfilzen]], [[Austria]]
*1979 [[Ruhpolding]], [[West Germany]]
*1981 [[Lahti]], [[Finland]]
*1982 [[Minsk]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]]
*1983 [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]], [[Italy]]
*1984 [[Chamonix]], [[France]] (Women)
*1985 [[Ruhpolding]], [[West Germany]] (Men) and [[Egg am Etzel]] (near [[Einsiedeln, Switzerland|Einsiedeln]]), [[Switzerland]] (Women)
*1986 [[Oslo]], [[Norway]] (Men) and [[Falun]], [[Sweden]] (Women)
*1987 [[Lake Placid, New York]], [[United States|USA]] (Men) and [[Lahti]], [[Finland]] (Women)
*1988 [[Chamonix]], [[France]] (Women)
*1989 [[Feistritz]], [[Austria]] (first joint Men+Women BWCH)
*1990 [[Minsk]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]]; [[Oslo]], [[Norway]]; and [[Kontiolahti]], [[Finland]]
*1991 [[Lahti]], [[Finland]]
*1992 [[Novosibirsk]], [[Russia]] (Team)
*1993 [[Borovetz]], [[Bulgaria]]
*1994 [[Canmore]], [[Canada]] (Team)
*1995 [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]], [[Italy]]
*1996 [[Ruhpolding]], [[Germany]]
*1997 [[Brezno|Brezno-Osrblie]], [[Slovakia]]
*1998 [[Pokljuka]], [[Slovenia]] (Pursuit) and [[Hochfilzen]], [[Austria]] (Team)
*1999 [[Kontiolahti]], [[Finland]] and [[Oslo]], [[Norway]]
*2000 [[Oslo]], [[Norway]] and [[Lahti]], [[Finland]]
*2001 [[Pokljuka]], [[Slovenia]]
*2002 [[Oslo]], [[Norway]] (Mass start)
*2003 [[Khanty-Mansiysk]], [[Russia]]
*2004 [[Oberhof, Germany]]
*[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]] [[Hochfilzen]], [[Austria]], and [[Khanty-Mansiysk]], [[Russia]] (K-M: Mixed Relay)<br>(Hochfilzen is actually less than 20 km away from [[Saalfelden]],<br>the venue of the first ever BWCH, held in 1958.)
Upcoming:
*2006 [[Pokljuka]], [[Slovenia]] [http://www.biathlonworld.com/eng/events/page_000951.htm (WWW)] (Mixed Relay; to be held 12 March)
*2007 [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]], [[Italy]] [http://www.biathlon-antholz.it/en/biathlon2007/index.asp (WWW)]
*2008 [[Östersund]], [[Sweden]] [http://www.ostersund2008.se/index.asp?lang=en (WWW)]
*2009 [[Yongpyong]], [[Pyeongchang County|PyeongChang]], [[South Korea]] [http://www.pyeongchang2014.org/eng/html/sub3/sub3_03.html (WWW)]<!--Until a dedicated website has been created. --Wernher-->
== Men ==
''[[Romanization#Cyrillic|Romanization]] of [[Cyrillic alphabet]]-based names follows the [[Biathlon#Governing body|IBU]]'s athlete records''.
''See the [[List of IOC country codes]] for expansions of country abbreviations.''
=== Individual (20 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1958]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
|1958
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Adolf Wiklund]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olle Gunneriusson]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Butakov]]|URS}}
|-
|1959
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Melanin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Dimitri Sokolov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Agge]]|SWE}}
|-
|1961
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kalevi Huuskoen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Privalov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Paavo Repo]]|FIN}}
|-
|1962
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Melanin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Antti Tyrväinen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valentin Pshenitsyn]]|URS}}
|-
|1963
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Melanin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Antti Tyrväinen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Hannu Posti]]|FIN}}
|-
|1965
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olav Jordet]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolai Puzanov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Antti Tyrväinen]]|FIN}}
|-
|1966
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Jon Istad]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Josef Sobczak]]|POL}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Gundartsev]]|URS}}
|-
|1967
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Mamatov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Stanislav Szozepaniak]]|POL}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Jon Istad]]|NOR}}
|-
|1969
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Rinnat Safin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magnar Solberg]]|NOR}}
|-
|1970
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tor Svendsberget]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Mamatov]]|URS}}
|-
|1971
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Dieter Speer]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magnar Solberg]]|NOR}}
|-
|1973
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Gennadiy Kovalev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tor Svendsberget]]|NOR}}
|-
|1974
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Juhani Suutarinen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[George Girnitsa]]|ROM}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tor Svendsberget]]|NOR}}
|-
|1975
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Heikki Ikola]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.|Nikolay Kruglov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Esko Saira]]|FIN}}
|-
|1977
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Heikki Ikola]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sigleif Johansen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|-
|1978
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Odd Lirhus]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eberhard Rösch]]|GDR}}
|-
|1979
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Klaus Siebert]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sigleif Johansen]]|NOR}}
|-
|1981
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Heikki Ikola]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Erkki Antila]]|FIN}}
|-
|1982
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Terje Krokstad]]|NOR}}
|-
|1983
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Peter Angerer]]|FRG}}
|-
|1985
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Juri Kazhkarov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tapio Piipponen]]|FIN}}
|-
|1986
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[André Sehmisch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alfred Eder]]|AUT}}
|-
|1987
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Josh Thompson]]|USA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Jan Matous]]|TCH}}
|-
|1989
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Gisle Fenne]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Fritz Fischer (biathlete)|Fritz Fischer]]|FRG}}
|-
|1990
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anatoliy Zdanovich]]|URS}}
|-
|1991
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Popov (biathlete)|Alexander Popov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|-
|1993
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Andreas Zingerle]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|RUS}}
|-
|1995
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tomasz Sikora]]|POL}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Jon Åge Tyldum]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Oleg Ryzhenkov]]|BLR}}
|-
|1996
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|{{fl |
<page>
<title>Anastasius III</title>
<id>1744</id>
<revision>
<id>15900209</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-06T14:14:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Anastasius III]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anastasius IV</title>
<id>1745</id>
<revision>
<id>15900210</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-25T17:25:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eclecticology</username>
<id>372</id>
</contributor>
<comment>change to redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Pope Anastasius IV]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anaximenes of Lampsacus</title>
<id>1746</id>
<revision>
<id>28108524</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T11:41:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anaximenes of Lampsacus''' (fl. [[380 BC|380]] - [[320 BC]]), [[Hellenistic Greece|Greek]] [[rhetoric]]ian and historian, was a favourite of [[Alexander the Great]], whom he accompanied in his Persian campaigns. He wrote histories of [[Greece]] and of [[Philip of Macedon]], and an epic on Alexander (fragments in Muller, ''Scriptores Rerum Alexandri Magni''.) As a rhetorician, he was a determined opponent of
[[Isocrates]] and his school. The ''Rhetorica ad Alexandrum'' ("Address to Alexander"), traditionally included among the works of [[Aristotle]], is now generally admitted to be by Anaximenes, although some consider it a much later production.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[hu:Anaximenész (író)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anastasius</title>
<id>1747</id>
<revision>
<id>26556922</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-26T20:40:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: de, eo, hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anastasius''' is part of the name of:
*[[Pope Anastasius]]:
**[[Pope Anastasius I]] -- Pope from 399-401
**[[Pope Anastasius II]] -- Pope from 496-498
**[[Pope Anastasius III]] -- Pope from 911-913
**[[Pope Anastasius IV]] -- Pope from 1153 to 1154
*[[Anastasius I of the Byzantine Empire]] (c. 430-518) -- Roman emperor
*[[Anastasius II of the Byzantine Empire]] (d. 721) -- Roman emperor in the East
*[[Anastasius (patriarch)|Anastasius]] -- [[Patriarch]] of [[Constantinople]] from 730-754
*[[Anastasius Bibliothecarius]] (c.810-879) -- [[librarian]] of the [[Church of Rome]], scholar and statesman
* [[Anton Alexander Graf von Auersperg]] (1806-1876) -- Austrian poet who wrote under the pseudonym of '''Anastasius Grün'''.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Anastasius]]
[[eo:Anastazio (vira nomo)]]
[[hu:Anasztáz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anaximenes of Miletus</title>
<id>1748</id>
<revision>
<id>39235747</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T19:20:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Schaengel89</username>
<id>221783</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anaximenes.png|thumb|right|180px|Anaximenes of Miletus]]
'''Anaximenes''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]]: &#902;&#957;&#945;&#958;&#953;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#951;&#962;) of Miletus ([[585 BC]] - [[525 BC]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] from the latter half of the [[6th century BC|6th century]], probably a younger contemporary of [[Anaximander]], whose pupil or friend he is said to have been.
He held that the [[Air (classical element)|air]], with its variety of contents, its universal presence, its vague associations in popular fancy with the phenomena of life and growth, is the source of all that exists. Everything is air at different degrees of density, and under the influence of heat, which expands, and of cold, which contracts its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of existence. The process is gradual, and takes place in two directions, as heat or cold predominates. In this way was formed a broad disk of earth, floating on the circumambient air. Similar condensations produced the sun and stars; and the flaming state of these bodies is due to the velocity of their motions. He states:
"Just as our soul, being air, holds us together, so do breath and air encompass the whole world."
What makes the three [[Miletus|milesic]] philsophers, [[Thales]], [[Anaximander]] and Anaximenes, stand out is that the theoretical human has become a reality. The way of thinking has in its basic form moved away from the mythological thinking (or ''mythos'') and into the domain of the theoretical thinking (or ''logos''). From now on it is about explaining the universal and the general. Everything in the universe can now be approached by the thoughts of humans. This notably influenced the Pythagoreans.
''See also:'' [[philosophy]]
== Reference ==
* {{1911}}
{{Presocratics}}
[[Category:585 BC births]]
[[Category:525 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]]
[[bg:Анаксимен]]
[[bn:মাইলেটাস-এর এনাক্সিমেনিস]]
[[bs:Anaksimen]]
[[ca:Anaxímenes]]
[[da:Anaximenes]]
[[de:Anaximenes]]
[[el:Αναξιμένης]]
[[es:Anaxímenes]]
[[eu:Anaximenes]]
[[fa:آناکسیمن میلتوسی]]
[[fr:Anaximène]]
[[gl:Anaxímenes de Mileto]]
[[hr:Anaksimen]]
[[id:Anaximenes]]
[[it:Anassimene di Mileto]]
[[he:אנכסימנס]]
[[la:Anaximenes]]
[[nl:Anaximenes]]
[[ja:アナクシメネス]]
[[no:Anaximenes]]
[[nn:Anaximenes frå Milet]]
[[pl:Anaksymenes]]
[[pt:Anaxímenes de Mileto]]
[[ro:Anaximene]]
[[ru:Анаксимен]]
[[sk:Anaximenes]]
[[sl:Anaksimen]]
[[sv:Anaximenes]]
[[zh:阿那克西美尼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ancus Marcius</title>
<id>1749</id>
<revision>
<id>41860781</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:07:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elwikipedista</username>
<id>90304</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[es:Anco Marcio]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ancus Marcius''' (r. [[640 BC]]-[[616 BC]]), fourth of the [[Kings of Rome]], and possibly legendary. Like [[Numa Pompilius|Numa]], his reputed grandfather, he was a friend of peace and religion, but was obliged to make war to defend his territories. He conquered the [[Latin_(disambiguation) | Latins]], and a number of them he settled on the [[Aventine Hill]] formed the origin of the [[Plebeians]]. He fortified the [[Janiculum]], threw a wooden bridge across the [[Tiber]], the [[pons sublicius]], founded the port of [[Ostia]], established salt-works and built a prison which was founded in 625 B.C. and was used to hold people until they decided what to do with them. Before this time, a popular punishment was to exile people.
Ancus Marcius is merely a duplicate of Numa, as is shown by his second name, Numa Marcius, the confidant and pontifex of Numa, being no other than [[Numa Pompilius]] himself, represented as priest. The identification with Ancus is shown by the legend which makes the latter a bridge-builder (pontifex), the constructor of the first wooden bridge over the Tiber. It is in the exercise of his priestly functions that the resemblance is most clearly shown. Like Numa, Ancus died a natural death. He was succeeded by [[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[King of Rome]]|before=[[Tullus Hostilius]]|after=[[Tarquinius Priscus]]|years=641&ndash;616}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:616 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
[[Category:Roman Kingdom]]
[[de:Ancus Marcius]]
[[es:Anco Marcio]]
[[fr:Ancus Martius]]
[[hr:Anko Marcije]]
[[it:Anco Marzio]]
[[he:אנקוס מארקיוס]]
[[la:Ancus Marcius]]
[[nl:Ancus Martius]]
[[pt:Anco Márcio]]
[[ru:Анк Марций]]
[[fi:Ancus Marcius]]
[[sv:Ancus Marcius]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andaman Islands</title>
<id>1750</id>
<revision>
<id>39665817</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T00:57:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Khoikhoi</username>
<id>657950</id>
</contributor>
<comment>upload the images yourself - don't add links to your own website</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Andamanen(Satellitenaufnahme).jpg|right|thumb|250px|Satellite photo of the Andaman Islands]]
The '''Andaman Islands''' are a group of [[island]]s in the [[Bay of Bengal]], and are part of the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] [[Union Territory]] of [[India]]. [[Port Blair]] is the chief community on the islands, and the administrative center of the Union Territory. The Andaman Islands form a single [[Districts of India|administrative district]] within the Union Territory, the [[Andaman district]] (the [[Nicobar district]] was separated and established as a new district in [[1974]]). The [[population]] of the Andamans was 314,084 in 2001.
==Physical Geography==
There are approximately 550 islands in the group, 26 of which are inhabited. They are located 950 [[kilometre|km]] from the mouth of the [[Hooghly River]], 193 km from [[Cape Negrais]] in [[Myanmar]], the nearest point of the mainland, and 547 km from the northern extremity of [[Sumatra]]. The length of the island chain is 352 km and its greatest width is 51 km. The total land area of the Andamans is 6408 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]].
The five chief islands over a distance of 251 km, are known collectively as [[Great Andaman]]. These are from north to south, [[North Andaman]], [[Middle Andaman]], [[South Andaman]], [[Baratang]] and [[Rutland Island]]. Four narrow straits part these islands, [[Austin Strait]], between Nor |
cyclopedia) [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=225&letter=J&search=Jeremiah Book of Jeremiah article]
* Till, Farrell [http://www.infidels.org/library/magazines/tsr/1990/4/4jerem90.html The Jeremiah Dilemma] The Skeptical Review, No. 4 (1990)
{{Eastons}}
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}
[[Category:Nevi'im|Jeremiah, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Jeremiah]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets|Jeremiah]]
[[cs:Kniha Jeremjáš]]
[[de:Buch Jeremia]]
[[fr:Livre de Jérémie]]
[[ko:예레미야 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Yeremia]]
[[he:ספר ירמיהו]]
[[jv:Yeremia]]
[[nl:Jeremia]]
[[ja:エレミヤ書]]
[[nn:Jeremias bok]]
[[pl:Księga Jeremiasza]]
[[pt:Livro de Jeremias]]
[[sk:Jeremiáš]]
[[fi:Jeremian kirja]]
[[sv:Jeremia]]
[[zh:耶利米書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Isaiah</title>
<id>4364</id>
<revision>
<id>41874367</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:38:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JGF Wilks</username>
<id>740658</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reverting to my previous edition. The changes by 12.96.64.125 introduce POV, also, the issues are addressed on the linked page Matt 1:23</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
'''Isaiah''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] &#1497;&#64298;&#1506;&#1497;&#1492;&#1493; ''Yeshayahu'' or ''Y&#601;&scaron;a&lsquo;&#259;y&#257;hû'') is a book of the Jewish [[Hebrew Bible]] as well as the Christian [[Old Testament]], containing prophecies attributed to [[Isaiah]]. This book is often seen by scholars as being divided into at least two sections. The first section, consisting of chapters 1-39, is generally accepted as being written by the prophet Isaiah of [[Jerusalem]], or by his followers who took down his words. The second section, chapters 40-66, is of more debatable origin, as will be described further below.
Isaiah’s messages assume we know something of the rest of the Bible, particularly the earlier books of the [[Old Testament]]. He affirms that God is determined to take and keep a people for himself. Isaiah sees this as self-evident, seeing as God bothered with an unattractive bunch of slaves in Egypt, who incessantly grumbled while he was rescuing them. The descendents were no better - they were the thankless unfaithful men and women of Isaiah’s time. It is only the covenant love of God that explains it.
God has determined to save and no one can stop him from doing it. He has chosen a people to praise and serve him, a people he calls out of bondage into a loving relationship with him. God has committed himself to these people and so they have hope who remain faithful to him (Isaiah 54:10 declares God’s steadfast resolve). The doctrine of election arises again in Isaiah. There is also the doctrine of the remnant – not all Israel are of Israel (see Isaiah 1:9 for example). Those who remain faithful are very few, like a flag-pole on a hilltop (Isaiah 30:17), or the stump of a tree that has been chopped down (6:13), gleanings or the few olives left at the top of a tree (17:6). But God will never cast his elect away (41:8-9, or 42:18-44:5).
== Content ==
The first 39 chapters of Isaiah consist primarily of prophecies of the judgments awaiting nations that are persecuting [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. These nations include Babylon, Assyria, Philistia, Moab, Syria, [[Israel]] (the northern kingdom), Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, and Phoenicia. The prophecies concerning them can be summarized as saying that [[Tetragrammaton|God]] is the God of the whole earth, and that nations which think of themselves as secure in their own power and might will be conquered by other nations, at [[Tetragrammaton|God]]'s command.
The judgments, however, are not only against those who persecute Isaiah's country, [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. Chapters 1-5 and 28-29 prophesy judgment against [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] itself. [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] thinks itself safe because of its covenant relationship with [[Tetragrammaton|God]], the God of all the earth. However, [[Tetragrammaton|God]] tells [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], through Isaiah, that the covenant cannot protect them when they have broken it by idolatry, the worship of other gods, and by acts of injustice and cruelty, which oppose [[Tetragrammaton|God]]'s law.
Some exceptions to this overall foretelling of doom do occur, throughout the early chapters of the book. Chapter 6 describes Isaiah's call to be a prophet of [[Tetragrammaton|God]]. Chapters 35-39 provide historical material about King [[Hezekiah]] and his triumph of faith in [[Tetragrammaton|God]].
Chapters 24-34, while too complex to characterize easily, are primarily concerned with prophecies of a "[[Messiah]]," a person anointed or given power by God, and of the [[Messiah]]'s kingdom, where justice and righteousness will reign. This section is seen by Jews as describing an actual king, a descendant of their great king, David, who will make [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] a great kingdom and [[Jerusalem]] a truly holy city. It is traditionally seen by [[Christianity|Christians]] as describing [[Jesus]], who was descended from David, and who, they believe, began a non-political kingdom of justice which will one day encompass the whole earth. At present, this kingdom has more reality in non-physical planes than in the material world. A number of modern scholars believe that it describes, in somewhat idealized terms, King [[Hezekiah]], who was a descendant of David, and who tried to make [[Jerusalem]] into a holy city.
The prophecy continues with what some have called “The Book of Comfort” which begins in chapter 40 and completes the writing. In the first eight chapters of this book of comfort, Isaiah prophesies the deliverance of the [[Jew|Jews]] from the hands of the Babylonians and restoration of [[Israel]] as a unified nation in the land promised to them by [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]. Isaiah reaffirms that the [[Jew|Jews]] are indeed the chosen people of [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] in chapter 44 and that [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is the only God for the [[Jew|Jews]] as he will show his power over the gods of [[Babylon]] in due time in chapter 46. It is of much interest to note that in chapter 45:1, the Persian ruler [[Cyrus]] is named as the person of power who will overthrow the Babylonians and allow the return of [[Israel]] to their original land.
The remaining chapters of the book contain prophecies of the future glory of [[Zion]] under the rule of a righteous servant (52 & 54). There is much complex prophecy about this servant that is written in a very poetic language. Although there is still the mention of judgment of false worshippers and idolaters (65 & 66), the book ends with a message of hope of a righteous ruler who extends salvation to his righteous subjects living in the Lord’s kingdom on earth.
==Historical setting for Isaiah==
Isaiah lived during the late 8th and early 9th centuries BCE, which was a difficult period in the history of Jerusalem. He was part of the upper class but urged care of the downtrodden. At the end, he was loyal to King [[Hezekiah]], but disagreed with the King's attempts to forge alliances with Egypt and Babylon in response to the Assyrian threat.
Isaiah prophesied during the reigns of four kings -- Uzziah (Azariah), Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. Legend has it that he was martyred during the reign of Manasseh, who came to the throne in 687 BCE. That he is described as having ready access to the kings would suggest an aristocratic origin.
This was the time of the divided kingdom, with [[Israel]] in the north and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] in the south. There was prosperity for both kingdoms during Isaiah’s youth with little foreign interference. Jeroboam II ruled in the north and Uzziah in the south. The small kingdoms of Palestine, as well as Syria, were under the influence of [[Egypt]]. However, in 745 BCE, Tiglath-pileser III came to the throne of Assyria. He was interested in Assyrian expansionism, especially to the west. Tiglath-pileser took Samaria and a lot of Galilee in 732. Shalmenezer V (727-722) and then, Sargon II (722-705) attacked Samaria. Samaria fell in 722, this marking the end of the Northern Kingdom of [[Israel]] forever, as its population was taken into exile and dispersed amongst Assyrian provinces. It is as a result of this exile that reference is made to [[Lost Ten Tribes|Ten Lost Tribes]] of [[Israel]]. [[Egypt]] recovered to a degree around the end of the century and Babylon exerted some independence as well. Because of this, [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and other states rebelled against Assyria, only to have Sennacherib (705-681) invade and capture 46 Judean towns. Isaiah reports that [[Jerusalem]] was spared when God miraculously struck down the Assyrian army besieging it.
===The Syro-Ephraimite War===
Because of the threat from Tiglath-pileser, the leaders of Syria and Israel tried to force [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] to ally with them around 734 BCE. Ahaz was on the throne of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] then. He was advised by Isaiah to trust in the Lord, but, instead, he called to Assyria for help. Pekah of [[Israel]] and Rezin of Syria attacked [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and inflicted damage on it before Assyria came to its aid, but there would be more serious religious consequences of Ahaz’s refusal to accept the Lord’s guidance through Isaiah.
===Fall of Syria and Samaria===
Damascus, capital of Syria, was taken by the Assyrians in 732. Tiglath –pileser died in 727, raising false hopes for the Palestinian countries. Ahaz died a year later. Isaiah warned Philistia and the other countries not to revolt against Assyria. Hoshea, then king of Samaria, withheld tribute to Assyria. Consequently, Shalmenezer V laid siege to Samaria for 3 years, and his successor, Sargon II, took the city and deported 27,000 |
anged relatively little since the publication of the ''[[Fundamento de Esperanto]]'' ("Foundation of Esperanto"), a number of reform projects have been proposed over the years, starting with [[Reformed Esperanto|Zamenhof's proposals in 1894]] and [[Ido]] in 1907. Several later constructed languages, such as [[Novial]] and [[Fasile]], were based on Esperanto.
==See also==
{{Esperanto}}
*Esperanto language
**[[Esperanto pronunciation|Pronunciation guide]]
**[[Esperanto orthography|Orthography]]
**[[Esperanto phonology|Phonology]]
**[[Esperanto vocabulary|Vocabulary and word-building]]
**[[Esperanto grammar|Grammar]]
**[[Kurso de Esperanto]]
*[[History of Esperanto]]
**[[Proto-Esperanto]]
**[[Esperantido|Offshoots of Esperanto]]
**[[World Congress of Esperanto|World Congresses]]
*[[Propaedeutic value of Esperanto|Educational value of Esperanto]]
*[[Esperanto as an international language]]
*[[Esperanto culture]]
**[[Esperanto film|Film]]
**[[Esperanto flag|Flag]]
**[[Esperanto library|Libraries]]
**[[Esperanto literature|Literature]]
***''[[Ĝangalo]]'' (the biggest news portal in Esperanto)
***''[[Monato]]'' (a monthly world news magazine)
**[[Esperanto music|Music]]
***''[[La Espero]]'' (Esperanto anthem)
**[[World Congress of Esperanto|The World Congress]]
**[[Plouézec International Meetings]]
*[[Esperanto in English-language media]]
== References ==
* [http://katalogo.uea.org/index.php?inf=4006 ''Ludovikologia dokumentaro I''] Tokyo: Ludovikito, 1991. Facsimile reprints of the ''Unua Libro'' in Russian, Polish, French, German, English and Swedish, with the earliest Esperanto dictionaries for those languages.
* [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/enhavo.php Fundamento de Esperanto]. HTML reprint of 1905 ''Fundamento'', from the Academy of Esperanto.
* Auld, William. ''La Fenomeno Esperanto'' ("The Esperanto Phenomenon"). Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1988.
* Blanke, Detlev: ''Internationale Plansprachen. Eine Einführung'' ("International Planned Languages. An Introduction"), Berlin: Akademie-Verlag 1985
* Butler, Montague C. ''Step by Step in Esperanto''. ELNA 1965/1991. ISBN 0939785013
* Culbert, Sidney S. [http://www.panix.com/~dwolff/docs/ Three letters about his methodology for estimating the number of Esperanto speakers], scanned and HTMLized by David Wolff.
* DeSoto, Clinton (1936). ''200 Meters and Down''. West Hartford, Connecticut, USA: [[American Radio Relay League]], p. 92.
* Everson, Michael. [http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/esperanto.pdf The Alphabets of Europe: Esperanto {PDF}]. Evertype, 2001.
* Harlow, Don. [http://www.webcom.com/~donh/eaccess/eaccess.book.html The Esperanto Book]. Self-published on the web (1995-96).
* Lindstedt, Jouko. "Re: Kiom?" (posting). [http://www.helsinki.fi/~jslindst/denask-l.html DENASK-L@helsinki.fi], [[22 April]] [[1996]].
* Piron, Claude: [http://www.claude-piron.ch/hidden-perverse-effects.html "The hidden perverse effect of the current system of international communication"], published lecture notes
* Sikosek, Ziko M. ''Esperanto Sen Mitoj'' ("Esperanto without Myths"). Second edition. Antwerp: Flandra Esperanto-Ligo, 2003.
* [[John C. Wells|Wells, John]]. ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'' ("Linguistic aspects of Esperanto"). Second edition. Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1989.
* Williams, N. (1965) 'A language teaching experiment', ''Canadian Modern Language Review'' 22.1: 26-28
* Wolff, David T. [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/soc.culture.esperanto/browse_thread/thread/9dbd2f14213a811c/b155141ccf91c6cc?q=4jbo0b$g31@salvelinus.brooktrout.com&_done=%2Fgroups%3Fq%3D4jbo0b$g31@salvelinus.brooktrout.com%26&_doneTitle=Back+to+Search&&d#b155141ccf91c6cc Posting to soc.culture.esperanto of [[27 March]] [[1996]]] quoting Dr. Sidney Culbert on his then unpublished research on the number of Esperanto speakers.
== External links ==
;Information on Esperanto
{{InterWiki|code=eo}}
{{wikibooks}}
* [http://www.uea.org/info/angle/an_ghisdatigo.html An Update on Esperanto] by the [[World Esperanto Association]]
* [http://esperanto.net Esperanto.net: information in 57 languages]
* [http://members.aol.com/sylvanz/gvcont.htm Esperanto: A Language for the Global Village] by [[Sylvan Zaft]]
* [http://www.esperanto-chicago.org/key.htm A Key to the International Language] compiled by [[R. Kent Jones|Kent Jones]] and [[Christopher Zervic]]
* [http://www.homunculus.com/babel/aesperanto.html Blueprints for Babel: Esperanto] - Commentary and grammatical summary of Esperanto and Riismo, with glossary and links
* [http://www.proz.com/topic/23774 From a Nobel Nominee who writes in Esperanto]
* [http://claudepiron.free.fr/ Articles on Esperanto and International communication]
* [http://esperanto.oftheinter.net Lots of links for Esperanto]
;Dictionaries
* [http://purl.org/NET/voko/revo/ Reta Vortaro], an Esperanto dictionary
* [http://www.notam02.no/~hcholm/altlang/ht/Esperanto.html The Alternative Esperanto Dictionary]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Esperanto-english/ Esperanto – English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] – the Rosetta Edition.
*[http://www.lingvo.org/traduku Traduku: Online Machine Translator]
*[[Wiktionary:Category:Esperanto language]]
* [http://jvortaro.berlios.de/ jVortaro], an Esperanto dictionary written in Java
;Esperanto courses
* [http://www.lernu.net/ Lernu.net] – see also [[Lernu!]]
* [http://pacujo.net/esperanto/course/ Free Esperanto Course] – E-mail correspondence course
* [http://www.cursodeesperanto.com.br Kurso de Esperanto] – Software and e-mail correspondence course (multilingual)
* [http://www.esperanto-panorama.net/ Esperanto - Panorama]
* [http://www.monda.org/nesto/ Projekto NESTO] – Tutoring courses of Esperanto in several languages.
;Esperanto organizations
* [http://www.uea.org Universal Esperanto Association]
* [http://www.esperanto-gb.org Esperanto Association of Britain]
* [http://www.esperanto.ca/kea/index.htm Canadian Esperanto Association]
* [http://www.esperanto.org.au/ Australian Esperanto Association]
* [http://www.esperanto.org.nz/ New Zealand Esperanto Association]
* [http://www.esperanto-usa.org/ Esperanto League for North America] – US national organization
* [http://www.esperanto.org.br/ Brazilian Esperanto League] – Brazil's national organization
* [http://www.esperanto.gov.uca.cc UCA Special Commission on Esperanto Initiatives]
* [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org Akademio de Esperanto]
* [http://www.forst.uni-muenchen.de/EXT/AIS/index.html Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj San-Marino] - International Academy of the Sciences
;News in Esperanto
* [http://internacia.tv/ Internacia Televido] - First television channel completely in Esperanto
* [http://gxangalo.com/modules/noticoj/ Ĝangalo - Notico-Indekso] - News index from the biggest news portal in Esperanto
* [http://raporto.info/ Raporto - Kie la mondo raportas al vi] - news site
* [http://es.chinabroadcast.cn/ China Radio International]
* [http://terra-esperanto.blog.ca/ TERRA-Esperanto expedition]
;Portal
* [http://gxangalo.com/ Ĝangalo - La mondo en Esperanto] - The World in Esperanto (the biggest news portal in Esperanto)
* [http://esperanto.china.org.cn/world/index.htm China Interreta Informa Centro] - China's Official Gateway to News & Information in Esperanto
* [http://esperantomondo.net/ Esperantomondo] - Esperanto forum
;Entertainment
* [http://libroj.oftheinter.net/trac Esperanto Picture Books for Children]
;Criticism
* [http://www.xibalba.demon.co.uk/jbr/ranto/ Learn Not to Speak Esperanto] by Justin B. Rye
* [http://www.rickharrison.com/language/bloated.html Is Esperanto's Vocabulary Bloated?]
[[Category:Esperanto]]
[[Category:International auxiliary languages|Esperanto]]
[[Category:Constructed languages]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
{{Link FA|pl}}
{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
{{Link FA|fi}}
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|sv}}
{{Link FA|pl}}
[[af:Esperanto]]
[[als:Esperanto]]
[[am:ኤስፔራንቶ]]
[[ar:إسبرانتو]]
[[ast:Esperantu]]
[[bg:Есперанто]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sè-kài-gí]]
[[be:Эспэранта]]
[[br:Esperanteg]]
[[ca:Esperanto]]
[[cs:Esperanto]]
[[cy:Esperanto]]
[[da:Esperanto]]
[[de:Esperanto]]
[[et:Esperanto]]
[[el:Εσπεράντο]]
[[es:Esperanto]]
[[eo:Esperanto]]
[[eu:Esperanto]]
[[fa:اسپرانتو]]
[[fr:Espéranto]]
[[fy:Esperanto]]
[[ga:Esperanto]]
[[gl:Esperanto]]
[[ko:에스페란토]]
[[hi:एस्पेरान्तो]]
[[hr:Esperanto]]
[[io:Esperanto]]
[[id:Bahasa Esperanto]]
[[ia:Esperanto]]
[[is:Esperantó]]
[[it:Esperanto]]
[[he:אספרנטו]]
[[sw:Kiesperanto]]
[[ku:Esperanto]]
[[la:Esperanto]]
[[lt:Esperanto]]
[[li:Esperanto]]
[[jbo:esperant]]
[[hu:Eszperantó nyelv]]
[[ms:Bahasa Esperanto]]
[[nl:Esperanto]]
[[nds:Esperanto]]
[[ja:エスペラント]]
[[no:Esperanto]]
[[nn:Esperanto]]
[[oc:Esperanto]]
[[os:Эсперанто]]
[[pl:Esperanto]]
[[pt:Esperanto]]
[[ro:Esperanto]]
[[ru:Эсперанто]]
[[sco:Esperanto]]
[[sq:Gjuha Esperanto]]
[[sh:Esperanto]]
[[simple:Esperanto]]
[[sk:Esperanto]]
[[sl:Esperanto]]
[[sr:Есперанто]]
[[fi:Esperanto]]
[[sv:Esperanto]]
[[th:ภาษาเอสเปอรันโต]]
[[tr:Esperanto]]
[[uk:Есперанто]]
[[vo:Esperanto]]
[[zh:世界语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>English language</title>
<id>9249</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42109297</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:02:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magicalsaumy</username>
<id>504515</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Characteristics of intonation */ Added more about stress</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=English
|familycolor=Indo-European
|pronunciation=ˈɪŋglɪʃ
|states= [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[New Zealand]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[India]], [[Liberia]], [[Malta]], [[South Africa]] and other countries<br>(used as international language)
|spea |
l player
{{col-break}}
* [[André Hazes]] - singer
* [[Freddy Heineken]] - beer magnate
* [[Meindert Hobbema]] - painter
* [[Jozef Israëls]] - painter
* [[Wim Kok]] - former prime minister
* [[Karel Miljon]] - boxer
* [[Harry Mulisch]] - writer
* [[Multatuli]] - writer
* [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]] - painter
* [[Frank Rijkaard]] - football player
* [[Baruch Spinoza]] - philosopher
* [[Paul Verhoeven]] - film director
{{col-end}}
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
# {{note|population}} [http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/5425/ City of Amsterdam statistics service in Dutch]
</div>
==External links==
{{commons|Amsterdam}}
* {{wikitravelpar|Amsterdam}}
* [http://amsterdam.nl/ Official website of the city of Amsterdam] ([http://www.iamsterdam.com/ English Version])
{{Province North Holland}}
{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}
[[Category:Amsterdam| ]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe|Netherlands, Amsterdam]]
[[Category:Cities in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]
[[Category:North Holland]]
[[af:Amsterdam (Nederland)]]
[[ar:أمستردام]]
[[be:Амстэрдам]]
[[bg:Амстердам]]
[[bs:Amsterdam]]
[[ca:Amsterdam]]
[[cs:Amsterdam]]
[[da:Amsterdam]]
[[de:Amsterdam]]
[[et:Amsterdam]]
[[el:Άμστερνταμ]]
[[es:Amsterdam]]
[[eo:Amsterdamo]]
[[fr:Amsterdam]]
[[fy:Amsterdam]]
[[gl:Ámsterdam - Amsterdam]]
[[ko:암스테르담]]
[[hr:Amsterdam]]
[[io:Amsterdam]]
[[id:Amsterdam]]
[[is:Amsterdam]]
[[it:Amsterdam]]
[[he:אמסטרדם]]
[[csb:Amsterdam]]
[[lv:Amsterdama]]
[[la:Amstelodamum]]
[[lt:Amsterdamas]]
[[lb:Amsterdam]]
[[li:Amsterdam]]
[[na:Amsterdam]]
[[nl:Amsterdam]]
[[ja:アムステルダム]]
[[no:Amsterdam]]
[[nn:Amsterdam]]
[[pl:Amsterdam]]
[[pt:Amsterdão]]
[[ro:Amsterdam]]
[[ru:Амстердам]]
[[scn:Amsterdam]]
[[simple:Amsterdam]]
[[sk:Amsterdam]]
[[sl:Amsterdam]]
[[sr:Амстердам]]
[[fi:Amsterdam]]
[[sv:Amsterdam]]
[[tr:Amsterdam]]
[[uk:Амстердам]]
[[zh:阿姆斯特丹]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Museum of Work</title>
<id>846</id>
<revision>
<id>40357438</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:02:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Strykjärnet Motala ström Norrköping april 2005.jpg|thumb|200px|''The Iron'' is a famous 19th century landmark in central Norrköping]]
The '''Museum of Work''', or ''Arbetets museum'', is a [[museum]] located in [[Norrköping]], [[Sweden]]. The museum can be found in the 19th century building ''The Iron'' in the [[Motala ström]] river in central Norrköping.
''See also: [[List of museums in Sweden]], [[Culture of Sweden]]''
==External links==
*[http://www.arbetetsmuseum.se/ Museum of Work] - Official site
[[Category:Museums in Sweden]]
[[Category:Norrköping]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Automobile</title>
<id>847</id>
<revision>
<id>42122808</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:44:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.211.126.187</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Innovation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Car}}
[[Image:Automobiles.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A small variety of cars, the most popular kind of automobile.]]
An '''automobile''' is a [[wheel]]ed [[vehicle]] that carries its own [[motor]]. Different types of automobiles include cars, [[bus]]es, [[truck]]s, [[van]]s, and [[motorcycles]], with cars being the most popular. The term is derived from Greek 'autos' (''self'') and Latin 'movére' (''move''), referring to the fact that it 'moves by itself'. Earlier terms for automobile include '[[Brass Era car|horseless carriage]]' and 'motor car'. An automobile has seats for the [[driving|driver]] and, almost without exception, one or more passengers. It is the main source of [[transportation]] across the world.
[[As of 2005]] there are 500 million cars worldwide (0.074 per capita), of which 220 million are located in the [[United States]] (0.75 per capita).
==History==
{{main|History of the automobile}}
===The history of automobiles=== The modern automobile powered by the Otto gasoline engine was invented in Germany by [[Karl Benz]]. Even though Karl Benz is credited with the invention of the modern automobile, several other German engineers worked on building the first automobile at the same time. These inventors are: [[Karl Benz]] on [[July 3]], [[1886]] in [[Mannheim]], [[Gottlieb Daimler]] and [[Wilhelm Maybach]] in [[Stuttgart]] (also inventors of the first motor bike) and in 1888/89 [[Germany|German]]-[[Austrian]] inventor [[Siegfried Marcus]] in [[Vienna]], although Marcus didn't go beyond the prototype stage.
{{Automobile history eras}}
==='''Steam powered vehicles'''===
[[Steam-power]]ed self-propelled cars were devised in the late [[18th century]]. The first self-propelled car was built by [[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] in [[1769]], it could attain speeds of up to 6 km/h. In [[1771]] he designed another steam-driven car, which ran so fast that it rammed into a wall, producing the world’s first [[car accident]].
===The Internal Combustion Engine===
In 1806 [[Fransois Isaac de Rivaz]], a Swiss, designed the first [[internal combustion engine]] (sometimes abbreviated "ICE" today). He subsequently used it to develop the world’s first vehicle to run on such an engine, one that used a mixture of [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] to generate [[energy]]. It was not very successful, as was the case with the British inventor, Brown, and the American inventor, Morey, who produced clumsy IC-engine-powered vehicles about 1826.
Etienne Lenoir produced the first successful internal-combustion engine in 1860, and within a few years, about 400 were in operation in Paris. In about 1863, Lenoir installed his engine in a vehicle. It seems to have been powered by city lighting-gas in bottles, and was said by Lenoir to have "travelled slower than a man could walk, with breakdowns being frequent." Lenoir, in his patent of 1860, included the provision of a carburettor, so liquid fuel could be substituted for gas, particularly for mobile purposes, i.e., vehicles. Lenoir is said to have tested liquid fuel, such as alcohol, in his stationary engines; but it doesn't appear he used them in his vehicle. If he did, he most certainly didn't use gasoline, as this was not well-known and was considered a waste product.
The next innovation comes in the late 1860s, with [[Siegfried Marcus]], a German working in Vienna, Austria. He developed the idea of using gasoline as a fuel in a two-stroke internal-combustion engine. In 1870, he built a crude vehicle, with no seats, steering or brakes, but it was spectacular for one reason: it was the world's first internal-combustion-engine-powered vehicle fueled by gasoline. It was tested in Vienna in September of 1870. In 1888/1889, he built a second car, this one with seats, brakes and steering, and a four-stroke engine of his own design.
The four-stroke engine had already been written down and patented in 1862 by the Frenchman Beau de Rochas in a long-winded and rambling pamphlet. He printed about 300 copies of his pamphlet and they were distributed in Paris, but nothing came of this, with the patent expiring soon after and the pamphlet disappearing into total obscurity. In fact, hardly anyone knew of it to begin with. Beau de Rochas never built a single engine.
Most historians agree that Nikolaus Otto of Germany built the world's first four-stroke engine. He knew nothing of Beau de Rochas's patent or idea, and came upon the idea entirely on his own; in fact, he began thinking about it in 1861, but abandoned the idea until the mid-1870's. There is some evidence, although not conclusive, that one Christian Reithmann, an Austrian living in Germany, had built a four-stroke engine entirely on his own by 1873. Reithmann had been experimenting with IC-engines as early as 1852.
In 1883, Edouard Delamare-Deboutteville and Leon Malandin of France installed an internal-combustion engine powered by a tank of city gas on a tricycle. As they tested the vehicle, the tank hose came loose, resulting in an explosion. In 1884, Delamare-Deboutteville and Malandin built and patented a second vehicle. This one consisted of two four-stroke, liquid-fueled engines mounted to an old four-wheeled horse cart. The patent, and presumably the vehicle, contained many innovations, some of which wouldn't be used for decades. However, during the vehicle's first test, the frame broke apart, the vehicle literally "shaking itself to pieces," in Malandin's own words. No more vehicles were built by the two men, and their venture went completely unnoticed and their patent unexploited. No one else knew of the vehicles and experiments until years later.
Supposedly in the late 1870's, an Italian named Murnigotti patented the idea of installing an IC engine on a vehicle, although there is no evidence one was built. In 1884, Enrico Bernardi, another Italian, installed an IC engine on his son's tricycle. Although nothing more than a toy, it is said to have operated somewhat successfully in one source, but another says the engine's power was too feeble to make the vehicle move.
But if all of the above experiments hadn't taken place, the development of the automobile wouldn't have been retarded by so much as a moment, since they were unknown experiments that went no further than the testing stage. The internal-combustion-engined car really can be said to have begun with Benz and Daimler in 1886, for their vehicles were successful, they went into series-production, and they inspired others.
Benz, after building his first three-wheeled car in 1885, built improved versions in 1886 and 1887, and went into production in 1888 -- the world's first vehicle to do so. Approximately 25 were buil |
s===
Many people have modified brainfuck, often by adding commands, occasionally by removing them. Some of these variants have value, but they should be (and usually are) given different names and considered separate languages, much like C++ with relation to C. Many of these are listed below. However, there are also minor variants, formed possibly as a result of inattention, of which some of the more common are:
* forbidding, rather than ignoring, any non-command characters in brainfuck programs
* introducing a comment marker which comments out the rest of the line
* various alterations of the loop semantics, sometimes destroying Turing-completeness
* requiring a special character to mark the end of the program
==Languages based on brainfuck==
Because brainfuck is so simple, it is easy to make other programming languages based on it:
* Doublefuck has an additional array and eight additional instructions which perform brainfuck-identical operations on the second array. They are, in order: "^", "v", "/", "\", ":", ";", "{", and "}".
* [[PATH programming language|PATH]] (and [[SNUSP programming language|SNUSP]]) are combinations of brainfuck with [[Befunge]], a language which represents instructions as symbols in two-dimensional space.
* [[Brainfork]] is a multi-threaded version of brainfuck with an additional "Y" instruction to fork the current thread.
* [[Braintwist]] is a version of brainfuck that allows for [[self-modifying code]].
* [[THRAT]] uses two instructions to access brainfuck instructions on an [[opcode]] table.
* [[L00P]] has an implicit loop, removes the "[" and "]" looping instructions and adds ten others.
* [[Ook! programming language|Ook!]] reformats brainfuck's commands as combinations of "Ook." "Ook!" and "Ook?".
* [[COW programming language|COW]] reformats brainfuck's commands as various capitalisations of the word "Moo".
* [[Spoon programming language|Spoon]] uses a [[Huffman coding|Huffman coded]] set of brainfuck's instructions.
* [[L33t programming language|l33t]] adds networking capabilities. (Very loosely based).
* [[2L programming language|2L]]: based loosely on [[PATH programming language|PATH]] and Brainfuck, but has only two symbols.
* [http://www.rpi.edu/~hughes/boof/ Boolfuck] uses bits instead of bytes.
* [http://r.s.home.mindspring.com/F/ Fm languages] are program formulations of Turing machines, based on Böhm's (1964) language [[P prime prime|P&prime;&prime;]] (a formal equivalent to brainfuck with no i/o instructions); e.g. F2 edits an unbounded bit-string memory using + < > [ ] only.
* [http://www.parkscomputing.com/code/pbrain/] [[pbrain]], which adds procedures to Brainfuck.
* [http://www.greythumb.org/people/api/nanopond.html Nanopond] Nanopond is an [[artificial life]] [[virtual machine]] whose simple [[evolvable]] instruction set is loosely based on Brainfuck.
Hardware that may have been inspired by [[P prime prime|P&prime;&prime;]]:
* The Cosmac 1802 microprocessor has probably about as close a useful instruction set can get to brainfuck. It's got 16 16-bit registers, any one of which can be used as the program counter or the stack pointer (which corresponds to the pointer in brainfuck), and an accumulator. Arithmetic has to be performed be either moving one value to the stack, or moving the stack pointer temporarily to the value. The fun is compounded by the fact that there's no subroutine call instruction, you have to implement subroutine calls by leaving registers pointing to the call and return code and switch the program counter to those registers and back again.
==External links==
* [http://www.muppetlabs.com/~breadbox/bf/ Brian Raiter, Muppetlabs. '''Brainfuck: An Eight-Instruction Turing-Complete Programming Language'''] is a concise informational page with comments on portability.
* [http://esoteric.sange.fi/brainfuck/ Panu Kalliokoski. '''The Brainfuck Archive'''] has many brainfuck programs and implementations.
* [http://www.hevanet.com/cristofd/brainfuck/ Daniel Cristofani. '''some brainfuck fluff'''] has a complete brainfuck reference, implementations and an amazing collection of programs.
* [http://www.iwriteiam.nl/Ha_BF.html Frans Faase. '''Brainf***'''] is written from a mathematician's angle and has Turing-completeness proofs.
* [http://lilly.csoft.net/~jeffryj/programs/bf/index.html Jeffry Johnston. '''BF programs''', including Basic compiler and assembler]
* [http://alx2002.free.fr/. '''A Brainfuck tutorial''' in English and French].
* [http://www.bf-hacks.org/ Keymaker. '''bf-hacks.org'''] features a collection of brainfuck programs.
* [http://jonripley.com/i-fiction/games/LostKingdomBF.html '''Lost Kingdom BF'''] A conversational game written in brainfuck.
* [http://esolangs.org/wiki/Brainfuck_algorithms '''Brainfuck Algorithms'''] and code snippets
===Implementations===
====Software====
* [http://www.nada.kth.se/~matslina/awib/ Also Written In Brainfuck (awib)] is a brainfuck compiler written in brainfuck for [[Linux]] on [[i386]].
* [http://home.arcor.de/partusch/html_en/bfd.html '''Brainfucked'''] a small compatible [[open source]] compiler with syntax checking and code optimization for [[Microsoft Windows]]/[[DOS]].
<!-- BROKEN LINK * [http://www.brainfuck.ca Brainfuck.ca '''GPLed Brainfuck interpreters and source converters'''] -->
* [http://www.swapped.cc/bf BFF] is very fast optimizing interpreter written in portable C
* [http://www.4mhz.de/ Brainfuck development environment with integrated debugger (IDE) for Windows]
* [http://alephmobius.8m.com/dl.html The download page with '''Blue Fern''', a brainfuck IDE]
* [http://www.soulsphere.org/stuffage/bf.net/ Brainfuck.Net]
* [http://search.cpan.org/~jaldhar/Acme-Brainfuck-1.1.1/lib/Acme/Brainfuck.pm Acme::Brainfuck], a [[Perl]] module that permits brainfuck programs to be embedded in Perl.
* [http://brainphuck.si.kz '''BrainPhuck'''] is a [[PHP]] class featuring an optmizing parser, executor, debugger, PHP translator, and x86 compiler for brainfuck
* [http://www.hevanet.com/cristofd/brainfuck/di.html Minimalistic brainfuck interpreter in JavaScript], for people who do not want to spend ten minutes getting a compiler.
<!-- BROKEN INTERPRETER * [http://felipe.mfontoura.vilabol.uol.com.br/bfii.htm BFII] is a brainfuck Interpreter written in Java Script ([[Portuguese language|pt]]). -->
* [http://jtauber.com/blog/2006/03/01/brainf brainf.py], a [[Python_programming_language|Python]] implementation by [[James Tauber]].
====Hardware====
* [http://www.robos.org/?bfcomp Robert Östling. '''Brainfuck computer.''']
* [http://www.clifford.at/bfcpu/ Clifford Wolf. '''The Brainf*ck CPU''' and other brainfuck-related projects]
<!-- BROKEN * [http://martin.egy.nu/index.php?page=bfcomp '''A Brainfuck Computer With a Brainfuck CPU''']
BROKEN * [http://math-o.narod.ru/st/self10.pdf '''Self-interpreter in BF'''] -->
[[Category:Non-English-based programming languages]]
[[Category:Esoteric programming languages]]
[[ca:Brainfuck]]
[[cs:Brainfuck]]
[[de:Brainfuck]]
[[et:Brainfuck]]
[[es:Brainfuck]]
[[eo:Brainfuck (programlingvo)]]
[[fr:Brainfuck]]
[[ko:Brainfuck]]
[[is:Heilariðlun]]
[[it:Brainfuck]]
[[he:BF]]
[[hu:Brainfuck programozási nyelv]]
[[nl:Brainfuck]]
[[ja:Brainfuck]]
[[no:Brainfuck]]
[[pl:Brainfuck]]
[[pt:Brainfuck]]
[[ru:Brainfuck]]
[[sk:Brainfuck]]
[[fi:Brainfuck]]
[[sv:Brainfuck]]
[[zh:Brainfuck]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bookmarks</title>
<id>4088</id>
<revision>
<id>15902388</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-01T17:48:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bookmark]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benjamin Harrison</title>
<id>4089</id>
<revision>
<id>42006896</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:30:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bigboehmboy</username>
<id>215248</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Administration and Cabinet */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[President of the United States]]. For other uses, see [[Benjamin Harrison (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_President | name=President Benjamin Harrison
| nationality=american
| image=President Benjamin Harrison 1897.jpg
| order=23rd President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1889]]
| term_end=[[March 3]], [[1893]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->
| predecessor=[[Grover Cleveland]]
| successor=[[Grover Cleveland]]
| birth_date=[[August 20]], [[1833]]
| birth_place=[[North Bend, Ohio|North Bend]], [[Ohio]]
| death_date=[[March 13]], [[1901]]
| death_place=[[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]]
| spouse=[[Caroline Harrison|Caroline Scott Harrison]]
| party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| vicepresident=[[Levi P. Morton]]
}}
'''Benjamin Harrison VI''' ([[August 20]], [[1833]] &ndash; [[March 13]], [[1901]]) was the 23rd [[President of the United States]]. Serving one term from 1889 to 1893, he was from the state of [[Indiana]] and had previously served as a [[senator]] from that state.
==Biography==
A grandson of President [[William Henry Harrison]] and great-grandson of [[Benjamin Harrison V]], Benjamin was born at 8:57 pm, on Tuesday [[August 20]], [[1833]] in [[North Bend, Ohio|North Bend]], [[Hamilton County, Ohio]] to [[John Scott Harrison]] (later a U.S. [[Congressman]] from [[Ohio]]) and Elizabeth Ramsey Irwin. He attended [[Miami University]], [[Oxford, Ohio]], where he was a member of the [[fraternities and sororities|fraternity]] [[Phi Delta Theta]], (later in life, he joined a legal fraternity that would become [[D |
[[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]. The nominal suffix ''-o'' with a nominal root is redundant, but with an adjectival or verbal root it indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful). Likewise, the adjectival suffix ''-a'' is redundant with adjectival roots, but not with nominal or verbal roots: ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be'' with an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root mean ''to act as'' the noun, ''to use'' the noun, ''etc.'', depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (visually, by sight); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n'', which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin'', and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine''.)
Adjectives [[agreement|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). Zamenhof may have later regretted making this requirement, but it allows for the free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[Subject Object Verb|subject-object-verb]] or [[Verb Subject Object|verb-subject-object]] clauses:
:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).
Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways as well. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular,
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).
A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun it modifies does,
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).
Esperanto roots have an inherent part of speech, which needs to be kept in mind. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root, whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root. Change the grammatical suffix to ''-o'', and their superficially similar meanings diverge: ''broso'' (a brush, the name of an instrument) vs. ''kombo'' (a combing, the name of an action). Dictionaries help here by listing the roots as ''bros'''o''''' and ''komb'''i'''''. Changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action, ''kombo'' (a combing). For the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco'', as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o'': ''belo'' (beauty). However, the seemingly redundant form ''beleco'' is also acceptable and widely used.
Additionally, most verbs are inherently [[transitive]] or [[intransitive]]. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-igi'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝi'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).
Transitivity is covert in Esperanto. That is, it is not apparent from the shape of the verb, and must simply be memorized.
A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e'', but with an indefinite part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. (Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs.) Most of the adverbs ending in ''-aŭ'' are used as other parts of speech as well, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb], and people would find it difficult to use the adverbial suffix ''-e'' only when these words function as adverbs. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Esperanto grammar#Correlatives|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]]).
The other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without a special suffix. They are the pronouns (''mi'' "I"), prepositions (''al'' "to"), conjunctions (''kaj'' "and"), interjections (''ho'' "oh"), and numerals (''du'' "two"). (The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not, strictly speaking, a suffix.) There are also several "[[grammatical particles]]" which don't fit neatly into any part of speech, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).
==Pronouns==
There are three types of pronouns in Esperanto: personal (''vi'' "you"), demonstrative (''tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and relative/interrogative (''kio'' "what"). Unlike nouns, pronouns take three cases: nominative/oblique, accusative, and genitive.
===Personal pronouns===
The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of the [[reflexive pronoun]] of the Romance languages.
{| border="1" style="text-align:center" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
| colspan=2 | || singular || plural
|-
| colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
| colspan=2 | second person
| colspan=2 | '''vi''' (you)
|-
| rowspan=3 | third<br>person || masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
| feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
| [[Wiktionary:epicene|epicene]]
| '''ĝi''' (it, s/he)
|-
| colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 | '''oni''' (one, "they")
|-
| colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 | '''si''' (self)
|}
Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' like nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a'': ''mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).
The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer to back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons,
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).
The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
Zamenhof created an informal second-person singular pronoun ''ci'' ([[thou]]), and capitalized the formal singular pronoun ''Vi,'' following [[T-V distinction|usage in most European languages]], but these forms are rarely seen today.
''Ĝi'' is used principally with animals and objects. Zamenhof also prescribed it to be the [[Wiktionary:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, for use when the sex of an individual is unknown, or to refer to an epicene noun such as ''persono'' (person). However, it is generally only used for children,
:''La infano ploras, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' (that one) to be used in such situations.
===Other pronouns===
The '''[[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]]''' and '''[[relative pronoun]]s''' form part of the [[Esperanto vocabulary#Correlatives|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and cannot double up with the accusative. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''
== Prepositions ==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require a noun to be in various [[case (linguistics)|case]]s ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''etc.''), in Esperanto all prepositions govern the |
]]
[[Category:1985 deaths|White, E.B.]]
[[Category:Essayists|White, E.B.]]
[[Category:World federalists|White, E.B.]]
[[Category:People from Maine|White, E.B.]]
[[Category:Phi Gamma Delta brothers|White, E. B.]]
[[es:E. B. White]]
[[simple:E. B. White]]
[[th:อี.บี. ไวท์]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evangelist</title>
<id>9752</id>
<revision>
<id>15907622</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-12T00:53:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sam Spade</username>
<id>29048</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Evangelism]] merging</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Evangelism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eukaryotic cell</title>
<id>9753</id>
<revision>
<id>15907623</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-21T14:10:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eukaryote]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elegiac couplets</title>
<id>9754</id>
<revision>
<id>15907624</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elegiac couplet]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Elegiac couplet</title>
<id>9755</id>
<revision>
<id>36768105</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T09:30:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Bringing "External links", "See also" and "Reference" sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Elegiac couplets''' are a poetic form used by Greek lyric poets for a variety of themes usually of smaller scale than those of epic poetry. The ancient Romans frequently used elegiac couplets in love poetry, as in [[Ovid]]'s ''Amores''. As with [[heroic couplets]], the couplets are usually self-contained and express a complete idea.
Elegiac couplets consist of alternating lines of [[dactylic hexameter]] and [[pentameter]]: two [[Dactyl (poetry)|dactyls]] followed by a [[long syllable]], a [[caesura]], then two more dactyls followed by a long syllable.
The following is a graphic representation of its [[scansion]]. Note that - is a long syllable, u a short syllable, and U either one long or two shorts:
- U | - U | - U | - U | - u u | - -
- U | - U | - || - u u | - u u | -
Example:
In the Hexameter rises the fountain's silvery column,
In the pentameter aye falling in melody back.
==See also==
*[[Meter (poetry)]]
*[[Ovid]]
==External links==
*[http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~loxias/latinverse.htm Reading Latin Verse Aloud: Metre and Scansion]
*[http://classics.rutgers.edu/Lat327/def.html What is Elegy?]
[[Category:Poetic form]]
[[da:Elegisk distikon]]
[[fr:Distique élégiaque]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Exabyte</title>
<id>9756</id>
<revision>
<id>41722733</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:03:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.231.255.98</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the company that manufactures data backup products, see [[Exabyte Corporation]]''.
{{Quantities of bytes}}
An '''exabyte''' (derived from the [[SI prefix]] ''[[exa]]''-, and abbreviated as '''EB''') is a unit of [[information]] or [[computer storage]] equal to approximately one [[quintillion]] [[byte]]s.
Because of irregularities in the definition and usage of terms for byte multiples, the exact number can be either one of the following:
* 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes &mdash; 1000<sup>6</sup>, or 10<sup>18</sup>.
* 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes &mdash; 1024<sup>6</sup>, or 2<sup>60</sup>.
Because of these irregularities, the term "[[exbibyte]]" has been proposed as an unambiguous reference to the latter value. (See [[binary prefix]]es.)
[[As of 2005]], exabytes of data are almost never encountered in any practical context. For example, the total amount of printed material in the world is estimated to be around five exabytes. However, one may hear of 16 or 18 exabytes of [[address space]] when discussing [[64-bit]] architectures.
It was estimated that by the end of 1999, the sum of human knowledge (including audio, video and text) was 12 exabytes. [http://www.cio.com/archive/092203/enriquez.html]
Research at the UC Berkeley School of Information suggests that 5 exabytes of new information was created in 2002 alone, 92% of it on magnetic media, mostly on hard discs. [http://www.sims.berkeley.edu:8000/research/projects/how-much-info-2003/execsum.htm]
==See also==
* [[exabit]]
* [[exbibyte]]
* [[orders of magnitude (data)]]
==External links and references==
* [http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid5_gci212085,00.html exabyte (whatis.com definition)]
[[Category:Units of information]]
[[ar:إكسابايت]]
[[es:Exabyte]]
[[nl:Exabyte]]
[[de:Exabyte]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eon (geology)</title>
<id>9757</id>
<revision>
<id>41439857</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T09:05:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.149.190.129</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Gnostic]] word, see [[aeon]]. For other uses, see [[eon (disambiguation)]].''
In general usage, an '''eon''' (sometimes spelled '''aeon''') is a very long period of time. [[Geologist]]s refer to an eon as the largest period of [[geologic time scale|geologic time]]. For example, the [[Phanerozoic]] Eon, which is about 550 million years long, covers the period of time during which [[animal]]s with hard shells that [[fossil|fossilize]] well have been abundant.
An '''eon''' is composed of several [[era (geology)|eras]], which in turn are composed of [[period (geology)|periods]], which are composed of [[epoch (geology)|epoch]]s. We are currently in the [[Phanerozoic]] Eon, the [[Cenozoic]] Era, the [[Neogene]] Period, and the [[Holocene]] epoch.
One definition of an eon puts it as "a unit of geologic time equal to one billion years" [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/eon], although it is rarely used in this manner.
Only one eon exists besides the Panerozoic: the [[Precambrian]]. However, the term eon not always used, as the Precambrian was traditionally classified as an [[era]]. If one accepts the interpretation of it as an eon, the geologic timetable is divided as follows:
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="10"
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | [[Eon_(geology)|Eon]]
! style="background:#efefef;" | [[Era (geology)|Era]]
! style="background:#efefef;" | ([[annum|Ma]] = million of years ago)
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Phanerozoic]]
| [[Cenozoic]]
| 66 Ma to present day
|-
| [[Mesozoic]]
| 245 Ma – 66 Ma
|-
| [[Paleozoic]]
| 570 Ma – 245 Ma
|-
| rowspan="4" | [[Precambrian]]
|-
| [[Proterozoic]]
| 2500 Ma – 570 Ma
|-
| [[Archean]]
| 3800 Ma – 2500 Ma
|-
| [[Hadean]]
| 4550 Ma – 3800 Ma
|}
The Precambrian eon covers the four billion years of Earth history prior to the appearance of hard-shelled animals, while the Phanerozoic essentially covers everything else. The former is currently about eight times as long as the latter, but assuming no new divisions are formed, this will change in the future. Note that such divisions are arbitrary in that they are designated by man, so in other words, the Phanerozoic will be longer than the Precambrian in three and a half billion years assuming an Earth-shattering geological event does not occur, necessitating such a shift.
== References ==
* [http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/usgsnps/gtime/gtime1.html USA National Park Service]
* [http://astro.wsu.edu/worthey/earth/html/md08.html Washington State University]
According to the UCMP site (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/help/timeform.html), there are only 2 time periods classified as "EON": 1) The Precambrian, and 2) the Phanerozoic. The Hadean, Archaean, and Proterozoic time periods are classified as "Eras."
{{geol-stub}}
[[Category:Geologic time scale]]
[[da:Æon]]
[[de:Äon (Geologie)]]
[[fr:Éon]]
[[gl:Éon xeolóxico]]
[[it:Eone]]
[[no:Eon (geologi)]]
[[pl:Eon]]
[[sl:Eon]]
[[fi:Eoni]]
[[sv:Eon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Era</title>
<id>9758</id>
<revision>
<id>40851376</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T12:21:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Konstable</username>
<id>579189</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+{{wiktionary}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings see [[ERA]].''
In [[chronology]], an '''era''' is the highest level for the organization of the measurement of [[time]]. A '''[[calendar era]]''' span of many years which are numbered beginning at a specific [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]], which often marks the origin of a state or cosmology, the birth of a leader, or another significant historical or mythological event; it can be called after either accordingly.
The word era also denotes the units used under a different, more arbitrary system where time is not represented as an endless continuum with a single reference year, but each unit starts counting from one again, as if time starts again. Such rather impractical system &mdash; a nightmare for historians once a single piece of the puzzle is missing &mdash; is the use of [[regnal year]]s, which often reflects the preponderance in public life of the absolute ruler in many ancient cultures, while |
06,
*Goldman, Emma. ''My Disillusionment in Russia''. London: C. W. Daniel Co., 1925. ISBN 048643270X
*Goldman, Emma. ''Living My Life''. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1931. ISBN 0486225437
*Goldman, Emma. ''Vision on Fire: Emma Goldman on the Spanish Revolution,'' ed. David Porter. New Paltz, NY: Commonground Press, 1983. ISBN 0961034823
*Moritz, Theresa. ''The World's Most Dangerous Woman: A New Biography of Emma Goldman''. Vancouver: Subway Books, 2001. ISBN 0968716318
==See also==
*[[List of anarchists]]
*[[Alexander Berkman]]
*[[Ben Reitman]]
*[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth Magazine]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Emma+Goldman | name=Emma Goldman}}
*[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/Goldmanarchive.html Emma Goldman in the Anarchy Archives]
* [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Goldman/ The Emma Goldman Papers (University of California at Berkeley, Digital Library)]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldman/index.html (American Experience site on Goldman)]
*[http://www.ditext.com/goldman/russia/russia.html Emma Goldman, ''My Disillusionment in Russia'' (1923, 1924, 1925) (illustrated).]
* [ftp://ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext00/nrcsm10.txt ''Anarchism and Other Essays'']
* [http://www.BlackCrayon.com/people/goldman/ BlackCrayon.com: People: Emma Goldman]
* [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/GoldmanEmma.htm Emma Goldman Page] at the Anarchist Encyclopedia
* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/living/livingtoc.html ''Living my Life'']
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/goldman/index.htm Emma Goldman Reference Archive at Marxists.org]
* [http://www.iisg.nl/collections/goldman/index.html Portraits of Emma Goldman]
* [http://www.jwa.org/exhibits/wov/goldman/ Jewish Women's Archive Women of Valor exhibit on Emma Goldman]
* [http://www.panarchy.org/goldman/anarchism.1910.html Emma Goldman, "Anarchism, what it really stands for"]
<!-- Metadata, see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME=Goldman, Emma
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Red Emma
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Lithuanian-born American anarchist
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[27 June]] [[1869]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Kaunas]], [[Lithuania]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[14 May]] [[1940]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
}}
[[Category:1869 births|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:1940 deaths|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Anarchists|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Anti-war people|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Atheists|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Feminists|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Jewish anarchists|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:LGBT rights activists|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Spanish Civil War people|Goldman, Emma]]
[[ca:Emma Goldman]]
[[de:Emma Goldman]]
[[el:Έμμα Γκόλντμαν]]
[[es:Emma Goldman]]
[[eo:Emma GOLDMAN]]
[[fr:Emma Goldman]]
[[it:Emma Goldman]]
[[he:אמה גולדמן]]
[[mk:Ема Голдман]]
[[nl:Emma Goldman]]
[[nds:Emma Goldman]]
[[ja:エマ・ゴールドマン]]
[[no:Emma Goldman]]
[[nn:Emma Goldman]]
[[pl:Emma Goldman]]
[[pt:Emma Goldman]]
[[sr:Ема Голдман]]
[[fi:Emma Goldman]]
[[sv:Emma Goldmann]]
[[tr:Emma Goldman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Equuleus</title>
<id>9765</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-08T08:56:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Equuleus |
abbreviation = Equ |
genitive = Equulei |
symbology = the [[foal]]|
RA = 21 |
dec= 10 |
areatotal = 72 |
arearank = 87th |
numberstars = None |
starname = [[Alpha Equulei|&alpha; Equ]] (Kitalpha) |
starmagnitude = 3.92 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Aquarius]]
*[[Delphinus (constellation)|Delphinus]]
*[[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 80 |
month = September |
notes=}}
'''Equuleus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[horse]]-let'' (i.e. a [[foal]])) is the second smallest of the 88 modern [[constellation]]s, only [[Crux]] being smaller.
Despite its smallness and lack of bright [[star]]s (none are brighter than [[apparent magnitude|fourth magnitude]]), it was also one of [[Ptolemy]]'s 48 constellations.
==Notable features==
Equleuus is the second smallest constellation, at 72 square degrees. The only constellation that is smaller is [[Crux]]. It is not a particularly conspicuous constellation; its brightest star is [[Alpha Equulei|&alpha; Equ]] (Kitalpha), at magnitude 3.92m.
There are few [[variable star]]s in Equuleus. Only around 25 are known, most of which are obscure. [[Gamma Equulei|&gamma; Equ]] is an [[alpha CVn star]], ranging between magnitudes 4.58m and 4.77m over a period of around 12&frac12; minutes. [[R Equulei|R Equ]] is a [[Mira variable]] that ranges between magnitudes 8.0m and 15.7m over nearly 261 days.
Equuleus contains some [[double star]]s of interest. &gamma; Equ consists of a primary star with a magnitude around 4.7m (slightly variable) and a secondary star of magnitude 11.6, separated by 2 [[arcsecond]]s. [[Epsilon Equulei|&epsilon; Equ]] consists of four components. The brightest three are of magnitudes 6.0m, 6.3m, and 7.2m. [[Delta Equulei|&delta; Equ]] is a [[binary star]] with an orbital period of 5.7 years, which at one time was the shortest known orbital period for an optical binary. The two components of the system are never more than 0.35 arcseconds apart.
==Notable deep sky objects==
Due to its small size and its distance from the plane of the [[Milky Way]], Equuleus contains no notable deep sky objects. Are notables the [[galaxy|galaxies]] [[NGC 7015]], [[NGC 7040]], [[NGC 7045]] and [[NGC 7046]].
{{sectstub}}
==Mythology==
Equuleus is associated with the foal [[Celaris]], who was the brother of the winged horse [[Pegasus]]. Celaris was given to [[Castor]] by [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]].{{sectstub}}
{{astro-stub}}
==Table of leading stars==
{| border="1"
! Common name !! [[Bayer designation]] !! [[Flamsteed designation]] !! Other designations !! [[Right ascension]] !! [[Declination]] !! [[Apparent magnitude]]
|-
| || &epsilon; || 1 || ADS 14499, &Sigma;2737 || 20h 59m 04.4s || +04&deg; 17&prime; 37&Prime; || 5.23
|-
| || || 3 || || 21h 04m 34.7s || +05&deg; 30&prime; 10&Prime; || 5.61
|-
| || || 4 || || 21h 05m 26.7s || +05&deg; 57&prime; 30&Prime; || 5.94
|-
| || &gamma; || 5 || ADS 14702AB || 21h 10m 20.5s || +10&deg; 07&prime; 54&Prime; || 4.69v
|-
| || || 6 || ADS 14702D || 21h 10m 31.2s || +10&deg; 02&prime; 56&Prime; || 6.07
|-
| || &delta; || 7 || ADS 14773 || 21h 14m 28.9s || +10&deg; 00&prime; 25&Prime; || 4.49
|-
| Kitalpha || &alpha; || 8 || || 21h 15m 49.4s || +05&deg; 14&prime; 52&Prime; || 3.92
|-
| || || 9 || || 21h 21m 04.8s || +07&deg; 21&prime; 16&Prime; || 5.82
|-
| || &beta; || 10 || ADS 14920 || 21h 22m 53.6s || +06&deg; 48&prime; 40&Prime; || 5.16
|}
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* ([[Alpha Equulei|8/&alpha; Equ]]) 3.92 '''Kitalpha''' [''Kitel Phard, Kitalphar'']
:*: < &#1602;&#1591;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1585;&#1587; ''qi&#355;<sup>c<sup>at[u] al-faras'' Part of the horse (mare)
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Beta Equulei|10/&beta; Equ]] 5.16; [[Gamma Equulei|5/&gamma; Equ]] 4.70; [[Delta Equulei|7/&delta; Equ]] 4.47; [[Epsilon Equulei|1/&epsilon; Equ]] 5.30; [[Lambda Equulei|2/&lambda; Equ]] 6.72
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[3 Equulei|3 Equ]] 5.63; [[4 Equulei|4 Equ]] 5.94; [[6 Equulei|6 Equ]] 6.07; [[9 Equulei|9 Equ]] 5.81
==References==
* Burnham, Robert (1978). ''Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An observer's guide to the universe beyond the solar system'', volume 2. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
* ''The Bright Star Catalogue'', 5th revised ed.
<!-- The references above need to be formatted -->
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Equuleus}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/delphinus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Equuleus]
[[Category:Equuleus constellation| ]]
[[ca:Cavallet (constel·lació)]]
[[da:Føllet]]
[[de:Füllen (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Equuleus]]
[[fr:Petit Cheval]]
[[ko:조랑말자리]]
[[it:Equuleus]]
[[la:Equuleus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Žirgelis]]
[[hu:Csikó (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Veulen (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:こうま座]]
[[nn:Folen]]
[[pl:Źrebię (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Equuleus]]
[[ru:Малый Конь (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Koník]]
[[fi:Pieni hevonen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวม้าแกลบ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eridanus</title>
<id>9766</id>
<revision>
<id>29197976</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-25T09:05:55Z</timestamp>
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<username>Maxim Razin</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The name "'''Eridanus'''" can refer to:
*[[Eridanos (mythology)|Eridanos]] (or Eridanus), a [[river]] in [[Greek mythology]], associated by [[Herodotus]] with the [[Po]].
*[[Eridanus (geology)|Eridanus]], a large river that flowed in prehistoric times in what is now the [[Baltic Sea]]
*[[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]], a southern [[constellation]].
*[[Eridanos (Athens)|Eridanos]], a former river near Athens
{{disambig}}
[[de:Eridanus]]
[[la:Eridanus]]
[[nl:Eridanos]]
[[ru:Эридан]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eucharist</title>
<id>9767</id>
<revision>
<id>41888494</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:06:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ranveig</username>
<id>116143</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv. vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Communion}}
The '''Eucharist''' or '''C |
carry [[whip]]s, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are reduced to a single phrase: "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others." Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs, and the humans of the area (in the adjacent Foxwood Farm run by Mr. [[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Pilkington]]). He announces his alliance with the humans against the labouring classes of both "worlds".
The animals discover this when they overhear Napoleon's conversations and finally realize that a change has come over the ruling pigs. During a poker match, an argument breaks out between Napoleon and Mr. Pilkington when they both play an [[Ace of Spades]], and the animals realise how they cannot tell the difference between the pigs and the humans.
The pigs walked on two feet and they adopted many of Mr. Jones' customs and principles. The pigs have violated every one of the rules set out in the beginning which they set up. This is when we come to the theme of this book: power corrupts.
==Plot references to real events==
*The ousting of the Humans after the farmers forget to feed the animals – [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] led to the removal of the Tsars after a series of famine and poverty.
*The refusal of the Humans to refer to Animal Farm by its new name (still calling it Manor Farm) may be indicative of the diplomatic limbo in which the Soviets existed following their early history.
*Mr. Jones' last ditch effort to re-take the farm (The Battle of the Cowshed) – [[Russian Civil War]] in which the western capitalist governments sent soldiers to try to remove the Bolsheviks from power.
*Napoleon's removal of Snowball – [[Stalin]]’s removal of [[Leon Trotsky]] from power in 1927 and his subsequent expulsion.
*Napoleon stealing Snowball’s idea for a windmill – Stalin later shifted away from "[[World revolution|World Socialism]]" to "[[Socialism in one country]]" which Trotsky had originally promoted. The windmill can also be considered a symbol of the Soviet [[Five-Year Plan|Five-Year Plans]], a concept developed by Trotsky and adopted by Stalin, who claimed them to be his idea.
*Moses the raven leaving the farm for a while and then returning — Similar to the Russian Orthodox Church going underground and then being brought back to give the workers hope.
*Boxer's motto, "Napoleon is always right" is strikingly similar to "Mussolini is always right" a chant used to hail [[Benito Mussolini]] during his rule of [[Italy]] from 1922 to 1943.
*During the rise of Napoleon, he ordered the collection of all the hens' eggs. In an act of defiance, the Hens destroyed their eggs rather than give them to Napoleon — During Stalin's [[collectivization]] period in the early 1930s, many Ukrainian peasants burned their crops and farms rather than handing them over to the government.
*Napoleon's mass executions, of which many were unfair for the alleged crimes — [[Stalin]] executed his political enemies for various crimes after they were tortured and forced to falsely confess.
*The four pigs that go against Napoleon's will represent the [[White movement]].
*Napoleon's replacement of the farm anthem "[[Beasts of England]]" with an inane composition by the pig poet Minimus ("Animal Farm, Animal Farm / Never through me / Will you come to harm") – In 1943, Stalin replaced the old national anthem "[[the Internationale]]" with "the [[National Anthem of the Soviet Union|Hymn of the Soviet Union]]." The old internationale glorified the revolution and "the people." The original version of the Hymn of the Soviet Union glorified Stalin so heavily that after his death in 1953, entire sections of the anthem had to be replaced or removed. Orwell could have also been referring to [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s banning of the French national hymn, [[La Marseillaise]] in 1799.
*Napoleon's dealing with Mr. Frederick, who eventually betrays Animal Farm and destroys the windmill. Though Animal Farm repels the human attack, many animals are wounded and killed — Stalin’s [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with [[Nazi Germany]] in 1939, which was later betrayed in 1941 when [[Operation Barbarossa|Hitler invaded the Soviet Union]]. Though the Soviet Union won the war, it came at a tremendous price of roughly 8.5-15 million Soviet soldiers (unconfirmed) and many civilians, coming to an incredible estimated 20 million dead, as well as the utter destruction of the Western Soviet Union and its prized collective farms which Stalin had created in the 1930s.
*Napoleon's later alliance with the humans — Stalin’s non-aggression pact with Hitler in the early years of WWII.
*Napoleon's changing Animal Farm back to Manor — The [[Red Army]]’s name was changed from the "Workers' and Peasants' Red Army" to the "Soviet Army" to appear as a more appealing and professional organization rather than an army of the common people.
*After Old Major dies, his skull is placed on display on a tree stump. Similarly, [[Vladmir Lenin|Lenin's]] (whom Old Major is based on along with Karl Marx) embalmed body was put on display in [[Lenin's mausoleum|Lenin's Tomb]] in [[Red Square]] postmortem, where it still remains.
*Squealer, constantly changing the commandments, is said to be a reference to a perversion in Russian religious history, as observed by [[Leo Tolstoy]] when the essential precepts of the [[Sermon on the Mount]] were altered by [[Russian Orthodox]] Church. It may also refer to the revision of history texts to glorify Stalin during his regime.
== Characters ==
The events and characters in Animal Farm are all carefully drawn to represent the history of the Soviet Union; Orwell makes this explicit in the case of Napoleon, whom he directly connects to Stalin in a letter of [[17 March]] [[1945]] to the publisher.
:..when the windmill is blown up, I wrote 'all the animals including Napoleon flung themselves on their faces'. I would like to alter it to 'all the animals except Napoleon'. If that has been printed it's not worth bothering about, but I just thought the alteration would be fair to JS [Joseph Stalin], as he did stay in Moscow during the German advance.
The other characters have their analogies in the real world, but care should be taken with these comparisons as they do not always match history exactly and often simply represent generalised concepts.
===The pigs===
*[[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]] — The pig who becomes the leader of Animal Farm post-Rebellion. Created based on the actions of [[Joseph Stalin]], he uses his military (of nine attack dogs) to cement his power through fear. Napoleon craftily drives out his opponent, Snowball.
*[[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] — The pig who fights Napoleon for control post-Rebellion. Inspired by [[Leon Trotsky]], Snowball is a passionate intellectual and is far more honest about his motives than Napoleon. Snowball easily wins the loyalty of most of the animals. Trotsky was driven into exile in Mexico where he was assassinated.
*[[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]] — The pig who serves as public speaker. Inspired by [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] and the Russian paper [[Pravda]], Squealer twists and abuses the language to excuse, justify and extol Napoleon's actions, no matter how egregious. All his life, George Orwell made it a point to show how politicians used language. Squealer limits the debate by complicating it, and he confuses and disorients, making claims that the pigs need the extra luxury they are taking in order to function properly. To squeal is to betray, something Squealer does often to his fellow animals.
*Minimus — A poet pig who writes a song about Napoleon, representing admirers of Stalin both inside and outside the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] such as [[Maxim Gorky]].
*[[Old Major (Animal Farm)|Old Major]] — As a fellow socialist, Orwell agreed with some of [[Karl Marx]]'s politics, and even respected [[Vladimir Lenin]]. In fact, the satire in Animal Farm is not of Marxism, or Lenin's revolution, but of the corruption that occurred later. Major, who is based upon both Lenin and Marx, is the inspiration which fuels the rest of the book. Though it is a positive image, Orwell does slip some flaws in Old Major, such as how during his complaints about the abuse of animals he admits that he has been largely free from those terrors.
*Pinkeye — A small piglet who tastes Napoleon's food for poisoning.
*Piglets — While not truly noted in the novel, these piglets are hinted to be the children of Napoleon, and are the first generation of animals to actually be subjugated to his idea of animal inequality.
===The humans===
*[[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]] — The original owner of Manor Farm. He is probably based on [[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar Nicholas II]].
*[[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Mr. Frederick]] — The tough owner of Pinchfield, a well-kept neighbouring farm. He is probably based on [[Germany]] and/or [[Adolf Hitler]].
*[[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Mr. Pilkington]] — The easy-going but crafty owner of Foxwood, a neighbouring farm. He represents [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and/or [[Winston Churchill]].
*Mr. Whymper — A human whom Napoleon hires to represent Animal Farm in human society. He is loosely based on [[George Bernard Shaw]] who visited the USSR in 1931 and praised what he found.
===The other animals===
*[[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] — Possibly one of the more popular characters, Boxer is the tragic avatar of the working class, or [[proletariat]]: loyal, dedicated, and strong. His major flaw, however, is his blind trust of the leaders and his inability to see corruption. He is used and abused by the pigs as much or more than he was by Jones. His death serves to show just how far the pigs are willing to go. A strong and loyal [[draft horse]], Boxer played a huge part in keeping the Farm together prior to his death. Boxer could also represent a [[Stakhanovite]]. His name is a |
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<username>Ellmist</username>
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<title>Bolivia/Government</title>
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<username>Ellmist</username>
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<title>Bolivia/Economy</title>
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<title>Bolivia/Communications</title>
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<title>Bolivia/Transportation</title>
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<title>Bolivia/Military</title>
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<title>Bolivia/Transnational issues</title>
<id>3598</id>
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<page>
<title>Blindness in literature</title>
<id>3600</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:40:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
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<comment>clean up and bulleting external links using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Different cultures through history have depicted [[blindness]] in a variety of ways; among the [[Greeks]], for example, it was a punishment from the gods, for which the afflicted individual was often granted compensation in the form of artistic genius. [[Judeo-Christian]] [[literature]] positioned blindness as a flaw; only through a cure could God&rsquo;s love be made manifest, when the scales would fall away from the eyes of an afflicted individual upon contact with a holy man or relic. Almost without exception in early literature, blind people could bring this condition down upon themselves through sin or trespasses against the gods, but were never the sole instruments of its reversal.
It is impossible to make a blanket generalization about how the blind were treated in literature beyond that point - they were marvelous, gifted, evil, malicious, ignorant, wise, helpless, innocent, or burdensome depending upon who wrote the story - except to say that blindness is perceived to be such a loss that it leaves an indelible mark on a person’s character.
Even pioneers in training the blind, such as [[Dorothy Harrison Eustis]], harboured negative stereotypes about them. Blind people had, in her opinion, grown so accustomed to waiting on others as to be passive and 'whiney.'
Father Thomas Carroll, who founded the Carroll Centre for the Blind, wrote ''Blindness: What It Is, What It Does and How to Live with It'' in 1961. In it, he characterized blindness in terms of 20 losses, and as the ‘death’ of the sighted individual.
“In The Country of the Blind“, a book by [[H.G. Wells]], is one of the most well-known stories featuring sightless characters. A sighted man finds himself in a country that has been isolated from the rest of the world for centuries, wherein all the inhabitants are blind even as their ancestors had been.
These people are depicted as self-sufficient, having developed their other senses, but they are ultimately closed-minded and insular to the point of xenophobia. As they themselves have no sight, they wish to deprive the traveler of his own eyes in this allegorical tale of stagnation.
==Literature by blind people==
While blind and visually impaired people had contributed to the body of common literature for centuries, the creation of autobiographical materials, or materials specific to blindness, is relatively new.
Most people are familiar with [[Helen Keller]], who was both blind and deaf, but there has been considerable progress since the publication of her work.
* Blind author [[Tom Sullivan]] has written several inspirational books, including ''If You Could See What I Hear'', about his life and accomplishments.
* Stephen Kuusisto wrote about his experiences as a visually impaired person in ''Planet of the Blind''.
* John Hull, a university lecturer, wrote about going blind in ''Touching the Rock: An Experience of Blindness''.
* Georgina Kleege, visually impaired since age 11, wrote about her life and how it was affected by cultural perceptions of blindness in ''Sight Unseen''.
*[[Sally Hobart Alexander]] became blind when she was about 25 and a schoolteacher, during the 1970s, because of an eye disease. Wrote at least three autobiographical books about adapting to blindness.
*French author [[Jacques Lusseyran]], who was visually impaired at the age of 7 when he injured his eyes on the sharp corner of a teacher's desk, became part of the French resistance during World War II. He spent a year in concentration camps, surviving the experience and writing several books. "And There Was Light" chronicles his experiences from early childhood until his liberation from a concentration camp.
==External links==
*[http://www.planetkilmer.com/rr/august2001/valteamo/ An Overview of the Blind in Literature and Movies]
*[http://www.blind.net/bpba1974.htm Blindness: Is Literature Against Us?]
*[http://www.visionarysolution.com/historysource.html Historical Literature on Blindness]
*[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/11870 In the Country of the Blind, by H.G. Wells]
[[Category:Blindness]]
[[Category:Literature]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bosnia and Herzegovina/History</title>
<id>3603</id>
<revision>
<id>15901921</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-01T18:35:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
<id>3604</id>
<revision>
<id>32128246</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-20T18:29:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Location:'''
Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Croatia.
<div style="float: right">[[Image:Bk-map.png]]</div>
'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|44|N|18|E|}}
'''Map references:'''
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Europe
'''Area:'''
<br />''total:''
51,129 km²
<br />''land:''
51,129 km²
<br />''water:''
0 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than [[West Virginia]]
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br />''total:''
1,459 km
<br />''border countries:''
[[Croatia]] 932 km, [[Serbia and Montenegro]] 527 km (312 km with [[Serbia]], 215 km with [[Montenegro]])
'''Coastline:'''
23 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
NA
'''Climate:'''
hot summers and cold winters; areas of high elevation have short, cool summers and long, severe winters; mild, rainy winters along coast
'''Terrain:'''
mountains and valleys
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br />''lowest point:''
Adriatic Sea 0 m
<br />''highest point:''
Maglic 2,386 m
'''Natural resources:'''
coal, iron, bauxite, manganese, forests, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, hydropower
'''Land use:'''
<br />''arable land:''
14%
<br />''permanent crops:''
5%
<br />''permanent pastures:''
20%
<br />''forests and woodland:''
39%
<br />''other:''
22% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
20 km² (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
destructive earthquakes
'''Environment - current issues:'''
air pollution from metallurgical plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; widespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992-95 civil strife
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br />''party to:''
Air Pollution, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
<br />''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements
==See also==
*[[Geography of Europe]]
* |
, it helped gain Lynch a new audience of [[Generation X]] viewers.
In 1999, Lynch surprised fans and critics with the [[MPAA film rating system|G]]-rated, [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]]-produced ''[[The Straight Story]]'', which was, on the surface, a simple and humble movie telling the [[Alvin Straight|true story]] of an [[Iowa]] man ([[Richard Farnsworth]]) who rides a lawnmower to [[Wisconsin]] to make peace with his ailing brother. The film garnered positive reviews.
[[Image:MulhollandDrive.jpg|left|190px|thumb|''Mulholland Drive'' (2001)]]
The same year, Lynch approached [[ABC network|ABC]] once again with an idea for a television [[drama]]. The network gave Lynch the go-ahead to shoot a two-hour pilot for the series ''[[Mulholland Drive (film)|Mulholland Drive]]'', but disputes over content and running time led to the project being shelved indefinitely.
With seven million dollars from the [[France|French]] [[film distributor|distributor]] [[Canal Plus]], Lynch completed the pilot as a film. ''Mulholland Drive'' is an enigmatic tale of the dark side of [[Hollywood]] and stars [[Naomi Watts]], [[Laura Harring]] and [[Justin Theroux]]. The film performed relatively well at the [[box office]] worldwide and was a critical success earning Lynch a Best Director prize at the [[2001]] [[Cannes Film Festival]] (shared with [[Joel Coen]] for ''[[The Man Who Wasn't There]]'') and a Best Director award from the [[New York Film Critics Association]].
In [[2002]], Lynch treated his fans to his own version of a [[sitcom]] via his [http://www.davidlynch.com website] - ''Rabbits'', eight episodes of [[surrealism]] in a rabbit suit. Later, he showed his experiments with Digital Video ([[DV]]) in the form of the Japanese style horror short ''[[Darkened Room]]''.
At the [[2005]] [[2005 Cannes Film Festival|Cannes Film Festival]], Lynch announced that he had spent over a year shooting his new film digitally in Poland. The film, titled ''[[INLAND EMPIRE (film)|INLAND EMPIRE]]'' (in capitals), included Lynch regulars such as [[Laura Dern]], [[Harry Dean Stanton]], and [[Justin Theroux]], as well as [[Jeremy Irons]]. Lynch described the film as "a mystery about a woman in trouble". It is scheduled to be released in [[2006]] and will be Lynch's first [[feature]] shot entirely on DV.
== Awards and honors ==
Lynch has twice won France's [[César Award for Best Foreign Film]] and served as President of the jury at the [[2002]] [[Cannes Film Festival]], where he had previously won the [[Palme d'Or]] in [[1990]]. He was also honored in [[2002]] by the French government with the [[Légion d'honneur|Legion of Honor]].
He has been nominated for the [[Academy Award for Directing]] three times (for ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'', ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' and ''[[Mulholland Drive (film)|Mulholland Drive]]'') but has never won.
==Frequent collaborators==
<!--Let‘s keep this limited to people who have played 3 or more roles-->Lynch often uses the same actors in his productions:
* [[Jack Nance]] appears in ''[[Eraserhead]]'', ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Blue Velvet]]'', ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Cowboy and the Frenchman|The Cowboy and the Frenchman]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'' and ''[[Lost Highway]]''
* [[Kyle MacLachlan]] appears in ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Blue Velvet]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''
* [[Laura Dern]] appears in ''[[Blue Velvet]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'', ''[[Industrial Symphony No. 1]]'', and ''[[Inland Empire (film)|INLAND EMPIRE]]''
* [[Sheryl Lee]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'' and ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''
* [[Harry Dean Stanton]] appears in ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Cowboy and the Frenchman|The Cowboy and the Frenchman]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]'', ''[[Hotel Room]]'', ''[[The Straight Story]]'' and ''[[Inland Empire (film)|INLAND EMPIRE]]''
* [[Michael J. Anderson]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Industrial Symphony No. 1]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]'', and ''[[Mulholland Drive]]''
* [[Angelo Badalamenti]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', and ''[[Wild at Heart]]''
* [[Grace Zabriskie]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'' and ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''
* [[Everett McGill]] appears in ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[The Straight Story]]'';
* [[Catherine E. Coulson]] appears in ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch|The Amputee]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''
* [[Miguel Ferrer]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]'' and ''[[On the Air]]''
* [[Sherilyn Fenn]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[Wild at Heart]]''
* [[Alicia Witt]] appears in ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', and ''[[Hotel Room]]''
* [[Frances Bay]] appears in ''[[Blue Velvet]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[Wild at Heart]]''
* [[Freddie Jones]] appears in ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'', ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'', ''[[Hotel Room]]'' and ''[[On the Air]]''
* [[Brad Dourif]] appears in ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' and ''[[Dune]]''
* [[Scott Coffey]] appears in ''[[Lost Highway]]'', ''[[Mulholland Dr.]]'' and ''[[Rabbits]]''
Many of Lynch's films have bit parts played by musicians who have various degrees of acting experience: [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] in ''Dune'', [[Chris Isaak]] in ''Fire Walk With Me'', [[David Bowie]] in ''Fire Walk With Me'', [[Julee Cruise]] in ''Twin Peaks'' and ''Fire Walk With Me'', [[Marilyn Manson]] in ''Lost Highway'', [[Henry Rollins]] in ''Lost Highway'', and [[Billy Ray Cyrus]] in ''Mullholland Drive''.
Lynch himself appears in ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch|The Amputee]]'', ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''. He is also in a deleted scene from ''[[Lost Highway]]''.
==Private life==
Lynch has been married twice:
# [[Peggy Lynch]] ([[1967]]-[[1974]]), (one daughter [[Jennifer Chambers Lynch]], the [[film director]])
# [[Mary Fisk]] ([[21 June]] [[1977]]-[[1987]]), (one son-- Austin Jack Lynch)
He also has a son [[Riley Lynch]] with the [[film editor]] [[Mary Sweeney]].
==Trivia==
* Despite his almost exclusive focus on America, Lynch, like [[Woody Allen]], has found a large audience in [[France]]; ''INLAND EMPIRE,'' ''Mulholland Drive'', ''Lost Highway'' and ''Fire Walk With Me'' were all funded through French production companies.
* Lynch is notoriously evasive and cagey in interviews, and refuses to discuss the plot details and "true meanings" of his films, preferring viewers to come away with their own interpretations. None of his films released on DVD have director commentary tracks, and some (rather unusually) don't even have chapter selections. This is due, at least in part, to his belief that a film should be viewed from beginning to end without interruption or distraction.
* Certain images or types of images are common trademarks in Lynch's films. These include smoke, fire, electricity and electric lights (especially flickering or damaged), highways at night, dogs, diners, red curtains, the binding or crippling of hands or arms, various uses of the color blue, and angelic or heavenly female figures. Though interpretations do vary, those who study Lynch's work generally do find such images to represent consistent or semi-consistent themes throughout his body of work.
* Film critic [[Roger Ebert]] has been notoriously unfavorable towards Lynch, even accusing him of [[misogyny]] in his reviews of ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' and ''[[Wild at Heart]]''. [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19860919%2FREVIEWS%2F609190301%2F1023&AID1=%2F19860919%2FREVIEWS%2F609190301%2F1023&AID2=] [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19900817%2FREVIEWS%2F8170301%2F1023&AID1=%2F19900817%2FREVIEWS%2F8170301%2F1023&AID2=] Ebert was one of few critics to dislike ''Blue Velvet''. He did, however, write enthusiastic reviews of ''[[Mulholland Drive (film)|Mulholland Drive]]'' [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20011012/REVIEWS/110120304/1023] and [[The Straight Story]].
* He had [[Finland|Finnish]] grandparents.
* In the 1980s Lynch was an admirer of [[Ronald Reagan]] and had dinner with the Reagans at the [[White House]]. Years later when someone made a disparaging comment about [[Nancy Reagan]] he spoke up and defended her.
* Despite his professional accomplishments, Lynch once characterized himself simply as, "[[Wilson, Edward Osborne|Eagle Scout]], Missoula, Montana."[http://www.thecityofabsurdity.com/inticon.html]
*Lynch particularly enjoys cake, and a wide variety of meats.
== Transcendental meditation ==
In December 2005, Lynch told the [[Washington Post]] that he had been practicing [[transcendental meditation]] twice a day, for 20 minutes each time, for 32 years. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/01/AR2005120101798.html]. He advocates its use in bringing peace to the world. He has launched the [http://www.davidlynchfoundation.com David Lynch Foundation For Conciousness-Based Education and Peace] to fund research about TM's positive effects, and he promotes the technique and his vision by an ongoing tour of college campuses that began in September 2005. [http://www.nyunews.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2005/10/05/4349ae171a64c?in_archive=1] (A [[streaming video]] of one of Lynch's public performances [http://www.davidlynchfoundation.com/tour/index.html is available at his foundation's website].)
Lynch is working for the establishment of seven "peace factories," each with 8000 salaried people practicing advanced techniques of TM, "pumping peace for the world". He estimates the cost at $7 billion; [[as of December 2005]] he had spent $400,000 of his own money and raised $1 million in donations from a handful of wealthy individuals and organizations. [http: |
-Dominion Centre]] in Toronto]]
The service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing some three quarters of Canadians and accounting for two thirds of GDP. The largest employer is the [[retail]] sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians. The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a relatively small number of chain stores clustered together in [[shopping mall]]s. In recent years the rise of [[big-box store]]s such as the American [[Wal-Mart]] and the Canadian [[Future Shop]] have led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs.
The second largest portion of the service sector is the business services, employing only a slightly smaller percentage of the population. This includes the [[financial services]], [[real estate]], and communications industries. This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years. It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto. The [[Big Five banks]], centred on that city, are some of Canada's largest and most important firms.
The education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are largely under the purview of the government. The health care industry has been rapidly growing, and is the third largest in Canada. Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.
Canada has an important [[high tech]] industry, and also an entertainment industry creating content both for local and international consumption. Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States.
==Political issues==
===Regional imbalances===
The Canadian economy differs greatly from region to region. Traditionally Ontario has been the economic engine of Canada, home to a third of its population and much of its industry. Recent years have seen rapid growth in the west as trade with Asia has enriched British Columbia and oil wealth provided a major boost to [[Alberta]], and [[Saskatchewan]].
The four Atlantic provinces have traditionally been significantly poorer than the rest of Canada, especially after the recent collapse of the fishing industry. Recent years have seen some significant moves towards diversification, especially as offshore oil and gas wealth have begun to flow into the region. [[Quebec]] has also traditionally been poorer than the Canadian average although by a lesser margin than the Atlantic provinces.
===Relations with the U.S.===
A significant concern for many Canadians in the first few years of the 21st Century is Canada's relationship with the U.S. Although "[[brain drain]]" has slowed as a result of the minor economic downturn in the U.S. between 2001 and 2003 following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], Canada's own job market has suffered as well. Disputes over trade tariffs, multi-lateral military action and controversial Canadian legislation such as same-sex marriage, [[immigration law]], and [[legal medical marijuana]] have raised tensions and cooled relations between these two countries. The two countries also seem to be heading in different directions where values are concerned, and this could begin to provide problems with relations in the future.
Despite these differences, Canada is by far the United States' largest trading partner, with more than $1.4 [[billion]] CAD in trade per day. By comparison, in [[1999]], this was more than U.S. trade with all the countries of [[Latin America]] combined. U.S. exports to Canada exceed those to all members of the [[European Union]] combined. Just the two-way trade that crosses the [[Ambassador Bridge]] between [[Michigan]] and [[Ontario]] equals all U.S. exports to [[Japan]]. Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states. Canada is also home to a wide variety of U.S. branch plants.
Bilateral trade increased by about 51.78% between 1989, when the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) superseded it. Trade has since increased by 40%. NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed upon trade rules. It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including [[agriculture]], services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement. NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 406 million people of the three [[North America]]n countries.
The largest component of U.S.-Canada trade is in the automotive sector. Under the [[1965]] [[Canada-United States Automotive Agreement]] (also known as the Auto Pact), which provided for free trade in cars, trucks, and auto parts, two-way trade in automotive products rose from $715 million in [[1964]] to $104.1 billion in [[1999]]. Auto Pact benefits are incorporated into NAFTA.
The U.S. is Canada's leading agricultural market, taking nearly one-third of all food exports. Conversely, Canada is the second-largest U.S. agricultural market (after Japan), primarily importing fresh fruits and vegetables and livestock products. Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 71.66% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S.
At $21 billion in [[2000]], U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship in the world. The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], and [[electricity]]. Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world. Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas. The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked and both countries share hydropower facilities on the Western borders.
While 95% of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes over the remaining 5%, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields. Usually, however, these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to WTO or NAFTA dispute resolution. In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian Governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that will provide increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market. The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries. By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the Court's [[12 October]] [[1984]] ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary. A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing [[US - Canada softwood lumber dispute|softwood lumber dispute]], as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry.
In 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents. The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade.
Canada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during President Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result. The two countries also share in operation of the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]], connecting the [[Great Lakes]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
The U.S. is Canada's largest foreign investor; at the end of 1999, the stock of U.S. direct investment was estimated at $116.7 billion, or about 72% of total foreign direct investment in Canada. U.S. investment is primarily in Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance.
Canada is the third-largest foreign investor in the United States. At the end of 1999, the stock of Canadian direct investment in the United States was estimated at $90.4 billion. Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other services.
==See also==
*[http://www.oecd.org/canada/ OECD's Canada country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/canada/ OECD Economic Survey of Canada]
*[[Economic history of Canada]]
*[[Canadian and American economies compared]]
*[[Economy of Quebec]]
==References==
*Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh. ''Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction.'' Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.
*Wallace, Iain, ''A Geography of the Canadian Economy.'' Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002.
*{{Factbook}}
[[Category:Economy of Canada| ]]
[[ca:Economia del Canadà]]
[[es:Economía de Canadá]]
[[fr:Économie du Canada]]
[[pt:Economia do Canadá]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Canada</title>
<id>5196</id>
<revision>
<id>24746561</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-04T18:34:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NTBot</username>
<id>274552</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:''' 20,802,900 (1999)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 8,751,300 (1997)
'''Telephone system:''' excellent service provided by modern technology
* ''domestic:'' domestic satellite system with about 300 earth stations
* ''international:'' 5 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 [[Atlantic Ocean]] and 1 [[Pacific Ocean]]) and 2 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region)
'''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 432, FM 1527, shortwave 6 (2003)
'''Radios:''' 32.3 million (1997)
'''Tele |
other, however, led the politics of Japan. In the fifth year of her second reign, [[Baekje|Paekche]] in [[Korea]] was destroyed in 660. Japan assisted Paekche loyals to the attempt of retrieving former Paekche territory. Early in 661, Saimei started from the capital in [[Yamato province]] in [[Honshu]] with both an army and a navy and crossed the [[Inland Sea of Japan]] from east to west. The empress stayed in Ishiyu Temporary Palace in [[Iyo province]], today [[Dogo|Dōgo]] spa. In May she arrived at Asakura Palace in the north part of [[Tsukushi province]] in [[Kyushu]], today a part of [[Fukuoka prefecture]]. The allied army of Japan and Paekche was prepared the war against [[Silla]] but on July 24 (Japanese calendar), 661 she died in the Asakura Palace before the army departed to [[Korea]]. In October her body was brought from Kyushu by sea to Port Naniwa-zu (today [[Osaka, Osaka|Osaka city]]). Her funeral ceremony was held in early November.
After her death, her son Naka no Ōe ascended to the throne in 663, after the battle against Silla and the [[Sui Dynasty]].
==Notes==
#[[August 24]], [[661]] corresponds to the Twenty-fourth Day of the Seventh Month of 661 ([[Sexagenary cycle|shinyū]]) of the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until 1873.
#[[February 18]], [[642]] corresponds to the Fifteenth Day of the First Month of 642 ([[Sexagenary cycle|jin'in]]).
#[[July 12]], [[645]] corresponds to the Fourteenth Day of the Sixth Month of 645 ([[Sexagenary cycle|isshi]]).
#[[November 24]], [[654]] corresponds to the Tenth Day of the Tenth Month of 654 ([[Sexagenary cycle|kōin]]).
#[[February 14]], [[655]] corresponds to the Third Day of the First Month of 655 ([[Sexagenary cycle|itsubō]]).
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Jomei]] | after=[[Emperor Kotoku|Emperor Kōtoku]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=642-645}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Kotoku|Emperor Kōtoku]] | after=[[Emperor Tenji]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=655-661}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:594 births|Kogyoku]]
[[Category:661 deaths|Kogyoku]]
[[Category:Women in war|Kogyuku]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kogyoku]]
[[Category:Japanese women|Kogyoku]]
[[Category:Empresses|Kogyoku]]
[[de:K&#333;gyoku]]
[[it:Kogyoku imperatrice del Giappone]]
[[ja:&#30343;&#26997;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:&#30343;&#26497;&#22825;&#30343;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Kotoku</title>
<id>10422</id>
<revision>
<id>36787784</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T13:46:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LordAmeth</username>
<id>146726</id>
</contributor>
<comment>new capital</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kōtoku''' (孝徳天皇 ''Kōtoku Tennō'') ([[596]]? - [[November 24]], [[654]]){{an|Japanese_dates1 1}} was the 36th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from [[July 12]], [[645]]{{an|Japanese_dates2 2}} until his death in [[654]]. His name in birth was Prince Karu. He enacted the [[Taika Reform Edicts]].
He was a descendant of [[Emperor Bidatsu]]. He was a son of Chinu no &#333;kimi (Prince Chinu) by Kibihime no &#333;kimi (Princess Kibihime). [[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Kōgyoku]] was his elder sister from same parents. Chinu was a son of Prince Oshisaka hikohito no &#333;e whose father was the Emperor Bidatsu. He had at least three consorts including his Empress, Hashihito no Himemiko (Princess Hashihito), the daughter of [[Emperor Jomei]] and his sister Empress Kōgyoku.
In 645 he ascended to the throne two days after Prince [[Emperor Tenji|Naka no Ōe]] assassinated [[Soga no Iruka]] in the court of Kōgyoku. Kōgyoku abdicated in favor of his son and crown prince, Naka no Ōe, but Naka no Ōe insisted Kōtoku should ascend to the throne instead.
According to ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' he was of gentle personality and was favor in [[Buddhism]]. In [[645]] he created a new city in the area called [[Osaka|Naniwa]], and moved the capital from [[Yamato province]] to this new city (see [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]). The new capital had a sea port and was good for foreign trade and diplomatic activities. In 653 Kotoku sent an embassy to [[Sui dynasty]], but not all ships could reach China because of wrecking.
Naka no Ōe held the rank of crown prince and was the de facto leader of the government. In [[653]] Naka no Ōe proposed to move the capital again to Yamato province. Kotoku denied. Naka no Ōe ignored the emperor's policy and moved to the former province. Many courtiers and loyals in the court including Empress Hashihito followed him. Kotoku was left in the palace. In the next year he died because of illness. After his death, Naka no Ōe wouldn't ascend to the throne soon but his mother and the sister of Kotoku, the former Empress Kogyoku ascended to the throne under another name, Saimei.
==Notes==
==Notes==
#[[November 24]], [[654]] corresponds to the Tenth Day of the Tenth Month of [[654]] ([[Sexagenary cycle|kōin]]) of the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until [[1873]].
#[[July 12]], [[645]] corresponds to the Fourteenth Day of the Sixth Month of [[645]] ([[Sexagenary cycle|isshi]]).
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Kōgyoku]] | after=[[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Saimei]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=645-654}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:597 births|Kotoku]]
[[Category:654 deaths|Kotoku]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kotoku]]
[[de:Kōtoku]]
[[ja:孝徳天皇]]
[[zh:孝德天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Empress Saimei of Japan</title>
<id>10423</id>
<revision>
<id>21618742</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-23T02:59:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Empress Kogyoku]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Tenji</title>
<id>10424</id>
<revision>
<id>37820104</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T08:56:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.165.145.158</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hyakuninisshu 001.jpg|thumb|{{PAGENAME}} (From Ogura Hyakunin Isshu)]]
[[Image:TenchiTennoRyo.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Tomb of Emperor Tenji, [[Kyoto]]]]
'''Emperor Tenji''' (天智天皇 ''Tenji Tennō'') ([[626]]-[[672]]), also known as '''Naka no Ōe''' and '''Emperor Tenchi''', was the 38th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was the son of [[Emperor Jomei]] but was preceded as ruler by his mother [[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Saimei]].
As Prince, Naka no Ōe played a crucial role in ending the near-total control the [[Soga clan]] had over the Imperial family. In [[644]], seeing the Soga continue to gain power, he conspired with [[Nakatomi no Kamatari]] and [[Soga no Kurayamada no Ishikawa no Maro]] to assassinate [[Soga no Iruka]] in what has come to be known as the [[Itsushi Incident]]. Although the assassination did not go exactly as planned, Iruka was killed, and his father and predecessor, [[Soga no Emishi]], committed suicide soon after. Following the Itsushi Incident, Iruka's adherents dispersed largely without a fight, and Naka no Ōe was named heir apparent. He also married the daughter of his ally Soga no Kurayamada, thus ensuring that a significant portion of the Soga clan's power was on his side.
Naka no Ōe reigned as Emperor Tenji from [[661]] to [[672]]. In [[662]], he compiled the first Japanese legal code known to modern historians.
Following his death in [[672]], there ensued a succession dispute between his fourteen children (many by different mothers). In the end, he was succeeded by his son, '''Prince Otomo''', also known as [[Emperor Kobun]], then by Tenji's brother '''Prince Oama''', also known as [[Emperor Temmu]]. Almost one hundred years after Tenji's death, the throne passed to his grandson [[Emperor Konin|Emperor Kōnin]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Saimei]] | after=[[Emperor Kobun|Emperor Kōbun]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=661-672}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:626 births|Tenji]]
[[Category:672 deaths|Tenji]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Tenji]]
[[cs:Tendži]]
[[de:Tenji]]
[[ko:덴지 천황]]
[[it:Tenji imperatore del Giappone]]
[[he:טנג'י]]
[[nl:Tenji]]
[[ja:天智天皇]]
[[zh:天智天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Kobun</title>
<id>10425</id>
<revision>
<id>37820316</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T08:59:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.165.145.158</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kōbun''' (弘文天皇 ''Kōbun Tennō''), also known as Prince Otomo ([[648]] - [[672]]) was the 39th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from the twelfth month fifth day, 671 to the seventh month 23rd day, 672
{{japan-bio-stub}}
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{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Tenji]] | after=[[Emperor Temmu]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=671-672}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:648 births|Kobun]]
[[Category:672 deaths|Kobun]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kobun]]
[[cs:Kóbun]]
[[de:Kōbun]]
[[eo:Kobun]]
[[nl:Kobun]]
[[ja:弘文天皇]]
[[zh:弘文天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Temmu</title>
<id>10426</id>
<revision>
<id>40865191</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T14:51:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jefu</username>
<id>256366</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Undoing my own incorrect edit...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Temmu''' (天武天皇 ''Temmu Tennō'') (c. [[631]] - [[ |
rong and healthy Sauropod, or a whack of a tail.
A recent study found that Allosaurus’ powerful bite was not in the musles of its jaws, but its neck and reinforced skull. It would gape and cleave flesh from its prey by using its powerfully-muscled neck to wield its impact-resistant skull like an axe. This would have done far more damage than simply opening and closing its jaws.
Allosaurus was a Carnosaur, and his intelligence was high. His EQ ( Enephalization Quotient, or how its brain measured to its body) was about 1.9 EQ.
In 1998, a Allosaurus nest was discovered in Wyoming. Fossils of adults and young were found, along with tons of Herbivore bones. The bones had teeth marks from young and from grown Allosaurs. This shows that Allosaurs may have brought food back to the nests to feed to their young.
It’s not determined that Allosaurs were able to communicate vocally besides a hiss. But because their closest living relatives, birds and crocodiles can, it probably means Allosaurus could too. It’s certain that Allosaurus used visual communication some what. The crest on its head is proof of this. Its crest was probably colorful. Communicating by bobbing the head was probably part of courting and telling of enemies. Showing its massive teeth was probably another way of warding of threats.
During the Mesozoic era, the climate was warmer, the seasons were mild, the sea level was higher, and there was no polar ice. In the mid-Jurassic, Laurasia and Gondwanaland started forming because Pangaea was breaking apart. By the late Jurassic, the spreading of Laurasia and Gondwanaland was almost complete. The climate of the Jurassic period was hot and dry, but later
changed, with no polar ice, warm and moist, and very much flooding in vast areas. Pterosaurs starting flying in the sky.
The seas during the Jurassic period were home to tons of coral reefs, fish, ichthyosaurs, (fishlike reptiles), plesiosaurs, giant marine crocodiles, ammonites, squid, sharks, and rays.
Triassic plant lines continued. Many palm-like trees, called Cycads were around. There was also many seed ferns, gingkos, and conifers in the subtropical forests.
So far, more than sixty complete and partial Allosaurus skeletons have been found. They’ve been found in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Montana, South Dakota, Oklahoma, and possibly Portugal and Tanzania.
In one quarry here in Utah, remains of at least 44 Allosaurs were found mixed together! The teeth of Allosaurus are the most common remains of theropods from the late Jurassic in the American West.
In 1991 a 95% complete Allosaurus skeleton was found, and was later named Big Al. the skeleton was excavated near Shell, Wyoming by the Museum of the Rockies and the University of Wyoming Geological Museum. It was originally discovered by a Swiss team led by Kirby Siber. They later found a second Allosaurus, named “Big Al Two”. It’s the best preserved skeleton of Allosaurus yet.
-->
{{taxobox
| color=pink
| name=Allosaurus
| image = Allosaurus-fossilized skull.jpeg
| image_width = 225px
| image_caption = [[Fossil]]ized ''Allosaurus'' [[skull]]
| status = {{StatusFossil}}
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Reptile|Sauropsida]]
| ordo = [[Saurischia]]
| subordo = [[Theropoda]]
| infraordo = [[Carnosauria]]
| familia = [[Allosauridae]]
| genus = '''''Allosaurus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Othniel Charles Marsh|Marsh]] 1877
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''?A. amplexus''<br/>
''?A. ferox''<br/>
''A. jimmadseni''<br/>
''A. fragilis'' ([[type species|type]])<br/>
}}
'''''Allosaurus''''' (AL-oh-sore-us) meaning “different lizard”, because its [[vertebrae]] were different from those of all other dinosaurs ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''allos'' = different + ''sauros'' = lizard), was a large [[carnivore|carnivorous]] [[dinosaur]] with a length of up to 12&nbsp;[[metre|m]] (39&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). It was the most common large predator in [[North America]], 155 to 145 [[million years ago]], in the [[Jurassic]] [[geologic period|period]].
''Allosaurus'' is the official [[state fossil]] of [[Utah]], in the [[United States]].
== Description ==
[[Image:Allosaurus1.jpg|thumb|210px|left|A replica Allosaurus skeleton at a New Zealand museum]]
''Allosaurus'' is a classic big [[theropod]]: a large [[skull]] on a short [[neck]], a long [[tail]], and reduced forelimbs. Its most distinctive feature is a pair of blunt horns just above and in front of the eyes. Although short in comparison to the hindlimbs, the forelimbs are massive and bear large, eagle-like [[claw]]s. The skull shows evidence of being composed of separate modules, which could be moved in relation to one another, allowing large pieces of meat to be swallowed. The skeleton of ''Allosaurus'', like other theropods, shows [[bird]]like features like a wishbone and neck vertebrae hollowed by air sacs. It is thought that ''Allosaurus'' might have hunted in packs, allowing it to bring down the large sauropods of the time. Allosaurus was extremely light compared to other dinosaurs its size, which may have allowed it to leap onto its prey (something that only small dinosaurs could do) without sustaining severe injury.
== Findings ==
''Allosaurus'' is the most common theropod in the huge section of dinosaur-bearing rock in the [[American Southwest]] known as the [[Morrison Formation]]. Remains have been recovered in [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]], [[South Dakota]], [[Colorado]], [[Oklahoma]], [[New Mexico]], and Utah in the United States; and in [[Portugal]]. Curiously, ''Allosaurus'' shared the Jurassic landscape with several other theropods, including ''[[Ceratosaurus]]'' and the massive ''[[Torvosaurus]]''.
A famous [[fossil]] bed can be found in the [[Cleveland Lloyd Quarry]] in Utah. This fossil bed contains over 10,000 bones, mostly of ''Allosaurus'', with other dinosaurs like ''[[Stegosaurus]]'' and ''[[Ceratosaurus]]'' thrown in. It is still a mystery how the remnants of so many animals can be found in one place: normally the ratio of fossils of carnivorous animals over fossils of plant eaters is very small. Findings like these can be explained by pack hunting, although this is difficult to prove.
One of the more significant finds was the 1991 discovery of "[[Big Al]]" (MOR 593), a 95% complete, partially articulated, juvenile specimen that measured 8 meters (26 feet) in length. Nineteen bones were broken or showed signs of [[infection]], which probably contributed to Big Al's death. It was featured in "The Ballad of Big Al", a special programme in the [[BBC]]'s ''[[Walking with Dinosaurs]]'' series. The fossils were excavated near [[Shell, Wyoming]] by the [[Museum of the Rockies]] and the [[University of Wyoming]] Geological Museum. This skeleton was initially discovered by a Swiss team led by Kirby Siber, which later excavated a second Allosaurus "Big Al Two", which is the best preserved skeleton of its kind to date.
== Classification and history ==
[[Image:Allo.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The Allosaurus Big Al]]
The first ''Allosaurus'' [[fossil]] to be described was a "petrified [[horse]] hoof" given to [[Ferdinand Vandiveer Hayden]] in [[1869]] by the natives of Middle Park, near [[Granby, Colorado]]. It was actually a caudal [[vertebra]] (a tail bone), which [[Joseph Leidy]] tentatively assigned first to the ''[[Poicilopleuron]]'' [[genus]], and later to a new genus, ''[[Antrodemus]]''. However, it was [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] who gave the formal name ''Allosaurus fragilis'' to the genus and [[type species]] in [[1877]], based on much better material including a partial skeleton, from Garden Park, north of [[Canon City, Colorado]].
The name ''Allosaurus'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''allos'', meaning "strange" or "different"; and ''sauros'', meaning "lizard" or "reptile". The species epithet ''fragilis'' is [[Latin]] for "fragile". Both refer to lightening features in the vertebrae.
It is unclear how many species of ''Allosaurus'' there were. The material from the Cleveland-Lloyd ''Allosaurus'' is much smaller and more lightly built than the huge, robust ''Allosaurus'' from [[Brigham Young University]]'s [[Dry Mesa Quarry]]. Fossils resembling ''Allosaurus'' have been described from [[Portugal]].
''Allosaurus'''s closest relative is probably the Lower Cretaceous ''[[Acrocanthosaurus]]''.
== External links ==
* "[http://www.dinodata.net/Dd/Namelist/TABA/A078.htm ''Allosaurus'']". ''DinoData''.
* [http://www.uwyo.edu/geomuseum/tour/allosaur.htm ''Allosaurus'', the story of "Big Al"], from the University of Wyoming Geological Museum in Laramie.
* [http://pioneer.utah.gov/fossil.html Public Pioneer, Utah State Fossil, Allosaurus], from Utah.gov.
* [http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/dino/allo2.htm?143,44 ''Allosaurus fragilis''], [[Smithsonian Institute|Smithsonian]] National Museum of Natural History, Department of Paleobiology.
* [http://dml.cmnh.org/1995Nov/msg00278.html List of the many possible ''Allosaurus'' species...]
[[Category:Theropods]]
[[Category:Carnosaurs]]
[[Category:Jurassic dinosaurs]]
[[de:Allosaurus]]
[[es:Allosaurus]]
[[fr:Allosaurus]]
[[he:אלוזאור שברירי]]
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[[ja:アロサウルス]]
[[nl:Allosaurus]]
[[pt:Alossauro]]
[[sk:Allosaurus]]
[[fi:Allosaurus]]
[[sv:Allosaurus]]
[[zh:跃龙属]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AK-47</title>
<id>1348</id>
<revision>
<id>42100227</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:58:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>units</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Firearm|
name=AK-47
|image=[[Image:Ak-47.gif|275px|Both sides of an AK-47]]
|caption=Both sides of an AK-47
|nation=[[Soviet Union]], [[Russia]]
|type=[[Assault rifle]]
|inven |
four years after the original 1881 deadline, it was completed over five years ahead of the new date of 1891 that Macdonald gave in 1881.
The successful construction of such a massive project, although troubled by delays and scandal, was considered an impressive feat of engineering and political will for a country with a small population, limited capital, and difficult terrain. It was by far the longest railway ever constructed at the time.
Meanwhile, in Eastern Canada, the CPR had created a network of lines reaching from Quebec City to [[St. Thomas, Ontario]] by 1885. The CPR had effected purchases and long-term [[leasing|leases]] of several railways through an associated railway company, the [[Ontario and Quebec Railway]] (O&Q), who also built a line between [[Perth, Ontario]] and [[Toronto]] (completed on [[May 5]], [[1884]]) to connect these acquisitions. The CPR obtained a 999-year lease on the O&Q on [[January 4]], [[1884]].
===1886-1900===
So many cost-cutting shortcuts were taken in constructing the railway that regular transcontinental service could not start for another seven months while work was done to improve the railway's condition. However, had these shortcuts not been taken, it is conceivable that the CPR might have had to default financially, leaving the railway unfinished. The first transcontinental train arrived at Port Moody on [[July 4]], [[1886]]. By that time, however, the CPR had decided to move its western terminus from Port Moody to a hamlet that was renamed "Vancouver" later that year. The first official train to Vancouver arrived on [[May 23]], [[1887]], although the line had been in use for three months before that. The CPR quickly became profitable, and all loans from the Federal government were repaid years ahead of time.
In 1888, a branch line was opened between [[Sudbury, Ontario|Sudbury]] and [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Ste. Marie]] where the CPR connected with the American railway system and its own [[steamship]]s. That same year, work was started on a line from [[London, Ontario]] to the American border at [[Windsor, Ontario]]. That line opened on [[June 12]], [[1890]]. The CPR also acquired several small lines east of Montreal; it also leased the [[New Brunswick Railway]] for 999 years, and built the [[International Railway of Maine]], connecting Montreal with [[Saint John, New Brunswick]] in 1889. The connection with Saint John on the Atlantic coast made the CPR the first truly transcontinental railway company and permitted trans-Atlantic cargo and passenger services to continue year-round when [[sea ice]] in the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] closed the port of Montreal during the winter months.
By 1896, competition with the [[Great Northern Railway (US)|Great Northern Railway]] for traffic in southern British Columbia forced the CPR to construct a second line across the province, south of the original line. Van Horne, now [[president]] of the CPR, asked for government aid, and the government agreed to provide around $3.6 million to construct a railway from [[Lethbridge, Alberta]] through [[Crowsnest Pass]] to the south shore of [[Kootenay Lake]], in exchange for the CPR agreeing to reduce freight rates in perpetuity for key commodities shipped in Western Canada. The controversial Crowsnest Pass Agreement effectively locked the eastbound rate on [[cereal|grain]] products and westbound rates on certain "settlers' effects" at the 1897 level. Although temporarily suspended during [[World War I]], it was not until 1983 that the "Crow Rate" was permanently replaced by the Western Grain Transportation Act which allowed for the gradual increase of grain shipping prices. The Crowsnest Pass line opened on [[June 18]], [[1899]].
===1901-1928===
During the first decade of the twentieth century, the CPR continued to build more lines. In 1908 the CPR opened a line connecting [[Toronto]] with [[Sudbury, Ontario|Sudbury]]. Previously, westbound traffic originating in [[Southern Ontario]] took a circuitous route through [[Eastern Ontario]].
Several operational improvements were also made to the railway in [[Western Canada]]. In 1909 the CPR completed two significant [[engineering]] accomplishments. The most significant was the replacement of the Big Hill, which had become a major bottleneck in the CPR's main line, with the [[Spiral Tunnels]], reducing the grade to 2.2% from 4.5%. The Spiral Tunnels opened in August. On [[November 3]], [[1909]], the [[Lethbridge Viaduct]] over the [[Oldman River]] valley at [[Lethbridge, Alberta]] was opened. It is 1,624 metres (5,327 ft) long and, at its maximum, 96 metres (314 ft) high, making it the longest railway bridge in Canada. In 1916 the CPR replaced its line through [[Rogers Pass]], which was prone to [[avalanche]]s, with the [[Connaught Tunnel]], an eight km (5 mile) long tunnel under [[Mount Macdonald]] that was, at the time of its opening, the longest railway tunnel in the [[Western hemisphere]].
The CPR acquired several smaller railways via long-term leases in 1912. On [[January 3]], [[1912]], the CPR acquired the [[Dominion Atlantic Railway]], a railway that ran in western [[Nova Scotia]]. This acquisition gave the CPR a connection to [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], a significant port on the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The Dominion Atlantic connected to the CPR at [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] with its own [[train ferry|car ferry]] service across the [[Bay of Fundy]]. DAR steamships also provided connections for passengers and cargo between [[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and [[New York, New York|New York]]. On [[July 1]], [[1912]], the CPR acquired the [[E and N Railway|Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway]], a railway on [[Vancouver Island]] that also connected to the CPR by car ferry. The CPR also acquired the [[Quebec Central Railway]] on [[December 14]], [[1912]].
When [[World War I]] broke out in 1914, the CPR devoted resources to the war effort, and managed to stay profitable while its competitors struggled to remain solvent. After the war, the Federal government created [[Canadian National Railway]]s (CNR, later CN) out of several bankrupt railways that fell into government hands during and after the war. CNR would become the main competitor to the CPR in Canada.
===The Great Depression and World War II, 1929-1945===
The [[Great Depression]], which lasted from 1929 until 1939, hit many companies heavily. While the CPR was affected, it was not affected to the same extent that its rival CNR because it, unlike the CNR, was debt-free. The CPR scaled back on some of its passenger and freight services, and stopped issuing dividends to its shareholders after 1932.
One highlight of the 1930s, both for the railway and for Canada, was the visit of [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] and [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Queen Elizabeth]] to Canada in 1939, the first time that the reigning monarch had visited the country. The CPR and the CNR shared the honours of pulling the royal train across the country, with the CPR undertaking the westbound journey from Quebec City to Vancouver.
Later that year, [[World War II]] would begin. As it had done in [[World War I]], the CPR devoted much of its resources to the war effort. It retooled its [[Angus Shops]] in [[Montreal]] to produce [[Valentine tank]]s, and transported troops and resources across the country. As well, 22 of the CPR's ships went to war, 12 of which were sunk.
===1946-1978===
After World War II, the transportation industry in [[Canada]] changed. Where railways had previously provided almost universal freight and passenger services, [[automobile|car]]s, [[truck]]s, and [[airplane]]s started to take traffic away from railways. This naturally helped the CPR's air and trucking operations, and the railway's freight operations continued to thrive hauling resource traffic and bulk commodities. However, passenger trains quickly became unprofitable.
During the 1950s, the railway introduced new innovations in passenger service, and in 1955 introduced ''[[The Canadian]]'', a new luxury transcontinental train. However, starting in the 1960s the company started to pull out of passenger services, ending services on many of its branch lines. It also discontinued its transcontinental train ''[[The Dominion]]'' in 1966, and in 1970 unsuccessfully applied to discontinue ''The Canadian''. On [[October 29]], [[1978]], CP Rail transferred its passenger services to [[VIA Rail]], a new federal [[Crown corporation]] that would be responsible for managing all intercity passenger service formerly handled by both CP Rail and CN.
[[Image:CP-Rail-logo.png|thumb|170px|right|The CP Rail logo (1968-1996)]]
In 1968, as part of a corporate re-organization, each of the CPR's major operations, including its rail operations, were organized as separate subsidiaries. The name of the railway was changed to CP Rail, and the parent company changed its name to [[Canadian Pacific Limited]] in 1971. The company discarded its beaver logo, adopting the new [[Multimark]] logo that could be used for each of its operations.
===1979-present===
In 1984 CP Rail commenced construction of the [[Mount Macdonald Tunnel]] to augment the [[Connaught Tunnel]] under the [[Selkirk Mountains]]. The first revenue train passed through the tunnel in 1988. At 14.7 km (9 miles), it is the longest tunnel in the [[The Americas|Americas]].
[[Image:EMD SD60 SOO 6022.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Soo Line]] 6022, an [[General Motors Electro-Motive Division|EMD]] [[EMD SD60|SD 60]], pulls a train through [[Wisconsin Dells, WI]], [[June 20]] [[2004]].]]
During the 1980s, the [[Soo Line]], in which CP Rail still owned a controlling interest, underwent several changes. It acquired the [[Minneapolis, Northfield and Southern Railway]] in 1982. Then on [[February 21]], [[1985]], the Soo Line obtained a contro |
i.e. it must be approached and left by step in the same direction.
#Avoid the interval of the unison except at the beginning or end of the example, except that it may occur on the unaccented portion of the bar.
#Use caution with successive accented perfect fifths or octaves. They must not be used as part of a sequential pattern.
[[Image:species2.png|center|500px|thumb|Short example of "Second Species" counterpoint]]
===Third species===
In ''third species'' counterpoint, four (or three) notes move against each longer note in the given part. As with second species, it is expanded if the shorter notes vary in length among themselves.
[[Image:species3.png|center|500px|thumb|Short example of "Third Species" counterpoint]]
===Fourth species===
In ''fourth species'' counterpoint, a note is sustained or ''suspended'' in an added part while notes move against it in the given part, creating a [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]], followed by the suspended note then changing (and "catching up") to create a subsequent [[Consonance and dissonance|consonance]] with the note in the given part as it continues to sound. Fourth species counterpoint is said to be expanded when the added-part notes vary in length from each other. The technique requires chains of notes sustained across the boundaries determined by beat, and so creates [[syncopation]].
[[Image:species4.png|center|500px|thumb|Short example of "Fourth Species" counterpoint]]
===Florid counterpoint===
In ''fifth species'' counterpoint, sometimes called ''florid counterpoint'', the other four species of counterpoint are combined within the added part (or added parts). In the example, the first and second bars are second species, the third bar is third species, and the fourth and fifth bars are third and embellished fourth species.
[[Image:species5.png|center|500px|thumb|Short example of "Florid" counterpoint]]
===General notes===
It is a common and pedantic misconception that counterpoint is ''defined'' by these five species, and therefore anything that does not follow the strict rules of the five species is not counterpoint. This is not true; although much contrapuntal music of the [[common practice period]] indeed adheres to the rules, there are exceptions. Fux's book and its concept of "species" was purely a method of teaching counterpoint, not a definitive or rigidly prescriptive set of rules for it. He arrived at his method of teaching (or so he believed, at least) by examining the works of [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]], an important late 16th century composer and one who in Fux's time was held in the highest esteem as a contrapuntist. Works in the contrapuntal style of the 16th century&mdash;the "prima pratica" or "stile antico," it was called by modernist composers then&mdash;were often said by Fux's contemporaries to be in "Palestrina style." Indeed, Fux's treatise is a rather accurate compendeum of Palestrina's techniques.
<nowiki>*</nowiki> (Note: in counterpoint, the parts or individual melodic strands are often called ''voices'', even if the music is thought of as instrumental.)
==Contrapuntal derivations==
Since the [[Renaissance_music|Renaissance]] period in European music, much music which is considered contrapuntal has been written in imitative counterpoint. In imitative counterpoint, two or more voices enter at different times, and (especially when entering) each voice repeats some version of the same melodic element. The ''[[fantasia (music)|fantasia]]'', the ''[[ricercar]]'', and later, the [[fugue]] (the contrapuntal form ''par excellence'') all feature imitative counterpoint, which also frequently appears in [[choir|choral]] works such as [[motet]]s and [[madrigal (music)|madrigals]]. Imitative counterpoint has spawned a number of devices that composers have turned to in order to give their works both [[mathematical rigor]] and expressive range. Some of these devices include:
* '''[[Inversion (music)|Inversion]]''': The inverse of a given fragment of melody is the fragment turned upside down – so if the original fragment has a rising major third (see [[interval (music)|interval]]), the inverted fragment has a falling major (or perhaps minor) third. (Compare, in [[twelve tone technique]], the inversion of the tone row, which is the so-called prime series turned upside down.) In a completely separate sense, a contrapuntal inversion of melodies being simultaneously sounded by voices is the subsequent switching of the melodies between voices, so that for example an upper-voice melody is now sounded in some lower voice, and vice versa.
* '''[[Retrograde]]''' refers to the contrapuntal device whereby notes in an imitative voice sound backwards in relation to their order in the original.
* '''[[Retrograde inversion]]''' is where the imitative voice sounds notes both backwards and upside down.
*'''[[Augmentation]]''' is when in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the notes are extended in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced.
*'''[[Diminution]]''' is when in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the notes are reduced in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced.
==Dissonant counterpoint==
Dissonant counterpoint was first theorized by [[Charles Seeger]] as "at first purely a school-room discipline," consisting of species counterpoint but with all the traditional rules reversed. First species counterpoint is required to be all dissonances, establishing "dissonance, rather than consonance, as the rule," and consonances are "resolved" through a skip, not step. He wrote that "the effect of this discipline" was "one of purification." Other [[aspects of music|aspects of composition]], such as rhythm, could be "dissonated" by applying the same principle (Charles Seeger, "On Dissonant Counterpoint," Modern Music 7, no. 4 (June-July 1930): 25-26).
Seeger was not the first to employ dissonant counterpoint, but was the first to theorize and promote it. Other composers who have used dissonant counterpoint, if not in the exact manner prescribed by Charles Seeger, include [[Ruth Crawford-Seeger]], [[Carl Ruggles]], [[Dane Rudhyar]], and [[Arnold Schoenberg]].
==Source==
*Corozine, Vince (2002). ''Arranging Music for the Real World: Classical and Commercial Aspects''. ISBN 0786649615.
==External links==
*[http://www.ntoll.org/interests/music/species/ A guide to species counterpoint]
*[http://www.musique.umontreal.ca/personnel/Belkin/bk.C/index.html Principles of Counterpoint]
*[http://www.o-art.org/history/early/Seeger.html On Dissonant Counterpoint by David Nicholls]
*[http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m2298/2_17/61551810/p6/article.jhtml?term= Dane Rudhyar's Vision of American Dissonance by Carol J. Oja]
*[http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/textd/Dissonantcounterpoint.html Dissonant counterpoint examples and definition]
*[http://www.music.columbia.edu/~chris/ctrpnt.html De-Mystifying Tonal Counterpoint or How to Overcome Your Fear of Composing Counterpoint Exercises] by Christopher Dylan Bailey, composer at Columbia
*[http://www.greenwych.ca/musicmid.htm New Tonal Music composed with emphasis on counterpoint]
*[http://www.greenwych.ca/drone.htm Role of the drone in the evolution of counterpoint and harmony]
[[Category:Counterpoint]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cyanide</title>
<id>5910</id>
<revision>
<id>42017443</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:17:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.200.95.130</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* In fiction */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''cyanide''' is any [[chemical compound]] that contains the '''cyano group''' C&equiv;N, with the [[carbon]] [[atom]] [[chemical bond|triple-bonded]] to the [[nitrogen]] atom. [[inorganic chemistry|Inorganic]] cyanides contain the highly toxic '''cyanide ion''' CN<sup>–</sup>, and are the [[salt]]s of the [[acid]] [[hydrogen cyanide]] ([[hydrogen|H]]CN). [[Organic chemistry|Organic]] cyanides contain the cyano group single-bonded to another carbon atom, and are also known as [[nitrile]]s. The cyano group is also known as the nitrile group.
== Appearance and odour ==
Hydrogen cyanide is a colorless gas with a faint, bitter, [[almond]]-like odour. Nearly 40 percent of the population is unable to smell cyanide at all because they lack the necessary gene for smelling the odour. [[Sodium cyanide]] (NaCN) and [[potassium cyanide]] (KCN) are both white solids or powder with a bitter, almond-like odour in damp air.
== Occurrence and uses ==
Cyanides can be produced by certain [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[fungi]], and [[algae]], and are found in a number of foods and plants. In plants, cyanides are usually bound to sugar molecules in the form of [[glycoside|cyanogenic glycosides]] and serve the plant as defense against [[herbivore]]s. [[Cassava]] roots (aka manioc), an important potato-like food grown in tropical countries, contain cyanogenic glycosides and must be processed prior to consumption (usually by extended boiling).
[[Fruit]]s that have a pit, such as [[cherry|cherries]] and [[apricot]]s, often contain either cyanides or cyanogenic glycosides in the pit. [[Apple]] seeds do as well. Bitter [[almond]]s, from which almond oil and flavouring is made, also contain a cyanogenic glycoside, [[amygdalin]].
[[Hydrogen cyanide]] is contained in vehicle exhaust and in [[tobacco]] smoke. Because the smoke of some burning plastics |
negyric]]; and when a stranger flatteringly told [[Voltaire]] he had come to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen Abauzit.
Little remains of the labours of this intellectual giant, his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into their possession, because their own religious opinions were different. A few theological, archaeological and astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the ''Journal Helvetique'' and elsewhere, and he contributed several papers to Rousseau's ''Dictionnaire de musique'' (1767). He wrote a work throwing doubt on the [[canonical]] authority of the [[Apocalypse]], which called forth a reply from Dr [[Leonard Twells]]. He also edited and made valuable additions to [[J. Spon]]'s ''Histoire de la republique de Geneve''. A collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 1770 (''Oeuvres de feu M. Abauzit''), and another at [[London]] in 1773 (''Oeuvres diverses de M. Abauzit''). Some of them were translated into [[English language|English]] by Dr [[Edward Harwood]] (1774).
Information regarding Abauzit will be found in J. Senebier's ''Histoire Litteraire de Genève'', Harwood's ''Miscellanies,'' and W. Orme's ''Bibliotheca Biblica'' (1824).
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abauzit, Firmin}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:1679 births|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[Category:1767 deaths|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[Category:French philosophers|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[Category:French physicists|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[Category:French theologians|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[fr:Firmin Abauzit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>French Foreign Legion</title>
<id>11544</id>
<revision>
<id>41922952</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:20:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>163.191.202.2</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Legion in popular culture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:French Foreign Legion dsc06878.jpg|thumb|''Légionnaires'' in dress uniform. Note the red epaulettes and the distinctive white [[kepi]]. They carry the standard assault rifle, the [[FAMAS]].]]
The '''French Foreign Legion''' ([[French language|French]]: '''''Légion Étrangère''''') is an unique and distinguished unit within the [[French Army]] since [[1831]]. It is an elite rapid deployment force made up of foreign volunteers serving France.
==History==
The French Foreign Legion was created by [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis Philippe]], then [[King of France]], on [[March 10]], [[1831]], to support his war in [[Algeria]]. Successive legions were also raised to augment the French forces in the [[Crimean War]], in [[Italy]], and in [[Mexico]].
Initially, the Legion proved to be an effective means for removing some of the more "undesirable" elements of 19th century French society, as its ranks were filled with cut-throats, run-aways, beggars, general criminals and unwanted immigrants. During its early period, the Legionnaire was very poorly trained and given only the most basic of equipment, clothing and food. He tended to be badly motivated - as his reasons for joining were desperation and self preservation rather than patriotism (he would most likely be running away from some grave problem in his life). Living and working conditions were terrible, and their early campaigns were typically bloody affairs. As a result, [[desertion]] has traditionally been a major problem for the Legion, and in fact continues to be so to this day.
The task of forging a rag-tag band of poorly-motivated would-be warriors - from many different cultures - into an effective fighting force proved to be an immensely difficult undertaking. To accomplish this, the Legion quickly developed an incredibly austere code of discipline, far in excess of that of other contemporary units (even within their own French army).
===Mexico===
It was in [[Mexico]] on [[30 April]] [[1863]] that the Legion earned its legendary status. The small infantry patrol led by [[Capitaine Danjou]] numbering 62 soldiers and 3 officers was attacked and besieged by over two thousand[http://www.channel4.com/life/microsites/E/escape_to_the_legion/legion.html] Mexican infantry and cavalry units organized into 3 [[battalions]], and was forced to make a defense in '''Hacienda Camarón'''. Despite the hopelessness of the situation they fought nearly to the last man. Danjou was mortally wounded in the defense of the [[hacienda]], and the last of his men mounted a desperate [[bayonet]] attack. When the last three survivors were asked to surrender, they insisted that the Mexican soldiers allow them safe passage back home, to keep their flag, and to escort the body of the fallen Danjou. Upon seeing this, the Mexican commander commented, "these are not men, they are devils," and out of respect agreed to these terms.
Today the "Camerone Day" is an important day of celebration for the Legionnaires, when the wooden prosthetic hand of Capitane Danjou is brought on display.
===Franco-Prussian War===
During the [[Franco-Prussian War]], the Legion attempted to lift the [[Siege of Paris]] by breaking through the German lines. They succeeded in taking [[Orléans]], but failed to break the siege.
===Colonial Warfare===
During the [[Third Republic]], the Legion played a major role in French colonial expansion. They fought in North Africa (where they established their headquarters at [[Sidi-Bel-Abbès]] in [[Algeria]]), [[Madagascar]], and [[Indochina]], where they participated in the celebrated [[Sino-French War|defense of Tuyen Quang]] in 1885.
===The World Wars===
In [[World War I]] the Legion fought in many critical battles of the war, including the [[Battle of Verdun]]. The Legion was heavily decorated for its efforts in the war.
The Foreign Legion was heavily involved in [[World War II]], playing a large role in the Middle East and the North African campaign. The 13th Demi-Brigade was deployed in the [[Battle of Bir Hakeim]]. Interestingly, part of the Legion was loyal to the [[Free French]] movement, yet another part was loyal to the [[Vichy France|Vichy]] government. A battle in Syria saw two opposing sides fight against each other in a short engagement, and later on the Vichy Legion joined its Free French brethren.
===Indochina===
Units of the Legion were deployed in [[French Indochina]] and fought in the [[Franco-Chinese War]], and one battalion was the key component in the celebrated defense of the fortress of Tuyen Quang when it was assaulted by Chinese troops many times its number.
Units of the Legion were involved in the defense of [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu|Dien Bien Phu]] and lost a large number of their men in the battle. Towards the desperate end of the battle, Legionnaires formed the bulk of the volunteer relief force which were delivered by parachute to the base.
==Membership==
While most of its [[commissioned officer|commissioned officers]] are French, approximately 10% are former legionnaires who have risen through the ranks. The rest of the Legion is made up of men from a wide variety of nationalities, with French citizens representing 25-35% of the legionnaires. The foreign volunteers are primarily European. Before and during [[World War II]], many [[Jews]] from [[Eastern Europe]] fled to France and ended up enlisting in the legion. Ironically, after the fall of the Third Reich, Germans (long a major presence in the legion) accounted for roughly sixty percent of the manpower, with many former [[German]] troops coming directly from [[WWII]] [[POW]] camps ([[Bernard B. Fall]], a leading expert on French Indochina and author of ''Street without Joy'' and ''Hell in a Very Small Place'', disputes this fact and claims that at most Germans only made up thirty-five percent of the Legion in the post-WWII period). The book ''[[Devil's Guard]]'' relates a former [[Waffen-SS]] member's brutal account of joining the Legion and fighting with fellow former [[Waffen-SS|SS]] against the [[Vietminh]] in Indochina. During the mid 1980s the Legion contained large contingents of [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Serbian]] nationals. Present day has seen a number of recruits from [[African]] countries.
Interestingly, the Legion's ranks historically tend to be filled with enlistees from countries undergoing some sort of crisis. In recent generations, however, many of those joining have come from middle-class backgrounds in stable prosperous countries such as Britain and the US (and indeed France itself).
Legionnaires can choose to enlist under a [[pseudonym]] ("declared identity") and a declared citizenship. This disposition exists in order to allow people who want to turn over a new leaf in their life to enlist. French citizens can enlist under a declared, fictitious, foreign citizenship (generally, a [[francophone]] one). After one year, legionnaires can regularize their situation under their true identity.
In the past, the Legion had a reputation for attracting [[crime|criminals]] on the run and would-be [[mercenary|mercenaries]]. In recent years, however, admission has been restricted much more severely and background checks are done on all applicants. Generally speaking, convicted felons are prohibited from joining the service.
After serving in the Legion for three years (out of a five-year initial enlistment), the legionnaire is allowed to apply for French citizenship. Furthermore, a soldier harmed in combat for France is also allowed to apply for French citizenship under a provision known as ''"Français par le sang versé"'' ("French by spilled blood").
==Composition==
Previously, the Legion was not stationed in mainland France except in wartime. Until 1962 the Legion headquarters were stationed in Sidi-Bel-Abbès, [[Algeria]]. Nowadays, some units of the legion are in Corsica or overseas possessions, while the rest is in the south of mainland France. Current headquarters are in [[Aubag |
98/04/29/harvard_research_and_destroy.php
# {{note|Bokcrit}} Bok, in Derek Bok, ''Universities in the Marketplace'', Princeton (2003)
# {{note|rosovsky}} Rosovsky, in Henry Rosovsky, ''The University: An Owner's Manual'', Norton (1990)
# {{note|corporate}} John Trumpbour, ed., ''How Harvard Rules'', South End (1989)
# {{note|legacy}} http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/~perspy/old/issues/1997/nov/second.html
# {{note|nytimesminorities}} http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/01/education/01college.html
# {{note|hbscasemethod}} http://www.cfoeurope.com/displayStory.cfm/1777470
# {{note|facultyplagiarism}} http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=503493
# {{note|secretcourt}} [[William Wright (author) | Wright, William]], ''Harvard's Secret Court: The Savage 1920 Purge of Campus Homosexuals'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 2005. ISBN 0312322712.
{{Harvard}}
{{Ivy League}}
{{ECAC Hockey League}}
{{Colleges and universities in metropolitan Boston}}
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[[es:Universidad de Harvard]]
[[fr:Université Harvard]]
[[gl:Universidade de Harvard]]
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[[zh:哈佛大学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Humans</title>
<id>13738</id>
<revision>
<id>15911331</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T17:21:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Human]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Human]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hawaiian monarchy</title>
<id>13739</id>
<revision>
<id>15911332</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-20T20:56:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gerald Farinas</username>
<id>69007</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kingdom of Hawaii]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hawaiian alphabet</title>
<id>13740</id>
<revision>
<id>15911333</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-10T03:46:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{r with possibilities}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hawaiian language]] {{r with possibilities}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heterogamous</title>
<id>13741</id>
<revision>
<id>36046438</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T03:58:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ceyockey</username>
<id>150564</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Heterogamous''' describes a species in which [[gamete|gametes]] show [[sexual dimorphism]] (that is, [[sperm]] and [[ovum]]). This is in contrast to a [[homogamous]] species in which all gametes are the same type.
[[Category:Biological reproduction]]
{{biosci-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hero Wars</title>
<id>13742</id>
<revision>
<id>38565880</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T03:44:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Avador</username>
<id>246309</id>
</contributor>
<comment>creating redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[HeroQuest (role-playing game)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harry Connick, Jr.</title>
<id>13743</id>
<revision>
<id>41935585</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:07:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.189.45.16</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Back to basics: return to jazz, 1999&mdash;current */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Harryconnickjr.jpg|thumbnail|220px|Harry Connick, Jr.]]
'''Harry Connick, Jr.''' (born [[September 11]], [[1967]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Popular Music/Performers|singer]], [[pianist]], [[actor]], and [[humanitarian]].
His music encompasses [[jazz]], some of it very much in the style of the [[crooner]]s of the [[1940s]] and early [[1950s|'50s]], [[funk]] and [[blues]]. He married model [[Jill Goodacre]] in [[1994]]. They have three daughters: Georgia Tatom (April 17, 1996), Sarah Kate (September 12, 1997), and Charlotte (June 26, 2002). He is a prime organizer and captain of the [[Krewe of Orpheus]], a music-based krewe, taking its name from [[Orpheus]] of Classical mythology. The Krewe of Orpheus parades on St. Charles Avenue and Canal Street on Lundi Gras (Fat Monday) &mdash; the day before [[Mardi Gras]] (Fat Tuesday).
==Early history==
Harry Connick, Jr., was born '''Joseph Harry Fowler Connick''' in New Orleans, [[Louisiana]], on September 11, 1967. His father, [[Harry Connick, Sr.]], was of [[Irish Catholic]] descent and the [[district attorney]] of [[New Orleans]] for 27 years; his [[New York]]-born [[Jewish]] mother was a [[Lousiana]] [[Supreme Court Justice]]. His parents also owned a record store. Connick's musical talents soon came to the fore when he learned the keyboards at the age of three, played publicly at six and recorded with a local jazz band at 10. His musical talents were developed at the [[New Orleans Center for the Creative Arts]] and under the tutelage of [[Ellis Marsalis, Jr.|Ellis Marsalis]] and [[James Booker]].
Connick attended [[Jesuit High School, New Orleans|Jesuit High School]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]. He moved to [[New York City]] to study at [[Hunter College]] and the [[Manhattan School of Music]], where a [[Columbia Records]] executive persuaded him to sign with that label. His first record, ''[[Harry Connick Jr. (album)|Harry Connick Jr.]]'', was a mainly instrumental album of standards. He soon acquired a reputation in jazz due to extended stays at high-profile New York venues. His second album, ''[[20 (album)|20]]'', featured his vocals and added to this reputation.
== ''When Harry Met Sally...''&mdash;chart and movie success ==
With Connick's growing reputation, director [[Rob Reiner]] asked him to provide a soundtrack for his [[1989]] [[romantic comedy]] ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'', starring [[Meg Ryan]] and [[Billy Crystal]]. The soundtrack consisted of several standards, including "[[It Had to Be You (song)|It Had to Be You]]", "Let's Call the Whole Thing Off" and "Don't Get Around Much Anymore", and achieved double-platinum status in the United States. He won his first [[Grammy]] for Best Jazz Male Vocal Performance for his work on the soundtrack.
Connick made his screen debut in ''[[Memphis Belle (film)|Memphis Belle]]'' ([[1990]]), about a [[B-17]] bomber crew in World War II. In that year, he began a two-year world tour. Not content with that, he released two albums in July 1990: the jazz trio album ''[[Lofty's Roach Souffle]]'' and another album of standards titled ''[[We Are in Love]]'', which also went double platinum. ''We Are in Love'' earned him his second consecutive Grammy for Best Jazz Male Vocal.
"[[Promise Me You'll Remember]]", his contribution to the [[The Godfather Part III (soundtrack)|Godfather III soundtrack]], was nominated for both an [[Academy Award]] and a [[Golden Globe]] in [[1991]]. In a year of recognition, he was also nominated for an [[Emmy]] for Best Performance in a Variety Special for his [[PBS]] special ''[[Swingin' Out Live]]'', which was also released as a video. In October 1991, he released his third consecutive multi-platinum album, ''[[Blue Light, Red Light]]'', on which he wrote and arranged the songs. In October 1991, he starred in ''[[Little Man Tate]]'', directed by [[Jodie Foster]], playing the friend of a child prodigy who goes to college.
Harry Connick, Jr., was arrested in [[1992]] and charged with having a 9mm pistol in his possession at [[JFK International Airport]]. After spending a day in jail, he agreed to make a public-service television commercial warning against breaking gun laws. The court agreed to drop all charges if Connick stayed out of trouble for six months.
In November 1992, Connick released ''[[25 (album)|25]]'', a solo piano collection of standards that again went platinum. He also re-released the album ''[[11 (Harry Connick Jr. album)|Eleven]]''. Harry Connick, Jr., contributed "A Wink and a Smile" to the ''[[Sleepless in Seattle]]'' soundtrack, released in [[1993]]. His multi-platinum album of holiday songs, ''[[When My Heart Finds Christmas]]'', was the best-selling Christmas album in 1993.
==Flirtation with funk in the mid-[[1990s]]==
In [[1994]], Harry Connick, Jr., decided to branch out, releasing ''[[She (album)|She]]'', an album of New Orleans [[funk]] that also went platinum. In addition, he released a song called "(I Could Only) Whisper Your Name" for the soundtrack of ''[[The Mask]]'', starring [[Jim Carrey]], which is his most successful single in the United States to date. He took his funk music on a tour of the United Kingdom in 1994, an effort that did not please all of his fans, who were expecting a jazz crooner. One fan who walked out said, "We expecte |
d by Sam. The biggest storyline surrounding the ownership of Cheers begins in the fifth season finale, "I Do, Adieu", when Sam and Diane part ways, Shelley Long leaves the regular cast, and Sam leaves to attempt [[Circumnavigation|circumnavigating]] the Earth. Before he leaves, Sam sells Cheers to the fictional Lillian Corporation. Sam returns in the sixth season premiere, "Home is the Sailor", having sunk his boat, to find the bar under the new management of Rebecca Howe. He begs for his job back and is hired by Rebecca as a bartender. Throughout the sixth season, Sam tries a variety of schemes to buy back Cheers. This plot largely comes to an end in the seventh season premiere, "How to Recede in Business", when Rebecca is fired and Sam promoted to manager. From there Sam would occasionally attempt to buy the bar back with schemes that usually involved wealthy executive [[Robin Colcord]]. Cheers did eventually end up back in Sam's hands in the eighth season finale, when it was sold back to him for eighty-seven [[Cent (U.S. coin)|cents]] by the Lillian Corporation after he alerted the company of Colcord's [[embezzlement]].
===Other recurring themes===
Aside from the storylines that spanned across the series, ''Cheers'' had several themes that followed no storylines but that recurred throughout the series. There was a heated rivalry between Cheers and the rival bar, Olde Towne Tavern, owned by a man named Gary. One episode of every season depicted some wager between Sam and Gary, which resulted in either a sports competition or a battle of wits that devolved into complex practical jokes. Aside from the very first and very last [[References to Star Wars#Cheers .281982-1993.29|"Bar Wars" episodes]], the Cheers gang always lost to Gary's superior ingenuity.
Norm Peterson continually searched for gainful employment as an accountant but spent most of the series unemployed, thereby explaining his constant presence in Cheers at the same stool. The face of his wife, Vera, was [[List of unseen characters#Heard but never completely seen|never fully seen onscreen]], despite a few fleeting appearances and a couple of vocal cameos.
Cliff Clavin seemed unable to shake the constant presence of his mother, Esther Clavin ([[Frances Sternhagen]]). Though she did not appear in every episode, he would refer to her quite often, mostly as both an emotional burden and a smothering parent.
Carla Tortelli carried a reputation of being both extremely fertile and matrimonially inept. The last husband she had on the show, [[Eddie LeBec]], was a washed-up [[ice hockey]] [[goaltender]] who ended up dying in an ice show accident. Carla later discovered that Eddie had cheated on her, marrying another woman after impregnating her. Carla's sleazy first husband, [[Nick Tortelli]], also made frequent appearances, mostly to torment Carla with a new custody battle or legal scam that grew out of their divorce. Carla's eight kids were also notoriously ill-behaved.
{{endspoiler}}
==Critical reactions==
''Cheers'' was critically acclaimed even in its first season, though it landed a disappointing 74th in the ratings that year.<ref>TVParty (2006). [http://www.tvparty.com/80nbc3.html How NBC got its Groove back]</ref> This critical support, coupled with early success at the Emmys and the support of the president of NBC's entertainment division [[Brandon Tartikoff]], is thought to be the main reason for the show's survival and eventual success.<ref>Variety (May 20th, 2003) (2006). [http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117921154?categoryid=1023&cs=1 Review - ''Cheers'']</ref><ref>BBC (July 4th, 2003) (2006). [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1084619 ''Cheers'' - the TV Series]</ref> The cast themselves went across the country on various [[talk show|talk shows]] to try and further promote the series after its first season. When NBC discovered ''[[Family Ties]]'' and ''[[The Cosby Show]]'' and placed them both on Thursday night with ''Cheers''' second season, the show's audience expanded (starting what NBC would go on to call "[[Must See TV|Must See Thursday]]"). By its final season ''Cheers'' had had a run of eight consecutive seasons of single-digit ratings (that is, ranking 1st-9th in overall ratings).<ref name="toastingcheers"/> Critics have a variety of opinions on addiction in ''Cheers'' (''[[Cheers#Social issues in Cheers|see above]]''). Some critics now use ''Cheers'' and ''[[Frasier]]'' as a model of a successful spin-off for a character from an already successful series to compare to modern spin-offs, such as ''[[Joey (sitcom)|Joey]]'' from ''[[Friends]]''.<ref>Zap2It (July 24th, 2003) (2006). [http://tv.zap2it.com/tveditorial/tve_main/1,1002,271%7C82470%7C1%7C,00.html A Fine How-You-Doin': NBC Orders ''Friends'' Spinoff ''Joey'']</ref><ref>BusinessWeek Online (August 18th, 2004) (2006). [http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/aug2004/nf20040818_3079_db011.htm Filling the Shoes of Missing Friends]</ref>
NBC dedicated a whole night to the final episode of ''Cheers''. The show began with a "pregame" show hosted by [[Bob Costas]], followed by the final 98-minute episode itself. Local news then aired tributes to ''Cheers'', and the night concluded with a special ''[[The Tonight Show|Tonight Show]]'' broadcast live from the Bull & Finch Pub. Some critics disliked the finale for the sudden reentry of Shelley Long which they felt was flawed, the odd length of the episode, [[Jay Leno|Leno's]] monologue, and a seemingly uninterested ''Cheers'' cast that resorted to spitball fights. <ref>FiveHole (May 10th-16th, 2004) (2006). [http://holecity.com/asp/fivehole.asp?issue=233&sec=5&hole=1 Five NBC Finales]</ref><ref name="toastingcheers"/> Although the episode fell short of its hyped ratings predictions to become the [[List of most-watched television episodes|most-watched television episode]], it was the most watched show that year and ranked 11th all time in entertainment programming. The episode originally aired in the usual ''Cheers'' spot of Thursday night and was then rebroadcast on Sunday. Some estimate that while the original broadcast did not outperform the [[Goodbye, Farewell, and Amen (M*A*S*H episode)|''M*A*S*H'' finale]], the combined non-repeating audiences for the Thursday and Sunday showings did. ''Toasting Cheers'' also notes that television had greatly changed between the ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]'' and ''Cheers'' finales, leaving ''Cheers'' with a broader array of competition for ratings.<ref name="toastingcheers"/>
==Spin-offs and Crossovers==
[[Image:Cheers on the simpsons.jpg|thumb|right|Woody, Cliff, and Norm on ''The Simpsons'']]
Some of the actors and actresses from ''Cheers'' brought their characters into other television shows, either in a guest appearance or in a new spin-off. The most successful ''Cheers'' spin-off was the show ''[[Frasier]]'' which directly followed Frasier Crane after moving back to [[Seattle, Washington]], where he lived with his family and hosted a call-in radio show. Ironically, Frasier was originally supposed to be a small disliked character who only existed to further Diane and Sam's relationship, but Grammer's acting turned what were supposed to be unfunny lines into comedy the audience enjoyed.<ref>Poobala (2006). [http://www.poobala.com/cheersandfrasier.html Notes on ''Cheers'' / ''Frasier'' crossovers]</ref> Sam, Diane, and Woody all had individual crossover appearances on ''Frasier'' where they came to visit Frasier, and his ex-wife [[Lilith Sternin|Lilith]] remained a constant supporting character throughout ''Frasier''. Cliff, Norm, Carla, and two of Cheers' regular background barflies Paul and Phil had a crossover together in the [[List of Frasier episodes|''Frasier'' episode]] "Cheerful Goodbyes". Frasier, on a trip to Boston, meets the Cheers gang and Cliff thinks Frasier has flown out for his (Cliff's) retirement party, which Frasier ends up attending. ''Frasier'' was on the air as long as ''Cheers'', going off the air in 2004 after an eleven-season run. Although ''Frasier'' was the most successful spin-off, ''[[The Tortellis]]'' was the first series to spin-off from ''Cheers'', premiering in 1987. The show featured Carla's husband [[Nick Tortelli]] and his wife [[Loretta Tortelli|Loretta]], but was cancelled after 13 episodes and drew protests for its stereotypical depictions of Italian Americans.
In addition to direct spin-offs, several ''Cheers'' characters had guest appearance crossovers with other shows. In ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode "[[Fear of Flying (Simpsons)|Fear of Flying]]", Homer stumbles into a Cheers-like bar after being kicked out of [[Moe Szyslak|Moe's]]. Most of the central cast appears in the episode, including Frasier, but he is the only character to remain silent despite Grammer being the only common guest star on ''The Simpsons'' (he voices the recurring character [[Sideshow Bob]]). The tagline for Moe's Tavern "Where nobody knows your name" is also a reference to ''Cheers''. Characters also had crossovers with ''[[Wings (TV series)|Wings]]''&mdash;which was created by ''Cheers'' producers/writers&mdash;and ''[[St. Elsewhere]]'' in a somewhat rare comedy-drama crossover.<ref>Poobala (2006). [http://www.poobala.com/cheersandelsewhere.html Notes on ''Cheers'' / ''St. Elsewhere'' crossover]</ref> Finally, the ''[[Star Trek]]'' character [[List of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine characters#Morn|Morn]], who can always be spotted at [[Quark (Star Trek)|Quark's Bar]], is named for Norm Peterson.<ref>TV Acres (January 24th, ????) (2006). [http://www.tvacres.com/greetings_norm.htm Nor-r-rm!]</ref>
==Syndication and home video==
[[Image:B0001NBNIY.jpg|thumb|130px|Season 3 DVD]]
''Cheers'' grew in popularity |
uring peacetime the Land Forces maintain permanent [[combat]] and [[mobilization]] readiness. They become part of multinational military formations in compliance with [[international treaties]] Bulgaria is a Party of, participate in the preparation of the population, the national economy and the maintenance of wartime reserves and the [[infrastructure]] of the country for defense.
In times of crisis the Land Forces' main tasks relate to participation in operations countering [[terrorism|terrorist activities]] and defense of strategic facilities (such as [[nuclear power]] plants and major industrial facilities), assisting the security forces in proliferation of [[weapons of mass destruction]], illegal armaments traffic and international terrorism.
In case of low- and medium-intensity military conflict the Active Forces that are part of the Land Forces participate in carrying out the initial tasks for the defense of the [[territorial integrity]] and [[sovereignty]] of the country.
In case of a military conflict of high intensity the Land Forces, together with the Air Force and the Navy, form the defense group of the Bulgarian Army aiming at countering aggression and protection of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country.
== Navy ==
== Air Force ==
== References and links ==
*[[Bulgaria]]
*[[NATO]]
{{NATO}}
[[Category:Military of Bulgaria| ]]
[[bg:Армия на България]]
[[fr:Armée bulgare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Bulgaria</title>
<id>3675</id>
<revision>
<id>35516560</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T08:11:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Berkut</username>
<id>86399</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Bulgaria}}
[[Bulgaria]] has generally good relations with its neighbors and has proved to be a constructive force in the region under [[socialism|socialist]] and [[democracy|democratic]] governments alike. Promoting regional stability, Bulgaria hosted a Southeast European Foreign Ministers meeting in July [[1996]], and an [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] conference on [[Black Sea]] cooperation in November [[1995]]. Bulgaria also participated in the 1996 South [[Balkans|Balkan]] Defense Ministerial in [[Albania]] and is active in the Southeast European Cooperative Initiative.
With their close historical, cultural, and economic ties, Bulgaria seeks a mutually beneficial relationship with [[Russia]], on which it is largely dependent for energy supplies. Sporadic negotiations are underway among [[Greece]], Bulgaria, and Russia for construction of a gas pipeline from [[Burgas]] on the [[Black Sea]] to [[Alexandroupolis]] to transport [[Caspian Sea]] oil.
Bulgaria's [[EU]] Association Agreement came into effect in [[1994]], and Bulgaria formally applied for full EU membership in December 1995. During the [[1999]] EU summit in [[Helsinki]], the country was invited to start membership talks with the Union. These are currently completed, and [[January 1]], [[2007]], has been set as Bulgaria's accession date. In 1996, Bulgaria acceded to the [[Wassenaar Arrangement]] controlling exports of weapons and sensitive technology to countries of concern and also was admitted to the [[World Trade Organization]]. Bulgaria is a member of the [[Zangger Committee]] and the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]]. After a period of equivocation under a socialist government, in March 1997 a [[UDF]]-led caretaker cabinet applied for full [[NATO]] membership, which became a reality in April 2004. Talks are underway with the [[United States]] for possible military bases and training camps of the U.S. Army in Bulgaria, as part of the Pentagon's restructuring plan.
Bulgaria joined NATO's [[Partnership for Peace]] in 1994 and applied for NATO membership in 1997. During the November [[2002]] [[Prague]] Summit Bulgaria was one of seven former socialist countries invited to join the Alliance. Bulgaria became a member of NATO in April 2004. The country is also working toward NATO compatibility in communications and training, and has established a Peacekeeping Training Center.
In [[2003]], Bulgaria was elected as a non-permament member of the [[UN Security Council]], proving to be one of 3 closest [[United States|U.S.]] allies during the [[Iraq]]i Crisis, together with the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] and [[Spain]]. Bulgaria also presides the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] in 2004.
==Illicit drugs==
Major [[Europe]]an transshipment point for Southwest [[Asia]]n [[heroin]] and, to a lesser degree, [[South America]]n [[cocaine]] for the European market; limited producer of precursor chemicals.
==Libya==
In the late 1990s a [[Libya]]n [[children's hospital]] was the site of an [[outbreak]] of [[HIV]] infection that spread to over 400 patients. Libya blamed the outbreak on [[AIDS scandal in Libya|Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor]], who were arrested and eventually sentenced to death. The international view is that Libya has used the medics as [[scapegoat]]s for poor hygiene conditions, and [[Bulgaria]] and other countries including the [[European Union]] and the [[United States]] have repeatedly called on Tripoli to release them. [[As of]] [[2005]], the case remains unresolved, and is the source of increasing tensions with Bulgaria, as well as an obstacle to continuing the process of improved relations with the West.
[[Category:Foreign relations of Bulgaria| ]]
[[bg:Външна политика на България]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Burkina Faso/History</title>
<id>3676</id>
<revision>
<id>15901991</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-02T14:46:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Burkina Faso]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Burkina Faso</title>
<id>3677</id>
<revision>
<id>40553593</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T11:06:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>better map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burkina Faso Map.jpg|right|thumb|280px|Map Of Burkina Faso]]
[[Burkina Faso]] (formerly Upper Volta) is a landlocked [[Sahel]] country that shares borders with six nations. It is normally bright yellow on a map. It lies between the [[Sahara]] Desert and the [[Gulf of Guinea]], south of the loop of the [[Niger River]]. The land is green in the south, with forests and fruit trees, and desert in the north. Most of central Burkina Faso lies on a [[savanna]] plateau, 198-305 meters (650-1,000 ft.) above sea level, with fields, brush, and scattered trees. Burkina Faso's game preserves--the most important of which are [[Arly]], [[Nazinga]], and [[W National Park]]--contain [[Panthera leo|lion]]s, [[elephant]]s, [[hippopotamus]], [[monkey]]s, [[warthog]]s, and [[antelope]]s. Tourism is not well developed.
Annual [[rainfall]] varies from about 100 centimeters (40 in.) in the south to less than 25 centimeters (10 in.) in the extreme north and northeast, where hot desert winds accentuate the dryness of the region. Burkina Faso has three distinct [[season]]s: warm and dry (November-March), hot and dry (March-May), and hot and wet (June-October). Rivers are not navigable.
'''Location:'''
Western [[Africa]], north of [[Ghana]]
'''Geographic coordinates:''' {{coor d|13|N|2|W|}}
'''Map references:''' [[Africa]]
'''Area:'''
<br />''total:'' 274,200 km&sup2;
<br />''land:'' 273,800 km&sup2;
<br />''water:'' 400 km&sup2;
'''Area - comparative:''' slightly larger than [[Colorado]]
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br />''total:'' 3,192 km
<br />''border countries:''
[[Benin]] 306 km,
[[Côte d'Ivoire]] 584 km,
[[Ghana]] 548 km,
[[Mali]] 1,000 km,
[[Niger]] 628 km,
[[Togo]] 126 km
'''Coastline:''' 0 km (landlocked)
'''Maritime claims:''' none (landlocked)
'''Climate:''' tropical; warm, dry winters; hot, wet summers
'''Terrain:'''
mostly flat to dissected, undulating plains; hills in west and southeast
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br />''lowest point:''
[[Mouhoun]] ([[Black Volta]]) River 200 m
<br />''highest point:''
[[Tena Kourou]] 749 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[manganese]], [[limestone]], [[marble]]; small deposits of [[gold]], [[antimony]], [[copper]], [[nickel]], [[bauxite]], [[lead]], [[phosphates]], [[zinc]], [[silver]]
'''Land use:'''
<br />''arable land:'' 13%
<br />''permanent crops:'' 0%
<br />''permanent pastures:'' 22%
<br />''forests and woodland:'' 50%
<br />''other:'' 15% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
200 km² (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
recurring [[drought]]s
'''Environment - current issues:'''
recent droughts and [[desertification]] severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; [[overgrazing]]; soil degradation; [[deforestation]]
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br />''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
<br />''signed, but not ratified:''
Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
'''Geography - note:'''
landlocked
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography by country|Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Geography of Burkina Faso| ]]
[[es:Geografía de Burkina Faso]]
[[pt:Geografia do Burkina Faso]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Burkina Faso</title>
<id>3678</id>
<revision>
<id>39374220</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:18:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agric |
levision work==
In June of [[2004]], Rollins began hosting a weekly radio show, ''Harmony In My Head'' (named after a favorite [[Buzzcocks]] song) on Los Angeles' Indie 103.1 radio. The show aired every Monday evening, with Rollins playing a variety of rock, punk, rap, and jazz music. He put the show on what would be an indefinite hiatus, with the last show airing on [[December 27]], [[2004]], in order to undergo a spoken word tour in early 2005. An expanded edition of Rollins' song lists and show notes of the first run of the show, were published by 2.13.61 this year by fan demand as the book ''Fanatic''. In late 2005, Rollins announced the return to the airwaves of ''Harmony in My Head'', Internet users can listen online every Tuesday evening from 8 - 10 PM, PST, at [http://www.indie1031.fm http://www.indie1031.fm], as of [[December 27]], [[2005]].
Rollins is also a co-host of the [[television]] program ''Full Metal Challenge'' on [[The Learning Channel]] as well as the host of a monthly series called ''Henry's Film Corner'' on the [[Independent Film Channel]]. In [[2004]], he became an outspoken human rights activist, most vocally a crusader for [[gay rights]]. He has pinpointed the rights for gays to marry as a "vital issue impeding on the rights of Americans today." He was the host of a [[benefit concert]] called "[http://www.wedrock.com/ WedRock]" to raise money for a pro-gay-marriage organization. During the [[2003 Iraq War]], he started touring with the [[United Service Organizations]] (USO) to entertain troops overseas, despite his personal opposition to the war and the [[George W. Bush administration|Bush administration]][http://www.uso.org/pubs/8_16_2143.cfm].
Rollins also has the distinction of having duetted with ''Star Trek'''s [[William Shatner]] on a recent Shatner album.
==Discography==
[[Image:Henry Rollins.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Henry Rollins]]
===Musical releases===
*1987 ''[[Drive By Shooting]]''
*1987 ''[[Hot Animal Machine]]''
===Spoken word releases===
*1987 ''[[Big Ugly Mouth]]''
*1989 ''[[Sweatbox]]''
*1990 ''[[Live at McCabe's]]''
*1992 ''[[Human Butt]]''
*1992 ''[[Deep Throat (album)|Deep Throat]]''
*1993 ''[[The Boxed Life]]''
*1994 ''[[Get in the Van: On the Road with Black Flag]]'' ([[Audio Book]])
*1996 ''[[Everything (book)|Everything]]'' (Audio Book)
*1997 ''[[Black Coffee Blues]]'' (Audio Book)
*1998 ''[[Think Tank]]''
*1999 ''[[Eric The Pilot]]''
*2001 ''[[A Rollins in the Wry]]''
*2001 ''[[ Live at The Westbeth Theater]]''
*2003 ''[[Talk Is Cheap Vol I]]''
*2003 ''[[Talk Is Cheap Vol II]]''
*2003 ''[[Nights Behind The Tree Line]]''
*2004 ''[[Talk Is Cheap Vol III]]''
*2004 ''[[Talk Is Cheap Vol IV]]''
===Spoken word DVDs===
*2001 ''[[Talking From The Box/Live In London]]''
*2001 ''[[Up For It]]''
*2003 ''[[Live @ Luna Park]]''
*2005 ''[[Shock & Awe]]''
*2005 ''[[Live In The Conversation Pit]]''
===[[Black Flag (band)|Black Flag]] releases===
* ''[[Damaged]]'' (1981)
* ''[[My War]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Live '84]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Slip It In]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Family Man]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Loose Nut]]'' (1985)
* ''[[In My Head]]'' (1985)
* ''[[Who's Got the 10 1/2?]]'' (1986)
===[[Rollins Band]] releases===
* ''[[Life Time]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Hard Volume]]'' (1989)
* ''[[Turned On]]'' (Live)(1990)
* ''[[The End Of Silence]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Weight (album)|Weight]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Come In And Burn]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Get Some Go Again]]'' (2000)
* ''[[A Clockword Orange Stage]]'' (Live) (2000)
* ''[[Yellow Blues]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Nice (Rollins Band album)|Nice]]'' (2001)
* ''[[A Nicer Shade Of Red]]'' (2001)
* ''[[The Only Way To Know For Sure]]'' (Live) (2002)
* ''[[Come In And Burn Sessions]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Get Some Go Again Sessions]]'' (2005)
===Miscellaneous===
*''Let There Be Rock'' (1991) (single recorded with the [[Hard-Ons]])
*''Bottom'' (1993) (recorded with [[Tool]] on the album [[Undertow]])
*''Sexual Military Dynamics'' (1995) (recorded with [[Mike Watt]] on the album [[Ball-Hog or Tugboat?]])
*''Delicate Tendrils'' (1996) (recorded with [[Les Claypool]] and the Holy Mackerel on the album [[Highball_with_the_Devil|Highball with the Devil]])
==Books==
''partial list''
*''1000 Ways to Die'' 2.13.61 Publications
*''Knife Street'' 2.13.61 Publications
*''Pissing in the Gene Pool'' 2.13.61 Publications
*''End to End
*''One from None - Collected work 1987 Publishers 2.13.61 Publications 1991 ISBN 1880985047
*''Broken Summers'' Publishers Group West, (November 2003) ISBN 1880985756
*''Unwelcomed Songs'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (September 2002) ISBN 1880985713
*''See a Grown Man Cry, Now Watch Him Die'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (August 1997) ISBN 1880985373
*''Solipsist'' Publishers' Group West, (August 1998) ISBN 1880985594
*''The Portable Henry Rollins'' Villard, (February 10, 1998) ISBN 0375750002
*''Get in the Van: On the Road With Black Flag'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, 2nd edition (January 1996) ISBN 1880985241
*''Henry Rollins: The First Five'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (October 1997) ISBN 1880985519
*''Black Coffee Blues''
*''Do I Come Here Often? (Black Coffee Blues, Pt. 2)'', Shannon Wheeler (Illustrator) Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (December 1998) ISBN 1880985616
*''Smile, You're Traveling (Black Coffee Blues Part 3)'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (October 1, 2000) ISBN 1880985691
*''Eye Scream'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (October 1996) ISBN 1880985322
*''Turned On Flag Henry Rollins'' by James Parker, Orion Books,
*''Fanatic! Song lists and notes from the Harmony In My Head Radio Show,2.13.61 publications, 2005
*''Roomanitarian,2.13.61 publications, Nov. 2005
==Film and video==
*''[[Feast (film)|Feast]]'' (2006) - Coach
*''[[The Alibi (film)|The Alibi]]'' (2005) - Putty
*''[[Henry's Film Corner]]'' (2004) TV Series - Host
*''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]'' (2004) (voice) — Johnny Rancid
*''[[Deathdealer: A Documentary]]'' (2004) - Vincent
*''[[Def Jam Fight for New York|Def Jam: Fight for NY]]'' (2004) (VG) - Himself
*''[[Live Freaky Die Freaky]]'' (2003) (voice)
*''[[Mace Griffin: Bounty Hunter]]'' (2003) (VG) (voice) - Mace Griffin
*''[[A House on a Hill]]'' (2003) - Arthur
*''[[Bad Boys II]]'' (2003) - TNT Leader
*''[[Psychic Murders]]'' (2002) (V) - Johnny Miracle
*''[[Jackass: The Movie]]'' (2002) - Himself (cameo)
*''[[Shadow Realm (television show)|Shadow Realm]]'' (2002) (TV)
*''[[The New Guy]]'' (2002) - Warden
*''[[Time Lapse]]'' (2001) (V) - Gaines
*''[[Scenes of the Crime]]'' (2001) - Greg
*''[[Night Visions]]'' (2001) TV Series (uncredited) - Host
*''The Human Journey'' (2000) TV special - Narrator
*''[[Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker]] (2000/I) (V) (voice) - Benjamin 'Ben' Knox/Bonk
*''[[Batman Beyond]]'' (1999) TV Series - Mad Stan
*''[[Desperate But Not Serious]]'' (1999) - Bartender
*''[[Morgan's Ferry]]'' (1999) - Monroe
*''[[Jack Frost (1998 film)|Jack Frost]]'' (1998) - Sid Gronic
*''[[Lost Highway]]'' (1997) - Guard Henry
*''[[VH1 Legends]]'' (1996) TV Series - Narrator
*''[[Heat (film)|Heat]]'' (1995) - Hugh Benny
*''[[Johnny Mnemonic (film)|Johnny Mnemonic]]'' (1995) - Spider
*''[[The Chase]]'' (1994) - Officer Dobbs
*''[[The Right Side of My Brain]]'' (1985)
*''[[Dennis Miller Live]]'' -Guest (1995)
==Sources==
*Michael Azzerad, ''[[Our Band Could Be Your Life]]''
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://two1361.com Rollins' official site]
*[http://members.cox.net/_rollins Extensive Henry Rollins news page, updated regularly]
*[http://www.comeinandburn.com COME IN AND BURN > > > An Unofficial Henry Rollins & Rollins Band Website]
*[http://imdb.com/name/nm0738433/ IMDb entry]
*[http://www.ifctv.com/henry/ IFC Site for ''Henry's Film Corner'']
* Audio interview on [[The Sound of Young America]]: [http://libsyn.com/media/tsoya/tsoya110505.mp3 MP3 Link]
*[http://www.edwebproject.org/rollins.html Primal Scream]: An Interview with Henry Rollins, by Andy Carvin and Chris Crone, 1992
*[http://www.popmatters.com/music/interviews/rollins-henry-051207.shtml PopMatters interview (12/2005)]
*[http://www.crazewire.com/features/20040217378.php Henry Rollins Interview] on Crazewire
*[http://www.unlikelystories.org/ricard1204.shtml Interview] in Unlikely Stories
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/13/movies/13uso.html A ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' article] covering both Rollins' tours entertaining soldiers with the USO and his opposition to the war and Bush administration policies.
*[http://www.themodernword.com/interviews/interview_rollins.html the modern word interview]
*Audio interview on [[Australian]] radio station [[JJJ]], on [[January 26]], [[2006]] : [http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/jayandthedoctor/listen/mp3s/henrirollins.mp3 MP3 Link].
[[Category:1961 births|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:Living people|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:American male singers|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:Black Flag|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:American actors|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:American poets|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:American writers|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:California writers|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:Musical activists|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:Teetotalers|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:Batman actors|Rollins, Henry]]
[[de:Henry Rollins]]
[[pl:Henry Rollins]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hadron</title>
<id>13821</id>
<revision>
<id>41891091</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:53:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.171.194.10|62.171.194.10]] ([[User talk:62.171.194.10|talk]]) to last version by Kusma</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[particle physics]], a '''hadron''' is a [[subatomic particle]] which experiences the [[strong interaction|strong nuclear force]]. These are not fund |
e [[United States Constitution]]. Standing means that a person raising a constitutional issue must be someone who, if his or her assertion is correct, will personally suffer an infringement of his or her [[right]]s if the court does not intervene. This means that, except in unusual circumstances (see [[class action]]), one cannot sue on behalf of another. The Case or Controversy requirement means that there must be at least two adversarial parties and an actual
problem between them. The effect is that federal courts in the United States do not issue [[advisory opinions|advisory opinions]] or rule on hypotheticals. (But see: [[Declaratory judgment]]).
To these two concepts, [[constitutional law]] adds the [[state action]] requirement. Simply put, a private [[citizen]] cannot violate another private citizen's [[constitutional right]]s. A case does not become a constitutional issue unless one party can show that a local, state, or federal government agency or official was involved. For example, if a private citizen invades another citizen's house, the first citizen is liable to the second one in a lawsuit for [[trespass]]; on the other hand, if a policeman invades a citizen's home without a [[Warrant (legal)|warrant]] or [[probable cause]], the police agency can be found liable for violating the citizen's constitutional rights.
The first example is merely a violation of the legal right to privacy; the second is a violation of the constitution's prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures. (Note here: Some cases which the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] accepts and decides involve constitutional rights; others involve the interpretation of legal rights.)
Generally, when a case has cleared the hurdles of Standing, Case or Controversy and State Action, it will be heard by a [[trial court]]. The non-governmental party may raise claims or defenses relating to alleged constitutional violations by the government. If the non-governmental party loses, the constitutional issue may form part of the [[appeal]]. Eventually, a petition for [[certiorari]]
may be sent to the Supreme Court. If the Supreme Court accepts the case, it will receive written [[briefs]] from each side (and any [[amici curiae]] or friends of the court--usually third parties with some expertise to bear on the subject) and schedule oral arguments. The [[justice]]s will closely question both parties. When the Court renders its decision, it will generally do so in a single [[opinion (legal)|opinion]] for the majority and one or more [[dissenting opinion]]s. Each opinion sets forth the facts, prior decisions, and legal reasoning behind the position taken. The majority opinion constitutes binding [[precedent]] on all lower courts; when faced with very similar facts, they are bound to apply the same reasoning or face reversal of their decision by a higher court.
See: [[United States district court]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Fossil Record</title>
<id>11564</id>
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<page>
<title>Folie à deux</title>
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<timestamp>2006-01-10T16:49:28Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Folie à deux''' (literally "a madness shared by two") is a rare [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] syndrome in which a symptom of [[psychosis]] (particularly a [[paranoia|paranoid]] or [[delusion]]al belief) is transmitted from one individual to another. (Related to the issue of shared delusions, there have also been occasional claims of shared visual [[hallucination]]s that are near-to-exact duplicates.) The same syndrome shared by more than one person may be called '''folie à trois''', '''folie à quatre''', '''folie à famille''' or even '''folie à plusieurs''' (madness of many). Recent psychiatric classifications refer to the syndrome as '''induced delusional disorder''' ([[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV]]) or '''shared psychotic disorder''' ([[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems|ICD-10]]).
This case study is taken from Enoch and Ball's 'Uncommon Psychiatric Syndromes' (2001, p181):
:Margaret and her husband Michael, both aged 34 years, were discovered to be suffering from ''folie à deux'' when they were both found to be sharing similar persecutory delusions. They believed that certain persons were entering their house, spreading dust and fluff and "wearing down their shoes". Both had, in addition, other symptoms supporting a diagnosis of [[paranoid]] [[psychosis]], which could be made independently in either case.
This syndrome is most commonly diagnosed when the two or more individuals concerned live in close proximity and may be socially or physically isolated and have little interaction with other people.
Various sub-classification of ''folie à deux'' have been proposed to describe how the delusional belief comes to be held by more than one person.
* '''Folie imposée''' is where a dominant person (known as the 'primary', 'inducer' or 'principal') initially forms a delusional belief during a psychotic episode and imposes it on another person or persons (known as the 'secondary', 'acceptor' or 'associate') with the assumption that the secondary person might not have become deluded if left to their own devices. If the parties are admitted to hospital separately then the delusions in the person with the induced beliefs usually resolve without the need of medication.
* '''Folie simultanée''' describes the situation where two people, considered to independently suffer from psychosis, influence the content of each other's delusions so they become identical or strikingly similar.
Folie à deux and its more populous cousins are in many ways a psychiatric curiosity. The current [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] states that a person cannot be diagnosed as being delusional if the belief in question is one "ordinarily accepted by other members of the person's culture or subculture" (see entry for [[delusion]]). It is not clear at what point a belief considered to be delusional escapes from the ''folie à...'' diagnostic category and becomes exempt because of the number of people holding it. While a large number of people may come to believe obviously false and potentially distressing things based purely on hearsay, these beliefs are not considered to be clinical delusions by the psychiatric profession and may be labelled as [[mass hysteria]].
Being defined as a rare pathological manifestation, ''folie à deux'' is rarely found in general psychology or social psychology text books, and is relatively unknown outside [[abnormal psychology]], [[psychiatry]] and [[psychopathology]].
==See also==
* [[Delusion]]
* [[Delusional disorder]]
* [[Psychosis]]
* [[Stockholm Syndrome]]
* [[Our Lady of Fatima]]: The fate of the three children
* The [[The X-Files (season 5)#Folie .C3.A0 Deux|X-Files]], for an episode about the subject
==Further reading==
*Halgin, R. & Whitbourne, S. (2002) ''Abnormal Psychology: Clinical Perspectives on Psychological Disorders''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072817216
*Enoch, D. & Ball, H. (2001) Folie à deux (et Folie à plusieurs). In Enoch, D. & Ball, H. ''Uncommon psychiatric syndromes (Fourth edition)''. London: Arnold. ISBN 0340763884<br>
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12679591&dopt=Abstract Wehmeier, P. M., Barth, N., & Remschmidt, H. (2003)]. Induced Delusional Disorder. A Review of the Concept and an Unusual Case of folie a famille. ''Psychopathology'', 36(1), 37-45.<br>
*Podmore, Frank, London (ca 1920) ''Telepathic Hallucinations: A New View of Ghosts''
*Hatfield, Elaine, Caccioppo, John T., & Rapson, Richard L., (1994) ''Emotional Contagion (Studies in Emotional and Social Interaction)''
[[Category:Psychosis]]
[[nl:Gedeelde psychotische stoornis]]
[[pl:Indukowane zaburzenie urojeniowe]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Falsifiable</title>
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<title>Frequency modulation synthesis</title>
<id>11569</id>
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<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] change "a" to "an".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><table align="right" width="400"><tr><td>[[Image:frequencymodulationdemo-td.png]]</td></tr><tr><td><table><tr><td width="15"></td><td><small>A 220 Hz carrier tone modulated by a 440 Hz modulating tone with various choices of [[modulation index]], &#946;. The time domain signals are illustrated above, and the corresponding spectra are shown below (spectrum amplitudes in [[decibel|dB]]). An audio demonstration of the four synthesized tone timbres is available [[media:frequencymodulationdemo-cf220mf440.ogg|here]].</small></td></tr></table></td></tr>
<tr><td>[[Image:frequencymodulationdemo-fd.png]]& |
turn leads inexorably to the rise of resistance to those drugs, and a never-ending ever-spiralling race to discover new and different antibiotics ensues, just to keep us from losing ground in the battle against infection. The fear is that we will eventually fail to keep up in this race, and the time when people did not fear life-threatening bacterial infections will be just a memory of a golden era.
Another example of selection is ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'', which could be treated successfully with penicillin in the 1940s and 1950s. At present, nearly all strains are resistant to [[penicillin]], and many are resistant to [[nafcillin]], leaving only a narrow selection of drugs such as [[vancomycin]] useful for treatment. The situation is worsened by the fact that genes coding for antibiotic resistance can be transferred between bacteria, making it possible for bacteria never exposed to an antibiotic to acquire resistance from those which have. The problem of antibiotic resistance is worsened when antibiotics are used to treat disorders in which they have no efficacy, such as the common cold or other viral complaints, and when they are used widely as prophylaxis rather than treatment (as in, for example, animal feeds), because this exposes more bacteria to selection for resistance.
== Beyond antibiotics ==
Unfortunately, the comparative ease of finding compounds which safely cured bacterial infections proved much harder to duplicate with respect to fungal and viral infections. Antibiotic research led to great strides in our knowledge of basic biochemistry and to the current biological revolution; but in the process it was discovered that the susceptibility of bacteria to many compounds which are safe to humans is based upon significant differences between the cellular and molecular physiology of the bacterial cell and that of the mammalian cell. In contrast, despite the seemingly huge differences between fungi and humans, the basic biochemistries of the fungal cell and the mammalian cell are much more similar; so much so that there are few therapeutic opportunities for compounds to attack a fungal cell which will not harm a human cell. Similarly, we know now that viruses represent an incredibly minimal intracellular parasite, being stripped down to a few genes worth of [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] and the minimal molecular equipment needed to enter a cell and actually take over the machinery of the cell to produce new viruses. Thus, the great bulk of viral metabolic biochemistry is not merely similar to human biochemistry, it actually is human biochemistry, and the possible targets of antiviral compounds are restricted to the relatively very few components of the actual virus itself.
Research into [[bacteriophage]]s is ongoing at the moment. Bacteriophages are a specific type of virus that only targets bacteria. Research suggests that nature has evolved several types of bacteriophage for each type of bacteria. While research into bacteriophages is only in its infancy the results are promising and have already lead to major advances in microscopic imaging (see [http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2006/060201.Jiang.salmonella.html]). While bacteriophages provide a possible solution the problem of antibacterial resistance there is as of yet no proof that we will actually be able to deploy these microscopic killers in humans, we can only continue the research and see where it leads.
== References ==
#{{Note|antibiotics-classes-table}} The Merck Manual of Medical Information - Home Edition, Robert Berkow (Ed.), Pocket (September, 1999), ISBN 0-671-02727-1.
== External links ==
* [http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/drugs/resist.php Antibiotic News from Genome News Network (GNN)]
* [http://www.eff.org/Misc/Publications/Bruce_Sterling/FSF_columns/fsf.15 Bruce Sterling's Bitter Resistance]
* [http://www.jaapa.com/issues/j20040601/articles/antibiotics0604.html JAAPA: New antibiotics useful in primary care]
* [http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/090605_tech.htm A new method for controlling bacterial activity without antibiotics] - Research conducted at the Hebrew University
=== Resources ===
* [http://www.apua.org Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics]
[[Category:Antibiotics|*]]
[[Category:Pharmacologic agents]]
[[ca:Antibiòtic]]
[[cs:Antibiotika]]
[[da:Antibiotikum]]
[[de:Antibiotikum]]
[[es:Antibiótico]]
[[eo:Antibiotiko]]
[[fr:Antibiotique]]
[[ko:항생제]]
[[io:Antibiotiko]]
[[id:Antibiotik]]
[[he:אנטיביוטיקה]]
[[lt:Antibiotikas]]
[[hu:Antibiotikum]]
[[nl:Antibioticum]]
[[ja:抗生物質]]
[[no:Antibiotika]]
[[nn:Antibiotikum]]
[[pl:Antybiotyk]]
[[pt:Antibiótico]]
[[ru:Антибиотики]]
[[simple:Antibiotic]]
[[sk:Antibiotikum]]
[[fi:Antibiootti]]
[[sv:Antibiotika]]
[[th:ยาปฏิชีวนะ]]
[[tr:Antibiyotik]]
[[uk:Антибіотик]]
[[zh:抗生素]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Arnold Schwarzenegger</title>
<id>1806</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:13:54Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Governor
|name=Arnold Schwarzenegger
|image=Arnold Schwarzenegger.jpg|400px
|caption=
|order=38<sup>th</sup>
|office=Governor of California
|term_start=[[November 17]], [[2003]]
|term_end=''present''
|lieutenant=[[Cruz Bustamante]]
|predecessor=[[Gray Davis]]
|successor=''incumbent''
|birth_date= [[July 30]], [[1947]]
|birth_place=[[Thal, Austria|Thal bei Graz]], [[Steiermark]], [[Austria]]
|death_date=
|death_place=
|spouse= [[Maria Shriver]]
|profession= [[Actor]], [[Politician]]
|party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|footnotes=
}}
'''{{Audio|de_ArnoldSchwarzenegger.ogg|Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger}}''' (born [[July 30]], [[1947]]) is an [[Austria|Austrian]]-[[United States|American]] [[bodybuilder]], [[Golden Globe]] award winning [[actor]], and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Politics of the United States|politician]], currently serving as the 38th [[Governor of California]]. He was elected on [[October 7]], [[2003]] in [[2003 California recall|a special recall election]] which removed the sitting governor, [[Gray Davis]], from office. Schwarzenegger was sworn in on [[November 17]], [[2003]], to serve the remainder of Davis' term, which lasts until [[January 8]], [[2007]]. On September 16th, 2005 he officially announced that he will seek re-election to a full term in [[California gubernatorial election, 2006|California's 2006 gubernatorial election]].
Nicknamed "The Austrian Oak" in his body-building days, and more recently "The Governator" (a [[portmanteau]] of the words "Governor" and "Terminator", after the film role), Schwarzenegger as a young man gained widespread attention as a highly successful bodybuilder, and later gained worldwide fame as a [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] [[action film]] star. Some of his most famous films include ''[[The Terminator]]'', ''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'', ''[[True Lies]]'', ''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'', ''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'', and his Hollywood breakthrough film ''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]''.
==Personal background==
[[Image:Arnold military.jpg|framed|left|Arnold Schwarzenegger pictured next to an [[Patton tank|M47]] tank, which he was trained to operate.]] <!--Dates verified at http://www.bodybuildbid.com/articles/mrolympia/arnold-schwarzenegger.html-->
Schwarzenegger was born in [[Thal, Austria]], a small town near the [[Styria|Styrian]] capital, [[Graz]], and christened Edward James Albetski. His parents were the local [[police chief]] and former [[Nazi stormtrooper]] [[Gustav Schwarzenegger]] (1907-1972), and his wife, the former Aurelia Jadrny (1922-1998), who had been married on [[October 20]], [[1945]], when he was 35 and she was 23 and widowed.
Gustav was a strict and demanding father, who generally favored the elder of his two sons, the handsome and blonde Meinhard.
Meinhard died in a car accident in 1971, and Gustav died the following year. Schwarzenegger attended neither's funeral. In ''[[Pumping Iron]]'' he claimed he did not attend his father's funeral as he was training for a bodybuilding contest, although both he and the film's producer later stated that this story was taken from another bodybuilder.
As a boy, Schwarzenegger played many sports, but discovered his passion for [[bodybuilding]] when in his mid-teens his [[soccer]] coach took the team for [[weight training]]. He attended a [[gym]] in Graz, where he also frequented the local [[Movie theater|cinema]]s, viewing his idols such as musclemen [[Reg Park]], [[Steve Reeves]], and [[Johnny Weissmuller]] on the big screen.
Arnold served in the [[Military of Austria|Austrian army]] in [[1965]], completing the mandatory one year service required at the time for all 18 year old Austrian men. During this year he snuck off the base to compete in his first bodybuilding competition, the junior division of Mr. Europe, where he won first place.
Schwarzenegger left Thal for a job managing a gym in [[Munich, Germany]], while continuing his bodybuilding.
He made his first plane trip in [[1966]], attending the [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] competition being held in [[London]]. He arrived in [[England]] knowing little English, and it was here he first started being referred to as "The Austrian Oak", due to his large build and the story of him performing [[chin ups]] from the limb of an [[Oak tree]] on the banks of the river Thalersee, the lake of his hometown.
He would come second in the competition, but would win the title the next year, becoming the youngest ever Mr Universe at age 20.
Schwarzenegger moved to the [[United States]] in [[September]] [[1968]], with little money or knowledge of the English language, and tra |
d has developed a flourishing culture. Other constructed languages, such as [[Ido]], have been hindered from developing a stable speaking community by continual tinkering. Also, many developers of constructed languages have been possessive of their brain-children and have worked to prevent others from contributing to the language. One such ultimately disastrous case was [[Johann Martin Schleyer|Schleyer]]'s [[Volapük]]. In contrast, Zamenhof declared that "Esperanto belongs to the Esperantists", and moved to the background once the language was published, allowing others to share in the early development of the language.
The grammatical description in the earliest books was somewhat vague, so a consensus on usage (influenced by Zamenhof's answers to some questions) developed over time within boundaries set by the initial outline ([[#References|Auld 1988]]). Even before the Declaration of Boulogne, the language was remarkably stable; only one set of lexical changes were made in the first year after publication, namely changing "when", "then", "never", "sometimes", "always" from ''kian'', ''tian'', ''nenian'', ''ian'', ''ĉian'' to ''kiam'', ''tiam'', ''neniam'' etc to avoid confusion with the accusative forms of ''kia'' "what sort of", ''tia'' "that sort of", etc. Thus Esperanto achieved a stability of structure and grammar similar to that which natural languages enjoy by virtue of their native speakers and established bodies of literature. One could learn Esperanto without having it move from underfoot. Changes could and did occur in the language, but only by acquiring widespread popular support; there was no central authority making arbitrary changes, as happened with [[Volapük]] and some other languages.
Modern Esperanto usage may in fact depart from that originally described in the ''Fundamento'', though the differences are largely semantic (involving changed meaning of words) rather than grammatical or phonological. The translation given for "I like this one", in the [[Esperanto#Examples|sample phrases]] in the main [[Esperanto]] article, offers a significant example. According to the ''Fundamento'', ''Mi ŝatas ĉi tiun'' would in fact have meant "I esteem this one". The traditional usage is ''Tiu ĉi plaĉas al mi'' (literally, "this one is pleasing to me"), which reflects the phrasing most European languages (French ''celui-ci me plaît'', Spanish ''éste me gusta'', Russian ''это мне нравится'' [eto mnye nravitsya], German ''Das gefällt mir'', Italian ''mi piace''). However, the original ''Ĉi tiu plaĉas al mi'' is commonly used as well.
Other changes include a reduction of the number of inherently masculine words, and an increase in the East Asian-like use of adjectival verbs. Originally all members of a profession, such as ''dentisto'' "a dentist", all people defined by a characteristic, such as ''junulo'' "a youth", and all verbal participles used for humans, such as ''kuranto'' "a runner", were masculine unless specifically made feminine with the suffix ''-ino''; currently only some twenty words, mostly kinship terms, remain masculine. More recently, [[stative verb]]s have been increasingly used instead of copula-plus-adjective phrasing, following some poetic usage, so that one now frequently hears ''li sanas'' for ''li estas sana'' "he is well".
More minor changes have affected the names of some countries named after ethnicities, whose endings have changed from ''-ujo'' to ''-io'', and women's names ending in ''-a'' (e.g. ''Maria''), whereas purists once insisted on using the noun ending ''-o'' (e.g. ''Mario'' or ''Mariino'').
Esperantists have also formed many words to express concepts which arose since the publication of the ''Fundamento'', and these have generally conformed to the existing style of the language. For example, early proposals for the word "computer" included ''komputero'' and ''komputoro'', but the word in current use is ''komputilo'' (from the root of the verb ''komputi'' "to compute" plus the suffix ''-ilo'' used for tools and instruments). ''Eŭro'' is another example: even though the currency is spelled ''[[euro]]'' in official legal documents in all the [[European Union]]'s languages which use a Latin script, in Esperanto ''eŭro'' was chosen to better fit the phonotactics of the language.
Not all new coinages meet ready [[acceptance]], however. For example, the [[neologism]] ''ĉipa'' "cheap" has appeared as an alternative to the more verbose ''malmultekosta'', "inexpensive", but remains in minority usage.
== Dialects, Reform Projects and Derived Languages ==
Esperanto has not fragmented into regional [[dialect]]s through natural language use. This may be because it is the language of daily communication for only a small minority of its speakers. However at least three other factors work against dialects, namely the centripetal force of the Fundamento, the unifying influence of the Plena Vortaro and its successors, which exemplified usage from the works of Zamenhof and leading writers, and the transnational ambitions of the speech community itself. [[Slang]] and [[jargon]] have developed to some extent, but such features interfere with universal communication &mdash; the whole point of Esperanto &mdash; and so have generally been avoided.
However, in the early twentieth century numerous reform projects were proposed. Almost all of these "[[esperantido]]"s were stillborn, but the very first, [[Ido]] ("Offspring"), had significant success for several years. Ido was proposed by the ''[[Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language]]'' in [[Paris]] in October 1907. Its main reforms were in bringing the [[alphabet]], [[semantics]], and some [[Grammar|grammatical]] features into closer alignment with the [[Romance languages]], as well as removal of adjectival agreement and the accusative case except when necessary. At first a number of leading Esperantists put their support behind the Ido project, but the movement stagnated and declined, first with the accidental death of one of its main proponents and later as people proposed further changes, and the number of current speakers is estimated at between 250 and 5000. However, Ido has proven to be a rich source of Esperanto vocabulary.
Some more focused reform projects, affecting only a particular feature of the language, have gained a few adherents. One of these is "[[riism]]", which modifies the language to incorporate [[non-sexist language]] and [[gender-neutral pronoun]]s. However, most of these projects are specific to individual nationalities (riism from English speakers, for example), and the only changes that have gained acceptance in the Esperanto community have been the minor and gradual bottom-up reforms discussed in the last section.
Esperanto is credited with influencing or inspiring several later competing language projects, such as [[Occidental]] (1922) and [[Novial]] (1928). These always lagged far behind Esperanto in their popularity. Only [[Interlingua]] (1951) has managed to equal or surpass even Ido in terms of support. It shows little or no Esperanto influence, however.
:''See also [[Esperantido]]''
== References ==
* Auld, William. ''La Fenomeno Esperanto''. Rotterdam: UEA, 1988.
* Lins, Ulrich. ''La Danĝera Lingvo''. Gerlingen, Germany: Bleicher Eldonejo, 1988. (Also available in Polish [http://esperanto.pl/pagephp?tid=311075])
*Privat, Edmond. ''The Life of Zamenhof''. Bailieboro, Ontario: Esperanto Press, 1980.
* Zamenhof, L. L. ''Letero al N. Borovko.'' 1895.[http://gxangalo.com/modules/sections03/index.php?op=viewarticle&artid=15]
== Timeline of Esperanto ==
*1859: [[L. L. Zamenhof|Lazar Zamenhof]], the creator of Esperanto, is born in [[Bialystok|Białystok]], Russia (now Poland).
*1873: The Zamenhof family moves to [[Warsaw]].
*1878: Zamenhof celebrates the completion of his universal language project, ''[[Proto-Esperanto|Lingwe Uniwersala]]'', with high-school friends.
*1879: Zamenhof attends medical school in [[Moscow]]. His father burns his language project while he's away. Meanwhile [[Johann Martin Schleyer|Schleyer]] publishes a sketch of [[Volapük language|Volapük]], the first [[constructed language|constructed international auxiliary language]] to acquire a number of speakers. Many Volapük clubs will later switch to Esperanto.
*1881: Zamenhof returns to Warsaw to continue medical school, and starts to recreate his project.
*1887: Zamenhof marries, and with his wife's help publishes ''[[Unua Libro]]'', the book introducing modern Esperanto.
*1888: [[Leo Tolstoy]] becomes an early supporter.
*1894: Zamenhof, reacting to pressure, puts a radical reform to a vote, but it is overwhelmingly rejected.
*1901: Zamenhof publishes [[Hillelism|his ideas on a universal religion]], based on the philosophy of [[Hillel the Elder]].
*1905: The first ''[[World Congress of Esperanto|Universala Kongreso]]'' (World Congress) is held in [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]], with 688 participants and conducted entirely in Esperanto. The ''[[Fundamento de Esperanto]]'' is published.
*1907: Twelve members of the British parliament nominate Zamenhof for the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. The ''Ĉekbanko Esperantista'' (Esperantist Checking Bank) is founded in London, using the ''[[spesmilo]]'', an auxiliary Esperanto currency based on the [[gold standard]]. A committee organized by [[Louis Couturat]] in [[Paris]] proposes the [[Ido]] reform project, which provides significant competition for Esperanto until the [[World War I|First World War]].
*1908: ''[[World Esperanto Association|Universala Esperanto-Asocio]]'', the World Esperanto Association, is founded by [[Hector Hodler]], a 19-year-old [[Switzerland|Swiss]] Esperantist.
*1909: The ''International Association of |
of Liberal Arts & Sciences===
===College of Veterinary Medicine===
===Graduate College===
-->
==Athletics==
{{main|Iowa State Cyclones}}
[[Image:ISU.PNG|right|200px]]
The sports teams are nicknamed the Cyclones, a name which dates back to 1895. That year, there were many occurrences of cyclones, or tornados. Also that year was when the Iowa State football team went to [[Northwestern University]] and defeated its team 36-0. The [[Chicago Tribune]] proclaimed "Iowa cyclone devastates Evanstontown."
The school colors are cardinal and gold. The mascot is Cy the Cardinal, who was introduced in 1954. This is likely a reference to the original nickname, the Cardinals. The Iowa State Cyclones play in the [[NCAA]]'s Division I-A as part of the [[Big 12 Conference]].
==VEISHEA celebration==
[[Image:CyRide buses.jpg|thumb|250px|Two [[ISU notables#CyRide|CyRide]] buses]]
Iowa State is also noted for [[VEISHEA]], an education and entertainment festival held on campus every spring. The name is an acronym of the original colleges of the institution when VEISHEA was established in 1922: Veterinary Medicine, Engineering, Industrial Science, Home Economics, and Agriculture. Its organizers claim it to be among the largest student-organized cultural festivals in the world.
In recent years the festival has been marred by problems. Unruly students created a disturbance ("rioted") on Welch Avenue in 1988 and 1992, prompting school officials to take away the traditional Thursday afternoon and Friday holidays before the celebration. Problems continued. In 1997, an underage non-student was fatally stabbed by another non-student outside a fraternity party. In response, alcohol was banned during VEISHEA.
In 2004, a riot took place during VEISHEA when police confronted people during an off-campus party. Because of the riot, officials announced that there would be no VEISHEA festival during 2005 and a task force would consider the future of the celebration. In March 2005, [[ISU notables#Geoffroy|President Geoffroy]] announced that the festival will return in 2006, with events being moved from riot-prone Welch Avenue to central campus. In April 2005, the student group Leaders INspiring Connections (LINC) organized several events on what would have been [[VEISHEA]] weekend, including Operation Playground, a community service project involving 700 students building three playgrounds in the community. "This Is Your April," was another opportunity for students to enjoy their campus atmosphere sponsored by the student government and numerous student groups.
==Iowa State University presidents==
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! # !! President !! Start of term !! End of term
|-
| 1 || [[Adonijah Welch]] || 1868 || 1883
|-
| 2 || [[ISU notables#Knapp|Seaman A. Knapp]] || 1883 || 1884
|-
| 3 || [[ISU notables#Hunt|Leigh S.J. Hunt]] || 1885 || 1886
|-
| 4 || [[ISU notables#Chamberlain|William I. Chamberlain]] || 1886 || 1890
|-
| 5 || [[ISU notables#Beardshear|William M. Beardshear]] || 1891 || 1902
|-
| 6 || [[ISU notables#Storms|Albert B. Storms]] || 1903 || 1910
|-
| 7 || [[ISU notables#Pearson|Raymond A. Pearson]] || 1912 || 1926
|-
| 8 || [[ISU notables#Hughes|Raymond M. Hughes]] || 1927 || 1936
|-
| 9 || [[ISU notables#Friley|Charles E. Friley]] || 1936 || 1953
|-
| 10 || [[ISU notables#Hilton|James H. Hilton]] || 1953 || 1965
|-
| 11 || [[ISU notables#Parks|W. Robert Parks]] || 1965 || 1986
|-
| 12 || [[ISU notables#Eaton|Gordon P. Eaton]] || 1986 || 1990
|-
| 13 || [[Martin C. Jischke]] || [[June 1]], [[1991]] || [[August 14]], [[2000]]
|-
| 14 || [[ISU notables#Geoffroy|Gregory L. Geoffroy]] || [[July 1]], [[2001]] || present
|}
== Alumni or faculty members ==
[[Image:George washington carver.jpg|thumb|250px|George Washington Carver]]
See [[ISU notables]] for a complete list.
* [[Roberta Green Ahmanson]], author and philanthropist
* [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] and [[Clifford E. Berry]] (see also [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]]), developers of the first digital computer
*[[Bennett Bean]], studio potter
* [[Georgina Jinkinson Bonesteel]], author and television show host
* [[Griffith Buck]], alumnus and professor of horticulture; developed nearly 100 new varieties of roses
* [[George Washington Carver]], first [[African-American]] student and faculty member; musician, artist, orator, athletic trainer and student leader
* [[Carrie Chapman Catt]], women's rights activist
* [[Clarence Chamberlin]], aviation pioneer
* [[Vine Deloria, Jr.]], Native American activist and author
* [[Lawrence D. Downing]], President of the Sierra Club
* [[Michael J. Dubes]], President of [[Conseco]] Insurance Group
* [[Charles Lester Fous]], CEO of Big Earl's and Big Earl's II
* [[John Garang]], former commander of [[SPLA]] and former vice president of [[Sudan]]
* [[Henry Gilman]], the "Father of Organometallic Chemistry"
* [[Tom Harkin]], U.S. Senator, Democrat, Iowa
* [[Steve 'Flash' Juon]], OHHLA Webmaster
* [[Jerry Junkins]], CEO of [[Texas Instruments]]
* [[Ted Kooser]], U.S. Poet Laureate and Pulitzer Prize winner
* [[Robert Krasa]], former Vice-President of [[Dow Corning]], former President and CEO of [[Haworth (company) | Haworth, Inc.]]
* [[Tom Latham]], U.S. Representative, Republican, Iowa
* [[Jay L. Lush]], pioneer of modern animal breeding
* [[Norma "Duffy" Lyon]], sculptor and butter artist
* [[Sally Pederson]], Lt. Governor of Iowa
* [[ISU notables#Petersen|Christian Petersen]], sculptor, whose works appear around campus.
* [[Hugh Sidey]], journalist for ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'' and ''[[Time magazine|Time]]'' magazines covering Presidents Eisenhower through Clinton and Washington insider
* [[Jane Smiley]], winner of the 1992 Pulitzer Prize for fiction
* [[George W. Snedecor]], statistician
* [[Mallory Snyder]], [[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue|Sports Illustrated swimsuit model]], actress, [[MTV]]'s ''[[The Real World]]''.
* [[Stephen R. Walker]], television show host
* [[Henry Agard Wallace]], [[United States Secretary of Agriculture|U.S. Secretary of Agriculture]], [[United States Secretary of Commerce]], [[Vice President of the United States]], and founder of [[Pioneer Hi-Bred]]
* [[James Wilson (U.S. politician)|James Wilson]], professor who later became [[United States Secretary of Agriculture|U.S. Secretary of Agriculture]]
===Athletics===
* [[Mike Born]], former basketball player and IBA player and coach
* [[John Cooper (coach)|John Cooper]], football captain and MVP and later coach at Ohio State
* [[Tim Floyd]], former men's basketball coach with 81-49 record and only coach with three consecutive 20-win seasons.
* [[Dan Gable]], two-time NCAA wrestling champion and [[1972 Summer Olympics|1972 Olympic]] gold medalist who later became wrestling coach at the [[University of Iowa]]
* [[Weylan Harding]], Arena Football League head coach and former player
* [[Keith "Lefty" Moore]], CBA coach and former player
* [[Johnny Orr]], the most successful coach in Iowa State and Michigan men's basketball history
* [[Darryl Peterson]], NCAA all american and former professional wrestler
* [[Cael Sanderson]], four-time undefeated NCAA wrestling champion who won a gold medal at the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] in [[Athens]], [[Greece]]
* [[Jack Trice]], football player and pioneer for minorities in sports, died of injuries sustained in a football game
* NBA Players: [[Zaid Abdul-Aziz (born Donald A. Smith)]], [[Victor Alexander]], [[Bill Cain]], [[Kelvin Cato]], [[Marcus Fizer]], [[Jeff Grayer]], [[Fred Hoiberg]], [[Jeff Hornacek]], [[Paul Shirley]], [[Barry Stevens (basketball) | Barry Stevens]], [[Jamaal Tinsley]], [[Jackson Vroman]], and [[Dedric Willoughby]]
* NFL Players: [[Richard Barker (American football player) | Richard Barker]], [[Jordan Carstens]], [[Ellis Hobbs]], [[Keith Krepfle]], [[J.J. Moses]], [[James Reed]], [[Sage Rosenfels]], [[Reggie Hayward]], [[Seneca Wallace]], and [[Tom Watkins]]
==Iowa State chronology==
Events occurring in the same year did not necessarily happen in the order presented here.
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Year !! Event
|-
| 1858 || [[Iowa General Assembly]] enacted legislation for creation of the State Agricultural College & Model Farm
|-
| 1859 || [[Story County, Iowa|Story County]] was the chosen county for the State Agricultural College & Model Farm
|-
| 1860 || Construction starts on [[ISU notables#Farm House|Farm House]]
|-
| 1862 || [[Morrill Act of 1862]] was passed; college to be named Iowa State Agricultural College
|-
| 1884 || Construction of [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]] finished
|-
| 1891 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Morrill Hall|Morrill Hall]] finished
|-
| 1891 || First run of [[ISU notables#Dinkey|Dinkey]] on [[July 4]]
|-
| 1892 || Addition made to the [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]]
|-
| 1892 || Construction of [[ISU notables#The Hub|The Hub]]
|-
| 1895 || Football team nicknamed Cyclones for their performance against [[Northwestern University]]
|-
| 1895 || Severe water shortage; classes cancelled; spurred construction of the [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]]
|-
| 1897 || Construction for the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] was started on [[ISU notables#Central Campus|Central Campus]]
|-
| 1897 || Construction of the [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]]
|-
| 1898 || Renamed the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts
|-
| 1903 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Marston Hall|Marston Hall]] finished
|-
| 1904 || Construction first started on what would be the [[ISU notables#Alumni Hall|Alumni Hall]]
|-
| 1897 || End of operation of [[ISU notables#Dinkey|Dinkey]]; start of operation of an electric [[tram|streetcar]]
|-
| 1908 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Central Building|Central Building]] finished
|-
| 1908 || Preside |
ue]]d ribs of a man whose murder they are investigating.
* ''[[Eat the Rich]]'', a [[1987]] black comedy in which a disgruntled waiter and his friends kill the management and arrogant clientele and then fed the bodies to unsuspecting customers.
* [[Patrick Bateman]], a fictional character created by [[Bret Easton Ellis]] in the 1987 novel ''[[The Rules of Attraction]]'', but most famously depicted in Ellis's ''[[American Psycho]]'', released in 1991
* ''[[The Cook, The Thief, His Wife and Her Lover]]'', a 1989 film written and directed by [[Peter Greenaway]]
* ''[[Delicatessen (film)|Delicatessen]]'', a 1991 comedy film written and directed by [[Jean-Pierre Jeunet]] and [[Marc Caro]]
* ''[[Eating Raoul]]'', a 1982 black comedy by [[Paul Bartel]]
* [[Sweeney Todd]], a play about a barber who kills his customers and sells their flesh as food.
* ''Diary of a Madman'' by [[Lu Xun]], a story in which a madman gradually became convinced that the history of Chinese civilization could be summarized in two words, "eat people", and that his friends and relatives all intend to eat him. Also ''Auntie Xianglin'', a 1918 short story.
* ''Parents'', a [[1989]] film directed by Bob Balaban about a disturbed young boy who suspects his parents are cooking more than just hamburgers on their backyard grill.
* ''[[Ravenous]]'', a [[1999]] black comedy written by Ted Griffen and directed by Antonia Bird. Based loosely on the Donner Party true story.
* ''[[Sin City (film)|Sin City]]'', a film by Frank Miller and Robert Rodriguez, features a character played by [[Elijah Wood]] who eats the bodies of prostitutes, as well as forcing them to watch as he eats their severed limbs.
<!-- Note: I feel that Soylent Green should not be included here, as it is essentially giving away the "twist" of the movie and amounts to a spoiler. You might feel otherwise. -->
<!-- Response/Opinion: You could argue you the same for Delicatessen. As it is, Soylent Green has become a cultural touchstone, so much so that more people probably know the twist than have actually seen the film. (And I haven't seen the film myself.) But most importantly, here's the policy page on [[Wikipedia:Warn_readers_about_spoilers|spoilers]]. I've decided to make a custom spoiler warning. -->
<!-- I'm giving away the "twist" anyway, for the folks who don't know what it's about. -->
* ''[[Cannibal! The Musical]]'', a fictionalized account of [[Alferd Packer|Alferd Packer's]] cannibalism written and directed by [[Trey Parker]] of ''[[South Park]]'' fame, which itself also depicts cannibalism in its episode ''[[Scott Tenorman Must Die]]''.
* ''Courtship Rite'' by [[Donald Kingsbury]], a [[science fiction]] novel in which cannibalism is an essential theme.
*''The Republic of Wine: A Novel'' by [[Mo Yan]], in which cannibalism is practiced by officials in modern China.
*''[[Haunted (novel)|Haunted]]'', a novel by American Author [[Chuck Palahniuk]] contains several incidences of cannibalism.
*''[[Dumplings (film)|Dumplings]]'' by [[Fruit Chan]], wherein [[fetus|foetuses]] are consumed.
*''[[Underground (role playing game)|Underground]]'', a role playing game in which a popular restaurant chain called "Tastee Ghoul" serves food made from human flesh.
*''[[The Water Margin]]'', a Chinese novel in which cannibalism theme occured on occasion, in one episode a hero named [[Wu Song]] uncover an inn that drug their travellers and kill them to sell their victims as meatbun.
* ''The Cannibal Within'' by Mark Mirabello.[http://www.geocities.com/cannibalwithin/] Horror novella based on the theme that "Ingestion is the ultimate act of domination. The victim is absorbed by the eater--body and soul are absorbed--and all that remains is excrement."
* ''[[Motel Hell]]'' ([[1980]]), a black comedy written by Robert and Steven-Charles Jaffe and directed by Kevin Conner, in which a farmer captures and fattens people and later converts them into his popular brand of sausages.
*[[Zhu Yu]], a [[Chinese]] [[conceptual artist]], became famous for his staging of many photographs of himself eating a cooked human [[fetus|foetus]]. Though he himself has claimed in interviews that the foetus was real, obtained from an abortion clinic, some reports indicate that it was likely [[duck]] meat mixed with parts from a baby [[doll]]. [[Zhu Yu]] briefly found himself the subject of a [[chain mail|chain e-mail]] backlash that singled out [[Asian]] communities for allegedly taking their "unusual" [[cuisine]] tastes too far. The chain eventually reached the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] and [[Scotland Yard]], both of whom performed full investigations into the pictures.
{{endspoiler}}
== See also ==
*[[Androphagi]] or [[Anthropophagi]], an ancient nation of cannibals
*[[Boyd Massacre]], where indigenous Maori killed and ate almost 70 crew members of a ship that flogged the son of a chief
*[[Alexander "Sawney" Bean]], the head of a mythical Scottish family of 48 who murdered and cannibalized over 1000 people.
*[[Alferd Packer]], a Colorado cannibal
*[[Donner Party]], a group of people who resorted to cannibalism when snowbound
*[[Liver-Eating Johnson]]
*[[Armin Meiwes]]
*[[Michael Rockefeller]] - son of New York governor [[Nelson Rockefeller]] whose disappearance off the coast of New Guinea after an accident in 1961 led to media speculation that he might have been killed by cannibals.
*[[Sumanto]], an Indonesian cannibal.
*[[Placentophagy]]
*[[Tobias Schneebaum]], American anthropoligist and artist who lived with cannibalistic tribes in South America and New Guinea
*[[Wendigo]] refers to a [[Mythology|myth]]ical malevolent [[supernatural creature]] whose physical deformities suggest starvation and frostbite; and personifies the hardships of winter and the taboo of cannibalism.
*[[Jeffrey Dahmer]]
== Other uses of the word ==
*[[Mechanic]]s sometimes use the verb '''cannibalize''' for dismantling one vehicle or other machine to get parts to repair another.
*[[Cannibalization]] is a business term for where one product takes sales from another product manufactured by the same company, rather than gaining sales by displacing competitor's products.
*The use of the word "cannibalistic" to describe animals which eat humans is a common misuse of the word.
== References ==
# {{note|tanaka}} Tanaka, Toshiyuki, and Tanaka, Yuki (1996). ''Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II.'' ISBN 0813327172.
#[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] 2005 edition.
#{{note label|1728|3|^}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&entity=HistSciTech000900240147&isize=L Anthropophagy].
== External links ==
* [http://www.jqjacobs.net/anthro/cannibalism.html The Cannibalism Paradigm: Assessing Contact Period Ethnohistorical Discourse, by James Q. Jacobs]. A critical, academic review of Mesoamerican cannibalism claims.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2569095.stm BBC article about German cannibalism case]
* [http://www.uq.edu.au/~pdwgrey/web/can/cannibalism.html In Defence of Cannibalism]. 1982 essay by philosopher [[Richard Routley]] which examines whether and under what circumstances (e.g. eating those who died from natural causes) cannibalism might be morally acceptable.
*[http://www.lehigh.edu/~ejg1/natimag/Harry.html Harry J. Brown, 'Hans Staden among the Tupinambas.']
*[http://www.edgehill.ac.uk/Faculties/HMSAS/english/rh/degrees/rccomhtnew.htm Markman Ellis, "Crusoe, cannibalism and empire."] Robinson Crusoe's fearful ruminations on cannibals, and Capt. Cook's reports of Maori cannibalism, which were convincing to many 18th and 19th century Europeans, though not to all modern anthropologists, set into the context of colonial empire-building.
*[http://times.discovery.com/convergence/insidenorthkorea/video/video.html Video clip showing reports of cannibalism in North Korea]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/cannibalism.html History and ethical considerations of cannibalism]
* [http://www.lyricstop.com/m/meinteil-rammstein.html Lyrics and English translation of Mein Teil, the Rammstein song about the Meiwes incident]
* [http://www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/psychology/cannibalism/ Cannibalism Psychology]
[[Category:Cannibalism|*]]
[[Category:Eating behaviors]]
[[bg:Канибализъм]]
[[cs:Kanibalismus]]
[[de:Kannibalismus]]
[[et:Kannibalism]]
[[fr:Cannibalisme]]
[[fy:Kannibalisme]]
[[he:קניבליזם]]
[[id:Kanibalisme]]
[[it:Cannibalismo]]
[[ja:カニバリズム]]
[[lt:Kanibalizmas]]
[[nl:Kannibalisme]]
[[no:Kannibalisme]]
[[pl:Kanibalizm]]
[[pt:Canibalismo]]
[[sl:Kanibalizem]]
[[fi:Kannibalismi]]
[[sv:Kannibalism]]
[[vi:Tục ăn thịt người]]
[[zh:同类相食]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chemical element</title>
<id>5659</id>
<revision>
<id>42056376</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:28:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Petros471</username>
<id>390927</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reverting testing, patent nonsense and/or vandalism to revision ID 41449394 using [[WP:POPUP|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''[[chemical element]]''', often called simply '''element''', is a [[chemical substance]] that cannot be divided or changed into other chemical substances by any ordinary chemical technique. The smallest unit of this kind of chemical substances is an [[atom]]. An element is a class of substances that contain the same number of [[proton]]s in all its atoms.
==Chemistry terminology==
Earlier an '''element''' or '''pure element''' was defined as a substance which "cannot be further broken down into another compound with different chemical properties" -- which should be taken to mean it consists of atoms of one element. However, due to [[allotropy]], the [[isotope effect]], and the confusion with the more useful term referring to the general class of atoms (irrespective of what com |
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Frederick Matthias Alexander''' ([[January 20]], [[1869]]&ndash;[[October 10]], [[1955]]) was an actor who developed the educational process that is today called the [[Alexander Technique]]&mdash;a method of helping people learn to free habitual reactions of moving, learned by improving one's [[kinesthetic]] judgment. He was born in [[Tasmania]], later moved to [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]], and finally settled in [[London]] in 1904.
Alexander developed such concepts as the primary control, verbal visualization, avoiding reaction during speaking, and using modeling in teaching (guiding movement in contact with the student to show quality and direction.)
There are now many books about the Alexander Technique. One of the first and best is ''[[Freedom to Change]]'' by [[Frank Pierce Jones]].
Alexander himself was a [[Shakespeare]]an [[oratory|orator]], and had a problem of losing his [[human voice|voice]] onstage. Careful observation of himself with mirrors revealed that he habitually stiffened his body when about to recite or to a lesser extent before speaking. His technique was based on finding his way past his problems, which he decided were based on the way he ''used himself.''
Many famous actors, writers and philosophers of the turn of the [[19th century]] were his students. According to some, the technique was important in the career of educational philosopher [[John Dewey]]. The two men met around [[1918]] in [[New York City]] when Dewey had a series of lessons. Dewey felt that Alexander taught him how to stop and think before acting. He said that his study of the Alexander Technique enabled him to hold a philosophical position calmly once he had taken it or to change it if new evidence appeared.
== Alexander's writing ==
Alexander's books have a reputation for being difficult to read. Part of the difficulty is that he is discussing a radically new hypothesis. Most people trust their sense of position and carriage, but Alexander shows again and again that we are wrong to trust it.
Alexander through his experience was forced to reject arbitrary separation of mind and body. He talked about the 'psycho-physical mechanism', the 'self', the 'organism'. He would not have used the words 'mental' or 'physical' at all but that "... there are no other words at present which adequately express manifestations of psycho-physical activity ...". Because he was using everyday words to describe new ideas he often digressed (footnotes were a favourite way) to explain the sense in which he was using this particular word.
Alexander was a man of his times. He read [[Thomas Huxley]], [[Charles Darwin]], and [[Herbert Spencer]], as well as [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and [[George Gordon Byron, Lord Byron|Byron]], and his writing reflects an "evolutionary" style. He tried to evoke the complete process he was using in almost every sentence - which many people today find to be long-winded.
He chose his words with care. From [[John Dewey]]'s introduction to ''Constructive Conscious Control'' :
"For although there is nothing esoteric in his teaching, and although his exposition is made in the simplest English, free from technical words, it is difficult for anyone to grasp its full force without having actual demonstration of the principle in action."
== Alexander's Books ==
=== Man's supreme inheritance ===
''Man's supreme inheritance : conscious guidance and control in relation to human evolution in civilization''. (Long Beach, CA, USA : Centreline Press, 1988.) 95 p. (This edition incorporates two pamphlets published previously: ''The theory and practice of a new method of respiratory re-education'', 1907; and ''Re-education of the kinaesthetic systems concerned with the development of robust physical well-being'', 1908.)
This is Alexander's first attempt to set down his [[philosophy]] and method in written form. ''Man's supreme inheritance'' is the ability to inhibit habitual control of our actions and substitute conscious reasoned control. "By and through consciousness and the application of a reasoning intelligence, man may rise above the powers of all disease and physical disability". Heady stuff! Alexander had been teaching his technique to others for about 17 years when he wrote this book, and six of those years were spent in London. He had even then an enormous number of examples of the success of his method of re-education. The difference is that Alexander, through his books and his teachings, showed us the practical steps we can take to make the dream come true.
The thesis goes something like this: in prehistoric times we were well served by instinctive or habitual control of our actions. Change was always at a slow pace and we had plenty of time to adapt to any new situations. In the modern world the pace of change is much faster (even around the turn of the century - how much more so now). Our habitual control is no longer adequate, and more often leads us astray into patterns of use that are harmful, causing disease and deformity. All forms of physical culture utilising our habitual guidance only serve to accentuate this effect. Alexander argues that the sub-conscious is merely the complete set of habits.
As we have progressed along the road of civilisation, we have learned to inhibit our habits of thought and our desires. This is an evolutionary step - we are no longer natural animals. Any separation of the mind and body is completely arbitrary and in practice the two cannot be separated. What we need to do now is bring our habitual control of our whole organism (mind and body together as one) under conscious control. Alexander contends, and has demonstrated, that any act using voluntary muscle can be controlled - any unconscious habit can be elevated to consciousness and controlled.
While consciousness is the gift that sets us apart from the other animals, it is also a burden to us - we must employ it in every sphere or else we go wrong.
===Constructive conscious control of the individual===
''Constructive conscious control of the individual''. (London : Methuen, 1923.) With an introduction by Professor John Dewey.
"During the last 500 years in all spheres of remedial and curative activity, the standard of sensory appreciation, of general coordination and of reliable use of the mechanisms of the organism has been and still is being gradually lowered, with the associated serious conditions which are apparent today."
''Constructive Conscious Control'' is the definitive exposition of Alexander's philosophy and the Alexander Technique; the principle and the procedure. [[Frank Pierce Jones|Jones]] notes that Alexander always considered it his most important book. "It was more ambitiously planned than any of the others; the examples and language were carefully chosen; and it had the benefit of Deweys advice".
Alexander received much correspondence after Man's Supreme Inheritance was published and he acknowledges the questions of readers. "In this book I am most anxious to answer such oft-repeated questions as: "why are our instincts less reliable than those of our early ancestors?"; "at what stage of man's evolution did this deterioration begin?"; "what is the cause of our present-day individual and national unrest?"; "can you set down principles which will enable us to decide as to the best methods of educating our children."
Alexander's vision is clear in this book. For the human race to advance and be uplifted, it is necessary to function "as a psycho-physical unit" and by applying conscious guidance and control of our selves. To achieve our potential, to continue to move along the evolutionary scale, and to achieve health and happiness, it is necessary for us to restore our debauched sensory appreciation and to re-educate our use of our selves.
This book is a must for all serious students of the Alexander Technique. All the key concepts are introduced and discussed at length.
===The use of the self===
''The use of the self : its conscious direction in relation to diagnosis, functioning and the control of reaction''. (London : Victor Gollancz, 1985.) 23 p. With an introduction by Wilfred Barlow, first published 1932.
"A classic of scientific observation." - British Medical Journal (from the book jacket).
In chapter one of this book Alexander leads us through the voyage of discovery, from the throat problems which threatened his career as an elocutionist, through to the formulation of the principles of what we know as the Alexander Technique. Major turning points and shifts of understanding are highlighted.
* discovery that the senses are untrustworthy
* the shift from separation to mind/body unity; no act is wholly mental or physical
* discovery of primary control
* importance of first inhibiting habitual reactions
*use of conscious direction in combination with inhibition
*Through two case studies, the golfer and the stutterer, he shows how these principles work in practice.
From the beginning Alexander had mixed experiences with the medical profession. It was a doctor who first convinced him to take his technique to a larger audience in London, and afterwards some of his most notable defenders and followers were doctors. Alexander was however openly critical of the profession, which put many doctors off. Many thought he was merely another quack. Still, doctors often sent patients to him as last resort - and it seems that in all cases they experienced some relief after being re-educated by Alexander. He never claimed to cure though - he treated poor conditions of use. With better use most patients found physical relief since their body/mind was functioning better.
The ''Use of the Self'' dicusses the need of the medical profession to be aware of poor use. Alexander has shown that poor use is a constant influenc |
er is an allegory of the corruption of the socialist ideals of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] by [[Stalinism]], and the latter is Orwell's prophetic vision of the results of [[totalitarianism]]. ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' is often compared to [[Brave New World]] by [[Aldous Huxley]]; both are powerful [[dystopia|dystopian]] novels of a possible future of state control, the former bleak and the latter superficially happy.
===Influence on the English language===
''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' has given the English language the phrase 'Big Brother', or 'Big Brother is watching you'. This is used to refer to any oppressive regime, but particularly in the context of invasion of privacy. The TV series '[[Big Brother (TV series)|Big Brother]]' is named after this phrase.
The adjective [[Orwellian]] is mainly derived from the system depicted in ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''. It can refer to any form of government oppression, but it is particularly used to refer to euphemistic and misleading language originating from government bodies with a political purpose, for example "Ministry of Defence", "collateral damage" and "pacification".
Orwell expounded on the importance of honest and clear language (and, conversely, on how misleading and vague language can be a tool of political manipulation) in his 1946 essay ''[[Politics and the English Language]]''.
Variations of the slogan "all animals are equal, but some are more equal than others", from ''[[Animal Farm]]'', are sometimes used to satirise situations where equality exists in theory and rhetoric but not in practice. For example, an allegation that rich people are treated more leniently by the courts despite legal equality before the law might be summarised as "all criminals are equal, but some are more equal than others".
Although the origins of the term are debatable, Orwell may have been the first to use the term 'cold war'. He used it in an essay titled "[http://orwell.ru/library/articles/ABomb/english/e_abomb.html You and the Atomic Bomb]" on [[October 19]], [[1945]] in ''Tribune'', he wrote:
:''"We may be heading not for general breakdown but for an epoch as horribly stable as the slave empires of antiquity. [[James Burnham]]'s theory has been much discussed, but few people have yet considered its ideological implications — this is, the kind of world-view, the kind of beliefs, and the social structure that would probably prevail in a State which was once unconquerable and in a permanent state of 'cold war' with its neighbours."''
===Literary influences===
Orwell claimed that his writing style was most similar to that of [[Somerset Maugham]]. In his literary essays, he also strongly praised the works of [[Jack London]], especially his book ''The Road.'' Orwell's investigation of poverty in ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' strongly resembles that of Jack London's ''The People of the Abyss,'' in which the American journalist disguises himself as an out-of-work sailor in order to investigate the lives of the poor in London. In his literary essays, George Orwell also praised [[Charles Dickens]], ''[[Tropic of Cancer (novel)|Tropic of Cancer]]'' author [[Henry Miller]] and [[Herman Melville]], the author of ''[[Moby Dick]]''. Another of his favourite authors was [[Jonathan Swift]], and, in particular, his book ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'', which he rated as one of the six greatest books ever written. [[George Gissing]]'s New Grub Street with its description of the growing commercialisation of late [[19th century]] society was another influence.
==Bibliography==
===Books===
*''[[Down and Out in Paris and London]]'' ([[1933]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Down_and_Out_in_Paris_and_London/english/]
*''[[Burmese Days]]'' ([[1934]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Burmese_Days/]
*''[[A Clergyman's Daughter]]'' ([[1935]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/A_Clergymans_Daughter/]
*''[[Keep the Aspidistra Flying]]'' ([[1936]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Keep_the_Aspidistra_Flying/]
*''[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]'' ([[1937]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/The_Road_to_Wigan_Pier/]
*''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' ([[1938]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Homage_to_Catalonia/]
*''[[Coming Up for Air]]'' ([[1939]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Coming_up_for_Air/]
*''[[Animal Farm]]'' ([[1945]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/]
*''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' ([[1949]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/1984/]
===Essays===
''Main description: [[Essays of George Orwell]]''
<!-- Following are essays that have appeared two or more published collections of essays,
besides CEJL and CW (see http://orwell.ru/biblio/english/bbl_0c) -->
*"[[A Hanging]]" ([[1931]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/articles/hanging/]
*"[[Shooting an Elephant]]" ([[1936]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/articles/elephant/]
*"[[Charles Dickens (essay)|Charles Dickens]]" ([[1939]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/dickens/]
*"[[Boys' Weeklies]]" ([[1940]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/boys/]
*"[[Inside the Whale]]" ([[1940]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/whale/]
*"[[The Lion and The Unicorn: Socialism and the English Genius]]" ([[1941]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/lion/english/]
*"[[Wells, Hitler and the World State]]" ([[1941]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/wells/]
*"[[The Art of Donald McGill]]" ([[1941]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/McGill/]
*"[[Looking Back on the Spanish War]]" ([[1943]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/Spanish_War/]
*"[[W. B. Yeats (essay)|W. B. Yeats]]" ([[1943]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/yeats/]
*"[[Benefit of Clergy: Some notes on Salvador Dali]]" ([[1944]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/dali/]
*"[[Arthur Koestler (essay)|Arthur Koestler]]" ([[1944]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/koestler/]
*"[[Notes on Nationalism]]" ([[1945]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/nationalism/]
*"[[How the Poor Die]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/articles/Poor_Die/]
*"[[Politics vs. Literature: An Examination of Gulliver's Travels]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/swift/]
*"[[Politics and the English Language]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/politics/]
*"[[Second Thoughts on James Burnham]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/burnham/]
*"[[Decline of the English Murder]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/articles/decline/]
*"[[Some Thoughts on the Common Toad]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/articles/Common_Toad/]
*"[[A Good Word for the Vicar of Bray]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/vicar/]
*"[[In Defence of P. G. Wodehouse]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/plum/]
*"[[Why I Write]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/wiw/]
*"[[The Prevention of Literature]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/prevention/]
*"[[Such, Such Were the Joys]]" ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/joys/english/]
*"[[Lear, Tolstoy and the Fool]]" ([[1947]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/lear/]
*"[[Reflections on Gandhi]]" ([[1949]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/gandhi/]
*"[[Bookshop Memories]]" ([[1936]]) — [http://www.george-orwell.org/Bookshop_Memories/0.html]
*"[[The Moon Under Water]]" ([[1946]]) - [http://www.whitebeertravels.co.uk/orwell]
===Poems===
*Romance ([[1925]]) [http://orwell.ru/library/poems/romance/english/e_rom]
*[[A Little Poem]] ([[1936]]) [http://orwell.ru/library/poems/vicar/english/e_lp]
==Trivia==
*[[Aldous Huxley]] was Orwell's [[French language|French]] teacher for a [[Academic term|term]] early in his Eton career.
*His wife Eileen was once a student of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]].
*Despite being remembered for his radio broadcasts for the BBC during the war no recording of Orwell speaking was known until 2002. The only known film footage of Orwell is from him at Eton playing the [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/09/03/1062515435094.html Eton Wall Game]
*Orwell had an [[NKVD]] file — partly due to his anti-Stalinist ''[[Animal Farm]]''.
*Before settling on "George Orwell", Eric Blair had considered using the pseudonyms "P.S. Burton," "Kenneth Miles," and "H. Lewis Allways".
==See also==
* ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four (TV programme)|Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', the BBC's famous [[1954]] television adaptation of Orwell's novel.
* [[James Burnham]], whose book ''The Managerial Revolution'' was a major influence on the development of ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.
* [[Yevgeny Zamyatin]], whose novel ''[[We (novel)|We]]'', which Orwell reviewed, provided a model for ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.
==Books about George Orwell==
* [[Gordon Bowker|Bowker, Gordon]]. ''George Orwell''. Little Brown. 2003. ISBN 0316861154
* Caute, David. ''Dr. Orwell and Mr. Blair'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0297814389
* [[Bernard Crick|Crick, Bernard]]. ''George Orwell: A Life''. Penguin. 1982. ISBN 0140058567
* Flynn, Nigel. ''George Orwell''. The Rourke Corporation, Inc. 1990. ISBN 086593018X
* [[Christopher Hitchens|Hitchens, Christopher]]. ''Why Orwell Matters''. Basic Books. 2003. ISBN 0465030491
* Hollis, Christopher. ''A Study of George Orwell: The Man and His Works''. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co. 1956. ASIN: B000ANO242.
* Larkin, Emma. ''Finding George Orwell in Burma''. Penguin. 2005. ISBN 1594200521
* Meyers, Jeffery. ''Orwell: Wintry Conscience of a Generation''. W.W.Norton. 2000. ISBN 0393322637
* [[John Newsinger|Newsinger, John]]. ''Orwell's Politics''. Macmillan. 1999. ISBN 0-333-68287-4
* [[Michael Shelden|Shelden, Michael]]. ''Orwell: The Authorized Biography''. HarperCol |
vironment in which decomposers can thrive. To encourage the most active microbes, the compost pile needs the proper mix of the following ingredients:
*[[Carbon]]
*[[Nitrogen]]
*[[Oxygen]] (air)
*[[Water]]
Decomposition happens even in the absence of some of these ingredients, but not nearly as quickly and not nearly as pleasantly (for example, the plastic bag of [[vegetable]]s in your refrigerator is decomposed by microbes, but the absence of air encourages the growth of [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic microbes]] that produce disagreeable odors).
==Decomposers==
All guidelines for building compost piles have the goal of creating the proper environment for a decomposing [[ecosystem]]. The ecosystem in a compost pile is a microcosm of larger ecosystems. The correct environment must be maintained for a healthy and vigorous community of decomposers. In addition to the decomposers that work directly on the organic content of the pile, compost piles provide habitat for those that prey upon direct decomposers. Their waste also becomes part of the compost material.
The most effective decomposers are [[bacteria]] and other microorganisms. Also important are [[fungus|fungi]], [[protozoa]], and [[actinobacteria]] (or actinomycetes, bacteria that are often seen as white filaments in decomposing organic matter). At a macroscopic level, [[earthworm]]s, [[ant]]s, [[snail]]s, [[slug]]s, [[millipede]]s, [[sow bug]]s, [[springtail]]s, and others work on consuming and breaking down the organic matter. [[Centipede]]s and other predators feed upon these decomposers.
==Compost ingredients==
The goal in a compost pile is to provide a healthy environment--and nutrition--for the rapid decomposers, the bacteria.
The most rapid composting occurs with the ideal ratio--by dry chemical weight--of carbon to nitrogen, from 25-to-1 to 30-to-1. In other words, the ingredients placed in the pile should contain 30 times as much carbon as nitrogen. For example, [[grass]] clippings average about 19-to-1 and dry [[autumn]] [[leaf|leaves]] average about 55-to-1. Mixing equal parts by volume approximates the ideal range. Commercial-grade composting operations pay strict attention to this ratio. For backyard composters, however, the charts of carbon and nitrogen ratios in various ingredients and the calculations required to get the ideal mixture can be intimidating, so many [[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]] exist to guide composters in approximating this mixture.
High-carbon sources provide the [[cellulose]] needed by the composting bacteria for conversion to sugars and heat.
High-nitrogen sources provide the most concentrated [[protein]], which allow the compost bacteria to thrive.
Some ingredients with higher carbon content:
* Dry, straw-type material, such as cereal straws
* Autumn leaves
* [[Sawdust]] and [[wood]] chips
* Some [[paper]] and [[cardboard]] (such as corrugated cardboard or newsprint with soy-based inks)
Some ingredients with higher nitrogen content:
* Green plant material (fresh or wilted) such as crop residues, hay, grass clippings, weeds
* Animal [[manure]]s (from vegetarian animals, not carnivores)
* [[Fruit]] and vegetable trimmings
* [[Seaweed]]s
* Used Coffee grounds
[[Poultry]] manure provides lots of nitrogen but little carbon. [[Horse]] manure provides both. [[Sheep]] and [[cattle]] manure don't drive the compost heap to as high a temperature as poultry or horse manure, so the heap takes longer to produce the finished product.
In an attempt to judge the proper mix of materials, different rules of thumb are available. Some prefer to add one basket full of nitrogen source followed by one basket of carbon source. Mixing the materials as they are added increases the rate of decomposition, but some people prefer to place the materials in alternating layers, approximately 15 [[centimeter|cm]] (6 [[inch|in]]) thick, to help estimate the quantities. Keeping carbon and nitrogen sources separated in the pile can slow down the process, but decomposition will occur in any event.
Greasy food waste and wastes from [[meat]], [[dairy products]], and [[egg (food)|egg]]s should not be used in compost because they tend to attract unwanted [[insect]]s and other [[animal]]s. [[Eggshell]]s, however, are a good source of nutrients for the compost pile and the soil although they typically take more than one year to decompose.
==Composting techniques==
There are two primary methods of aerobic composting:
* ''Active'' (or ''hot'') composting, which allows the most effective decomposing bacteria to thrive, kills most pathogens and seeds, and rapidly produces usable compost
* ''Passive'' (or ''cold'') composting, which lets nature take its course in a more leisurely manner and leaves many pathogens and seeds dormant in the pile
Most commercial and industrial composting operations use active composting techniques. This ensures a higher quality product and produces results in the shortest time (see [[compost windrow turner]]). The greatest control, and therefore the highest quality, is generally achieved by composting inside an enclosed vessel which is monitored and adjusted continuously for optimal temperature, air flow, moisture, and other parameters. See [[In-vessel composting (indoor composting)]].
Home composters use a range of techniques varying from extremely passive composting (throw everything in a pile in a corner and leave it alone for a year or two) to extremely active (monitoring the temperature, turning the pile regularly, and adjusting the ingredients over time) and combinations of both.
Some composters use mineral powders to absorb smells, although a well-maintained pile seldom has bad odors.
==Microbes and heating the pile==
[[Image:Compost Heap.jpg|thumb|right|An active compost heap, steaming on a cold winter morning. The heap is kept warm by the [[exothermic]] action of the [[bacteria]] as they [[decomposition|decompose]] the organic matter.]]
An effective compost pile is kept about as damp as a well wrung-out sponge. This provides the moisture that all life needs to survive; in a compost pile, it provides an environment in which microbes can begin to do their work. Bacteria and other microorganisms fall into a variety of groups in terms of what their ideal temperature is and how much heat they generate as they do their work. ''[[Mesophile|Mesophilic]]'' bacteria enjoy midrange temperatures, from about 20 to 40 °C (70 to 110 °F). As they decompose the organic matter, they generate heat, and the inner part of a compost pile heats up the most.
The heap should be about 1 [[metre|m]] (3 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) wide, 1 m (3 ft) tall, and as long as is practicable &ndash; the advantage to making the heap at least 1 m&sup3; (1 [[yard|yd]]&sup3;) is that it provides suitable insulating mass to allow a good heat build-up as the material decays. The ideal temperature range hovers around 60 °C (140 °F), which kills most pathogens and weed seeds and also provides a suitable environment for ''[[Thermophile|thermophilic]]'' (heat-loving) bacteria, which are the fastest acting decomposers. The centre of the heap should get quite warm, possibly hot enough to burn a bare hand. If this fails to happen, common reasons include the following:
* The heap is too wet, thus excluding the oxygen required by the compost bacteria
* The heap is too dry, so that the bacteria do not have the moisture needed to survive and reproduce
*There is insufficient protein (nitrogen-rich material)
The solution is to add material, if necessary, and/or to turn the pile to aerate it.
Depending on how quickly the compost is required, the heap can be turned one or more times to bring the outer layers to the inside of the heap and vice versa, as well as to aerate the mixture. Adding water at this time keeps the pile as damp as a wrung-out sponge. One guideline is to turn the pile when the high temperature has begun to drop, indicating that the food source for the fastest-acting bacteria (in the center of the pile) has been largely consumed. After the temperature stops rising after the pile has been turned, there is no further advantage in turning the pile. When all the material has become barely recognisable from the original ingredients, turning into dark brown or nearly black crumbly matter, it's ready to use. Some practitioners like to leave the compost to mature further for up to a year as this seems to make the benefits of compost last longer.
==Other ingredients==
Some like to put special materials and activators into their compost. A light dusting of [[agricultural lime]] (not on the animal [[manure]] layers) can curb excessive acidity that can slow down the fermentation. Seaweed meal can provide a ready source of [[trace elements]]. Finely pulverized rock ([[Rock flour|Rock dust]] - [[Rock flour]]) can also provide needed minerals, as opposed to [[clay]] (which is trace mineral-poor and/or leached rock dust).
The animal [[manure]] part of compost source materials can be collected by [[composting toilet]]s (in this case, [[human feces]]). However, such compost is usually not used as a [[fertilizer]] for plants that are directly edible (e.g., [[salad]] crops) but is instead be used on [[tree]]s, [[bush fruit]]s or else on the [[ornamental garden]]. Most composting toilets do not allow for the [[thermophilic]] activity needed to completely kill off the [[pathogens]] and [[bacteria]]. However, there is research that shows that if these high temperatures are reached, there is no danger of contamination, and the resulting compost can be safely used on food crops.
==Composting systems==
*[[Container composting]]
*[[In-vessel composting (indoor composting)]]
*[[German mound]]
*[[Leaf mold]]
*[[High fibre composting]]
*[[Worm compost]]
*[[Spent mushroom compost]]
*[[Sheet composting]]
*[[Windrow composting]]
*[[Humanure]]
*[[Composting toilet]]
== See also ==
*[[Soil amendments]]
*[[Soil conditioner]]
*[[List of environment topics |
e production of locally organised counter petitions. The government had its way but it became clear that the division was not between Catholics and Protestants, but between Puritans and those who valued the Elizabethan settlement. The 1559 book was finally outlawed by Parliament in [[1645]] to be replaced by the [[Directory for Public Worship]] which was more a set of instructions than a prayer book. Following the execution of [[King Charles I]] and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Lord Protector [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwell]], it would not be replaced until shortly after the restoration of the monarchy to England, when bishops, on returning to their Sees, restored it.
=== The [[1662]] prayer book ===
The 1662 prayer book was printed only two years after the restoration of the monarchy, following the [[Savoy Conference]] convened by Royal Warrant to review the book of 1559. Attempts by [[Presbyterians]] led by [[Richard Baxter]] to gain approval for an alternative service book were in vain. In reply to the Presbyterian Exceptions to the book only fifteen trivial changes were made to the new book. Among them was the inclusion the [[Offertory]]. This was achieved by the insertion of the words 'and oblations' into the prayer for the Church and the revision of the rubric so as to require the monetary offerings to be brought to the Table (instead of being put in the poor box) and the bread and wine placed upon the Table. Previously it was not clear when and how bread and wine were produced! After the communion the unused but consecrated bread and wine were to be reverently consumed in church rather than being taken away and used for any other occasion. By such subtle means were Cranmer's purposes further subverted, leaving it for generations to argue over the precise theology of the rite. Unable to accept the new book 2000 Presbyterians were deprived of their livings. This revision survives today as the "standard" Parliament-approved ''Book of Common Prayer'' in England, with only minor revisions since its publication (mostly due the changes in the monarchy and in the dominion of the former Empire), but few parishes actually use it. In practice, most services in the Church of England are from [[Common Worship]], approved by Gneral Synod in 2000, following a nearly forty years of experiment.
The actual language of the 1662 revision was much unchanged from that of Cranmer, with the exception of the modernization of only the most archaic words and phrases. This book was the one which had existed as the official ''Book of Common Prayer'' during the most monumental periods of growth of the British empire, and, as a result, has been a great influence on the prayer books of Anglican churches worldwide, [[liturgy|liturgies]] of other denominations in English, and of the [[English language]] as a whole.
=== Further developments ===
After the 1662 prayer book, development ceased in England until the twentieth century; that it did was, however, a bit of a close run thing. On the death of Charles II his brother, a Roman Catholic, became [[James II]]. James wished to achieve toleration for those of his own Roman Catholic faith, whose practices were still banned. This, however, drew the Presbyterians closer to the Church of England in their common desire to resist 'popery'; talk of reconciliation and liturgical compromise was thus in the air. But with the flight of James in 1688 and the arrival of the Calvinist [[William of Orange]] the position of the parties changed. The Presbyterians could achieve toleration of their practices without such a right being given to Roman Catholics and without, therefore, their having to submit to the Church of England, even with a liturgy more acceptable to them. They were now in a much stronger position to demand even more radical changes to the forms of worship. John Tillotson, Dean of St. Paul's pressed the king to set up a Commission to produce such a revision The so-called ''Liturgy of Comprehension'' of 1689, which was the result, conceded two thirds of the Presbyterian demands of 1661; but when it came to [[Convocation]] the members, now more fearful of William's perceived agenda, did not even discuss it and its contents were, for a long time, not even accessible. This work, however, did go on to influence the prayer books of many British colonies.
By the [[20th century]] other pressures upon the book of 1662 had arisen. Adherents of the [[Oxford Movement]], begun in 1833, raised questions about the relationship of the Church of England to the apostolic church and thus about its forms of worship. The illegal use of elements of the Roman rite, the use of candles, vestments and incense had become widespread and led to the [[Public Worship Regulation Act 1874]] which established a new system of discipline. This had no effect on illegal practices: five clergy were imprisoned for contempt of court and after the trial of the saintly Bishop [[Edward King]] of Lincoln, it became clear that some revision of the liturgy had to be embarked upon. Following a Royal Commission report in 1906, work began on a new prayer book, work that was to take twenty years.
In [[1927]], this proposed prayer book was finished. It was decided, during development, that the use of the services therein would be decided on by each given congregation, so as to avoid as much conflict as possible with traditionalists. With these open guidelines the book was granted approval by the Church of England Convocations and Church Assembly. Since the Church of England is a state church, a further step&mdash;sending the proposed revision to Parliament&mdash;was required, and the book was rejected in December of that year when the MP [[William Joynson-Hicks, 1st Viscount Brentford|William Joynson-Hicks]] argued strongly against it on the grounds that the proposed book was "papistical" and insufficiently Protestant. The next year was spent revising the book to make it more suitable for Parliament, but it was rejected yet again in [[1928]]. However Convocation declared a state of emergency and authorised bishops to use the revised Book throughout that emergency.
The effect of the failure of the 1928 book was salutary: no further attempts were made to change the book, other than those required for the changes to the monarchy. Instead a different process, that of producing an alternative book , led eventually to the publication of the [[1980]] [[Alternative Service Book]] and subsequently to the [[2000]] ''[[Common Worship]]'' series of books. Both owe much to the ''Book of Common Prayer'' and the latter includes in the Order Two form of the Holy Communion a very slight revision of the prayer book service altering only one or two words and allowing the insertion of the Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) before Communion. Order One follows the pattern of modern liturgical scholarship.
In 2003, a [[Roman Catholic]] adaptation of the BCP was published called the ''[[Book of Divine Worship]]''. It is a compromise of material drawn from the proposed 1928 book, the 1979 [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|ECUSA]] book, and the [[Roman Missal]]. It was published primarily for use by Catholic converts from Anglicanism within the [[Anglican Use]].
== Prayer books in other Anglican churches==
A number of other nations have developed Anglican churches and their own revisions of the Book of Common Prayer. Several are listed here:
===USA===
The '''[[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]''' has produced numerous prayer books since the inception of the church in [[1789]]. Work on the first book began in [[1786]] and was subsequently finished and published in [[1789]]. The preface thereto mentions that "this Church is far from intending to depart from the Church of England in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or worship...further than local circumstances require." Further revisions to the prayer book in the United States occurred in [[1892]], [[1928]], and [[1979]]. Each edition was released into the [[public domain]] on publication, which has contributed to its influence as other churches have freely borrowed from it. The [[typeface]] used for the book is [[Sabon]].
===Australia===
The '''[[Anglican Church of Australia]]''' has successively issued several local versions of the Book of Common Prayer. The current edition is ''A Prayer Book For Australia'' (1995). The extreme theological divergence between Australia's largest and most prosperous diocese, the deeply conservatively evangelical Diocese of Sydney, and the rest of the Australian church has not proved as problematic for prayer book revisers as one might have supposed, as Sydney frowns on prayer books, as it does other conventionally Anglican appurtenances such as altars, robed clergy, and chanted and sung liturgies.
===Canada===
The '''[[Anglican Church of Canada]]''' developed its first Book of Common Prayer separate from the English version in [[1918]]. A revision was published in [[1962]], largely consisting of minor editorial emendations of archaic language (for example, changing "O Lord save the Queen/Because there is none other that fighteth for us but only thou O Lord" to "O Lord save the Queen/And evermore mightily defend us"). Some supplements have been developed over the past several years to the prayer book, but the compendious ''[[Book of Alternative Services]]'', published in [[1985]], which ''inter alia'' contains rites couched in Prayer Book phraseology, has largely supplanted it.
===Scotland===
[[Image:Book of common prayer Scotland 1637.jpg|thumb|right|120px|<nowiki></nowiki>]]
The '''[[Scottish Episcopal Church]]''' has had a number of revisions to the Book of Common Prayer since it was [[Jenny Geddes|first adapted]] for Scottish use in [[1637]]. These revisions were developed simultaneously with the English book till the mid-17th century when the |
is surrounded by six countries: [[Mali]] to the north, [[Niger]] to the east, [[Benin]] to the south east, [[Togo]] and [[Ghana]] to the south, and [[Côte d'Ivoire]] to the south west. Formerly the [[Republic]] of [[Upper Volta]], [[Geographical renaming|it was renamed]] on [[August 4]], [[1984]] by President [[Thomas Sankara]] to mean "the land of upright people" (or "upright land") in [[Mossi]] and [[Dioula]], the major native languages of the country. Independence from [[France]] came in 1960. Governmental instability during the 1970s and 1980s was followed by multiparty elections in the early 1990s. Several hundred thousand farm workers migrate south every year to [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Ghana]] in search of [[Unemployment|paid labour]]. The inhabitants of Burkina Faso are known as [[Burkinabé]].
== History ==
{{main|History of Burkina Faso}}
=== Prehistory ===
Like all of the west of Africa, Burkina Faso was populated early, notably by [[hunter-gatherer]]s in the north-western part of the country (12 000 to 5000 BC), and whose tools (scrapers, chisels and arrowheads) were discovered in 1973. Settlements appeared between 3600 and 2600 [[Anno Domini|BC]] with farmers, the traces of whose structures leave the impression of relatively permanent buildings. The use of iron, ceramics and polished stone developed between 1500 and 1000 BC, as well as a preoccupation with spiritual matters, as shown by the burial remains which have been discovered.
Relics of the [[Dogon]] are found in the centre-north, north and north west region. They left the area between the 15th and 16th centuries BC to settle in the cliffs of Bandiagara. Elsewhere, the remains of high walls are localised in the south west of Burkina Faso (as well as in the Côte d'Ivoire), but the people who built them have not yet been definitely identified.
Burkina Faso was a very important economic region for the [[Songhai Empire]] during the 15th and 16th centuries.
=== From colony to independence ===
In 1896, the Mossi kingdom of Ouagadougou became a French protectorate after being defeated by French forces. In 1898, the majority of the region corresponding to Burkina Faso today was conquered. In 1904, these territories were integrated into [[French West Africa]] in the heart of the Upper-Senegal-Niger (Haut-Sénégal-Niger) colony.
Its inhabitants participated in the [[World War I|First World War]] in the heart of the battalions of the [[Senegalese Infantry]] (Tirailleurs sénégalais). It was originally administered as part of Côte d'Ivoire colony, but became a separate colony in 1919. On [[March 1]] [[1919]], [[François Charles Alexis Édouard Hesling]] became the first governor of the new colony of Upper-Volta, which was broken up [[September 5]] [[1932]], being shared between the Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Niger.
On [[September 4]] [[1947]] Upper-Volta was recreated with its 1932 boundaries. On [[December 11]] [[1958]], it achieved self-government, and became a republic and member of the Franco-African Community (La Communauté Franco-Africaine). Full independence was attained in 1960. The country's first military coup occurred in 1966; it returned to civilian rule in 1978. There was another coup, led by [[Saye Zerbo]] in 1980, which in turn was overthrown in 1982. A counter-coup was launched in 1983, which left Captain [[Thomas Sankara]] in charge. The current president is [[Blaise Compaoré]], who came to power in 1987 after a [[coup d'état]] that killed [[Thomas Sankara]].
== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Burkina Faso}}
[[Image:Blaise Compaoré.jpeg|thumb|President Blaise Compaoré of Burkina Faso, Source: Antônio Cruz]]
The constitution of [[June 2]], [[1991]], established a semi-presidential government with a [[parliament]] (Assemblée) which can be dissolved by the President of the Republic, who is elected for a term of 5 years. The year 2000 saw a [[constitution]]al amendment reducing the presidential term from 7 to 5 years, enforceable as from 2005, when new presidential elections will be held. Another change according to the amendment would have prevented sitting president [[Blaise Compaoré]] from being re-elected. However, notwithstanding a challenge by other presidential candidates, in October 2005, the constitutional council ruled that because Compaoré was already a sitting president in 2000, the amendment would not apply to him until the end of his second term in office, thereby clearing the way for his candidacy in [[Burkina Faso presidential elections, 2005|the 2005 election]]. On [[November 13]] Compaoré was reelected in a landslide due to a divided political opposition. The parliament consists of two chambers: the lower house (l'Assemblée Nationale) and the upper house (la Chambre des Représentants). There is also a constitutional chamber, composed of ten members, and an economic and social council whose roles are purely consultative.
== Administrative divisions ==
''Main articles: [[Regions of Burkina Faso]], [[Provinces of Burkina Faso]]''
Burkina Faso is divided into 13 [[region]]s and 45 [[province]]s:
Regions: [[Boucle du Mouhoun Region|Boucle du Mouhoun]], [[Cascades Region|Cascades]], [[Centre Region|Centre]], [[Centre-Est Region|Centre-Est]], [[Centre-Nord Region|Centre-Nord]], [[Centre-Ouest Region|Centre-Ouest]], [[Centre-Sud Region|Centre-Sud]], [[Est Region|Est]], [[Hauts-Bassins Region|Hauts-Bassins]], [[Nord Region|Nord]], [[Plateau-Central Region|Plateau-Central]], [[Sahel Region|Sahel]], [[Sud-Ouest Region|Sud-Ouest]]
Provinces: [[Bale Province, Burkina Faso|Balé]], [[Bam Province|Bam]], [[Banwa]], [[Bazega]], [[Bougouriba]], [[Boulgou]], [[Boulkiemde]], [[Comoe]], [[Ganzourgou]], [[Gnagna]], [[Gourma]], [[Houet]], [[Ioba]], [[Kadiogo]], [[Kenedougou (province)|Kenedougou]], [[Komondjari]], [[Kompienga]], [[Kossi]], [[Koulpelogo]], [[Kouritenga]], [[Kourweogo]], [[Leraba]], [[Loroum]], [[Mouhoun]], [[Namentenga]], [[Nahouri]], [[Nayala]], [[Noumbiel]], [[Oubritenga]], [[Oudalan]], [[Passore]], [[Poni]], [[Sanguie]], [[Sanmatenga]], [[Seno]], [[Sissili]], [[Soum]], [[Sourou]], [[Tapoa]], [[Tuy]], [[Yagha]], [[Yatenga]], [[Ziro Province|Ziro]], [[Zondoma]], [[Zoundweogo]]
== Geography ==
[[Image:Burkina Faso Map.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Map of Burkina Faso]]
{{main|Geography of Burkina Faso}}
Burkina Faso is made up of two major types of countryside:
* The larger part of the country is covered by a [[peneplain]] which forms a gently undulating landscape with, in some areas, a few isolated hills, the last vestiges of a [[precambrian]] [[massif]].
* The south-west of the country forms a [[sandstone]] massif, where the highest peak is found: Ténakourou (749 m, 2,450 ft). The massif is bordered by sheer cliffs up to 150 [[metre]]s (490&nbsp;[[Foot (unit of length)|ft]]) high.
The average altitude is 400 metres (1,300&nbsp;ft) and the difference between the highest and lowest terrain is no greater than 600 metres (2,000&nbsp;ft). Burkina Faso is therefore a relatively flat country, with a very few localised exceptions.
=== Hydrography ===
The country owed its [[geographical renaming|former name]] of Upper Volta to three rivers which cross it: le Mouhoun (formerly called the [[Black Volta]]), le Nakambé (the [[White Volta]]) and le Nazinon (the [[Red Volta]]). Le Mouhoun, along with la Comoé which flows to the south west, is the country's only river which flows year-round
The basin of the [[Niger River]] also [[Watershed|drains]] 27% of the country's surface. Its [[Tributary|tributaries]] (le Béli, le Gorouol, le Goudébo and le Dargol) are [[Stream#Intermittent_and_ephemeral_streams|seasonal streams]], and only flow for 4 to 6 months a year but can cause large [[Flood|flood]]s.
The country also contains numerous lakes. The principal lakes are [[Tingrela]], [[Lake Bam|Bam]] and [[Dem]], and the large ponds of [[Oursi]], [[Béli]], [[Yomboli]] and [[Markoye]].
[[Drought|Water shortage]]s are often a problem, especially in the north of the county.
== Climate ==
[[Image:Burkina Faso - Tolotama Reforestation.jpg|thumb|Tolotama Reforestation, Burkina Faso]]
Burkina Faso has a primarily [[Tropics|tropical]] climate with two very distinct seasons: the rainy season with between 24-35 [[inch]]es (600 and 900 mm) of rainfall, and the dry season during which the [[harmattan]] blows, a hot dry wind from the Sahara. The rainy season lasts approximately 4 months, May/June to September, and is shorter in the north of the country.
Three large climatic zones can be defined:
=== The Sahel zone ===
The [[Sahel]] in the north receives less than 24 [[inch]]es (600 [[Millimeter|mm]]) rainfall a year and high temperatures 15&ndash;50&nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] (60&ndash;120&nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]]). A relatively dry [[tropical savanna]], the Sahel extends beyond the borders of Burkina Faso, from the [[Horn of Africa]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]], and borders the [[Sahara]] to its north, and the fertile region of the [[Sudan (region)|Sudan]] to the South.
=== The Sudan-Sahel zone ===
Situated between 11°3' and 13°5' north [[latitude]], the Sudan-Sahel region is a transitional zone with regards to rainfall and temperature.
=== The Sudan-Guinea zone ===
Further to the south, the Sudan-Guinea zone receives more than 35 inches (900 mm) rain a year and cooler average temperatures.
== Economy ==
[[Image:Burkina Faso - Tarfila Farming Group.jpg|thumb|Tarfila Farming Group]]
[[Image:Burkina Faso - Madame Badoun.jpg|thumb|shop in Burkina Faso]]
[[Image:Burkina Faso - Bobo Vendors.jpg|thumb|vendors in Burkina Faso]]
{{main|Economy of Burkina Faso}}
Burkina Faso is one of the poorest countries in the world. This can be explained by its population growth and its arid soil. [[Agriculture]] represents 32% of its gross domestic product and occupies 80% of the working population. It consists mostly of livestock but also, especially in the south and southwest, of growing sorghum, millet, maize (corn), peanuts, |
s.jpg|thumb|250px|"P"-style split pickups]]
The earliest basses had a single coil, but later split coil magnetic pickup. Modern choices include:
* Active or passive electronics (active circuits use a battery (usually a 9V PP3) to boost the signal and/or provide active equalization)
* Magnetic pickup type (single coil, split coil, dual coil "humbucker", triple coil "humbucker")
Pickup type:
* "P-" pickups (name taken from the original Fender Precision) are actually two distinct single-coil halves, wired in opposite direction to reduce hum, each offset a small amount along the length of the body so that each half is underneath two strings.
* "J-" pickups (name taken from the original Fender Jazz) are wider single-coil pickups which lie underneath all four strings.
* Soapbar pickups, found, for example, in MusicMan basses, are the same height as a J pickup, but about twice as wide (much like an electric guitar's humbucker). The name comes from the rectangular shape being similar to a bar of soap.
* Non-magnetic systems, eg. piezoelectric pickups or the innovative new optical systems (by Lightwave Systems) allowing the bassist to use non-metallic strings. Piezoelectric pickups sense the vibrations of the string, as transmitted to the pickup through the basses' wooden body. Since piezoelectric pickups are based on the vibration of the strings and body, they can be prone to feedback "howls" when used with an amplifier, especially when higher levels of amplification are used. Optical pickups are expensive and rarely used, apart from a small number of professional bass players who require the advantages offered by optical pickups: no noise (e.g., hum) or feedback problems, even at high levels of amplification.
* Pickup configuration. Many inexpensive basses (as well as older/vintage basses) have just one pickup (typically a "P" or "J"), but multiple pickups are also quite common, the two most common configurations being a P near the neck and a J near the bridge (e.g. Fender Precision Deluxe), or two J pickups (e.g. Fender Jazz). For single pickup systems, the placement of the pickup greatly affects the sound, with a pickup near the neck joint thought to sound "fatter" or "warmer" while a pickup near the bridge is thought to sound "tighter" or "sharper." Some basses use more bizzare pickup configurations, such as a Humbucker and P pickup (found on some Fenders), [[Stu Hamm]]'s "Urge" basses, which have a P pickup sandwidched between two J pickups, and some of [[Bootsy Collins]]' custom basses, which had as many as 5 J pickups.
=== Frets ===
The majority of basses use [[fret]]s to break the fingerboard into [[semitone]] divisions, although [[fretless bass]]es are also widely available. The original Fender basses had 20 frets but some modern basses have 24 or more frets covering a range of two or more [[octave]]s per string.
There are also further variations on the theme of frets. Some fretted basses feature a "zero fret" on the fingerboard just in front of the nut, which is alleged to offer tonal and setup advantages. Some fretted basses have scalloped fret boards for easier string bending.
In addition to frets, many basses have further markers inlaid into the neck as a guide to position. A typical arrangement would be single dots below the 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th frets and double dots at the 12th fret, all repeated at the equivalent positions an octave higher. However, there are many variations, including decorative shapes, large blocks and small dots on the side of the neck.
However, not all electric basses are Fretted. Fretless basses are known for the smoothness of [[glissando]] and similarity in tone to the double bass, but require precise fingering. [[Jaco Pastorius]] was one of the players to bring the fretless bass into the spotlight, having created the instrument (which was at that time unavailable on the market) himself by physically pulling the frets out of a fretted bass and then filling in the grooves in the neck with plastic wood and coating it with marine [[epoxy]]. This procedure is still utilized by some players who wish to convert their fretted bass to a fretless one. Some fretless basses have 'fret lines' inlaid in the fingerboard either because they have been converted from fretted necks (see above) or as a guide for players trained on fretted basses. Fretless basses are mainly used in jazz, jazz-fusion, and funk music, but they are used by some players in other genres as well. For example, noted [[thrash metal]]/[[death metal]] bassist [[Steve DiGiorgio]] is well known for his use of fretless bass. While use of fretless basses has grown, fretted basses remain the common choice, although some bassists own and use both types of instrument depending on the song.
Occasionally, strings wound with [[tape wound|tape]] or coated in epoxy are used on the fretless bass to avoid the metal strings wearing down the wooden [[fingerboard]].
== Playing styles ==
=== Sitting or standing ===
Most bass players stand while playing, although sitting is also accepted, particularly in jazz band, orchestral, or other large ensemble settings. It is a matter of the player's preference as to which position gives the greatest ease of playing, and what a bandleader expects. When sitting, the instrument can be balanced on the right thigh, or like classical guitar players, the left. Balancing the bass on the left thigh positions it in such a way that it mimicks the standing position, allowing for less difference between the standing and sitting positions.
=== Plectra vs. fingers or thumb ===
Most bassists prefer to pluck the instrument's strings with the fingers but some also use [[plectrum|plectra]] (often called picks). Picks also come in many shapes, sizes and thickness. This often varies according to the [[musical genre]]&mdash;very few [[funk]] bassists use plectrums, while they are widely found in [[punk rock]] and metal styles. Using a [[plectrum]] typically gives the bass a brighter, more punchy sound, while playing with fingers makes the sound more soft and round. Some bassists use their fingernails flamenco-style to provide some compromise between playing fingerstyle and using a pick. Bassists trying to emulate the sound of a double bass will often pluck the strings with their thumb, and use their fingers to anchor their hand and partially mute the strings (partially muting the strings creates a short, "thumpy" tone for the notes which mimics the sound of an upright bass).
[[James Jamerson]], one of the most influential bassists during the [[Motown]] era, was well-known for his work in many popular [[Motown]] songs and is widely considered one of the greatest, most musical bassists of all time. Jamerson played the bass with only his index finger (which gained him the nickname "The Hook") but created intricate bass lines that have proven challenging even for modern bassists using the more commonly used two-fingered (typically index and middle) technique.
=== Right hand support and position ===
Variations in style also occur in where a bassist rests his right-hand thumb. A player may rest his thumb on the top edge of one of the pickups. One may also rest his thumb on the side of the fretboard, which is especially common among bassist who have an upright bass influence. Also, bassists may simply anchor their thumbs on the lowest string (and move it off to play on the low string). This technique is known as the "floating thumb", and was previously popular mainly with bassists who played 5 or more string basses, but is now common for all bassists. By resting their thumb to anchor their hand while they use their index and middle fingers, bassists create a fuller and louder sound. Early Fender models also came with a "[[thumbrest]]" attached to the pickguard, below the strings. Contrary to its name, this was not used to rest the thumb, but to rest the fingers while using the thumb to pluck the strings. The thumbrest was moved above the strings in 70's models, and eliminated entirely in the 80's.
=== Striking or plucking position ===
Bassists also have different preferences as to where on the string they pluck the notes. While the influential bassist [[Jaco Pastorius]] and many with him preferred to pluck them very close to the bridge for a bright and sharp sound, many prefer the rounder sound they get by plucking closer to the neck, mostly near the neck pickup. [[Geezer Butler]], among others, plucks the strings over the higher frets.
=== "Slap and pop" and related techniques ===
The famous [[slap and pop]] method, in which notes and percussive sounds are created by slapping the string with the thumb and releasing strings with a snap, was pioneered by [[Larry Graham]] of [[Sly and the Family Stone]] in the 1960s and early 1970s. In the 1970s [[Stanley Clarke]] developed Graham's technique further, adding the popping and speed that are a hallmark of contemporary playing. Another notable player of this style emerged in the 1980s in the form of [[Mark King]] of British group [[Level 42]]. Today, [[Michael Balzary|Flea]] of [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] exemplifies slap and pop with a foundation in [[funk]], and [[Les Claypool]] of [[Primus (band)|Primus]] is known for playing extremely complex slap and pop basslines. In the late 1980s, fusion bass virtuoso [[Victor Wooten]] of [[Béla Fleck and the Flecktones]] developed the so-called "double slap," in which the string is slapped twice for each downstroke, rather than once. This technique allows for incredible speed and can be heard on tracks such as Wooten's famous "[[Classical Thump]]."
An even more recent development is the two-handed tapping style, where both hands play notes by tapping the string to the fret. This makes it possible to p |
ccasions. The [[ballroom]] wing and a further suite of state rooms were also built in this period, designed by Nash's student Sir [[James Pennethorne]].
Before the death of Prince Albert, Queen Victoria was known to love music and dancing, and the great musicians of the day were commanded to play at Buckingham Palace. [[Felix Mendelssohn]] is known to have played there on three occasions. [[Johann Strauss II]] and his [[orchestra]] played there when in England. Strauss' 'Alice Polka' was first performed at the palace in 1849 in honour of the Queen's daughter [[Princess Alice of the United Kingdom|Princess Alice]]. During this era Buckingham Palace was frequently the scene of lavish costume balls, in addition to the routine royal ceremonies, investitures and presentations.
Queen Victoria had [[Marble Arch]], the former state entrance to the palace, moved to its present position near [[Speakers' Corner]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]]. Following the death of Prince Albert in 1861, the Queen withdrew from public life and left Buckingham Palace to live at [[Windsor Castle]], [[Balmoral Castle]], and [[Osborne House]]. For many years the palace was seldom used, and even neglected. Eventually mounting negative public opinion forced the widowed queen to return to London, though even then she preferred to live elsewhere whenever possible. Court functions continued to be held at Windsor Castle rather than at the palace, presided over by the sombre Queen habitually dressed in mourning black.
===The 20th century===
[[Image:Buckingham palace 1909.jpg|280px|thumb|Buckingham Palace panorama, 1909]]
In 1901 the accession of [[King Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] saw new life breathed into the palace. The new King and his wife [[Alexandra of Denmark|Queen Alexandra]] had always been at the forefront of London high society, and their friends, known as the [[Marlborough House]] set, were considered to be the most eminent and fashionable of the age. Buckingham Palace&#8212;the Ballroom, Grand Entrance, Marble Hall, Grand Staircase, vestibules and galleries redecorated in the [[Belle epoque]] cream and gold colour scheme they retain today&#8212;once again became the focal point of the [[British Empire]] and a setting for entertaining on a majestic scale. Many people feel King Edward's heavy redecoration of the palace does not complement Nash's original work.{{ref|redecorationEdwardVII}} However, it has been allowed to remain for one hundred years.
[[Image:1910 Buckingham Palace.gif|thumb|right|300px|The east front of Buckingham Palace was completed in 1850. Seen here in 1910, it was remodelled to its present form in 1913]]
The last major building work took place during the reign of [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]] when, in [[1913]], [[Aston Webb|Sir Aston Webb]] redesigned the famous east, principal, 1850 facade by Blore to resemble in part [[Giacomo Leoni]]'s [[Lyme Park]] in [[Cheshire]]. This new, refaced principal facade (of [[Portland stone]]) was designed to be the backdrop to the [[Victoria Memorial (London)|Victoria Memorial]], a large memorial statue of Queen Victoria, placed outside the main gates. George V, who had succeeded Edward VII in 1910, had a more serious personality than his father, which was reflected in life at the palace: greater emphasis was now placed on official entertaining and royal duties than on lavish parties and having fun. George V's wife [[Mary of Teck|Queen Mary]] was a [[connoisseur]] of the arts, and took a keen interest in the Royal collection of furniture and art, both restoring and adding to it. Queen Mary also had many new fixtures and fittings installed, such as the pair of marble [[Empire style|Empire-style]] chimneypieces by [[Benjamin Vulliamy]], dating from 1810, which the Queen had installed in the ground floor Bow Room, the huge low room at the centre of the garden facade. Queen Mary was also responsible for the decoration of the Blue Drawing Room. This room, 69 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (21 [[metre|m]]) long, previously known as the South Drawing Room, has one of Nash's finest ceilings, coffered with huge gilt [[console]] brackets, and is referred to by the author and historian [[Olwen Hedley]] in his book ''Buckingham Palace'' as the most beautiful in the palace, grander and more lavish than either the [[Throne room|Throne Room]] or the Ball Room, which was built to take over the Blue Drawing Room's original function.
The last major extension to the palace was in 1850. In 1999 it was stated {{Ref|rooms}} the palace contained 19 state rooms, 52 principal bedrooms, 188 staff bedrooms, 92 offices, and 78 bathrooms. While this may seem large, it is small compared with the [[Tsar]]'s palaces in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] and at [[Tsarskoe Selo]], the [[Papal Palace]] in [[Rome]], the [[Royal Palace of Madrid]], or indeed the former [[Palace of Whitehall]]. The relatively smallness of the palace may be best appreciated from within, looking out over the inner courtyard. A minor extension was made in 1938, in which the north-west pavilion, designed by Nash, was converted into a swimming pool.
===World War===
During [[World War I]] the Palace, then the home of King George V and Queen Mary, escaped unscathed. Its more valuable contents were evacuated to Windsor but the Royal family remained in situ. The largest change to court life at this time was that the Government persuaded the King to ostentatiously and publicly lock the wine cellars and refrain from alcohol for the duration of the war, to set a good example to the supposedly inebriated lower classes. The lower classes continued to imbibe and the King was left reputedly furious at his enforced abstinence. Edward VIII later told a biographer that his father had a furtive glass of port each evening, while the Queen secretly laced her fruit cup with [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]]. The King's children were photographed at this time serving tea to wounded officers in the adjacent Royal Mews.
During [[World War II]] the Palace fared worse: it was bombed no less than seven times, and was a deliberate target, as it was thought by the [[Nazi]]s that the destruction of Buckingham Palace would demoralise the nation. One bomb fell in the palace quadrangle while King George VI and Queen Elizabeth were in residence, but while many windows were blown in, no serious damage was reported. However, war time coverage of such incidents was severely restricted. The most serious and publicised bombing was the destruction of the Palace chapel in 1940: coverage of this event was played in cinemas all over England to show the common suffering of rich and poor. The King and Queen were filmed inspecting their bombed home, the smiling Queen immaculate in a hat and matching coat. It was at this time the Queen made her famous quote: "I'm glad we have been bombed. Now I can look the East End in the face". It has only recently been reported that on some trips, prior to this event, to inspect the London bomb damage, the Royal family were booed rather than cheered as was reported at the time, hence the bombing of the palace was a [[propaganda]] coup for the British establishment. It has however been observed that it was the Minister accompanying the Royal family who was the subject of public hostility rather than the King and Queen themselves. As [[The Sunday Graphic]] dutifully reported:-
[[Image:British_VE_Day.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Royal Family]], and [[Winston Churchill]], on the balcony of the Palace on [[VE Day]].]]
::''By the Editor: The King and Queen have endured the ordeal which has come to their subjects. For the second time a German bomber has tried to bring death and destruction to the home of Their Majesties&#8230;&#8230;..When this war is over the common danger which King George and Queen Elizabeth have shared with their people will be a cherished memory and an inspiration through the years".''
On [[September 15]], 1940 an RAF pilot, [[Ray Holmes]], {{fn|(2)}} rammed a German plane attempting to bomb the palace. Holmes had run out of ammunition and made the a quick choice to ram it. Both planes crashed and their pilots survived. This incident was captured on film. The plane's engine was later exhibited at the Imperial War Museum in London. Following the war the British pilot became a [[Queen's Messenger|King's Messenger]]. He died at the age of 90 in 2005.
[[Eleanor Roosevelt]] was accorded the status of visiting head of state during her World War II visit. The British war-time press, anxious to show the monarchs sharing the hardships of their subjects, announced that as the contents of the palace had been evacuated to the country for the duration of the war, as an honoured guest Mrs. Roosevelt was "billeted" in the only comfortable room remaining, Queen Elizabeth's own bedroom. However, it is possible that this story is apocryphal: it is now known that for the duration of World War II, the Royal Family spent many nights sleeping at Windsor Castle, for their own safety. It is unlikely that they would have left Mrs Roosevelt in the empty palace to face the nightly blitz alone.
On [[VE Day]] ([[May 8]], [[1945]]), the Palace was the centre of British celebrations, with the King, Queen and the Princess Elizabeth, the future Queen, and [[Princess Margaret|Princess Margaret]] appearing on the balcony, with the palace's blacked-out windows behind them, to the cheers from a vast crowd in [[The Mall (London)|the Mall]].
==Interior==
[[Image:Buckthroneroom.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[throne room]].]]
The principal rooms of the Palace are contained on the [[piano nobile]] behind the west-facing garden facade at the rear of the Palace. The centre of this ornate suite of State Rooms is the Music Room, its large bow the dominant feature of the facade. Flanking the Music Room are the Blue and the White [[Drawing room]]s. At the cen |
ries, ''[[Code Lyoko]]''
"Aeneid" Virgil
==See also==
{{Commons|Carthage}}
*[[List of Kings of Carthage]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Tunisia]]
[[Category:Carthage]]
[[Category:Destroyed cities]]
[[Category:History of the Maghreb]]
[[Category:History of Tunisia]]
[[Category:Phoenician colonies]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Tunisia]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Tunisia]]
[[ar:قرطاج]]
[[bs:Kartago]]
[[ca:Cartago]]
[[cs:Kartágo]]
[[da:Kartago]]
[[de:Karthago]]
[[et:Kartaago]]
[[es:Cartago]]
[[eo:Kartago]]
[[fr:Carthage]]
[[gl:Cartago]]
[[ko:카르타고]]
[[is:Karþagó]]
[[it:Cartagine]]
[[he:קרתגו]]
[[lad:Kartago]]
[[la:Carthago]]
[[lb:Karthago]]
[[nl:Carthago]]
[[nds:Karthago]]
[[ja:カルタゴ]]
[[no:Karthago]]
[[pl:Kartagina]]
[[pt:Cartago]]
[[ru:Карфаген]]
[[sl:Kartagina]]
[[sr:Картагина]]
[[fi:Karthago]]
[[sv:Karthago]]
[[uk:Карфаген]]
[[zh:迦太基]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coprime</title>
<id>6556</id>
<revision>
<id>37326423</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T06:34:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dmharvey</username>
<id>277018</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Properties */ add pretty pic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the [[integer|integers]] ''a'' and ''b'' are said to be '''coprime''' or '''relatively prime''' if they have no common [[divisor|factor]] other than 1 and &minus;1, or equivalently, if their [[greatest common divisor]] is 1.
For example, [[6 (number)|6]] and [[35 (number)|35]] are coprime, but 6 and [[27 (number)|27]] are not because they are both divisible by 3. The number [[1 (number)|1]] is coprime to every integer; [[0 (number)|0]] is coprime only to 1 and &minus;1.
A fast way to determine whether two numbers are coprime is given by the [[Euclidean algorithm]].
[[Euler's totient function]] (or Euler's phi function) of a positive integer ''n'' is the number of integers between 1 and ''n'' &minus; 1 which are coprime to ''n''.
== Properties ==
[[Image:coprime-lattice.svg|thumb|right|300px|Figure 1. The numbers 4 and 9 are coprime because the diagonal does not intersect any other lattice points]]
There are a number of conditions which are equivalent to ''a'' and ''b'' being coprime:
*There exist integers ''x'' and ''y'' such that ''ax'' + ''by'' = 1 (see [[Bézout's identity]]).
*The integer ''b'' has a [[multiplicative inverse]] [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] ''a'': there exists an integer ''y'' such that ''by'' &equiv; 1 (mod ''a''). In other words, ''b'' is a [[unit (ring theory)|unit]] in the [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] '''Z'''/''a'''''Z''' of [[modular arithmetic|integers modulo]] ''a''.
As a consequence, if ''a'' and ''b'' are coprime and ''br'' &equiv; ''bs'' ([[modular arithmetic|mod]] ''a''), then ''r'' &equiv; ''s'' (mod ''a'') (because we may "divide by ''b''" when working modulo ''a''). Furthermore, if ''a'' and ''b''<sub>1</sub> are coprime, and ''a'' and ''b''<sub>2</sub> are coprime, then ''a'' and ''b''<sub>1</sub>''b''<sub>2</sub> are also coprime (because the product of units is a unit).
If ''a'' and ''b'' are coprime and ''a'' divides a product ''bc'', then ''a'' divides ''c''. This can be viewed as a generalisation of [[Euclid's lemma]], which states that if ''p'' is prime, and ''p'' divides a product ''bc'', then either ''p'' divides ''b'' or ''p'' divides ''c''.
The two integers ''a'' and ''b'' are coprime if and only if the point with coordinates (''a'', ''b'') in an [[Cartesian coordinate system]] is "visible" from the origin (0,0), in the sense that there is no point with integer coordinates between the origin and (''a'', ''b''). (See figure 1.)
The [[probability]] that two randomly chosen integers are coprime is 6/&pi;<sup>2</sup> (see [[pi]]), which is about 60%.
Two [[natural number]]s ''a'' and ''b'' are coprime if and only if the numbers 2<sup>''a''</sup> &minus; 1 and 2<sup>''b''</sup> &minus; 1 are coprime.
==Cross notation, group==
If ''n''&ge;1 is an [[integer]], the numbers coprime to ''n'', taken [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] ''n'', form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] with multiplication as operation; it is written as ('''Z'''/''n'''''Z''')<sup>&times;</sup> or '''Z'''<sub>n</sub><sup>*</sup>.
== Generalizations ==
Two [[ring ideal|ideals]] ''A'' and ''B'' in the [[commutative]] [[ring (algebra)|ring]] ''R'' are called '''coprime''' if ''A'' + ''B'' = ''R''. This generalizes [[Bézout's identity]]: with this definition, two [[principal ideal]]s (''a'') and (''b'') in the ring of integers '''Z''' are coprime if and only if ''a'' and ''b'' are coprime.
If the ideals ''A'' and ''B'' of ''R'' are coprime, then ''AB'' = ''A''&cap;''B''; furthermore, if ''C'' is a third ideal such that ''A'' contains ''BC'', then ''A'' contains ''C''. The [[Chinese Remainder Theorem]] is an important statement about coprime ideals.
The concept of being ''relatively prime'' can also be extended any [[finite]] [[set]] of integers ''S'' = {''a''<sub>1</sub>, ''a''<sub>2</sub>, .... ''a''<sub>''n''</sub>} to mean that the [[greatest common divisor]] of the elements of the set is 1. If every ''pair'' of integers in the set is relatively prime, then the set is called ''pairwise relatively prime''.
Every pairwise relatively prime set is relatively prime; however, the converse is not true: {6, 10, 15} is relatively prime, but not pairwise relative prime. (In fact, each pair of integers in the set has a non-trivial common factor.)
==See also==
*[[Greatest common divisor]]
[[Category:Number theory]]
[[bg:Взаимно прости числа]]
[[de:Teilerfremdheit]]
[[es:Primos entre sí]]
[[fr:Nombres premiers entre eux]]
[[ko:서로 소]]
[[id:Koprima (bilangan)]]
[[it:Interi coprimi]]
[[he:מספרים זרים]]
[[nl:Relatief priem]]
[[pl:Liczby względnie pierwsze]]
[[ru:Взаимно простые числа]]
[[sl:Tuje število]]
[[sv:Relativt prim]]
[[th:จำนวนเฉพาะสัมพัทธ์]]
[[zh:互質]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Control unit</title>
<id>6557</id>
<revision>
<id>41953655</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:25:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.171.255.181</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Types of control units */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''control unit''' is the part of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]] or other device that directs its operation. The outputs of the unit control the activity of the rest of the device. A control unit can be thought of as a [[finite state machine]].
At one time control units for CPUs were ad-hoc logic, and they were difficult to design. Now they are often implemented as a [[microprogram]] that is stored in a [[control store]]. Words of the microprogram are selected by a [[microsequencer]] and the bits from those words directly control the different parts of the device, including the [[processor register|registers]], [[arithmetic and logic unit]]s, [[instruction register]]s, [[Computer bus|buses]], and off-chip [[input/output]]. In modern computers, each of these subsystems may have its own subsidiary controller, with the control unit acting as a supervisor. (See also [[CPU design]] and [[computer architecture]].)
== Types of control units ==
All types of control units generate electronic control signals that control other parts of a [[CPU]]. Control units are usually one of these types:<br>
#[[Microcode]]d control units. In a [[microcode]]d control unit, a program reads signals, and generates control signals. The program itself is executed by a very simple computer, a relatively simple [[digital circuit]] called a [[microsequencer]].<br>
#Hardware control units. In a hardware control unit, a [[digital circuit]] generates the control signals directly.<br>
[[Category:Computer hardware]]
[[es:Unidad de control]]
[[ja:制御装置]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cello</title>
<id>6558</id>
<revision>
<id>41995807</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:48:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dolphind88</username>
<id>1003819</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Glue */ clarification</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternate meaning: [[Cello (web browser)]]''
[[Image:Cello front side.jpg|thumb|A cello]]
The '''cello''' (pronounced "Chello") or ''''cello,''' short for '''violoncello,''' is a [[stringed instrument]] and a member of the [[violin]] [[violin family|family]]. A cello player is called a '''cellist'''. The cello is popular in many capacities: as a solo instrument, in chamber music, and also as a foundation of the modern orchestral sound.
== Description ==
[[Image:Brikcius.jpg|thumb|Cellist]]
The name ''cello'' is an abbreviation of the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''violoncello'', which means "little violone". The ''[[violone]]'' is an obsolete instrument, a large [[viol]], similar to a modern [[double bass]].
The cello is most closely associated with [[European classical music]]. It is part of the standard [[orchestra]] and is the bass voice of the [[string quartet]], as well as being part of many other [[chamber music|chamber]] groups. A large number of [[cello concerto|concertos]] and [[cello sonata|sonatas]] have been written for it. It is less common in [[popular music]], but is sometimes featured in [[pop music|pop]] and [[rock music|rock]] recordings.
Among the most famous [[Baroque]] works for the cello are [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach's]] ''[[Cello Suites (Bach)|Unaccompanied Suites for Cello]],'' commonly known as the Bach Cello Suites). An example of a [[Classical music era|Classical era]] piece is [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn's]] ''Ce |
ersity of Michigan]]
*[[Intercounty Connector]]
*[[International Chamber of Commerce]]
*[[International Churches of Christ]]
*[[International Color Consortium]]
*The [[International Control Commission]], which oversaw the 1954 [[Geneva Accords]] ending the [[First Indochina War]]
*The [[International Convention Centre]], [[Birmingham]], [[England]]
*[[International Cricket Council]]
*'''[[International Criminal Court]]'''
*[[Internet Chess Club]]
*[[Integrated circuit card]]
*[[Interstate Commerce Commission]]
*[[Inuit Circumpolar Conference]]
*[[Islamic Clerics Committee]]
*[[Integrated Chip Card]]
*[[Intel C Compiler]]
*[[International Congregational Council]]
*[[Interstitial cells of Cajal]]
*[[International Association for Cereal Science and Technology]] (formerly International Association for Cereal Chemistry)
*[[International Communist Current]]
*[[ICC Records]] part of ICC (International Christian Communications) and is a UK charitable-status christian record production and distribution company
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:ICC]]
[[nl:ICC]]
[[ja:ICC]]
[[sl:ICC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Incubus</title>
<id>14882</id>
<revision>
<id>39709764</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T08:03:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Butko</username>
<id>795873</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Incubus''' can refer to:
* [[Incubus (demon)]], a demon said to rape women while they slept
* [[Incubus (band)]], an American alternative rock band.
* [[Incubus (film)]], a 1965 film in Esperanto starring William Shatner.
* [[Incubus (NWOBHM)]], a [[NWOBHM]] band from the early 1980s.
'''Incubus''' can also be:
* "Incubus", a song on [[Marillion]]'s 1984 album ''[[Fugazi (album)| Fugazi]]''.
* Incubus, a line of [[running shoes]] manufactured by Reebok.
*[[Inkubus Sukkubus]], a British Goth metal band.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Incubus (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[nl:Incubus]]
[[ru:Инкуб]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iberian Peninsula</title>
<id>14883</id>
<revision>
<id>41738813</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:38:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.34.148.142</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Languages */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Iberian Peninsula''', or '''Iberia''', is located in the extreme southwest of [[Europe]]. It is bordered on the south and east by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and on the north and west by the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The [[Pyrenees]] form the northeast edge of the [[peninsula]], connecting it to the rest of Europe. At [[Gibraltar]] in the south, it approaches the northern coast of [[Africa]]. It is the biggest peninsula of Europe with an area of 582&nbsp;860 km².
==Countries & Territories==
[[Image:Iberian peninsula.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The positions of the different countries/territories.]]
* [[Spain]], occupying the majority of Iberia
* [[Portugal]], the western most part
* [[Andorra]], a microstate bordering France and Spain in the Pyrenees
* [[Gibraltar]], British territory in the southernmost tip
==Languages==
The following languages are spoken in the Iberian peninsula:
*[[Andorra]]:
**[[Catalan language|Catalan]]
*[[Gibraltar]]:
**[[English language|English]] (official recognition)
**[[Llanito]]
*[[Portugal]]:
**[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
**[[Mirandese]] (official recognition)
*[[Spain]]:
**[[Spanish language|Spanish]] (also called Castilian)
**[[Catalan language|Catalan]] (called [[Valencian]] in the [[Land of Valencia]])
**[[Basque language|Basque]]
**[[Galician]]
**[[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]
**[[Asturian language|Asturian]] (official recognition)
**[[Occitan language|Occitan]] (locally called [[Aranese]], official recognition)
==Pre-Roman languages==
The following languages were spoken in the Iberian peninsula before the Roman occupation:
*[[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]]
*[[Basque language|Aquitan (Basque)]]
*[[Iberian language|Iberian]]
*[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
*[[Tartessian language|Tartessian]]
==History==
[[Image:España y Portugal.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Satellite view of the Iberian peninsula]]
[[Image:IberianPeninsula.png|right|thumb|320px|Topographic map of the Iberian Peninsula]]
The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited for at least 500,000 years, first by [[Neanderthals]] and then by [[Mitochondrial Eve|modern humans]].
The original peoples of the Iberian peninsula (in the sense that they are not known to have come from elsewhere), consisting of a number of separate tribes, are given the generic name of [[Iberians]]. This may have included the [[Basque people|Basques]], the only pre-[[Celts|Celtic]] people in Iberia surviving to the present day as a separate ethnic group.
In the early [[first millennium BCE]], several waves of [[Celts]] invaded Iberia from [[central Europe]] and intermarried with the local Iberian people, forming the [[Celtiberians]] (with many different nations).
The seafaring [[Phoenicians]], [[Greeks]] and [[Carthaginians]] successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries.
Around [[1100 BC]] Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of [[Gadir]] or Gades (modern day [[Cádiz]]) near [[Tartessos]]. In the 8th century BC the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion (modern [[Empúries]]), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the East, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians. The Greeks are responsible for the name Iberia, after the river Iber ([[Ebro]]). In the 6th century BC the [[Carthaginians]] arrived in Iberia while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was [[Carthago Nova]] (Latin name of modern day [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]]).
In [[219 BC]], the first [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula, during the [[Second Punic war]] against the Carthaginians, and annexed it under [[Augustus]] after two centuries of war with the Celtic and Iberian tribes and the Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian colonies becoming the province of [[Hispania]]. It was divided in [[Hispania Ulterior]] and [[Hispania Citerior]] during the late [[Roman Republic]]; and, during the [[Roman Empire]], [[Hispania Taraconensis]] in the northeast, [[Hispania Baetica]] in the south and [[Lusitania]] in the southwest.
Hispania supplied the Roman Empire with food, olive oil, wine and metal. The emperors [[Trajan]], [[Hadrian]] and [[Theodosius I]], the philosopher [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and the poets [[Martial]] and [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]] were born in Iberia.
In the early [[5th century]], [[Germanic tribes]] invaded the peninsula, namely the [[Suevi]], the [[Vandals]] ([[Silingi]] and [[Hasdingi]]) and their allies, the [[Sarmatian]] [[Alans]]. Only the kingdom of the [[Suevi]] ([[Quadi]] and [[Marcomanni]]) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the [[Visigoths]], who conquered all of the Iberian peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually conquered the Suevi kingdom and its capital city [[Bracara]] (modern day [[Braga]]) in [[584]]-[[585]].
In [[711]] CE, a [[Moors|Moorish]] [[Umayyad]] army from [[North Africa]] invaded [[Visigoth]] [[Christian]] [[Spain]]. Under their leader [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]], they landed at [[Gibraltar]] and brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under Islamic rule in an eight-year campaign. [[Al-Andalus|Al-&#702;Andalūs]] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''الإندلوس''') is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its [[Muslim]] conquerors.
From the [[8th century|8th]] to the [[15th century|15th centuries]], parts of the Iberian peninsula were ruled by the [[Moors]] (mainly [[Berber]] with some [[Arab]]) who had crossed over from [[North Africa]]. Many of the ousted [[Goths|Gothic]] nobles took refuge in the unconquered north [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturian highlands]]. From there they aimed to reconquer their lands from the Moors: this war of reconquest is known as the [[Reconquista]].
Christian and Muslim kingdoms fought and allied among themselves. The Muslim [[taifa]] kings competed in patronage of the arts, the [[Way of Saint James]] attracted pilgrims from all Western Europe and the [[Jews in Spain|Jewish population of Iberia]] set the basis of [[Sephardic]] culture.
In [[medieval times]] the peninsula housed many small states including [[Castille]], [[Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]], [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Portugal]]. The peninsula was part of the Islamic [[Almohad]] empire until they were finally uprooted. The last major Muslim stronghold was [[Granada]] which was eliminated by a combined Castillian and Aragonese force in [[1492]], these small states gradually amalgamated over time, until the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (including the [[Peninsular War]]) in [[1815]]. At that point the modern position was reached and the peninsula now consists of the countries of [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] (excluding their islands - the Portuguese [[Azores]] and [[Madeira Islands]] and the Spanish [[Canary Islands]] and [[Balearic Islands]]; and the Spanish possessions of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]), [[Andorra]], and the territory of [[Gibraltar]].
== External links==
*[http://www.iberianature.com Iberianature]A guide to the environment, geography, climate, wildlife, natural history and landscape of Iberia
*[http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)]
[[Category:Geography of Europe]]
[[Category:Geography of Portugal]]
[[Category:Geography of Spain]]
[[Category:Iberian Peninsula| ]]
[[Category:Peninsulas]]
[[ar:شبه جزيرة أيبيريا]]
[[an:Peninsula Iberica]]
[[ast:Península Ibérica]]
[[bg:Пиренейски полуостров]]
[[be:Пірэнэйская паўвыспа]]
[[ca:Península Ibèrica]]
[[da:Den Iberiske Halvø]]
[[de:Iberisc |
h types are sometimes used for [[authentic performance|period-instrument performances]] of Baroque- or Classical-era pieces.
*'''Natural''' brass instruments, where the player can only play notes in the instrument's [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]], for example the [[bugle (instrument)|bugle]]. The [[trumpet]] was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the [[natural horn|horn]] before about 1820. Natural instruments are still played in s of older music, and for some ceremonial functions.
*'''Keyed or Fingered''' brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument, which were covered by fingers or by finger-operated pads (keys) in a similar way to a [[woodwind instrument]]. These included the [[cornett]], [[serpent (instrument)|serpent]] and [[keyed trumpet]]. Such instruments were difficult to play and became functionally obsolete with the invention of the valve.
=== Some other wind instruments ===
* [[alphorn]] ([[wood]])
* [[conch]] ([[animal shell|shell]])
* [[shofar]] ([[horn (anatomy)|horn]])
* [[Vladimirsky rozhok]] ([[wood]], [[Russia]])
* [[Didgeridoo]] ([[wood]], [[Australia]])
* [[Wagner tuba]]
* [[Natural horn]] [[long-necked elephant]]
== Valves ==
As noted above, valves allow brass players to change pitches A [[piston valve]] is a device used to change the pitch of a [[brass instrument]]; three or more piston valves can be found on [[trumpet]]s, [[tuba]]s, and the like. When opened ("pressed" and "pushed down"), each valve changes the pitch by diverting the air stream through additional tubing, thus lengthening the instrument and lowering the harmonic series on which the instrument is vibrating.
An alternate to the piston valve is the [[rotary valve]].
The first piston valve instruments were developed just after the start of the [[19th century]]. The Stölzel valve (invented by Heinrich Stoelzel in 1814) was an early variety. In the mid 19th century the Vienna valve was an improved design. However most professional musicians preferred rotary valves for quicker, more reliable action, until better designs of piston valves were mass manufactured towards the end of the 19th century. Since the early decades of the 19th century, piston valves have been the most common on brass instruments.
The following list shows how each valve or combination of valves will affect the pitch from the fundamental; this is true of all brass instruments.
*second valve - one half step
*first valve - one whole step
*first and second valves - one and a half steps. Also achievable by third valve alone but the note will usually be flat
*second and third valves - two whole steps
*first and third valves - a perfect fourth, or two and a half steps. Will be sharp unless some means of compensation is used.
*first, second, and third valves - a tritone, or three whole steps. Will be very sharp unless some means of compensation is used. Note that these tuning deficiencies are unavoidable; they are inherent in the construction of the instrument.
In most trumpets, the "compensation" must be provided by extending the third valve slide with the fourth finger to lower the pitch of 1-3 and 1-2-3 combinations. In instruments with a fourth valve, such as tubas, euphoniums, and piccolo trumpets, that valve lowers the pitch by a perfect fourth; this is used partly to compensate for the sharpness of the final two valve combinations (4 for 1-3, 2-4 for 1-2-3). Of course, the other three valves can be used as normal to lower the pitch in combination with the fourth valve, so a fourth valve also extends the instrument's range downward by a perfect fourth, though with increasingly severe [[Intonation_%28music%29|intonation]] problems.
When models without any kind of compensation play in the corresponding register, the sharpness becomes so severe that players must finger the note a half-step below the one they are trying to play. This eliminates the note a half-step above their open fundamental.
To correct for these problems, manufacturers of low brass instruments may choose one or a combination of four basic approaches, whose respective merits are subject to debate:
=== Compensation system ===
Each of the first two (or three) valves has an additional set of tubing extending from the back of the valve. When the third (or fourth) valve is depressed in combination with another one, the air is routed through both the usual set of tubing plus the extra one, so that the pitch is lowered by an appropriate amount. This allows compensating instruments to play with accurate intonation in the octave below their open second partial, which is critical for tubas and euphoniums in much of their repertoire.
There are also compensating French horns. While these are popular with beginners as they weigh less, most advanced players disapprove of them, criticizing their sound and response.
=== Additional valves ===
Initially, compensated instruments tended to sound stuffy and blow less freely due to the air being doubled back through the main valves. In early designs, this led to sharp bends in the tubing and other obstructions of the air-flow. Some manufacturers therefore simply added more 'straight' valves instead, which for example could be pitched a little lower than the 2nd and 1st valves and were intended to be used instead of these in the respective valve combinations. While no longer featured in euphoniums for decades, professional tubas are still built like this, with five valves being the norm on CC- and BBb-tubas and five or six valves on F-tubas.
=== Additional sets of slides on each valve ===
Another approach was the addition of two sets of slides for different parts of the range. There used to be euphoniums and tubas built like this, but today, this approach has become highly exotic for all instruments - except [[French horn]]s for which it is the norm, usually in a double, sometimes even triple configuration.
=== Trigger mechanism ===
A mechanical lever is provided to pull out the main tuning slide or a valve slide. This is found as an additional intonation aid on some euphoniums and on many five-valved F-Tubas.
==Sound production in brass instruments==
Because the player of a brass instrument has direct control of the [[prime vibrator]] (the lips), brass instruments exploit the player's ability to select the [[harmonic]] at which the instrument's column of air will vibrate. By making the instrument about twice as long as the equivalent woodwind instrument and starting with the second harmonic, players can get a good range of notes simply by varying the tension of their lips (see [[embouchure]]). Brass players call each harmonic a "partial" because it causes only a part of the tubing to vibrate (whereas at the fundamental the entire tubing will vibrate).
Most brass instruments are fitted with a removable [[mouthpiece]]. Different shapes, sizes and styles of mouthpiece may be used to suit different embouchures, or to more easily produce certain tonal characteristics. [[Trumpets]] are characteristically fitted with a cupped mouthpiece, while [[horn (instrument)|horns]] are fitted with a conical mouthpiece.
One interesting difference between a [[woodwind instrument]] and a brass instrument is that woodwind instruments are non-directional. This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume. Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell. This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a woodwind instrument accurately. It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands.
== See also ==
* [[20th century brass instrumentalists]]
* [[Brass band]]
* [[Concert band]]
* [[Marching band]]
* [[Military band]]
* [[Symphony orchestra]]
== References ==
* Baines, Anthony (1993). ''Brass Instruments: Their History and Development'' (4th ed.). New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-27574-4.100lb brass instrument.
== External links ==
* [http://www.civilization.ca/arts/opus/opus901e.html The traditional manufacture of brass instruments], a 1991 video (Real Player format) featuring maker Robert Barclay; from the web site of the [http://www.civilization.ca/indexe.asp Canadian Museum of Civilization].
* [http://www.mti.dmu.ac.uk/~ahugill/manual/brass.html The Orchestra: A User's Manual - Brass]
* [http://www.brass-forum.co.uk/ Brass-Forum.co.uk] UK based brass discussion forum.
* [http://www.brassmusic.ru Brassmusic.Ru — Russian Brass Community]
[[Category:Brass instruments| ]]
[[Category:Wind instruments proper]]
{{Link FA|ja}}
{{Link FA|sr}}
[[da:Messingblæser]]
[[de:Blechblasinstrument]]
[[eo:Latuna blovinstrumento]]
[[fr:Cuivre (musique)]]
[[hr:Limeni puhački instrumenti]]
[[is:Málmblásturshljóðfæri]]
[[it:Ottoni (musica)]]
[[he:כלי נשיפה]]
[[hu:Fúvós hangszerek]]
[[nl:Koperblazer]]
[[ja:金管楽器]]
[[nn:Massingblåseinstrument]]
[[pl:Instrument dęty blaszany]]
[[sl:Trobila]]
[[sr:Лимени дувачки инструменти]]
[[sv:Bleckblåsinstrument]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blood libel</title>
<id>4941</id>
<revision>
<id>41709371</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:23:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tromatic</username>
<id>69931</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Contemporary blood libel myths in the West */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blood libels''' are allegations that a particular group kills people as a form of [[human sacrifice]], and uses their [[blood]] in various [[ritual]]s. The alleged victims are often [[child sacrifice|children]].
[[Jew]]s are the most common target of blood libels, but many other groups have been accused, including [[Christianity|Christian]]s, [[Cathar]]s, [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]], [[Witches]], Christian [[heresy|heretics]], [[Ro |
<title>Cognitive psychology</title>
<id>5961</id>
<revision>
<id>39927291</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T21:56:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>EPM</username>
<id>675682</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{psychology}}
'''Cognitive psychology''' is the [[psychology|psychological]] [[science]] that studies [[cognition]], the [[mental process]]es that underlie [[behavior]], including [[thinking]], [[reasoning]], [[decision making]], and to some extent [[motivation]] and [[emotion]]. Cognitive psychology covers a broad range of research domains, examining questions about the workings of [[memory]], [[attention]], [[perception]], [[knowledge representation]], [[reasoning]], [[creativity]] and [[problem solving]]. The term '''Cognitive psychology''' came into use with the publication of the book ''Cognitive Psychology'' by [[Ulric Neisser]] in [[1967]], wherein Neisser provides a broad definition of cognitive psychology, emphasising that it is a ''point of view'' which postulates the mind as having a certain conceptual structure. Neisser's point of view endows the discipline a scope which expands beyond high-level concepts such as "reasoning", often espoused in other works in as a definition of cognitive psychology. Neisser's definition of ''cognition'' illustrates this well:
<blockquote>...the term "cognition" refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations... Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon. But although cognitive psychology is concerned with all human activity rather than some fraction of it, the concern is from a particular point of view. Other viewpoints are equally legitimate and necessary. Dynamic psychology, which begins with motives rather than with sensory input, is a case in point. Instead of asking how a man's actions and experiences result from what he saw, remembered, or believed, the dynamic psychologist asks how they follow from the subject's goals, needs, or instincts.
</blockquote>
Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in two key ways.
* It accepts the use of the [[scientific method]], and generally rejects [[introspection]] as a valid method of investigation, unlike [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] methods such as [[Freud|Freudian]] psychology.
* It explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as [[belief]]s, [[desire]]s and [[motivation]]s) unlike [[behaviourism|behaviourist]] psychology.
The school of thought arising from this approach is known as [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]].
Cognitive psychology is one of the more recent additions to psychological research, having only developed as a separate area within the discipline since the late [[1950s]] and early [[1960s]] (though there are examples of cognitive thinking from earlier researchers). The cognitive approach was brought to prominence by [[Donald Broadbent]]'s book ''Perception and Communication'' in [[1958]]. Since that time, the dominant [[paradigm]] in the area has been the [[information processing]] model of cognition that Broadbent put forward. This is a way of thinking and reasoning about mental processes, envisaging them like software running on the computer that is the brain. Theories commonly refer to forms of input, representation, computation or processing, and outputs.
This way of conceiving mental processes has pervaded psychology more generally over the past few decades, and it is not uncommon to find cognitive theories within [[social psychology]], [[personality]], [[abnormal psychology]], [[developmental psychology]]; the application of cognitive theories in [[comparative psychology]] has led to many recent studies in [[animal cognition]].
The information processing approach to cognitive functioning is currently being questioned by new approaches in psychology, such as [[dynamical systems]], and the [[embodiment]] perspective.
Because of the use of computational metaphors and terminology, cognitive psychology was able to benefit greatly from the flourishing of research in [[artificial intelligence]] and other related areas in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. In fact, it developed as one of the significant aspects of the inter-disciplinary subject of [[cognitive science]], which attempts to integrate a range of approaches in research on the mind and mental processes.
== Major research areas in cognitive psychology ==
'''[[Perception]]'''
* [[Attention]] and Filter theories (the ability to focus mental effort on specific stimuli while excluding other stimuli from consideration)
* [[Pattern recognition]] (the ability to correctly interpret ambiguous sensory information)
* Object recognition
'''[[Categorization]]'''
* Category induction and acquisition
* Categorical judgement and classification
* Category representation and structure
'''[[Memory]]'''
* [[Short-term memory]] and [[long-term memory]]
* [[Autobiographical memory]]
* [[Episodic memory]]
* [[Flashbulb memory]]
* [[Semantic memory]]
* [[Constructive memory]]
* [[False memories]]
* Encoding, storing and retrieving memory-based information
'''[[Knowledge representation]]'''
* [[Mental_image|Mental imagery]]
* [[Propositional encoding]]
* [[Imagery versus proposition debate]]
* [[dual-coding theory|Dual-coding theories]]
* [[Mental model]]s
'''[[Language]]'''
* [[Grammar]] and [[linguistics]]
* [[Phonetics]] and [[phonology]]
* [[Language acquisition]]
'''[[Thinking]]'''
* [[Logic]], formal and natural [[reasoning]]
* Concept formation
* [[Problem solving]]
* Judgment and decision making
== Famous and/or influential cognitive psychologists ==
* [[John R. Anderson]]
* [[Alan Baddeley]]
* [[Frederic Bartlett]]
* [[Nathaniel Branden]]
* [[Donald Broadbent]]
* [[Jerome Bruner]]
* [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]]
* [[William Estes]]
* [[Daniel Kahneman]]
* [[George A. Miller]]
* [[Ulrich Neisser]]
* [[Allen Newell]]
* [[Jean Piaget]]
* [[Michael Posner]]
* [[David Rumelhart]]
* [[Daniel Schacter]]
* [[Roger Shepard]]
* [[Herbert Simon]]
* [[Endel Tulving]]
* [[Anne Treisman]]
* [[Amos Tversky]]
== See also ==
* [[Animal cognition]]
* [[Cognition]]
* [[Cognitive bias]]
* [[Cognitive neuropsychology]]
* [[Cognitive neuroscience]]
* [[Cognitive poetics]]
* [[Cognitive robotics]]
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Cognitivism]]
* [[Connectionism]]
* [[Discursive psychology]]
* [[Evolutionary psychology]]
* [[Neurocognitive]]
* [[Neuropsychology]]
* [[Situated cognition]]
* [[Political psychology]]
* [[Psychological adaptation]]
=== Related lists ===
* [[List of publications in psychology#Cognitive psychology | Important publications in cognitive psychology ]]
== External links ==
* [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/topic.htm#cognition Famous papers in the history of cognition]
[[Category:Cognition]]
[[Category:Cognitive science|Psychology]]
[[ca:Psicologia cognitiva]]
[[da:Kognitionspsykologi]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comet</title>
<id>5962</id>
<revision>
<id>42069619</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:37:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bhadani</username>
<id>219828</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.147.13.9|69.147.13.9]] ([[User talk:69.147.13.9|talk]]) to last version by Misza13</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997 hires adj.jpg|thumb|250px|Comet Hale-Bopp]]
{{otheruses}}
A '''comet''' is a small body in the solar system that orbits the Sun and (at least occasionally) exhibits a [[coma (cometary)|coma]] (or atmosphere) and/or a tail — both due primarily to the effects of solar radiation upon the comet's [[Comet nucleus|nucleus]], which itself is a minor planet composed of rock, dust, and ices. Due to their origins in the outer solar system and their propensity to be highly affected (or ''perturbed'') by relatively close approaches to the major planets, comets' orbits are constantly changing. Some are moved into sungrazing orbits that destroy the comets when they near the Sun, while others are thrown out of the solar system forever.
Comets are believed to originate in a cloud (the [[Oort cloud]]) at large distances from the Sun consisting of debris left over from the [[condensation]] of the [[solar nebula]]; the outer edges of such nebulae are [[temperature|cool]] enough that [[water]] exists in a [[solid]] (rather than [[gas]]eous) [[phase (matter)|state]]. [[Asteroid]]s originate via a different process, but very old comets which have lost all their [[volatile]] materials may come to resemble asteroids.
The word ''comet'' came to the [[English language]] through [[Latin]] ''cometes.'' From the [[Greek Language|Greek]] word ''komē'', meaning "hair of the head," [[Aristotle]] first used the derivation ''komētēs'' to depict comets as "stars with hair."
==Physical characteristics==
Long-period comets are believed to originate in a distant cloud known as the [[Oort cloud]] (after the astronomer [[Jan Hendrik Oort]] who hypothesised its exist |
orse" and pleaded with officials in Washington to impose greater secrecy on the Honduran role in aiding the contras.
:''The cables show that Mr. Negroponte worked closely with [[William J. Casey]], then director of central intelligence, on the Reagan administration's anti-Communist offensive in Central America. He helped word a secret 1983 presidential "finding" authorizing support for the contras, as the Nicaraguan rebels were known, and met regularly with Honduran military officials to win and retain their backing for the covert action. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/13/politics/13contra.html?]
According to [[investigative journalist]] [[Robert Parry]] (Consortiumnews.com) the cables suggest that Negroponte
:''was so committed to his mission of making Honduras a base for Nicaraguan contra rebels that he routinely ignored troubling evidence about the Honduran government. At the time, the Reagan administration also had no interest in hearing critical information about key allies, like Honduras.
:''During his four years in Honduras, Negroponte often cast &#8220;a friendly eye&#8221; at the Honduran government, insisting that he was unaware of evidence of &#8220;death squad&#8221; operations that eliminated hundreds of political dissidents. He also turned a blind eye to the military&#8217;s role in making Honduras a way station for drug traffickers.[http://www.consortiumnews.com/2005/041305.html]
===Suazo===
As the November 1985 election approached, the PLH could not settle on a presidential candidate and interpreted election law as permitting multiple candidates from any one party. The PLH claimed victory when its presidential candidates collectively outpolled the PNH candidate, [[Rafael Leonardo Callejas]], who received 42% of the total vote. [[José Azcona del Hoyo]], the candidate receiving the most votes (27%) among the PLH, assumed the presidency in January 1986. With strong endorsement and support from the Honduran military, the Suazo Administration ushered in the first peaceful transfer of power between civilian presidents in more than 30 years.
Suazo, relying on U.S. support, created ambitious social and economic development projects to help with a severe economic recession and with the perceived threats of regional instability. Honduras became host to the largest [[Peace Corps]] mission in the world and [[non-governmental organization]]s and international [[voluntary]] agencies proliferated.
===Callejas===
In January 1990 [[Rafael Leonardo Callejas]], having won the presidential election, took office, concentrating on economic reform, reducing the deficit. He began a movement to place the military under [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] and laid the groundwork for the creation of the public prosecution service.
===Reina===
In 1993 PLH candidate [[Carlos Roberto Reina]] was elected with 56% of the vote against PNH contender Oswaldo Ramos Soto. He won on a platform calling for a "Moral Revolution," making active efforts to prosecute corruption and pursued those responsible for alleged human rights abuses in the 1980s.
The Reina administration successfully increased civilian control over the armed forces, transferring o the national police from military to civilian authority. In 1996 Reina named his own defense minister, breaking the precedent of accepting the nominee of the armed forces leadership.
His administration substantially increased Central Bank net international reserves, reduced inflation to 12.8% a year, restored a beter pace of economic growth (about 5% in 1997), and held down spending to achieve a 1.1% non-financial public sector deficit in 1997.
===Flores===
PLH's [[Carlos Roberto Flores]] took office on [[January 27]], [[1998]], as Honduras' fifth democratically elected President since free elections were restored in 1981, with a 10% margin over his main opponent PNH nominee [[Nora Gúnera de Melgar]] (the widow of former leader [[Melgar Castro]]). Flores inaugurated [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) programs of reform and modernization of the Honduran Government and economy, with emphasis on maintaining the country's fiscal health and improving international competitiveness.
In October 1998, [[Hurricane Mitch]] devastated Honduras, leaving more than 5,000 people dead and 1.5 million displaced. Damages totaled nearly $3 billion. International donors came forward to assist in rebuilding infrastructure, donating [[US$]]1400 million in 2000..
===Maduro===
In November 2001 the national party won presidential and parliamentary elections. The PNH gained 61 seats in Congress and the PLH won 55. The PLH candidate Rafael Pineda Ponce was defeated by the PNH candidate [[Ricardo Maduro]], who took office in January 2002. On [[November 27]], [[2005]] the the PLH candidate [[Manuel Zelaya]] beat the PNH candidate and current Head of Congress [[Porfirio Pepe Lobo]], and will become the next President on [[January 27]], [[2006]].
==References==
{{unreferenced}}
{{StateDept}}
[[Category:History of Honduras|*]]
[[es:Historia de Honduras]]
[[fr:Histoire du Honduras]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Honduras]]
[[sv:Honduras historia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Honduras</title>
<id>13396</id>
<revision>
<id>35571498</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T19:03:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.236.240.254|216.236.240.254]] ([[User talk:216.236.240.254|talk]]) to last version by SqueakBox</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Honduras_sm04.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of Honduras]]
[[image:Honduras_rel_1985.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Shaded relief map of Honduras, 1985]]
[[image:Honduras_econ_1983.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Economic activity map of Honduras, 1983]]
[[image:Honduras_land_1983.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Land use map of Honduras, 1983]]
'''[[Honduras]]''' is a country situated in [[Central America]] Honduras borders the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the North [[Pacific Ocean]]. [[Guatemala]] lies to the west, [[Nicaragua]] to the south east and [[El Salvador]] to the south west. It is the second largest Central American republic. The triangular-shaped country has a total area of about 112,000 square kilometers. The 735-kilometer northern boundary is the Caribbean coast extending from the mouth of the Río Motagua on the west to the mouth of the Río Coco on the east, at Cabo Gracias a Dios. The 922-kilometer southeastern side of the triangle is the land border with Nicaragua; it follows the Río Coco near the Caribbean Sea and then extends southwestward through mountainous terrain to the Golfo de Fonseca on the Pacific Ocean. The southern apex of the triangle is a 153- kilometer coastline at the Golfo de Fonseca, which opens onto the Pacific Ocean. The western land boundary consists of the 342-kilometer border with El Salvador and the 256-kilometer border with Guatemala.
Honduras controls a number of islands as part of its offshore territories. In the Caribbean Sea, the islands of Roatán (Isla de Roatán), Utila, and Guanaja together form Islas de la Bahía (Bay Islands), one of the eighteen departments into which Honduras is divided. Roatán, the largest of the three islands, is fifty kilometers long by five kilometers wide. The Islas de la Bahía archipelago also has a number of smaller islands, among them the islets of Barbareta (Isla Barbareta), Santa Elena (Isla Santa Elena), and Morat (Isla Morat). Farther out in the Caribbean are the Islas Santanillas, formerly known as Swan Islands. A number of small islands and keys can be found nearby, among them Cayos Zapotillos and Cayos Cochinos. In the Golfo de Fonseca, the main islands under Honduran control are El Tigre, Zacate Grande (Isla Zacate Grande), and Exposición (Isla Exposición).
'''[[Geographic coordinates]]''':
{{coor dm|15|00|N|86|30|W|type:country}}
==Boundary disputes==
A two-centuries-old border dispute between El Salvador and Honduras appears to have been resolved in 1993. At issue in this territorial dispute was ownership of six contested bolsones (pockets) of land encompassing a total area of 436.9 square kilometers as well as two islands (Meanguera and El Tigre) in the Golfo de Fonseca, and right of passage for Honduras to the Pacific Ocean from its southern coast.
The origins of the boundary dispute date back to the eighteenth century when colonial boundaries were ill defined. In the late nineteenth century, numerous attempts at mediation failed to settle the dispute. The issue continued to fester in the twentieth century and was a contributing factor in the outbreak of war between the two countries in 1969 (see War with El Salvador , ch. 1). The General Peace Treaty, signed by El Salvador and Honduras on October 30, 1980, in Lima, Peru, represented the first real breakthrough on this border dispute. The peace treaty stated that the two parties agreed to submit the boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague if they failed to reach a border agreement after five years of negotiations. By 1985 the two countries had not reached an agreement. In 1986 the case reached the ICJ, which handed down a ruling on September 11, 1992. Both countries accepted the ICJ decision, and a commission was established to decide the citizenship of residents of the bolsones.
Of the 436.9 square kilometers in dispute, 300.6 square kilometers were granted to Honduras, and 136.3 were granted to El Salvador. Of the six bolsones, Honduras was awarded complete control of one and approximately 80 percent of another. The remaining four were split with El Salvador. El Salvador was awarded possession of the island of Meanguera, and Honduras was awarded control of the island of El Tigre. More importantly for Honduras, the ICJ ruling assured Honduras's free passage |
eretical. Thus an Orthodox Christian is not bound to agree with every opinion of every Father, but rather with the overall consensus of the Fathers, and then only on those matters about which the church is dogmatic. [[Image:Vologda_Churches.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Orthodox churches in [[Vologda]], Russia]]
Eastern Orthodox theologians tended to rely more on Greek philosophers than did the West, often borrowing the categories and vocabulary of [[Neoplatonism]] to explain Christian doctrine, though not necessarily accepting all their theories. Some later non-Christian neoplatonist philosophers also borrowed some vocabulary from Christian theologians.
===Sin and redemption===
Generally speaking, the Orthodox tradition is uncomfortable with any practice which interprets doctrine in "legalistic" terms. Following rules strictly without the heart "being in it" does not help a believer with his salvation. [[Sin]] is not about breaking some set of rules; rather, it is the name for any behavior which "misses the mark," that is, moves a believer away from God rather than closer to Him.
Thus, in the Orthodox tradition sin is not viewed as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, but rather as an illness that needs healing. Just like a bodily illness, human sinfulness needs individual attention and correction. The ultimate goal for this process is not to win back God's favor, but rather to get back on the path towards God.
A traditional practice of Orthodox is to have a spiritual father (or mother) to whom one [[Confession|confesses]] and who treats the sin on an individual basis. An experienced spiritual father will know how and when to apply strictness in dealing with sin and when to administer mercy.
====Original Sin====
To place the term Original sin in context: God created man perfect with free will and gave man a direction to follow. Man chose rather to disobey God, thus changing the "perfect" nature of man to the "flawed" nature of man. This flawed nature and all that has come from it is a result of that '''Original Sin'''. Because we participate in humanity, we share in the sin of Adam because like him, we are human. This "change of nature" in humanity is the reason Christ God united his divine nature to man, in order to alter human nature and thus save man from Hell. All humans participate in human nature including the Virgin Mary (which is why the Orthodox Church rejects the [[Immaculate conception]]). Original sin is cleansed in humans through baptism or, in the case of the Theotokos, the moment Christ took form within her.
===The Incarnation===
Prior to Christ's incarnation on Earth it was man's "fate", when he died, because of the fall of Adam, to be separated from God. Because man introduced something alien to his nature by participation in evil through disobedience to God, mankind placed itself in a terrible and inescapable position. The answer to this problem was for God to raise man's fallen nature, to unite his divine nature with our human nature. This he accomplished through the [[incarnation]], becoming man and yet remaining God. This is why Christ Jesus is referred to as the ''Logos'', the solution to man's problem (one of the several meanings of ''Logos''). It is absolutely fundamental for Orthodox Christians that one accept Christ as both God and Man, both natures complete. This is the only means whereby we could escape the fate of hell. The incarnation changes mankind itself, uniting it to the divine. And now, because of that Incarnation, everything is different. St Basil states: "We are to strive to become little gods, within God, little jesus christs within Jesus Christ". In other words, we must seek perfection in all things in our lives; we must strive to acquire Godly virtue. God, through participation in mankind, makes it possible for man to participate in divinity. While it is true that we will not become "separate" gods in the pagan sense we will participate in the divine energies of God (which are not separate from God) and still retain our individuality.
===The Theotokos===
A great many traditions revolve around the Ever-Virgin [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]], the Theotokos, the Birth-giver of God, which are theologically paramount. It is believed by Orthodox Christians that she was and remained a Virgin before and after Christ's birth. Many of the Church's beliefs concerning the Virgin Mary are reflected in the [[apocrypha]]l text "The Nativity of Mary", which was not included in scripture, but is considered to be accurate in its description of events. The child Mary was consecrated at the age of three to serve in the temple as a temple virgin. Zachariah, at that time [[Kohen|High Priest]] of the Temple, did the unthinkable and carried Mary into the Holy of Holies as a sign of her importance – that she herself would become the ark in which God would take form. At the age of twelve she was required to give up her position and marry, but she desired to remain forever a virgin in dedication to God. And so it was decided to marry her to a close relative, [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]], an uncle or cousin, an older man, a widower, who would take care of her and allow her to retain her virginity. And so it was that when the time came she submitted to God’s will and allowed the Christ to take form within her. It is believed that she, in her life, committed no sin; however, the Orthodox do not accept the [[Roman Catholic]] doctrine of the [[Immaculate conception]]. The Theotokos was subject to [[original sin]] as the Orthodox understand it, yet she lived her life without sinning, stainless and pure. In the theology of the Orthodox Church, it is most important to understand that Christ, from the very moment of conception, was 100% God and 100% man. Therefore Orthodox Christians believe that it is correct to say that Mary is indeed the Theotokos, the Birth-giver of God, and that she is the greatest of all humans ever to have lived. This term has tremendous theological significance to Orthodox Christians, as it was at the center of the [[Christological]] debates of the 4th and 5th centuries AD. After her great role was accomplished, the Church believes she remained a virgin, continuing to serve God in all ways. She traveled much with her son, and was present both at his [[Passion]] on the [[Christian Cross|Cross]] and at his [[ascension]] into heaven. It is also believed that she was the first to know of her son's [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] – the Archangel Gabriel appearing to her once more and revealing it to her. It is believed she lived to the age of seventy and called all the apostles to her before she died. According to tradition [[Thomas (Apostle)|Saint Thomas]] arrived late and was not present at her death. Desiring to kiss her hand one last time he opened her tomb but her body was gone. The Orthodox believe she was assumed into heaven bodily; however, unlike in the Roman Catholic Church, it is not a dogmatic prescription and the holy day is usually referred to as the Feast of the [[Dormition of the Theotokos|Dormition]], not that of the [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]].
===The Resurrection===
The [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ is the central event in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church calendar|liturgical year]] of the Orthodox Church and is understood in literal terms as a real historical event. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was crucified and died, descended into [[Hades]], rescued all the souls held there through man's original sin; and then, because Hades could not restrain the infinite God, rose from the dead, thus saving all mankind. Through these events, he released mankind from the bonds of Hades and then came back to the living as man and God. That each individual human may partake of this immortality, which would have been impossible without the Resurrection, is the main promise held out by God in his [[New Covenant]] with mankind, according to Orthodox Christian tradition.
Every holy day of the Orthodox liturgical year relates to the Resurrection directly or indirectly. Every Sunday of the year is dedicated to celebrating the Resurrection; most Orthodox believers will refrain from kneeling or prostrating on Sundays in observance thereof. Even in the liturgical commemorations of the [[Passion of Christ]] during [[Holy Week]], there are frequent allusions to the ultimate victory at its completion.
===Saints, relics, and the deceased===
[[Image:Relics of Saint Demetrius.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Relics of St. Demetrius in Greece]]
In the Eastern Orthodox Church a saint is defined as anyone who is currently in [[Heaven]], whether recognized here on earth or not. By this definition, [[Adam and Eve]], [[Moses]], the various [[prophet]]s, [[martyr]]s for the faith, the [[angel]]s and [[archangel]]s are all given the title of ''Saint''. There is a service in the Orthodox Church in which a saint is formally recognized by the entire Church, called ''glorification''. This does not, however, "make" a saint but simply accords him or her a place on the calendar with regular services in his honor. Recently, in order to avoid abuses, the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] in [[Constantinople]] has begun to follow the longstanding practice of other local Orthodox churches by issuing special encyclical letters (''tomoi'') in which the Church acknowledges the popular veneration of a saint. Glorification usually happens after believers have already begun venerating a saint. There are numerous small local followings of countless saints that have not yet been recognized by the entire Orthodox Church.
A strong element in favor of glorification can be the perceived "miraculous" condition of physical remains ([[relic]]s), although that alone is not considered sufficient. In some Orthodox countries it is the custom to re-use graves after three to five years |
Authoring Windows Applications In Assembly Language]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ambrosia</title>
<id>1369</id>
<revision>
<id>42098456</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:43:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dan Austin</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses|the food or drink of the gods}}
In ancient [[Greek mythology|mythology]], '''Ambrosia''' (Greek {{lang|el|&#945;&#787;&#956;&#946;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#953;&#769;&#945;}}) is sometimes the food,
sometimes the drink, of the [[gods]]. The word has generally been derived from Greek ''a-'' ("not") and ''mbrotos'' ("mortal"); hence the food or drink of the immortals. [[Thetis]] anointed the infant [[Achilles]] with ambrosia and passed the child through the fire to make him immortal&mdash;a familiar [[Phoenicia]]n custom&mdash;but [[Peleus]], appalled, stopped her. In ''[[Iliad]]'' xvi, [[Apollo]] washed the black blood from the corpse of [[Sarpedon]] and anointed it with ambrosia, readied for its dreamlike return to Sarpedon's native [[Lycia]]. The classical scholar [[Arthur Woollgar Verrall]], however, denied that there is any clear example in which the word ''ambrosios'' necessarily means ''immortal'', and preferred to explain it as "fragrant," a sense which is always suitable. If so, the word may be derived from the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] ''MBR'' ("amber", compare "[[ambergris]]") to which Eastern nations attribute miraculous properties. In Europe, honey-colored [[amber]], sometimes far from its natural source, was already a grave gift in [[Neolithic]] times and was still worn in the [[7th century CE]] as a talisman by [[Druidry|druidic]] [[Frisia|Frisians]], though St. [[Eligius]] warned "No woman should presume to hang amber from her neck." [[W. H. Roscher]] thinks that both '''nectar''' and ambrosia were kinds of [[honey]], in which case their power of conferring immortality would be due to the supposed healing and cleansing power of honey, which is in fact aseptic, and because fermented honey ([[mead]]) preceded [[wine]] as an [[entheogen]] in the Aegean world: the Great Goddess of [[Crete]] on some Minoan seals had a [[bee]] face: compare [[Merope]] and [[Melissa]]. See also [[Ichor]].
One of the impieties of [[Tantalus]], according to [[Pindar]], was that he offered to his guests the ambrosia of the Deathless Ones, a theft akin to that of [[Prometheus]], [[Karl Kerenyi]] noted (in ''Heroes of the Greeks''). [[Circe]] mentioned to [[Odysseus]] that a flock of doves brought the ambrosia to Olympus.
Derivatively, the word ''Ambrosia'' (neuter plural) was given to certain festivals in honour of [[Dionysus]], probably because of the predominance of feasting in connection with them.
"Ambrosia" is related to the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[amrita]], a drink which conferred immortality on the gods.
In [[Greek mythology]], one of the [[Hyades (mythology)|Hyades]].
Many modern scholars, including Danny Staples, relate ambrosia to the [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants | hallucinogen]]ic mushroom ''[[Amanita muscaria]].''
==References==
*[[Carl A. P. Ruck|Ruck, Carl A.P.]] and [[Danny Staples]], ''The World of Classical Myth'' 1994, p. 26 et seq.
*[http://47.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AM/AMBROSIA.htm ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911]: Ambrosia
[[Category:Greek mythology]][[Category:Fictional beverages]]
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<page>
<title>Ambrose</title>
<id>1370</id>
<revision>
<id>41486638</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:11:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bhadani</username>
<id>219828</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.195.132.2|66.195.132.2]] ([[User talk:66.195.132.2|talk]]) to last version by 65.30.184.44</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other people and things named '''Ambrose''', see [[Ambrose (disambiguation)]]}}
[[Image:AmbroseOfMilan.jpg|thumb|Saint Ambrose, mosaic in church St. Ambrogio, Milan]]
Saint '''Ambrose''', ([[Latin]]: ''Sanctus Ambrosius''; [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Sant'Ambrogio'') (c [[340]]&ndash;[[4 April]] [[397]]), [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]], was one of the most eminent bishops of the 4th century. Together with [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Jerome]], and [[Gregory I]], he his counted one of the four [[doctors of the Church|doctors of the West]] of antique church history.
==Life==
===Worldly career===
[[Image:AmbroseStatue.png|thumb|left|Statue of St. Ambrose]]
Ambrose was a citizen of [[Rome]], born about [[337]]&ndash;[[340]] in [[Trier]], [[Germany]], into a Christian family. His father was prefect of [[Gallia Narbonensis]], his mother was a woman of intellect and piety. There is a legend that as an infant, a swarm of [[bee]]s settled on his face while he lay in his cradle, leaving behind a drop of [[honey]]. His father considered this a [[Christian symbolism|sign]] of his future [[eloquence]] and honeyed-tongue. For this reason, bees and [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] often appear in the [[Saint symbology|saint's symbology]].
After the early death of his father, Ambrose was destined to follow his father's career, and was accordingly educated in Rome, studying [[literature]], [[law]] and [[rhetoric]]. [[Praetor]] [[Anicius Probus]] first gave him a place in the council and then made him about 372 [[consular prefect]] of [[Liguria]] and [[Emilia]], with headquarters at [[Milan]], which was then beside Rome the second capital in Italy. Ambrose made an excellent administrator in this important position and became soon very popular.
===Bishop of Milan===
The diocese of Milan was at the time, like the rest of the church, deeply divided in the contest between Trinitarians and Arians. In [[374]], [[Auxentius]], bishop of Milan, died, and the [[Nicene]] and [[Arianism|Arian]] parties contended for the [[succession]]. The prefect went personally to the basilica where the election should take place, to prevent an uproar which was probable in this crisis. His address was interrupted by a call "Ambrose for bishop!" which was taken up by others upon which he was univocally elected bishop.
Ambrose was a likely candidate in this situation, because he was known to Trinitarians as sympathizer, but also acceptable to Arians due to the theologically neutral position he took as politician. He himself refused at first energetically the office, for which he was in no way prepared - he was so far only [[catechumen]] with no theological training. Only by intervention of the emperor he gave in and got within a week baptism and ordination and was duly installed as bishop of [[Milan]].
As bishop, he immediately adopted an ascetic lifestyle, apportioned his money to the poor, settled his land on the church, making only provision for his sister [[Marcellina]], and committed the care of his family to his brother.
According to legend, Saint Ambrose immediately and forcefully stopped heresy in Milan. Actually, he moved more realistically and deliberately, as he had not many arguments against Arianism which dominated especially among the clerics and higher levels of society. He started to study the basics of theology with [[Simplician]], a [[presbyter]] of Rome. Using to advantage his excellent knowledge of Greek, which was then rare in the West, he studied the Bible and Greek authors like [[Philo]], [[Origenes]], [[Athanasius]] and [[Basil of Caesarea]], with whom he was also exchanging letters [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.ix.cxcviii.html (See letter of Basil to Ambrose)]. He applied his new knowledge as preacher, concentrating especially on exegesis of the Old Testament and his impressive rhetorical abilities impressed Augustine of Hippo, who hitherto had thought poorly of Christian preachers.
===Ambrose and Arians===
In the confrontation with Arians, Ambrose applied theological and political means, using his eloquence as effectively as his political experience and his excellent political connections.
[[Gratianus|Gratian]], the son of the elder [[Valentinian I]], was Trinitarian; but the younger [[Valentinian II|Valentinian]], who had now become his colleague in the empire, adopted the opinions of the [[Arians]], and all the arguments and eloquence of Ambrose could not reclaim the young prince to the orthodox faith. [[Theodosius I]], the emperor of the East, also professed the [[Nicene]] belief; but there were many adherents of [[Arius]] throughout his dominions, especially among the higher clergy. In this distracted state of religious opinion, two leaders of the Arians, [[Palladius]] and [[Secundianus]], confident of numbers, prevailed upon [[Gratian]] to call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request appeared so equitable that he complied without hesitation; but Ambrose, foreseeing the consequence, prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the Weste |
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<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carlos Valderrama poster.jpg|right|thumb|175px|Carlos Valderrama (poster)]]
'''Carlos Alberto Valderrama Palacio''' (born [[September 2]], [[1961]] in [[Santa Marta]]) is a [[Colombia]]n former [[football (soccer)|soccer]] player, often considered the best Colombian player of all time.
Nicknamed ''El Pibe'' ("The Kid"), Valderrama is recognizable for his enormous dyed blondish-orange bush of hair and is known for his skillful passing and shielding. Valderrama captained [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]] during the [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]], [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]], and [[Football World Cup 1998|1998 World Cups]], before announcing his international retirement after the 1998 competition having received 111 caps and scored 11 times.
He began his career at [[Union Magdalena]] of the Colombian First Division in 1981. He also played for [[Millonarios]] and [[Deportivo Cali]] before joining [[Montpellier Hérault SC|Montpellier]] of the [[Ligue 1|French First Division]] in 1988. He was transferred to [[La Liga|Spanish]] side [[Real Valladolid]] in 1990 before returning to Colombia in 1992 to play for [[Independiente Medellín]] and [[Atlético Junior]] from 1993-96 before going to the US in 1996 to play for the [[Tampa Bay Mutiny]] (1996-97, 2000-01), [[Miami Fusion]] (1998-99), and [[Colorado Rapids]] (2001-02). In [[Major League Soccer]], Valderrama scored relatively few goals (16) for a midfielder, but is the league's all-time leader in assists (114). In 2005, he was named to the [[MLS All-Time Best XI]].
In February 2004, Valderrama ended his 22-year career in a tribute match with some of the most important football players of South America, such as [[Diego Maradona]] (he couldn't play), [[Enzo Francescoli]] and [[José Luis Chilavert]].
He is married and has five children. Valderrama was the only Colombian to feature in Pele's [[FIFA 100|125 Top Living Football Players list]] in March 2004.
[[Category:Colombian footballers|Valderrama, Carlos]]
[[Category:1961 births|Valderrama, Carlos]]
[[Category:Living people|Valderrama, Carlos]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Valderrama, Carlos]]
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[[Category:Miami Fusion players|Valderrama, Carlos]]
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<page>
<title>Cyborgs in fiction</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Cyborg|Cyborgs]]''' that originally appeared...
==In print==
* The [[Tin Woodman]] from [[L. Frank Baum]]'s [[The Oz books|Oz books]] (at least before he became entirely metal).
* Deirdre, a famous dancer who was burned nearly completely and whose brain was placed in a faceless but beautiful mechanical body, in [[C. L. Moore]]'s short story of 1944, "No Woman Born". Collected in "The Best of C. L. Moore" in 1975
* Jonas the (star) sailor in [[Gene Wolfe]]'s ''Book of the New Sun'' novels. His near light speed ship had been gone so long that on its return to Urth, there were no space port facilities any more, and it crashed. Other crew members patched him up from available parts. (However, he started out as fully robotic, and was repaired with human parts, rather than the more usual reverse).
* [[Molly Millions]] who appears in several of [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s stories.
* Professor Jameson, a cyborg [[pulp magazine|pulp]] hero by [[Neil R. Jones]], and his allies and benefactors, the Zoromes.
* ''[[8 Man]]'' is a fictional manga and anime superhero created in [[1963]] by writer [[Kazumasa Hirai]] and [[artist]] [[Jiro Kuwata]]. He is considered Japan's earliest cyborg superhero, before even ''[[Kamen Rider]]'' (the same year, [[Shotaro Ishinomori]] created ''[[Cyborg 009]]''), and was the inspiration for ''[[RoboCop]]''.
* Many of the members of [[Section 9]] in the ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' universe, specifically the main characters [[Motoko Kusanagi|Major Motoko Kusanagi]] and [[Batou]], are cyborgs dependent on regular maintence; there are several [[manga]] (or [[graphic novel]]) and artbooks set in the [[:Category:Ghost in the Shell|GitS universe]], as well as two feature-length [[anime]] and a television series.
* [[Masamune Shirow]]'s other major work, ''[[Appleseed]]'' also contains a multitude of cyborg characters, with one of the main characters, [[Briareos Hecatonchires]], the mercenary [[Sokaku Tatara]] and his war buddies, and the [[Mumna Holy Republic]] diplomat [[Kainisu]], from the fourth chapter, are just a few.
* [[Vash the Stampede]] from ''[[Trigun]]'' has a prosthetic left arm, which he acquired after his brother [[Millions Knives]] shot it off. The arm has an [[automatic weapon]] inside.
* [[Cyborg (comics)|Cyborg]] of the ''[[Titans (comics)|Teen Titans]]'' [[comic book]] series is a [[superhero]] with massive implants and prothestics.
* [[Marge Piercy|Marge Piercy's]] ''[[He, She and It]]'' presents a rather feminist view on the cyborg issue with ''Yod'' who, however, is provided with some male attributes.
* Many of the characters of ''[[Battle Angel Alita]]'' (also known in Japan as ''GUNNM'') are cyborgs, including the lead, Alita (Gally, Yoko). Cyborgs are a major way of life in the ''GUNNM'' universe, with sports, such as Motorball (and crimes, such as spine-stealing), contributing to a culture of cyborgs.
* The [[Metabarons]].
* In ''[[WE3]]'' a group of animals are turned into living weapons.
* ''[[Cyborg 009]]'' features a group of humans unwillingly turned into cyborg weapons by a crime syndicate.
* The [[Reavers (comics)|Reavers]], a group of villains that regularly clashes with the [[X-Men]]. They are led by [[Donald Pierce]].
* [[Deathlok]], the Demolisher, former soldier in [[dystopic]] future.
* All members of ''[[The Authority]]'' have a networking implant that allows for [[radio-telepathy]], [[head-mail]] and other communication functions.
* [[Android 17]] and [[Android 18]], along with [[Android 20]] from the anime-manga series [[Dragonball Z]]. Despite their confusing English dub names, they are indeed cyborgs. In the original Japanese version, these three (along with the rest of Dr. Gero's artificial creations) are referred to as ''jinzouningen'', which is a blanket term in Japanese science fiction applying to robots and androids, as well as cyborgs. ''Jinzouningen'' is usually translated by fans to "artificial human."
* [[Anne McCaffrey]] wrote short stories and novels known as "The ship series" where otherwise crippled humans live on as the brains of starships and large space stations.
* The genetically engineered and prosthetics-ready warriors of the planet Sauron in the [[CoDominium]] series of short stories and novels initiated by [[Jerry Pournelle]] and also written by guest authors.
*[[emerl]] from sonic battle. He says he is a living being.
* The [[Rifts]] Role-playing game makes extensive use of Cyborgs and Cybernetics in many [[Character class|Occupational Character Classes]]. Cybernetics are divided into normal ''cybernetics'', realistic-looking ''bio-systems'', and deadly, combat-oriented ''bionics''. It also organizes Cyborgs into two categories: ''Partial Conversion'', where most of a person's limbs are all that are replaced, and ''Full Conversion'', where the entire body, save for the brain, spinal cord, and a few other organs are replaced by bionics.
==In film==
* ''[[RoboCop]]''
* ''[[The Terminator]]'' models (particularly those depicted by [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]): assassins with [[robot]]ic [[endoskeleton]]s overlaid by [[life|living]] [[biological tissue|tissue]]
* [[Darth Vader]] in ''[[Star Wars]]''. [[Luke Skywalker]] also has a similarly designed right hand to replace the one he lost in battle.
* [[Lobot]] in ''Star Wars'' wore a brain enhancing device wrapped around the back of his skull.
* [[General Grievous]] in ''Star Wars'' prequels. First seen in the ''[[Star Wars: Clone Wars]]'' microseries, Chapter 20, General Grievous is a major character in ''[[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith]]''.
* The wives from the 2004 film version of ''[[The Stepford Wives (2004)|The Stepford Wives]]''. In the original version, they would be closer to [[android]]s or [[gynoid]]s.
==On television==
* The inhabitants of [[Cyberspace]] in the math mystery cartoon ''[[Cyberchase]]'', including [[Digit (Cyberchase)|Digit]] played by [[Gilbert Gottfried]], [[The Hacker (Cyberchase)|Hacker]] voiced by [[Christopher Lloyd]], [[Motherboard (Cyberchase)|Motherboard]], and all other characters in the show except the Earth kids: [[Matt (Cyberchase)|Matt]], [[Jackie (Cyberchase)|Jackie]], and [[Inez (Cyberchase)|Inez]].
* Steve Austin, ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]]''. Originally based on Martin Caidin's novel, ''Cyborg'', the series was very successful, spawning followups ''[[The Bionic Woman]]'', and Max, the bionic dog.
* The [[Dalek]]s and [[Cyberman|Cybermen]] from ''[[Doctor Who]]'' (Daleks are a marginal case, they are actually vehicles for small and physically degenerate aliens)
* The [[Borg]] from [[Star Trek]], including [[Seven of Nine]] from ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'', a human who was assimilated into a drone and later seve |
d managing editor [[Dick Giordano]] decided to address the problem of talent instability in their series. To that end — and following the example of [[Atlas/Seaboard Comics]] and such independent companies as [[Eclipse Comics]] — DC began to offer more concrete financial rewards to their talents, such as [[royalties]]. In addition, the company created the publishing concept of the [[limited series]] that allowed more flexible arrangements for storylines that could be successful without the pressure of immediately following them up on an indefinite basis.
These policy changes immediately paid off with the success of ''[[Titans (comics)|The New Teen Titans]]'' by writer [[Marv Wolfman]] and artist [[George Pérez]]. That superteam comic earned significant sales in part due to its creative quality and the stability of the talent, who kept with the title for years. In addition, the creative team took early advantage of the limited series option to create a [[spin off]] title, ''Tales of the New Teen Titans'', to present the origins of their original characters without having to break the narrative flow of their main series or obliging them to double their work load with another ongoing title.
This successful revitalization of a minor title led the editorship to look at doing the same to their entire line comics. The result was the limited series ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]],'' which gave the company an opportunity to dismiss some of the "baggage" of its history, and revise major characters such as Superman and Wonder Woman. Yet DC did not abandon their history completely. In 1989, they began publication of the [[DC Archive Editions]], a series created to collect their early, rare issues into a permanent hardback format.
[[Image:Swampthingmoore21.jpg|thumb|left|175px|''Swamp Thing'' (vol. 2) #21, the issue that signaled the beginning of the comic book British Invasion.]]
Meanwhile, [[United Kingdom|British]] writer [[Alan Moore]] had re-energized the minor horror series ''[[Saga of the Swamp Thing]]'', and his highly acclaimed work sparked a comic book equivalent of rock's [[British Invasion]], in which numerous British talents, including [[Neil Gaiman]] and [[Grant Morrison]], came to work for the company. The resulting influx of sophisticated horror and dark fantasy material led not only to DC abandoning the [[Comics Code Authority|Comics Code]] for particular titles by those talents, but also to the later establishment in 1993 of the [[Vertigo (comics)|Vertigo]] imprint for mature readers.
Acclaimed limited series such as ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'' by [[Frank Miller]] and Alan Moore's ''[[Watchmen]],'' also drew attention to changes at DC. This new creative freedom and the attendant publicity allowed DC to seriously challenge the dominance of Marvel.
===1990s===
The comics industry experienced a brief boom in the early 1990s, thanks to a combination of speculative purchasing of the books as collectibles and several storylines which gained attention from the mainstream media. DC's extended storylines in which [[death of Superman|Superman was killed]] and [[KnightSaga|Batman was crippled]], resulted in dramatically increased sales, but the increases were as temporary as the substitutes, and sales dropped off as industry sales went into a major slump.
DC's [[Piranha Press]] and other imprints in the 1990s were introduced to facilitate diversification and specialized marketing of its product line. They increased the use of nontraditional contractual arrangements, including creator-owned work and licensing material from other companies. They also increased publication of [[Trade paperback (comics)|trade paperback]]s, including both collections of serial comics and original [[graphic novel]]s.
The [[Vertigo (comics)|Vertigo]] line was aimed at an older and more literary audience, largely free of the "kid stuff" stigma its main superhero line still held. DC entered into a publishing agreement with [[Milestone Media]], which gave the company a line of comics featuring a more culturally and racially diverse range of superhero characters; although the Milestone line ceased publication, it yielded the popular animated series ''[[Static Shock]]''. [[Paradox Press]] was established to publish material that would be considered "mainstream" in the book trade - including the large-format ''Big Book of...'' series, and crime fiction such as ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' - but paradoxically remained a niche in the comics industry. DC purchased [[Wildstorm|Wildstorm Comics]] from [[Jim Lee]] and maintained it as a separate imprint with its own style and audience. Likewise they added the Wildstorm imprint [[America's Best Comics]], created by Alan Moore, including the titles ''[[Tom Strong]]'' and ''[[Promethea]]''.
===2000s===
Comics sales stopped declining but remained weak in the early 2000s, as DC continued diversifying its publishing activities to reach new markets. In March 2003 DC Comics acquired publishing and merchandising rights to the long-running fantasy series ''[[Elfquest]]'', which had previously been self-published by its creators [[Wendy Pini|Wendy]] and [[Richard Pini]] under the [[WaRP Graphics|Warp Graphics]] banner. In 2004 it established the [[CMX (comics)|CMX]] line to reprint translated [[manga]] volumes (an already-booming market at the time), and temporarily acquired the North American publishing rights to graphic novels from European publishers [[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]] and [[Humanoids Publishing|Humanoids]]. It also rebranded its titles for younger children with the mascot [[Johnny DC]].
Starting in 2004, DC's began laying groundwork for a "sequel" to ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'', promising substantial changes to the DCU to come out of it. In 2005 they published several limited series establishing increasing conflicts between the heroes of the DCU, which are expected to come to a climax in the limited series ''[[Infinite Crisis]]''. At the conclusion of that series in 2006, all of DC's ongoing series will skip to "one year later", showing the medium-term consequences of that crisis and continuing from there.
In 2005 DC Comics launched an "All-Star" line, featuring some of DC's most famous characters, written and illustrated by popular creators. These series were intended to appeal to more casual readers, featuring familiar versions of the characters without tight continuity with the main line of books. ''All-Star Batman & Robin the Boy Wonder'' was launched in July 2005, with ''All-Star Superman'' beginning in November 2005 and ''All-Star Wonder Woman'' soon to follow.
2006 has proved early to be an interesting year in DC history, with their little-known affiliate [[CMX (comics)|CMX]] picking up the popular webcomic [[Megatokyo]]'s published form. Megatokyo had previously publised volumes 1-3 of their print version with independent competitor [[Dark Horse Comics]].
==Logo history==
[[Image:DClogos.png|right|DC logos]]
DC's first logo appeared on the March 1940 issues of their titles. The letters "DC" stood for Detective Comics, the name the company used at the time. The logo was small and did not have a background. It simply said, "A DC Publication".
The November 1941 DC titles introduced an updated DC logo. This version was almost twice the size of the first one, and also was the first version with a white background. The name of Superman was added to "A DC Publication", effectively acknowledging both Superman (the company's flagship character) and Batman (star of Detective Comics). This logo was also the first version to occupy the top left corner of the cover, where the logo has usually resided ever since.
In November 1949, the logo was modified, incorporating the company's current name (National Comics Publications) into the logo. This logo would also serve as the round body of Johnny DC, DC's mascot in the 1960s.
In October 1970, the circular logo was briefly retired in favor of a simple "DC" in a rectangle with the name of the title, or the star of the book (i.e. many issues of ''[[Action Comics]]'' said "DC Superman"). An image of the lead character either appeared above or below the rectangle. For books that did not have a single star, such as ''[[House of Mystery]]'' or ''[[Justice League|Justice League of America]]'', the title and "DC" appeared in a stylized logo, such as a bat for ''House of Mystery''. This use of characters as logos helped to establish the likenesses as trademarks, and was similar to Marvel's contemporaneous use of characters as part of their cover branding.
DC's "100 Page Super-Spectacular" titles and later 100-page and "Giant" issues published from 1972 to 1974 featured a logo that was exclusive to these editions, the letters "DC" in a simple sans serif font, in a circle. (A variant had the letters in a square.)
The July 1972 DC titles featured a new circular logo. The letters "DC" were rendered in a block-like font that would remain through later logo revisions until 2005. The title of the book usually appeared inside the circle, either above or below the letters.
In December 1973, the logo was modified, adding the words "The Line of DC Super-Stars" and the star motif that would continue in later logos. This logo was placed in the top center of the cover from August 1975 to October 1976.
When [[Jenette Kahn]] became DC's publisher in late 1976, she commissioned graphic designer [[Milton Glaser]] to design a new logo. Popularly referred to as the "DC bullet", the logo first appeared on the February 1977 DC titles. Although it varied in size and color and was at times cropped by the edges of the cover, or briefly rotated 45 degrees, it remained essentially unchanged for nearly three decades.
On [[May 8]], [[2005]], a new logo |
ined at [[Gold's Gym]] in [[Santa Monica]] under the [[patronage]] of [[Joe Weider]].
He became a U.S. citizen in [[1983]], although he has also retained his Austrian citizenship. During this time, he earned a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] from the [[University of Wisconsin-Superior]] where he graduated with degrees in [[marketing|international marketing]] of fitness and [[business administration]] in 1979.
In 1983 his autobiography, ''Arnold: The Education of a Body-Builder'' was published.
In 1986, Schwarzenegger married TV journalist [[Maria Shriver]], niece of the late [[President of the United States]] [[John F. Kennedy]]. The couple have four children: daughters Katherine (born [[December 13]], [[1989]]) and Christina (b.[[July 23]], [[1991]]), and sons Patrick (b.[[September 18]], [[1993]]) and Christopher (b.[[September 27]], [[1997]]). Together, the couple own a home in [[gated community|gated]] [[Bel Air, California]] as well as at the fabled [[Kennedy Compound]] in [[Massachusetts]].
His distinctive and oft-imitated accent has led many entertainers and pundits to refer to him simply as "Ah-nuldt".
Though Schwarzenegger refuses to discuss his plastic surgery ("You are confusing me with [[Cher (entertainer)|Cher]]," he told ''[[People Magazine]]'' in 2002), citing before and after photos, critics allege he has undergone procedures on his eyes and chin, and has received at least one facelift (see [http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/entertainers/actors/arnold-schwarzenegger/]).
==Bodybuilding career==
Schwarzenegger first gained fame as a [[bodybuilding|bodybuilder]]. One of the first competitions he won was Junior Mr. Europe. He would go on to compete in and win many bodybuilding (as well as some [[powerlifting]]) contests, including 4 [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] wins and a record 7 [[Mr. Olympia]] wins, a record which would remain until [[Lee Haney]] won his eighth straight Mr. Olympia title in 1991. In 1967 Arnold won the Munich stone lifting contest in which a stone weighing 508 German pounds, approximately 560 English pounds, is lifted between the legs while standing on two foot rests. Arnold broke the existing record, winning the contest. Arnold's goal was to become the greatest bodybuilder in the world, which meant becoming Mr. Olympia.
His first attempt was in 1969 where he lost to three-time champion [[Sergio Oliva]]. Arnold entered the contest confident, but when he saw Oliva in the pump room his confidence was shattered. The terrifying image of Oliva spurred Arnold to come back in 1970 with a vengence. He convincingly won the competition. Arnold won the 1971 Mr. Olympia with little incident. Then, in 1972, Oliva came back with what is still considered by many to be the greatest physique ever displayed. Arnold won the show but it was very close and bodybuilding fans still argue over whether Arnold or Sergio should have won. In 1973, Arnold once again won the Olympia with no real competition. He displayed his best physique to that point. Perhaps Arnold was in such great shape for the 1973 Olympia because he feared Oliva would once again enter the competition. In 1974, Arnold was once again in top form and won the title for the fifth consecutive time. Lou Ferrigno also competed at the '73 Olympia. Ferrigno was the first possible threat to Arnold's reign since Oliva. Arnold retired from competition after the 1974 Olympia. However, George Butler and Charles Gaines convinced him to compete one more time so they could make the bodybuilding documentary called ''[[Pumping Iron]]''. Arnold had only three months to prepare for the competition after losing significant weight to appear in the film ''Stay Hungry'' with Jeff Bridges. Ferrigno proved to not be a threat and a lighter than usual Schwarzenegger convincingly won the 1975 Olympia. After being declared Mr. Olympia for a sixth consecutive time Arnold once again retired from competition. Arnold came out of retirement to compete in the 1980 Mr. Olympia, the most controversial Olympia ever. [[Mike Mentzer]] was defeated in this competition, despite being on his best ever form (a fact which caused him to leave the world of bodybuilding). Arnold was a late entry and won with only eight weeks of preparation. Schwarzenegger is considered among the most important figures in the history of bodybuilding, and his legacy is commemorated in the [[Arnold Classic]] annual bodybuilding competition.
Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent face in the bodybuilding sport long after his retirement, in part due to his ownership of gyms and fitness magazines. He has presided over numerous contests and awards shows. For many years he wrote a monthly column for the bodybuilding magazines [[Muscle and Fitness|Muscle & Fitness]] and ''Flex''. Shortly after being elected Governor, he was appointed executive [[editor]] of both magazines in a largely symbolic capacity. The magazines agreed to donate $250,000 a year to the Governor's various physical fitness initiatives. The magazine ''MuscleMag International'' has a monthly two page article on him and refers to him as "The King".
Schwarzenegger's first political appointment was to the [[President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports]], on which he served from 1990 to 1993. He was nominated by [[George H. W. Bush]], who called him Conan the Republican.
In 2003 two [[African-American]] bodybuilders came forward claiming that Schwarzenegger has a history of making [[racist]] comments. Schwarzenegger has allegedly said, "If you gave these [[Black people|Blacks]] a country to run, they would run it down the tubes" (see [http://www.drudgereport.com/ar1.htm]).
===Bodybuilding contests===
Schwarzenegger won most of the bodybuilding contests he competed in. Those he did not win are indicated in ''italics''
*1965 Junior Mr. Europe (Germany)
*1966 Best Built Man of Europe (Germany)
*1966 Mr. Europe (Germany)
*1966 International Powerlifting Championship (Germany)
*''1966 [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] amateur (London), 2nd to [[Chet Yorton]]''
*1967 NABBA Mr. Universe amateur (London)
*1968 NABBA Mr. Universe professional (London)
*1968 German Powerlifting Championship
*1968 IFBB Mr. Internaional (Mexico)
*''1968 [[IFBB Mr. Universe]] (Florida), 2nd to [[Frank Zane]]''
*1969 IFBB Mr. Universe (New York)
*1969 NABBA Mr. Universe professional (London)
*1970 NABBA Mr. Universe professional (London), defeating his boyhood idol [[Reg Park]]
*''1969 [[Mr. Olympia]], 2nd to [[Sergio Oliva]]''
*1970 Mr. World (Columbus, Ohio), the first time he had beaten Sergio Oliva
*1970 Mr. Olympia (New York)
*1971 Mr. Olympia (Paris)
*1972 Mr. Olympia (Essen, Germany)
*1973 Mr. Olympia (New York)
*1974 Mr. Olympia (New York)
*1975 Mr. Olympia (Pretoria, South Africa), the subject of the documentary ''[[Pumping Iron]]''
*1980 Mr. Olympia
===Steroid Use===
Schwarzenegger has admitted to using performance-enhancing [[anabolic steroid]]s whilst they were legal, writing in 1977 that "[steroids] were helpful to me in maintaining muscle size while on a strict diet in preparation for a contest. I did not use them for muscle growth, but rather for muscle maintenance when cutting up." However, some bodybuilders who used the same steroid cocktails as Schwarzenegger in the 1970s dispute the notion that they were used merely for "muscle maintenance". Even Schwarzenegger has called the drugs "tissue building." (see [http://hjem.get2net.dk/JamesBond/www/artikler/steroidemisbrug/arnoldandsteroids.htm])
In 1999, Schwarzenegger sued Dr. Willi Heepe, a German doctor who publicly predicted an early death for the bodybuilder based on a link between steroid use and later heart problems. Because the doctor had never examined him personally, Schwarzenegger collected a [[Deutsche Mark|DM]] 20,000 ($12,000 USD) libel judgment against him in a German court. In 1999 Schwarzenegger also sued and settled with [[Globe Magazine]], a U.S. tabloid which had made similar predictions about the bodybuilder's future health. As late as 1996, a year before open heart surgery to replace an [[aortic valve]], Schwarzenegger publicly defended his use of anabolic steroids during his bodybuilding career. (see [http://espn.go.com/columns/farrey_tom/1655597.html])
Schwarzenegger was born with a [[bicuspid aortic valve]]; a normal heart has [[tricuspid]] valves. According to a spokesman, Schwarzenegger has not used anabolic steroids since 1990 when they were made illegal (see [http://hjem.get2net.dk/JamesBond/www/artikler/steroidemisbrug/arnoldandsteroids.htm]). In bodybuilder slang, steroids are sometimes refered to as "Arnolds" (see [http://www.streetdrugs.org/dgsa.htm]).
==Acting career==
===Roles===
Schwarzenegger had long planned to segue from bodybuilding into a career in acting, as had done many of his idols, such as [[Reg Park]]. Initially he had trouble breaking into films due to his long surname, large muscles, and foreign accent, but was eventually chosen to play the role of Hercules (as had done both Reg Park and [[Steve Reeves]]) in ''[[Hercules in New York]]'' (1970). Credited under the name ''Arnold Strong'', his accent in the film was so thick that his lines had to be [[dubbed]] after production. His second film appearance was as a [[deaf]] and [[mute]] hitman for the mob in director [[Robert Altman|Robert Altman's]] ''[[The Long Goodbye]]'' (1973), which was followed by a much more significant part in the film ''[[Stay Hungry (film)|Stay Hungry]]'' (1976), for which he was awarded a [[Golden Globe]] for Best New Male Star. Schwarzenegger came to the attention of more people in the documentary ''[[Pumping Iron]]'' (1977), elements of which were dramatized. In 1991, Schwarzenegger purchased the rights to this film, its outtakes, and associated still photography (see [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldpump1.html]).
[[Image:Terminator.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[The Terminator]]'', starring S |
ndent to those traditions which Mohammed has followed in his Koran. Of this Gospel the Moriscoes in [[Africa]] have a translation in Spanish; and there is in the library of [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]], a manuscript of some antiquity, containing an Italian translation of the same Gospel, made, it is to be supposed, for the use of [[renegade]]s.'' &mdash;''The Preliminary Discourse to the Koran'', p. 79.
This appears to allude to versions of both the known manuscripts: the Italian and the Spanish.
===The manuscripts===
'''Italian Ms.''' Prince Eugene's Italian manuscript had been presented to him in [[1709]] by [[John Frederick Cramer]]; it appears to date to the end of the [[sixteenth century]]. It was transferred to the [[Hofbibliothek in Vienna]] in [[1738]] with the rest of his library, and still survives there, in the Austrian National Library. The pages of the Italian manuscript are framed in an Islamic style, and contain chapter rubrics and margin notes in often ungrammatical and incorrect Arabic (with an occasional Turkish word, and many Turkish syntactical features), the margin notes forming a rough Arabic gloss of selected passages. Its binding is Turkish, and appears to be original; but the paper appears Italian, as does the handwriting (albeit with many idiosyncrasies of spelling). There are [[catchwords]] at the bottom of each page, a practice common in manuscripts intended to be set up for [[printing]]. The manuscript appears to be unfinished - in that the 222 chapters are provided throughout with framed blank spaces for titular headings, but only 27 of these spaces have been filled. In addition, there were originally 38 whole framed blank pages preceding the text - into which, it may be presumed, some other work was originally intended to be copied. It is the Italian version that the Raggs' 1907 translation, the most commonly circulated in English, is based on. It was followed in 1908 by an Arabic translation by Khalil Saadah, published in Egypt.
The complete Italian text is transcribed with an English translation and introduction:
Ragg, L and L - ''The Gospel of Barnabas''. (Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 1907).
A second Italian edition - in parallel columns with a modernised text:
Eugenio Giustolisi and Giuseppe Rizzardi, ''Il vangelo di Barnaba. Un vangelo per i musulmani?'' (Milano: Istituto Propaganda Libraria, 1991).
The complete text of the Italian manuscript has been published in photo-facsimile; with a French translation and extensive commentary and textual apparatus:
Cirillo L. & Fremaux M. ''Evangile de Barnabe: recherches sur la composition et l'origine'', Paris, 1977, 598p
'''Spanish Ms.''' The known Spanish manuscript was lost in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries; however an eighteenth century copy of it was discovered in the 1970s in the [[University of Sydney]]'s Fisher Library among the books of Sir [[Charles Nicholson]], labelled in English "Transcribed from ms. in possession of the Revd Mr Edm. Callamy who bought it at the decease of Mr George Sale...and now gave me at the decease of Mr John Nickolls, [[1745]]". J. E. Fletcher, ''The Spanish Gospel of Barnabas'', Novum Testamentum vol. XVIII ((1976), p. 314-320.
Its main difference from the Italian manuscript is that the surviving transcript does not record a substantial number of chapters&mdash;which had, however, still been present in the Spanish original when it was examined by George Sale. The Spanish text is preceded by a note claiming that it was translated from Italian by [[Mustafa de Aranda]], an Aragonese Muslim resident in Istanbul. The Spanish manuscript also contains a preface by one assuming the pseudonym 'Fra Marino', claiming to have stolen a copy of the Italian version from the library of [[Pope]] Sixtus V. Fra Marino, reports that, having a post in the [[Inquisition]] Court, he had come into possession of several works, which led him to believe that the Biblical text had been corrupted, and that genuine apostolic texts had been improperly excluded. Fra Marino also claims to have been alerted to the existence of the Gospel of Barnabas, from an allusion in an (otherwise unknown) work by [[Irenaeus]] against Paul; in a book which had been presented to him by a lady of the [[Colonna]] family (Marino, outside Rome, is the location of the Palazzo Colonna).
The text of the Spanish manuscript has been published with extensive commentary:
Bernabe Pons L. F. ''El Evangelio de San Bernabe; Un evangelio islamico espanol'', Universidad de Alicante, 1995, 260p
===Origins===
Some students of the work argue for an Italian origin, noting phrases in Barnabas which are very similar to phrases used by Dante and suggesting that the author of Barnabas borrowed from Dante's works; they take the Spanish version's preface to support this conclusion. Other students have noted a range of textual similarities between passages in the Gospel of Barnabas, and variously the texts of a series of late mediaeval [[vernacular]] harmonies of the four canonical gospels (in Middle [[English language|English]] and Middle [[Dutch language|Dutch]], but especially in Middle Italian); which are all speculated as deriving from a lost [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin]] version of the [[Diatessaron]] of [[Tatian]] (Jan Joosten, "The Gospel of Barnabas and the Diatessaron," Harvard Theological Review 95.1 (2002): 73-96). This would also support an Italian origin.
Other students argue that the Spanish version came first, regarding the Spanish preface's claims of an Italian source as intended to boost the work's credibility by linking it to the Papal libraries. These scholars note parallels with a series of Morisco forgeries, the [[Sacromonte]] tablets of [[Granada]], dating from the 1590s; or otherwise with Morisco reworkings of Christian and Islamic traditions, produced following their expulsion from Spain (G.A.Wiegers, "Muhammad as the Messiah: A comparison of the polemical works of Juan Alonso with the Gospel of Barnabas", Leiden, Bibliotheca Orientalis, LII, no 3/4, April-Juni 1995, pp.245-292).
The lost Spanish manuscript claimed to have been written in [[Istanbul]], and the surviving Italian manuscript has several [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] features; so - whether the language of origin was Spanish or Italian - Istanbul is regarded by most students as the place of origin of the present text. This view has added credibility, in that many early Christian and [[patristics|patristic]] texts might still be found, in the 16th Century, in the Greek libraries of Istanbul - ancient [[Constantinople]] - and the city contained substantial Greek, Italian and Spanish speaking communities.
After [[1492]], following the conquest of Moorish [[Granada]], [[Mudejar]] and [[Sephardi]] populations (Muslims and Jews who refused to convert to Christianity) were expelled from [[Spain]]. Although some found initial refuge in [[Italy]] (especially [[Venice]]), most resettled in the [[Ottoman Empire]], where Spanish speaking Jews established in Istanbul a rich sub-culture with a flourishing [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Ladino]] printing industry. Numbers were further agumented after [[1550]], following campaigns of persecution by the [[Venetian]] Inquisition against Italian [[nontrinitarianism|anti-Trinitarians]] and Jews. Although Muslim teaching at this time strongly opposed the printing of [[Islamic]] or Arabic texts, non-Muslim printing was not, in principle, forbidden; indeed attempts were made in the [[1570s]] by anti-Trinitarians to establish a printing press in the Turkish capital to publish radical [[Protestant]] works. In the Spanish preface, Fra Marino records his wish that the Gospel of Barnabas should be printed, and the only place in Europe where that would have been possible in the late [[16th Century]] would have been Instanbul.
A minority of students are, however, suspicious of the apparent 'Turkish' features of the Italian manuscript; especially the Arabic annotations, which they adjudge to be so riddled with elementary errors as to be most unlikely to have been written in Istanbul (even by an Italian scribe). In particular, they note that the glossing of the Italian version of the ''[[shahada]]'' into Arabic, does not correspond exactly with the standard ritual formula recited daily by every Muslim. These students are inclined to infer from these inconsistencies that both manuscripts may represent an exercise in forensic falsification, and they tend to locate their place of origin as [[Rome]].
Few academics argue that the text, in its present form, dates back any earlier than the [[14th century|14th]]&ndash;16th centuries; although a minority see it as containing portions of an earlier work, and almost all would detect the influence of earlier sources&mdash;over and above the [[Vulgate]] text of the Latin Bible. Consequently most students would concur with a stratification of the surviving text into at least three distinct layers of composition:
&ndash; an editorial layer dating from the 1590s; and comprising, at the least, the Spanish preface and the Arabic annotations,
&ndash; a layer of vernacular narrative composition, either in Spanish or Italian, and dating from no earlier than the mid 14th century,
&ndash; a layer derived from earlier source materials, almost certainly transmitted to the vernacular author/translator in Latin; and comprising, at the least, those extensive passages in the Gospel of Barnabas that closely parallel [[pericope]]s in the canonical gospels; but whose underlying text appears markedly distinct from that of the late medieval Latin [[Vulgate]] (as for instance in the alternative version of the [[Lord's Prayer]] in chapter 37, which includes a concluding [[doxology]], contrary to the Vulgate text, but in accordance with the Diatessaron and many other early variant traditions);
Much of the controversy and dispute concerning the authenticit |
th ACC and DCC.
A [[total order|totally ordered set]] that satisfies the descending chain condition is called a [[well-order|well-ordered set]].
See also [[Noetherian]] and [[Artinian]].
[[Category:Commutative algebra]]
[[Category:Order theory]]
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<title>Adin Steinsaltz</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rabbi_Steinsaltz_photo.jpg|right|framed|Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz]]
[[Rabbi]] '''Adin Steinsaltz''' or '''Even Yisrael''' (born 1937) is a teacher, philosopher, social critic and prolific author who has been hailed by [[Time magazine]] as a "once-in-a-millennium scholar." His lifelong work in Jewish education earned him the [[Israel Prize]], his country’s highest honor. He is affiliated with the [[Chabad Lubavitch]] [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] sect. He is the [[Nasi]] and most prominent public member of an attempt to revive the [[Sanhedrin#A "New" Sanhedrin?|Sanhedrin]].
Born in [[Jerusalem]] in 1937 to secular parents, Rabbi Steinsaltz studied [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] at the [[Hebrew University]]. Following graduation, he established several experimental schools and, at the age of 24, became [[Israel]]’s youngest school principal.
In 1965, he founded the Israel Institute for Talmudic Publications and began his monumental [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] translation and commentary on the [[Talmud]]. To date, he has published 38 of the anticipated 46 volumes. While not without criticism (e.g. by [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner]], 1998), the Steinsaltz edition is widely used throughout Israel, the United States and the world. Over 2 million volumes of the Steinsaltz Talmud have been distributed to date.
The translation of the Talmud from Aramaic to Hebrew increased the amount of people who are able to study its content. His translation opened the door for women who traditionally are not taught Talmud, and are therefore not proficient in Aramaic, to study the Talmud. Modern Orthodox High Schools and Seminaries teach women Talmud using his translation. The amount of men who are capable of studying Talmud increased as a result of Steinzalts' work.
Regarding the access that his work provides, Steinsaltz says “I never thought that spreading ignorance has any advantage, except for those who are in a position of power and want to deprive others of their rights and spread ignorance in order to keep them underlings. My gemmarot are surely used, if they are used anywhere, in Matan [a yeshiva for Orthodox women in Jerusalem], from beginning to end. Why? Because they help skip the elementary school level of training. That makes learning Talmud for them possible, and if it is possible then it is challenging and some of the men don’t want that challenge.”
The Rabbi’s classic work of [[Kabbalah]], ''The Thirteen Petalled Rose'', was first published in 1980 and now appears in eight languages. In all, Rabbi Steinsaltz has authored some 60 books and hundreds of articles on subjects including [[Talmud]], Jewish mysticism, religious thought, [[sociology]], historical biography, and [[philosophy]].
Continuing his work as a teacher and spiritual mentor, Rabbi Steinsaltz established a network of schools and educational institutions in Israel and the former Soviet Union. He has served as scholar in residence at the [[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] and the Institute for Advanced Studies at [[Princeton University]]. His honorary degrees include doctorates from [[Yeshiva University]], [[Ben Gurion University of the Negev]], [[Bar Ilan University]], [[Brandeis University]], and [[Florida International University]]. Rabbi Steinsaltz is also [[Rosh Yeshiva]] of [[Yeshivat Hesder]] [[Tekoa]], and, [http://www.israelnn.com/news.php3?id=83438 controversially], functions as [[Nasi]] in the [[Sanhedrin#A_.22New.22_Sanhedrin.3F|"new Sanhedrin"]].
Rabbi Steinsaltz and his wife have three children and ten grandchildren. He lives in Jerusalem.
==References==
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition'', 21 volumes available in English from Random House; 38 volumes available in Hebrew from Milta Books; also published in French, Russian, and Spanish.
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''We Jews: Who Are We and What Should We Do?'', (Jossey-Bass, 2005).
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''Opening the Tanya: Discovering the Moral and Mystical Teachings of a Classic Work of Kabbalah'', (Jossey-Bass, 2003).
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''Learning From the Tanya: Volume Two in the Definitive Commentary on the Moral and Mystical Teachings of a Classic Work of Kabbalah'', (Jossey-Bass, 2005).
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''The Miracle of the Seventh Day: A Guide to the Spiritual Meaning, Significance, and Weekly Practice of the Jewish Sabbath'', (Jossey-Bass, 2003).
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''The Thirteen Petalled Rose'' (Basic Books, 1985; and Jason Aronson, 1992).
* Herbert Weiner, ''Nine and a Half Mystics: Kabbala Today'' (Reprinted by Touchstone, 1997).
* [[Jacob Neusner]], ''How Adin Steinsaltz Misrepresents the Talmud. Four False Propositions from his "Reference Guide."'' Atlanta, 1998: Scholars Press for South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism.
==External links==
* [http://www.steinsaltz.org/ Steinsaltz.org - The official website of The Aleph Society and Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz]
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?scope=6198&kid=1170 Some articles written by Rabbi Adin Even-Yisrael Steinsaltz]
[[Category:1937 births|Steinsaltz, Adin]]
[[Category:Living people|Steinsaltz, Adin]]
[[Category:Israeli people|Steinsaltz, Adin]]
[[Category:Orthodox rabbis|Steinsaltz, Adin]]
[[Category:Prominent Lubavitchers|Steinsaltz, Adin]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title=Aberrant
|image=
|caption=
|designer= [[Rob Hatch]], [[Andrew Bates]], [[Ken Cliffe]], [[Greg Fountain]], [[Sheri M. Johnson]], [[Chris McDonough]], [[Ethan Skemp]], [[Mike Tinney]], [[Richard Thomas]], [[Stephan Wieck]], [[Fred Yelk]]
|publisher= [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]]
|date= 1999 ''(1<small>st</small> edition)''<br>2004 ''(d20 edition)''
|genre= [[Superhero]]
|system= [[Storyteller System]] ''(1<small>st</small> edition)''<br>[[d20 System]] ''(d20 edition)''
|footnotes=
}}
'''Aberrant''' is a [[superhero]]-based [[role-playing game]] created by [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]] in [[1999]], set in 2008AD in a world where super-powered humans started appearing one day in 1998 out of the blue. The game deals with how the players' meta-human characters (called ''novas'') fit into a mundane world when they most definitely are ''not'' mundane, as well as how the mundane populace react to the sudden emergence of novas. The original Aberrant product line was discontinued in [[2002]], though a [[d20 System]] version was released in 2004.
==Setting==
Super powers in Aberrant come from an individual's ability to manipulate energy at the "quantum" sub-atomic level. Since individuals who can do this have an imperfect understanding of [[quantum mechanics]], their powers always follow a specific path or are linked to a specific focus. For instance, all the powers of the nova called Anteus revolve around nature; he can teleport by stepping into a tree and out of another tree of the same type somewhere else, create new species of animals, or alter the normal course of life and death for plants and animals. All his powers follow his focus of nature. Other novas have other foci such as plasma, fire, water, shapechanging, or invulnerability.
As a nova's ability to manipulate the quantum fabric of the world grows, he begins to experience Taint, the side effects of channelling larger and larger amounts of energy. Taint is the 'non-humanness' side of quantum manipulation and at higher levels novas begin to show either physical or mental defects. These defects vary widely; a tentacle growing from one's stomach, sociopathic disorders, hair made of flames, odd skin composition (such as rubber), a power that is "always on", megalomania, or continual radiation.
Aberrant is unique among the publisher's game-lines for having no particular [[caste]]s or ''character classes''. Aside from this, it shares with many other White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf games a tendency to embrace "shades of gray" morality and reject the traditional superhero trope of "heroes vs. villains".
Aberrant is the prequel to [[Tri |
ience in the Congo. Eight years before he wrote the book, he served as a sea captain for a Congo steamer. On a single trip up the river, he had witnessed so many atrocities that he quit on the spot.
Conrad's experiences in the Congo and the historical background to the story, including possible models for Kurtz, are recounted in the historical work, ''[[King Leopold's Ghost]]'' by [[Adam Hochschild]].
==Themes==
The theme of "[[darkness]]" from the title recurs throughout the book. It is used to reflect the unknown (as [[Africa]] at the time was often called the "Dark Continent" by [[Europeans]]), the concept of the "darkness of [[barbarian|barbarism]]" contrasted with the "light of [[civilization]]" (see [[white man's burden]]), and the "[[spirituality|spiritual]] darkness" of several [[fictional character|characters]]. This sense of darkness also lends itself to a related theme of [[obscurity]] - again, in various senses, reflecting the ambiguities in the work. [[morality|Moral]] issues are not clear-cut; that which ought to be (in various senses) on the side of "light" is in fact mired in darkness, and so forth.
To emphasize the theme of darkness within ourselves, Marlow's narration takes place on a [[yacht]] in the [[Thames]] [[tidal estuary]]. Early in the novella, the narrator recounts how [[London]], the largest, most populous and wealthiest city in the world, where Conrad wrote and where a large part of his audience lived, was itself in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times a dark part of the world much like the Congo then was. The theme of darkness lurking beneath the surface of even "civilized" persons is further explored through the character of Kurtz and through Marlow's passing sense of understanding with the Africans. Like Marlow himself, the astute reader emerges from the tale with an expanded comprehension of the darkness within his own mind.
In the opening passages of the novel, Conrad repeatedly describes [[London]] in terms of its darkness and "gloom," and later describes [[Belgium]] as a dark place. This could suggest that [[Conrad]] is critical of the supposedly enlightening civilisation that is colonising [[Africa]] and that [[London]] itself is the "Heart of Darkness".
[[Theme (literary)|Theme]]s developed in the novella's more superficial levels include the naïveté of Europeans—particularly [[women]]—regarding the various forms of darkness in the Congo; the Belgian [[colonialist]]s' abuse of the [[Indigenous people|natives]]; and man's potential for [[two-facedness]]. The symbolic levels of the book expand on all of these in terms of a struggle between [[Goodness and value theory|good]] and [[evil]], not so much between [[person|people]] as within every [[major character]]'s [[soul]].
Through the novel, Conrad stresses the importance of restraint. Restraint in his view, is a person’s “primitive honour” against his or her basic impulses. From the perspective of existentialism, people who do not have restraint will be trapped in the destructive cycle and their lives will be absurd and insane. Having restraint can save them from the cycle and keep them sane.
==Controversy==
Some literary critics, most notably author and professor [[Chinua Achebe]], have criticized Conrad for having a racist bias throughout the novella despite the book's intentions to expose the atrocities in the Congo. In particular, critics have objected to the depiction of Africans as primitive, irrational people and of Africa itself as a savage, dark continent. First appearances of controversy over ''Heart of Darkness'' appear in Achebe's 1975 lecture "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's ''Heart of Darkness''."[http://www.erinyes.org/hod/image.of.africa.html] According to Achebe, his opinions were met with dismay and outrage from some peers: "After I delivered my lecture at Harvard, a professor emeritus from the University of Massachusetts said, 'How dare you? How dare you upset everything we have taught, everything we teach? ''Heart of Darkness'' is the most widely taught text in the university in this country. So how dare you say it’s different?" [http://www.failuremag.com/arch_history_chinua_achebe.html]
Despite the alleged racist overtones, ''Heart of Darkness'' is considered to be a literary classic and is widely read in educational institutions around the world.
==In the arts==
* [[1972]] -- ''[[Aguirre: The Wrath of God]]'', a [[German film]] directed by [[Werner Herzog]], is remarkably similar to Conrad's [[novella]] -- like Conrad's book, it mocks European [[colonialism]] and mimicks the trip in to the jungle with the [[madness]] and depravity of the characters increasing the deeper they go in to the wilderness.
* [[1979]] -- [[John Milius]] based his script for ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' on the novel. It was filmed by [[Francis Ford Coppola]].
* [[1993]] -- [[Nicholas Roeg]] filmed ''[[Heart of Darkness (film)|Heart of Darkness]]'' for television with [[Tim Roth]] as Marlow and [[John Malkovich]] as Kurtz.
* [[1993]] -- [[Animaniacs]] parodied both ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' and ''Heart of Darkness'' in a segment in episode 20 called ''Hearts of Twilight.''
* [[2004]] -- [[Dead Ringers]] parodied [[John Kerry]]'s campaign in the 2004 US Presidential Election using a "Apocalyse Now" / "Heart of Darkness" setting.
* [[2005]] -- [[King Kong (2005 film)|King Kong]] has many references to ''Heart of Darkness'', including a scene where Jimmy holds a copy of the book and says “It’s not an adventure story, is it?”, suggesting that Conrad meant to explore human cruelty towards others as much as he meant to explore the Belgian Congo—and thus also the film is more than an adventure story but also explores the human will to exploit others. [http://www.bookslut.com/features/2006_01_007452.php]
=== See also ===
* [[1912]] - ''The Sea and the Jungle'' by [[H. M. Tomlinson]], a non-fiction travel narrative classic, Tomlinson recounts the first English "tramp steamer" to traverse the Amazon river in 1905, it contains many of the same themes as ''Heart of Darkness''.
* [[1991]] - ''[[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]]'', a documentary about the making of the film ''Apocalypse Now''
* [[1993]] - ''[[Headhunter (book)|Headhunter]]'', a novel by [[Timothy Findley]] which recasts Kurtz and Marlow as [[psychiatrist]]s in an [[apocalypse|apocalyptic]] version of [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]]
* [[2003]] - ''[[Shatterpoint]]'', a [[Star Wars]] book that was heavily influenced by ''Heart of Darkness/[[Apocalypse Now]]''.
* [[2005]] - ''[[The First Casualty]]'', a novel by [[Ben Elton]], follows the same storyline where a British police detective investigates a crime in the midst of the [[First World War]], and gradually becomes painfully acquainted with the horrors of war. He is given the false name of Christopher Marlowe (cf Charlie Marlow), and he makes references to the [[Belgian]] colonisation of the [[Congo]].
== External links ==
{{Wikisource}}
{{wikiquotepar|Joseph Conrad}}
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/heart/ Heart of Darkness] from [[Spark Notes]]
* {{gutenberg|no=526|name=Heart of Darkness}}
* [http://www.pagebypagebooks.com/Joseph_Conrad/Heart_of_Darkness/ Heart of Darkness, by Joseph Conrad] at Page By Page Books.
* [http://www.online-literature.com/conrad/heart_of_darkness/ Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad: A searchable online version at The Literature Network]
[[Category:1902 books]]
[[Category:English novels]]
[[Category:Modern Library 100 best novels]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>House Unamerican Activities Committee</title>
<id>13538</id>
<revision>
<id>18917349</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-15T21:32:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ruy Lopez</username>
<id>55284</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>House Committee on Un-American Activities</title>
<id>13539</id>
<revision>
<id>18917282</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-15T21:30:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ruy Lopez</username>
<id>55284</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Western philosophy</title>
<id>13540</id>
<revision>
<id>38929757</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T16:12:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krabstarr</username>
<id>659950</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Chronological list of important philosophers */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{histphil}}
:''For the book by [[Bertrand Russell]], see [[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)]]''
The usefulness of dividing philosophy into Western philosophy and other philos |
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