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/languages/dutch.htm List of online Dutch-related resources]
* [http://www.ielanguages.com/dutch.html Dutch Language Tutorial at ielanguages.com]
*[http://homepage.mac.com/schuffelen/index.html Dutch pronounced]
*[http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&to_lang=25&learn-Dutch/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in Dutch] Each expression is presented with an audio recording and an illustration
*[http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dutch/grammatica/ University College London Department of Dutch] (Grammar)
*[http://www.geocities.com/stevenedw/nieuwespelling.html "Nieuwe spelling:"] A description of the most recent incarnation of the evolving official Dutch-language orthography
===Dictionaries===
*[http://nl.wiktionary.org/ WikiWoordenboek, the Dutch Wiktionary]
*[http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=25 All Dutch free dictionaries]
*[http://blackorwhite.nl/woordenboek/ Online Nederlands Woordenboek]
*[http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/taleninfo/dut_en.php Majstro Dutch-English-Dutch Online Dictionary]
*[http://lookwayup.com/free/DutchEnglishDictionary.htm Lookwayup English-Dutch-English dictionary]
*[http://www.freedict.com/onldict/dut.html Freedict English-Dutch-English dictionary]
*[http://dictionaries.travlang.com/DutchEnglish/ Travlang Dutch-English dictionary]
*[http://www.euroglotonline.nl/ Euroglot] (Translation Dictionary)
*[http://www.vandale.nl/ Van Dale] (Dictionary -- in Dutch)
*[http://www.woorden-boek.nl/ Woorden-Boek] (Online Dictionary -- in Dutch)
*http://www.notam02.no/~hcholm/altlang/ht/Dutch.html - The Alternative Dutch Dictionary
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Flemish-english/ Flemish - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Dutch-english/ Dutch - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
*[http://www.woc.science.ru.nl/ A dictionary of Organic Chemistry (in Dutch)]
*[http://www.woordenboekjes.nl/ Dutch all dictionaries project (Dutch-*, in Dutch)]
{{Official EU languages}}
[[Category:Dutch language|*]]
[[Category:Languages of Belgium]]
[[Category:Languages of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Low Franconian languages]]
[[Category:Low Germanic languages]]
[[af:Nederlands (taal)]]
[[als:Niederländisch]]
[[ang:Niðerlandisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة هولندية]]
[[bg:Нидерландски език]]
[[ca:Neerlandès]]
[[cs:Nizozemština]]
[[cy:Iseldireg]]
[[da:Nederlandsk (sprog)]]
[[de:Niederländische Sprache]]
[[et:Hollandi keel]]
[[es:Idioma neerlandés]]
[[eo:Nederlanda lingvo]]
[[fr:Néerlandais]]
[[fy:Nederlânsk]]
[[ga:Ollainis]]
[[ko:네덜란드어]]
[[id:Bahasa Belanda]]
[[it:Lingua olandese]]
[[he:הולנדית]]
[[kw:Iseldiryek]]
[[la:Lingua Batava]]
[[lv:Nīderlandiešu valoda]]
[[li:Nederlands]]
[[nl:Nederlands]]
[[nds:Nedderlandsche Spraak]]
[[ja:オランダ語]]
[[no:Nederlandsk språk]]
[[nn:Nederlandsk språk]]
[[pl:Język niderlandzki]]
[[pt:Língua neerlandesa]]
[[ro:Limba neerlandeză]]
[[ru:Нидерландский язык]]
[[se:Hollánddagiella]]
[[sco:Dutch leid]]
[[sk:Holandčina]]
[[sl:Nizozemščina]]
[[fi:Hollannin kieli]]
[[sv:Nederländska]]
[[tl:Wikang Olandes]]
[[tr:Flemenkçe]]
[[uk:Нідерландська мова]]
[[zh:荷蘭語]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Domestic terrorism</title>
<id>8435</id>
<revision>
<id>33740041</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-03T17:03:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/12.41.207.162|12.41.207.162]] ([[User talk:12.41.207.162|talk]]) to last version by Kbdank71</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{terrorism}}
'''Domestic terrorism''' is a phrase used to describe some acts of political [[violence]] within a [[state]] that are carried out or commissioned by forces inside or originating from that state, as opposed to external attacks.
Examples of recent domestic terrorism are the [[Oklahoma City bombing]], the [[Centennial Olympic Park bombing|Atlanta Olympics pipebombing]], the [[Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway]], and [[David Copeland]]'s nailbombing campaign against ethnic minorities and gays in [[London]]. Older examples are the [[Gunpowder Plot]], the [[Haymarket Riot|Haymarket Square bombing]], and [[John_Brown (abolitionist)#Raid_on_Harpers_Ferry|Harper's Ferry]].
Domestic terrorism is considered rare in the [[United States]]. As a result, the Oklahoma City bombing was at first thought by some [[Journalism|journalists]] to be the work of external actors, possibly from the [[Middle East]]. The revelation that the attack had been carried out by an American came as a shock to the country and the rest of the world, and served as an embarrassment to some sections of the [[news media]].
The [[Patriot Act]] designates domestic terrorism as a crime. However, the Patriot Act does not give the meaning of domestic terrorism as designated as a crime, leaving the intepretation of the acts, statements or preparations which may constitute domestic terrorism to whomever may wish to interpret them. For this reason, such acts as [[civil disobedience]] and [[political incorrectness]] can be interpreted as domestic terrorism, thus having a [[chilling effect]] on [[public participation]] and [[freedom of expression]].
==See also==
* [[Operation Northwoods]]
* [[Politically motivated violence]]
* [[Terrorism]] (includes international terrorism)
* [[Treason]]
* [[State terrorism]]
* [[State sponsored terrorism]]
[[Category:Terrorism]]
{{politics-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Angell</title>
<id>8436</id>
<revision>
<id>40525651</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T05:19:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.96.99.37</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Davidangell.jpg|thumb|200px|David Angell, a popular television producer, was a victim of the September 11, 2001 attacks on New York City.]]
'''David Lawrence Angell''' ([[April 10]], [[1946]] – [[September 11]], [[2001]]) was an [[United States|American]] television [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] [[television producer|producer]]. A native of [[West Barrington, Rhode Island|West Barrington]], [[Rhode Island]], and a graduate of [[Providence College]], he was a longtime [[NBC]] producer who played a leading role in creating <cite>[[Frasier]]</cite>, <cite>[[Wings (sitcom)|Wings]]</cite>, and <cite>[[Cheers]]</cite>.
Angell was returning to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] with his wife, Lynn, after attending a family wedding in [[Chatham, Massachusetts]] when he was killed in the crash of [[American Airlines Flight 11]] in the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]. He was survived by his brother, [[Kenneth A. Angell]], the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Burlington|Bishop of Burlington, Vermont]].
See [[:sep11:|Casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks]].
==External links==
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/14/obituaries/14ANGE.html NY Times--David Angell, a Creator and Writer for 'Frasier' Sitcom, Dies at 54]
[[Category:Victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks|Angell, David]]
[[Category:1946 births|Angell, David]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Angell, David]]
[[Category:American television producers|Angell, David]]
[[Category:People from Rhode Island|Angell, David]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Angell, David]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Angell, David]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diedrich Hermann Westermann</title>
<id>8437</id>
<revision>
<id>33784122</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-04T00:13:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Codex Sinaiticus</username>
<id>247981</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Westermann 1911 Sudansprachen cover.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Westermann's 1911 ''Die [[Sudanic languages|Sudansprachen]]''.]]'''Diedrich Hermann Westermann''' ([[June 24]], [[1875]]&ndash;[[May 31]], [[1956]]) was a [[Germany|German]] missionary, [[Africanist]], and [[linguistics | linguist]]. He substantially extended and revised the work of [[Carl Meinhof]], his teacher, although he rejected some of Meinhof's theories only implicitly. Westermann is seen as one of the founders of modern [[Africa|African]] linguistics.
He carried out extensive linguistic and anthropological research in the area ranging from Senegal eastwards to the Upper Nile. His linguistic publications cover a wide range of African languages, including the [[Gbe languages]], [[Nuer language|Nuer]], [[Kpelle language|Kpelle]], [[Shilluk language|Shilluk]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], and [[Guang language|Guang]]. His comparative work, establishing a basic division between the East and West [[Sudanic languages]] laid the basis for much of today's [[Niger-Congo]] and [[Nilo-Saharan]] language families.
In [[1927]] Westermann published a ''Practical Orthography of [[African Languages]]'' which became later known as the ''Westermann script''. Subsequently he published the influential and oft-reprinted ''[[Practical Phonetics for Students of African Languages]]'' in collaboration with [[Ida C. Ward|Ida Ward]] (1933).
He was born in [[Baden, Lower Saxony|Baden]] near [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] and also died there.
==Bibliography==
*Westermann, Diedrich H. (1911) ''Die Sudansprachen'' [The Sudanic languages].
*Westermann, Diedrich Hermann & Ward, Ida C. (1933) ''Practical phonetics for students of African languages''. London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.
* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1948). ''The missionary and anthropological research''. Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.
* Westermann, |
ntimeters) of one cylinder. Therefore, the famed 365 Daytona had a 4380&nbsp;cc V12.
* Flat twelve (boxer) models used the displacement in liters. Therefore, the 512BB was five liter flat 12 (a Berlinetta Boxer, in this case).
Most Ferraris were also given designations referring to their body style. In general, the following conventions were used:
* '''M''' standing for "Modificata," this suffix is placed to the end of a model's number designation to denote that it is a modified version of its predecessor and not a complete evolution (see [[Ferrari Testarossa#F512M|F512M]] and [[Ferrari 575M Maranello|575M Maranello]]).
* '''GTB''' models are closed [[Berlinetta]]s, or [[coupe]]s
* '''GTS''' models, in older models, are [[convertible]]s (see [[Ferrari Daytona#365 GTS4|365 GTS4]]); however, in late models, this suffix is used for [[targa top]] models (see [[Ferrari 348|348]] [[Ferrari 348#348 GTS|GTS]], and [[Ferrari F355|F355]] [[Ferrari F355#F355 GTS|GTS]]; exception being the [[Ferrari 348|348]] [[Ferrari 348#348 TS|TS]], which is the only targa named differently). The convertible models now use the suffix "Spider" (see [[Ferrari F355|F355]] Spider, and [[Ferrari 360]] Spider).
This naming system can be confusing, as some entirely different vehicles used the same engine type and body style. Many Ferraris also had other names affixed (like Daytona) to identify them further. Many such names are actually not official factory names. The [[Ferrari Daytona#365 GTB4|365 GTB4]] model only became known as a Daytona after racing variants run by N.A.R.T. (North American Racing Team, who raced Ferrari's in America) won the famous 24 hour race of the same name. As well, the [[Ferrari 250 GTO|250 GTO]]'s famous acronym, which means ''Gran Turismo Omologato'', was simply a name the Italian press gave the car which referred to the way Ferrari had, in a sense, avoided the rules and successfully homologated the car for racing purposes (Somehow, Ferrari had convinced the [[FIA]], the 250 GTO was the same car as previous [[Ferrari 250|250]]'s). This was probably to avoid confusion with the multiple 250 models produced before the GTO.
The various [[Ferrari Dino|Dino]] models were named for Enzo's son.
In the mid 1990s, Ferrari added the letter "F" to the beginning of all models (a practice quickly abandoned after the [[Ferrari Testarossa#F512M|F512M]] and [[Ferrari F355|F355]], but recently picked up again with the [[Ferrari F430|F430]]).
=== Road models ===
{{Early Ferrari vehicles}}<br>
{{Ferrari vehicles}}<br>
[[Image:Ferrari parking lot at USGP 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Ferrari Club of America]]'s parking lot at the [[2005 United States Grand Prix]]]]
====Sports cars====
Ferrari's earliest models were pure sports cars, not the exotics we know today.
* 1948-1950 '''[[Ferrari 166|166]]'''
* 1951 '''[[Ferrari 195|195]]''' Coupe
* 1951-1952 '''[[Ferrari 212|212]]''' Coupe/Cabriolet
* 1952 '''[[Ferrari 340#340 MM|340 MM]]''' Berlinetta/Spider
====Mid-engine V6/V8====
[[Image:Ferrari.targa.arp.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Ferrari 308 GTB|Ferrari 328 GTS]] Targa]]
[[image:marbella1.jpg|right|thumb|350px|An entrance to an [[Emir]]'s palace in [[Marbella]], Spain featuring a Ferrari]]
The Dino was the first mid-engined Ferrari. This layout would go on to be used in most Ferraris of the 1980s and 1990s. V6 and V8 Ferrari models make up well over half of the marque's total production.
* 1968-1975 '''[[Ferrari Dino|Dino]]'''
** 1968-1973 Dino 206GT
** 1968-1973 Dino 246GT/GTS
* 1975-1989 '''[[Ferrari 308GTB|208/308/328 GTB/GTS]]'''
** 1975 [[Ferrari 308#308 GTB|308 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 308#308 GTS|GTS]]
** 1980 [[Ferrari 308#208 GTB|208 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 308#208 GTS|GTS]]
** 1980 [[Ferrari 308#308 GTBi|308 GTBi]]/[[Ferrari 308#308 GTSi|GTSi]]
** 1982 [[Ferrari 308#208 GTB Turbo|208 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 308#208 GTS Turbo|GTS]] [[Turbo]]
** 1982 [[Ferrari 308#308 GTB Quattrovalvole|308 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 308#308 GTS Quattrovalvole|GTS]] Quattrovalvole
** 1985 [[Ferrari 308#328 GTB|328 GTB]] Berlinetta
** 1986 [[Ferrari 308#GTB Turbo|GTB]]/[[Ferrari 308#GTS Turbo|GTS]] [[Turbo]]
* 1989 '''[[Ferrari 348|348]]'''
** 1989 [[Ferrari 348#348 TB|348 TB]]/[[Ferrari 348#348 TS|TS]]
** 1993 [[Ferrari 348#348 GTB|348 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 348#348 GTS|GTS]]
* 1995-1998 '''[[Ferrari F355|F355]]'''
** 1994 [[Ferrari F355#F355|F355]]/[[Ferrari F355#F355 GTS|GTS]]
** 1997 [[Ferrari F355#355 F1|355 F1]]
* 1999-2004 '''[[Ferrari 360]]'''
** 1999-2004 360 Modena/Spider
** 2003-2004 Challenge Stradale
* 2005 '''[[Ferrari F430|F430]]'''
====2-seat Gran Turismo====
Ferrari quickly moved into the Gran Turismo market, and the bulk of the company's sales remain in this area.
* 1952-1967 '''[[Ferrari America|America]]'''
** 1952 [[Ferrari America#340 America|340 America]]
** 1953 [[Ferrari America#375 America|375 America]]
** 1956 [[Ferrari America#410 superamerica|410 superamerica]]
** 1957 [[Ferrari America#410 superamerica III|410 superamerica III]]
** 1960 [[Ferrari America#400 superamerica|400 superamerica]]
** 1964 [[Ferrari America#500 Superfast|500 Superfast]]
** 1966 [[Ferrari America#365 California|365 California]]
* 1953-1962 '''[[Ferrari 250|250]]'''
** 1952 [[Ferrari 250#250S|250S/250MM]]
** 1953 [[Ferrari 250#250 Export/Europa|250 Export/Europa]]
** 1954-1963 [[Ferrari 250#250 GT|250 GT Europa/Boano/Ellena/Coupe Pininfarina/Lusso]]
** 1957-1960 [[Ferrari 250#Sports cars|250 GT Berlinetta/Cabriolet/California Spyder/SWB]]
* 1964 '''[[Ferrari 330|330]]'''
** 1966 [[Ferrari 330#330 GTC|330 GTC]] Coupe
** 1966 [[Ferrari 330#330 GTS|330 GTS]] Spider
* 1964-1968 '''[[Ferrari 275|275]]'''
** 1964-1965 [[Ferrari 275#275 GTB|275 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 275#275 GTS|GTS]]
** 1966-1968 [[Ferrari 275#275 GTB4|275 GTB/4]]
* 1968 '''[[Ferrari 365|365]]'''
** 1968-1969 [[Ferrari 365#365 GTC|365 GTC]] Coupe
** 1969-1970 [[Ferrari 365#365 GTS|365 GTS]] Spider
* 1968-1973 '''[[Ferrari Daytona|Daytona]]'''
** 1968 [[Ferrari Daytona#365 GTB4|365 GTB4]]/[[Ferrari Daytona#365 GTS4|365 GTS4]]
* 1996-2001 '''[[Ferrari 550 Maranello|550 Maranello]]'''
** 1996-2000 [[Ferrari 550#550 Maranello|550 Maranello]] Coupe
** 2001 [[Ferrari 550#550 Barchetta|550 Barchetta]]
* 2002-2006 '''[[Ferrari 575M Maranello|575M Maranello]]'''
** 2004 [[Ferrari 575M Maranello|Barchetta]]
** 2005 [[Ferrari 575M Maranello|Superamerica]]
* 2007 '''[[Ferrari 599|599 GTB Fiorano]]'''
====Mid-engine 2+2====
[[image:ferrari.dino.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Bertone]]-bodied [[Ferrari Dino|Dino]] [[Ferrari GT4|308 GT4]]]]
For a time, Ferrari built 2+2 versions of its mid-engined V8 cars. Although they looked quite different from their 2-seat counterparts, both the GT4 and Mondial were very closely-related to the 308 GTB.
* 1974-1980 '''[[Ferrari GT4|208/308 GT4]]'''
** 1974-1975 [[Ferrari GT4#308 GT4|''Dino'' 308GT4]]
** 1976-1980 [[Ferrari GT4#308 GT4|308GT4]]
** 1975 [[Ferrari GT4#208 GT4|208 GT4]]
* 1980 '''[[Ferrari Mondial|Mondial]]'''
** 1980 [[Ferrari Mondial#Mondial 8|Mondial 8]]
** 1982 [[Ferrari Mondial#Mondial Quattrovalvole|Mondial Quattrovalvole]]
** 1983 [[Ferrari Mondial#Mondial Cabriolet|Mondial Cabriolet]]
** 1985 [[Ferrari Mondial#3.2 Mondial|3.2 Mondial]]/[[Ferrari Mondial#3.2 Cabriolet|3.2 Cabriolet]]
** 1989 [[Ferrari Mondial#Mondial T|Mondial T]]
====Front-engine 2+2====
[[Image:SAG2004 214 Ferrari G12.JPG|right|thumb|[[Ferrari 612 Scaglietti]]]]
The company has also produced front-engined 2+2 cars, culminating in the current 612 Scaglietti.
* 1960-1963 '''[[Ferrari 250|250]]'''
** 1960-1963 [[Ferrari 250#250 GT|250 GT 2+2]]
* 1964-1967 '''[[Ferrari 330|330]]'''
** 1964-1967 [[Ferrari 330#330 GT|330 GT 2+2]]
* 1967-1971 '''[[Ferrari 365|365]]'''
** 1967-1971 [[Ferrari 365#365 GT|365 GT 2+2]]
* 1968-1973 '''[[Ferrari Daytona|365 Daytona]]'''
** 1971-1972 [[Ferrari Daytona#365 GTC4|365 GTC4]]
** 1972-1976 [[Ferrari Daytona#365 GT4|365 GT4 2+2]]
* 1976-1989 '''[[Ferrari 400|400/412]]'''
** 1976 [[Ferrari 400#400 Automatic|400 Automatic]]
** 1979 [[Ferrari 400#400i|400i]]
** 1985 [[Ferrari 400#412|412]]
* 1992-2003 '''[[Ferrari 456|456/456M]]'''
** 1992-1997 [[Ferrari 456#456 GT|456 GT/GTA]] Coupe
** 1998-2003 [[Ferrari 456#456M GT|456M GT]] Coupe
* 2004-2005 '''[[Ferrari 612 Scaglietti|612 Scaglietti]]'''
====Mid-engine 12-cylinder====
Ferrari entered the mid-engined 12-cylinder fray with the Berlinetta Boxer in 1971. The later Testarossa remains one of the most famous Ferraris.
* 1971-1984 '''[[Ferrari 512 Berlinetta Boxer|512 Berlinetta Boxer]]'''
** 1971 [[Ferrari 512 Berlinetta Boxer#365 GT4 BB|365 GT4 BB]]
** 1976 [[Ferrari 512 Berlinetta Boxer#512BB|512BB]]
** 1981 [[Ferrari 512 Berlinetta Boxer#512iBB|512iBB]]
* 1984-1996 '''[[Ferrari Testarossa|Testarossa]]'''
** 1984-1992 [[Ferrari Testarossa#Testarossa|Testarossa]]
** 1992-1994 [[Ferrari Testarossa#512TR|512TR]]
** 1994-1996 [[Ferrari Testarossa#F512M|F512M]]
====Supercars====
[[Image:Scarsdale Concours Enzo 2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Ferrari Enzo|Enzo]]]]
The company's loftiest efforts have been in the [[supercar]] market.
* 1962 '''[[Ferrari 250 GTO|250 GTO]]'''
* 1984 '''[[Ferrari GTO|288 GTO]]'''
* 1988&ndash;1992 '''[[Ferrari F40|F40]]'''
* 1995&ndash;1997 '''[[Ferrari F50|F50]]'''
** 1996 [[Ferrari F50 GT|F50 GT]]
* 2003&ndash;2005 '''[[Ferrari Enzo Ferrari|Enzo Ferrari]]'''
=== Competition models ===
==== Current ====
*[[Ferrari 360 GTC|360 GTC]]
*[[Ferrari 360 Challenge|360 Challenge]]
*[[Ferrari 575 GTC|575 GTC]]
*[[Ferrari FXX|FXX]]
==== Past ====
[[Image:RL 1958 Ferrari 250 Testa Rossa 34.JPG|right|thumb|250px|1958 Ferrari 250 Testa Rossa from the [[Ralph Lauren]] collection]]
* 1947 [[Ferrari 125|125 Sport]]
* 1948 [[Ferrari 166|166]]
* 1949 [[Ferrari 125 F1|125 F1]]
* 1951 [[Ferrari America|340 America]]
* 1952 [[Ferrari 250#250MM|250MM]]
* 1953 [[Ferrari America|340 MM]]
* 1953 [[Ferrari America|375 MM]]
* 1954 [[Ferrari 750 Monza|750 M |
sympathetic view of woman whereby she can act in as praiseworthy a fashion as man by the nature of her sex - it is an exultation of womanhood, of womanhood as maternity.
This, and the distinction between the sexes as seen by Nietzsche can be seen clearest in the following aphorism:
:When a woman has scholarly inclinations there is generally something wrong with her sexual nature. Barrenness itself conduces to a certain virility of taste; man, indeed, if I may say so, is “the barren animal.”
: (Beyond Good and Evil, sec. 144, trans. Helen Zimmern)
This is contrary to the then (and still) prevailing view of Woman as the receptacle of male fertility (exemplified by [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[Sigmund Freud#Psychosexual development|views on women]]). Nietzsche states here, a continuation of his anti-nihilism and his belief that fruitfulness is meaning, that it is exactly because man has no natural avenue for a meaningful existence that he sets himself into fruitful pursuits. Woman, however, is herself a source of fertility.
Nietzsche places real value in woman, a unique value: woman isn't weaker as much as she is different, And, indeed, Nietzsche believed there were radical differences the essence of the genders. "Thus," said Nietzsche through the mouth of his Zarathustra, "would I have man and woman: the one fit for warfare, the other fit for giving birth; and both fit for dancing with head and legs" (Zarathustra III. [56, "Old and New Tables," sect. 23.])—that is to say: both are capable of doing their share of ''humanity's'' work, with their respective physiological conditions granted and therewith elucidating, each individually, their potentialities.
The obvious problem presented with such a view is the narrowness of what is considered a noble path for women: ''only'' maternity is a womanly virtue. And while Nietzsche allows woman a hand in her life, it is the supporting hand.
:"Comparing man and woman generally, one may say that woman would not have the genius for adornment, if she had not the instinct for the ''secondary'' role."
: (Beyond Good and Evil, sec. 145, trans. Helen Zimmern)
However, Nietzsche is unclear in whether this image of woman is a product of nature or of nurture: while his language suggests the former, being above all a philosopher of ethics he only explicitly discusses the attitudes, tendencies and values that are the latter. It is notoriously difficult and misleading to generalise from Nietzsche's writing: he was not a systemic philosopher. The implication exists that woman can take a different path than the one he has laid out, even if it contradicts her 'nature'. Nietzsche certainly never reprimanded any woman for taking a non-maternal role - in final reading he is not even a proscriptive philosopher, since his emphasis on the transvaluation of all values would not allow it. What Nietzsche would have done when faced with women like [[Virginia Woolf]] or [[Emily Dickinson]] who seemingly offered up their maternal instincts to follow careers as artists, as those 'higher men' Nietzsche admired, is a matter for debate, though his philosophy does not allow for them.
There have been several scholarly attempts to address the woman question in Nietzsche's writing. Peter J. Burgard's ''Nietzsche and the Feminine'' and Frances Nesbitt Oppel's ''Nietzsche on Gender: Beyond Man and Woman'' both read Nietzsche's statements on women as being yet another series of word-games amongst word-games, meant to challenge the reader and incite inspection of the concepts involved. French post-structuralist theorist [[Jacques Derrida]] made a similar argument in his 'Spurs'.
== Nietzsche's Influence and Reception ==
Nietzsche's writings have been interpreted very differently by different people, and there are even cases of Nietzsche being used on both sides of an argument to support contradictory views. For instance, Nietzsche was popular among left-wing Germans in the 1890s, but a few decades later, during the First World War, many regarded him as one of the sources of right-wing German [[militarism]]. The conservative right-wing wanted to ban Nietzsche's work under charges of subversion in 1894/1895, while [[Nazi Germany]] used Nietzsche to promote their idea of a revival of traditional German culture and national identity. Many Germans read ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'' and were influenced by Nietzsche's appeal of unlimited individualism and the development of a personality.
During the [[interbellum]], various fragments of Nietzsche's work were appropriated by [[Nazism|Nazis]], notably [[Alfred Bäumler]] in his reading of ''The Will to Power''. During the period of Nazi rule, Nietzsche's work was widely studied in German (and, after 1938, Austrian) schools and universities. The Nazis viewed Nietzsche as one of their "founding fathers." They incorporated much of his ideology and thoughts about power into their own political philosophy. Although there exist some significant differences between Nietzsche and Nazism (see [[Friedrich Nietzsche#Political views|above]]), his ideas of power, weakness, women, and religion became axioms of Nazi society. The wide popularity of Nietzsche among Nazis was due partly to Nietzsche's sister, [[Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche]], a Nazi sympathizer who edited much of Nietzsche's works. However, Nietzsche disapproved of his sister's anti-Semitic views. Furthermore, [[Mazzino Montinari]], one of editors of Nietzsche's posthumous works in the 1960s, argued that Förster-Nietzsche had deliberately cut extracts, changed their order, and added false titles to the posthumous fragments, thus constituting the fake ''Will to power'' {{ref label|Montinari|1|b}}.
Ironically, since [[World War II]], Nietzsche's influence has generally been clustered on the political left, particularly in [[France]] by way of [[post-structuralism|post-structuralist]] thought ([[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Pierre Klossowski]] are often credited for writing the earliest monographs to draw new attention to his work, and a [[1972]] conference at Cérisy-la-Salle is similarly regarded as the most important event in France for a generation's reception of Nietzsche).
In his 1916 ''Egotism in German Philosophy'', American philosopher [[George Santayana]] dismissed Nietzsche as a "prophet of Romanticism".
Among the first to recognize Nietzsche's importance was the German novelist [[Thomas Mann]], who showed Nietzsche's influence in his novels, especially his 1947 ''[[Doktor Faustus]]''. In 1936, [[Martin Heidegger]] lectured on the "Will to Power as a Work of Art", and would later publish four large volumes of lectures on Nietzsche.
In 1938, the German existentialist [[Karl Jaspers]] commented about the influence of Nietzsche:
:The contemporary philosophical situation is determined by the fact that two philosophers, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, who did not count in their times and, for a long time, remained without influence in the history of philosophy, have continually grown in significance. Philosophers after Hegel have increasingly returned to face them, and they stand today unquestioned as the authentically great thinkers of their age. ... The effect of both is immeasurably great, even greater in general thinking than in technical philosophy ...
::&mdash;Jaspers, ''Reason and Existenz''
Early twentieth century thinkers influenced by Nietzsche include: philosophers [[Georg Brandes]], [[Henri Bergson]], [[Martin Buber]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Albert Camus]], and [[Muhammad Iqbal]]; sociologist [[Max Weber]]; theologian [[Paul Tillich]]; novelists [[Hermann Hesse]], [[André Malraux]], [[André Gide]], and [[D. H. Lawrence]]; psychologists [[Carl Jung]], [[Alfred Adler]], [[Abraham Maslow]], [[Carl Rogers]], and [[Rollo May]]; popular philosopher [[Ayn Rand]]; poets [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], [[James Douglas Morrison]], and [[William Butler Yeats]]; and playwrights [[George Bernard Shaw]] and [[Eugene O'Neill]]. American writer [[H.L. Mencken]] was an avid reader and translator of Nietzsche's works and has been called "the American Nietzsche."
According to [[Ernest Jones]], biographer and personal acquaintance of [[Sigmund Freud]], Freud had frequently referred to Nietzsche as having "more penetrating knowledge of himself than any man who ever lived or was likely to live" (Jones, ''The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud''). Nevertheless, Jones also reports that Freud emphatically denied that Nietzsche's writings influenced his psychological discoveries, since Freud had been disinterested in philosophic works as a medical student. He formed his opinion about Nietzsche later in life.
Nietzche's appropriation by the Nazis, combined with the advent of [[analytic philosophy]], insured that he was almost completely ignored in Great Britain and the United States until at least 1950. Analytic philosophers often charactized Nietzsche as more of a literary figure than a philosopher.
In 1950, the German-American philosopher [[Walter Kaufmann]] published ''Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist'', which, along with Kaufmann's accurate translations of Nietzsche's major works, began the gradual restoration among English-speaking philosophy departments of Nietzsche as an important nineteenth century philosopher. Kaufmann was a strong advocate of Nietzsche, but even he had some criticism:<blockquote>It is evident at once that Nietzsche is far superior to [[Kant]] and [[Hegel]] as a stylist; but it also seems that as a philosopher he represents a very sharp decline. (p 79)</blockquote>
Recognition of Nietzsche's philosophy grew substantially in the later 20th century, especially among French [[Post-structuralism|post-structuralist]] philosophers. [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Jacques Derrida]], [[Jean-Luc Nancy]], and [[Michel Foucault]] are all heavily indebted to Nietzsche.
Other thinkers influenced by Nietzsche include |
wo forces, depending on the angle between their lines of action. If the two forces are equal, but opposite, the resultant is zero. This condition is called [[static equilibrium]], with the result that the object remains at rest or moves with a constant velocity.
As well as being added, forces can also be broken down (or 'resolved'). For example, a horizontal force pointing northeast can be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east. Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force. Force vectors can also be three-dimensional, with the third (vertical) component at right-angles to the two horizontal components.
==Forces in theory==
The total ([[Isaac Newton|Newtonian]]) force, in [[newton]]s, on an object at any given time is defined as the rate of change of the object's [[velocity]] multiplied by the object's [[mass]]:
:<math>\mathbf{F} = \lim_{T \rightarrow 0 } \frac{m\mathbf{v} - m\mathbf{v}_0}{T}</math>
where
:''m'' is the [[inertial mass]] of the particle (measured in [[kilograms]])
:'''v<sub>o</sub>''' is its initial [[velocity]] (measured in [[metre per second|metres per second]])
:'''v''' is its final velocity (measured in metres per second)
:''T'' is the time from the initial state to the final state (measured in [[second]]s);
:''Lim T&rarr;0'' is the limit as ''T'' tends towards zero.
Force was so defined to explain the effects of superimposing situations: if in one situation, a force is experienced by a particle, and if in another situation another force is experienced by that particle, then in a third situation, which (according to standard physical practice) is taken to be a combination of the two individual situations, the force experienced by the particle will be the [[vector (spatial)|vector]] sum of the individual forces experienced in the first two situations. This superposition of forces, and the definition of [[inertial frame]]s and [[inertial mass]], are the empirical content of [[Newton's laws of motion]].
There are other ways to look at the above definition of force. First, the mass of a body multiplied by its velocity is called its momentum, '''p''', so the above definition is equivalent to:
:<math>\textbf{F}={\Delta \textbf{p} \over \Delta t}</math>
If '''F''' is not constant over &Delta;t, then this is the definition of average force over the time interval. To apply it at an instant we apply an idea from [[calculus]]. If we graph '''p''' as a function of time, the average force will be the slope of the line connecting the momentum at two times. Taking the limit as the two times get closer together gives the slope at an instant, which is called the [[derivative]]:
:<math>\textbf{F}={d\textbf{p}\over dt}</math>
Many forces are associated with a [[potential energy]] field. For instance, the gravitational force acting upon a body can be seen as the action of the [[gravitational field]] that is present at the body's location. The potential field is defined as that field whose [[gradient]] is equal and opposite to the force produced at every point:
:<math>\textbf{F}=-\nabla U</math>
The derivative of force with respect to time is called ''[[yank (physics) |yank]]''. Higher order derivatives are sometimes used, but they lack names because of their rarity.
In most explanations of [[mechanics]], force is usually defined only implicitly, in terms of the equations that work with it. Some physicists, philosophers and mathematicians, such as [[Ernst Mach]], [[Clifford Truesdell]] and [[Walter Noll]], have found this problematic and sought a more explicit definition of force.
According to the [[special theory of relativity]], which is important if the speed of the body gets close to the [[speed of light]], the law of force is modified as follows. If we choose the [[coordinate system]] such that the body is moving along the <math>x</math> direction, the relation between the force and the acceleration is
:<math>F_x = \gamma^3 m a_x \, </math>
:<math>F_y = \gamma m a_y \, </math>
:<math>F_z = \gamma m a_z \, </math>
where
:<math>\gamma={1 \over {\sqrt{1-{{v^2} \over\ {c^2}}}}}</math>
:<math>v \,</math> is the [[velocity]] of the body
:<math>c \, </math> is the [[speed of light]].
Note that <math>\gamma</math> is undefined if the object's speed is equal to ''c'' because one then has to divide by [[zero (number)|zero]]. This is one reason most physicists believe an object with nonzero [[rest mass]] cannot be accelerated to the speed of light.
==Units of measurement==
The [[SI]] unit used to measure force is the [[newton]] (symbol N), which is equivalent to kg·m·s<sup>&minus;2</sup>.
=== Non-SI units of force and mass ===
The '''F'''=''m''&middot;'''a''' relationship can be used with any consistent units ([[SI]] or [[CGS]]). If these units are not consistent, a more general form, '''F'''=''k''&middot;''m''&middot;'''a''', can be used, where the constant ''k'' is a conversion factor dependent upon the units being used.
For example, in imperial engineering units, F is measured in "[[Pound-force|pounds force]]" or "lbf", ''m'' in "pounds mass" or "lb", and ''a'' in feet per second squared. In this particular system, one needs to use the more general form above, usually written '''F'''=''m''&middot;'''a'''/''g''<sub>c</sub> with the constant normally used for this purpose ''g''<sub>c</sub> = 32.174 lb&middot;ft/(lbf&middot;s<sup>2</sup>) equal to the reciprocal of the ''k'' above.
As with the kilogram, the pound is colloquially used as both a unit of mass and a unit of force. 1 lbf is the force required to accelerate 1 lb at 32.174 ft per second squared, since 32.174 ft per second squared is the standard acceleration due to terrestrial gravity.
Another imperial unit of mass is the slug, defined as 32.174 lb. It is the mass that accelerates by one foot per second squared when a force of one lbf is exerted on it.
When the standard [[gee]] (an acceleration of 9.80665 m/s&sup2;) is used to define pounds force, the mass in pounds is numerically equal to the weight in pounds force. However, even at sea level on Earth, the actual acceleration of free fall is quite variable, over 0.53% more at the poles than at the equator. Thus, a mass of 1.0000 lb at ''sea level'' at the equator exerts a force due to gravity of 0.9973 lbf, whereas a mass of 1.000 lb at ''sea level'' at the poles exerts a force due to gravity of 1.0026 lbf. The normal average sea level acceleration on Earth (World Gravity Formula 1980) is 9.79764 m/s&sup2;, so on average at ''sea level'' on Earth, 1.0000 lb will exerts a force of 0.9991 lbf.
The equivalence 1 lb = 0.453&nbsp;592&nbsp;37 kg is always true, by definition, anywhere in the universe. If you use the standard [[gee]] which is official for defining kilograms force to define pounds force as well, then the same relationship will hold between pounds-force and kilograms-force (an old non-SI unit is still used). If a different value is used to define pounds force, then the relationship to kilograms force will be slightly different&mdash;but in any case, that relationship is also a constant anywhere in the universe. What is not constant throughout the universe is the amount of force in terms of pounds-force (or any other force units) which 1 lb will exert due to gravity.
By analogy with the slug, there is a rarely used unit of mass called the "metric slug". This is the mass that accelerates at one metre per second squared when pushed by a force of one [[Kilogram-force|kgf]]. An item with a mass of 10 kg has a mass of 1.01972661 metric slugs (= 10 kg divided by 9.80665 kg per metric slug). This unit is also known by various other names such as the [[slug|hyl]], TME (from a German acronym), and mug (from metric slug).
Another unit of force called the [[poundal]] (pdl) is defined as the force that accelerates 1 lbm at 1 foot per second squared. Given that 1 lbf = 32.174 lb times one foot per second squared, we have 1 lbf = 32.174 pdl.
The [[kilogram-force]] is a unit of force that was used in various fields of science and technology. In 1901, the [[CGPM]] improved the definition of the kilogram-force, adopting a standard acceleration of gravity for the purpose, and making the kilogram-force equal to the force exerted by a mass of 1 kg when accelerated by 9.80665 m/s&sup2;. The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern [[SI]] system, but is still used in applications such as:
*Thrust of [[jet engine|jet]] and [[rocket engine]]s
*Spoke tension of [[bicycle]]s
*Draw weight of [[Bow (weapon)|bows]]
*[[Torque wrench]]es in units such as "meter kilograms" or "kilogram centimetres" (the kilograms are rarely identified as units of force)
*Engine torque output (kgf&middot;m expressed in various word orders, spellings, and symbols)
*Pressure gauges in "kg/cm&sup2;" or "kgf/cm&sup2;"
In colloquial, non-scientific usage, the "kilograms" used for "weight" are almost always the proper SI units for this purpose. They are units of mass, not units of force.
The symbol "kgm" for kilograms is also sometimes encountered. This might occasionally be an attempt to disintinguish kilograms as units of mass from the "kgf" symbol for the units of force. It might also be used as a symbol for those obsolete torque units (kilogram-force metres) mentioned above, used without properly separating the units for kilogram and metre with either a space or a centered dot.
===Conversions===
Below are several coversion factors between various mesurements of force:
*1 kgf (kilopond kp) = 9.80665 newtons
*1 [[Slug (mass)|metric slug]] = 9.8066 |
g sequence of sets exists''
Let ''f'' be a [[function (mathematics)|function]] of the natural numbers with ''f''(''n''+1) an element of ''f''(''n'') for each ''n''. Define ''S'' = {''f''(''n''): ''n'' a natural number}, the range of ''f'', which can be seen to be a set from the formal definition of a function. Applying the axiom of regularity to ''S'', let ''f''(''k'') be an element of ''S'' which is disjoint from ''S''. But by the definitions of ''f'' and ''S'', ''f''(''k'') and ''S'' have an element in common (namely ''f''(''k''+1)). This is a contradiction, hence no such ''f'' exists.
''Assuming the axiom of choice, no infinite descending sequence of sets implies the axiom of regularity''
Let the non-empty set ''S'' be a counter-example to the axiom of regularity; that is, every element of ''S'' has a non-empty intersection with ''S''. Let ''g'' be a [[Axiom of choice|choice function]] for ''S'', that is, a map such that ''g''(''s'') is an element of ''s'' for each non-empty subset ''s'' of ''S''. Now define the function ''f'' on the non-negative integers recursively as follows:
:<math>f(0) = g(S)\,\!</math>
:<math>f(n+1) = g(f(n) \cap S).\,\!</math>
Then for each ''n'', ''f''(''n'') is an element of ''S'' and so its intersection with ''S'' is non-empty, so ''f''(''n''+1) is well-defined and is an element of ''f''(''n''). So ''f'' is an infinite descending chain. This is a contradiction, hence no such ''S'' exists.
== Common misconception: Russell's paradox and the axiom of regularity ==
[[Russell's paradox]] is the [[paradox]] whereby consideration of "the set
of all sets that do not contain themselves as members" leads to a contradiction
in [[naive set theory]]. Since the axiom of regularity implies that no set contains
itself as a member, it can be tempting for the non-expert to think that the
presence of the axiom of regularity in [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]] (ZF) has
something to do with the way in which ZF
resolves Russell's paradox. (For example, this misconception is perpetuated in
[[David Foster Wallace]]'s ''[[Everything and More]]''.) In fact, the contradiction
of Russell's paradox is avoided because the
[[axiom schema of specification|separation axioms]] in ZF are of limited power (as
compared with naive set theory). Indeed, a contradiction can only be eliminated from
a theory by
weakening or removing axioms;
adding the axiom of regularity (or any other axiom) to a theory
only makes it ''more'' likely that a contradiction will be encountered.
The axiom of regularity is irrelevant to the resolution of Russell's paradox.
== External links ==
*http://www.trinity.edu/cbrown/topics_in_logic/sets/sets.html contains an informative description of the axiom of regularity under the section on Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory.
[[Category:Axioms of set theory]]
[[de:Regularitätsaxiom]]
[[hu:A regularitás axiómája]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AIX operating system</title>
<id>2114</id>
<revision>
<id>41764101</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:00:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>162.43.198.100</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Text-based console */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox OS|
|name = AIX
|screenshot =
|caption =
|developer = [[IBM]]
|family = [[UNIX System V]]
|source_model = [[Closed source]]
|latest_release_version = 5L 5.3
|latest_release_date = August, 2004
|kernel_type = [[Microkernel]]
|ui = [[Common Desktop Environment]]
|license = [[Proprietary]]
|working_state = Current
|website = [http://www-1.ibm.com/servers/aix/ IBM AIX 5L]
}}
'''AIX''' ('''Advanced Interactive eXecutive''') is a [[proprietary]] [[operating system]] developed by [[IBM]] based on [[UNIX System V]]. Before the product was ever marketed, the [[Acronym and initialism|acronym]] ''AIX'' originally stood for '''Advanced IBM Unix'''.
AIX has pioneered numerous [[network operating system]] enhancements, introducing new innovations later adopted by [[Unix-like]] operating systems; it is often one of the first operating systems to implement a new innovation in [[software architecture]] as a sophisticated software technology.
The [[Scalability|scalable]] AIX 5L 5.3 supports up to 64 [[central processing unit]]s and two [[terabyte]]s (TB) of [[random access memory]]. The [[JFS#History|JFS2]] [[file system]]&mdash;first introduced by IBM as part of AIX&mdash;supports [[computer file]]s and [[Partition (computing)|partition]]s up to 16 TB in size.
==Development==
AIX V1, introduced in 1986, was based on [[System V]] Release 3. IBM later ported AIX to the [[RS/6000]] platform as '''AIX/6000'''; since [[1989]], AIX has served as the RS/6000's primary operating system. In developing AIX, IBM and [[Interactive Systems Corporation|INTERACTIVE Systems Corporation]] (whom IBM contracted) also incorporated source code from [[Berkeley Software Distribution]] 4.2 and 4.3.
In the [[SCO v. IBM]] [[lawsuit]] filed in 2003, the [[SCO Group]] alleged that (among other infractions) IBM misappropriated licensed [[source code]] from [[UNIX System V]] Release 4 for incorporation into AIX. IBM maintains that their license was irrevocable.
==Supported architectures==
* AIX v1 supported IBM [[PS/2]] [[Micro Channel architecture]] PCs and the [[IBM RT]].
* AIX v2 supported 6150-series IBM RT systems.
* AIX v3 introduced support for the [[IBM POWER]] architecture.
* AIX v4 introduced support for the [[PowerPC]] architecture and the [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus.
* AIX v5 introduced support for the [[IA64]] architecture.
* AIX v5.1 was the last version to support the [[Micro Channel architecture]].
===AIX on IBM Mainframes===
In 1988, IBM announced AIX/370. AIX/370 was IBM's first attempt to offer Unix-like functionality for their mainframe line, specifically the [[System/370]]. AIX/370 was released in 1990 with functional equivalence to System V Release 2 and 4.3BSD as well as IBM enhancements. With the introduction of the [[ESA/390]] architecture, AIX/370 was rebranded as AIX/ESA in 1991 and ran on the [[System/390]] platform. Unlike AIX on its other platforms, AIX on the mainframe never ran as the host operating system, but rather as a guest under [[VM (Operating system)|VM]]. AIX on the mainframe had little success and UNIX functionality was instead added as an option with the existing mainframe operating system, [[MVS]], which became [[MVS/ESA|MVS/ESA OpenEdition]] in 1993.
==Versions==
* AIX 5L 5.3, August 2004
** [[Network File System|NFS]] Version 4 support
** Advanced Accounting
** Virtual [[SCSI]]
** Virtual Ethernet
** [[Simultaneous multithreading]] (SMT) support
** [[Micro-Partitioning]] support
**JFS2 quota support
**JFS2 filesystem shrink support
* AIX 5L 5.2, October 2002
** Minimum level required for POWER5 hardware
** Support for [[multipath I/O|MPIO]] [[Fibre Channel]] disks
** [[iSCSI]] Initiator software
** Dynamic LPAR support
* AIX 5L 5.1, May 2001
** Minimum level required for POWER4 hardware and the last release that supported [[Micro Channel architecture]]
** Introduction of [[64-bit]] [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]], installed but not activated by default
** JFS2
** Static LPAR support
** The L stands for [[Linux]] affinity
** [[Trusted Computing Base]] (TCB)
* AIX 4.3.3, September 1999
** Added online [[backup]] function
** Workload Management ( WLM )
* AIX 4.3.2, October 1998
* AIX 4.3.1, April 1998
* AIX 4.3, October 1997
** Support for 64-bit [[CPU design|architecture]]
* AIX 4.2.1, April 1997
** [[Network File System|NFS]] Version 3 support
* AIX 4.2, May 1996
* AIX 4.1.5, August 1996
* AIX 4.1.4, October 1995
* AIX 4.1.3, July 1995
** [[Common Desktop Environment|CDE]] 1.0 became the default GUI environment, replacing [[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] [[X Window System|X Window]] Manager.
* AIX 4.1.1, October 1994
* AIX 4.1, August 1994
* AIX v4, 1994
* AIX v3.2 1992
* AIX v3.1
** Introduction of Journaled File System ([[JFS]])
* AIX v3, February 1990
** Developer release licensed only to OSF; the LVM was incorporated into OSF/1.
** [[SMIT]] was introduced.
* AIX v2
** last version was 2.2.1.
* AIX v1, 1986
** last version was 1.3.
==Interfaces==
===Graphical===
The [[Common Desktop Environment]] (CDE) is AIX's default [[graphical user interface]]. As part of Linux Affinity and the free AIX Toolbox for Linux Applications (ATLA), open-source [[KDE]] and [[GNOME]] desktop are also available.
===Text-based console===
[[SMIT]], also known as smitty, is a text based System Management Interface Tool for AIX. It allows a user to navigate a menu hierarchy of commands, rather than using the command line. Experienced system administrators make use of the F6 command which generates the command line needed for complex tasks.
SMIT and smitty are the same program, however smitty is the text-based version, and SMIT is a graphical version which runs under the X Window System. If you are on a text based terminal, running the smit program will invoke the text-based version.
==External links==
*[http://www-1.ibm.com/servers/aix/ IBM AIX 5L]
*[http://www.ibm.com/servers/aix/products/aixos/linux/ AIX Toolbox for Linux Applications]
*[http://www.ibm.com/servers/eserver/support/unixservers/aixfixes.html AIX fixes]
*[http://rootvg.net/ rootvg.net]
*[http://www.elink.ibmlink.ibm.com/public/applications/publications/cgibin/pbi.cgi?CTY=US&FNC=SRX&PBL=GC23-3059-01 AIX/ESA V2R2 General Information]
{{unix-like}}
[[Category:IBM software]]
[[Category:Operating systems]]
[[Category:Unix]]
[[ca:AIX]]
[[cs:AIX]]
[[de:AIX]]
[[es:AIX]]
[[eo:AIX]]
[[fr:Advanced interactive executive]]
[[ko:AIX 운영 체제]]
[[it:AIX]]
[[he:AIX]]
[[hu:AIX]]
[[nl:Advanced Interactive eXecutive]]
[[ja:AIX]]
[[pl:AIX]]
[[pt:AIX]]
[[ru:AIX]]
[[fi:AIX]]
[[sv:AIX]]
[[zh:AIX]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Appletalk</title>
<id>2115</id>
<revision>
<id>15900555</id>
< |
ues could absorb nitrogen dioxide from the atmosphere and phosphorus from the ground. The nitrogen dioxide would be reduced, with analogues to [[sugar]] being produced in the process, and waste oxygen would be released into the atmosphere. Animals based on phosphorus and nitrogen would consume the plants, use atmospheric oxygen to metabolize the sugar analogues, exhaling nitrogen dioxide and depositing phosphorus, or phosphorus rich material, as solid waste.
In an ammonia atmosphere, phosphorus-nitrogen based plants would absorb ammonia from the atmosphere and phosphorus from the ground, then oxidize the ammonia to produce phosphorus-nitrogen sugars and release hydrogen waste. P-N animals are now the reducers, breathing in hydrogen and converting the P-N sugars to ammonia and phosphorus. This is the opposite pattern of oxidation and reduction from a nitrogen dioxide world, and indeed from the known biochemistry of Earth; it would be analogous to Earth's atmospheric carbon supply being in the form of [[methane]] instead of [[carbon dioxide]].
Debate continues as several aspects of a phoshorus-nitrogen cycle biology would be energy deficient.
Still, nitrogen and phosphorus are not likely to be found in the ratios and quantity required in the real universe. Carbon, being preferentially formed during nuclear fusion, is more abundant and is more likely to end up in a preferred location.
== Other exotic biochemical elements ==
[[Chlorine]] is sometimes proposed as a biological alternative to [[oxygen]], either in carbon-based biologies or hypothetical non-carbon-based ones. Chlorine is much less abundant than oxygen in the universe, however, and so it is unlikely that a planet will be able to form which has a large enough concentration of chlorine available on its surface to form the basis of a biochemistry. Chlorine will instead likely be bound up in the form of [[salt]]s and other inert compounds.
[[Sulfur]] is also able to form long-chain molecules, but suffers from the same high reactivity problems that phosphorus and silanes do. While the biological use of sulfur as an alternative to carbon is theoretical, strains of [[sulfur-reducing bacteria]] have been discovered in exotic locations on earth. These bacteria can utilize elemental sulfur instead of oxygen, reducing sulfur to [[hydrogen sulfide]]. Examples of this type of metabolism are [[green sulfur bacteria]] and [[purple sulfur bacteria]].
==Non-water solvents==
In addition to carbon compounds all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. It is sometimes assumed that water is the only suitable chemical to fill this role. Some of the properties of water that are important for life processes include a large temperature range over which it is liquid, a high heat capacity useful for temperature regulation, a large heat of vaporization, and the ability to dissolve a wide variety of compounds. There are other chemicals with similar properties that have sometimes been proposed as alternatives.
=== Ammonia ===
[[Ammonia]] is perhaps the most commonly proposed alternative. Numerous chemical reactions are possible in an ammonia solution, and liquid ammonia has some chemical similarities with water. Ammonia can dissolve most organic molecules at least as well as water does, and in addition it is capable of dissolving many elemental metals. Given this set of chemical properties it has been theorized that ammonia-based life forms might be possible.
However, ammonia does have some problems as a basis for life. The [[heat of vaporization]] of ammonia is half that of water and its [[surface tension]] three times smaller. This means that [[hydrogen bonds]] between ammonia molecules will always be much weaker than those in water, so ammonia is less able to concentrate non-polar molecules through a [[hydrophobic]] effect. For this reason, mainstream science questions how well ammonia could hold prebiotic molecules together in order to allow the emergence of a self-reproducing system. Ammonia is also combustible and oxidizable and could not exist sustainably in a biosphere that oxidizes it. It would, however, be stable in a [[reducing environment]].
A [[biosphere]] based on ammonia would likely exist at temperatures or air pressures that are extremely unusual for terrestrial life. Terrestrial life usually exists within the melting point and [[boiling point]] of water at [[normal pressure]], between 0°[[Celsius|C]] (273 [[Kelvin|K]]) and 100°C (373 K); at normal pressure ammonia's melting and boiling points are between &minus;78°C (195 K) and &minus;33°C (240 K). Such extremely cooled temperatures create problems, as they slow biochemical reactions tremendously and may cause biochemical [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] out of solution due to high [[melting point]]s. Ammonia could be a liquid at normal temperatures, but at much higher pressures; for example, at 60 [[Atmosphere (unit)|atm]], ammonia melts at &minus;77°C (196 K) and boils at 98°C (371 K).
Ammonia and ammonia-water mixtures remain liquid at temperatures far below the freezing point of pure water, so such biochemistries might be well suited to planets and moons orbiting outside the water-based "[[habitability zone]]". Such conditions could exist, for example, under the surface of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s largest moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]].<ref>[http://www.es.ucl.ac.uk/research/planetaryweb/postgraduate/olddomweb/titan.pdf 404 error] as of 2006-03-02</ref>
=== Other solvents ===
Other solvents sometimes proposed include [[methanol]], [[hydrogen sulfide]] and [[hydrogen chloride]]. The latter two suffer from a relatively low cosmic abundance of sulfur and chlorine, which tend to be bound up in solid minerals. A mixture of [[hydrocarbon]]s, such as the methane/ethane seas that were once speculated to be present on the surface of Titan, could act as a solvent over a wide range of temperatures but would lack [[polarity]]. [[Isaac Asimov]], the [[biochemist]] and [[science-fiction]] writer, suggested that poly-[[lipids]] could form a substitute for proteins in a non-polar solvent such as methane or [[liquid hydrogen]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.projectrho.com/rocket/rocket3aa.html| title=Aliens| work=Atomic Rockets| accessdate=2006-03-03| format=HTML}}</ref>
==Artificial life==
{{main|Artificial Life}}
It is possible in principle to construct a [[robot]] or a system of robots that is capable of replicating itself from raw ores and natural energy sources without any external direction or assistance (a "[[clanking replicator]]"). Such a machine system could be considered alive, in that it is capable of [[evolution]] through mutational errors in its inherited design patterns, but is in no way required to be composed of carbon-based compounds. The most detailed proposition for machine life made so far proposed self-replicating [[Moon|lunar]] factories, which would be composed primarily of refined [[metal]] and cast [[basalt]] since the Earth's moon is extremely carbon-poor.
Related to macroscopic machine life is the concept of self-replicating [[nanotechnology]], sometimes referred to as "[[grey goo]]" when it is operating without programmed limitations. Nanotechnology, like larger scale machines, could potentially be made of non-carbon-containing materials (including any of the other elements already mentioned earlier). Both [[diamondoid]] and [[carbon nanotube]]s are also commonly proposed materials for use in nanomachines, forms of carbon not used by life as it is currently known, and furthermore it is often proposed that nanotechnological devices will operate without the water environment that life as it is currently known requires. Any of the other life-bases mentioned previously could also serve as the basis for an artificial life form.
These artificial beings could be made with design features that could not have evolved without the help of previously-evolved carbon-based (or other) beings, since macroscopic machines would need to be designed and originally programmed, while the incredible scarcity of naturally occurring nanotech materials would preclude any sort of evolution of nanomachines.
After being created, these machines could potentially out-compete or destroy their creators if robustly enough designed, replacing the naturally-evolved biosphere with one based on their own biochemistry. They would in a sense inherit the world or civilization of their creators, and be indistinguishable to most outsiders from native beings. Such an occurrence resembles the [[Intelligent Design]] form of [[creationism]]--intelligent life has been designed by an intelligent creator.
Scientifically, the relevance of this possibility is that high intelligence in a transition species could be the substrate for the development of an "impractical" form of life. Afterwards, the new form of life might continue to evolve by natural means. This could be considered as an argument ''for'' carbon [[chauvinism]], or at least for teaching it to any [[artificial life]] forms that human beings may create.
==In fiction==
In the realm of science fiction there have occasionally been forms of life proposed that, while often highly speculative and unsupported by rigorous theoretical examination, are nevertheless interesting and in some cases even somewhat plausible.
One of the major sentient species in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s [[Discworld (world)|Discworld]] universe is [[Troll (Discworld)|Trolls]]. Their being mineral-based has various interesting effects on their physiology and culture. Trolls eat rocks, which suggests that their biochemistry is similar to that of [[plant]]s. A [[heterotrophic]] silicon-based lifeform could no more eat rock than a carbon-based lifeform could eat coal. However, if they were [[photosynthetic]], like plants, they could utilise [[silicon dioxide]], which makes up the vast majori |
arily subject to time. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. [[Open Theism]], by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God's omniscience does not mean he can predict the future. "Theism" is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.
* [[Deism]] holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary for God to create it. In this view, God is not [[anthropomorphic]], and does not literally answer prayers or cause miracles to occur. Common in Deism is a belief that God has no interest in humanity and may not even be aware of humanity.
* Monotheism holds that there is only one God, and/or that the one true God is worshipped in different religions under different names. It is important to note, however, that monotheists of one religion can, and often do, consider the monotheistic god of a different religion to be a false god. For instance, many Christian fundamentalists consider the God of Islam (Allah) to be a false god or demon. However, theologians and linguists argue that "Allah" is merely the Arabic word for "God," and not the literal name of a specifically Muslim God (this is more clearly shown by the fact that Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews refer to God as "Allah" with no problem whatsoever). To Muslims, the Bible is a holy scripture and Jesus is a Holy Prophet, so Islam is considered a continuation of Christianity. Many Jews consider the [[messiah]] of Christianity (Jesus) to be a false god and some monotheists (notably fundamentalist Christians) hold that there is one [[triune]] God, and that all gods of other religions are actually demons in disguise (as in [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_2_Corinthians#Chapter_11 2nd Corinthians 11] verse 14). Eastern religious believers and [[Liberal Christian]]s are more likely to assume those of other faiths worship the same God as they. Muslims believe that Jesus is not the son of God, because relating God to any partners or spouses or offspring is considered blasphemy and apostasy. They believe that Jesus is not the Messiah but is a Holy Prophet.
* Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God. Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe. The distinctions between the two are subtle, and some consider them unhelpful. It is also the view of the [[Liberal Catholic Church]], [[Theosophy]], Hinduism, Ayyavazhi some divisions of Buddhism, and [[Taoism]], along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. [[Kabbalah]], Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God - which has wide acceptance in [[Hasidic Judaism]], particularly from their founder [[Israel ben Eliezer|The Baal Shem Tov]] - but only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.
* [[Dystheism]] is a form of theism which holds that God is malevolent as a consequence of the [[problem of evil]]. Dystheistic speculation is common in theology, but there is no known church of practicing dystheists. See also [[Satanism]].
Most believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings, and give them names such as angels, saints, [[Djinn | Djinni]], demons, and [[deva]]s.
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06614a.htm Relation of God to the Universe] - Catholic Encyclopedia article
==Conceptions of God==
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
===Abrahamic conceptions===
[[Image:God2-Sistine Chapel.png|thumb|200px|[[16th century]] Christian view of [[Genesis]]: God creates [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] (Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel)]]
Judaism, Christianity and Islam see God as a being who created the world and who rules over the universe. God is usually held to have the properties of holiness (separate from sin and incorruptible), justness (fair, right, and true in all His judgments), [[sovereignty]] (unthwartable in His will), omnipotence (all-powerful), omniscience (all-knowing), omni benevolence (all-loving), omnipresence (present everywhere at the same time), and immortality (eternal and everlasting). He is also believed to be transcendent, meaning that He is outside space and outside time, and therefore eternal and unable to be changed by earthly forces or anything else within His creation.
Jews, Christians and Muslims often conceive of God as a [[personal God]], with a will and personality. However, many [[rationalist]] philosophers felt that one should not view God as personal, and that such personal descriptions of God are only meant as metaphors, as it was widely viewed that God's transcendence meant that He could not act in the lives of ordinary people.
In [[Eastern Christianity]], it remains essential that God be personal; hence it speaks of the three ''persons'' of the [[Trinity]]. It also emphasizes that God has a will, and that God the Son has two wills, divine and human, though these are never in conflict. However, this point is disputed by Oriental Orthodox Christians, who hold that God the Son has only one will of unified divinity and humanity (see [[Miaphysitism]]). The personhood of God and of all human people is essential to the concept of [[theosis]] or deification.
==== Biblical definition of God====
God according to the Bible is characterized not just as Creator, but also as the "Heavenly Father".
The [[Torah]] (which would later be incorporated into the Christian [[Old Testament]]) characterizes God by these attributes: "The LORD, the LORD God, merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children and the children's children, to the third and the fourth generation." ([[Exodus]] 34:6-7)
The Torah contains no systematic theology: No attempt is made to give a [[Philosophy|philosophical]] or rigorous definition of God, nor of how God acts in the world. It does not explicitly describe God's nature, exemplified by God's assertion in Exodus that "you cannot see my face; for man shall not see me and live". Nowhere in the Hebrew Bible are the words omnipotent, omniscient, or omnibenevolent used to define God in a systematic sense.
Although Scripture does not describe God systematically, it does provide a poetic depiction of God and His relationship with people. According to the Biblical historian [[Yehezkal Kaufmann]], the essential innovation of Biblical theology was to posit a God that cares about people, and that cares about whether people care about Him. Some people believe that the Bible should be viewed as humanity's view of God, but theologian [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]] described the Biblical God as "anthropopathic", which means that one should read the Bible as God's view of humanity, and not as humanity's view of God.
Similarly, the New Testament contains little systematic theology: no philosophical or rigorous definition of God is given, nor of how God acts in the world; however John's gospel states: "''God is light''" ([[Gospel of John|John]] 1:5), before he states: "''God is love''" (John 4:8) and: "''God is a Spirit''" (John 4:24). The author of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] presents a more grim side of the deity when he states: "''For our God is a consuming fire.''" (Hebrews 12:29).
The New Testament provides an implicit theology as it teaches that God interacted directly with people, in the person of Jesus, and that he subsequently sent the Holy Spirit. In this view, God becomes someone that can be seen and touched, and may speak and act in a manner easily perceived by humans, while also remaining transcendent and invisible. This appears to be a radical departure from the concepts of God found in Hebrew Bible. The New Testament's statements regarding the nature of God were eventually developed into the doctrine of the [[Trinity]].
==== Kabbalistic definition of God ====
Mainstream Orthodox Judaism teaches that God is neither matter nor spirit. They teach that God is the creator of both, but is himself neither. But if God is so different from his creation, how can there be any interaction between the Creator and the created? This question prompted early Kabbalists (Jewish [[mysticism|mystics]]) to envision two aspects of God, (a) God himself, who in the end is unknowable, and (b) the revealed aspect of God who created the universe, preserves the universe, and interacts with mankind in a personal way. Kabbalists believe that these two aspects are not contradictory but complement one another, similar to a creation inside a persons mind.
This view has been developed further in [[Hasidism|Hasidic]] and anti-nomian circles, however. Kabbalah teaches that in order to create the universe, God "withdrew," and created the universe within the space from which "He" contracted. It is taught in the [[Zohar]] that God, at the beginning of creation, shattered ten ספירות ("sephiroth") or כלים ("kaylim" or "vessels") scattering their fragments throughout the universe. (Physicist-theologian [[Gerald Schroeder]] makes a correlation between this view and [[Big bang|Big Bang theory]] in ''Genesis & The Big Bang''.) The [[Sephirah (Kabbalah)|sephiroth]] &#0151; represented by the so-called עץ חיים ("Etz Hayim" or "[[Tree of life (Kabbalah)|Tree of Life]]") &#0151; are comprised of different vessels em |
stralia]]
[[simple:Australia]]
[[sk:Austrália (štát)]]
[[sl:Avstralija]]
[[sr:Аустралија]]
[[fi:Australia]]
[[sv:Australien]]
[[ta:ஆஸ்திரேலியா]]
[[tl:Australia]]
[[th:ประเทศออสเตรเลีย]]
[[vi:Úc]]
[[tpi:Ostrelia]]
[[tr:Avustralya]]
[[uk:Австралія (країна)]]
[[yi:אױסטראַליע]]
[[zh:澳大利亚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Samoa</title>
<id>578</id>
<revision>
<id>41583091</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T08:03:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DopefishJustin</username>
<id>5399</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ make link prettier</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+ <big>'''Amerika Samoa<br>American Samoa'''</big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Flag of American Samoa.svg|125px|Flag of American Samoa]]
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:American samoa coa.png|80px|American Samoa COA]]
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | ([[Flag of American Samoa|Flag]])
| align="center" width="140px" | ([[Coat of Arms of American Samoa|Coat of Arms]])
|}
|-
| align=center style="vertical-align: top;" colspan=2 | <small>''National [[motto]]: Samoa, Muamua Le Atua (Samoa, Let God Be First)''</small>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style="background: #ffffff;" | [[Image:LocationAmericanSamoa.png]]
|-
| '''[[Official languages]]'''
| [[Samoan language|Samoan]], [[English language|English]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Fagatogo]] (constitutional and ''de facto'' seat of government); executive offices are located in [[Utulei]]
|-
| '''[[Governor of American Samoa|Governor]]'''
| [[Togiola Tulafono]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br />&nbsp;- Total <br />&nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 226th]] <br /> [[1 E8 m²|199 km²]] (76.8&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) <br /> 0%
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''
<br />&nbsp;- Total ([[2003]])
<br />&nbsp;- [[Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 203rd]]
<br /> 70,260
<br /> 353/km² (914/sq.&nbsp;mi)
|-
| '''[[Currency]]''' || [[United States dollar|USD]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]''' || [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -11 (no DST)
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Amerika Samoa]]
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.as]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| +1 684
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |[[Image:Fatu Rock.jpg|right|300px]]Fatu Rock (right) and Futi Rock (left), islets on the reef of Tutuila at the entrance to Pago Pago Harbor (seen behind Fatu).
|}
'''American Samoa''' ([[Samoan language|Samoan]]: '''Amerika Samoa''') is an [[unorganized territory|unorganized]], [[incorporated territory|unincorporated territory]] of the [[United States]] located in the South [[Pacific Ocean]] southeast of the sovereign state of [[Samoa]]. The main (largest and most populous) island is [[Tutuila]], with the {{Unicode|[[Manua|Manu'a]]}} Islands, [[Rose Atoll]], and [[Swains Island]] also included in the territory. American Samoa is part of the Samoan Islands chain, located west of the [[Cook Islands]], north of [[Tonga]], and some 300 [[mile]]s (500 km) south of [[Tokelau]]. To the west are the islands of the [[Wallis and Futuna]] group.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Samoa]], [[History of American Samoa]]''
Originally inhabited as early as [[1000 BC]], Samoa was not reached by [[Europe]]an explorers until the [[18th century]].
International rivalries in the latter half of the [[19th century]] were settled by an [[1899]] [[Treaty of Berlin, 1899|Treaty of Berlin]] in which [[Germany]] and the U.S. divided the Samoan [[archipelago]]. The U.S. formally occupied its portion—a smaller group of eastern islands with the noted harbor of [[Pago Pago, American Samoa|Pago Pago]]—the following year. The western islands are now the independent state of [[Samoa]].
After the U.S. took possession of American Samoa, the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] built a [[coal|coaling]] station on Pago Pago Bay for its Pacific Squadron and appointed a local Secretary. The navy secured a Deed of Cession of Tutuila in [[1900]] and a Deed of Cession of {{Unicode|[[Manua|Manuʻa]]}} in [[1904]]. The last sovereign of {{Unicode|Manuʻa}}, the {{Unicode|[[Tui Manua Elisala|Tui Manuʻa Elisala]]}}, was forced to sign a Deed of Cession of {{Unicode|Manuʻa}} following a series of US Naval trials, known as the "Trial of the Ipu", in Pago Pago, {{Unicode|Taʻu}}, and aboard a Pacific Squadron gunboat.
During [[World War II]], U.S. Marines in American Samoa outnumbered the local population, having a huge cultural influence. After the war, Organic Act 4500, a U.S. [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of Interior]]-sponsored attempt to incorporate American Samoa, was defeated in Congress, primarily through the efforts of American Samoan chiefs, led by [[Tuiasosopo Mariota]]. These chiefs' efforts led to the creation of a local legislature, the American Samoa ''Fono,'' which meets in the village of [[Fagatogo]], the territory's ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' capital. (See the Trivia section below for more information on Fagatogo.)
In time, the Navy-appointed governor was replaced by a locally elected one. Although technically considered "unorganized" in that the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] has not passed an [[Organic Act]] for the territory, American Samoa is self-governing under a constitution that became effective on [[July 1]], [[1967]]. The U.S. Territory of American Samoa is on the [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]], a listing which is disputed by territorial government officials.
==Administrative Divisions==
American Samoa is administratively divided into 3 [[district]]s and 2 "unorganized" islands. These districts are subdivided into 73 villages.
Districts:
* Eastern
* Western
* Manu'a
Unorganized Islands:
*[[Rose Atoll|Rose Island]]
*[[Swains Island|Swains Island]]
[[Image:American Samoa Districts.png|thumb|left|400px|Map of the districts of American Samoa]]
<br clear="left">
The villages for Eastern and Western districts are:
<table border=0><tr valign=top>
<td>
<ol>
<li>[[Aasu|Aasu]]
<li>[[Afao|Afao]]
<li>[[Afono|Afono]]
<li>[[Agugulu|Agugulu]]
<li>[[Alao|Alao]]
<li>[[Alofau|Alofau]]
<li>[[Aloga|Aloga]]
<li>[[Amaluia|Amaluia]]
<li>[[Amanave|Amanave]]
<li>[[Amaua|Amaua]]
<li>[[Amouli|Amouli]]
<li>[[Anua|Anua]]
<li>[[Aoa|Aoa]]
<li>[[Aoloau|Aoloau]]
<li>[[Asili|Asili]]
<li>[[Atu'u|Atu'u]]
<li>[[Aua|Aua]]
<li>[[Auasi|Auasi]]
<li>[[Aumi|Aumi]]
<li>[[Aunu'u|Aunu'u]]
<li>[[Auto, American Samoa|Auto]]
<li>[[Avaio|Avaio]]
<li>[[Faga'alu|Faga'alu]]
<li>[[Faga'itau|Faga'itau]]
<li>[[Fagaili'i|Fagaili'i]]
<li>[[Fagamalo|Fagamalo]]
<li>[[Faganeanea|Faganeanea]]
<li>[[Fagasa|Fagasa]]
<li>[[Fagatogo|Fagatogo]]
<li>[[Failolo|Failolo]]
<li>[[Falenin|Falenin]]
<li>[[Fatumafuti|Fatumafuti]]
</ol>
</td>
<td>
<ol start=33>
<li>[[Futiga|Futiga]]
<li>[[Ili'ili|Ili'ili]]
<li>[[Leloaloa|Leloaloa]]
<li>[[Leone, American Samoa|Leone]]
<li>[[Leuli'i|Leuli'i]]
<li>[[Malaeimi|Malaeimi]]
<li>[[Malaeloa/Aitulagi|Malaeloa/Aitulagi]]
<li>[[Malaeloa/Ituau|Malaeloa/Ituau]]
<li>[[Maloata|Maloata]]
<li>[[Mapusagafou|Mapusagafou]]
<li>[[Masausi|Masausi]]
<li>[[Masefau|Masefau]]
<li>[[Matu'u|Matu'u]]
<li>[[Mesepa|Mesespa]]
<li>[[Nu'uuli|Nu'uuli]]
<li>[[Nua|Nua]]
<li>[[Onenoa|Onenoa]]
<li>[[Pago Pago|Pago Pago]]
<li>[[Pava'ia'i|Pava'ia'i]]
<li>[[Poloa|Poloa]]
<li>[[Sa'ilele|Sa'ilele]]
<li>[[Se'etaga|Se'etaga]]
<li>[[Tafuna|Tafuna]]
<li>[[Taputimu|Taputimu]]
<li>[[Tula, American Samoa|Tula]]
<li>[[Utulei|Utulei]]
<li>[[Utumea East|Utumea East]]
<li>[[Utumea West|Utumea West]]
<li>[[Vailoatai|Vailoatai]]
<li>[[Vaitogi|Vaitogi]]
<li>[[Vatia|Vatia]]
</ol>
</td>
<td>
[[Image:American Samoa Counties1.png|thumb|400px|Map of the villages of American Samoa]]
</td>
</tr>
</table>
[[Image:American Samoa Counties2.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of the villages of the Manu{{okina}}a districts and Swain's Atoll]]
The villages for the [[Manu'a]] district are:
#[[Faleasao|Faleasao]]
#[[Leusoali'i|Leusoali'i]]
#[[Luma, American Samoa|Luma]]
#[[Maia, American SAmoa|Maia]]
#[[Ofu|Ofu]]
#[[Olosega|Olosega]]
#[[Si'ufaga|Si'ufaga]]
#[[Sili|Sili]]
There is one village on Swains Island. Rose Island is an uninhabited wildlife refuge.
==Trivia==
* American Samoa is the location of [[Rose Atoll]], the southernmost point in the United States (if [[insular area]]s and territories are included); see [[Extreme Points of the United States|extreme points]] for more information).
* About 30 ethnic Samoans, many from American Samoa, currently play in the [[National Football League]]. A 2002 article from [http://espn.go.com/gen/s/2002/0527/1387626.html ESPN] estimated that a Samoan male (either an American Samoan, or a Samoan living in the 50 United States) is 40 times more likely to play in the NFL than a non-Samoan Ame |
ence.jpg|thumb|220px|The London Science Museum's difference engine, built from Babbage's design.]]
The principle of a difference engine is [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s [[Newton's method|method]] of differences. It may be illustrated with a small example. Consider the quadratic [[polynomial]]
:''p''(''x'') = 2''x''<sup>2</sup> &minus; 3''x'' + 2
and suppose we want to tabulate the values ''p''(0), ''p''(0.1), ''p''(0.2), ''p''(0.3), ''p''(0.4) etc. The table below is constructed as follows: the first column contains the values of the polynomial, the second column contains the differences of the two left neighbors in the first column, and the third column contains the differences of the two neighbors in the second column:
<table border=1>
<tr>
<td>''p''(0)=2.0</td>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>2.0&minus;1.72=0.28</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''p''(0.1)=1.72</td>
<td></td>
<td>0.28&minus;0.24=0.04</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>1.72&minus;1.48=0.24</td>
<tr>
<td>''p''(0.2)=1.48</td>
<td></td>
<td>0.24&minus;0.20=0.04</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>1.48&minus;1.28=0.20</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''p''(0.3)=1.28</td>
<td></td>
<td>0.20&minus;0.16=0.04</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>1.28&minus;1.12=0.16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''p''(0.4)=1.12</td>
</tr>
</table>
Notice how the values in the third column are constant. This is no coincidence. In fact, if you start with any polynomial of degree ''n'', the column number ''n'' + 1 will always be constant. This crucial fact makes the method work, as we will see next.
We constructed this table from the left to the right, but now we can continue it from the right to the left in order to compute more values of our polynomial.
To calculate ''p''(0.5) we use the values from the lowest diagonal. We start with the rightmost column value of 0.04. Then we continue the second column by subtracting 0.04 from 0.16 to get 0.12. Next we continue the first column by taking its previous value, 1.12 and subtracting the 0.12 from the second column. Thus ''p''(0.5) is 1.12-0.12 = 1.0. In order to compute ''p''(0.6), we iterate the same algorithm on the ''p''(0.5) values: take 0.04 from the third column, subtract that from the second column's value 0.12 to get 0.08, then subtract that from the first column's value 1.0 to get 0.92, which is ''p''(0.6).
This process may be continued [[ad infinitum]]. The values of the polynomial are produced without ever having to multiply. A difference engine only needs to be able to subtract. From one loop to the next, it needs to store 2 numbers in our case (the last elements in the first and second columns); if we wanted to tabulate polynomials of degree ''n'', we'd need enough storage to hold ''n'' numbers.
Babbage's difference engine No. 2, finally built in 1991, could hold 7 numbers of 31 decimal digits each and could thus tabulate 7th degree polynomials to that precision. The best machines from Scheutz were able to store 4 numbers with 15 digits each.
==See also==
*[[Per Georg Scheutz]]
*[[Martin Wiberg]]
*[[Charles Babbage]]
*[[Pinwheel calculator]]
==External links==
*[http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/ The London Science Museum exhibition on the Difference Engine]
*[http://www.meccano.us/difference_engines/rde_1/ Meccano Difference Engine]
*[http://acarol.woz.org/ Difference Engine in Lego]
[[Category:Mathematical tools]]
[[Category:History of computing]]
[[Category:Early computers]]
[[Category:English inventions]]
[[Category:One-of-a-kind computers]]
[[Category:Mechanical calculators]]
[[de:Differenzmaschine]]
[[ru:Разностная машина Чарльза Бэббиджа]]
[[fi:Differenssikone]]
[[ja:階差機関]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Draupnir</title>
<id>8326</id>
<revision>
<id>39628900</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T20:05:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haukurth</username>
<id>16226</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Various changes. Moving Final Fantasy item to talk page.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Draupnir''' is a golden arm ring possessed by [[Odin]], the highest god in [[Norse mythology]]. The ring was a source of endless wealth, since each ninth morning it had spawned eight more gold rings just like itself (but apparently without the spawning ability). Draupnir was forged by the [[Norse dwarves|dwarven]] brothers [[Brokk]] and [[Sindri (dwarf)|Sindri]], sons of [[Ivaldi]]. Its name means ''The Dropper'' in English.
The ring was placed by Odin on the funeral pyre of his son [[Baldr]]:
:''Odin laid upon the pyre the gold ring called Draupnir; this quality attended it: that every ninth night there fell from it eight gold rings of equal weight.'' (from the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'').
The ring was subsequently retrieved by [[Hermóðr]]. It was offered as a gift by [[Freyr]]'s servant [[Skírnir]] in the wooing of [[Gerd]], which is described in the poem ''[[Skírnismál]]''.
'''Draupnir''' is also the name of a dwarf, mentioned in the ''[[Völuspá]]''.
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Artifacts in Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Rings]]
[[da:Draupner]]
[[de:Draupnir]]
[[el:Ντράουπνιρ]]
[[es:Draupnir]]
[[hr:Draupnir]]
[[it:Draupnir]]
[[ja:ドラウプニル]]
[[nn:Draupner]]
[[ru:Драупнир]]
[[sv:Draupner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dromi</title>
<id>8327</id>
<revision>
<id>15906333</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-22T07:58:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Glenn</username>
<id>9232</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Fenrisulfr]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fenrisulfr]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Divergence</title>
<id>8328</id>
<revision>
<id>39162494</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T03:10:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
<id>153314</id>
</contributor>
<comment>reword</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
In [[vector calculus]], the '''divergence''' is an operator that measures a [[vector field]]'s tendency to originate from or converge upon a given point. For instance, for a [[vector field]] that denotes the [[velocity]] of water flowing in a draining [[bathtub]], the divergence would have a negative value over the drain because the water vanishes there (if we only consider two [[dimension]]s); away from the drain the divergence would be zero, since there are no other sinks or sources.
A vector field which has zero divergence everywhere is called [[solenoidal vector field|solenoidal]].
== Definition ==
Let ''x, y, z'' be a system of [[Cartesian coordinates]] on a 3-dimensional [[Euclidean space]], and let '''i''',&nbsp;'''j''',&nbsp;'''k''' be the corresponding [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]] of [[unit vector]]s.
The divergence of a [[continuous function|continuous]]ly [[differentiable]] [[vector field]] '''F''' = ''F<sub>1</sub>'' '''i''' + ''F<sub>2</sub>'' '''j''' + ''F<sub>3</sub>'' '''k''' is defined to be the [[scalar]]-valued function:
:<math>\operatorname{div}\,\mathbf{F} = \nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}
=\frac{\partial F_1}{\partial x}
+\frac{\partial F_2}{\partial y}
+\frac{\partial F_3}{\partial z}. </math>
Although expressed in terms of coordinates, the result is invariant under [[Orthogonal matrix|orthogonal transformation]]s, as the physical interpretation suggests.
The common notation for the divergence '''&nabla;'''·'''F''' is a convenient mnemonic, where the dot denotes something just reminiscent of the [[dot product]]: take the components of &nabla; (see [[del]]), apply them to the components of '''F''', and sum the results.
== Physical interpretation ==
In physical terms, the divergence of a vector field is the extent to which the vector field flow behaves like a source or a sink at a given point. Indeed, an alternative, but logically equivalent definition, gives the divergence as the [[derivative]] of the [[net flow]] of the vector field across the surface of a small [[sphere]] relative to the [[volume]] of the sphere. To wit,
:<math>( \operatorname{div}\,\mathbf{F}) (p) =
\lim_{r \rightarrow 0}
\int_{S(r)} {\mathbf{F}\cdot\mathbf{n}dS \over \frac{4}{3} \pi r^3 }</math>
where ''S''(''r'') denotes the sphere of radius ''r'' about a point ''p'' in '''R'''<sup>3</sup>, and the integral is a [[surface integral]] taken with respect to '''n''', the normal to that sphere.
In light of the physical interpretation, a vector field with constant zero divergence is called ''incompressible'' &ndash; in this case, no net flow can occur across any closed surface.
The intuition that the sum of all sources minus the sum of all sinks should give the net flow outwards of a region is made precise by the [[divergence theorem]].
== Properties ==
The following properties can all be derived from the ordinary differentiation rules of [[calculus]]. Most importantly, the divergence is a [[linear operator]], i.e.
:<math>\operatorname{div}( a\mathbf{F} + b\mathbf{G} )
= a\;\operatorname{div}( \mathbf{F} )
+ b\;\operatorname{div}( \mathbf{G} ) </math>
for all vector fields '''F''' and '''G''' and all [[real number]]s ''a'' and ''b''.
There is a [[product rule]] of the following type: if &phi; is a scalar valued function and '''F''' is a vector field, then
:<math>\operatorname{div}(\varphi \mathbf{F})
= \operatorname{grad}(\varphi) \cdot \mathbf{F}
+ \varphi \;\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{F}), </math>
or in more suggestive notation
:<math>\nabla\ |
[http://cubscast.com/ Cubscast - Chicago Cubs Podcast]
*[http://www.mlb-teams.com/cubs.php Chicago Cubs Resource - Complete information on Cubs]
{{MLB}}
{{Tribune}}
[[Category:Chicago Cubs| ]]
[[Category:Chicago culture|Cubs]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]
[[Category:Tribune Company subsidiaries]]
[[da:Chicago Cubs]]
[[de:Chicago Cubs]]
[[fr:Cubs de Chicago]]
[[ja:シカゴ・カブス]]
[[pt:Chicago Cubs]]
[[sv:Chicago Cubs]]
[[zh:芝加哥小熊]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coldcut</title>
<id>6655</id>
<revision>
<id>40787746</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:42:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.109.249.224</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Jonathan More's name was misspelled</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Coldcut promophoto.jpg|right|frame|Jonathan More (left) & Matt Black]]{{For|the meat usually served cold in sandwiches|cold cut}}
'''Coldcut''' is a duo comprising [[England|English]] [[DJ]]s [[Matt Black]] and [[Jonathan More]]. During their career they have encompassed a wide range of styles from [[hip hop music|hip hop]] and [[rap music|rap]] to [[electronica]] and [[jazz]]-inflected sounds. They began working together in the mid-eighties on the (then) [[pirate radio]] station [[Kiss 100|KissFM]]. Shortly thereafter they released their first single, "Say Kids, What Time Is It?", which marked the first stirrings of the UK's dance/cutup scene. This was followed by their influential remix of [[Eric B and Rakim]]'s "Paid in Full," which made the top 10 and was voted best [[remix]] of the year. Featuring a prominent [[Ofra Haza]] sample and a slew of other vocal cutups, it is now regarded as both a hip hop classic and a breakthrough in the remix field.
Their first major hit as Coldcut was the house-inflected "People Hold On," featuring a then-unknown [[Lisa Stansfield]]. The single took the U.K. by a storm, and the subsequent album featured such luminaries as [[Junior Reid]] (on the single "Stop This Crazy Thing") and [[Queen Latifah]].
In 1991 they started their own [[record label]], [[Ninja Tune]], which continues to release groundbreaking and extremely diverse music by a small army of like-minded artists. In 1997 the duo unveiled their own real time [[video manipulation]] [[software]], [http://www.vjamm.com VJamm]. Coldcut's current live and DJ sets rely on video as much as records, taking the concept of multimedia performance into largely uncharted territory.
Conceptually, Coldcut owes as much to the ideas of [[Beat generation|beat writer]] and cut-up theorist [[William S. Burroughs]], 1970s art / [[Industrial music|industrial]] group [[Throbbing Gristle]], and the religious writings of [[J. R. "Bob" Dobbs]] as much as to [[Hip hop music|Hip Hop]] originators like [[Grandmaster Flash]] or later innovators [[Double D and Steinski]].
Recognizing the power inherent in Burroughs' [[cut-up technique]] and its presence in [[hip hop music]], Moore and Black have relentlessly pushed the [[DIY ethic|D.I.Y.]] ethic and an understanding of play as a means of fostering greater interaction with and understanding of the world around you. The similarities between this ethos and that of [[hacker|hacking]] need hardly be stated. [[Ninja Tune]] uses a corporate facade to communicate via the marketplace itself, an idea first implemented by Throbbing Gristle via their own [[Industrial Records]] imprint.
One of the key aspects of the [[Ninja Tune]] ethos, [[Stealth]], implies that their following of DJs and listeners are "agents" in a Burroughsian sense, propagating the D.I.Y. ethic of play as an essentially subversive act by replaying and manipulating media under the radar of mainstream culture. Nowadays Coldcut reach a worldwide audience through their syndicated radio show [[Solid Steel]]. Black has recently (2003) worked with [[Penny Rimbaud]] (ex [[Crass]]) on [[Crass Agenda]]'s ''Savage Utopia'' project. Coldcut have recently released a new album, Sound Mirrors which has helped build up a massive underground audience thanks to the popularity of the single ''True Skool''. The song itself features an Indian sample from a cult Bollywood era making the track incredibly popular on the bhangra and desi scene and with most of the British Asian urban nation.
[[Image:Coldcutanimated screenshot.jpg|right|thumb|The Coldcut characters from the More Beats & Pieces video]]
==Discography==
* Out to Lunch with Ahead of Our Time (1988)
* Stop the Crazy Thing (1988)
* What's That Noise? (September 1989)
* Some Like It Cold (1990)
* Philosophy (1994)
* ColdKrushCuts - Mixed by Coldcut/DJ Food + DJ Krush (1996)
* [[Journeys by DJ]] - 70 minutes of Madness (1996)
* Coldcut & DJ Food Fight (January 1997)
* Let Us Play! (08 September, 1997)
* Let Us Replay! (January 1999)
* People Hold On - The Best of Coldcut (02 February, 2004)
* Sound Mirrors (26 January, 2006)
==External links==
*[http://coldcut.net Coldcut]
*[http://ninjatune.net Ninja Tune]
*[http://vjamm.com VJamm - AudioVisual VJ Software]
*[http://www.britishhiphop.co.uk britishhiphop.co.uk - The original UK Hip Hop History]
[[Category:British musical groups]]
[[de:Coldcut]]
[[nl:Coldcut]]
[[fr:Coldcut]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuisine</title>
<id>6656</id>
<revision>
<id>41786532</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:15:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BillFlis</username>
<id>846916</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Cuisines of the United States (''including Puerto Rico'') */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}
A '''cuisine''' (from [[French language|French]] ''cuisine'', meaning "cooking; culinary art; kitchen"; itself from [[Latin]] ''coquina'', meaning the same; itself from the Latin verb ''coquere'', meaning "to cook") is a specific set of [[cooking]] traditions and practices, often associated with a place of origin. [[Religion|Religious]] food laws can also exercise a strong influence on cuisine. A cuisine is primarily influenced by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade. (For example, the "Asian" dish [[chop suey]] clearly reflected the adaptation of Chinese immigrant cooking styles to the different ingredients available in North America.)
==Introduction==
The last century or so has produced enormous improvements in food production, preservation, storage and shipping. Today almost every locale in the world has access to not only its traditional cuisine, but also to many other world cuisines, as well. New cuisines are constantly evolving, as certain aesthetics rise and fall in popularity among professional [[chef|chefs]] and their clientele.
In addition to [[food]], a cuisine is also often held to include [[beverage|beverages]], including [[wine]], [[liquor]], [[tea]], [[coffee]] and other drinks. Increasingly, experts hold that it further includes the raw ingredients and original plants and animals from which they come. The [[Slow Food]] movement is a global effort to preserve local plants, animals, and techniques of food preparation. It has 70,000 adherents in 50 countries.
There are also different cultural attitudes to food, for example:
* In [[India]], consumption of food is regarded as an offering, a ''[[Yajna]]''. Thus the stomach is considered to be a ''homagunda'' (holy fire) and all the food consumed is an offering to the holy fire.
* In [[Japan]], [[Tea]] drinking is a fine-art and there is an elaborate ceremony about it. Not drinking tea in the right way is considered to be an act of barbarism.
The following section is an overview of world cuisines. It is incomplete. It is organized roughly by geographical area, starting in the Western hemisphere and working Eastward and from North to South. Please help complete it.
== Cuisines of the Americas ==
Cuisines of [[The Americas|the Americas]] are based on the cuisines of the countries from which the [[immigration|immigrant]] peoples came, primarily [[Europe]]. However, the traditional European cuisine has been adapted to a greater or lesser degree and many local ingredients and techniques have been added to the tradition.
=== Cuisines of Canada ===
''See also: [[Canadian cuisine|Canadian cuisines]] ''
* [[Cuisine of Atlantic Canada|Atlantic Canada]]
* [[Canadian Chinese cuisine|Canadian Chinese]]
* [[Fast food|Fast food]]
* [[Native American cuisine|First Nations]]
* [[Fusion cuisine|Fusion]]
* [[Cuisine of Quebec|Québécois]]
* [[Cuisine of Toronto|Toronto]]
* [[Cuisine of Vancouver|Vancouver]]
* [[Vegetarian cuisine|Vegetarian]]
=== Cuisines of the United States (''including Puerto Rico'') ===
''See also: [[Cuisine of the United States]]''
* [[Chinese American cuisine|Chinese American]]
* [[Barbecue]]
* [[Cuisine of California|California]]
* [[Euro-asian cuisine|Euro-asian]] (''a type of [[Fusion cuisine]]'')
* [[Fast food]]
* [[Floribbean]]
* [[Cuisine of Kentucky|Kentucky]]
* [[Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaii]]
* [[Cuisine of the Midwestern United States|Midwest]]
* [[Native American cuisine#Native American Cuisine of the United_States|Native American]]
* [[Cuisine of New England|New England]]
* [[Cuisine of New York City|New York City]]
* [[Cuisine of the Pennsylvania Dutch|Pennsylvania Dutch]]
* [[Cuisine of Philadelphia|Philadelphia]]
* [[Cuisine of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
* [[Cuisine of the Southern United States|Southern]]
** [[Cajun cuisine|Cajun]]
** [[Louisiana Creole cuisine|Creole]]
** [[Soul food]]
* [[Cuisine of the Southwestern United States|Southwest]]
** [[Tex-Mex cuisine|Tex-Mex]]
=== Cuisines of the Caribbean ===
''See also: [[Cuisine of the Caribbean]]''
* [[Cuisine of Cuba|Cuba]]
* [[Cuisine of Dominican republic|Dominican republic]]
* [[Cuisine of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
* [[Cuisine of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
=== Cuisines of Latin America ===
''See also: [[Latin A |
T [[July 20]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical anniversaries/January 3</title>
<id>13356</id>
<revision>
<id>15910971</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T22:34:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[January 3]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical anniversaries/September 2</title>
<id>13357</id>
<revision>
<id>15910972</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T22:30:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[September 2]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical anniversaries/January 2</title>
<id>13359</id>
<revision>
<id>15910974</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T22:35:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[January 2]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical anniversaries/March 1</title>
<id>13361</id>
<revision>
<id>15910976</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T22:29:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[March 1]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical anniversaries/February 2</title>
<id>13362</id>
<revision>
<id>15910977</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[February 2]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical anniversaries/January 31</title>
<id>13363</id>
<revision>
<id>15910978</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T22:29:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[January 31]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical anniversaries/December 31</title>
<id>13364</id>
<revision>
<id>15910979</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[December 31]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:WikiProject Days of the year</title>
<id>13365</id>
<revision>
<id>33170691</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-29T21:59:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mathwiz2020</username>
<id>196723</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a [[Wikipedia:WikiProject|WikiProject]] page relating to '''days of the year'''. It is meant to be a style guide for date pages (for example, [[January 1]], [[January 2]], [[January 3]], ''etc.''). It would be nice if all 366 historical anniversary pages were consistent in style.
'''''Warning:''' This is a '''template page'''. If you want to add something to "January 1", please don't edit this page but go to [[January 1]].''
----
'''January 1''' is the [[1 (number)|first]] day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. It is preceded by [[December 31]] (in the previous year), and succeeded by [[January 2]]. Following January 1, there are 364 days in the year (365 in [[leap year]]s).
{{JanuaryCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[45 BC]] - [[Julian calendar]] goes into effect
*[[404]] - Last [[gladiator]] competition in [[Rome]]
*[[1438]] - [[Albert II of Habsburg]] becomes King of [[Hungary]]
*[[1502]] - [[Rio de Janeiro]] discovered
*[[1622]] - In the [[Gregorian calendar]], January 1 is declared as the first day of the year, instead of for example [[March 25]] in [[England]]
*[[1651]] - [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] crowned King of [[Scotland]]
*[[1700]] - [[Russia]] accepts [[Julian calendar]]
*[[1707]] - [[John V of Portugal|John V]] becomes King of [[Portugal]]
*[[1788]] - First edition of ''[[The Times]]'', previously ''The Daily Universal Register'', was published.
*[[1801]] - Legislative union of [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] completed to form [[United Kingdom]]
*1801 - Discovery of [[1 Ceres]], first known [[asteroid]]
*[[1804]] - End of [[France|French]] rule in [[Haiti]].
*[[1808]] - Importation of [[Slavery|slave]]s into the [[United States]] is banned
*[[1863]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]] delivers the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] during the second year of the [[American Civil War]].
*1863 - The first claim under the [[Homestead Act]] is made for a farm in [[Nebraska]]
*[[1874]] - [[New York City]] annexes The [[Bronx]]
*[[1880]] - Construction of the [[Panama Canal]] begins
*[[1887]] - [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] is proclaimed [[Empress]] of [[India]] at the first Imperial Assemblage (''Durbar'') in [[Delhi]].
*[[1892]] - [[Ellis Island]] opens to begin accepting immigrants to the [[United States]]
*[[1893]] - [[Japan]] accepts the [[Gregorian calendar]]
*[[1897]] - [[Brooklyn, New York]] merges with [[New York City]]
*[[1899]] - End of [[Spain|Spanish]] rule in [[Cuba]].
* 1899 - [[Queens]] and [[Staten Island, New York|Staten Island]] merge with [[New York City]]
*[[1901]] - [[Nigeria]] becomes a [[United Kingdom|British]] protectorate
* 1901 - Establishment of the Commonwealth of [[Australia]] (Federation).
*[[1902]] - The first [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] game is played in [[Pasadena, California]]
*[[1908]] - A ball signifying [[New Year's Day]] drops in [[New York City]]'s [[Times Square]] for the first time
*[[1911]] - [[Northern Territory]] is separated from [[South Australia]]
*[[1912]] - Establishment of [[Republic of China]]
*[[1919]] - [[Edsel Ford]] succeeds his father as head of the [[Ford Motor Company]]
*[[1934]] - [[Alcatraz]] becomes a federal prison
*[[1937]] - [[Anastasio Somoza]] becomes [[President of Nicaragua]]
*1937 - The first [[Cotton Bowl (game)|Cotton Bowl]] game is played in [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: The word "[[United Nations]]" is first officially used to describe the Allied pact.
*[[1947]] - [[India]] becomes independent.
*[[1956]] - End of [[United Kingdom|Anglo]]-[[Egypt]]ian Condominium in [[Sudan]].
*[[1959]] - [[Cuba]]: [[Fulgencio Batista]] overthrown by [[Fidel Castro]].
*[[1960]] - [[Nigeria]] becomes independent
*[[1960]] - [[Cameroon]] becomes independent
*[[1962]] - [[Samoa|Western Samoa]] becomes independent from [[New Zealand]]
*[[1964]] - Federation of [[Rhodesia]] and [[Nyasaland]] dissolved
*[[1970]] - [[Unix epoch]] begins at 00:00:00 UTC.
*[[1971]] - [[Cigarette]] [[advertisement]]s banned on [[United States]] [[television]]
*[[1979]] - [[United States]] and [[China]] begin [[diplomacy|diplomatic relations]]
*[[1981]] - [[Palau]] becomes self-governing
* 1981 - [[Greece]] enters the [[European Community]]
*[[1983]] - The [[ARPANET]] officially changes to use the [[Internet Protocol]], creating the [[Internet]]
*[[1984]] - [[Brunei]] becomes a fully independent state.
* 1984 - [[AT&T]] is broken up into 22 independent units
* 1984 - [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] enter the [[European Community]]
*[[1986]] - [[Aruba]] becomes independent of [[Curacao]]
*[[1992]] - [[George H. W. Bush]] is first [[President of the United States]] to address the [[Australian Parliament]]
*[[1993]] - [[Czechoslovakia]] divides. Establishment of [[Slovakia|Slovak]] Republic and [[Czech Republic]]
*[[1994]] - [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) goes into effect
*[[1995]] - [[World Trade Organization]] goes into effect
* 1995 - [[Austria]], [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]] enter the [[European Union]]
*[[1996]] - [[Curacao]] gains limited self-government
*[[1998]] - Smoking is banned in all [[California]] bars and restaurants
*[[1999]] - [[Euro]] currency introduced.
*[[2002]] - [[Euro]] banknotes and coins become legal tender.
*[[2003]] - [[Luís Inácio Lula da Silva]] becomes president of [[Brazil]]
==Births==
*[[1431]] - [[Pope Alexander VI]], (d. [[1503]])
*[[1449]] - [[Lorenzo de Medici]], statesman, (d. [[1492]])
*[[1484]] - [[Huldrych Zwingli]], protestant leader, (d. [[1531]])
*[[1618]] - [[Bartolome Esteban Murillo|Bartolomé Esteban Murillo]], painter, (d. [[1682]])
*[[1735]] - [[Paul Revere]], silversmith, United States patriot, (d. [[1818]])
*[[1750]] - [[Frederick Muhlenberg]], first speaker of the [[United States House of Representatives]], (d. [[1801]])
*[[1752]] - [[Betsy Ross]], seamstress, (d. [[1836]])
*[[1805]] - [[Joseph Smith, Jr]], Mormon founder (d. [[1844]])
*[[1839]] - [[Ouida]], writer, (d. [[1908]])
*[[1857]] - [[Wojciech Kossak]], painter
*[[1860]] - [[George Washington Carver]], educator, inventor, botanist, (d. [[1943]])
*[[1863]] - [[Pierre de Coubertin]], historian and pedagogue, initiator of modern [[Olympic Games]], (d. [[1937]])
*[[1876]] - [[Harriet Brooks]], physicist, (d. [[1933]])
*[[1879]] - [[E. M. Forster]], novelist, (d. [[1970]])
*[[1887]] - [[Wilhelm Canaris]], admiral, (d. [[1945]])
*[[1890]] - [[Anton Melik]], [[Slovenes|Slovene]] geographer, (d. [[1966]])
*[[1894]] - [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], mathematician, (d. [[1974]])
*[[1895]] - [[J. Edgar Hoover]], [[FBI]] director, (d. [[1972]])
*[[1900]] - [[Xavier Cugat]], musician, bandleader, (d. [[1990]])
*[[1909]] - [[Barry Goldwater|Barry M. Goldwater]], [[Arizona]] [[United States Senate|Senator]], (d. [[1998]])
* 1909 - [[John Glenn]], astronaut, soldier, [[United States Senate|Senator]] from [[Ohio]]
* 1909 - [[Dana Andrews]], actor, (d. [[1992]])
*[[19 |
organization associated with the Yoshinkan style of aikido is known as the Yoshinkai, and has active branches in many parts of the world.
*[[Yoseikan]] was founded by [[Minoru Mochizuki]], who was an early student of O-Sensei and also of Jigoro Kano at the [[Kodokan]]. This style includes elements of aiki-budo together with aspects of karate, judo and other arts. It is now carried on by his son, [[Hiroo Mochizuki]], the creator of [[Yoseikan Budo]].
*[[Tomiki Aikido|Shodokan Aikido]] (often called Tomiki aikido, after its founder) use sparring and rule based competition in training as opposed to most others. People tend to compete to train rather than to train to compete. [[Kenji Tomiki]], an early student of O-Sensei and also of judo's [[Jigoro Kano]], believed that introducing an element of competition would serve to sharpen and focus the practice since it was no longer tested in real combat. This latter view was the cause of a split with O-Sensei's family who firmly believed that there was no place for competition in aikido training. Tomiki said that at no point did O-Sensei actually cast him out.
*The [[Ki Society]], founded by former head-instructor of the Hombu dojo 10th dan [[Koichi Tohei]], emphasizes very soft flowing techniques and has a special program for the development of [[ki]]. It also has a special system of ki-ranks alongside the traditional [[kyu]] and [[dan]] system. This style is called [[Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido]] (or [[Ki-Aikido]]).
*[[Iwama style|Iwama Ryu]] emphasizes the relation between weapon techniques and barehand techniques, and a great deal of emphasis is placed on weapons training. Since the death of its founder [[Morihiro Saito]], the [[Iwama style]] has been practiced by clubs within the Aikikai and an independent organization headed by [[Hitohiro Saito]]. Saito sensei was a long time uchideshi of O-Sensei, beginning in 1946 and staying with him through his death. Many consider that Saito sensei was the student who spent most time directly studying with O-Sensei. Saito sensei said he was trying to preserve and teach the art exactly as the founder of aikido taught it to him. Technically, Iwama-ryu seems to resemble the aikido O-Sensei was teaching in the early 50s mainly in the Iwama dojo. The technical repertoire is fairly large. The new, separate from Aikikai, Iwama Ryu Aikido has been renamed Iwama Shin Shin Aikishurenkai.
*[[Shin'ei Taido]] Founded by the late [[Noriaki Inoue]], nephew of [[Morihei Ueshiba]].
*[[Yoshokai]] aikido, begun by then-hachidan Takashi Kushida of Yoshinkan aikido, is a remarkably centralized style of aikido, with test techniques yearly passed down with explanations from the home dojo. The syllabus contains a considerable amount of weapons study, and like Yoshinkan, Yoshokai includes many solo movements and exercises.
*[[Doshinkan]] aikido, begun by Yukio Utada of Yoshinkan aikido. Utada was a student of both the Yoshinkan founder Gozo Shioda and Yoshokai founder Takashi Kushida. Like Yoshokai, the syllabus also contains a considerable amount of weapons study, and like Yoshinkan, Doshinkan includes many solo movements and exercises. Doshinkan Aikido (Aikido Association of North America and Doshinkan Aikido International) is still affiliated with the International Yoshinkan Aikido Federation.
*[[Tendo-ryu Aikido|Tendoryu Aikido]] Headed by [[Kenji Shimizu]].
*[[Shin Budo Kai]] headed by [[Shizuo Imaizumi]].
*[[Kokikai]] aikido, founded by [[Shuji Maruyama]] in 1986, focuses on minimalist but effective technique. It emphasizes natural stances and [[ukemi]] that do not require high [[breakfalls]], and deemphasizes [[atemi]] and techniques that cause pain or undue discomfort to [[uke]]. As such, it is considered by some to be a "soft" style of aikido.
*[[Seidokan]] Aikido, founded by [[Rod Kobayashi]]. Tends to utilize movements which are very small and economical. Encourages students to discover an aikido which is truly their own, stresses the importance of doing away with the extraneous and focusing on that which works
*[[Nippon Kan]] Headed by [[Gaku Homma]].
*[[Nishio AIkido]] a part of the Aikikai although techically well defined according to its head [[Shoji Nishio]]. Nishio Sensei passed away in March 2005.
*[[Nihon Goshin Aikido]] Headed by Richard Bowe. It is considered a "hard" style of aikido, combining techniques from karate, Judo and Daito-Ryu Aikijutsu. There are roughly a dozen dojos in the United States and none left in Japan. Founded by Shoto Morita in Japan circa 1950. Derivative styles include Nihon Goshin Aikijutsu founded by Walter Kopitov in 2000. For more information see "The Black Belt Master Course in Nihon Goshin Aikido".
*[[Takemusu Aiki Tomita Academy]]. Academy for the development of Takemusu Aiki founded in 1992 by [[Takeji Tomita]]. This training method incorporates [[Tai-Jutsu]], [[Aiki-Ken]] and [[Aiki-Jo]] for the study of the inter-related principles of Takemusu Aiki and Japanese [[Budo]].
*[[Aiki Manseido]] Headed by [[Kanshu Sunadomari]]. Independent style centred in [[Kyushu]], Japan.
<!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. -->
==Aikidoka==
It is sometimes said that in [[Japan]] the term ''aikidoka'' (合気道家) mainly refers to a [[professional]] while in the west, any one who practices may call themselves an aikidoka. The term ''aikidoist'' is also used as a more general term, especially by those who prefer to maintain the more restricted, Japanese, meaning of the term aikidoka.
:''See [[List of famous aikidoka]]''
==External links==
<!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. -->
* [http://www.aikiweb.com AikiWeb Aikido Information] is a comprehensive site on aikido, with essays, [http://www.aikiweb.com/forums/ forums], [http://www.aikiweb.com/gallery images], [http://www.aikiweb.com/reviews reviews], [http://www.aikiweb.com/columns columns], [http://www.aikiweb.com/wiki wiki], and other information. Chief among its notable content is its [http://www.aikiweb.com/search/ aikido dojo search engine].
* [http://www.aikidofaq.com The Aikido FAQ] A large but loose collection of essays, multimedia, and humour
* [http://aikidojournal.com/ Aikido Journal Website] the most comprehensive source of aikido historical information
<!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. -->
{{commons|Aikido}}
[[Category:Aikido|*]]
[[Category:Japanese martial arts]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[ar:أيكيدو]]
[[bg:Айкидо]]
[[ca:Aikido]]
[[cs:Aikido]]
[[da:Aikido]]
[[de:Aikidō]]
[[es:Aikido]]
[[eo:Aikido]]
[[fr:Aïkido]]
[[gl:Aikido]]
[[hr:Aikido]]
[[id:Aikido]]
[[it:Aikidō]]
[[he:אייקידו]]
[[lt:Aikido]]
[[hu:Aikido]]
[[ms:Aikido]]
[[nl:Aikido]]
[[ja:合気道]]
[[no:Aikido]]
[[pl:Aikido]]
[[pt:Aikido]]
[[ro:Aikido]]
[[ru:Айкидо]]
[[sk:Aikido]]
[[sl:Aikido]]
[[sr:Аикидо]]
[[fi:Aikido]]
[[sv:Aikido]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Art</title>
<id>752</id>
<revision>
<id>42116953</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:58:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.203.146.34|24.203.146.34]] ([[User talk:24.203.146.34|talk]]) to last version by Dustimagic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Winged victory.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Winged Victory of Samothrace]] exihibited in the [[Louvre]].]]
By its original and broadest definition, '''''[[art]]''''' (from the [[Latin]] ''ars'', meaning "skill" or "craft") is the product or process of the effective application of a body of knowledge and a set of skills; this meaning is preserved in such phrases as "[[liberal arts]]" and "[[martial arts]]". However, in the modern use of the word, which rose to prominence during the [[Renaissance]], ''art'' is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works (or '''artwork''') which, from concept to creation, adhere to the "[[creativity|creative]] impulse"&mdash;that is, art is distinguished from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any undisciplined pursuit of [[recreation]]. By both definitions of the word, artistic works have existed for almost as long as [[human|humankind]], from early [[pre-historic art]] to [[contemporary art]].
The '''creative arts''' are a collection of disciplines whose principal purpose is in the output of material that is compelled by a personal drive and echoes or reflects a message, mood, and [[symbolism]] for the viewer to interpret. As such, the term ''art'' may be taken to include forms as diverse as [[prose]] [[writing]], [[poetry]], [[dance]], [[acting]], [[music]], [[sculpture]] and [[painting]]. In addition to serving as a method of pure creativity and self-expression, the purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically-, religiously-, and philosophically-motivated art, to create a sense of [[beauty]] (see ''[[aesthetics]]'' and ''[[fine art]]'') or pleasure, or to generate strong [[emotion]]s; the purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.
As a form of [[culture|cultural]] expression, art may be defined by the pursuit of [[diversity]] and the usage of [[narrative]]s of liberation and exploration (i.e. [[art history]], [[art criticism]], and [[art theory]]) to mediate its boundaries. This distinction m |
liday in most Christian countries, a notable exception being the [[United States]] (unless [[Christmas Day]] falls on a [[Sunday]] like it did in [[2005]] and will again in [[2011]], in which it is the observed federal holiday). In Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, and Scandinavia, Christmas Day and the following day are called First and Second Christmas Day.
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[Saint Stephen]]
*[[St. Stephen's Day]], a public holiday in [[Catalonia]], [[Croatia]], [[Czech Republic]], and the [[Republic of Ireland]].
* The first [[twelve days of Christmas|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
*[[Boxing Day]] in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
*[[Wrenboys|Wren day]] in Ireland and the [[Isle of Man]].
*[[Australia]] - [[Proclamation Day]] (South Australian [[public holiday]]), for the foundation of the [[Australian states|Australian state]] of [[South Australia]] on [[December 28]] [[1836]] but commemorated on this day.
*[[Holidays in Slovenia|Slovenia]] - [[Independence and Unity Day]] ([[1990]])
*[[Public holidays in South Africa|South Africa]] - Day of Goodwill, a public holiday
*First day of [[Kwanzaa]]
*[[Mandala Pooja]] at [[Sabarimala]] in [[Kerala]], [[India]]
*[[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]] - Tsunami Awareness Day/Tsunami Memorial (or Rememberance) Day
==Other annual occurrences==
*Period of [[Ursids]] [[meteor shower]] ends about this day
*[[Wrenboys]] celebrate [[Wren]] in Ireland
*First day of [[Junkanoo]] street parade in the [[Bahamas]] (the second day is on the [[New Year's Day]])
*The First day of [[Hanukkah]] in the year [[2005]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/26 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/26 Today in History: December 26]
----
[[December 25]] - [[December 27]] - [[November 26]] - [[January 26]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:26 Desember]]
[[ang:26 Gēolmōnaþ]]
[[ar:26 ديسمبر]]
[[an:26 d'abiento]]
[[ast:26 d'avientu]]
[[bg:26 декември]]
[[be:26 сьнежня]]
[[bs:26. decembar]]
[[ca:26 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 26]]
[[cv:Раштав, 26]]
[[co:26 di decembre]]
[[cs:26. prosinec]]
[[cy:26 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:26. december]]
[[de:26. Dezember]]
[[et:26. detsember]]
[[el:26 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:26 de diciembre]]
[[eo:26-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 26]]
[[fo:26. desember]]
[[fr:26 décembre]]
[[fy:26 desimber]]
[[ga:26 Nollaig]]
[[gl:26 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 26일]]
[[hr:26. prosinca]]
[[io:26 di decembro]]
[[id:26 Desember]]
[[ia:26 de decembre]]
[[is:26. desember]]
[[it:26 dicembre]]
[[he:26 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:26 Desember]]
[[ka:26 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:26 gòdnika]]
[[ku:26'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:26 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 26]]
[[lb:26. Dezember]]
[[li:26 december]]
[[hu:December 26]]
[[mk:26 декември]]
[[mi:26 Hakihea]]
[[ms:26 Disember]]
[[nap:26 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:26 december]]
[[ja:12月26日]]
[[no:26. desember]]
[[nn:26. desember]]
[[oc:26 de decembre]]
[[os:26 декабры]]
[[pl:26 grudnia]]
[[pt:26 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:26 decembrie]]
[[ru:26 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 26.]]
[[sco:26 December]]
[[sq:26 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:26 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 26]]
[[sk:26. december]]
[[sl:26. december]]
[[sr:26. децембар]]
[[su:26 Désémber]]
[[fi:26. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:26 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 26]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 26]]
[[tt:26. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 26]]
[[th:26 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:26 tháng 12]]
[[tr:26 Aralık]]
[[uk:26 грудня]]
[[wa:26 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 26]]
[[zh:12月26日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 26]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Definable number</title>
<id>8361</id>
<revision>
<id>39006907</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T02:13:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.63.96.84</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notion does not exhaust "unambiguously described" numbers */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A [[real number]] ''a'' is '''first-order definable in the language of set theory, without parameters''', if there is a formula ''&phi;'' in the language of [[set theory]], with one [[free variable]], such that ''a'' is the unique real number such that ''&phi;(a)'' holds (in the [[von Neumann universe]] V).
For the purposes of this article, such reals will be called simply '''''definable numbers'''''. This should not be understood to be standard terminology.
==General facts==
The definable numbers form a [[field (mathematics)|field]] containing all the familiar real numbers such as 0, 1, &pi;, ''e'', et cetera. In particular, it contains all the numbers named in the [[mathematical constants]] article, and all [[algebraic number]]s (and therefore all [[rational number]]s). However, most real numbers are not definable: the [[set]] of all definable numbers is [[countably infinite]] (because the set of all logical formulas is) while the set of real numbers is [[uncountable set|uncountably infinite]] (see [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]). As a result, [[almost all|most]] real numbers have no description (in the same sense of "most" as 'most real numbers are not rational').
The field of definable numbers is not [[complete space|complete]]; there exist convergent [[sequence]]s of definable numbers whose [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] is not definable (since every real number is the limit of a sequence of rational numbers). However, if the sequence itself is definable in the sense that we can specify a single formula for all its terms, then its limit will necessarily be a definable number.
While every [[computable number]] is definable, the converse is not true: [[Chaitin's constant]] is definable but not computable.
One may also talk about definable [[complex number]]s: complex numbers which are uniquely defined by a logical formula. A [[complex number]] is definable if and only if both its real part and its imaginary part are definable. The definable complex numbers also form a field.
The related concept of "standard" numbers, which can only be defined within a finite time and space, is used to motivate axiomatic [[internal set theory]], and provide a workable
formulation for [[illimited number|illimited]] and [[infinitesimal number]]. Definitions of the hyper-real line within non-standard analysis (the subject area dealing with such numbers) overwhelmingly include the usual, uncountable set of real numbers as a subset.
==Notion does not exhaust "unambiguously described" numbers==
Not every number that we would informally say has been unambiguously described, is definable in the above sense. For example, we can enumerate all such definable numbers by the [[Gödel number]]s of their defining formulas, and then use [[Cantor's diagonal argument]] to find a particular real that is not first-order definable in the same language.
==Other notions of definability==
The notion of definability treated in this article has been chosen primarily for definiteness, not on the grounds that it's more useful or interesting than other notions. Here we treat a few others:
===Definability in other languages or structures===
====Language of arithmetic====
The [[language of arithmetic]] has symbols for 0, 1, the successor operation, addition, and multiplication, intended to be interpreted in the usual way over the [[natural number]]s. Since no variables of this language range over the [[real]]s, we cannot simply copy the earlier definition of definability. Rather, we say that a real ''a'' is '''''definable in the language of arithmetic''''' (or '''''[[arithmetical hierarchy|arithmetical]]''''') if its [[Dedekind cut]] can be defined as a [[predicate]] in that language; that is, if there is a first-order formula ''&phi;'' in the language of arithmetic, with two free variables, such that
: <math>(\forall m)(\forall n)\phi(n,m)\iff\frac{n}{m}<a</math>
====2<sup>nd</sup>-order language of arithmetic====
The second-order language of arithmetic is the same as the first-order language, except that variables and quantifiers are allowed to range over sets of naturals. A real that is second-order definable in the language of arithmetic is called '''''[[analytical hierarchy|analytical]]'''''.
===Definability with ordinal parameters===
Sometimes it is of interest to consider definability ''with parameters''; that is, to give a definition relative to another object that remains undefined. For example, a real ''a'' (or for that matter, any set ''a'') is called '''''ordinal definable''''' if there is a first-order formula ''&phi;'' in the language of set theory, with ''two'' free variables, and an [[ordinal]] &gamma;, such that ''a'' is the unique object such that ''&phi;''(''a'',&gamma;) holds (in V).
The other sorts of definability thus far considered have only countably many defining formulas, and therefore allow only countably many definable reals. This is not true for ordinal definability, because an ordinal definable real is defined not only by the formula ''&phi;'', but also by the ordinal &gamma;. In fact it is consistent with [[ZFC]] that ''all'' reals are ordinal-definable, and therefore that there are uncountably many ordinal-definable reals. However it is also consistent with ZFC that there are only countably many ordinal-definable reals.
== See also ==
* [[Berry paradox]]
* [[Constructible number]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[eo:Difinebla nombro]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diego de Almagro</title>
<id>8362</id>
<revision>
<id>40811197</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T04:08:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cantus</username>
<id>46083</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the city in [[Chile]], see'' [[Diego de Almagro, Chile]].
[[Image:almagro.jpg|thumb|250px|Diego de Almagro]]
'''Diego de Almagro''' ([[1475]] &ndash; [[1538]]), also known as '''[[Adelantado|El Adelantado]]''' and '''El Viejo''' (The Elder), was |
e>
<id>91052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">*'''[[Callisto (mythology)|Callisto]]''', the mythological figure
*'''[[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]''', the moon of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]
*'''[[Callisto (software)|Callisto]]''', the [[content management system]]
*'''[[Callisto (TV)|Callisto]]''', a recurring character in [[Xena: Warrior Princess]]; although set in the ancient Greek world there is no connection to the attributes of the mythological character.
*'''[[Callisto (comics)|Callisto]]''', an [[X-Men]] character.
*the codename of a Cadillac roadster design in the early 1980s, which became the Cadillac Allante.
*'''[[Callisto (band)|Callisto]]''', a Finnish metal band
{{disambig}}
[[als:Kallisto]]
[[de:Kallisto]]
[[es:Calisto]]
[[fr:Callisto]]
[[ko:칼리스토]]
[[hr:Kalisto]]
[[it:Callisto (disambigua)]]
[[he:קליסטו]]
[[ja:カリスト (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[no:Callisto]]
[[pl:Kallisto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Church of England</title>
<id>5955</id>
<revision>
<id>42087195</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:12:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
<id>7580</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Diocese of Norwich]] to [[Anglican Diocese of Norwich]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Church of England''' is the officially [[State religion|established]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[church]] in [[England]], and acts as the 'mother' and senior branch of the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]], as well as a founding member of the [[Porvoo Communion]].
[[Image:Hereford_Cathedral_Interior_May_2004.jpg|right|250px|thumb|[[Hereford Cathedral|Hereford]] is one of the church's forty-three [[cathedral]]s, many with histories stretching back centuries.]]
== Theology and sociology ==
The Church of England considers itself to stand both in a reformed tradition and in a catholic (but not [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]) church tradition: ''Reformed'' insofar as many of the principles of the [[Protestant Reformation]] have influenced it, and insofar as it does not accept Papal authority; Catholic, in that it views itself as the 'unbroken continuation of the early apostolic and later medieval' "universal church", rather than as a 'new formation'. In its practices the Church of England is mixed: in some of its congregations worship remains closer to Roman Catholicism than most [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Churches, but in others it is difficult to distinguish between the Anglican forms in use and the uses of other Evangelical bodies. It holds many relatively conservative [[theology|theological]] beliefs, its [[liturgy|liturgical]] form of worship is traditional, and its organisation embodies a belief in the appropriateness of the historical [[episcopal]] hierarchy of [[archbishop]]s, [[bishop]]s, and [[diocese]]s.
In many people's eyes the Church of England has as its primary distinguishing mark its breadth and 'open-mindedness'. In addition to the traditional mainstream, the church has long included "[[high church]]" and "[[low church]]" factions with their own particular preferences. Today, practices range from those of the [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]], who emphasise [[liturgy]] and [[sacrament]]s, to the far more preaching-centred and less ritualistic services of [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]]s and the high-octane gatherings of the [[Charismatic]]s. But this "broad church" faces various contentious doctrinal questions raised by the development of modern society, such as conflicts over the ordination of women as priests (accepted in 1992 and begun in 1994), and the status of non-celibate [[homosexuality|homosexual]] clergy (still unsettled today, but with a majority taking a conservative view). In July 2005, the divisions were once again apparent, as the [[General Synod]] voted to "set in train" the process of allowing the consecration of women as [[bishops]], scheduling debate on the specific legislation for February, 2006.
== Governance and administration ==
The British monarch (at present, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom | Elizabeth II]]), has the constitutional title of "[[Supreme Governor of the Church of England]]".
In practice, however, the administrative [[leadership]] of the church falls to the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. The worldwide [[Anglican Communion]] of independent national or regional churches recognises the Archbishop of Canterbury as a kind of 'symbolic' leader. The Most Revd and Rt Hon. Dr [[Rowan Williams]] has served as Archbishop of Canterbury since 2002.
The Church of England has a legislative body, the [[General Synod of the Church of England | General Synod]]. However, fundamental legislation still has to pass through the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom | UK Parliament]]. The church has its own judicial branch, known as the [[Ecclesiastical courts]], which likewise form a part of the UK court system, but are largely moribund, since the provisions for the enforcement of ecclesiastical rulings were mostly removed a century ago by various High Court decisions.
In addition to England proper, the jurisdiction of the Church of England extends to the [[Isle of Man]], the [[Channel Islands]], the [[Isles of Scilly]], and a small part of [[Wales]]. In recent years, expatriate congregations on the continent of [[Europe]] have become the [[Diocese in Europe]].
== Appointments ==
All Rectors and Vicars are appointed by Patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, by the bishop, or even appointed by the crown. No clergyman can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to Her Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience "in all things lawful and honest" to the bishop. Usually the archdeacon inducts into the actual possession of the benefice property - Church and Parsonage. Curates are appointed by Rectors and Vicars, but if priests-in-charge then by the bishop after consultations with the patron. Cathedral clergy are appointed some by the Crown, some by the bishop, and some by the Dean and Chapter themselves. Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy, or are licensed by the bishop when appointed (e.g. curates), or simply with permission.
The process of appointing diocesan bishops is more complex, and is handled by a body called the Crown Nominations Committee, which submits names to the Prime Minister (acting on behalf of the Crown) for consideration. This process is described in the article [[Appointment of Church of England Bishops]].
==History==
''Main article: [[History of the Church of England]]''
[[Image:Rochester cathedral stained glass 2.jpg|right|thumb|Stained glass window in [[Rochester Cathedral]], Kent]]
The Church of England traces its formal corporate history from the 597 [[Augustine of Canterbury | Augustinian]] mission, stresses its continuity and identity with the primitive universal Western church, and notes the consolidation of its particular independent and national character in the post-[[Reformation]] events of [[Tudor dynasty | Tudor]] England.
Christianity arrived in Britain in the first or second centuries (probably via the tin trade route through [[Ireland]] and [[Spain]]), and existed independently of the Church of Rome, as did many other Christian communities of that era. Records note British bishops as attending the Council of [[Arles]] in [[314]]. The [[Pope]] sent [[Augustine of Canterbury |Saint Augustine]] from Rome in the [[6th century]] to evangelise the [[Angles]] in ([[597]]). With the help of Christians already residing in [[Kent]], he established his church in [[Canterbury,_Kent|Canterbury]], the capital of Kent, and became the first in the series of archbishops of Canterbury.
Simultaneously, the [[Celtic Church]] of [[Columba|St.Columba]] continued to evangelise [[Scotland]]. The Celtic Church of North Britain submitted in some sense to the 'authority' of Rome at the [[Synod of Whitby]] in 644. Over the next few centuries, the Roman system introduced by Augustine gradually absorbed the pre-existing [[Celtic Christianity | Celtic Christian]] churches.
England adhered to the the Roman Catholic church for nearly a thousand years, before the church separated itself from Rome in 1534, during the reign of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Under his son, [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] the church become theologically more radical before briefly rejoining the Roman church during the reign of Queen [[Mary I of England|Mary I]], in 1555. The settlement under [[Elizabeth I of England| Elizabeth I]] of a mildly protestant, catholic, apostolic, and established church (i.e subject to and part of the state) that accommodates a wide range of theological positions has essentially been its character since.
==Related churches==
The Church of England's sister church in Ireland, the [[Church of Ireland]], also went through the reformation in the 16th century at the behest of Ireland's English rulers. Unlike in England, the majority of the populace did not go along with this, preferring continued adherence to [[Roman Catholicism]]; but the Church of Ireland retained official [[established church]] status in Ireland until 1871. To this day it remains organized on an all-island basis.
In [[Scotland]], the [[Church of Scotland]] is recognised in law ([[Church of Scotland Act 1921]]) as the "national church" (although it is not "established" in the same manner as the Church of England, having fuller autonomy of governance). The Church of Scotland has a [[Presbyterian]] system of government. A smaller Anglican church also exists in Scotland, known as the [[Scottish Episcopal Chur |
issiles traveling at up to 2 mile/s (3 km/s), the Arrow is expected to perform much better than the Patriot did in the Gulf War. [[Taiwan]] is also engaged in the development of an anti-ballistic missile system, based on its indigenously developed Tien Kung-II (Sky Bow) SAM system. Although reports suggest a promising system, the ROC government continues to show strong interest towards the American [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] (THAAD) program.
<!--'A link to a section on international responses to American NMD is needed. A link to international ABM systems and Non-US systems is needed.'-->
==See also==
*[[National Missile Defense]]
*[[nuclear disarmament]]
*[[nuclear proliferation]]
*[[nuclear warfare]]
*[[atmospheric reentry]]
*[[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]]
*[[Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System]]
*[[sprint (missile)]]
*[[Spartan (missile)]]
*[[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard/Sentinel ABM system]]
==External links==
* The [http://www.cdi.org Center for Defense Information] has many resources on ABMs and NMD.
* The [http://www.fas.org/ssp/bmd/index.html Federation of American Scientists], as usual, is a wonderful resource for technical data, full-text of key documents, and analysis.
* [http://www.missilethreat.com/systems/ MissileThreat.com], a listing and descriptions of ABM systems around the world.
* [http://www.srmsc.org/ The unofficial website of the Stanley R. Mickelson Safeguard complex] contains relevant images and history of the Safeguard program.
* [http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/vigilant/intro.html History of U.S. Air Defense Systems]
{{Missile types}}
:<br />
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Anti-ballistic missiles|*]]
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[[nn:ABM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 29</title>
<id>1793</id>
<revision>
<id>41906422</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:54:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jimmmmmmmmm</username>
<id>515208</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ added Babayaro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
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|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=29}}
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'''[[August 29]]''' is the 241st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (242nd in [[leap year]]s), with 124 days remaining. It is also the 1st day of [[Thoth]] - which is the 1st day of the Egyptian Horoscope. Thoth is the Ibis-headed god of knowledge.
==Events==
*[[708]] - Copper coins are minted in [[Japan]] for the first time (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: August 10, 708).
*[[1189]]- [[Ban Kulin]] wrote "The Charter of Kulin", which become a symbolic "birth certificate" of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian]] statehood
*[[1261]] - [[Pope Urban IV|Urban IV]] becomes [[Pope]], the last man to do so without being a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] first.
*[[1475]] - The [[Treaty of Picquigny]] ends a brief war between [[France]] and [[England]].
*[[1484]] - [[Pope Innocent VIII|Cardinal Giovanni Battista Cibo]], a staunch supporter of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], is elected Pope Innocent VIII.
*[[1521]] - The [[Ottoman Turks]] capture [[Nándorfehérvár]], now known as [[Belgrade]].
*[[1526]] - [[Battle of Mohács]]: The Ottoman Turks led by [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] defeat and kill the last [[Jagiellonian]] king of [[Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]].
*[[1533]] - [[Inca]] [[emperor]] [[Atahualpa]] is [[Execution (legal)|executed]] in [[Cajamarca]] by the garrote.
*[[1541]] - The Ottoman Turks capture [[Buda]], the capital of the Hungarian Kingdom.
*[[1756]] - [[Frederick the Great]] attacks [[Saxony]], beginning the [[Seven Years' War]].
*[[1786]] - [[Shays' Rebellion]], an armed uprising of [[Massachusetts]] farmers, begins in response to high debt and tax burdens.
*[[1831]] - [[Michael Faraday]] discovers [[electromagnetic induction]].
*[[1842]] - The [[Tokugawa shogunate]] orders the local [[Daimyo|daimyō]] to begin providing foreign ships with fresh water and supplies when requested. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 24, 1842).
*[[1862]] - [[Battle of Aspromonte]]: [[Italy|Italian]] royal forces defeat rebels.
*[[1869]] - The [[Mount Washington Cog Railway]] opens, making it the world's first [[cog railway]].
*[[1871]] - [[Emperor Meiji]] orders the [[Abolition of the han system]] and the establishment of [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectures]] as local centers of administration. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 14, 1871).
*[[1885]] - [[Gottlieb Daimler]] patents the world's first [[motorcycle]].
*[[1895]] - The formation of the [[Rugby League| Northern Rugby Union]] at the George Hotel, [[Huddersfield]], [[England]].
*[[1896]] - [[Chop suey]] is invented in [[New York City]].
*[[1898]] - The [[Goodyear]] tire company is founded.
*[[1907]] - The [[Quebec Bridge]] collapses during construction, killing 75 workers.
*[[1910]] - [[Japan]] changes [[Korea|Korea's]] name to [[Joseon|Chōsen]] and appoints a governor-general to rule its new colony.
*[[1911]] - [[Ishi]], considered the last [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] to make contact with whites, emerges from the wilderness of northeastern [[California]].
*[[1922]] - Turkish forces set fire to [[Smyrna]], in [[Asia Minor]].
*[[1930]] - The last 36 remaining inhabitants of [[St Kilda, Scotland|St Kilda]] are voluntarily evacuated to Scotland.
*[[1943]] - [[Occupation of Denmark|German-occupied Denmark]] [[scuttle]]s most of its navy; Germany dissolves Danish government.
*[[1944]] - [[Slovak National Uprising]] takes place as 60,000 [[Slovaks|Slovak]] troops turn against the [[Nazi]] rulers.
*[[1949]] - [[Soviet atomic bomb project]]: The [[Soviet Union]] tests its first [[atomic bomb]], known as ''First Lightning'' or ''[[Joe 1]]'', at [[Semipalatinsk Test Site|Semipalatinsk]], [[Kazakhstan]].
*[[1952]] - Premiere of [[John Cage]]'s ''4'33"'' in [[Woodstock, New York]].
*[[1958]] - [[United States Air Force Academy]] opens in [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]].
*[[1966]] - Last [[The Beatles|Beatles]] concert, in [[San Francisco, California]].
*1966 - Execution of [[Sayyid Qutb]], a leading theoretician of the Egyptian [[Muslim Brotherhood]].
*[[1982]] - The synthetic [[chemical element]] [[Meitnerium]], [[atomic number]] 109, is first synthesized at the [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung]] in [[Darmstadt]], Germany.
*[[1991]] - [[Supreme Soviet]] suspends all activities of the Soviet Communist Party.
*[[1995]] - [[NATO]] launches [[Operation Deliberate Force]] against Bosnian Serb forces.
*[[1996]] - [[Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801]], a [[Vnukovo Airlines]] [[Tupolev Tu-154]] crashes into a mountain on the [[Arctic]] island of [[Spitsbergen]], killing all 141 aboard.
*[[1997]] - At least 98 villagers are killed by the [[Armed Islamic Group|GIA]] in the [[Rais massacre]], [[Algeria]].
*1997 - Serial killer [[Ángel Maturino Reséndiz]] bludgeons to death [[Christopher Maier]] of [[Lexington, Kentucky]], [[United States|USA]], the first of nine victims.
*[[2003]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim]], the [[Shia Muslim]] leader in [[Iraq]], is [[assassin]]ated in a [[terrorism|terrorist]] bombing, along with nearly 100 worshippers as they leave a [[mosque]] in [[Najaf]].
*[[2005]] - [[Hurricane Katrina]] [[Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans|devastates]] much of the [[U.S. Gulf Coast]] from [[Louisiana]] (especially [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]) to the [[Florida Panhandle]], killing more than 1,417 and costing over 75 billion dollars in damage.
*2005 - [[Esquivalience]] found to be a false word
==Births==
*[[1619]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], French minister of finance (d. [[1683]])
*[[1628]] - [[John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath]], English royalist statesman (d. [[1701]])
*[[1632]] - [[John Locke]], English philosopher (d. [[1704]])
*[[1725]] - [[Charles Townshend]], English politician (d. [[1767]])
*[[1756]] - [[Heinrich Graf von Bellegarde]], Austrian field marshal and statesman (d. [[1845]])
*[[1756]] - [[Jan Śniadecki]], Polish mathematician, philosopher and astronomer (d. [[1830]])
*[[1777]] - [[Nikita Yakovlevich Bichurin]], Russian Sinologist (d. 1852)
*[[1780]] - [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres|Jean Ingres]], French painter (d. [[1867]])
*[[1805]] - [[Frederick Maurice]], English theologian (d. [[1872]])
*[[1809]] - [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.]], American physician and writer (d. [[1894]])
*[[1810]] - [[Juan Bautista Alberdi]], founding father of the Argentine Republic (d. [[1884]])
*[[1843]] - [[David B. Hill]], Governor of New York (d. [[1910]])
*[[1844]] - [[Edward Carpenter]], English Socialist poet (d. [[1929]]
*[[1862]] - [[Andrew Fisher]], fifth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1928]])
*1862 - [[Maurice Maeterlinck]], Belgian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1949]])
*[[1871]] - [[Albert Lebrun]], French politician (d. [[1950]])
*[[1876]] - [[Charles F. Kettering]], American inventor (d. [[1958]])
*[[1898]] - [[Preston Sturges]], American screenwriter (d. [[1959]])
*[[1904]] - [[Werner Forssmann]], German physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1979]])
*[[1905]] - [[Dhyan Chand]], Indian hockey player (d. [[1979]])
*[[1915]] - [[Ingrid Bergman]], Swedish actress (d. [[1982]])
*[[1916]] - [[George Montgomery]], American actor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1917]] - [[Isabel Sanford]], American actress (d. [[2004]])
*[[1920]] - [[Charlie Parker]], American jazz saxophonist and composer (d. [[1955]])
*[[1923]] - [[Richard Attenborough|The Lord Attenborough]], English film director
*[[1924]] - [[Consuelo Velázquez]], Mexican songwriter (d. [[2005]])
*1924 - [[Dinah Washington]], American singer (d. [[1963]])
*[[1933]] - [[Arnold Koller]], Swiss Federal Councilor
*[[1936]] - [[J |
as one of the midwives that hid the child, while [[Cronus]] consumed the deceiving rock handed to him by [[Gaia]].
The second version helps to explain how Hecate gains the title of the "[[Queen of Ghosts]]" and her role as a goddess of sorcery. Similar to totems of Hermes&mdash;''herms''&mdash; placed at borders as a ward against danger, images of Hecate, as a [[liminal]] goddess, could also serve in such a protective role. It became common to place statues of the goddess at the gates of cities, and eventually domestic doorways. Over time, the association of keeping out evil spirits, lead to the belief that if offended Hecate could also let in evil spirits. Thus invocations to Hecate arose as her the supreme governess of the borders between the normal world and the spirit world <ref name="Restless_Dead"/>.
Eventually, Hecate’s power resembled that of sorcery. [[Medea]], who was a priestess of Hecate, used witchcraft in order to handle magic herbs and poisons with skill, and to be able to stay the course of rivers {{fact}}, or check the paths of the stars and the moon.
Implacable Hecate has been called "tender-hearted", probably because she was concerned with the disappearance of Persephone, and addressed Demeter with sweet words when the goddess was distressed.
Although she was never truly incorporated among the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian]] gods, the modern understanding of Hecate is derived from the syncretic [[Hellenistic]] culture of Alexandria. In the magical papyri of Ptolemaic Egypt, she is called the she-dog or bitch, and her presence is signified by the barking of dogs. She sustained a large following, though, remaining a goddess of protection and childbirth. In late imagery she also has two ghostly dogs as servants by her side.
In modern times Hecate has become a prevalent figure in [[feminism|feminist]]-inspired [[Neopagan]] religions, and a version of Hecate has been appropriated by [[Wicca]] and other modern magic-practising traditions.
== Relations in the Greek Pantheon ==
Hecate is a pre-Olympian [[chthonic]] goddess. The Greek sources do not offer a story of her parentage, beyond the ''Theogony'', or of her relations in the Greek pantheon: Sometimes Hecate is a Titaness, daughter of [[Perses]] and [[Asteria]], and a mighty helper and protector of mankind. Her continued presence was explained by asserting that, because she was the only Titan that aided Zeus in the [[Titanomachia|battle of gods and Titans]], she was not banished into the underworld realms after their defeat by the Olympians.
It is also told that she is the daughter of [[Demeter]] or Pheraia. Hecate, like Demeter, was a goddess of the earth and fertility. Sometimes she is called a daughter of [[Zeus]].
Like many ancient mother or earth-goddesses she remains unmarried and has no regular consort. On the other side she is the mother of many monsters, such as [[Scylla]].
== Other names and epithets ==
<!--these need a little explication and a mention of sources where they appear-->
*<b>Chthonian</B> (Earth/Underworldgoddess)
*<b>Crataeis</B> (the Mighty One)
*<b>Enodia</b> (Goddess of the paths)
*<b>Antania</b> (Enemy of mankind)
*<b>Kurotrophos</b> (Nurse of the Children and Protectress of mankind)
*[[Artemis]] of the crossroads
*<b>Propylaia</b> (the one before the gate)
*<b>Propolos</b> (the attendant who leads)
*<b>Phosphoros</b> (the light-bringer)
*<b>Soteira</b> ("Saviour")
*<b>Prytania</b> (invincible Queen of the Dead)
*<b>Trioditis</b> (gr.) <b>Trivia</B> (latin: Goddess of Three Roads)
*<b>Klêidouchos</B> (Keeper of the Keys)
*<b>Tricephalus</b> or <b>Triceps</B> (The Three-Headed)
=== Goddess of the crossroads ===
Hecate had a special role at three-way crossroads, where the Greeks set poles with masks of each of her heads facing different directions {{fact}}
The crossroad aspect of Hecate stems from her original sphere as a goddess of the wilderness and untamed areas. This led to sacrifice in order for safe travel into these areas. This role is similar to lesser [[Hermes]], that is, a god of [[liminal]] points or boundaries.
Hecate is the Greek version of ''[[Trivia]]'' "the three ways" in [[Roman mythology]]. [[Eligius]] in the [[7th century CE]] reminded his recently converted flock in Flanders "No Christian should make or render any devotion to the gods of the trivium, where three roads meet, to the fanes or the rocks, or springs or groves or corners", acts the [[Druid]]s often did.
=== Goddess of sorcery ===
The goddess of sorcery or magic is Hecate's most common modern title.
== Emblems ==
<!--[[Image:Hecate and Cerberus.jpg|thumb|right|Hecate, goddess of witchcraft and sorcery, with [[Cerberus]]; Greek bowl ([[krater]]) made in the 4th century B.C.]]-->
Traditionally, Hecate is represented as carrying torches, very often has a knife, and may appear holding a rope, a key, a [[phial]] {{fact}}, flowers {{fact}}, or a [[pomegranate]] {{fact}}.
The torch is presumably a symbol of the light that illuminates the darkness, as the Greeks secured Hecate in her role as the bringer of wisdom. Her knife represents her role as midwife in cutting the umbilical cord (possibly symbolized by the rope), as well as severing the link between the body and spirit at death. This may be the origin of the traditional ritual knives of witches. The key is significant to Hecate's role as gatekeeper, being the one who could open the doors to sacred knowledge. The Orphic Hymns list her as the "keybearing Queen of the entire Cosmos." The pomegranate was seen by the Ancient Greeks as the fruit of the underworld, though it was also used as a love-gift between Greek men and women. This may be because a pomegranate was eaten by Persephone, binding her to the underworld and to Hades.
In the so-called "[[Chaldean Oracles]]" that were edited in Alexandria, she was also associated with a serpentine maze around a spiral, known as Hecate's wheel (the "Strophalos of Hecate", verse 194 of Isaac Preston Cory's 1836 translation). The symbolism referred to the serpent's power of rebirth, to the labyrinth of knowledge through which Hecate could lead mankind, and to the flame of life itself: "The life-producing bosom of Hecate, that Living Flame which clothes itself in Matter to manifest Existence" (verse 55 of Cory's translation of the [[Chaldean Oracles]]).
===Animals===
The she-[[dog]] is the animal most commonly associated with Hecate. She was sometimes called the 'Black she-dog' and black dogs were once sacrificed to her in purification rituals. At Colophon in Thrace, Hecate might be manifest as a dog. The sound of barking dogs was the first sign of her approach in Greek and Roman literature. The [[frog]], significantly a creature that can cross between two elements, is also sacred to Hecate {{fact}}. As a triple goddess, she sometimes appears with three heads-one each of a dog, horse, and bear or of dog, serpent and lion.
During the Medieval period in western Europe, Hecate was reverenced by witches who adopted parts of her mythos as their goddess of sorcery. Because Hecate had already been much maligned by the late Roman period, Christians of the era found it easy to vilify her image. Thus were all her creatures also considered "creatures of darkness"; however, the history of creatures such as ravens, night-owls, snakes, scorpions, asses, bats, horses, bears, and lions as her creatures is not always a dark and frightening one. (Rabinowitz)
===Plants and herbs===
The [[Taxus baccata|yew]], [[Mediterranean Cypress|cypress]], [[hazel]], [[black poplar]], [[cedar]], and [[willow]] are all sacred to Hecate {{fact}}.
The leaves of the black poplar are dark on one side and light on the other, symbolizing the boundary between the worlds. The yew has long been associated with the Underworld.
The yew has strong associations with death as well as rebirth. A poison prepared from the seeds was used on arrows {{fact}}, and yew wood was commonly used to make bows and dagger hilts. The potion in Hecate's cauldron contains 'slips of yew'. Yew berries carry Hecate's power, and can bring wisdom or death. The seeds are highly poisonous, but the fleshy, coral-colored 'berry' surrounding it is not. If prepared correctly, the berry can cause visual hallucinations (Ratsch).
Many other herbs and plants are associated with Hecate, including [[garlic]], [[almond]]s, [[lavender]], [[thyme]], [[myrrh]], [[mugwort]], [[cardamon]], [[mint]], [[dandelion]], [[hellebore]], and [[lesser celandine]]. Several poisons and [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants | hallucinogen]]s are linked to Hecate, including [[belladonna]], [[hemlock]], [[mandrake]], [[aconite]] (known as hecateis), and [[opium poppy]]. Many of Hecate's plants were those that can be used shamanistically to achieve varyings states of consciousness.
===Places===
Wild areas, forests, borders, city walls and doorways, crossroads, and graveyards are all associated with Hecate.
It is often stated that the moon is sacred to Hecate. This is argued against by [[Farnell]] (1896, p.4):
:''Some of the late writers on mythology, such as Cornutus and Cleomedes, and some of the modern, such as Preller and the writer in [[W. H. Roscher|Roscher]]'s Lexicon and Petersen, explain the three figures as symbols of the three phases of the moon. But very little can be said in favour of this, and very much against it. In the first place, the statue of Alcamenes represented Hekate Επιπυργιδια, whom the Athenian of that period regarded as the warder of the gate of his Acropolis, and as associated in this particular spot with the [[Charites]], deities of the life that blossoms and yields fruit. Neithe |
England squeaked single-goal wins over Belgium and [[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]] in the knockout rounds, before being beaten on [[penalty shootout (football)|penalties]] by West Germany in the semi-finals, after drawing 1-1. Stuart Pearce and Chris Waddle missed from the spot. The team's good performance, the relative lack of violence and the emergence of [[Paul Gascoigne]] - England's player of the tournament, who cried after being booked against West Germany (which would have ruled him out of the final had England won) - were all factors in the rehabilitation of football in British society in the 1990s.
===Mixed 1990s===
Robson's successor, [[Graham Taylor (football manager)|Graham Taylor]], was largely a failure - the team failed to win a game at {{Ec|92}}. Taylor was widely castigated for substituting [[Gary Lineker]] in his final England appearance, when England needed a goal. England missed out on qualifying for the {{Wc|1994}} altogether; the team infamously went 1-0 down to minnows [[San Marino national football team|San Marino]] in a qualifying match after just eight seconds, one of the fastest international goals of all time, before recovering to win 7-1. Taylor was sacked in [[1993]] and replaced by [[Terry Venables]], who oversaw a much improved performance at {{Ec|96}}. With the tournament hosted in England and it being the 30th anniversary of the 1966 World Cup victory, fans' expectations were high; however, after famous victories over Scotland featuring a brilliant [[Paul Gascoigne]] goal and the [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], and a rare penalty shoot-out win over [[Spain national football team|Spain]], England fans were treated to ''[[déjà vu]]'' as their side lost a semi-final on penalties to Germany again after drawing 1-1. [[Gareth Southgate]] missed the vital penalty this time.
Venables stepped down after Euro 96; his successor [[Glenn Hoddle]] oversaw England's successful qualification for the {{Wc|1998}} with a 0-0 draw at the [[Stadio Olimpico]] in [[Rome]], but the team were knocked out of the tournament on penalties again, this time to old enemies [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] after [[David Beckham]] had been sent off. Hoddle resigned the following year after stating his controversial beliefs about the [[disabled]] in a newspaper interview. Hoddle said he thought disabled people were paying for sins committed in their past life. Former captain [[Kevin Keegan]] took over, only just managing to get England into {{Ec2|2000}} (after a 2-1 playoff win over Scotland), where a lacklustre England failed to get beyond the group stage. Keegan resigned in September [[2000]], after England lost their very last match at the old [[Wembley Stadium]], a World Cup qualifier against Germany.
===The Eriksson era===
In [[2001]], the [[Sweden|Swede]] [[Sven-Göran Eriksson]] was appointed as Keegan's successor, becoming the first foreign national to manage England. Eriksson turned around the team's {{Wc|2002}} campaign with a 5-1 victory over Germany; England came from behind with goals from [[Emile Heskey]], [[Steven Gerrard]] and a [[Michael Owen]] [[hat-trick]]. England ensured qualification after a tense final game against [[Greece national football team|Greece]]; [[David Beckham]] scored from a free kick in the last seconds of the game to make the score 2-2 and put England top of their group on goal difference. In the finals in [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]], England beat [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] 1-0 in the group stage and reached the quarter-finals before being beaten 2-1 by the eventual winners Brazil.
In {{Ec2|2004}}, England came top of their qualification group after drawing 0-0 away to [[Turkey national football team|Turkey]] in their final qualifier. In the finals, despite a last-minute loss to [[France national football team|France]] in the group stage, England were favoured to do well, but were knocked out in yet another penalty shootout, this time to hosts [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] after a 2-2 draw in the quarter-finals.
[[2005]] has seen Eriksson receive heavy criticism from fans for his defensive strategies and alleged lack of passion, his lack of communication with the players from the bench, and a perceived inability to change tactics when necessary in a game, as witnessed against [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in 2004. A 4-1 loss to [[Denmark national football team|Denmark]] in a friendly was followed by a humiliating 1-0 defeat to [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]] in a {{Wc|2006}} qualifier, which compounded criticism. An unconvincing 1-0 victory over [[Austria national football team|Austria]] did nothing to relieve the pressure. However, despite these criticisms England qualified for the World Cup finals with one match to spare, and travel to Germany as group winners following a 2-1 victory and a much improved performance against [[Poland national football team|Poland]].
In their first friendly match following qualification for the World Cup, [[Argentina and England football rivalry|England beat Argentina]] 3-2 in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], in a game many have described as England's best performance in a very long time.
The Swede has also received a degree of criticism during his time in charge for experimenting with his teams excessively during friendly matches, sometimes changing the entire eleven at half-time before FIFA ruled that only a maximum of five substitutions would be allowed in such games from 2004. He also received criticism from some quarters of the English media for 'cheapening' the captaincy of the England team by allowing lower-profile players such as [[Emile Heskey]] and [[Philip Neville]] to lead the team after substitutions. However, these critics generally ignored or were not aware of the fact that only the player leading the team at kick-off is officially recorded as having captained England, so players inheriting the armband later in games were not 'England captains' in the official sense.
Following revelations in the [[News of the World]] newspaper during January 2006, the [[Football Association]] decided to come to an agreement with Eriksson over his future and on 23rd January 2006, it was announced that the Swede was to stand down after the summer's World Cup Finals. Possible successors linked with the job include [[Sam Allardyce]], [[Guus Hiddink]], [[Luiz Felipe Scolari]], [[Alan Curbishley]], [[Paul Jewell]], [[Stuart Pearce]] and [[Martin O'Neill (footballer)|Martin O'Neill]]
==World Cup record==
*[[Football World Cup 1930|1930]] to [[Football World Cup 1938|1938]] - ''Did not enter''
*[[Football World Cup 1950|1950]] - Round 1 (last 15) lost to [[Spain national football team|Spain]]
*[[Football World Cup 1954|1954]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]] 4-2
*[[Football World Cup 1958|1958]] - Round 1 lost to [[Soviet Union national football team|Soviet Union]] 1-0
*[[Football World Cup 1962|1962]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] 3-1
*[[Football World Cup 1966|1966]] - '''Winners'''
*[[Football World Cup 1970|1970]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[West Germany national football team|West Germany]] 3-2
*[[Football World Cup 1974|1974]] - ''Did not qualify''
*[[Football World Cup 1978|1978]] - ''Did not qualify''
*[[Football World Cup 1982|1982]] - Round 2 (last 8) lost to [[West Germany national football team|West Germany]] 0-0
*[[Football World Cup 1986|1986]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] 2-1
*[[Football World Cup 1990|1990]] - Semi-Finals lost to [[West Germany national football team|West Germany]] 1-1 on penalties
*[[Football World Cup 1994|1994]] - ''Did not qualify''
*[[Football World Cup 1998|1998]] - Round 2 lost to [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] 2-2 on penalties
*[[Football World Cup 2002|2002]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] 2-1
*[[Football World Cup 2006|2006]] - Qualified
==European Championship record==
*[[1960 European Football Championship|1960]] - ''Did not enter''
*[[1964 European Football Championship|1964]] - ''Did not qualify'' lost to [[France national football team|France]]
*[[1968 European Football Championship|1968]] - Semifinals lost to [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] 1-0
*[[1972 European Football Championship|1972]] - ''Did not qualify''(last 8) lost to [[West Germany national football team|West Germany]]
*[[1976 European Football Championship|1976]] - ''Did not qualify'' lost to [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]]
*[[1980 European Football Championship|1980]] - Round 1 (last 8) lost to [[Italy national football team|Italy]] 1-0
*[[1984 European Football Championship|1984]] - ''Did not qualify'' lost to [[Denmark national football team|Denmark]] 1-0
*[[1988 European Football Championship|1988]] - Round 1 (last 8) lost to [[Holland national football team|Holland]] 3-1
*[[1992 European Football Championship|1992]] - Round 1 (last 8) lost to [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] 2-1
*[[1996 European Football Championship|1996]] - Semifinals lost to [[Germany national football team|Germany]] 1-1 on penalties
*[[2000 European Football Championship|2000]] - Round 1 lost to [[Romania national football team|Romania]] 3-2
*[[2004 European Football Championship|2004]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] 2-2 on penalties
==Forthcoming fixtures==
*England v [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]], 30th May at [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]]
*England v [[Jamaica national football team|Jamaica]], 3rd June at [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]]
*'''[[Football World Cup 2006|2006 World Cup]]''' Group B:
**England v [[Paraguay national football team|Paraguay]], 10th June at [[Waldstadion]], Frankfurt (2pm BST)
**England v [[Trinidad and Tobago national |
sotec®/Renitec®)
* [[Ramipril]] (Altace®/Tritace®/Ramace®)
* [[Quinapril]] (Accupril®)
* [[Perindopril]] (Coversyl®)
* [[Lisinopril]] (Lisodur®/Prinivil®/Zestril®)
===Phosphonate-containing ACE inhibitors===
* [[Fosinopril]] (Monopril®), the only member
===Naturally occurring===
[[Casokinin]]s and [[lactokinin]]s are breakdown products of [[casein]] and [[whey]] that occur naturally after ingestion of [[milk]] products, especially [[sour milk]]. Their role in blood pressure control is uncertain. (FitzGerald ''et al'', 2004)
==Comparative information==
Comparatively, all ACE inhibitors have similar antihypertensive efficacy when equivalent doses are administered. The main point-of-difference lies with captopril, the first ACE inhibitor, which has a shorter duration of action and increased incidence of certain adverse effects (see the captopril article for more detail).
Certain agents in the ACE inhibitor class have been proven, in large clinical studies, to reduce mortality post-[[myocardial infarct]], prevent development of heart failure, ''etc''. While these effects are likely to be class-effects, good [[evidence-based medicine]] practice would direct the use of those agents with established clinical efficacy (see AMH 2004, or other sources for more details on specific agents).
==Contraindications and precautions==
The ACE inhibitors are contraindicated in patients with:
* Previous [[angioedema]] associated with ACE inhibitor therapy
* [[Renal artery stenosis]] (bilateral, or unilateral with a solitary functioning kidney)
ACE inhibitors should be used with caution in patients with:
* Impaired renal function
* [[Aortic valve stenosis]] or cardiac outflow obstruction
* [[Hypovolaemia]] or [[dehydration]]
* [[Haemodialysis]] with high flux polyacrylonitrile membranes
ACE inhibitors are [[Australian Drug Evaluation Committee|ADEC]] [[Pregnancy category]] D, and should be avoided in women who are likely to become pregnant. (Rossi, 2005)
Potassium supplementation should be used with caution and under medical supervision owing to the [[hyperkalemia|hyperkalaemic]] effect of ACE inhibitors.
==Angiotensin II receptor antagonists==
ACE inhibitors share many common characteristics with another class of cardiovascular drugs called [[angiotensin II receptor antagonist]]s, which are often used when patients are intolerant of the adverse effects produced by ACE inhibitors. ACE inhibitors do not completely prevent the formation of angiotensin II, as there are other conversion pathways, and so angiotensin II receptor antagonists may be useful because they act to prevent the action of angiotensin II at the AT<sub>1</sub> receptor.
===Use in combination with ACE inhibitors===
While counterintuitive at first glance, the combination therapy of angiotensin II receptor antagonists with ACE inhibitors may be superior to either agent alone. This combination may increase levels of bradykinin while blocking the generation of angiotensin II and its activity at the AT<sub>1</sub> receptor. This 'dual blockade' may be more effective than using an ACE inhibitor alone, because angiotensin II can be generated via non-ACE-dependent pathways. Preliminary studies suggest that this combination of pharmacologic agents may be advantageous in the treatment of [[essential hypertension]], chronic [[heart failure]], and [[nephropathy]]. (van de Wal et al., 2005) However, more studies are needed to confirm these highly preliminary results. While statistically significant results have been obtained for its role in treating hypertension, clinical significance may be lacking. (Finnegan & Gleason, 2003)
Patients with heart failure may benefit from the combination in terms of reducing [[morbidity]] and [[ventricular remodeling]]. (Krum et al., 2004; Solomon et al., 2005)
The most compelling evidence has been found for the treatment of nephropathy: this combination therapy partially reversed the [[proteinuria]] and also exhibited a renoprotective effect in patients afflicted with [[diabetic nephropathy]], (Luno et al., 2005) and pediatric [[IgA nephropathy]]. (Yang et al., 2005)
==References==
* Finnegan PM, Gleason BL. Combination ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers for hypertension. ''Ann Pharmacother'' 2003;'''37'''(6):886-9. PMID 12773079
* FitzGerald RJ, Murray BA, Walsh DJ. Hypotensive peptides from milk proteins. ''J Nutr'' 2004;'''134''':980S-8S. PMID 15051858.
* Krum H, Carson P, Farsang C, et al. Effect of valsartan added to background ACE inhibitor therapy in patients with heart failure: results from Val-HeFT. ''Eur J Heart Fail'' 2004;'''6'''(7):937-45. PMID 15556056
* Luno J, Praga M, de Vinuesa SG. The reno-protective effect of the dual blockade of the renin angiotensin system (RAS). ''Curr Pharm Des'' 2005;'''11'''(10):1291-300. PMID 15853685
* Molinaro G, Cugno M, Perez M, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-associated angioedema is characterized by a slower degradation of des-arginine(9)-bradykinin. ''J Pharmacol Exp Ther'' 2002;'''303''':232-7. PMID 12235256.
* Rossi S, editor. [[Australian Medicines Handbook]] 2004. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook; 2004. ISBN 0-9578521-4-2.
* Rossi S, editor. [[Australian Medicines Handbook]] 2005. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook; 2005. ISBN 0-9578521-9-3.
* Solomon SD, Skali H, Anavekar NS, et al. Changes in ventricular size and function in patients treated with valsartan, captopril, or both after myocardial infarction. ''Circulation'' 2005;'''111'''(25):3411-9. PMID 15967846
* Thomas MC. Diuretics, ACE inhibitors and NSAIDs - the triple whammy. ''Med J Aust'' 2000;'''172''':184&ndash;185.
* van de Wal RM, van Veldhuisen DJ, van Gilst WH, Voors AA. Addition of an angiotensin receptor blocker to full-dose ACE-inhibition: controversial or common sense? ''Eur Heart J'' 2005;'''26'''(22):2361-7. PMID 16105846
* Yang Y, Ohta K, Shimizu M, et al. Treatment with low-dose angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) plus angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB) in pediatric patients with IgA nephropathy. ''Clin Nephrol'' 2005;'''64'''(1):35-40. PMID 16047643
[[Category:ACE inhibitors]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[de:ACE-Hemmer]]
[[es:IECAs]]
[[fr:Inhibiteur de l'enzyme de conversion]]
[[nn:ACE-hemmar]]
[[pt:IECA]]
[[th:เอซีอีอินฮิบิเตอร์]]
[[zh:血管紧张素转化酶抑制剂]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antiarrhythmic medication</title>
<id>2768</id>
<revision>
<id>15901160</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-09T18:51:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Diberri</username>
<id>35331</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antiarrhythmic agent]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antianginal</title>
<id>2769</id>
<revision>
<id>34380619</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T17:04:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kubra</username>
<id>399125</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+tr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''antianginal''' is any [[Medication|drug]] used in the treatment of ''[[angina pectoris]]'', a symptom of [[coronary heart disease|ischaemic heart disease]].
Drugs used are [[nitrate]]s such as [[nitroglycerin]] (glyceryl trinitrate) or [[pentaerythritol tetranitrate]]; [[beta blocker]]s, either cardioselectives such as [[acebutolol]] or [[metoprolol]], or non-cardioselectives such as [[oxprenolol]] or [[sotalol]]; or [[calcium channel blocker]]s, either Class I agents (''e.g.'', [[verapamil]]), Class II agents (''e.g.'', [[amlodipine]], [[nifedipine]]), or the Class III agent [[diltiazem]].
[[Nitrates]] cause [[vasodilation]] of the venous capacitance vessels by simulating the [[endothelium-derived relaxing factor]] (EDRF). Used to relieve both exertional and vasospastic angina by allowing venous pooling, reducing the pressure in the ventricles and so reducing wall tension and oxygen requirements in the heart. Short-acting nitrates are used to abort [[angina]] attacks that have occurred, while longer-acting nitrates are used in the prophylactic management of the condition.
[[Beta blockers]] are used in the prophylaxis of exertional angina by reducing the work the heart is allowed to perform below the level that would provoke an angina attack. They cannot be used in vasospastic angina and can precipitate heart failure.
[[Calcium]] [[ion]] (Ca<sup>++</sup>) antagonists ([[Calcium channel blocker]]s) are used in the treatment of both exertional and vasospastic angina. In vitro, they dilate the coronary and peripheral arteries and have negative inotropic and chronotropic effects - decreasing [[afterload]], improving myocardial efficiency, reducing [[heart rate]] and improving coronary blood flow.
''In vivo'', the vasodilation and [[hypotension]] trigger the [[baroreceptor]] reflex. Therefore the net effect is the interplay of direct and reflex actions. Class I [[antiarrhythmic agents]] have the most potent negative inotropic effect and may cause heart failure; Class II agents do not depress conduction or contractility; the Class III agent has negligible inotropic effect and causes almost no reflex [[tachycardia]].
[[Category:Antianginals]]
[[pt:Antianginoso]]
[[tr:Antianjinal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System</title>
<id>2770</id>
<revision>
<id>40033414</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T17:21:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RoboDick</username>
<id>815650</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System''' is used for the classification of [[Medication|drug]]s. It is controlled by the [[World Health Organization|WHO]] Collaborating Centre for Drug |
e on the musical talents of Aaliyah, and to oversee the production and distribution of her records, tapes and music videos, brought an unsuccessful lawsuit against Instinct Productions LLC, (a company hired by Barry & Sons, Inc. in August, 2001 to produce a music video entitled "Rock the Boat") in [[New York Supreme Court|the Supreme Court of the State of New York]]. The case was dismissed since New York State's [[wrongful death]] statute only permits certain people to recover damages for wrongful death.
* [http://www.courts.state.ny.us/reporter/3dseries/2005/2005_00096.htm Text of appellate division decision dismissing the case]
==Legacy==
"Rock the Boat" went on to become a posthumous hit on radio (reaching number two on Billboard's Hot R&B Singles charts and number 14 on the Hot 100) and video channels, and the news of Aaliyah's death gave her album a notable sales boost, pushing it to number one on the Billboard 200. The album's two subsequent singles, "More than A Woman" reached number seven on Billboard's Hot R&B singles chart and number 25 on Hot 100. "I Care 4 U" reached number three on Billboard's Hot R&B singles chart and number 13 on the Hot 100, the latter attaining success even without the promotional push of a [[music video]]. the ''Aaliyah'' album went on to reach 3X platinum status, with sales of 3.0 million in the U.S. and six million worldwide.
''Queen of the Damned'' was released in early 2002. Before its release, Aaliyah's brother Rashad was called upon to re-dub several of his sister's lines during the post-production [[dubbing|ADR]] process. Upon its release, the film debuted at number one.
In 2002, a posthumous greatest hits collection, ''[[I Care 4 You]]'', was released in Aaliyah's name. In addition to well-known hits, it also included six previously unreleased songs from the [[Blackground]] vaults Aaliyah had recorded over the course of her career, including "Miss You," which became the album's lead single. Its video features Missy Elliott, [[Lil Kim]], [[Toni Braxton]], AJ, Free, Tweet, U-God (of the ''[[Wu-Tang Clan]]'') and DMX, among others, paying tribute to Aaliyah.
Aaliyah was to have had a supporting role as the wife of [[Harold Perrineau Jr.]]'s character, Link, in the two sequels to ''[[The Matrix]]''; her role was ultimately filled by [[Nona Gaye]]. Other films in which Aaliyah was signed to star in were ''[[Honey (movie)|Honey]]'' (which instead was filmed with [[Jessica Alba]] as the star), and a [[Whitney Houston]]-produced remake of the 1976 film ''[[Sparkle (1976 film)|Sparkle]]''. In addition, Aaliyah and one of her agents had pitched and inked a deal with [[Fox Searchlight]] Pictures for her to star in a film based upon a true story about interracial love.
Aaliyah is interred in the [[Ferncliff Cemetery|Ferncliff Cemetery and Mausoleum]] in [[Hartsdale, New York]].
==Trivia==
*Aaliyah and former [[The Beatles|Beatle]] [[George Harrison]] made UK Chart History in January 2002 when they scored the first, and to this date only, back-to-back posthumous number one hits. Aaliyah's "More than a Woman", released on [[January 7]] and topped the chart on [[January 13]], was followed by Harrison's "[[My Sweet Lord]]", re-released on [[January 14]] and topped the chart on [[January 20]].
*Trent Reznor of [[Nine Inch Nails]] was to produce a song on Aaliyah's last album, ''Aaliyah'', but scheduling conflicts did not permit the collaboration.
*In early/mid 2005 four previously unreleased Aaliyah tracks were leaked to the Internet: a remake of [[Gladys Knight & the Pips]]'s "Giving Up", "Where Could He Be" featuring Missy Elliot and [[Tweet (singer)|Tweet]] (which was sent to radio stations), "Steady Ground" featuring Static from Playa, and a duet with Digital Black from Playa entitled "Dont Think They Know".
*At age 19, Aaliyah was the youngest singer to ever perform at the Oscars.
*Aaliyah was the face for Tommy Hilfiger's new line of street-but-sweet fashion in 1996-1997.
*In 1998, Aaliyah was the spokesperson for [[Clairol]]'s hair product for women of color, Texture and Tones.
*Grammy-winning R&B singer [[Gladys Knight]] was Aaliyah's aunt by Knight's former marriage to Aaliyah's uncle, Barry Hankerson.
*Aaliyah is Arabic for "highest, most exalted one, the best."
*In January 2006, a new previously unreleased Aaliyah track was leaked to the Internet: "Time" (Snippet of Unfinished Song) produced by Timbaland, which was originally recorded for the soundtrack of ''[[30 Years to Life]]'' (2002)
*Aaliyah's maternal grandmother, Mintis L. Hicks Hankerson, was a [[Native American]]
*Aaliyah was considered for the role of Alex in the 2000 film ''[[Charlie's Angels (film)|Charlie's Angels]]'', but was too young at the time.
*On February 1, 2006, [[Mary J. Blige]] insinuated on ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]'' that although her and Aaliyah were not close friends, She had claimed that Aaliyah had been involved in the same cycle of drug and alcohol abuse that lead to her demise and made Blige relate to the events in her life to break free of her depression.
<!---commented out b/c Kelly and Aaliyah were indeed married. In February 2006, a DVD surfaced in which [[R. Kelly]]'s brother Carey Kelly claims that Aaliyah did in fact have a sexual relationship with R. Kelly.-->
* The song [[Take Away]] is dedicated to her.
==Discography==
<!--keep this concise and readable. We don't need large dumps of unformatted information.-->
===Albums===
====Studio albums====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! [[Billboard 200]] peak !! US sales !! Worldwide sales
|-
|[[1994 in music|1994]] || ''[[Age Ain't Nothing But A Number]]''|| 18 || 2.2 million || 5 million
|-
|[[1996 in music|1996]] || ''[[One In A Million]]'' || 18 || 3.0 million || 8 million
|-
|[[2001 in music|2001]] || ''[[Aaliyah (album)|Aaliyah]]'' || 1 || 3.0 million || 6 million
|}
====Compilations====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! [[Billboard 200]] peak !! US sales !! Worldwide sales
|-
|[[2000 in music|2000]] || ''[[Romeo Must Die (soundtrack)|Romeo Must Die]]''<br />''(includes four of her songs)'' || 3 || 1 million || 3 million
|-
|[[2002 in music|2002]] || ''[[I Care 4 U]]''<br />''(released posthumously)'' || 3 || 1.6 million || 3 million
|-
|[[2005 in music|2005]] || ''[[Ultimate Aaliyah]]'' ||-||-||-
|}
=== Chart Singles ===
{| class="wikitable"
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|Year
!align="left" valign="top"|Song
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|[[Billboard Hot 100|US]]
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|[[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks |US R&B]]
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|[[Hot Dance Music/Club Play|US Dance]]
!align="center" valign="top" width="40"|[[UK singles chart|UK]]
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|[[1994 in music|1994]]
|align="left" valign="top"|"Back and Forth"
|align="center" valign="top"|5
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|16
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1994
|align="left" valign="top"|"At Your Best (You Are Love)"
|align="center" valign="top"|6
|align="center" valign="top"|2
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|27
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1994
|align="left" valign="top"|"Age Ain't Nothing But a Number"
|align="center" valign="top"|75
|align="center" valign="top"|35
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|32
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|[[1995 in music|1995]]
|align="left" valign="top"|"Down With the Clique"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|33
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1995
|align="left" valign="top"|"The Thing I Like"
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|33
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|[[1996 in music|1996]]
|align="left" valign="top"|"I Need You Tonight" <br /> ''([[Junior MAFIA]] featuring Aaliyah)'' <sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>
|align="center" valign="top"|60
|align="center" valign="top"|43
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1996
|align="left" valign="top"|"If Your Girl Only Knew"
|align="center" valign="top"|11
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="center" valign="top"|-
|align="center" valign="top"|21
|-
|align="center" valign="top"|1996
|align="left" valign="top"|"One In a Million" <sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="center" valign="top"|1
|align="center" valign="top& |
n tree)
# [[poplar|Peuplier]] (Poplar Tree)
# [[axe|Coignée]] (Axe)
# [[Hellebore|Ellébore]] (Hellebore)
# [[broccoli|Brocoli]] (Broccoli)
# [[Laurel|Laurier]] (Laurel)
# [[swan|Avelinier]] (Cob or [[filbert]])
# [[cow|Vache]] (Cow)
# [[box (tree)|Buis]] (Box Tree)
# [[Lichen]] (Lichen)
# [[Taxus baccata|If]] (Yew tree)
# [[lung|Pulmonaire]] (Lung)
# [[Billhook|Serpette]] (Billhook)
# [[Pennycress|Thlaspi]] (Pennycress)
# Thimele (?)
# [[couch grass|Chiendent]] (Couch Grass)
# [[Polygonum|Trainasse]] (Knotweed)
# [[hare|Lièvre]] (Hare)
# [[Woad|Guède]] (Woad)
# [[hazel|Noisetier]] (Hazel)
# [[Cyclamen]] (Cyclamen)
# [[Chelidonium|Chélidoine]] (Chelidonium)
# [[sleigh|Traîneau]] (Sleigh)
|
# Tussilage
# [[dogwood|Cornouiller]] (Dogwood)
# [[Matthiola|Violier]] (Matthiola)
# [[privet|Troène]] (Privet)
# [[goat|Bouc]] (Billygoat)
# [[Wild ginger|Asaret]] (Wild Ginger)
# [[Buckthorn|Alaterne]] (Buckthorn)
# [[violet (plant)|Violette]] (Violet Plant)
# Marceau (?)
# [[spade|Bêche]] (Spade)
# [[narcissus (flower)|Narcisse]] (Narcissus)
# [[elm|Orme]] (Elm Tree)
# [[Fumariaceae|Fumeterre]] (Common fumitory)
# [[hedge mustard|Vélar]] (Hedge Mustard)
# [[goat|Chèvre]] (Goat)
# [[spinach|Épinard]] (Spinach)
# [[Asteraceae|Doronic]] (Large-flowered leopard's bane)
# [[pimpernel|Mouron]] (Pimpernel)
# [[chervil|Cerfeuil]] (Chervil)
# [[twine|Cordeau]] (Twine)
# [[mandrake|Mandragore]] (Mandrake)
# [[parsley|Persil]] (Parsley)
# Cochiéaria (?)
# [[daisy|Pâquerette]] (Daisy)
# [[tuna|Thon]] (Tuna)
# [[dandelion|Pissenlit]] (Dandelion)
# [[forest|Sylve]] (Forest)
# [[Maidenhair fern|Capillaire]] (Maidenhair fern)
# [[ash tree|Frêne]] (Ash Tree)
# [[dibble|Plantoir]] (Dibble)
|}
=== Spring ===
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccf;"
! [[Germinal (French Republican Calendar)|Germinal]] ([[March 21|Mar 21]] ~ [[April 19|Apr 19]])
! [[Floréal]] ([[April 20|Apr 20]] ~ [[May 19]])
! [[Prairial]] ([[May 20]] ~ [[June 18|Jun 18]])
|-
|
# [[Primula vulgaris|Primevère]] (Primrose)
# [[plane tree|Platane]] (Plane Tree)
# [[asparagus|Asperge]] (Asparagus)
# [[Tulip]]e (Tulip)
# [[hen|Poule]] (Hen)
# [[chard|Bette]] (Chard Plant)
# [[birch|Bouleau]] (Birch Tree)
# [[daffodil|Jonquille]] (Daffodil)
# [[alder|Aulne]] (Alder)
# [[hatchery|Couvoir]] (Hatchery)
# [[Periwinkle (plant)|Pervenche]] (Periwinkle)
# [[ironwood|Charme]] (Ironwood)
# [[morel|Morille]] (Morel)
# [[beech|Hêtre]] (Beech Tree)
# [[bee|Abeille]] (Bee)
# [[lettuce|Laitue]] (Lettuce)
# [[larch|Mélèze]] (Larch)
# [[conium|Ciguë]] (Conium)
# [[radish|Radis]] (Radish)
# [[hive|Ruche]] (Hive)
# Gainier (?)
# [[lettuce|Romaine]] (Lettuce)
# [[chestnut oak|Marronnier]] (Chestnut Oak)
# [[Arugula|Roquette]] (Arugula or Rocket)
# [[Pigeon]] (Pigeon)
# [[lilac|Lilas]] (Lilac)
# [[anemone|Anémone]] (Anemone)
# [[pansy|Pensée]] (Pansy)
# [[blueberry|Myrtille]] (Blueberry)
# [[Knife|Greffoir]] (Knife)
|
# [[Rose]] (Rose)
# [[oak|Chêne]] (Oak Tree)
# [[fern|Fougère]] (Fern)
# [[Crataegus|Aubépine]] (Hawthorn)
# [[nightingale|Rossignol]] (Nightingale)
# [[Columbine|Ancolie]] (Columbine)
# [[lily of the Valley|Muguet]] (Lily of the Valley)
# [[Button mushroom|Champignon]] (Button mushroom)
# [[hyacinth|Hyacinthe]] (Hyacinth)
# [[rake|Râteau]] (Rake)
# [[Rhubarb]]e (Rhubarb)
# [[Sainfoin]] (Sainfoin)
# [[Wallflower|Bâton-d'or]] (Wallflower)
# [[Arecaceae|Chamerops]] (Palm tree)
# [[silkworm|Ver à soie]] (Silkworm)
# [[Comfrey|Consoude]] (Comfrey)
# [[salad burnet|Pimprenelle]] (Salad Burnet)
# [[Alyssum|Corbeille d'or]] (Alyssum)
# [[orache|Arroche]] (Orache)
# [[Hoe|Sarcloir]] (Garden hoe)
# [[Sea lavender|Statice]] (Sea lavender)
# [[Fritillary|Fritillaire]] (Fritillary)
# [[Borage|Bourrache]] (Borage)
# [[Valerian (plant)|Valériane]] (Valerian)
# [[Carp]]e (Carp)
# [[spindle (shrub)|Fusain]] (Spindle Shrub)
# [[chive|Civette]] (Chive)
# [[Boraginaceae|Buglosse]] (Bugloss)
# [[Wild mustard|Sénevé]] (Wild mustard)
# [[trowel|Houlette]] (Trowel)
|
# [[alfalfa|Luzerne]] (Alfalfa)
# [[Daylily|Hémérocalle]] (Daylily)
# [[clover|Trèfle]] (Clover)
# [[angelica|Angélique]] (Angelica)
# [[duck|Canard]] (Duck)
# [[lemon balm|Mélisse]] (Lemon Balm)
# [[wheat|Fromental]] (Wheat)
# [[Lily|Martagon]] (Martagon lily)
# [[thyme|Serpolet]] (Thyme plant)
# [[scythe|Faux]] (Scythe)
# [[strawberry|Fraise]] (Strawberry)
# [[Woundwort|Bétoine]] (Woundwort)
# [[pea|Pois]] (Pea)
# [[Acacia]] (Acacia)
# [[quail|Caille]] (Quail)
# [[carnation|Oeillet]] (Carnation)
# [[elder tree|Sureau]] (Elder Tree)
# [[poppy|Pavot]] (Poppy plant)
# [[tilia|Tilleul]] (Linden or Lime tree)
# [[pitchfork|Fourche]] (Pitchfork)
# [[cornflower|Barbeau]] (Cornflower)
# [[camomile|Camomille]] (Camomile)
# [[honeysuckle|Chèvrefeuille]] (Honeysuckle)
# [[curds|caille-lait]] (Curds)
# [[tench|Tanche]] (Tench)
# [[jasmine|Jasmin]] (Jasmine Plant)
# [[verbena|Verveine]] (Verbena)
# [[thyme|Thym]] (Thyme Plant)
# [[peony|Pivoine]] (Peony Plant)
# [[handcart|Chariot]] (Hand Cart)
|}
===Summer===
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccf;"
! [[Messidor]] ([[June 19|Jun 19]] ~ [[July 18|Jul 18]])
! [[Thermidor]] ([[July 19|Jul 19]] ~ [[August 17|Aug 17]])
! [[Fructidor]] ([[August 18|Aug 18]] ~ [[September 16|Sep 16]])
|-
|
# [[Rye|Seigle]] (Rye)
# [[Oat|Avoine]] (Oats)
# [[Onion|Oignon]] (Onion)
# [[Speedwell|Véronique]] (Speedwell)
# [[Mule|Mulet]] (Mule)
# [[Rosemary|Romarin]] (Rosemary)
# [[Cucumber|Concombre]] (Cucumber)
# [[Shallot|Echalote]] (Shallot)
# [[wormwood|Absinthe]] (Wormwood)
# [[Sickle|Faucille]] (Sickle)
# [[Coriander|Coriandre]] (Coriander)
# [[Artichoke|Artichaut]] (Artichoke)
# [[Clove|Girofle]] (Clove)
# [[Lavender|Lavande]] (Lavender)
# [[Chamois]] (Chamois)
# [[Tobacco|Tabac]] (Tobacco)
# [[Redcurrant|Groseille]] (Currant)
# [[Lathyrus|Gesse]] (Hairy vetchling)
# [[Cherry|Cerise]] (Cherry)
# [[Park|Parc]] (Park)
# [[Mint|Menthe]] (Mint)
# [[Cumin|Cumin]] (Cumin)
# [[Bean|Haricot]] (Bean)
# [[Alkanet|Orcanète]] (Alkanet)
# [[Guinea fowl|Pintade]] (Guinea fowl)
# [[Sage|Sauge]] (Sage Plant)
# [[Garlic|Ail]] (Garlic)
# [[Vicia sativa|Vesce]] (Tare)
# [[Wheat|Blé]] (Wheat)
# [[Chalemie|Chalémie]] (Chalemie)
|
# [[german wheat|Epeautre]] (German Wheat)
# [[Common mullein|Bouillon blanc]] (Common Mullein)
# [[Melon]] (Honeydew Melon)
# [[ryegrass|Ivraie]] (Ryegrass)
# [[Ram|Bélier]] (Ram)
# [[Horsetail|Prêle]] (Horsetail)
# [[mugwort|Armoise]] (Mugwort)
# [[Safflower|Carthame]] (Safflower)
# [[Blackberry|Mûre]] (Blackberry)
# [[Watering can|Arrosoir]] (Watering Can)
# [[Bread|Panis]] (Bread)
# [[Glasswort|Salicorne]] (Common Glasswort)
# [[Apricot|Abricot]] (Apricot)
# [[Basil|Basilic]] (Basil)
# [[sheep|Brebis]] (Ewe)
# [[Althaea officinalis|Guimauve]] (Marshmallow root)
# [[flax|Lin]] (Flax)
# [[almond|Amande]] (Almond)
# [[Gentian]]e (Gentian)
# [[Lock|Ecluse]] (Lock)
# [[Carline thistle|Carline]] (Carline thistle)
# [[Caper|Câprier]] (Caper)
# [[Lentil|Lentille]] (Lentil)
# [[Asteraceae|Aunée]] (Yellow starwort)
# [[otter|Loutre]] (Otter)
# [[myrtle|Myrte]] (Myrtle)
# [[Alfalfa|Colza]] (Alfalfa)
# [[Lupin]] (Lupine)
# [[Cotton|Coton]] (Cotton)
# [[Mill (grinding)|Moulin]] (Mill)
|
# [[Plum|Prune]] (Plum)
# [[Millet]] (Millet)
# [[Puffball|Lycoperdon]] (Puffball)
# [[barley|Escourgeon]] (Barley)
# [[Salmon|Saumon]] (Salmon)
# [[tuberose|Tubéreuse]] (Tuberose)
# [[melon|Sucrion]] (Sugar melon)
# [[Apocynaceae|Apocyn]] (Apocynum)
# [[liquorice|Réglisse]] (Liquorice)
# [[stepladder|Echelle]] (Stepladder)
# [[watermelon|Pastèque]] (Watermelon)
# [[fennel|Fenouil]] (Fennel)
# [[barberry|Epine vinette]] (Barberry)
# [[walnut|Noix]] (Walnut)
# [[trout|Truite]] (Trout)
# [[lemon|Citron]] (Lemon)
# [[Dipsacus|Cardère]] (Teasel)
# [[buckthorn|Nerprun]] (Buckthorn)
# [[Tagetes|Tagette]] (Mexican Marigold)
# [[sack|Hotte]] (Sack)
# [[wild rose|Eglantine]] (Wild Rose)
# [[hazelnut|Noisette]] (Hazelnut)
# [[hop (plant)|Houblon]] (Hops)
# [[sorghum|Sorgho]] (Sorghum)
# [[crayfish|Ecrevisse]] (Crayfish)
# [[Bitter orange|Bigarade]] (Bitter Orange)
# [[goldenrod|Verge d'or]] (Goldenrod)
# [[maize|Maïs]] (Maize or Corn)
# [[chestnut|Marron]] (Chestnut)
# [[basket|Panier]] (Basket)
|}
== Extra days ==
Five extra days (six in [[leap year]]s) were national holidays at the end of every year. These were originally known as ''les sans-culottides'' (after ''[[sans-culottes]]''), but after year III (1795) as ''les jours complémentaires'':
*[[La Fête de la Vertu]] "Virtue Day" on [[September 17|Sept 17]] or 18
*[[La Fête du Génie]] "Talent Day" on [[September 18|Sept 18]] or 19
*[[La Fête du Travail]] "Labor Day" on [[September 19|Sept 19]] or 20
*[[La Fête de l'Opinion]] "Opinion Day" on [[September 20|Sept 20]] or 21
*[[La Fête des Récompenses]] "Rewards Day" on [[September 21|Sept 21]] or 22
*[[La Fête de la Révolution]] "Revolution Day" on [[September 22|Sept 22]] or 23 (Leap years)
== Converting to Gregorian Calendar ==
The calendar was abolished in the year XIV (1805). After this date, opinions seem to differ on the method by which the leap years would have determined if the calendar were still in force. There are several hypotheses used to convert dates to the Gregorian calendar, of which these three seem to be the most significant:
* The leap years would continue to vary in order to ensure that each year the autumnal equinox falls on 1 Vendémiaire, as was the case from year I to year XIV.
* The leap year would have jumped after year 15 to year 20, after which a leap year would have fallen on each year divisible by four (thus in 20, 24, 28...), except most century years, according to Romme's proposed fixed rules. This would have simplified conversions between the Republican and Gregorian calendars since the Republican leap day would usually follow a few months after [[29 February]], at the end of each year divisible by four.
* The leap years would have continued in a fixed rule every four years from the last one |
as the first West Coast rapper to be accepted by the [[East Coast rap|East Coast]]. "6'n The Morning" is sometimes seen as the track that triggered the whole [[gangster rap]] movement. It was produced by [[ The Unknown DJ]], who produced electro funk tracks before and went on to produce ''[[Compton's Most Wanted]]''. The song was inspired by [[Schoolly D]]'s "PSK" and became itself the inspiration for [[Eazy E]] and [[N.W.A.]]'s "Boyz N The Hood." Ice-T went on to work with [[Afrika Islam]], the man behind the beats on [[1987]]'s ''Rhyme Pays'', [[1988]]'s ''Power'' and [[1989]]'s ''The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech... Just watch what you say''.
As the title of this third album suggests, Ice-T was from the start not merely a gangster rapper&mdash;although he was one of the driving forces behind the new style&mdash;but also used rap music as a platform for [[social activism|social]] and [[political activism]]; [[Seymour Stein]] called him "the [[Bob Dylan]] of rap." On "[[Freedom of Speech]]," Ice-T attacked [[Tipper Gore]] for introducing the [[Parental Advisory]] sticker. In [[1991]], Ice T's fourth album, ''[[Original Gangster]]'', came out; including raps about child abuse and drunk driving as well as the theme song from the movie ''[[New Jack City]]'' by [[Mario Van Peebles]], the movie that re-launched Ice's career as an actor.
In [[1991]], Ice formed the [[rapcore]]/[[crossover]] band [[Body Count]]. Their debut self-titled album contained a song called "[[Cop Killer]]." which led to the [[Cop Killer controversy]]. This escalated to the point where death threats were sent to Warner Bros executives and stockholders threatened to pull out of the company. This eventually caused the album to be re-issued with "Cop Killer" removed, and [[Warner Brothers Records]] to drop him from the label. He answered the controversy by saying the song was written in character, and that "if you believe that I'm a cop killer, you believe [[David Bowie]] is an [[astronaut]]." Indeed, Ice-T has portrayed police officers many times in his acting career.
[[Virgin Records]] released his next album ''[[Home Invasion]]'' ([[1993]]), a politically-oriented album that featured a new female rapper named [[Grip]] and Ice T's longtime DJ [[Evil E]] as a rapper himself. On ''[[VI - Return of the Real]]'', Ice returned to his gangsta rap roots. His ''[[7th Deadly Sin]]'' ([[1999]]), one of the first records to be distributed via [[mp3]] before appearing in record stores, continued in this vein.
In [[2000]], Ice-T teamed up with East Coast rap pioneer [[Kool Keith]] from the [[Ultramagnetic MCs]] to form the [[Analog Brothers]], widely considered an artistically successful experiment. The same year also brought ''[[Ice-T's Greatest Hits: The Evidence]]''. More recently, Ice-T formed a new group called SMG (Sex Money and Gunz) with East Coast gangster rappers Smoothe Da Hustler and Trigger The Gambler.
Ice-T has written and performed songs for many movie [[soundtrack]]s including "Big Gun" for ''[[Tank Girl]]'' as well as [[title track|title tracks]] for ''[[Colors_(film)|Colors]]'', ''[[Dick Tracy]]'', ''[[New Jack City]]'', ''Ricochet'', and ''Trespass'' (with [[Ice Cube]].) (He starred in all of them, save ''Dick Tracy''.) He teamed with [[Kid Frost]] to perform "Tears of a Mother" for the film ''No Mothers Crying, No Babies Dying''.
===Actor===
[[Image:Ice-t.jpg|thumb|right|Ice T, on ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit''.]] He debuted as a rapper in the films ''[[Breakin']]'' and ''[[Breakin' 2: Electric Boogaloo]]'' in [[1984]], only two years after his first 12" ("The Coldest Rap," [[1982]]) appeared. In [[1991]], he embarked onto a serious acting career, playing a police detective in [[Mario Van Peebles]]' film [[New Jack City]], followed by a notable lead role performance in ''[[Surviving the Game]]'' in addition to his many supporting roles. He has also appeared in films such as ''R'Xmas'' by [[Abel Ferrara]] and ''Tank Girl''. As for more current/recent acting engagements, Ice-T plays Det. [[Odafin Tutuola|Odafin "Fin" Tutuola]] on ''[[Law & Order: Special Victims Unit]]'', perhaps an ironic role, considering the early controversy surrounding his group [[Body Count]]. Another TV series that features Ice-T is "Players." Ice-T also appears in the movie [[Leprechaun (movie)|Leprechaun in the Hood]].
Ice-T also voiced Madd Dogg in the video game ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' and appears as himself in ''[[Def Jam: Fight for NY]]''.
===Name===
Ice-T was influenced by and takes his name from [[Iceberg Slim]], an African American pimp-turned-author (and the same inspiration for the stage name of rapper [[Ice Cube]]) who wrote an autobiography and many other books. Ice-T wrote an introduction to Iceberg Slim's last book, ''Doom Fox''.
==Discography==
===Albums===
* ''[[Rhyme Pays]]'' (Sire/Warner, 1987)
* ''[[Power (Ice T)|Power]]'' (Sire/Warner, 1988)
* ''[[The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech...Just Watch What You Say]]'' (Sire/Warner, 1989)
* ''[[OG: Original Gangster]]'' (Sire/Warner, 1991)
* ''[[Home Invasion]]'' (Priority, 1993)
* ''[[VI - Return of the Real]]'' (Priority, 1996)
* ''[[The Seventh Deadly Sin]]'' (Coroner, 1999)
===Scores===
* ''Below Utopia: The Lost Score'' (Noo Trybe, 1998, soundtrack/to the movie Below Utopia aka Body Count)
* ''Music from the Motion Picture [[Judgment Night (film)|Judgment Night]]'' (1993, together with [[Slayer]], song ''Disorder'')
===Singles===
* "The Coldest Rap" (1982)
* "Body Rock" (1984)
* "Killers" (1984)
* "Ya Don't Quit" (1985)
* "Dog N The Wax" (1986)
* "6 In The Mornin'" (1986)
* "Colors" (1988)
* "I'm Your Pusher" (1988)
* "High Rollers" (1989)
* "You Played Yourself" (1989)
* "Lethal Weapon" (1989)
* "Dick Tracy" (1990)
* "Superfly 1990" (1990) performed by [[Curtis Mayfield]] and Ice-T
* "New Jack Hustler" (1991)
* "Ricochet" (1991)
* "Trespass" (1992) performed by Ice-T and [[Ice Cube]]
* "Disorder" (1992) "Judgment Night" performed by [[Slayer]] and Ice-T
* "That's How I'm Livin'"/"99 Problems" (1993)
* "Gotta Lotta Love" (1994)
* "I Must Stand" (1996)
* "Don't Hate the Player" (1999)
* "Money, Power, Women" (2000)
===Compilations and Bootlegs===
* Ice-T & King Tee ''Having a T Party'' (Rams Horn 1991)
* ''The Classic Collection'' (Excello/Rhino 1993) Exec. Producer [[DJ Flash]]
* ''Cold as Ever'' (Blue Dolphin/Hitman/Caroline 1996) Exec. Producer [[DJ Flash]]
* ''Greatest Hits: The Evidence'' (Coroner/Warner 2000)
* ''The Early Years'' (2002)
* ''Gang Culture'' (Snapper, 2004) (Ice-T live in [[Montreux]], [[Switzerland]], 1995) (bootleg recording, released and distributed by a Dutch label called Disky and by Snapper/Charly in the UK)
===with [[Body Count]]===
* ''[[Body Count (album)|Body Count]]'' (1992)
* ''Born Dead'' (1994)
* ''Violent Demise: The Last Days'' (1997)
===Ice T presents the West Coast Rydaz===
* ''What Really Goez On'' (1998)
===Analog Brothers===
* ''"Pimp to Eat"'' (2000)
===Ice T Presents===
* ''Pimpin 101 - The Soundtrack'' (2003)
* ''Westside'' (2004)
===with SMG (Sex Money and Gunz)===
* ''Repossession'' (2004)
==Videography==
* ''The Iceberg Video'' (1989)
* ''O.G.: The Original Gangster Video'' (1991)
==Awards==
*[[MTV Movie Awards 1992|MTV Movie Award nominee]]
==Note==
Although one of [[West Coast hip hop| West Coast rap's]] leading figures, Tracy Morrow (commonly known as Ice-T) was actually born in [[Newark, New Jersey| Newark]], [[New Jersey]]. He moved from Newark, when his parents unfortunately died in a motor vehicle accident. Still a young child he went to live with relatives in Los Angeles.
After settling down with relatives, who lived in [[South Los Angeles| South Los Angeles']] (more often referred to as South Central) [[Crenshaw| Crenshaw district]], he quickly became infatuated with the ways of "ghetto street life" and eventually even joined in with one of the many [[Crips]] sets, an infamous street gang, which took root in South Central Los Angeles. He would ultimately end up taking the street moniker Ice-T after the famous ex-pimp turned author [[Iceberg Slim]].
He also attended Crenshaw High School, where he would become obsessed with rap, often reciting rhymes for classmates. After leaving high school he would join the US Army Rangers until 1981. Then would begin his extremely long career of recording raps for various studios before finally landing a deal with a major label, Sire Records, and shortly after releasing his debut album "Rhyme Pays".
Ice-T is believed to be the first rapper to have ever performed the notorious [[Crip Walk]] (or C-Walk) up on stage, in front of cameras sometime in the 80's. This added to his already controversial fame and gave rise to the C-Walks mainstream in other video's via [[WC (rapper)| WC]] (pronounced Dub C, or just simply Dub), [[Snoop Dogg]], [[Warren G]], and other Crip-turned-rapper artists.
All of Ice-T's records on Warner Brothers spell his name '''Ice-T''', while the spelling without the hyphen is more often used on more recent records. His earliest 12" shows the spelling '''Ice "T"''', other 12"s use '''Ice-T''' ("Reckless") and '''Ice T''' ("Ya Don't Quit").
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0001384|name=Ice T}}
* [http://www.svufans.byethost11.com/ SVU Fans]
* {{musicbrainz artist|id=8a75ce0d-1df3-47cc-b076-ce2f4e8250f0|name=Ice-T}}
[[Category:1958 births|Ice T]]
[[Category:African-American actors]]
[[Category:American film actors]]
[[Category:American rappers]]
|
es and palaces were razed to the ground, and the rubbish thrown into the [[Arakhtu]], the canal bordering the earlier Babylon on the south. This act shocked the religious conscience of Mesopotamia; the subsequent murder of Sennacherib was held to be in expiation of it, and his successor [[Esarhaddon]] hastened to rebuild the old city, to receive there his crown, and make it his residence during part of the year. On his death, Babylonia was left to be governed by his elder son [[Shamash-shum-ukin]], who eventually headed a revolt in [[652 BC]] against his brother in Nineveh, [[Assurbanipal]].
Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians and starved into surrender. Assurbanipal purified the city and celebrated a "service of reconciliation", but did not venture to "take the hands" of Bel. In the subsequent overthrow of the Assyrian Empire, the Babylonians saw another example of divine vengeance.
===Neo-Babylonian Empire===
[[Image:Babylon 600BC Painting.jpg|thumb|240px|Mural near the reconstructed Ishtar gate, depicting the palace quarter of Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon. The Ishtar gate is shown in the top left corner of the image]]
Under [[Nabopolassar]], Babylon threw off Assyrian rule in [[626 BC]], and became the capital of the [[Babylonia|Neo-Babylonian empire]].
With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, and his son [[Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadrezzar II]] ([[605 BC]]-[[562 BC]]) made Babylon into one of the wonders of the ancient world. Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including rebuilding the [[Etemenanki]] [[ziggurat]] and the construction of the [[Ishtar Gate]] -- the most spectacular of eight gates that ringed the perimeter of Babylon. The Ishtar Gate survives today in the [[Pergamon Museum]] in [[Berlin]]. Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] (one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World|seven wonders of the ancient world]]), said to have been built for his homesick wife [[Amyitis]]. Whether the gardens did exist is a matter of dispute. Although excavations by German archaeologist [[Robert Koldewey]] are thought to reveal its foundations, many historians disagree about the location, and some believe it may have been confused with gardens in [[Nineveh]].
===Babylon under Persia===
In [[539 BC]] the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to [[Cyrus the Great]], king of [[Persia]]. It is said that Cyrus walked through the gates of Babylon without encountering any resistance. He later issued a decree permitting the exiled [[Jews]] to return to their own land, and allowed their temple to be rebuilt. ([[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 1).
Under Cyrus and his heir [[Darius I]], Babylon became the capital city of the 9th Satrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north), as well a centre of learning and scientific advancements. In [[Achaemenid]] Persia, the ancient Babylonian arts of [[astronomy]] and [[mathematics]] were revitalised and flourished, and Babylonian scholars completed maps of constellations. Overall the city being the administrative capital of the [[Persian Empire]] (the preeminent power of the then known world), played a vital part in the history of that region for over two centuries. To date, many important archeological discoveries have been being made that can provide a better understanding of that era, not only in regards to the role of Babylon and the Persian Empire, but perhaps the history of its earlier inhabitants as well[http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/forgottenempire/legacy/cylinder.html][http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM].
The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies of [[Marduk]], but by the reign of [[Darius III]], over-taxation and the strains of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the disintegration of the surrounding region. Despite three attempts at rebellion in [[522 BC]], [[521 BC]], and [[482 BC]], the land and city of Babylon remained solidly under Persian rule for two centuries, until Alexander the Great's entrance in [[331 BC]].
===Hellenistic Period===
In [[331 BC]], Darius III was defeated by the forces of the [[Macedonian]] ruler [[Alexander the Great]] at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]], and in October, Babylon fell to the young conquerer. A native account of this invasion notes a ruling by Alexander not to enter the homes of its inhabitants.
Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a centre of learning and commerce. But following Alexander&#8217;s mysterious death in [[323 BC]] in the palace of Nebuchadrezzar, his empire was divided amongst his generals, and decades of fighting soon began, with Babylon once again caught in the middle.
The constant turmoil virtually emptied the city of Babylon. A tablet dated [[275 BC]] states that the inhabitants of Babylon were transported to [[Seleucia]], where a palace was built, as well as a temple given the ancient name of [[E-Saggila]]. With this deportation, the history of Babylon comes practically to an end, though more than a century later, it was found that sacrifices were still performed in its old sanctuary. By [[141 BC]], when the [[Parthian Empire]] took over the region, Babylon was in complete desolation and obscurity.
==Archaeology of Babylon==
Historical knowledge of Babylon's [[topography]] is derived from classical writers, the inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar, and several excavations, including those of the [[Deutsche Orientgesellschaft]] begun in [[1899]]. The layout is that of the Babylon of Nebuchadrezzar; the older Babylon destroyed by Sennacherib having left few, if any, traces behind.
[[Image:Babylon Ruins Marines.jpg|thumb|200px|US Marines in front of the rebuilt ruins of Babylon (2003)]]
Most of the existing remains lie on the east bank of the Euphrates, the principal ones being three vast mounds: the [[Babil]] to the north, the Qasr or "Palace" (also known as the [[Mujelliba]]) in the centre, and the Ishgn "Amran ibn" All, with the outlying spur of the Jumjuma, to the south. East of these come the [[Ishgn el-Aswad]] or "Black Mound" and three lines of rampart, one of which encloses the Babil mound on the N. and E. sides, while a third forms a triangle with the S.E. angle of the other two. West of the [[Euphrates]] are other ramparts, and the remains of the ancient [[Borsippa]].
We learn from [[Herodotus]] and [[Ctesias]] that the city was built on both sides of the river in the form of a square, and was enclosed within a double row of lofty walls, or a triple row according to Ctesias. Ctesias describes the outermost wall as 360 stades (42 miles/68 km) in circumference, while according to Herodotus it measured 480 stades (56 miles/90 km), which would include an area of about 520 km&sup2; (approx. 200 square miles).
The estimate of Ctesias is essentially the same as that of Q. Curtius (v. I. 26) -- 368 stades -- and [[Cleitarchus]] (ap. Diod. Sic. ii. 7) -- 365 stades; [[Strabo]] (xvi. 1. 5) makes it 385 stades. But even the estimate of Ctesias, assuming the stade to be its usual length, would imply an area of about 260 km&sup2; (100 square miles). According to Herodotus, the width of the walls was 24 m (80 ft).
[[Saddam Hussein]] installed a huge portrait of himself and [[Nebuchadnezzar]] at the entrance to the ruins. He also had part of the ruins rebuilt, to the dismay of archaeologists, with his name inscribed on many of the bricks, in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. One frequent inscription reads: "''This was built by Saddam Hussein, son of Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq''". This recalls the ziggurat at [[Ur]], where each individual brick was stamped with "''Ur-Nammu, king of Ur, who built the temple of [[Nanna (Sumerian deity)|Nanna]]''". These bricks became sought after as collectors' items after the downfall of Saddam, and the ruins are no longer being restored to their original state.
==See also==
*[[Kings of Babylon]]
*[[Tower of Babel]], [[Babel]]
*[[Babylon (New Testament)]]
*[[New Babylon]]
*[[Whore of Babylon]]
==External links==
*[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Babylon_Babil.html The History of the Ancient Near East]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,2763,1391042,00.html Babylon wrecked by war, The Guardian, January 15, 2005]
*[http://www.gardenvisit.com/garden_history/sacred_gardens/babylon_gardens.htm Babylonian gardens]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4461755.stm History lost in dust of war-torn Iraq], BBC, April 25, 2005, mentions damage to Babylon.
==References==
*[1] {{1911}}
*[2] [http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article11389.htm ''What I heard about Iraq in 2005'' by Eliot Weinberger, London Review of Books]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Iraq]]
[[Category:Assyria]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Chaldeans]]
[[Category:Destroyed cities]]
[[Category:Tanakh places]]
[[ar:بابل (مدينة)]]
[[tr:Babil]]
[[bg:Вавилон]]
[[bs:Babilon]]
[[ca:Babilim]]
[[cs:Babylon]]
[[da:Babylon]]
[[de:Babylon]]
[[es:Babilonia (ciudad)]]
[[eo:Babilono]]
[[fr:Babylone]]
[[gl:Babilonia]]
[[hr:Babilon]]
[[io:Babilono]]
[[it:Babilonia]]
[[he:בבל]]
[[mk:Вавилон]]
[[nl:Babylon]]
[[ja:バビロン]]
[[no:Babylon]]
[[pl:Babilon]]
[[pt:Babilônia]]
[[ru:Вавилон]]
[[sr:Вавилон]]
[[fi:Babylon]]
[[sv:Babylon]]
[[uk:Вавілон]]
[[zh:巴比伦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bethlehem</title>
<id>4312</id>
<revision>
<id>41886211</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:32:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.244.101.99</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city in the [[West Bank]]. For other articles with this name see [[Bethlehem (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Nativity Church.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The Church of the Nativity, a Bethlehem Landm |
that England is seen to have effectively ended [[serfdom]] by [[1550]] while moving towards more [[representative government]]; meanwhile, [[Russia]] did not abolish serfdom until an autocratic [[tsar]] decreed so in 1861.
On top of all this, the plague's great population reduction brought cheaper land prices, more food for the average peasant, and a relatively large increase in per capita income among the peasantry, if not immediately, in the coming century. However, the upper class often attempted to stop these changes, initially in Western Europe, and more forcefully and successfully in Eastern Europe, by instituting laws which barred the peasantry from certain actions or material goods. A good example of this is the [[sumptuary]] laws which were passed throughout Europe which regulated what people (particularly of the peasant class) could wear, so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act as a higher class member with their increased wealth. Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that peasants could not demand more with increasing value. This was met with varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired; such a law was one of the causes of [[England]]'s [[1381]] [[Peasants' Revolt]].
===Persecutions===
As with other natural and man-made social disasters, renewed religious fervor and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of Black Death. In many parts of Europe, rumors circulated that Jews caused the plague by deliberately poisoning wells. Typically, comparatively fewer Jews died from the Black Death, in part due to [[Kashrut|rabbinical laws]] that called for a lifestyle that was, in general, cleaner than that of a typical medieval villager, and because of isolation in Jewish ghettos; this raised the suspicion of people unable to explain the plague through scientific reasoning.
Fierce [[pogrom]]s frequently resulted in the death or banishment of most of the Jews in a town or city. By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been exterminated, and more than 350 separate massacres had occurred. This persecution was often not merely out of religious hatred, but also as a way of attacking the Kings or Church who protected the Jews (Jews were often called the King's property) as a way of lashing out at the institutions that had failed them.
An important legacy of the Black Death was to cause the eastward movement of what was left of north European Jewry to Poland and Russia, where it remained until the 20th century.
[[Leprosy|Leper]]s were also singled out and persecuted, indeed exterminated throughout Europe. Anyone with a skin disease such as [[acne]] or [[psoriasis]] was thought to be a leper, and leprosy was believed to be an outward sign of an inner defect of the soul. Both Jews and lepers were persecuted because they became [[scapegoat]]s for the disasters of society. <ref>R.I. Moore, ''The Formation of a Persecuting Society'', Oxford, 1987 ISBN 0631171452</ref><ref>David Nirenberg, ''Communities of Violence'', 1998, ISBN 069105889X</ref>
===Religion===
[[Image:Flagellants.png|thumb|right|Flagellants practiced self-flogging to atone for sins. The movement became popular after general disillusionment with the church's reaction to the Black Death.]]
The Black Death led to cynicism toward religious officials who could not keep their frequent promises of curing plague victims and banishing the disease. No one, the Church included, was able to cure or even explain the plague. In fact, most thought it spread somehow through air, calling it ''[[Miasma theory of disease|miasma]]''. This increased doubting of the [[clergy]]. [[Pope]] [[Clement VI]] reigned during the plague years in Europe during a time when the papacy was based in [[Avignon]], [[France]]. This period in papal history, known as the [[Avignon Papacy|Babylonian Captivity]] to its detractors, was a concurrent cause of the people's lack of faith in the Christian Church. The Avignon popes were seen as having subordinated themselves to the French monarchy, and their ineffectiveness regarding the Black Death only compounded the common man's disillusionment. Extreme alienation with the church culminated in either support for different religious groups such as the [[flagellant]]s, which grew tremendously during the opening years of the Black Death (angering church and political officials greatly), or to an increase in interest for more secular alternatives to problems facing European society and an increase of secular politicians.
The Black Death hit the monasteries very hard because of their close quarters and their kindness in helping the sick, so that there was a severe shortage of clergy after the epidemic cycle. This resulted in a mass influx of new clergy members, most of whom did not share the life-long convictions and experiences of the veterans they replaced. This resulted in abuses by the clergy in years afterwards and a further deterioration of the position of the Church in the eyes of the people. 25 million people died from the plague.
===Other effects===
[[Image:Holbein-death.png|thumb|right|Inspired by Black Death, ''[[Danse Macabre]]'' is an allegory on the universality of death and a common painting motive in late-medieval periods.]]
After 1350 [[Culture of Europe|European culture]] in general turned very morbid. The general mood was one of pessimism, and the art turned dark with representations of death. The ''[[Dies Irae]]'' was created in this period as was the popular poem ''[[La Danse Macabre]]'' and the instructive and popular ''[[Ars moriendi]]'' ("the art of dying"). See also ''[[The Decameron]]''.
The science of [[alchemy]] was affected by the plague. As a specialty and method of treatment, it was considered the norm for most scientists and doctors prior and during the Black Death. However, after the plague had taken its toll, the practice of alchemy slowly began to wane. The citizenry began to realize that, in most cases, it did not affect the progress of the epidemic and that some of the potions and "cures" used by many doctors throughout Christendom and the Islamic world only helped to worsen the condition of the sick. [[Liquor]] (distilled alcohol), originally made by alchemists, was commonly applied as a remedy for the Black Death, and as a result the popularity and consumption of liquor in Europe rose dramatically after the plague.
In 2006 a scientific study by Dr Thomas van Hoof ([[Utrecht University]]) suggests the Black Death contributed to the [[Little Ice Age]]. Pollen and leaf data, collected from lake-bed sediments in the southeast Netherlands, supports the idea that millions of trees sprang up on abandoned farmland soaking up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and thus cooling the planet. The line of research is new and there are questions and further research is needed, but it does pose an interesting theory that man-caused climate change is older than current theories. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4755328.stm]
==Black Death in literature==
===Contemporary===
The specter of the Black Death dominated art and literature thoughout the generation that experienced it. Much of the most useful manifestations of the Black Death in literature, to historians, comes from the accounts of its chroniclers, often the only real way to get a sense of the horror of living through a disaster on such a scale. A few were famous writers, philosophers and rulers (like [[Boccaccio]] and [[Petrarch]]), but most were quite ordinary people who happened to work in a job requiring literacy, a rare talent. For example, [[Agnolo di Tura]] the Fat, of [[Siena]], records his experience:
<blockquote>Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight. And so they died. And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship. Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices ... great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead. And they died by the hundreds both day and night... And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug ... And I, Agnolo di Tura, called the Fat, buried my five children with my own hands. And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city. There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death. And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world. This situation continued [from May] until September.</blockquote>
The scene Di Tura describes is repeated over and over again all across Europe. In [[Sicily]], [[Gabriele de'Mussi]], a [[Notary public|notary]], tells of the early spread from the [[Crimea]]:
<blockquote>Alas! our ships enter the port, but of a thousand sailors hardly ten are spared. We reach our homes; our kindred…come from all parts to visit us. Woe to us for we cast at them the darts of death! …Going back to their homes, they in turn soon infected their whole families, who in three days succumbed, and were buried in one common grave. Priests and doctors visiting…from their duties ill, and soon were…dead. O death! cruel, bitter, impious death! …Lamenting our misery, we feared to fly, yet we dared not remain.</blockquote>
[[Henry Knighton]] tells of the plague’s coming to England:
<blockquote>Then the grievous plague came to the seacoasts from Southampton, and came to Bristol, and it was as if all the strength of the town had died, as if they had been hit with sudden death, for there were few who stayed in their beds more than three days, or two days, or even one half a day.</blockquote>
In addition to these personal accounts, many presentations of the Black Death have entered the general consciousness as great [[literature]]. For example, the major works of Boccaccio (''The Decameron'') |
some countries had, up until then, extended to ETA. In addition, in [[2002]] the Basque nationalist youth movement [[Jarrai]] was outlawed and the law of parties was changed outlawing Herri Batasuna, the "political arm" of ETA (although even before the change in law, Batasuna had been largely paralyzed and under judicial investigation by judge [[Baltasar Garzón]]).
With ever-increasing frequency, attempted ETA actions have been frustrated by Spanish security forces.
On Christmas Eve [[2003]], in San Sebastián and in [[Hernani]], National Police arrested two ETA members who had left dynamite in a railroad car prepared explode in [[Chamartín Station]] in Madrid. On [[March 1]], [[2004]], in a place between [[Alcalá de Henares]] and [[Madrid]], a light truck with 536 kg of explosives was left to cause a massacre, but was prevented by the action of the Guardia Civil.
===Recent events===
''For recent ETA attacks see [[List of ETA attacks]]''
*[[October 8]], [[1999]]: ETA is designated as a Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTA) by the U.S. government for the first time.
*[[25 May]] [[2001]]: Thousands of Spaniards participate in a silent march through San Sebastian, a northern city, to protest the killing of journalist Santiago Oleaga Elejabarrieta. Banners are held that read "No To ETA &ndash; Peace And Freedom." Spanish reporters give a statement saying, "However much they kill and try to impose their cause through terror we, as media professionals, will defend the expression which took so long to achieve in this country."
*[[11 July]] [[2001]] Hundreds of people gather in Madrid to commemorate the life of slain policeman Luis Ortiz de la Rosa, who was killed the preceding day. The rally protests ETA's actions.
*[[15 July]] [[2001]]: CNN reports that hundreds of Spaniards have gathered in city and town halls around Spain to silently protest two killings blamed on the Basque separatist group ETA. The cities include Pamplona, Vitoria, and Zaragoza.
*[[24 August]] [[2001]]: The Spanish police arrest six suspected ETA members in the Barcelona suburb of Terrasa, seizing over 550 pounds of what CNN reports as "explosives, firearms, forged license plates and electronic detonator components."
*[[26 February]] [[2002]]: U.S. Treasury Secretary Paul O'Neill announces that the U.S. has frozen assets of twenty one people associated with ETA.
*[[22 December]] [[2002]]: Ibon Fernandez Iradi, who is suspected of teaching ETA members how to make bombs, escapes from custody in a police station in Bayonne, France.
*[[8 October]] [[2003]]: thirty four suspected ETA members are arrested in the early morning. Twenty-nine are apprehended in northern Spain and five in France.
*[[9 December]] [[2003]]: Police in southwestern France arrest Gorka Palacios, twenty nine, the alleged military commander of ETA. Three people who the police said were collaborators were also arrested in the 6:00 AM raid on a house in the village of Lons, near the town of Pau. At a news conference in [[Marrakesh]], [[Morocco]], Spanish interior minister [[Ángel Acebes]] characterized the arrests as of "great significance" and of "first magnitude."
*[[February 18]], [[2004]]: ETA publicly stated that a ceasefire only in [[Catalonia]] had been in effect since [[January 1]], based on "a desire to unite the ties between the Basque and Catalan peoples." Some claimed that this ceasefire was based on a secret pact with [[Josep-Lluís Carod-Rovira]], leader of [[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya]] (ERC, "Republican Left of Catalonia"). Carod-Rovira, despite admitting to having met with ETA in France in December denied having reached any accord, saying that the meeting was an attempt to drive ETA away from violence, and ended with no results. This, during an electoral campaign, became a scandal, and endangered the recent tripartite Catalan government, formed by ERC (ERC), [[Iniciativa per Catalunya Verds]]-[[Esquerra Unida i Alternativa]] (ICV-EUiA) and the [[Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya]] (PSC). The opposition then accused Aznar of being behind the leak to the media of the intelligence report detailing the meeting and Aznar refused to clarify whether he knew about this meeting before the leaking. Aznar was also questioned as to why the ETA members who attended that meeting were not detained.
*Also in 2004, ETA was initially suspected of being the authors of a series of ten bombings only a few days before the national elections, which targeted three locations along [[Madrid]]'s suburban train lines on the morning of [[March 11]] [[2004]], killing 192 civilians (''see [[11 March 2004 Madrid attacks]]''). This theory was officially endorsed by [[José María Aznar]]'s government, despite the police quickly gathering evidence pointing towards [[Islamic terrorism]]. Many Spanish citizens took this rush to judgment as an offence towards the victims of the attacks and towards the Spanish people; this was generally seen as a decisive factor in the electoral result which overturned Aznar's government (see [[Spanish legislative election, 2004]]). The authorship of this attack, the largest European terror incident in terms of lives lost since the [[1988]] [[Pan Am flight 103]] flight bombing, has been finally ascribed to Islamist terrorists by the Spanish police.
*[[20 February]] [[2004]]: Nine men and a woman are arrested, making the number of ETA suspects detained this week thirty three. They worked on a Basque-language newspaper, ''[[Euskaldunon Egunkaria]]'', published statements from ETA. They've been released and their torture claims dismissed without being investigated or even calling them to testify[http://www.englishpen.org/writersintranslation/magazineofliteratureintranslat/basquecountry/martxelootamendi/].
*[[21 March]] [[2004]]: A spokesman for the newly elected PSOE government of Spain rejects a proposal from ETA for negotiations because ETA was not prepared to surrender its weapons.
*[[September 27]], [[2004]]: ETA militants sent a videotape to ''Gara'', a Basque newspaper based in [[Guipúzcoa]], in which the militants stated that ETA would continue to fight for Basque self-determination and that ETA would "respond with arms at the ready to those who deny us through the force of arms." This videotape represented ETA's first major public statement since the [[11 March]] attacks. During the weekend preceding the videotape release, the group claimed responsibility for a series of bombings that hampered electricity transmission between France and Spain.
*[[October 3]], [[2004]]: French police launched an operation against ETA's logistical apparatus, making 21 arrests, among them the couple who functioned as top ETA leaders, [[Mikel Albizu Iriarte]] ("Mikel Antza") and [[Soledad Iparragirre]] ("Anboto"). They found four ''zulos'' (caches) with a vast quantity of armaments, much greater than had been estimated to be at ETA's disposal; they also managed to turn up information about ETA's printing an internal newsletter, but nothing leading to any major bank account or other hoard of money. The operation was considered one of the most successful since Bidart in 1992. [[As of 2004|As of October 2004]], it appears that these measures will result in ETA leadership moving into different hands; it is too soon to evaluate the consequences. Spain has solicited the extradition of Mikel Antza y Amboto via a [[Euroorden]].
*[[December 12]] [[2004]]: The [[Real Madrid]] [[Santiago Bernabéu stadium]] football Stadium was evacuated due to a phoned-in bomb threat in name of ETA. The bomb&mdash;expected to blow up at 9:00 p.m.&mdash;didn't explode, and the 69,000 spectators of the match under way at the time of the call were safely evacuated by the Spanish Police at 8:45 p.m.
*[[May 17]] [[2005]]: The Spanish Government offered to hold talks with ETA if it renounced violence. The Opposition [[Popular Party]] condemned the overture as premature.
==Other armed movements==
===Other armed organizations that operated in the Basque Country===
* Right wing
**''ATE ([[Anti-Terrorismo ETA]])''
**''[[Batallón Vasco Español]]''
**''[[Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación]]''
*Left wing
**''[[Iraultza]]''
**''[[Comandos Autónomos Anticapitalistas]]''
**''[[Iparretarrak]]''
===International links===
ETA is known to have had contacts with the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]]; the two groups have both, at times, characterized their struggles as parallel. It has also had links with other militant left-wing movements in Europe and in other places throughout the world. Because of its allegiance to [[Marxism|Marxist]] ideas, ETA has in the past been sponsored by [[communism|communist]] regimes such as [[Cuba]], as well as by [[Libya]] and [[Lebanon]].
The support provided by Palestine militias to ETA was one of the reasons for the [[Felipe González|González]] government to [[Foreign relations of Israel|recognize Israel]] in 1986.
Some ex-militants live in [[Latin America]]n countries, such as [[Mexico]] and [[Venezuela]] where they have received [[political asylum]]. The [[Colombia]]n government has accused [[Ireland|Irish]] and Basque citizens in Colombia of being [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] and ETA members teaching terrorist techniques to [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]].
ETA commandos have teamed with the [[Breton Revolutionary Army]] to rob explosives from magazines in [[Brittany]].
==References==
* This article makes use of material translated from the [[:es:ETA|corresponding article]] in the Spanish-language Wikipedia.
* Enric Martinez-Herrera, [http://www.unesco.org/most/vl4n1martinez.pdf "National Extremism and Outcomes of State Policies in the Basque Country, 1979&ndash;2001"], originally published in the ''International Journal on Multicultural Studies'', Vol. 4, No. 1, 2002.
* {{note|B |
Robots (film)|Robots]]''
*''[[Rolie Polie Olie]]''
*''[[Shadow Raiders]]''
*''[[Shark Tale]]''
*''[[Shrek]]''
*''[[Thomas & Friends]]''
*''[[Toy Story]]''
*''[[Veggie Tales]]''
*''[[Waking Life]]''
==See also==
* [[Animation]] ''- Introductory [[Wikipedia:Root page|Root page]]''
* [[Computer-generated imagery]] (CGI)
* [[Computer Graphics Lab]] and the project ''[[The Works]]''
* [[Wire frame model]]
* [[Computer representation of surfaces]]
* [[Motion capture]]
* [[Avar (animation variable)]]
* [[Pixar|Pixar Animation Studios]]
* [[Rhythm and Hues Studios]]
* [[Skeletal animation]]
* [[Morph target animation]]
* [[Timeline of CGI in movies]]
==External links==
*[http://www.scanimate.net The Scanimate Site] and the documentary ''[http://www.scanimate.net/DVD2/dream.html The Dream Machine]''
===Animated images embedded in the Wikipedia===
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:CompAnimationExample.gif
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pentakisdodecahedron02.gif
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:UK_Roundabout_8_Cars_300px.gif
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:User-FastFission-brain.gif
==External links==
===Applications===
*[http://www.artofillusion.org ArtOfIllusion Modeller] ([[Java programming language|Java]]-based [[Open Source]] modelling package with tutorials)
*[http://www.blender3d.org Blender] (A very powerful and free modelling/rendering package) (see [[Blender (software)]])
===Studios employing computer animation===
*[http://www.blueskystudios.com Blue Sky Studios] (''Ice Age'', ''Robots'')
*[http://www.mainframe.ca Mainframe Entertainment] (''Beast Wars'', ''Reboot'', ''Shadow Raiders'')
*[http://rebusmedia.de/index_eng.htm REBUS 3D Computeranimation] (''FSC'', Industrial 3d Services)
*[http://www.pdi.com PDI Dreamworks] formerly Pacific Data Images (''ANTZ'', ''Shrek'')
*[http://www.pixar.com Pixar Animation Studios] (''Toy Story'', ''Monsters Inc.'', ''A Bug's Life'', ''Finding Nemo'', ''The Incredibles'', etc.)
*[http://www.rhythm.com/ Rhythm and Hues Studios] (''Babe'', ''Mouse Hunt'', ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', ''Charlotte's Web'', ''Superman Returns'')
*[http://www.futurethought.tv Future Thought Productions] (''The Buzz on Maggie'', ''Coconut Fred's Fruit Salad Island'', ''OzieBoo!'')
[[Category:Computer graphics]]
[[Category:Animation]]
[[de:Computeranimation]]
[[ms:Animasi komputer]]
[[he:אנימציה ממוחשבת]]
[[pt:Animação digital]]
[[th:คอมพิวเตอร์แอนิเมชัน]]
[[zh:计算机动画]]
[[no:Dataanimasjon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ceawlin of Wessex</title>
<id>6778</id>
<revision>
<id>40994524</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T10:02:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<minor />
<comment>/* [[571]] */ Chilterns are not Cotswolds</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ceawlin of Wessex''' ''(also spelled "Ceaulin" or "Caelin")'' is recorded in the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] as being king of the West Saxons, or [[Wessex]] from [[560]] to [[591]], and named by [[Bede]] in his ''Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum'' as the second [[Bretwalda]]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records his death as occurring in [[593]].
Recent scholars have speculated over the relationship of Ceawlin with the [[Saxon people|Saxon]] tribe called the [[Gewissae]], whom Bede located in the upper [[Thames]] region near [[Dorchester, Oxfordshire|Dorchester-on-Thames]]. He may have been a member of their ruling dynasty; the surviving [[genealogy|genealogies]] of the Wessex royal line all have contradictions, and scholars suspect that these have been altered to support the claims of descent by later rulers.
A fact that has also drawn much comment is the gap of a generation or two between the first Bretwalda [[Aelle of Sussex|&AElig;lle]] and Ceawlin. This has been cited as supporting [[Gildas]]' claim that for over 40 years after the battle of [[Mons Badonicus]] the British lived in peace and were secure from major predations from the Anglo Saxon invaders. And if we ignore the raids of [[Cerdic of Wessex|Ceredic]] and his sons in the areas of present-day southern [[Hampshire]] and [[Wiltshire]], and acknowledge that the [[Angles]] in [[Bernicia]] were confined to a single stronghold by the British, this makes sense.
Our principal source for the events of his life are the eight entries from the Anglo Saxon Chronicle from [[556]] to 593. Although the Chronicle itself dates from the final decade of the ninth century, these entries appear to record the skeleton of an older saga. A discussion of these entries follows.
==[[556]]== In this year, Cynric and Ceawlin fought against the British at Beranburh.
:This is Ceawlin's first appearance in the Chronicle. [[Cynric of Wessex|Cynric]] was the current king of the West Saxons, and Ceawlin apparently was the junior member in this action. Beranburh is identified with [[Barbury Camp]] in the [[Marlborough Downs]], overlooking the valley of [[Swindon]].
==[[560]]== In this year, Ceawlin succeeded to the kingdom of the West Saxons.
:The Chronicle has no mention of Cynric's death; there is no sign whether Ceawlin's actions in 556 allow him to seize the primacy of the West Saxons, or if the chronicler missed an entry.
==[[568]]== In this year, Ceawlin and Cutha fought against &AElig;thelbert, sending him in flight to Kent, and two aldermen were slain in Wibbandun, Oslaf and Cnebban.
:[[Ethelbert of Kent|&AElig;thelbert]] here is the &AElig;thelbert of [[Kent]] who welcomed the missionary [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]] to Britain. While this entry is consistent with the Chronicle's claim that &AElig;thelbert ruled Kent from 560, the contemporary account of [[Gregory of Tours]] indicates that he more likely became king closer to 590. This discrepancy suggests that the Chronicler either modified his source, or that his source did not reflect the original facts here; or that Gregory was mistaken.
:In any case, the point of this entry was to show that Ceawlin was superior in arms to the better known &AElig;thelbert.
:Since at least as early as [[Charles Plummer|Charles Plummer']] edition of the Chronicle, it has been observed that this is the first recorded battle between the Anglo Saxon tribes.
:Wibbandun up to the early twentieth century was identified with [[Wimbledon, London]], but research in the formation of that place name did not support that identification. Currently, scholarly opinion holds that it is located somewhere south of the Thames, west of the Kent border. It is now considered that the site of the battle was Whitmoor Common, Worplesdon, north of [[Guildford]].
:Nothing more is known of the aldermen Oslaf and Cnebban.
==[[571]]==
In this year, Cuthwulf fought against the British Welsh at Bedcanford and took 4 towns, Lygeanburg, Aegelesburg, Baenesington and Egonesham, and in the same year he passed on.
:So the Parker manuscript, as well as two others; the Laud manuscript names the West Saxon leader "Cutha". The term "British Welsh" is an attempt to translate the Anglo-Saxon "Bretwalas", which appears in the Chronicle only nine times, including this entry: up to the entry for about year 600, the Chronicler calls the native British inhabitants "Brettas" or British -- except for his entries concerning Aelle -- and "Wealas" or Welsh afterwards
:Bedcanford up to the early twentieth century was identified with [[Bedford, Bedfordshire|Bedford]], but research in the formation of that place name does not support that identification. The four towns, respectively, are the modern [[Limbury]], [[Aylesbury]], [[Benson, Oxfordshire|Benson]], and [[Eynsham]] -- all located in the [[Chiltern Hills]] or Oxfordshire. Archaeological evidence points to the fact that there was an enclave of British communities around [[London]] and [[Verulamium]] into the sixth century. This area may be remembered as the Chilternsaete listed in the [[Tribal Hidage]], who were taxed at a valuation of 4000 hides.
==[[577]]==
In this year, Cuthwine and Ceawlin fought against the British, and they killed 3 kings Coinmail, Condidan, and Farinmail in the place that is called Deorham. And they captured 3 strongholds, Gloucester, Cirencester and Bathcester.
:This is the [[Battle of Deorham]]. Much has been made that with this battle the Cornish Celts were separated from the Welsh; in actual fact, the Celtic peoples living in those parts of Britain could still travel by land with little significant barrier between them for many more years. The [[Historia Britonum]] records one Glast as coming from [[Lichfield]] south to found [[Glastonbury]] about the time the [[Mercia|Mercians]] conquered part of their kingdom to create [[Shropshire]]. More important is the fact that the Anglo-Saxon invaders could now sweep into the [[Severn]] valley (as Ceawlin is said to have done several years later) and plunder the inhabitants, while the Celts to the west no longer could as easily penetrate the [[Cotswolds]] scarp between [[Gloucester]] and [[Cirencester]] to return the visit.
:Deorham has been identified as Dyrham, a village some eight miles north of [[Bath]], and five miles west of the Fosse Way, the Roman road between Bath and Cirencester.
:It is not clear if the three kings should be matched with one "stronghold" each, or perhaps they were relatives who shared rule over all three. The modern [[Welsh language|Welsh]] form of these kings names is Cynvael, Cynddylan, and Ffernvael.
==[[584]]==
In this year, Ceawlin and Cutha fought against the British in the place that is named Fethanleag and Cutha was slain. And Ceawlin took many towns and robbed countless bodies, and in anger he returned to his lands.
:Cutha again appears a final time, thirteen years after his possible death at Bedcanford. It is not clear if the chronicler made |
o traditional behaviour and open the way for new forms of parties, spontaneous congregations or shopping trips around the world.
==Other reading==
*"Flash Crowd" is on pages 99-164 of the paperback edition of <CITE>The Flight of the Horse</CITE>, copyright 1973 by Larry Niven. The story (or parts of it) was originally published as "Flash Crowd" in <CITE>Three Trips in Time and Space</CITE>, copyright 1973 by Robert Silverberg, ed.
*"The Last Days of the Permanent Floating Riot Club" is on pages 41-52 of the paperback edition of <CITE>A Hole in Space</CITE>, copyright 1974 by Larry Niven.
*Other stories in this series are in these two books, and in <CITE>All the Myriad Ways</CITE>.
==On the web==
On the [[World Wide Web]], a similar phenomenon can occur, when a web site catches the attention of a large number of people, and gets an unexpected and overloading surge of traffic. A notorious example is the [[Slashdot effect]]. See [http://www.useit.com/hotlist/spotlight2001.html hints] how to deal with flash crowds (search for crowds keyword).
==See also==
* [[Flash mob]], real-life phenomenon invoving crowds gathering suddenly (without the benefit of teleportation), practical implementation of Flash Crowds.
* [[Slashdot effect]], analogous phenomenon in the context of web traffic. To support online democracy the Webmobs social software supports visibility of the Flash Crowd.
[[category:Science fiction short stories]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fallopian tube</title>
<id>11468</id>
<revision>
<id>39603010</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T16:21:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fem isa 2.gif|right|thumb|300px|Female internal reproductive anatomy]]
The '''Fallopian tubes''', also known as '''oviducts''' and '''uterine tubes''', are two very fine tubes leading from the [[ovaries]] of female [[mammal|mammals]] into the [[uterus]]. They are named after their discoverer, the [[16th century]] [[Italy|Italian]] anatomist, [[Gabriele Falloppio]].
There are two Fallopian tubes, attached to either side of the [[cranial]] end of the uterus, and each terminating at or near one ovary forming a structure called the [[fimbria]].
When an [[ovum]] is developing in an ovary, it is encapsulated in a sac known as an [[ovarian follicle]]. On maturity of the ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements of [[cilia]] on the inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or days. If the ovum is [[fertilisation|fertilized]] while in the Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the [[endometrium]] when it reaches the uterus, which signals the beginning of [[pregnancy]]. Occasionally the embryo implants into the Fallopian tube instead of the uterus, creating an [[ectopic pregnancy]].
[[Image:Female anatomy frontal.png|right|Schematic frontal view of female anatomy]]
The Fallopian tubes are ''not'' [[homologous]] to the [[vas deferens]] or any other structure in males. [[Embryo]]s have ''two'' pairs of ducts to let [[gamete]]s out of the body; one pair develops in females into the Fallopian tubes, uterus and [[vagina]], while the other pair develops in males into the [[epididymis]] and vas deferens. Normally, only one of the pair of tubes will develop while the other regresses and disappears ''in utero''.
The Fallopian tubes are not directly attached to the ovaries, but open into the [[peritoneum|peritonial cavity]] (essentially the inside of the abdomen); they thus form a direct communication between the peritoneal cavity and the outside via the vagina.
The surgical removal of a Fallopian tube is called a [[salpingectomy]].
In [[human]]s, the Fallopian tubes are about 7&ndash;14 cm long.
==See also==
* [[pelvic inflammatory disease]]
* [[menstrual cycle]]
{{reproductive_system}}
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<page>
<title>Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the genealogist and son of Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, see [[Stephan Kekulé von Stradonitz]]''
[[Image:Frkekulé.jpg|framed|Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz]]
'''Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz''' ([[September 7]], [[1829]] &ndash; [[July 13]], [[1896]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[organic chemistry|organic chemist]].
He was born in [[Darmstadt]] to an old [[Bohemia]]n noble family. He was professor at [[Ghent]] ([[1858]]-[[1865]]) and at [[Bonn]]. He studied various [[carbon]] compounds, especially [[benzene]], proposing a carbon ring for its structure. In [[1857]] Kekulé proposed that carbon was [[valence (chemistry)|tetravalent]].
He wrote that he discovered the ring shape of the [[benzene]] molecule after dreaming of a [[snake]] seizing its own tail, a common symbol in many ancient cultures known as the [[Ouroboros]]. This dream came to him after years of studying the nature of carbon-carbon bonds. Kekulé claimed to solve the problem of how carbon atoms could bond to up to four other atoms at the same time. While his claims were well publicized and accepted, by the early 1920s Kekulé's own biographer came to the conclusion that Kekulé's understanding of the tetravalent nature carbon bonding depended on the previous research of [[Archibald Scott Couper]] (1831-1892); further, the German Chemist [[Josef Loschmidt]] (1821-1895) had earlier posited a cyclic structure for benzene as early as 1862, although he had not actually proved this structure to be correct.
In 1895 Kekulé was ennobled by Kaiser [[Wilhelm II of Germany]], giving him the right to add "von Stradonitz" to his name, referring to an ancient possession of his family in Stradonice, Bohemia. Of the first five [[Nobel Prize]]s in Chemistry, his students won three.
== See also ==
=== Other articles ===
*[[Benzene]]
*[[Non-Kekulé molecule]]
*[[Scientific mythology]]
*[[Cryptomnesia]]&nbsp;&mdash;an analysis of Kekulé's dream
== External links ==
* [http://classes.yale.edu/chem125a/125/history99/5Valence/Couper/Couper.html Couper and Carbon bonds]
* [http://classes.yale.edu/chem125a/125/history99/5Valence/Kekule/Kekule.html Kekule, Couper and dreams of Benzene]
* [http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-3/p45.html Josef Loschmidt, Physicist and Chemist]
* [http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-3/captions/p45cap4.html Loschmidt's Benzene structure]
* [http://www.sgipt.org/th_schul/pa/kek/pak_kek0.htm Kekulés Traum] (Kekulé's dream, in German)
* [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0827300.html Pronunciation of Kekulé]
[[Category:1829 births|Kekulé von Stradonitz, Friedrich August]]
[[Category:1896 deaths|Kekulé von Stradonitz, Friedrich August]]
[[Category:German chemists|Kekulé von Stradonitz, Friedrich August]]
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<page>
<title>Fibonacci sequence</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fibonacci number]]
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<page>
<title>Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor</title>
<id>11472</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Emperorfrederickiii.jpeg|thumb|250px|Detail of "Aeneas Piccolomini Introduces Eleonora of Portugal to Frederick III" by Pinturicchio (1454-1513)]]
'''Frederick III''' of [[Habsburg]] ([[Innsbruck]], [[September 21]] [[1415]] &ndash; [[August 19]], [[1493]] in [[Linz]]) was elected as [[King of the Romans|German King]] as the successor of [[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert II]] in [[1440]]. He was the son of Duke [[Ernest of Austria (Habsburg)|Ernest the Iron]] from the [[Leopoldinian line]] of the Habsburg family ruling ''Inner Austria'', i.e. [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Carniola]], and of his wife [[Cymburgis of Masovia]]. As an [[Austrian]] Habsburg Duke, he became '''Frederick V''' in [[1424]], and '''Frederick IV''' as Geman king, and then '''Frederick III''' with his coronation as [[Holy Roman |
[[July 2004]] but rejected its findings.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-4645430,00.html] [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=6951969]. The story was originally reported in several newspapers, including [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,1213640,00.html The Guardian], and the ICRC reacted to the article when the report was leaked in May.[http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList4/C5667B446C9A4DF7C1256F5C00403967]
In a [http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/message-eng foreword] to [[Amnesty International]]'s [http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/index-eng International Report 2005], the Secretary General, [[Irene Khan]], made a passing reference to the [[Guantánamo Bay]] prison as "the [[gulag]] of our times," breaking an internal AI policy on not comparing different human rights abuses. The report reflected ongoing claims of prisoner abuse at Guantánamo and other military prisons.[http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/11779485.htm] [http://www.philly.com/mld/dailynews/news/opinion/11825077.htm][http://www.nationalreview.com/rice/rice200506140804.asp]
===Government and military inquiries===
In December 2002, [[David Brant]], director of the [[Naval Criminal Investigative Service]] (NCIS), alerted Navy General Counsel [[Alberto J. Mora]] to reports of detainee abuse performed by the [[Joint Task Force 170]] (JTF-170) and authorized at high levels in Washington. General Counsel Mora and Navy Judge Advocate General [[Michael Lohr]] believed the detainee treatment to be unlawful, and campaigned among other top lawyers and officials in the Defense Department to investigate and to provide clear standards prohibiting coercive interrogation tactics. [http://www.newyorker.com/images/pdfs/moramemo.pdf] In response, on January 15, 2003, [[Donald Rumsfeld]] suspended the approved interrogation tactics at Guantánamo until a new set of guidelines could be produced by a working group headed by General Counsel of the Air Force [[Mary Walker]]. The working group based its new guidelines on a legal memo from the [[Department of Justice]] [[Office of Legal Counsel]] written by [[John Yoo]] and signed by [[Jay S. Bybee]], which would later become widely known as the "Torture Memo". General Counsel Mora led a faction of the Working Group in arguing against these standards, and argued the issues with Yoo in person. The working group's final report was signed and delivered to Guantánamo without the knowledge of Mora and the others who had opposed its content. Nonetheless, Mora has maintained that detainee treatment has been consistent with the law since the January 15, 2003 suspension of previously approved interrogation tactics. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A60149-2004Dec12]
After reports of detainee abuse became public, [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] Secretary [[Gordon England]] ordered a review of detainee [[incarceration]] practices at Guantánamo, conducted by Navy inspector general, Vice Admiral [[Albert Church]], which concluded the facility was "being operated at very high standards."
On [[June 3]], [[2005]], a U.S. military report supported allegations that U.S. soldiers had abused the [[Qur'an]]. The report found that a soldier deliberately kicked a Qur'an; an interrogator stepped on a Qur'an; a guard's urine came through an air vent, splashing a detainee and his Qur'an; water balloons thrown by prison guards caused a number of Qur'ans to get wet; and a two-word obscenity was written in English on the inside cover of a Qur'an. It concluded that many other allegations of desecration were unfounded (see [[Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005]]).
In June 2005 the U.S. House of Representatives Armed Services Committee visited the camp and described it as a "resort" and complimented the quality of the food. However Democratic members of the committee complained that Republicans had blocked the testimony of attorneys representing the prisoners. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2005/06/30/at_hearing_guantanamo_wins_praise_and_criticism/]Democratic Senators have visited Guantánamo and they reported that they could not find evidence of abuse or mistreatment.
On [[June 10]], [[2005]], as testimony was being given about alleged human rights abuses at Guantánamo, before a [[House Judiciary Committee]] hearing on reauthorization of the [[USA PATRIOT Act|Patriot Act]], Chairman [[James Sensenbrenner]] (one of the act's authors) declared debate over the detainees at Guantánamo Bay irrelevant. [http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/UNCIVIL_HEARING?SITE=WIMIL&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT]
On [[July 12]], [[2005]] members of a military panel told the committee that they proposed disciplining prison commander Army Major General Geoffrey Miller over the interrogation of [[Mohamed al-Kahtani]] who was forced to wear a bra, dance with another man and threatened with dogs. The recommendation was overruled by General Bantz J. Craddock, commander of U.S. Southern Command, who refered the matter to the Army's inspector general. [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/07/13/senate.guantanao.ap/index.html]
The book, ''[[Inside the Wire]]'' by [[Erik Saar]] and [[Viveca Novak]] also claims to reveal the abuse of prisoners. Saar, a former U.S. soldier, repeats allegations that female interrogators taunted prisoners sexually and in one instance wiped what seemed to be [[menstruation|menstrual]] blood on the detainee. In reality it was just a red marker but the prisoner was unable to clean himself and hence unable to pray. Other instances of beatings by the [[immediate reaction force (Guantánamo)|IRF]] (initial reaction force) have been reported in this book and it supports the claim that the [[Qur'an]] was flushed down the toilet. An FBI email [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/09_05_05_fbi_email.pdf] from December 2003, six months after Saar had left, said that the Defense Department interrogators at Guantánamo had impersonated FBI agents while using "torture techniques" on a detainee.
===='Exceptional treatment' of prisoners====
The U.S. government has claimed it has accommodated religious needs. Religious literature is supplied, daily prayers are respected and all meals are certified halal (adhering to Islamic law) by Gitmo's Muslim chaplain. In fact, between [[April 2002]] and [[March 2003]] most detainees had gained an average of 13 pounds. But continued alleged religious harassment is one of the triggers to the [[hunger strike]] that started on [[August 8]] [[2005]]. Detainee [[Omar Khadr]] told his lawyer that the camp authorities were only broadcasting the call to prayers four times a day, not the five times Islam requires. Further, camp authorities were allegedly offending the religious sensibilities of the detainees by having female personnel announce the call to prayers. Finally, he claimed that camp authorities were allowing guards to disrupt prayer sessions.
According to detailed accounts reported by the ''[[New York Times]]'' on [[June 24]], [[2005]], from former interrogators, military doctors have assisted with refinement of the techniques interrogators have used on detainees, including advice on how to incrementally adjust psychological duress levels and manipulate fears, as a means of attempting to make the detainees more cooperative and willing to provide information.[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/24/politics/24gitmo.html?hp&ex=1119585600&en=0bb87618febc3438&ei=5094&partner=homepage] It has been alleged that [[SERE]] (Survival, Evasion, Resistance, Escape) program's chief psychologist, Col. [[Morgan Banks]], issued guidance in early 2003 for the "behavioral science consultants" who helped to devise Guantánamo's interrogation strategy. SERE is a program based in [[Fort Bragg, North Carolina]].
A related article in the ''[[New England Journal of Medicine]]'' reported doctors involved with devising and supervising the interrogations indicated they understood the interrogation procedure refinements they gave advice on were designed to increase fear and distress, as a means to obtaining intelligence. Pentagon spokesman Bryan Whitman, while declining to address the specifics of the doctors' accounts, responded by asserting the doctors were not covered by ethics rules, since they were advising interrogators as behavioral scientists rather than treating patients.
According to a [[June 21]], [[2005]] ''New York Times'' opinion article, [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/21/opinion/21lewis.html?th&emc=th] on [[July 29]], [[2004]] an [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agent was quoted as saying, "On a couple of occasions, I entered interview rooms to find a detainee chained hand and foot in a fetal position to the floor, with no chair, food or water. Most times they had urinated or defecated on themselves and had been left there for 18, 24 hours or more."
U.S. Vice President [[Dick Cheney]] suggested detainees were treated better than they would be "by virtually any other government on the face of the earth."
Air Force Lt. Gen. Randall Schmidt, who headed the probe into FBI accounts of abuse of Guantánamo prisoners by Defense Department personnel, concluded the man (a Saudi, described as the "20th hijacker") was subjected to "abusive and degrading treatment" due to "the cumulative effect of creative, persistent and lengthy interrogations." The techniques used were authorized by the Pentagon, he said. [http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=worldNews&storyID=2005-07-13T203032Z_01_SCH364432_RTRUKOC_0_SECURITY-GUANTANAMO.xml]
Senator [[Pat Roberts]] of [[Kansas]], Chairman of the [[U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence|Senate Intelligence Committee]], challenged the allegations, on [[July 11]] [[2005]], after taking a tour, contending the de |
g left [[high school]] early. Hawke's enthusiasms were [[cigar]]s, [[horse racing]] and all forms of [[sport]]; Keating preferred [[classical architecture]] and collecting [[Antiques|antique]] [[Swiss]] [[cuckoo clock]]s. Hawke was consensus-driven; Keating revelled in aggressive debate. Hawke was a lapsed Protestant; Keating was a practising Catholic. Despite their differences, the two formed an effective political partnership.
Among other things, the Hawke Government floated the [[Australian dollar]], deregulated the financial system, overhauled the tariff system, privatised state sector industries, ended subsidisation of loss-making industries, and sold off the state-owned [[Commonwealth Bank of Australia]] - all reforms that in other Western countries would have been performed by right-wing governments. The tax system was reformed, most notably through the taxation of capital gains - a reform strongly opposed by the Liberal Party at the time, but not reversed when they returned to office.
Hawke benefitted greatly from the disarray into which the Liberal opposition fell after the resignation of Fraser. The Liberals were divided between supporters of the dour, economically and socially conservative [[John Howard]] and the urbane [[Andrew Peacock]]. The arch-conservative Premier of [[Queensland]], Sir [[Joh Bjelke-Petersen]], also helped Hawke with his "Joh for Canberra" campaign in [[1987]], which proved highly damaging for the conservatives . Exploiting these divisions, Hawke led the Labor Party to comfortable election victories in [[1984]] and [[1987]].
Hawke's Prime Ministership saw considerable friction between him and the grassroots of the Labor Party, who were unhappy at what they viewed as Hawke's iconoclasm and willingness to co-operate with business interests. All Labor Prime Ministers have at times engendered the hostility of the organisational wing of the party, but none more so than Hawke, who expressed his willingness to cull Labor's "sacred cows". The [[Socialist Left]] faction, as well as prominent Labor figure [[Barry Jones]], offered severe criticism of a number of government decisions.
On social policy, the Hawke government saw gradual reforms. The Whitlam government's universal health insurance system (Medibank), which had been dismantled by Fraser, was restored under a new name, Medicare. A notable success for which the government's response is given considerable credit was Australia's public health campaign about [[AIDS]]. In the latter years of the Hawke government, Aboriginal affairs saw considerable attention, with an investigation of the idea of a treaty between Aborigines and the government, though this idea was overtaken by events, notably including the [[Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992)|Mabo]] court decision.
The Hawke government also made some notable environmental decisions. In its first months in office it stopped the construction of the [[Franklin Dam]], on the [[Franklin River]] in [[Tasmania]], responding to a groundswell of protest about the issue. In [[1990]], a looming tight election saw a tough political operator, [[Graham Richardson]], appointed Environment Minister, whose task it was to attract second-preference votes from the [[Australian Democrats]] and other environmental parties. Richardson claimed this as a major factor in the government's narrow re-election in [[1990]].
==Decline and fall==
[[Image:Latham-Hawke.jpg|thumb|300px|Bob Hawke with then Labor leader [[Mark Latham]], unveiling a plaque to commemorate the centenary of the first Australian federal Labor government, Melbourne, April 2004]]
This was to be Hawke's last triumph, however. A severe economic recession in [[1991]], caused by a credit blowout requiring the application of very high interest rates, saw the government in considerable electoral trouble. Although Keating was the main architect of the government's economic policies, he took advantage of Hawke's declining popularity to plan a leadership challenge. In [[1988]] Hawke had responded to pressure from Keating to step down by making a secret agreement (the so-called "[[Kirribilli House|Kirribilli]] compact") to resign in favour of Keating some time after winning the [[1990]] elections. After Keating made a speech to the Parliamentary press gallery that Hawke considered disloyal, Hawke indicated to Keating that he would renege on the agreement. In June [[1991]] Keating responded by resigning from Cabinet. Hawke defeated Keating's leadership challenge, but he was clearly a wounded leader.
Hawke's demise came when the new Liberal leader, [[John Hewson|Dr John Hewson]], released a proposal for sweeping economic change, including a [[goods and services tax]] and deep cuts to government spending and personal income tax, in November [[1991]]. This was despite the fact that at the time, Australia was the second lowest taxing country in the OECD; a title now lost as tax as a percentage of GDP has rapidly escalated since the commencement of the Howard Government. Neither Hawke nor his new Treasurer, [[John Kerin]], could mount an effective response to this challenge, and a rattled Labor Party turned to Keating. At a second challenge, on [[20 December]], Keating defeated Hawke in a party-room ballot. Hawke resigned from Parliament shortly after, apparently with few regrets, although his bitterness towards Keating surfaced in his memoirs.
After politics, Hawke entered the business world with considerable success. [[Hazel Hawke]], who for the sake of the Labor cause had put up with the open secret of his relationship with his biographer [[Blanche d'Alpuget]] while he was Prime Minister, divorced him, and shortly afterwards he married d'Alpuget. He had little to do with the Labor Party during Keating's leadership, but after the election of the [[John Howard|Howard]] Liberal government in [[1996]] he became a close supporter of Opposition Leader [[Kim Beazley]].
According to the [[Australian Financial Review]], Hawke -- who initially made a small fortune from the property market -- now focuses almost solely on facilitating business deals in China. He claimed: "I have the best possible contacts." Unnamed sources told the newspaper his negotiation and consulting skills have made him "seriously wealthy", possibly worth $50 million. The AFR claimed [[AMP Limited|AMP]] was set to pay him $30 million in the late 1990s to secure a stake in a Chinese insurer. The deal did not go ahead.
Hawke occupies a curious place in the mythology of the Australian labour movement. He cannot be denied the title of Australia's most successful Labor leader, and by [[2004]], when Howard won his fourth election, the Hawke years had come to seem like a vanished golden age to Labor voters. On the other hand the [[Socialist Left|left]] blamed Hawke for betraying Labor policies and traditions for the sake of easy populist success, and of laying the foundations for Howard's conservative agenda.
==Honours==
Hawke was made a Companion of the [[Order of Australia]] in 1979.
He was awarded an honorary doctorate by the [[University of South Australia]].
==Quotes==
"Any boss who sacks anyone for not turning up today is a bum." - After the historic victory of the yacht [[Australia II]] in the [[America's Cup]].
==See also==
* The [[Hawke Research Institute for Sustainable Societies]] (HRISS) has been named after him at the [[University of South Australia]]
*[[First Hawke Ministry]]
*[[Second Hawke Ministry]]
*[[Third Hawke Ministry]]
*[[Fourth Hawke Ministry]]
==External links==
*[http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/meetpm.asp?pmId=23 Robert Hawke] - Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia
*[http://www.hawkecentre.unisa.edu.au/ Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Centre]
* [http://www.hawkecentre.unisa.edu.au/library/ Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Library]
*[http://www.hawkecentre.unisa.edu.au/institute/ Hawke Research Institute for Sustainable Societies]
*[http://flickr.com/photos/monkeywithagun/sets/72057594067172850/ Bob Hawke consuming alcohol] - Bob Hawke at the 2003 Melbourne Cup
==Further reading==
*{{cite book | author=Blanche d'Alpuget | title=Robert J Hawke | publisher=Schwartz| year=1982 | id=ISBN 0867530014}}
*{{cite book | author=Bob Hawke | title=The Hawke Memoirs | publisher=Heinemann| year=1994 | id=ISBN 0855615028}}
*{{cite book | author=Dean Jaensch | title=The Hawke-Keating Hijack | publisher=Allen and Unwin| year=1989 | id=ISBN 0043701922}}
*{{cite book | author=Stan Anson | title=Hawke: An Emotional Life | publisher=Macphee Gribble| year=1991 | id=ISBN 0869142798, 0869141961}}
*{{cite book | author=Stephen Mills | title=The Hawke Years | publisher=Viking| year=1993 | id=ISBN 0670845639}}
*{{cite book | author=Susan Ryan and Troy Bramston | title=The Hawke government : a critical retrospective | publisher=Pluto| year=2003 | id=ISBN 1864032642}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one | title1=[[Australian Labor Party|Leader of the Labor Party]] | before1=[[Bill Hayden]] | after=[[Paul Keating]] | years1=1983&ndash;1991 | title2=[[Prime Minister of Australia]] | before2=[[Malcolm Fraser]] | years2=1983&ndash;1991}}
{{succession box | title=[[Treasurer of Australia]] | before=[[Paul Keating]] | after=[[John Kerin]] | years=1991}}
{{end box}}
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[[Category:1929 births|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Australian Labor Party politicians|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Australian trade unionists|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Federal politicians from Victoria|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Former students of University College, Oxford|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Members of the Cabinet of Australia|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:People from South Australia]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Australia|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Australian Rhodes scholars|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:World record holders|Hawke, Bob]]
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*'''Nobisuke Nobi''' (野比のび助; ''Nobi Nobisuke'') Nobita's father. Laid back [[salaryman]]. Tends to be nice to Nobita. Cannot drive or quit smoking.
*'''Sewashi''' (セワシ) Nobita's great-great-grandson. He feels sorry about the family's failure in life, and sent his robot pet Doraemon back to the past to look after Nobita.
*'''Nobisuke''' (ノビスケ) Nobita's son, named after Nobita's father. He is a much better athlete than Nobita and is sly, he did not hesitate to beat young Nobita when young Nobita tried to stop Nobisuke from running away from home.
===The Doraemons===
{{nihongo|The Doraemons|ザ☆ドラえもんズ|}} is a kind of an old boys' association of the Robot School (ロボット学校) which Doraemon attended. They are also sworn brothers (According to one of the movies). The members are:
* <b>Doraemon</b> (ドラえもん)
* <b>Dora-the-Kid</b> [http://fukurokudo.k-server.org/kiriban-illust2/kiriban5757.jpg] (ドラ・ザ・キッド) – He is good at quick shooting, but he has a fear of heights ([[acrophobia]]). He works for a [[sheriff's deputy]] in the 19th-century [[United States|USA]]. Dora-the-Kid's weapon of choice is the Air Gun (空気砲), which is appears to be the front muzzle of a giant [[revolver]] that is equipped onto Dora-the-Kid's arm (He has no fingers to fire a regular pistol). The Air Gun shoots out a big blast of air that can knock down anyone that gets hit. His variation of Doraemon's four-dimensional Pocket is the four-dimensional Cowboy Hat (四次元ハット) that Dora-the-Kid wears on his head. His girlfriend happens to be Dorami-chan, Doraemon's younger sister.
* <b>Wang Dora</b> [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/doraz04.jpg] (王ドラ) – He is the smartest among the Doraemons and is a master of [[kung fu]]. He studies [[medicine]] in the [[Qing Dynasty]], [[China]] while he works for an assistant of a [[Physician|doctor]] of [[Chinese medicine]]. He has a girlfriend, Mimiko (ミミコ), who is a [[nurse]]. In one of The Doraemons' manga shorts introducing Wang Dora, he attempted to do [[Chun-Li]]'s (from [[Street Fighter]]) Spinning Bird Kick (a move where the user would spin upside-down with his legs open to kick away his opponent in a fight), only to find it ineffective because Wang Dora's legs are too short. Wang Dora's variation of the four-dimensional pocket are his four-dimensional Sleeves (四次元そでから) on his shirt.
* <b>Dora-med III</b> [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/doraz05.jpg] (ドラメッドⅢ世) – He wears [[Arabia]]n clothes and forecasts from the [[tarot]]. He lives in the [[Middle East]] (just because he fears water, a rumour says). His dream is to open the Water Land for children who live in [[desert]] regions. When he gets angry, he becomes a giant. Dora-Med III's variation of the four-dimensional pocket is his four-dimensional Magic Lamp (四次元ランプ).
* <b>Dora-nichov</b> [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/doraz07.jpg] (ドラニコフ) – He is taciturn and is extremely sensitive to the cold. He transforms himself into a (were)[[wolf]] if he looks at something round. In the short "The Doraemons" anime that introduced Dora-nichov he tried to cover his eyes with his hands to avoid looking at anything round, only to transform, because his hands are also round! He blows fire by taking something hot like [[Tabasco]]. It is unknown where he lives, maybe in [[Russia]], or in [[Hollywood]], USA. Dora-nichov's uses the four-dimensional Scarf (四次元マフラー) covering his face as an alternative to the four dimensional pocket.
* <b>El Matadora</b> [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/doraz03.jpg] (エル・マタドーラ) – He is very strong. He likes napping (<i>siesta</i>). He lives in the 17th-century [[Spain]]. He disguises himself by working for a dishwasher in a butcher's in the day, but his real job is to save the poor. People call him 'Kaiketsu-Dora' (快傑ドラ), an [[alter-ego]] that is a parody of [[Zorro]]. Like Zorro, 'Kaiketsu-Dora' either leaves a 'D' mark on his opponents' clothes during a sword fight or cut off bad guys' pants. His dream is a [[matador]]. El Matadora is the only other Doraemon (other than Doraemon himself) to use the four-dimensional Pocket.
* <b>Dora-rinho</b> [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/doraz06.jpg] (ドラリーニョ) – He is very quick, but forgetful. He lives in [[Brazil]]. He spends days in playing [[Association Football]] ([[soccer]]) with a Brazilian boy, Nobinho (ノビーニョ), and the Mini-Doras (ミニドラ軍団). The Mini-Doras each have a miniature version of Doraemon's four-dimensional Pocket that Dora-rinho could take gadgets from, though the gadgets are equally as small as the Mini-Doras.
Source: [http://home3.highway.ne.jp/ryoma/dorachar.htm Doraemon Characters] (Japanese)
They are tightly united by a card called <i>Shin'yu Tereka</i> [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/dorae/dorae08.jpg] (literally, close friend telephone card; 親友テレカ). They can call each other with the card everywhere and every time.
The Doraemons are collected into:
* Tanaka ([[1995]] – [[2001]]), 6 vols.
* Miyazaki & Mitani ([[1997]] – 2001), special ed., 12 vols.
* Mitani ([[1999]] – [[2002]]), the Robot Training School days ed., 3 vols.
all published by [[Shogakukan]].
==Dōgu==
Doraemon can take out various devices (<i>Dōgu</i>; literally, devices or tools; 道具; see also [[chindōgu]]) from his four-dimensional pocket.
Some of them are based on real-life Japanese household goods with a fanciful twists, others are tools that most of us would dream to have. Most often, these tools allow the characters to do what would otherwise be impossible in real life (like affecting the outcome of battles on TV, or walk on clouds). Whilst some of them might be possible to make in real life, many of these tools will only exist in our wildest imaginations.
Below is a short list of the dōgu that is used by Doraemon and his friends at some point or other. The list is by no means exhaustive, as the author has featured more than a few hundred of them during the entire series.
A full list of Dōgu can be found here.
[http://www.proc.org.tohoku.ac.jp/~hoshi/doraemon/doraemon.euc DORAEMONs ITEM] (Japanese Site)
== Recurring Items ==
[[Image:Doraemontimetravel_01.gif|thumb|left|Time Machine]]
'''Time machine'''. Doraemon's time machine is inside Nobita's school desk. It looks like a simple platform with a console and lamp overhanging the console. This is a classic icon associated with the Doraemon series. Usually piloted by Doraemon himself.
[[Image:Tool 01.gif|thumb|left|Take koputā]]
'''Take koputā'''
One of the main modes of transportation for the various characters is the <i>take-koputā</i> (literally, [[bamboo]]-copter; タケコプター) which combines the words ''take''(bamboo in Japanese) and ''koputa'' – last half of the word [[helicopter]] (which is also used in Japanese). The device is a tiny cap with a propeller which you can put on any part of your body to gain the ability to fly.
It is usually put on the head like a [[beanie|propeller beanie]], but in the first few Doraemon episodes, it is placed on the waist.
'''Moshi mo box'''
(もしもボックス), is a [[pun]] based upon the phrase "<i>[[moshi moshi]]</i>", the greeting used on the telephone, and <i>moshimo</i>, meaning 'what if'? The device is a [[telephone booth|phone booth]] into which the characters dial and propose a "what if" scenario which magically alters the world. Nobita has at various times wished for a world where money was not necessary (and storekeepers forced cash onto his hands upon attempting to purchase toys, and laws were enforced to ban the burying of money; in short, you purchase an item by receiving cash and robbed by being forced to take cash), a world without [[mirror]]s (where nobody had ever seen a reflective surface) and for a world where lazy people who napped would be hailed as [[celebrity|celebrities]].
[[Image:Doraemon_18.gif|thumb|left|Dokodemo door]]
'''Dokodemo door'''
One of Doraemon's most famous devices is the ''dokodemo door'' (literally "anywhere door") a door which allows people to travel anywhere by simply going through the door.
'''Small Beam''' A lamp that will shrink any object (including people) to miniscule sizes. The opposite tool is, of course, the large beam, which enlarges whatever is shone at it.
'''Pass Loop''' A loop that will creates a passage through a wall when placed upon a wall or floor.
== One Shot Items ==
'''Memory Bread''' A bread where you write answers on. After a character eats the bread, he will remember the answers written on it.
'''Restoring Beam''' A lamp which is able to restore any broken items to its original state.
'''Animal Biscuits''' Animal shaped biscuits that will transform a person into whatever animal the biscuit looks like.
'''Allmighty Pass''' A pass that grants the holder access to anywhere and anything without cost or identification. Nobita once used this to ride taxis without fare, go into pubs, and visit a famous star's home.
'''Deep Sea Cream''' Allows the user to go underwater for extended periods of time.
'''Fluffy Medicine''' Lightens the weight of the character taking this medicine, allowing him to float into the clouds.
'''Instant Christmas Tree''' A Christmas tree that grows instantly when you plant it. Similar tools include the instant vine, which grows into the sky in moments after planting.
'''Cloud hardening gas''' A gas which hardens clouds upon application, allowing characters to walk on it. Doraemon and his friends once used this gas to create a cloud city.
==History==
Since the debut in 1970, the ''Doraemon'' stories have been selectively collected into forty-five books published from 1974 to 1996, which had a circulation of over 80 million in 1992. In addition, Doraemon has appeared in a variety of manga series of [[Shogakukan]]. In 2005, Shogakukan published a series of five more manga volumes not reprinted in these forty-five books.
==TV series==
Afte |
"[[wiktionary:affected|affected]]", "[[wiktionary:snobby|snobby]]" or "[[wiktionary:aloof|aloof]]", when his accent is simply an example of CAE, reinforced by the fact that he completed his secondary schooling at a [[public school]] in England and went to university there. CAE was once common among public figures in Australia.
====Examples of Broad, General and Cultivated Australian accents====
Examples of each include the normal speaking voices of the following identities:
'''Broad'''
*Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]]
*actor [[Bryan Brown]]
*actor [[Paul Hogan (actor)|Paul Hogan]]
*television personality [[Steve Irwin]]
*television/stage character [[Dame Edna Everage]] <!-- Note: Edna may believe that she has a cultivated or general Australian accent, but listen to her vowels. -->
'''General'''
*Prime Minister [[John Howard]]
*actress [[Nicole Kidman]]
*actor [[Hugh Jackman]]
*actor [[Russell Crowe]]
*actor [[Jesse Spencer]]
'''Cultivated'''
*actress [[Judy Davis]]
*Prime Minister [[Malcolm Fraser]]
*actor [[Geoffrey Rush]]
*opera singer [[Dame Joan Sutherland]]
*comedian/actor [[Barry Humphries]]
===Regional variation===
It is sometimes claimed that regional variations in pronunciation and accent exist, but if present at all they are very small compared to those of British and American English &ndash; sufficiently so that linguists are divided on the question. Overall, pronunciation is determined less by region than by social and educational influences.
====Regional vocabulary====
There is, however, some variation in Australian English vocabulary between different regions. An example often cited by linguists is the variety of names given by Australians to bland, processed [[pork]] products &ndash; known in other countries as pork [[luncheon meat]] or [[baloney]] &ndash; is so great, that these words are used by linguists to ascertain not only which Australian state or territory a person is from, but also regional origin within states in some cases. For example, in [[South Australia]] (SA) this product is known as ''fritz'', for most people in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] (Vic) it is ''stras'', in most of [[New South Wales]] (NSW) it is ''devon'', in [[Western Australia]] (WA) ''polony'', in [[Queensland]] (Qld) ''windsor'' (''"devon"'' is also used), in [[Tasmania]] (Tas) ''belgium'', and so on. (See [[Australian_words#Processed_pork|Australian words for processed pork]], for more details.)
Regional variation does not respect [[States and territories of Australia|state borders]], and this is shown, for example, by the fact that both Queenslanders and people from northern New South Wales say ''port'' (short for [[Portmanteau (travelling case)|portmanteau]]) while people in the other states say ''case'', ''school bag'', ''backpack'' and/or ''knapsack''. In the past variation was so strong that the residents of the NSW town of [[Maitland, New South Wales|Maitland]] would use the word port where [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], some 20 kilometres away, would prefer the latter term.
There is also great variety in the names of beer glasses from one area to another. For example, a standard 285ml (10 fl.oz.) glass, in different states or regions, is known as a ''middy'' (NSW/WA/[[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]]), ''pot'' (Vic/Qld/Tas), ''handle'' (NT/SA), ''ten'' (SA/Tas) or ''schooner'' (SA). Such variation causes great confusion, especially since a schooner is a 425 ml
(15 fl.oz.) glass in every state that uses the word except SA. (See [[Australian_words#Beer_glasses|Australian words for beer glasses]] for a full list.)
Although swimwear is known as ''bathers'' in most areas, people in NSW and Queensland do not conform, preferring terms such as ''swimmers'', ''cossie'' or ''togs'' (see [[Australian_words#Swimwear|Australian words for swimwear]]).
Another example is the word ''tuckshop'' which is used in Queensland and northern NSW to describe a food outlet on school premises; the word ''canteen'' is now more common in other areas of Australia, although tuckshop may occasionally be used in those areas as well.
There are many regional variations for describing [[social class]]es or [[subculture]]s. The best example is probably ''[[bogan]]'' (fairly universal), which is also referred to as ''bevan'' in Queensland<!---removed ", ''westie'' around Sydney," "westie" is not synonymous with "bogan" ---> and ''booner'' in the ACT.
The differences are not restricted to words. For example, it is often said that people from some parts of [[Queensland]] end sentences with the interrogative "''eh''?" (or "''hay?''", "''hey''", and so on), although this is also common in both [[New Zealand English]] and [[Canadian English]].
The steadily increasing centralisation of film, TV and radio production, however, may be spreading new words more rapidly and blurring such distinctions.
{{see also|South Australian English|Western Australian English}}
=====Sport variations=====
Many regional variations are as a result of the Australian passion for sport and the differences in non-linguistic traditions from one state to another: the word ''[[football]]'' refers to the most popular code of football in different States or regions, or even ethnic groups within them. [[Victoria (Australia)|Victorians]] start a game of [[Australian rules football]] with a ''ball up'', [[Western Australia]]ns with a ''bounce down''; [[New South Wales|New South Welsh]] people and [[Queensland]]ers start a game of [[Rugby League]] or [[Rugby Union]] with a ''kick off'', as do [[football (soccer)|soccer]] fans across Australia.
In the early 21st century the [[Football Federation Australia|
national governing body for football (soccer)]] attempted to foster use of "football" to mean soccer, in accordance with general international usage. It is yet to be seen whether this will spead into the mainstream, however it is important to note that several media outlets have adopted the use of the word football in accordance with this.
The Australian slang word ''footy'' has been traditionally associated with the native code of Australian rules football. The word has also been adopted to a lesser degree by rugby league followers, following directly from the association of the word to describe the most popular football code. Examples in popular culture includes the [[The Footy Show]]. More recently it has been adopted in other countries in reference to other codes, such as the UK (soccer) and New Zealand (rugby union).
For many Australian rules followers, the verb ''barrack'' (or the accompanying noun form ''barracker''), is used to describe following a team or club. (In New South Wales and Queensland the term ''support'' or ''supporter'' is generally used instead.) Barrack has its origins in British English, although in the UK it now usually means to jeer or denigrate an opposing team or players. The expression "root (or rooting) for a team", as used in the United States, is not generally used in Australia as ''root'' (or rooting) is slang for [[sexual intercourse]].
==Phonology==
{{main|Australian English phonology}}
Australian English is a [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents|non-rhotic]] variety. It is unique in its remarkable homogeneity over a vast area. Unlike most varieties of English, it has a [[vowel length|phonemic length distinction]]. It has a reasonably standard consonant inventory.
{{see also|Phonemic differentiation}}
===Myths about Australian accents===
Australian English is sometimes described as high-pitched, nasal, lazy or drawling. The claims of high pitch and nasality are not entirely true, as many Australian English speakers perceive much of American English to be nasal, while laziness and drawling are impossible to test objectively.
Similarly, stereotypes of Australian speech as having a "rising tone" or "questioning intonation", known in linguistics as [[high rising terminal]], are not entirely justified by the empirical evidence. Many Australians' speech patterns do not conform to this stereotype, and the "questioning intonation" can be found in many regional speech patterns, such as those in the south of England, Northern Ireland, and even North America.
==Use of words by Australians==
Perception has it that a common trait is the frequent use of long-winded [[simile|similes]], such as "slow as a wet week", "built like a brick shit-house", "mad as a cut snake", "up and down like a bride's nightie", "dry as a dead dingo's donger", "off like prawns in the sun", "sweating like a pig on fire", or "flat out like a lizard drinking". Moreover, several such expressions are common in many parts of the English-speaking world and are only perceived as uniquely Australian by Australians.
Many Australians believe themselves to be direct in manner, and this is typified by statements such as "why call a spade a spade, when you can call it a bloody shovel". Such sentiments can lead to misunderstandings and offence being caused to people from cultures where an emphasis is placed on avoiding conflict, such as people from [[East Asia]].
Spoken Australian English is generally more tolerant of offensive and/or abusive language than other variants. A famous exponent was the former [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Paul Keating]], who referred in [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]] to various political opponents as a "mangy maggot", a "stupid foul-mouthed grub", and so on. He drew ire from then Malaysian leader [[Mahathir Mohammed]] for calling him a "recalcitrant". This tradition was continued by fellow [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] [[Member_of_parliament|MP]] [[Mark Latham]] who, in 2002, unapologetically described a vi |
69</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>oops</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hipparchus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&#7995;ππαρχος}}) (ca. [[190 BC]] &ndash; ca. [[120 BC]]) was a [[Hellenistic]] [[astronomer]], [[geographer]], and [[mathematician]].
Hipparchus was born in [[Nicaea]] (now Iznik, [[Turkey]]), and probably died on the island of [[Rhodes]]. He is known to have been active at least from [[147 BC]] to [[127 BC]]. Hipparchus is considered the greatest astronomical observer, and by some the greatest astronomer of [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]. He was the first Hellenistic to develop quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the [[Sun]] and [[Moon]]. For this he made use of the observations and knowledge accumulated over centuries by the [[Chaldea]]ns from [[Babylonia]]. He was also the first to compile a [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] table, which allowed him to solve any triangle. With his solar and lunar theories and his numerical trigonometry, he was probably the first to develop a reliable method to predict [[solar eclipse]]s. His other achievements include the discovery of [[precession]], the compilation of the first [[star catalogue]] of the western world, and probably the invention of the [[astrolabe]]. [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemaeus]], three centuries later depended much on Hipparchus. However, his synthesis of astronomy superseded Hipparchus's work: although Hipparchus wrote at least fourteen books, only his commentary on the popular astronomical poem by [[Aratus]] has been preserved by later copyists. As a consequence, we know comparatively little about Hipparchus.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[image:Hippachus 000A.jpg|thumb|right|213px|Hipparchus studies the heavens]] -->
== Life and work ==
Most of what is known about Hipparchus comes from [[Ptolemy]]'s ([[2nd century]]) ''[[Almagest]]'' ("the great treatise"; ed. [Toomer 1981]), with additional references to him by [[Pappus of Alexandria]] and [[Theon of Alexandria]] ([[4th century]]) in their commentaries on the ''Almagest''; from [[Strabo]]'s ''Geographia'' ("Geography"), and from [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Pliny's Natural History|Naturalis historia]]'' ("Natural history") ([[1st century]]).
There is a strong tradition that Hipparchus was born in [[Nicaea]] (Greek ''Νικαία''), in the ancient district of [[Bithynia]] (modern-day [[İznik, Turkey|İznik]] in province [[Bursa Province|Bursa]]), in what today is [[Turkey]].
The exact dates of his life are not known, but Ptolemy attributes astronomical observations to him from [[147 BC]] to [[127 BC]]; earlier observations since [[162 BC]] might also be made by him. The date of his birth (ca. [[190 BC]]) was calculated by [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre|Delambre]] based on clues in his work. Hipparchus must have lived some time after 127 BC because he analyzed and published his latest observations. Hipparchus obtained information from [[Alexandria]] as well as [[Babylon]], but it is not known if and when he visited these places.
It is not known what Hipparchus' economic means were and how he supported his scientific activities. Also, his appearance is unknown: there are no contemporary portraits.In the 2nd and 3rd centuries [[coin]]s were made in his honour in Bithynia that bear his name and show him with a [[globe]]; this confirms the tradition that he was born there.
Hipparchus is believed to have died on the island of [[Rhodes]], where he spent most of his later life &mdash; Ptolemy attributes observations to him from Rhodes in the period from [[141 BC]] to [[127 BC]].
Hipparchus's main original works are lost. His only preserved work is ''Toon Aratou kai Eudoxou Fainomenoon exegesis'' ("Commentary on the Phaenomena of Eudoxus and Aratus"). This is a critical commentary in two books on a popular [[poem]] by [[Aratus]] based on the work by [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]]. It was published by [[Karl Manitius]] (''In Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena'', Leipzig, 1894). Hipparchus also made a list of his major works, which apparently mentioned about fourteen books, but which is only known from references by later authors. His famous star catalogue probably was incorporated into the one by Ptolemy, but cannot be reliably reconstructed. We know he made a [[celestial globe]]; a copy of a copy may have been preserved in the oldest surviving celestial globe accurately depicting the constellations: the globe carried by the [[Farnese Atlas]] [Schaefer 2005].
Hipparchus is recognized as the originator and father of scientific [[astronomy]]. He is believed to be the greatest Hellenistic astronomical observer, and many regard him as the greatest astronomer of ancient times, although [[Cicero]] gave preferences to [[Aristarchus of Samos]]. Some put in this place also Ptolemy of Alexandria. Hipparchus' writings had been mostly superseded by those of Ptolemy, so later copyists have not preserved them for posterity.
There is evidence, based on references in non-scientific writers such as Plutarch, that Hipparchus was aware of some physical ideas that we consider Newtonian, and that Newton knew this. (See Lucio Russo, ''The Forgotten Revolution'', Springer, 2004; Italian edition, 1996.)
Also see the biographical articles by [Toomer 1978] and [Jones 2001].
== Babylonian sources ==
Many of the works of Greek scientists - mathematicians, astronomers, geographers - have been preserved up to the present time, or some aspects of their work and thought are still known through later references. However, achievements in these fields by [[ancient Near East]]ern civilizations, notably those in [[Babylonia]], had been forgotten. After the discovery of the archaeological sites in the [[19th century]], many writings on clay tablets have been found, some of them related to astronomy. Most known astronomical tablets have been described by [[A. Sachs]], and later published by [[Otto Neugebauer]] in "Astronomical Cuneiform Texts" (3 vol.; Princeton and London, 1955).
Since the rediscovery of the Babylonian civilization, it has become apparent that Greek and Hellenistic astronomers, and in particular Hipparchus, borrowed a lot from the [[Chaldea]]ns.
[[Franz Xaver Kugler|F.X. Kugler]] demonstrated in his book ''Die Babylonische Mondrechnung'' ("The Babylonian lunar computation", Freiburg im Breisgau, 1900) the following: Ptolemy had stated in his ''Almagest'' IV.2 that Hipparchus improved the values for the Moon's periods known to him from "even more ancient astronomers" by comparing eclipse observations made earlier by "the Chaldeans", and by himself. However Kugler found that the periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian [[ephemerides]], specifically the collection of texts nowadays called "System B" (sometimes attributed to [[Kidinnu]]). Apparently Hipparchus only confirmed the validity of the periods he learned from the Chaldeans by his newer observations.
It is clear that Hipparchus (and Ptolemy after him) had an essentially complete list of eclipse observations covering many centuries. Most likely these had been compiled from the "diary" tablets: these are clay tablets recording all relevant observations that the Chaldeans routinely made. Preserved examples date from [[652 BC]] to [[130|AD 130]], but probably the records went back as far as the reign of the Babylonian king [[Nabonassar]]: Ptolemy starts his chronology with the first day in the Egyptian calendar of the first year of Nabonassar, i.e., [[26 February]] [[747 BC]].
This raw material by itself must have been hard to use, and no doubt the Chaldeans themselves compiled extracts of e.g., all observed eclipses (some tablets with a list of all eclipses in a period of time covering a [[saros]] have been found). This allowed them to recognise periodic recurrences of events. Among others they used in System B (cf. ''Almagest'' IV.2):
* 223 ([[synodic]]) months = 239 returns in anomaly ([[anomalistic month]]) = 242 returns in latitude ([[draconic month]]). This is now known as the [[saros]] period which is very useful for predicting [[eclipse]]s.
* 251 (synodic) months = 269 returns in anomaly
* 5458 (synodic) months = 5923 returns in latitude
* 1 [[synodic month]] = 29;31:50:08:20 days (sexagesimal; 29.53059413... days in decimals = 29&nbsp;days 12&nbsp;hours 44&nbsp;min 3&#x2153;&nbsp;s)
The Babylonians expressed all periods in synodic [[month]]s, probably because they used a [[lunisolar calendar]]. Various relations with yearly phenomena led to different values for the length of the year.
Similarly various relations between the periods of the [[planet]]s were known. The relations that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus in ''Almagest'' IX.3 had all already been used in predictions found on Babylonian clay tablets.
All this knowledge was transferred to the [[Greeks]] probably shortly after the conquest by [[Alexander the Great]] ([[331 BC]]). According to the late classical philosopher [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]] (early [[6th century AD]]), Alexander ordered the translation of the historical astronomical records under supervision of his chronicler [[Callisthenes|Callisthenes of Olynthus]], who sent it to his uncle [[Aristotle]]. It is worth mentioning here that although Simplicius is a very late source, his account may be reliable. He spent some time in exile at the [[Sassanid]] (Persian) court, and may have accessed sources otherwise lost in the West. It is striking that he mentions the title ''tèresis'' (Greek: guard) which is an odd name for a historical work, but is in fact an adequate translation of the Babylonian title ''massartu'' meaning "guarding" but also "observing". Anyway, Aristotle's pupil [[Callippus|Callippus of Cyzicus]] introduced his 76-year cycle, w |
of Normandy]]. The island of Guernsey and the other [[Channel Island]]s represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy. In the islands, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]'s traditional title as [[head of state]] is [[Duke of Normandy]]. In fact, locals jokingly refer to [[England]] as the colony!
During the [[English Civil War]], Guernsey sided with [[English Parliament|Parliament]], while Jersey remained [[Charles I of England|Royalist]]. Guernsey's decision was mainly related to the higher proportion of [[Calvinists]] and other Reformed churches, as well as [[Charles I]]'s refusal to take up the case of some Guernsey seamen who had been captured by the [[Barbary corsairs]]. The allegiance was not total, however, there were a few Royalist uprisings in the Southwest of the island, while Castle Cornet was occupied by the then Governor, Sir Peter Osbourne, and Royalist troops. [[Castle Cornet]] was the last Royalist stronghold to capitulate, in 1651.
During [[World War I]] approximately 3,000 island men served in the [[British Expeditionary Force]]. Of these, about 1,000 served in the [[Royal Guernsey Light Infantry]] regiment which was formed from the Royal Guernsey Militia in 1916.
The Bailiwick of Guernsey was [[Occupation of the Channel Islands|occupied by German troops]] in [[World War II]]. Before the occupation, many Guernsey children were evacuated to England to live with relatives or strangers during the war. Some children were never re-united with their families. During the occupation, some people from Guernsey were deported by the Germans to camps in the southwest of [[Germany]], notably to [[Biberach an der Riß|Biberach an der Riss]] and interned in the Lindele Camp ("Lager Lindele"). There was also a concentration camp built in Alderney where forced labourers, predominantly from Eastern Europe, were kept. It was the only concentration camp built on British soil and is commemorated on memorials under the Alderney's name in French: 'Aurigny'.
== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Guernsey}}
[[The States]] of Guernsey, officially called the [[States of Guernsey|States of Deliberation]], consists of 45 People's Deputies, elected from multi- or single-member districts every four years. There are also two representatives from [[Alderney]], a self-governing dependency of the Bailiwick, but [[Sark]] sends no representative. There are also two non-voting members - the Attorney General and the Solicitor General both appointed by the monarch. Laws passed by the States are known as 'Ordinances'.
The Lieutenant Governor is the representative of [[the Crown]]. The [[official residence]] of the Lieutenant Governor is Government House. Since [[18 October]] 2005, the incumbent is Vice-Admiral Sir Fabian Malbon, born in Southsea in 1946 and a serving naval officer 1965-2002. His last naval posting before retirement from the Royal Navy was deputy commander-in-chief of fleet.
Each parish is administered by a Douzaine. Douzeniers are elected for a six year mandate, two Douzeniers being elected by parishioners at a Parish Meeting in November each year. The senior Douzenier is known as the Doyen. Two elected [[Constable]]s carry out the decisions of the Douzaine, serving for between one and three years. The longest serving Constable is known as the Senior Constable and his or her colleague as the Junior Constable.
The legal system is derived from [[Normans|Norman]] French and English common law, justice being administered through a combination of Magistrates Court and the Royal Court. The Royal Court is presided over by the Bailiff and 12 [[Jurat|Jurats]] (a permanent elected jury), the ultimate court of appeal being the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council|Privy Council]].
== Geography ==
[[Image:guernsey_sm02.png|thumb|250px|right|Map of Guernsey]]
At {{coor dm|49|28|N|2|35|W|}}, Alderney, Guernsey, Herm, Sark, and some other smaller islands have a total area of 30 sq mi (78 sq km) and a coastline of about 30 miles (50 km). [[Lihou]], a [[tidal island]], is attached to Guernsey by a causeway at low tide. The terrain is mostly level with low hills in southwest.
Elevation varies from sea level to 375 feet (114 m) at Le Moulin on Sark. The highest point in mainland Guernsey is Hautnez (363 feet), in Alderney at Le Rond But (306 feet), in Jethou (248 feet) and Herm (322 feet). Natural resources include cropland.
There is a [[St Peter Port Harbour|large, deepwater harbour]] at [[St Peter Port]].
The climate is temperate with mild winters and cool summers. The hottest months are August and September where temperatures are generally around 26 °C. In retrospect, the coldest month is February, when it has snowed for the last two years running. However, the temperature rarely drops below freezing, although strong wind-chill from Arctic winds can sometimes make it feel like it. 50% of the days are overcast.
This said, if Guernsey were part of the United Kingdom, it would be statistically the sunniest place in the country. The island is blessed with some glorious sunrises and sunsets throughout most of the year.
The [[Casquets]], a group of islets, are notable for the [[lighthouse]] facility constructed there.
The island of Guernsey is divided into ten [[Parish (subnational entity)|parishes]] (the [[parish]] of [[St Anne, Alderney]] is not generally included in the enumeration of parishes in the Bailiwick):
[[Image:Guernsey.png|thumb|400px|Map of the parishes of Guernsey]]
<BR><BR>
{| class="wikitable"
!Map||Parish||Population <br>(census 2001)||area <br>([[vergee]]s)||area <br>(km²)
|-
|1||[[Castel, Guernsey|Castel]]||8,975||6,224||10.1
|-
|2||[[The Forest, Guernsey|Forest]]||1,549||2,508||4.2
|-
|3||[[St Andrew's, Guernsey|St Andrew]]||2,409||2,752||4.4
|-
|4||[[St Martin's, Guernsey|St Martin]]||6,267||4,479||7.3
|-
|5||[[St Peter Port]]||16,488||4,074||6.5
|-
|6||[[St Peter's, Guernsey|St Pierre du Bois]]||2,188||3,818||6.2
|-
|7||[[St Sampson's, Guernsey|St Sampson]]||8,592||3,687||6.0
|-
|8||[[St Saviour's, Guernsey|St Saviour]]||2,696||3,892||6.2
|-
|9||[[Torteval]]||973||1,901||3.1
|-
|10||[[Vale, Guernsey|Vale]]||9,573||5,462||8.8
|}
== Economy ==
Financial services - [[banking]], [[fund management]], [[insurance]], etc. - account for about 55% of total income in this tiny [[Channel Island]] [[economics|economy]]. [[Tourism]], [[manufacturing]], and [[horticulture]], mainly [[tomato]]es and cut flowers especially [[freesia]]s have been declining. Light tax and death duties make [[Guernsey]] a popular [[offshore finance]] centre. However, the evolving economic integration of the [[European Union]] nations is changing the rules under which Guernsey operates. Guernsey is currently changing the way its tax system works in order to remain internationally competitive, and is confronting what it terms a financial "black hole" of just over forty million pounds. Though Guernsey does not have an official [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]] code, [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] has reserved the '''[[GGY]]''' code to indicate this country; [[market data]] vendors, such as [[Bloomberg]], will report products related to Guernsey using this code.
Guernsey issues its own [[Guernsey coins|coinage]] and [[Guernsey Pound#Banknotes|banknotes]]. The [[Guernsey Pound]] is at par with the British pound. [[Jersey pound|Jersey currency]], UK coinage and English and Scottish banknotes also circulate freely and are accepted interchangeably.
[[Image:GuernseyPostBox.jpg|thumb|180px|left|A [[Guernsey Post Office|Guernsey Post]] [[pillar box]].]]
[[Image:GuernseyTelephoneBox.jpg|thumb|180px|right|A [[Guernsey Telecom]] (now owned by [http://www.cwgsy.net Cable and Wireless Guernsey)] [[phone box]].]]
Public services, such as electricity, gas, and postal services are all operated by independent (from the [[UK]]) companies in Guernsey. Both the [[Guernsey Post Office|Guernsey Post]] post boxes and the telephone boxes are painted blue, but otherwise are identical to their British counterparts, the red [[pillar box]] and [[red telephone box]].
Ports and harbours exist at [[St Peter Port]] and [[St Sampson's]]. There are two paved airports in the bailiwick ([[Guernsey Airport]] and [[Alderney Airport]]), and 3 miles (5 km) of railways in [[Alderney]].
The ''Guernsey Railway'', which was virtually an electric tramway, and which began working on [[20 February]] [[1892]], was abandoned on [[9 June]] [[1934]]. It replaced an earlier transport system which was worked by steam, and was named the Guernsey Steam Tramway. The latter began service on [[6 June]] [[1879]] with six locomotives. This leaves [[Alderney]] as the only Channel Island with a working railway.
*[Notes on the Railway taken from ''The Railway Magazine'', September 1934 edition]
== Demographics ==
The population is 65,031, [[as of 2004]]. The median age for males is 39.6 years and for females is 41.5 years. The population growth rate is 0.31% with 9.16 births/1,000 population, 9.87 deaths/1,000 population, and 3.84 migrant(s)/1,000 population. The life expectancy is 77.17 years for males and for females. 1.38 children are born per woman. Ethnic groups consist of British and Norman-French descent and Portuguese. The [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]], [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]], [[Baptist]], [[Congregational church|Congregational]], and [[Methodism|Methodist]] religions are practised, the most common being the Anglicans and Methodists.
For immigration and nationality purposes the United Kingdom generally treats Guernsey as though it were part of the UK, however Guernsey is constitutionally entitled to restrict immigration by non-Guernsey people and maintains its own immigration and border controls. There are restrictions on those without Guernsey status purchasing or renting property on the island. Although Guernsey's inhabita |
Haihowak in Polish]
[[Category:Anglo-American playing card games]]
[[pl:hejho&#322;ek]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Hejholek</title>
<id>14061</id>
<revision>
<id>15911639</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-06T21:17:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
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<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Haihowak]]
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<page>
<title>Hoek van Holland</title>
<id>14062</id>
<revision>
<id>37405683</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T20:57:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>145.53.55.140</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hoek van holland stena line.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Ferry terminal on the Nieuwe Waterweg]]
[[Image:Ltspkr.png]]'''[[Media:Nl-Hoek_van_Holland.ogg|Hoek van Holland]]''' (literally "Corner of Holland", but known in English as "the Hook" or "Hook of Holland") is a town in [[South Holland]] in the [[Netherlands]]. It is situated on the [[North Sea]] coast, on the north bank of the [[Nieuwe Waterweg]] ship canal. The town is administered by the municipality (''[[gemeente]]'') of [[Rotterdam]] as a district (''wijk'') of that city. The district of Hoek van Holland covers an area of 16.7 km&sup2; (of which 13.92 km&sup2; is land). On [[1 January]] [[1999]] it had an estimated population of 9,400.
There is a regular [[Stena Line]] [[ferry]] service between Hoek van Holland and [[Harwich]] in [[England]].
There is also a [[train]] service running to [[Rotterdam]] via [[Maassluis]], [[Vlaardingen]] and [[Schiedam]].
Nearby towns include [[Monster, Netherlands|Monster]], [['s-Gravenzande]] and [[Naaldwijk]] to the northeast and [[Maassluis]] to the southeast. On the other side of the river is the [[Europoort]] and the [[Maasvlakte]].
The seaside beach has sandy dunes and a pier.
==External links==
*[http://www.hoekvanholland.nl/vvv2/home1.htm# Tourist information] (in [http://www.hoekvanholland.nl/vvv2/popup_engels.htm English])
*[http://www.stenaline.nl/ Harwich - Hoek ferry service]
{{mapnl|51.98|4.12|Hoek van Holland}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hugh Binning</title>
<id>14063</id>
<revision>
<id>23572765</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-20T04:29:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rpyle731</username>
<id>46515</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hugh Binning''' ([[1627]]-[[1653]]) was a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Philosophers|philosopher]] from age 14. He became regent and professor of philosophy at the [[University of Glasgow]] by age 19.
==Works==
*''The Common Principles of the Christian Religion, Clearly Proved, and Singularly Improved;or, A Practical Catechism''
*''An Useful Case of Conscience, Learnedly and Accurately Discussed and Resolved, Concerning Associations and Confederacies with Idolaters, Infidels, Heretics, Malignants or any other Known Enemies of Truth and Godliness''
*''A Treatise of Christian Love''
{{Philosopher-stub}}
{{UK-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1627 births|Binning, Hugh]]
[[Category:1653 deaths|Binning, Hugh]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Home, Lord Kames</title>
<id>14064</id>
<revision>
<id>31440409</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-15T07:06:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-Barry-</username>
<id>647870</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed "therefor" to "therefore." see http://www.randomhouse.com/wotd/index.pperl?date=19970828</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry Home, Lord Kames''' ([[1696]] &ndash; [[December 27]], [[1782]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[philosopher]] of the [[18th century]]. Born in Kames, [[Berwickshire]], he became an advocate (the Scottish equivalent of the English [[barrister]]) and was one of the leaders of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]]. In [[1752]], he was "raised to the bench", thus acquiring the title of Lord Kames.
Homes wrote much about the imporance of property to society. In his ''Essay Upon Several Subjects Concerning British Antiquities'', written just after the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] revolt of [[1745]] he described how the politics of Scotland were not based on loyalty to Kings or Queens as Jacobites had said but on royal land grants given in return for loyalty.
In ''Historical Law Tracts'' and later in ''Sketches on the History of Man'' he described human history as having four distinct stages. The first was as a hunter gatherer where people avoided each other out of competition. The second stage he described was a herder of domestic animals which required forming larger societies. No laws were needed at these stages except those given by the head of the family or society. Agriculture was the third stage requiring greater cooperation and new relationships to allow for trade or employment (or slavery). He argued that 'the intimate union among a multitude of individuals, occasioned by agriculture' required a new set of rights and obligations in society. This requires laws and law enforcers. A fourth stage moves from villages and farms to seaports and market towns requiring yet more laws and complexity but also much to benefit from.
The above studies created the genre of the story of civilisation and defined the fields of [[anthropology]] and [[sociology]] and therefore the modern study of history for two hundred years.
Home was also on the panel of judges in the [[Joseph Knight]] case which ruled that there could be no slavery in [[Scotland]].
He enjoyed intelligent conversation and cultivated a large number of friends, among them [[John Home]], [[David Hume]] and [[James Boswell]].[http://www.jamesboswell.info/People/people.php?person=57]
His works included
*''Essays upon Several Subjects in Law'' ([[1732]])
*''Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion'' ([[1751]])
*''Introduction to the Art of Thinking'' ([[1761]])
*''Elements of Criticism'' ([[1762]])
*''Sketches of the History of Man'' ([[1776]]).
==External links==
* [http://www.jamesboswell.info/People/people.php?person=57 Henry Home, Lord Kames] at James Boswell - a Guide
[[Category:1696 births|Kames, Henry Home, Lord]]
[[Category:1782 deaths|Kames, Henry Home, Lord]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Kames, Henry Home, Lord]]
[[Category:Scottish Enlightenment|Kames]]
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<page>
<title>Harwich</title>
<id>14065</id>
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<id>40205638</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:20:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andrew Norman</username>
<id>137672</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the town in England. For other uses of the name, see [[Harwich (disambiguation)]].''
----
{{infobox England place with map|
|Place= Harwich
|Map = Harwich - Essex dot.png
|Population =
|District= [[Tendring]]
|County= [[Essex]]
|Region= [[East of England]]
|Ceremonial= [[Essex]]
|Traditional= [[Essex]]
|Police=
|Constituency=
|PostalTown=
|PostCode= [[CO12]]
|DiallingCode= 01255
|GridReference= TM243313
|Euro= [[East of England (European Parliament constituency)|East of England]]
}}
[[image:HarwichDocks.jpg|thumb|right|Harwich Docks and Harwich seen from the river]]
[[image:arms-harwichtc.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Arms of Harwich Town Council]]
'''Harwich''' is a town in [[Essex, England]], located on the coast with the [[North Sea]] to the east. It is in the [[Tendring]] district. Nearby places include [[Felixstowe]] to the northeast, [[Ipswich, England|Ipswich]] to the northwest and [[Colchester, England|Colchester]] to the southwest. The town is believed to date from the mid-12th century.
Its position on the estuaries of the [[River Stour, Suffolk|Stour]] and [[River Orwell|Orwell]] rivers and its usefulness to mariners as the only safe anchorage between the [[River Thames|Thames]] and [[Humber]] led to a long period of maritime significance, both civil and military. The town was heavily fortified, with [[Harwich Redoubt]], [[Beacon Hill Battery]], and [[Bath Side Battery]].
Harwich was the home town for Christopher Jones, the master and quarter-owner of the [[Mayflower]], and was also a base for that ship.
The [[Royal Navy]] is no longer present in Harwich but adjacent [[Parkeston]] continues to offer a regular [[ferry]] service to [[Hoek van Holland]] in the [[Netherlands]]. Many operations of the large [[containerization|container]] port at Felixstowe and of [[Trinity House]], the lighthouse authority, are managed from Harwich, and plans for the development of a new container port in Bathside Bay were approved by the British government in December 2005.
The town's coastal position, however, made it vulnerable to the [[North Sea Flood of 1953]].
Harwich today is contiguous with [[Dovercourt]] and the two along with Parkeston are often referred to collectively as Harwich.
The [[Electric Palace Cinema]], Harwich, is one of the oldest purpose-built cinemas to survive complete with its original projection room and ornamental frontage still intact and operational.
== External links ==
{{oscoor gbx|TM2431}}
*[http://www.electricpalace.com/ Electric Palace]
[[Category:Towns in Essex]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of England]]
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<p |
' - [[Black Alder]]. Europe.
*''A. incana'' - [[Grey Alder]]. Europe & Asia.
**''A. oblongifolia'' (''A. incana'' subsp. ''oblongifolia'') - [[Grey Alder|Arizona Alder]]. Southwestern North America.
**''A. rugosa'' (''A. incana'' subsp. ''rugosa'') - [[Grey Alder|Speckled Alder]]. Northeastern North America.
**''A. tenuifolia'' (''A. incana'' subsp. ''tenuifolia'') - [[Grey Alder|Thinleaf Alder]] or Mountain Alder. Northwestern North America.
*''A. japonica'' - [[Japanese Alder]]. Japan.
*''A. jorullensis'' - [[Mexican Alder]]. Mexico, Guatemala.
*''A. orientalis'' - [[Oriental Alder]]. Southern Turkey, northwest Syria, Cyprus.
*''A. rhombifolia'' - [[White Alder]]. Interior western North America.
*''A. rubra'' - [[Red Alder]]. West coastal North America.
*''A. serrulata'' - Hazel alder, [[Tag Alder]] or Smooth alder. Eastern North America.
*''A. subcordata'' - [[Caucasian Alder]]. Caucasus, Iran.
'''Subgenus ''Clethropsis''.''' Trees or shrubs. Shoot buds stalked. Male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) and expanding and pollinating then. Three species:
*''A. maritima'' - [[Seaside Alder]]. East coastal North America, plus disjunct population in Oklahoma.
*''A. nepalensis'' - [[Nepalese Alder]]. Eastern Himalaya, southwest China.
*''A. nitida'' - [[Himalayan Alder]]. Western Himalaya.
[[Image:Alnus serrulata leaves.jpg|right|thumb|Leaves of the [[Tag Alder]]]]
'''Subgenus ''Alnobetula''.''' Shrubs. Shoot buds not stalked. Male and female catkins produced in late spring (after leaves appear) and expanding and pollinating then. One to four species:
*''A. viridis'' - [[Green Alder]]. Widespread:
**''A. viridis'' subsp. ''viridis''. Eurasia.
**''A. viridis'' subsp. ''maximowiczii'' (''A. maximowiczii''). Japan.
**''A. viridis'' subsp. ''crispa'' (''A. crispa''). Northern North America.
**''A. viridis'' subsp. ''sinuata'' (''A. sinuata'', [[Sitka Alder]] or Slide Alder). Western North America, far northeastern Siberia.
==Uses==
[[Image:Alder female 8519.JPG|right|thumb|''Alnus serrulata'' (Tag Alder), female catkins, [[Johnsonville, South Carolina]]]]
Alders establish [[symbiosis|symbioses]] with the [[nitrogen]]-fixing [[Actinobacteria]] ''Frankiella alni''. This bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen into soil-soluble [[nitrate]]s which can be utilised by the alder, and favorably enhances the soil fertility generally. Alders benefit other plants growing near them by taking nitrogen out of the air and depositing it in the soil in usable form; fallen alder leaves make very rich [[compost]].
Alder catkins are one of the first sources of pollen for [[bee]] species, especially [[honeybee]]s, which use it for spring buildup. Alder is a preferred wood for [[charcoal]] making, formerly used in the manufacture of [[gunpowder]], or for [[smelting]] [[metal]] [[ore]]s, now used primarily for [[cooking]]. The wood is also traditionally used for [[smoking (food)|smoking]] [[fish]] and [[meat]], though this usage has often been replaced by other woods such as [[oak]] and [[hickory]]. It is popular as a material for [[electric guitar]] bodies.
Alders are sturdy and fast-growing, even in acidic and damaged sites such as burned areas and [[mining]] sites. Italian Alder is particularly useful on dry, infertile sites. Alders can be used as a producer of simple bio-mass, growing quickly in harsh environments. Alders are sometimes made into [[bonsai]].
Alder is used as a food plant by some [[Lepidoptera]] species, see [[list of Lepidoptera which feed on Alders]].
[[Image:Alnus-viridis.JPG|thumb|left|Green Alder (''Alnus viridis'')]]
[[Image:Alnus incana rugosa leaves.jpg|thumb|left|Speckled Alder (''Alnus incana'' subsp. ''rugosa'') - leaves]]
<br clear=left />
== External links ==
{{Wiktionarypar|Alder}}
* [http://www.inmygarden.org/archives/2005/02/alder_the_nitro_1.html Alder: The nitrogen fix] from The Monday Garden
* ''Section'' Eclectic herbal information
** [http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/alnus.html Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder)] King's American Dispensatory @ Henriette's Herbal
** [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/alder019.html Alder Tree, Common (Alnus glutinosa) ] Mrs. Grieve's "A Modern Herbal" @ Botanical.com
** [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/alder021.html Alder, Tag (Alnus serrulata)] Mrs. Grieve's "A Modern Herbal" @ Botanical.com
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[[sr:Јова]]
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[[zh:赤杨]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Amos Bronson Alcott</title>
<id>1384</id>
<revision>
<id>42078820</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:59:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amos_Bronson_Alcott.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A. Bronson Alcott]]
'''Amos Bronson Alcott''' ([[November 29]], [[1799]] - [[March 4]], [[1888]]) was an [[United States|American]] teacher and writer. He is remembered for founding a short-lived and unconventional school as well as a [[utopia]]n community known as "[[Fruitlands]]", and for his association with [[Transcendentalism]].
Alcott was born on [[Spindle Hill]] in the town of [[Wolcott, Connecticut|Wolcott]], [[New Haven County, Connecticut|New Haven County]], [[Connecticut]]. His father, [[Joseph Chatfield Alcox]], was a [[farmer]] and [[mechanic]] whose ancestors, then bearing the name of Alcocke, had settled in eastern [[Massachusetts]] in colonial days. The son adopted the spelling "Alcott" in his early youth.
Self-educated and early thrown upon his own resources, he began in 1814 to earn his living by working in a clock factory in [[Plymouth, Connecticut]], and for many years after 1815 he peddled books and merchandise, chiefly in the southern states. He began teaching in [[Bristol, Connecticut]] in 1823, and subsequently conducted schools in [[Cheshire, Connecticut]], in 1825-[[1827]], again in Bristol in 1827-1828, in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] in 1828-[[1830]], in Germantown, now part of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], in 1831-[[1833]], and in Philadelphia in 1833. As a young teacher he was most convinced by the [[educational philosophy]] of the [[Swiss]] [[pedagogue]] [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]].
In 1830 he married [[Abby May]], the sister of [[Samuel J. May]] ([[1797]]-[[1871]]), the reformer and [[abolition]]ist. Alcott himself was a [[William Lloyd Garrison|Garrisonian]] [[abolitionist]], and pioneered the strategy of [[tax resistance]] to [[slavery]] which [[Thoreau]] made famous in ''[[Civil Disobedience]]''. Alcott publicly debated with Thoreau the use of force and passive resistance to slavery; along with Thoreau he was among the financial and moral supporters of [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] and occasionally helped fugitive slaves escape on the [[Underground Railroad]].
In 1834 he opened the [[Temple School]] in Boston, which became famous because of his original methods. Alcott's plan was to develop self-instruction on the basis of self-analysis, with an emphasis on conversation rather than the lecture and drill which were prevalent in U.S. classrooms of the time. The subject matter was often the [[Gospel]]s, religious and moral principles; some of the school's conversations were published in Alcott's ''Conversations with Children on the Gospels''. Alcott refused [[corporal punishment]] as a means of disciplining his students; instead, he offered his own hand for an offending student to strike, saying that any failing was the teacher's responsibility. The shame and guilt this method induced, he believed, was far superior to the fear instilled by corporal punishment. As assistants in the school Alcott had two of [[nineteenth-century]] America's most talented women writers, [[Elizabeth Palmer Peabody]] (who published ''A Record of Mr. Alcott's School'' in 1835) and [[Margaret Fuller]]; as students he had the children of the Boston intellectual classes, including [[Josiah Quincy]], grandson of the president of [[Harvard]]. Alcott's methods were not well received; many in the church found his conversations on the Gospels close to blasphemous, and many in the public found his disciplinary measures ridiculous. The school was denounced in the press and rejected by most public opinion, and was not pecuniarily successful as the controversy caused many parents to remove their students. Finally Alcott alienated many of the remaining parents by admitting an [[African American]] child whom he then refused to expel from his classes. In 1839 the school was closed, although Alcott had won the affection of many of his pupils. His pedagogy was a forerunner of [[progressive education|progressive]] and [[democratic school]]ing.
[[Image:The Wayside, Concord, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|300px|[[The Wayside]], home in turn to the Alcott family, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], and [[Margaret Sidney]].]]
In 1840 Alcott removed to [[Concord, Massachusetts]]. After a visit to [[England]], in 1842, he started with two English associates, [[Charles Lane]] and [[Henry C. Wright]], at "Fruitlands", in the town of [[Harvard, Massachusetts]], a [[utopian]] [[socialist]] experiment in farm living and nature meditation as tending to develop the best powers of body and soul. The experiment quickly collapsed, and Alcott returned in 1844 to his Concord home "Hillside" (later renamed "[[The Wayside]]" by [[Nathaniel Hawthorne|Hawthorne]]) near that of [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]. Alcott removed to Boston four years later, and again back to Concord after 1857.
He spoke, as opportunity offered, before the "[[lyceum]]s" t |
is to yield to it."
The term is sometimes used for particularly pointed or much-quoted [[quotation]]s taken from longer works.
==See also==
An [[epigraph]] is an inscription on a building or a quotation used to introduce a written work.
An [[epitaph]] is written about the dead.
==Other Definitions==
[http://www.epigram.org.uk Epigram] is the independent student [[newspaper]] of the [[University of Bristol]]. It is published every two weeks during term time, and covers [[Bristol]] student [[news]] and [[sport]]. It has an all-new features section, E2, and also contains an arts supplement.
The [[Epigram programming language]] is a [[functional programming language]] with [[dependent types]] designed for developing programs which include a proof of the code's correctness alongside the code.
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<page>
<title>El Cid</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Spain Burgos statue the Cid.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Statue of El Cid Campeador in [[Burgos]] (Spain)]]
'''Rodrigo''' '''Díaz de Vivar''' (c. 1044 &ndash; July 1099), [[nickname]]d '''El Cid Campeador''', was a [[Kingdom of Castile|Castilian]] military and political leader in medieval [[Spain]]. Born of the Spanish nobility, El Cid was educated in the royal Castilian court and became an important [[general]] and administrator, fighting against the [[Moors]] in the early [[Reconquista]]. Later [[exile]]d by [[Alfonso VI of Castile|King Alfonso VI]], El Cid left service in Castile and worked as a [[mercenary]]-general for other rulers, both Moor and [[Christian]]. Late in life, El Cid captured the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coastal city of [[Valencia]], ruling it until his death in 1099.
"El Cid Campeador" is a compound of two separate sobriquets. The "El Cid" is derived from the word ''al-sidi'' in the [[Andalusi Arabic]] [[Andalusian dialect|dialect]] (from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''sayyid''&mdash;"sir" or "lord," a title of respect) while the title ''el campeador'' (the champion) was granted by his Christian admirers. These titles reflected the great esteem El Cid had among both [[Moors]] and [[Christians]], as well as his fighting ability; Henry Edwards Watts wrote that ''el campeador'' "[m]eans in Spanish something more special than "champion" ... A ''campeador'' was a man who had fought and beaten the select fighting-man of the opposite side in the presence of the two armies."
"El Cid" was pronounced /el tsið/ ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) in medieval Castilian, but /el θið/ in modern standard Spanish (the ''c'' like the ''th'' in "thin" and the ''d'' like the ''th'' in "then".)
==Early life==
The exact date of El Cid's birth is unknown. Based on his participation in 1063 at the [[Battle of Graus]], however, most historians believe that El Cid was born between 1043 and 1045, in [[Vivar]] (Bivar), a small town about six miles north of [[Burgos]], the capital of Castile. Historical records show that El Cid's father was Diego Laínez, who was part minor nobility (''infanzones'') of [[Castile]]. Diego Laínez was a [[Noble court|courtier]], [[Bureaucracy|bureaucrat]], and [[cavalry]]man who had fought in several battles. Despite the fact in later years the peasants would consider him one of their own, El Cid's mother's family was [[Aristocracy|aristocratic]]. However, his relatives were not major court officials: documents show that El Cid's paternal grandfather, Lain Nuñez, only confirmed five documents of [[Ferdinand I of Leon|Ferdinand I]]'s; his maternal grandfather, Rodrigo Alvarez, certified only two of [[Sancho II of Castile|Sancho II]]'s; the Cid's own father confirmed only one. This seems to indicate that El Cid's family was not comprised of ''major'' court officials.
One well-known legend about the Cid describes how he acquired his famous war-horse, the white [[Horse|stallion]] [[Babieca]]. According to this story, Rodrigo's godfather, Pedro El Grande, was a monk at a [[Carthusian]] [[monastery]]. Pedro's coming-of-age gift to El Cid was his pick of a horse from an [[Andalusia]]n herd. El Cid picked a horse that his godfather thought was a weak, poor choice causing the monk to exclaim "Babieca!" (stupid!) Hence, it became the name of El Cid's horse. Today, Babieca appears in multiple works about El Cid.
El Cid was educated in the Castilian royal court, serving the [[prince]] and future king Sancho II, the son of [[Ferdinand I of Castile|King Ferdinand I]] ("the Great"). When Ferdinand died in 1065, he had continued his father's goal of enlarging his territory, conquering the [[Christian]] and the [[Moorish]] cities of [[Zamora]] and [[Badajoz]].
By this time, the Cid was a full adult. He had, in 1067, fought alongside Sancho against the Moorish stronghold of [[Zaragoza]] (Saragossa), making its [[emir]] [[al-Muqtadir (Zaragoza)|al-Muqtadir]] a vassal of Sancho. In the spring of 1063, he fought in the Battle of Graus, where Ferdinand's half-brother, [[Ramiro I of Aragon]], had laid siege to the Moorish town of [[Graus]] which was in Zaragozan lands. Al-Muqtadir fought against the Aragonese, accompanied by a Castillian troops, which included the Cid. The party would emerge victorious, Ramiro I was killed, and the Aragonese fled the field. One legend has said that during the conflict El Cid killed an Aragonese knight in single combat, giving him the honorific title of "El Cid Campeador".
==Service under Sancho==
===Early military victories===
As a resident of Castile, the Cid was now a vassal of Sancho. Sancho believed that he, as the King's eldest son, was entitled to inherit all of his father's lands. Once he conquered Leon and Galicia, he began making war on his brothers and sisters.
At this time some say that the Cid, having proved himself a loyal and brave knight against the Aragonese, was appointed as the ''armiger regis'', or ''alferez'' (standard-bearer). This position entailed commanding the armies of Castile.
===Victories over Alfonso and Sancho's death===
After defeating Alfonso at Llantada on the Leonese-Castillian border in 1068 and Golpejera over the [[Carrión River]] in 1072, Sancho forced his brother to flee to his Moorish city of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] under Al-Ma'mun. Toro, the city of Sancho's sister Elvira, fell easily, and for a while it seemed as though Sancho was unbeatable. But in a siege of [[Zamora]], Urraca's city, he was assassinated on [[October 7]], [[1072]].
==Service under Alfonso==
Much speculation abounds about Sancho's death. Most say that the assassination was a result of a pact between Alfonso and Urraca; some even say they had an incestuous relationship. In any case, since Sancho died unmarried and childless, all of his power passed to his brother, Alfonso&mdash;the very person he had fought against.
Almost immediately, Alfonso was recalled from exile in Toledo and took his seat as king of Leon and Castile. While he was deeply suspected in Castile (probably correctly) for being involved in Sancho's murder, a legend states that the Castillian nobility, led by the Cid and a dozen "oath-helpers", forced Alfonso to swear publicly in front of [[St. Gadeas]]'s Church in [[Burgos]] that he did not participate in the plot to kill his brother. This underscores the Cid's bravery, for none of the other nobles would dare do this for fear of offending their new king. This oath did little in settling the Castillian suspicions, and much animosity existed between Castile (and the Cid) and Leon (and Alfonso). The Cid's position as ''armiger regis'' was taken away as well; it was given to the Cid's enemy, Count [[García Orduñez]]. Later in the year, Alfonso's younger brother, García, returned to Galicia under the false pretenses of a conference, and he was imprisoned for 18 years until his death.
===Battle tactics===
During his campaigns, the Cid often ordered that books by classic [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Greek literature|Greek]] authors on military themes be read in loud voices to him and his troops, both for entertainment and inspiration during battle. El Cid's army had a novel approach to planning strategy as well, holding what might be called [[brainstorming]] sessions before each battle to discuss tactics. They frequently used unexpected strategies, engaging in what modern generals would call [[psychological warfare]]; waiting for the enemy to be paralyzed with terror and then attacking them suddenly, distracting the enemy with a small group of soldiers, etc. El Cid had a humble personality and frequently accepted or included suggestions from his troops. He remained open to input from his soldiers and to the possibility that he himself was capable of error. The man who served him as his closest adviser was his nephew, [[Minaya Alvar Fánez]].
===Marriage and family life===
The Cid was married in July 1074 to Alfonso's kinswoman Jimena de Gormaz (spelled Ximena in [[Old Castillian]]), the daughter of the Count of Oviedo. This was probably on Alfonso's suggestion, a move that he probably hoped would improve relations between him and the Cid. Together the Cid and Ximena had three children. Their daughters, Cristina and María, both married high nobility; Cristina, to [[Ramiro]], lord of Monzon and bastard descendant of [[kings of Navarre]]; María, first to Infante of Aragon and second to [[Ramón Ber |
ated that the culprit was a lawyer from the same part of the country as Compton himself. Dewdney was indeed born some ten miles from Compton's hometown, and throughout his life described himself as a "[[Barrister|barrister-at-law]]", despite never practising that profession.
Evidence that the assassination attempt had not gone quite to plan is hinted at in a letter that Alley wrote to Scale eight days after the murder, saying "Although matters here have not proceeded entirely to plan, our objective has clearly been achieved... a few awkward questions have already been asked about wider involvement. Rayner is attending to loose ends and will no doubt brief you".
Upon his return to England, Oswald Rayner not only confided to his cousin, Rose Jones, that he had been present at Rasputin's murder, but also showed family members a bullet which he claimed he had acquired at the murder scene.
None of this is absolutely conclusive evidence of what happened that night of [[16 December]] - [[17 December]], but it provides a more logical evidence-based account of what occurred. Rayner burnt all his papers before he died in 1961, and his only son also died four years later.
=="The spirit of Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin"==
After his death, his secretary Simonovich realized that Rasputin had moved a lot of money into his daughter Maria's account, and generally set all his affairs in order.
Weeks before he was assassinated in December 1916, according to his secretary Simanovich, Rasputin wrote the following:
"I write and leave behind me this letter at St. Petersburg. I feel that I shall leave life before January 1. I wish to make known to the Russian people, to Papa, to the Russian Mother and to the Children, to the land of Russia, what they must understand. If I am killed by common assassins, and especially by my brothers the Russian peasants, you, Tsar of Russia, will have nothing to fear for your children, they will reign for hundreds of years in Russia. But if I am murdered by boyars, nobles, and if they shed my blood, their hands will remain soiled with my blood, for twenty-five years they will not wash their hands from my blood. They will leave Russia. Brothers will kill brothers, and they will kill each other and hate each other, and for twenty-five years there will be no nobles in the country. Tsar of the land of Russia, if you hear the sound of the bell which will tell you that Grigori has been killed, you must know this: if it was your relations who have wrought my death, then no one in the family, that is to say, none of your children or relations, will remain alive for more than two years. They will be killed by the Russian people. I go, and I feel in me the divine command to tell the Russian Tsar how he must live if I have disappeared. You must reflect and act prudently. Think of your safety and tell your relations that I have paid for them with my blood. I shall be killed. I am no longer among the living. Pray, pray, be strong, think of your blessed family.
-Grigori"
Why he wrote this prophetic letter, if it was not made up by Simonovich, is a mystery. Some speculate that Rasputin had a spiritual vision foreshadowing such an event. Others believe that Rasputin knew that he was widely reviled by the Russian people at the time he wrote the letter and that some wanted to kill him.
==Reputation==
[[Image:Rasputin2.jpg|thumb|right|200px]]
The contemporary press, as well as sensationalist articles and books published in the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] (one of them even by Yussoupov), turned the charismatic peasant into something of a [[twentieth century]] folk belief. To Westerners, Rasputin became the embodiment of purported Russian backwardness, superstition, irrationality and licentiousness, and an object of sensational interest; to the Russian [[Communism|Communists]], he represented all that was evil in the old regime and had been overcome in the revolution. Yet to some Russians, he remained a symbol of the voice of the peasantry, and some (Russians) to this day reject the beliefs, honoring the man. However, the Moscow Patriarchate has condemned the fledgling movement seeking canonization of Rasputin. In reference to Rasputin's promiscuity, Moscow's Patriarch Alexei II said in a statement in 2003: "This is madness! What believer would want to stay in a Church that equally venerates murderers and martyrs, lechers and saints?".
Since the fall of Communism in Russia in the [[1990s]], some Russian nationalists appeared to have tried to whitewash Rasputin's reputation, and use the powerful twentieth century archetype he has become for their own end. New evidence that has surfaced since the end of the [[Soviet Union]], however, at first appeared to refute their claims of his saintliness.
This documentation is primarily in the form of notes written by individuals paid to keep surveillance on Rasputin's apartment, and to record his comings and goings as well as make note of visitors. This was no secret at the time, and Rasputin occasionally expressed his annoyance. It has been remarked in books written as early as [[1919]] that those notes are, at best, highly questionable, intending to "prove" the allegations of those who paid to have such "proof" documented.
====Virgins' hair====
Rasputin is reputed to have cut locks of hair from the virgins with whom he had sex. When his house was pulled down in 1977, the authorities unearthed several boxes containing hair buried in the garden.
==Name meaning==
The name ''Rasputin'' in Russian does not mean "licentious," as is often claimed. There is, however, a very similar Russian adjective ''rasputny'' (распу́тный) which does mean "licentious" and the corresponding noun ''rasputnik''. There is no definite explanation of the origin of this not uncommon surname which does not have a "disgraceful" meaning, as the contemporary Russian writer [[Valentin Rasputin]] would be quick to explain. There are at least two options for the [[root (linguistics)|root of the word]]. One of them is ''"put' ,"'' which means "way," "road." Close nouns are ''rasputye'', a place where the roads diverge or converge and ''[[rasputitsa]]'' (распу́тица, "muddy road season"). In [[occult]] traditions, a crossroad is a place of magical portent for good as well as evil; various folk beliefs state that one might meet the [[devil]] there, but also [[Saint Peter]]. Some historians argue that the name Rasputin may be a place name, since it roughly signifies "a place where two rivers meet", which describes the area from which the Rasputin family originates.
Another possibility is ''"put', "'' which gives rise to the verb "putat' ": "entangle" or "mix up," with "rasputat' " being its [[antonym]]: "detangle," "untie," "clean up a misunderstanding," etc.
However the most well founded explanation is a standard Russian surname derivation from the old Slavic name "Rasputa" ("Rasputko") (recorded as early as in sixteenth century) with the meaning "ill-behaved child," the one whose ways are against traditions or the will of parents.
It is said that Rasputin tried to have his name changed to the inconspicuous "Novykh" after his first pilgrimage to the Holy Land ("Novykh" - from the Russian Новый, "New", connotes to "Novice"), but that is a subject of dispute.
==See also==
*[[Rasputin in the Media]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Григорий Ефимович Распутин}}
*[http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=53 Biography and Pictures]
*[http://www.eurohistory.com/Rasputin.html The Evil Monk: The Life and Times of Gregory Efimovich Rasputin]
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567081/Rasputin_Grigory_Yefimovich.html Rasputin, Grigory Yefimovich, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia]
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569348/Russian_Revolutions_of_1917.html Russian Revolutions of 1917]
*[http://www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/Rasputin.html The Alexander Palace Time Machine Bios-Rasputin]
*[http://history1900s.about.com/library/weekly/aa020801a.htm The Murder of Rasputin]
*[http://www.rasputinthemusical.com Rasputin the Musical by Michael Rapp and Ozzy Osbourne]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2004/09_september/19/rasputin.shtml BBC's Rasputin murder reconstruction]
[[Category:1869 births|Rasputin, Grigori]]
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[[Category:Russian people|Rasputin, Grigori]]
[[Category:Assassinated people|Rasputin, Grigori]]
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[[zh:格里高利·叶菲莫维奇·拉斯普京]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gemstone</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-18T06:51:19Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/58.11.49.214|58.11.49.214]] ([[User talk:58.11.49.214|talk]]) to last version by Natalinasmpf</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gem.pebbles.800pix.labelled.jpg|r |
ilms noir. Although not itself considered a film noir, [[Orson Welles]]'s landmark film ''[[Citizen Kane ]]'' (1941) had a heavy influence on the development of the genre's style, particularly with its stunning visuals and complex narrative structure driven by voiceover narration.
==The classic period==
[[Image:Outofthepastcar.jpg|right|250px|thumb|One of the quintessential films noirs, ''[[Out of the Past]]'' features all of the noir hallmarks: A cynical private detective as the "hero", a sexy [[femme fatale]], multiple [[Flashback (literary technique)|flashback]]s with [[voiceover]] narration, dramatic [[chiaroscuro]] black and white photography, and a pervasive [[fatalism|fatalistic]] mood. The film stars [[Robert Mitchum]], who, along with [[Humphrey Bogart]], was the foremost male [[icon]] of film noir.]]
The 1940s and 1950s were the "classic period" of film noir. Some film historians regard ''[[Stranger on the Third Floor]]'' (1940) as the first "true" film noir. Orson Welles's ''[[Touch of Evil]]'' (1958) is often cited as the last film in the classic period.
Some scholars believe film noir never really ended, but declined in popularity, only to be later revived in a slightly different form. Other critics -— probably a majority -— regard films made outside the classic period to be something other than genuine film noir. These critics regard true film noir as belonging to a cycle or period, and that subsequent films that try to evoke the classic films are different because the creators are conscious of a noir "style" in a way that the original makers of film noir perhaps were not.
Many of the classic films noirs were low-budget supporting features without major stars, in which "moonlighting" [[screenwriter|writer]]s, [[director (film)|directors]] and technicians, some of them [[blacklist|blacklisted]], found themselves relatively free from big-picture constraints. Many of the most popular examples of film noir center upon a woman of questionable virtue, and are also known as [[bad girl movies]]. Major studio feature films demanded a wholesome, positive message. Weak and morally ambiguous lead characters were ruled out by the "star system," and secondary characters were seldom allowed any depth or autonomy. In "A" films, flattering soft lighting, deluxe interiors, and elaborately built exterior sets were the rule. Film noir turned all this on its head, creating bleak, intelligent dramas tinged with [[nihilism]], mistrust, paranoia, and [[cynicism]], in real-life [[Urbanization|urban]] settings, and using unsettling techniques such as the confessional voiceover or hero's-eye-view camerawork. The noir style gradually re-influenced the mainstream.
===Notable films noir of the classic period===
*''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'' (1941)
*''[[Murder, My Sweet]]'' (1944)
*''[[Laura (1944 film)|Laura]]'' (1944)
*''[[Double Indemnity]]'' (1944)
*''[[The Big Sleep (1946 film)|The Big Sleep]]'' (1946)
*''[[Gilda]]'' (1946)
*''[[The Killers (1946 film)|The Killers]]'' (1946)
*''[[The Lady from Shanghai]]'' (1947)
*''[[Out of the Past]]'' (1947)
*''[[Key Largo (film)|Key Largo]] (1948)
*''[[The Third Man]]'' (1949)
*''[[White Heat]]'' (1949)
*''[[The Asphalt Jungle]]'' (1950)
*''[[Sunset Blvd. (1950 film)|Sunset Boulevard]]'' (1950)
*''[[Pickup on South Street]]'' (1953)
*''[[The Big Heat]]'' (1953)
*''[[Kiss Me Deadly]]'' (1955)
*''[[The Night of the Hunter]]'' (1955)
*''[[The Killing]]'' (1956)
*''[[Touch of Evil]]'' (1958)
Directors associated with classic film noir include [[John Huston]], [[Howard Hawks]], [[Fritz Lang]], [[Billy Wilder]], and [[Orson Welles]]. [[Alfred Hitchcock]] made some crime films that display elements of film noir (''[[Notorious]]'', ''[[Strangers on a Train]]''), but are not always considered part of the film noir canon.
For an expanded list of films considered "noir," see [[List of film noir]] or [[:Category:Film noir]].
==Film noir outside the United States==
[[Image:Thirdman1-9950.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Orson Welles (right) as Harry Lime in ''[[The Third Man]]'', giving his infamous "cuckoo clock" speech to Joseph Cotten -- a classic scene of pure film noir.]]
There have been a number of films made outside the United States that can reasonably be called films noirs, for example, ''[[Pepé le Moko]]''. [[Jules Dassin]] moved to France in the early 1950s as a result of the Hollywood blacklist, and made one of the most famous French films noir, ''[[Du rififi chez les hommes]]'' ([[1955]]). Other well-known French films sometimes considered to be noir include ''[[Touchez pas au grisbi]]'' ([[1954]]), ''[[Diabolique]]'' ([[1955]]), and ''[[Quai des Orfèvres]]'' ([[1947]]). French director [[Jean-Pierre Melville]] is widely recognized for his tragic, minimalist films noirs, such as ''[[Le Samouraï]]'' or ''[[Le Cercle Rouge]]''. Additionally, British director [[Carol Reed]] made ''[[The Third Man]]'' (1949), which is often considered film noir. Set in Vienna immediately after World War II, it starred [[Joseph Cotten]] and [[Orson Welles]], both prominent American film noir actors.
"[[Neo-noir]]" is a term often applied to films made after the classic period. Neo-noir films have been produced internationally in most countries with a prominent film industry. Examples include ''[[High and Low]]'' (Japan), ''[[La Haine]]'' (France), ''[[Insomnia (film)|Insomnia]]'' (Norway), ''[[Alphaville, une étrange aventure de Lemmy Caution|Alphaville]]'' (France), ''[[The American Friend]]'' (Germany), and ''[[Blind Shaft]]'' (China).
== Neo-noir and the influence of film noir ==
:''See main article [[Neo-noir]].''
In the [[1960]]s, American filmmakers such as [[Sam Peckinpah]], [[Arthur Penn]], and [[Robert Altman]] created films that drew from (and commented upon) the original films noirs. In ''[[The Long Goodbye (film)|The Long Goodbye]]'', Altman's hard-boiled detective is presented as a hapless bungler who can't help but lose the moral battle. But perhaps the most successful neo-noir was Roman Polanski's 1974 film, ''Chinatown''.
Film noir has been parodied many times, both broadly and affectionately. [[Bob Hope]] first parodied film noir in ''[[My Favorite Brunette]]'' (1947), playing a baby photographer who is mistaken for tough private detective. Perhaps the most famous film noir parody is [[Billy Wilder]]'s ''[[Some Like It Hot]]'' (1959). Other notable parodies include [[Carl Reiner]]'s black and white "cut and paste" homage ''[[Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid]]'', and [[Woody Allen]]'s ''[[Play It Again, Sam]]''. Film noir parodies have been extended to [[comic strips]] as well, with [[Garfield's Babes and Bullets|Sam Spayed]] from ''[[Garfield]]'' and [[Tracer Bullet]] from ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]''.
Many of [[Joel and Ethan Coen]]'s films are examples of modern films influenced by noir, especially ''[[The Man Who Wasn't There]]'' and ''[[Blood Simple]]'', the comedy ''[[The Big Lebowski]]'' i(itself a tribute to author [[Raymond Chandler]], whose crime novels inspired the genre and a direct homage to ''The Long Goodbye''), and ''[[Miller's Crossing]]'', loosely based on by [[Dashiell Hammett]]'s novels ''[[The Glass Key]]'' and ''[[Red Harvest]]'' (which later inspired [[Akira Kurosawa]]'s [[chambara]] film, [[Yojimbo]], which in turn was remade as [[A Fistful of Dollars]] and [[Last Man Standing]]). [[Curtis Hanson]]'s widely praised ''[[L.A. Confidential]]'' may be the closest thing to a modern-day film noir, with its tale of corrupt cops and femme fatales seemingly lifted right from the 1950s.
The cynical, pessimistic worldview of films noirs strongly influenced the creators of the [[cyberpunk]] genre of [[science fiction]] in the early [[1980s]]. ''[[Blade Runner]]'' is among the most popular films from this era. Characters in these films are derived from [[1930s]] gangster films and, more importantly, from [[pulp magazine|pulp]] magazines such as ''[[The Shadow]]'', ''[[Dime Mystery Detective]]'', and ''[[The Black Mask]]''. Other examples for "sci-fi noir" films are ''[[Gattaca]]'', ''[[The Thirteenth Floor]]'', ''[[Ghost in the Shell (film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'', ''[[Dark City]]'' and ''[[The Matrix]]''.
Some consider the films of [[David Lynch]] to have a notable noir influence, particularly his best-known work, ''[[Blue Velvet]]''.
The film noir style has even influenced [[Animation]], the most prominent example being [[Batman: The Animated Series]]. Several episodes reflect the noirish themes and pessimistic worldview of the classic films.
Recent works of [[popular fiction]] in a noir vein include the TV show ''[[Veronica Mars]]'', the films ''[[Sin City (film)|Sin City]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]), ''[[Reservoir Dogs]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]), ''[[Fargo]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]]), and ''[[A Simple Plan]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]]), the video game series ''[[Max Payne]]'', and [[Christopher Nolan]]'s remake of ''[[Insomnia (film)|Insomnia]]''. The case could be argued that Nolan's [[Memento (film)|Memento]] is also an example of neo-noir.
==Characteristics==
===Visual style===
Films noirs tended to use dramatic shadows, stark [[contrast]], [[low-key lighting]], and [[black-and-white]] film, typically resulting in a 10:1 ratio of dark to light, rather than the more typical 3:1 ratio. A number of films noirs were shot on location in cities, and [[night-for-night]] shooting was common. Shadows of venetian blinds, dramatically cast upon an actor's face as he or she looks out a window, are an iconic visuals in film noir.
Film noir is also known for its use of [[dutch angle]]s, [[low angle shot]]s, and [[wide angle lens]]es. Other devices of [[orientation|disorientation]] common in film noir include shots of people in mirrors or multiple mirrors, shots through a glass (such as during the strangulation scene in ''[[Strangers on a Train]]''), and [[multiple e |
nt differences including the Baloch hierarchy and allegiance to Sardars and subordinate Waderas, both tribal chieftains, that the more individualistic and egalitarian Pashtuns lack. The Sardars remain prominent in the province thanks in part to the British who boosted their authority.
Due to the nature of Pakistan's parliamentary-style government, political power is often shared at various levels and the recent election of the Balochistan-born [[Zafarullah Khan Jamali]] to the post of Prime Minister is an indication of the growing role of the province in national affairs.
==Personalities==
;Pre-Independence (pre-1947)
{{sect-stub}}
;Post-Independence (post-1947)
* [[Zafarullah Khan Jamali]]
==See also==
* [[Baloch]]
* [[Balochistan]]
* [[Pashtuns]]
* [[Brahui]]
* [[Iranian Balochistan]]
* [[List of cities in Balochistan]]
==External links==
;Official
* [http://www.balochistan.org.pk/ Government of Balochistan]
* [http://www.balochistan.org Balochistan-Based Information Portal]
;Historical
* [http://www.chapatimystery.com/archives/homistan/the_baluchistan_issue.html A synopsis of the modern history of Balochistan and The State of Kalat]
;Photographs
*[http://www.itspakistan.net/pakistan/gallery_balu.aspx Picture Gallery of Baluchistan on itsPakistan]
{{Territorial_Capitals_in_Pakistan}}
[[Category:Balochistan]]
[[Category:Provinces of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Subdivisions of Pakistan]]
[[da:Baluchistan (Pakistan)]]
[[de:Belutschistan (Pakistan)]]
[[et:Belutšistani provints]]
[[es:Baluchistán (Pakistán)]]
[[fa:استان بلوچستان]]
[[ko:발루치스탄 주]]
[[hi:बलूचिस्तान]]
[[nl:Beloetsjistan (Pakistan)]]
[[sv:Baluchistan]]
[[ur:بلوچستان]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boss Tweed</title>
<id>4688</id>
<revision>
<id>42145088</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:55:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.32.80.47</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boss_tweed.jpg|thumb|1869 tobacco label featuring Boss Tweed ]]
'''William Marcy Tweed''' ([[April 3]], [[1823]]&ndash;[[April 12]], [[1878]]), commonly known as '''Boss Tweed''', was an [[Politics of the United States|American politician]] and [[political boss]] of [[Tammany Hall]] who became an [[icon]] of [[Urban_culture | urban]] [[political machine]]s.
Tammany Hall had existed since [[1789]]. Tweed was a chairmaker who used his popularity as a volunteer fire fighter in the Americus Engine Company No. 6, also known as the "Big Six," to advance himself. He eventually became a chief in the fire department. He became an [[alderman]] in [[1851]] and he built his power through the election and appointment of his friends. Tweed and his cronies became known as the Tweed Ring. Tweed's [[political machine]] gained numerous offices in [[New York City]], and even to the state legislature and judges' seats, often through illegal means. From [[1860]]&ndash;[[1870]], Tweed controlled almost every single [[United States Democratic Party]] nomination for the city and the state.
Tweed himself was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] in [[1852]], the New York City Board of Advisors in [[1856]], and the New York State Senate in [[1867]].
Financiers [[Jay Gould]] and [[Big Jim Fisk]] made Boss Tweed a director of the [[Erie Railroad]], and Tweed in turn arranged favorable legislation for them. Tweed and Gould became the subjects of political cartoons by [[Thomas Nast]] in 1869.
In April [[1870]], at the age of 47, Tweed secured the passage of a city charter putting the control of the city into the hands of the mayor ([[A. Oakey Hall]]), the [[comptroller]], and the commissioners of parks and public works. He then set about to plunder the city. The total amount of money stolen was never known, but was estimated to be about $200 million. Over a period of two years and eight months, [[New York City]]'s debts increased by $81,000,000 (USD), with little to show for the debt.
[[Image:Boss_Tweed,_Nast.jpg|thumb|left|''Boss Tweed,'' by Thomas Nast]]
The only known relatives of tweed are the Ramaekers, a Dutch family originating in the Buffalo New York area.(Last Updated Feb of 1974). His followers generally worked by presenting excessive bills for work performed. Ostensibly the bills were paid in full, but in reality only part of the amount was paid, with Tweed retaining the remainder and dividing it between his followers in proportion to their importance. For example, the city was billed $13,000,000 (USD) to build a courthouse, which was several times the actual cost of construction, estimated to be $250,000; and $3,000,000 (USD) for city printing and stationery over a two-year period.
The end came when one of the plunderers, dissatisfied with the amount he received, gave ''[[The New York Times]]'' evidence that conclusively proved that stealing was going on. In a subsequent interview about the fraud, Tweed's only reply was, "What are you going to do about it?" However, accounts in ''[[The New York Times]]'' and political cartoons drawn by [[Thomas Nast]] and published in ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' resulted in the election of numerous opposition candidates in [[1871]]. Tweed is attributed with exclaiming, "Stop them damned pictures. I don't care so much what the papers say about me. My constituents can't read. But, damn it, they can see pictures!"
[[Image:Tweed-Boss-LOC.jpg|thumb|Formal portrait of Tweed]]
In October 1871, when Tweed was held on $1,000,000 (USD) bail, [[Jay Gould]] was the chief bondsman. The efforts of political reformers [[William H. Wickham]] (1875 New York City mayor) and [[Samuel J. Tilden]] (later 1876 Democratic presidential nominee) resulted in Tweed's trial and conviction in [[1873]]. He was given a 12-year prison sentence, which was reduced by a higher court and he served one year. He was then re-arrested on civil charges, sued by New York State for $6,000,000 (USD), and held in [[debtor's prison]] until he could post $3,000,000 (USD) as bail. On [[December 4]], [[1875]], Tweed escaped and fled to [[Cuba]]. His presence in Cuba was discovered by the U.S. Government and he was held by the Cuban government. Before the U.S. Government could arrange for his extradition, Tweed bribed his way onto a ship headed to [[Spain]]. Before he arrived in Spain, the U.S. Government discovered his eventual destination and made arrangements for his arrest as soon as he reached the Spanish coast. The Spanish government identified him, purportedly recognizing Tweed from one of Nast's cartoons, and extradited him to New York; he was delivered to authorities in [[New York City]] on [[November 23]], [[1876]], where he died in prison two years later at the age of 55.
He is buried in [[Brooklyn]]'s [[Green-Wood Cemetery]].
Boss Tweed was portrayed by [[Jim Broadbent]] in the [[2002]] film ''[[Gangs of New York]]''.
==Further reading==
* Kenneth D. Ackerman, ''Boss Tweed: The Rise and Fall of the Corrupt Pol who Conceived the Soul of New York'' (New York, 2006).
==External links==
* [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/tammany-hall-links.html Tammany Hall Links]
{{wikiquote}}
[[Category:1823 births|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:1878 deaths|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:American criminals|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:Fraudsters|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:History of New York City|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:Leaders of Tammany Hall|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:New York State Senators|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:New York politicians|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:People from New York|Tweed, Boss]]
[[de:William Tweed]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balsall Heath</title>
<id>4689</id>
<revision>
<id>26566299</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-26T22:30:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pigsonthewing</username>
<id>26248</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>maps</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Balsall Heath''' is a [[working class]], [[inner-city]] area of [[Birmingham]], [[England]]. It is home to a diverse cultural mix including [[Afro-Caribbean]], [[India]]n, [[Pakistan]]i, [[Ireland|Irish]] and English, and the home of the ''[[Balti (food)|Balti]] Triangle'', a collection of Asian restaurants and sweet centres.
==External links==
*{{gbmapping|SP075845}}
*[http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/balsallheathlibrary Balsall Heath Library]
{{WestMidlands-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Areas of Birmingham, England]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bunge y Born</title>
<id>4690</id>
<revision>
<id>15902950</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-13T19:39:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Companies of Argentina]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bunge y Born''' was an [[Argentina|Argentinian]]-based [[multinational]] corporation. It was an international [[Cereal|grain]] and [[oilseed]] trader with an annual turnover of about $13 bn.
'''History'''<br />
Started by European immigrants arriving in Argentina in the late 19th century to take advantage of the newly created wheatlands. Two families join forces to play a large role in the grain and oilseed business, initially in Argentina and then worldwide.
The owning families expanded their business into industry in Argentina and [[Brazil]]. Including textiles, paint, chemicals, fertilizer, banking and insurance. Throughout the early and mid-20th century they continued to be successful until 1974 when two third generation family members Jorge and Juan Born, were kidnapped by the [[Montoneros]] and recovered only after the payment of a $60m ransom. Concern over the terrorists use of the money was one of the factors that led to the military coup in April 1976.
The families became even more low profile. But in |
ef> and [[Lars-Erik Larsson]].<ref>Musicweb International, [http://www.musicweb-international.com/classrev/2003/Aug03/Larsson_concertinos.htm Lars-Erik Larsson] Accessed [[18 November]] [[2005]].</ref> His conservative idiom has however grown increasingly popular with audiences, as the avant-garde has declined in influence and information about his political views has come out. According to Grove, he has now become, "the most popular composer of serious art music of the middle years of the 20th century".<ref>Grove p. 300.</ref>
==Works==
''For a complete list, see [[List of compositions by Dmitri Shostakovich]] (by [[Opus number]]). See also: [[:Category:Compositions by Dmitri Shostakovich]] (''thematical'' selection of works by Shostakovich).''
[[Image:Shostaccidentals03.jpg|frame|Shostakovich made great use of [[accidental (music)|accidentals]], both for [[chromaticism|chromatic]] effect and (as here) to denote keys.]]
Shostakovich's works are broadly [[Tonality|tonal]] and in the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] tradition, but with elements of [[atonality]] and [[Chromatic scale|chromaticism]]. ''{{Audio|1947 - Piano Trio No. 2.ogg|listen}}'' In some of his later works (e.g. the [[String Quartet No. 12 (Shostakovich)|Twelfth]] Quartet), he made use of [[tone row]]s.
His output is dominated by his cycles of [[symphony|symphonies]] and [[string quartet|string quartets]], fifteen of each. The symphonies are distributed fairly evenly throughout his career, while the quartets are concentrated towards the latter part. Among the most popular are the [[Symphony No. 5 (Shostakovich)|Fifth]] and [[Symphony No. 10 (Shostakovich)|Tenth]] Symphonies and the [[String Quartet No. 8 (Shostakovich)|Eighth]] and [[String Quartet No. 15 (Shostakovich)|Fifteenth]] Quartets. Other works include the [[opera]]s Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk, The Nose and the unfinished [[The Gamblers]]; six concertos (two each for [[piano concerto|piano]], [[violin concerto|violin]] and [[cello concerto|cello]]); and a large quantity of [[film music]].
Shostakovich's music shows the influence of many of the composers he most admired: [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] in his [[fugue]]s and [[passacaglia]]s; [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] in the late [[quartet]]s; [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]] in the symphonies and [[Alban Berg|Berg]] in his use of musical codes and quotations. Among Russian composers, he particularly admired [[Modest Mussorgsky]], whose [[opera]]s [[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]] and [[Khovanshchina]] he [[Orchestration|re-orchestrated]]; Mussorgsky's influence is most prominent in the wintry scenes of Lady Macbeth and the 12th symphony, as well as in his satirical works such as Rayok.<ref>Laurel Fay, ''Shostakovich: A Life'' pp. 119, 165, 224.</ref> [[Sergei Prokofiev|Prokofiev]]'s influence is most apparent in the earlier piano works, such as the first sonata and [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Shostakovich)|first concerto]].<ref>Grove pp. 288, 290.</ref> His relationship with [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]] was profoundly ambivalent; as he wrote to Glikman, "Stravinsky the composer I worship. Stravinsky the thinker I despise".<ref>Glikman p. 181.</ref> He was particularly enamoured of the [[Symphony of Psalms]], presenting a copy of his own piano version of it to Stravinsky when the latter visited the USSR in 1962. (The meeting of the two composers was not a great success, however; observers commented on Shostakovich's extreme nervousness and Stravinsky's "cruelty" towards him.)<ref>Wilson pp. 375-377.</ref>
Many commentators have noted the disjunction between the experimental works before the 1936 denunciation and the more conservative ones which followed; the composer told Flora Litvinova, "without 'Party guidance'... I would have displayed more brilliance, used more sarcasm, I could have revealed my ideas openly instead of having to resort to camouflage".<ref>Wilson p. 426.</ref> Articles published by Shostakovich in 1934 and 1935 cited [[Alban Berg|Berg]], [[Arnold Schoenberg|Schoenberg]], [[Ernst Krenek|Krenek]], [[Paul Hindemith|Hindemith]], "and especially Stravinsky" among his influences.<ref>Fay p. 88.</ref> Key works of the earlier period are the [[Symphony No. 1 (Shostakovich)|first symphony]], which combined the academicism of the conservatory with his progressive inclinations; [[The Nose (opera)|The Nose]] ("The most uncompromisingly modernist of all his stage-works"<ref>Grove p. 289.</ref> ''{{Audio|Nose interlude.ogg|listen}}''); [[Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera)|Lady Macbeth]], which precipitated the denunciation; and the [[Symphony No. 4 (Shostakovich)|fourth symphony]], described by Grove as, "a colossal synthesis of Shostakovich's musical development to date".<ref>Grove p. 290.</ref> The fourth symphony was also the first in which the influence of Mahler came to the fore, prefiguring the route Shotakovich was to take to secure his rehabilitation, while he himself admitted that the preceding two were his least successful.<ref>Glikman p. 315.</ref>
In the years after 1936, Shostakovich's symphonic works were outwardly musically conservative, regardless of any subversive political content. However, during this time he turned increasingly to [[chamber music|chamber]] works, "a field where he could compose with maximum seriousness and minimum external pressure".<ref>Grove p. 294.</ref> While these were also largely tonal, they did give Shostakovich an outlet for the darker content which was not welcomed in his more public works. This is most apparent in the late chamber works, which portray a "world of [[Purgatory|purgatorial]] numbness";<ref>Grove p. 300.</ref> in some of these he included the use of [[tone row]]s, although he treated these as melodic themes rather than [[serialism|serially]]. Vocal works are also a prominent feature of his late output, setting texts often concerned with love, death and art.
One prominent criticism of Shostakovich has been that his symphonic work in particular is, in the words of Shostakovich scholar Gerard McBurney, "derivative, trashy, empty and second-hand". The view has been expressed both by western figures such as [[Pierre Boulez]] ("I think of Shostakovich as the second, or even third pressing of [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]") and by Soviet figures such as [[Filipp Gershkovich]], who called Shostakovich, "a hack in a trance". A related complaint is that he is vulgar and strident: [[Stravinsky]] wrote of [[Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera)|Lady Macbeth]] being, "brutally hammering... and monotonous", while the famous [[Pravda]] editorial ''Muddle Instead of Music'' said of the same work, "All is coarse, primitive and vulgar. The music quacks, grunts and growls".<ref>Gerard McBurney, [http://www.geocities.com/kuala_bear/articles/mcburney.html Whose Shostakovich?] Accessed [[18 November]] [[2005]].</ref>
It is certainly true that Shostakovich borrows extensively from the material and styles both of earlier composers and of [[popular music]], with the shrillness of Mahler and the vulgarity of "low" music prominent influences on this "greatest of eclectics".<ref>Haas, ''Shostakovich's Eighth: C minor Symphony against the Grain'' p. 125.</ref> McBurney traces this to the [[avant-garde]] artistic circles of the early Soviet period among which Shostakovich moved early in his career, and argues that these borrowings were a deliberate technique to allow him to create, "patterns of contrast, repetition, exaggeration" which gave his music the large-scale structure it required.<ref>Gerard McBurney, op cit.</ref>
==Character==
[[Image:Shostfootball01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Shostakovich at a football match.]]
Shostakovich was in many ways an obsessive man: according to his daughter he was "obsessed with cleanliness"<ref>Michael Ardov,''Memories of Shostakovich'' p. 139.</ref>; he synchronised the clocks in his apartment; he regularly sent cards to himself to test how well the postal service was working. Wilson's ''Shostakovich: A Life Remembered'' indexes 26 references to his nervousness. Even as a young man, Mikhail Druskin remembers that the composer was "fragile and nervously agile".<ref>Wilson pp. 41&ndash;45.</ref> Yuri Lyubimov comments that "The fact that he was more vulnerable and receptive than other people was no doubt an important feature of his genius".<ref>Wilson p. 183.</ref> In later life, Krzysztof Meyer recalled, "his face was a bag of tics and grimaces".<ref>Wilson p. 462.</ref>
In his lighter moods, sport was one of his main recreations, although he preferred spectating or umpiring to participating (he was a qualified [[football (soccer)|football]] [[referee (football)|referee]]). He also enjoyed playing [[card game]]s, particularly [[Solitaire|Patience]].
Both light and dark sides of his character were evident in his fondness for [[satirical]] writers such as [[Gogol]], [[Chekhov]] and [[Mikhail Zoshchenko]]. The influence of the latter in particular is evident in his letters, which include wry parodies of Soviet officialese. Zoshchenko himself noted the contradictions in the composer's character: "he is ... frail, fragile, withdrawn, an infinitely diret, pure child... [but he is also] hard, acid, extremely intelligent, strong perhaps, despotic and not altogether good-natured (although cerebrally good-natured)".<ref>Quoted in Fay, p. 121.</ref>
He was diffident by nature: Flora Litvinova has said he was "completely incap |
sma physics|plasma]], which in turn both ignites the propellants and controls the release of the chemical energy stored in the propellants during the ballistic cycle.
See also [[railgun]].</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ES-3 Shadow</title>
<id>10383</id>
<revision>
<id>36497623</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T13:32:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reduce linking to solitary date elements</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #87CEEB;width:30%;" align="right"
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom:3px solid"|ES-3 Shadow
|-
|colspan="3" align="center"|[[image:ES-3A Shadow.jpg|300px]]<br>''ES-3A Shadow''
|-
|}
The '''ES-3 Shadow''' is a [[United States Navy]] jet aircraft used to collect and disseminate tactical reconnaissance information. The aircraft resembles the [[S-3 Viking]], from which it is derived, with the addition of numerous antennas and antenna housings.
The ES-3 Shadow replaced the [[EA-3 Skywarrior]] and entered fleet service in 1993. The ES-3 was a carrier-based, subsonic, all-weather, long-range, electronic reconnaissance aircraft. It operated primarily with [[carrier battle group]]s providing Indications and Warning (I&W) support to the battle group and joint theater commanders. It carried an extensive suite of electronic sensors and communications gear. Unfortunately, these modifications greatly restricted speed and range, making it a sorry replacement for the venerable EA-3B.
All 16 ES-3 aircraft were modified S-3 Viking airframes. Political pressure by [[Lockheed]] upon the [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgian]] congressional delegation forced the US Navy to select a modified S-3 over a modified [[Fokker F-27]] (which would have come close to the EA-3B speed with an increase in range).
The S-3's submarine detection and other maritime surveillance equipment was removed and the weapons bay fitted with avionics racks to accommodate the ES-3's sensors. The first ES-3A was delivered in 1991. U.S. carriers typically deployed with two Shadow aircraft embarked. Dismal performance of the equipment led to the removal of all ES-3 aircraft from active service. They were placed in storage by September, 1999.
== General characteristics ==
* Primary function: Electronic reconnaissance
* Contractor: Lockheed-California Company
* Unit cost: US$27 million (original airframe) + US$65 million (conversion) = US$92 million
* Propulsion: Two [[General Electric TF34|General Electric TF34-GE-400B]] turbofan engines 9,275 lbf (41 kN) each)
* Length: 16 m (53 ft 4 in)
* Wingspan: 20.6 m (68 ft 8 in)
* Height: 6.9 m (22 ft 9 in)
* Weight: Max design gross take-off: 52,539 pounds (23,643 kg)
* Speed: 450 knots (830 km/h)
* Ceiling: 40,000 ft (12,200 m)
* Range: 2,300 nautical miles (4260 km)
* Armament: None
* Crew: Four
* Date Deployed: September 1993
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. electronic warfare aircraft 1990-1999]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E-3 Sentry</title>
<id>10384</id>
<revision>
<id>41612182</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:36:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>N328KF</username>
<id>77722</id>
</contributor>
<comment>How nice for you, revert</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #87CEEB;width:30%;" align="right"
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom:3px solid"|E-3 Sentry
|-
|colspan="3" align="center"|[[image:usaf.e3sentry.750pix.jpg|300px]]<br>''The United States Air Force's E-3 Sentry''
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Description
|-
|Role||colspan="2"|Airborne Warning and Control System ([[AWACS]])
|-
|Crew||colspan="2"|Flight crew of 4, plus 13-19 mission specialists
|-
|First Flight||colspan="2"|October 1975
|-
|Entered Service||colspan="2"|March 1977
|-
|Manufacturer||colspan="2"|
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Dimensions
|-
|Length||152 ft 11 in||46.61 m
|-
|Wingspan||145 ft 9 in||44.42 m
|-
|Height||41 ft 4 in||12.6 m
|-
|Wing Area||3,050 ft&sup2;||283.4 m&sup2;
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Weights
|-
|Empty||162,000 lb||73,480 kg
|-
|Loaded||325,000 lb||147,400 kg
|-
|Maximum Takeoff||347,000 lb||156,000 kg
|-
|Capacity||colspan="2"|
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Powerplant
|-
|Engines||colspan="2"|US/NATO: Four [[Pratt and Whitney]] TF33-PW-100A turbofan engines<br>
UK/FRANCE/SAUDI: Four [[CFM International CFM56|CFM-56-2A-2/3]] turbofan engines
|-
|Thrust (P&W)||4 x 21,000 lbf||4 x 93 kN
|-
|Thrust (CFM)||4 x 24,000 lbf||4 x 107 kN
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Performance
|-
|Maximum Speed||530 mph||855 km/h
|-
|Combat Range||1,000 miles||1,610 km
|-
|Ferry Range|| miles|| km
|-
|Service Ceiling||29,000 ft||9,000 m
|-
|Rate of Climb|| ft/min|| m/min
|-
|Wing Loading|| lb/ft&sup2;|| kg/m&sup2;
|-
|Thrust/Weight||colspan="2"|
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Avionics
|-
|Avionics||colspan="2"|
|-
|}
The '''E-3 Sentry''' is a military [[airborne warning and control system]] (AWACS) aircraft that provides all-weather surveillance, command, control and communications, to the [[United States]], [[NATO]] and other air defense forces.
==Background==
The E-3 Sentry is a modified [[Boeing 707|Boeing 707-320]] commercial airframe with a rotating radar dome. The dome is 30 feet (9.1 m) in diameter, six feet (1.8 m) thick, and is held 14 feet (4.2 m) above the fuselage by two struts. It contains a radar subsystem that permits surveillance from the Earth's surface up into the stratosphere, over land or water. Two generators on each of the four engines provide the 1 megawatt of power required by the radar. The radar has a range of more than 250 miles (375 km) for low-flying targets and ''beyond the horizon'' (approximately 400 miles, although the actual range is classified) for aerospace vehicles flying at medium to high altitudes. The radar combined with an [[identification friend or foe|IFF]] subsystem can look down to detect, identify and track enemy and friendly low-flying aircraft by eliminating ground clutter returns that confuse other radar systems.
The [[United States Air Force|USAF]] E-3 fleet completed its largest upgrade in 2001. Known as the Block 30/35 Modification Program, the upgrade includes four enhancements:
*Electronic Support Measures (ESM) for passive detection, an electronic surveillance capability to detect and identify air and surface-based emitters.
*Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS) to provide secure, anti-jam communication for information distribution, position location and identification capabilities.
*An increase in the memory capability in the computer to accommodate JTIDS (Link-16), ESM and future enhancements.
*Global Positioning System (GPS), a satellite-based positioning capability to provide precise global navigation.
Other major subsystems in the E-3 are navigation, communications and computers (data processing). Consoles display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens. Console operators perform surveillance, identification, weapons control, battle management and communications functions.
The radar and computer subsystems on the E-3 Sentry can gather and present broad and detailed battlefield information. Data are collected as events occur. This includes position and tracking information on enemy aircraft and ships, and location and status of friendly aircraft and naval vessels. The information can be sent to major command and control centers in rear areas or aboard ships. In times of crisis, these data can be forwarded to the [[National Command Authority]] in the [[United States]].
In support of air-to-ground operations, the Sentry can provide direct information needed for interdiction, reconnaissance, airlift and close-air support for friendly ground forces. It can also provide information for commanders of air operations to gain and maintain control of the air battle.
As an air defense system, E-3s can detect, identify and track airborne enemy forces far from the boundaries of the [[United States]] or [[NATO]] countries. It can direct fighter-interceptor aircraft to these enemy targets.
Experience has proven that the E-3 Sentry can respond quickly and effectively to a crisis and support worldwide military deployment operations. It is a jam-resistant system that has performed missions while experiencing heavy electronic countermeasures (ECM).
With its mobility as an airborne warning and control system (AWACS), the Sentry has a greater chance of surviving in warfare than a fixed, ground-based radar system. Among other things, the flight path can quickly be changed according to mission and survival requirements. The E-3 can fly a mission profile for more than 8 hours without refueling. Its range and on-station time can be increased through [[inflight refueling]] and the use of an on-board crew rest area.
The aircraft are used as a surveillance asset in support of counter drug missions. [[U.S. Customs Service]] officers may fly aboard the E-3 Sentry on precoordinated missions to detect smuggling activities.
Engineering, test and evaluation began on the first E-3 Sentry in October 1975. In March 1977 the 552nd Airborne Warning and Control Wing (now 552nd Air Control Wing, T |
[[1941]], he underwent surgery for a perforated ulcer. While at first improved, he relapsed the following day, and despite several transfusions, fell into a coma. He awoke at 2 a.m. on [[13 January]] [[1941]], and asked for a nurse to call his wife and son before losing consciousness again. They were still en route when he expired fifteen minutes later. He is buried in the [[Fluntern Cemetery]] within earshot of the lions in the Zurich zoo. His wife Nora, (whom he finally married in London in 1931) survived him by 10 years. She is buried now by his side, as is their son George, who passed away in 1976.
==Major works==
[[Image:CBI - SERIES C - TEN POUND NOTE.PNG|right|300px|thumb|James Joyce as depicted on the £10 note of [[Series C Banknotes (Ireland)|Series C of Ireland]]]]
'''Dubliners'''
Joyce's Irish experiences are essential to his writings, and provide all of the settings for his fiction and much of their subject matter. The early volume of short stories, ''[[Dubliners]]'', is a penetrating analysis of the stagnation and paralysis of Dublin society. The stories incorporate [[Epiphany|epiphanies]], a word used particularly by Joyce, by which he meant a sudden consciousness of the "soul" of a thing. Although many of Joyce's works illustrate the rich tradition of the [[Catholic Church]], his short story "Araby" displays his disaffection and loss of faith with the Church. The final and most famous story in the collection, "[[The Dead (short story)|The Dead]]", was directed by [[John Huston]] as his last feature film, completed in 1987.
'''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'''
''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' is a nearly complete rewrite of the abandoned ''Stephen Hero'' novel, the original manuscript of which was partially destroyed in a fit of rage during an argument with Nora. A künstlerroman, or story of the development of an artist (a type of [[bildungsroman]], or coming of age novel), it is largely autobiographical, showing the process of attaining maturity and self-consciousness by a gifted young man. The main character is [[Stephen Dedalus]], Joyce's representation of himself. In this novel, some glimpses of Joyce's later techniques are evident, in the use of interior monologue and in the concern with the psychic rather than external reality. [[Joseph Strick]] directed a film of the book in 1977 starring [[Luke Johnston]], [[Bosco Hogan]], [[T.P. McKenna]] and [[John Gielgud]].
'''Exiles and poetry'''
Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, ''Exiles'', begun shortly after the outbreak of [[World War I]] in [[1914]] and published in 1918. A study of a husband and wife relationship, the play looks back to ''The Dead'' (the final story in ''Dubliners'') and forward to ''Ulysses'', which was begun around the time of the play's composition.
Joyce also published a number of books of poetry. His first mature published work was the satirical broadside "The Holy Office" ([[1904]]), in which he proclaimed himself to be the superior of many prominent members of the [[Celtic revival]]. His first full-length poetry collection ''Chamber Music'' (named after the sound of urine hitting the side of a chamber pot) consisted of 36 short lyrics. This publication led to his inclusion in the ''[[Imagism|Imagist Anthology]]'', edited by [[Ezra Pound]], who was a champion of Joyce's work. The other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime consists of "Gas From A Burner" ([[1912]]), ''Pomes Penyeach'' ([[1927]]) and "Ecce Puer", written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father. It was published in ''Collected Poems'' ([[1936]]).
'''Ulysses'''
In 1906, as he was completing work on ''Dubliners'', Joyce considered adding another story featuring a Jewish advertising canvasser called [[Leopold Bloom]] under the title ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]''. The story was not written, but the idea stayed with Joyce and, in 1914, he started work on a novel using both the title and basic premise, completing the writing in October, 1921. It was to be another three months before Joyce would stop working on the [[proofreading|proofs]] of the book; he halted on the cusp of his self-imposed deadline, his 40th birthday ([[2 February]] [[1922]]).
Thanks to [[Ezra Pound]], serial publication of the novel in the magazine ''[[The Little Review]]'' began in 1918. This magazine was edited by [[Margaret Anderson]] and [[Jane Heap]], with the backing of [[John Quinn (collector)|John Quinn]], a [[New York]] [[attorney]] with an interest in contemporary experimental art and literature. Unfortunately, this serialisation ran into censorship problems in the [[United States]], and in 1920 the editors were convicted of publishing obscenity, resulting in an end to the serial publication of the novel. The novel remained banned in the States until 1933.
At least partly because of this controversy, Joyce found it difficult to get a publisher to accept the book, but it was published in 1922 by [[Sylvia Beach]] from her well-known [[Left Bank]] bookshop, ''[[Shakespeare and Company]]''. An English edition published the same year by Joyce's patron, [[Harriet Shaw Weaver]], ran into further difficulties with the United States authorities, and 500 copies that were shipped to the States were seized and possibly destroyed. The following year, [[John Rodker]] produced a print run of 500 more intended to replace the missing copies, but these were burned by English customs at [[Folkestone]]. A further consequence of the novel's ambiguous legal status as a banned book was that a number of 'bootleg' versions appeared, most notably a number of pirate versions from the publisher [[Samuel Roth]]. In 1928, a court injunction against Roth was obtained and he ceased publication.
[[1922]] was a key year in the history of English-language literary modernism, with the appearance of both ''Ulysses'' and [[T. S. Eliot]]'s poem, ''[[The Waste Land]]''. In ''Ulysses'', Joyce employs stream of consciousness, parody, jokes, and virtually every other literary technique to present his characters. The action of the novel, which takes place in a single day, [[16 June]] [[1904]], sets the characters and incidents of the [[Odyssey]] of [[Homer]] in modern Dublin and represents [[Odysseus]] (Ulysses), [[Penelope]] and [[Telemachus]] in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife [[Molly Bloom]] and Stephen Dedalus, parodically contrasted with their lofty models. The book explores various areas of Dublin life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Nevertheless, the book is also an affectionately detailed study of the city, and Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe it could be rebuilt, brick by brick, using his work as a model. In order to achieve this level of accuracy, Joyce used the 1904 edition of [[Thom's Directory]]&mdash; a work that listed the owners and/or tenants of every
residential and commercial property in the city. He also bombarded friends still living there with requests for information and clarification.
The book consists of 18 chapters, each covering roughly one hour of the day, beginning around about 8 a.m. and ending sometime after 2 a.m. the following morning. Each of the 18 chapters of the novel employs its own literary style. Each chapter also refers to a specific episode in Homer's Odyssey and has a specific colour, art or science and bodily organ associated with it. This combination of kaleidoscopic writing with an extreme formal, schematic structure represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of [[20th century]] modernist literature. The use of [[classical mythology]] as a framework for his book and the near-obsessive focus on external detail in a book in which much of the significant action is happening inside the minds of the characters are others. Nevertheless, Joyce complained that, "I may have oversystematised ''Ulysses''," and played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles that had been taken from Homer.
Joseph Strick directed a [[Ulysses (film)|film]] of the book in 1967 starring [[Milo O'Shea]], [[Barbara Jefford]] and [[Maurice Roëves]]. [[Sean Walsh]] directed another version released in 2004 starring [[Stephen Rea]], [[Angeline Ball]] and [[Hugh O'Conor]].
'''Finnegans Wake'''
Having completed work on ''Ulysses'', Joyce felt he had completed his life's work but soon was at work on an even more ambitious work. On [[10 March]] [[1923]] he began work on a text that was to be known, first, as ''Work in Progress'' and later ''[[Finnegans Wake]]''. By 1926 he had completed the first two parts of the book. In that year, he met Eugene and Maria Jolas who offered to serialise the book in their magazine ''[[Transition (literary journal)|transition]]''. For the next few years, Joyce worked rapidly on the new book, but in the [[1930s]], progress slowed considerably. This was due to a number of factors, including the death of his father in 1931, concern over the mental health of his daughter [[Lucia Joyce|Lucia]] and his own health problems, including failing eyesight. Much of the work was done with the assistance of younger admirers, including [[Samuel Beckett]]. For some years, Joyce nursed the eccentric plan of turning over the book to his friend [[James Stephens]] to complete, on the grounds that Stephens was born in the same hospital as Joyce exactly one week later, and shared the first name of both Joyce and of Joyce's fictional alter-ego (this is one example of Joyce's numerous superstitions).
Reaction to the early sections that appeared in ''transition'' was mixed, including negative comment from early supporters of Joyce's work, such as Pound and the author's brother [[Stanislaus Joyce]]. In order to counteract this hostile reception, a book of essays by supporters of the new work, including Beckett, [[William |
everal million Germans, [[Oder-Neisse line|large territorial losses]] and [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|the expulsion of approximately 12 to 15 million Germans]] from Eastern Germany ([[East Prussia]], [[Silesia]], Eastern parts of [[Pomerania]] and [[Brandenburg]]) and other parts of Eastern Europe (especially [[Sudetenland]]). All major and many smaller German cities lay in ruins. Germany and [[Berlin]] were occupied and partitioned by the [[Allies]] into four military occupation zones &ndash; [[France|French]] in the south-west, [[United Kingdom|British]] in the north-west, [[United States|American]] in the south-east, and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] in the north-east.
On [[23 May]] [[1949]], the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, ''Bundesrepublik Deutschland'') was established on the territory of the Western occupied zones, with [[Bonn]] as its capital, and declared "fully [[sovereignty|sovereign]]" on [[May 5]], [[1955]]. On [[7 October]] [[1949]] the Soviet Zone was established as the [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] (GDR, ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik''), with [[East Berlin]] as its capital. In English the two states were known informally as "[[West Germany]]" and "[[East Germany]]" respectively, though [[Winston Churchill]] proposed Germany being reduced to its many pre-1877 constituent principalities, rather than just a two-way division. The former German capital, [[Berlin]], was a special case, being divided into [[East Berlin]] and [[West Berlin]], with West Berlin completely surrounded by East German territory.
West Germany was allied with the United States, the UK and France. Established as a liberal parliamentary republic with a "[[social market economy]]," the country enjoyed prolonged economic growth (''[[Wirtschaftswunder]]'') following the currency reform of June 1948 and U.S. assistance through the [[Marshall Plan]] aid (1948-1951).
East Germany was at first occupied by and later (May 1955) allied with the USSR. An authoritarian country with a Soviet-style [[command economy]], East Germany soon became the richest, most advanced country in the [[Eastern bloc]], but many of its citizens looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity. The flight of growing numbers of East Germans to the West led to the erection of a fortified border with West Germany and culminated with the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] beginning on [[13 August]] [[1961]].
Relations between East Germany and West Germany remained icy until the Western Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]] launched a highly controversial rapprochement with the East European communist states (''[[Ostpolitik]]'') in the 1970s, culminating in the [[Warschauer Kniefall]] on [[7 December]] [[1970]].
[[Image:Berlin-wall-dancing.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Berlin Wall]] that had partitioned [[Berlin]] in front of the [[Brandenburg Gate]] shortly after the opening of the wall.]]
During the summer of 1989, rapid changes took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to [[German reunification]]. Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via [[Hungary]] after Hungary's reformist government opened its borders. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals, especially in [[Warsaw]] and [[Prague]]. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations with eventually hundreds of thousands of people in several cities &ndash; particularly in [[Leipzig]] &ndash; continued to grow.
Faced with civil unrest, East German head of state [[Erich Honecker]] was forced to resign on [[18 October]], and on [[9 November]], East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to travel to the West. Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with [[German reunification]] on [[3 October]] [[1990]].
==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Germany}}
===Legal system===
{{main|Judiciary of Germany}}
Germany has a [[civil law (legal system)|civil or statute law system]] based ultimately on [[Roman law]]. Legislative power is divided between the Federation and the individual federated states. While [[criminal law]] and [[private law]] have seen codifications on the national level (in the ''[[Strafgesetzbuch]]'' and the ''[[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]]'' respectively), no such unifying codification exists in [[administrative law]] where a lot of the fundamental matters remain in the jurisdiction of the individual federated states. There are a series of specialist supreme courts; for civil and criminal cases the highest court of appeal is the ''[[Federal Court of Justice of Germany|Bundesgerichtshof]]'' (Federal Court of Justice), located in [[Karlsruhe]]. The [[courtroom style]] is [[Inquisitorial system|inquisitorial]].
The Federal Constitutional Court (''[[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany|Bundesverfassungsgericht]]''), also located in Karlsruhe, is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of [[judicial review]]. It acts as the highest legal authority and ensures that legislative and judicial practice conforms with the [[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|Basic Law]]. It acts independently of the other state bodies but cannot act on its own behalf.
===Foreign Relations===
[[Image:20060113-1 d-0019-2-515h.jpg|right|thumb|US President [[George W. Bush]] welcomes Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]] to the [[Oval Office]] ]]
{{main|Foreign relations of Germany}}
Germany plays a leading role in the [[European Union]], having a strong alliance with [[France]]. Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to advance the creation of a more unified and capable European political, defence and security apparatus.
Since its establishment on [[23 May]], [[1949]], the Federal Republic of Germany kept a notably low profile in international relations. In 1999, however, on the occasion of the [[Kosovo War|NATO war against Yugoslavia]], [[Gerhard Schröder|Chancellor Gerhard Schröder]]'s government broke convention by sending German troops into combat for the first time since [[World War II]].
In 2003, France, Germany and Russia were leaders in the coalition of nations opposing the [[United States|US]]-led [[2003 invasion of Iraq|war in Iraq]]. Nevertheless, the German government has offered help to the reconstruction efforts in [[Iraq]], but only outside of the war-torn country, mainly by training Iraqi military and police personnel.
Germany and the [[United States]] have been close allies since the end of the Second World War. The [[Marshall plan]] and continued U.S. support during the rebuilding process after [[World War II]], as well as the significant influence American culture has had on German culture, have crafted a strong bond between Germany and the U.S. that lasts until this day. Not only do the United States and Germany share many cultural similarities but they are also deeply economically interdependent. 8.8% of all German exports are U.S. bound, and U.S.-German trade according to the U.S. [[Census Bureau]] totaled $108.2 billion for 2004. An illustration of the strong economic relations between the U.S. and Germany may be the fact that 18.3% of all cars sold in the U.S. were manufactured by German car manufacturers.
The largest U.S. community outside the U.S. is [[Ramstein]] Airbase, close to the city of [[Kaiserslautern]], Germany.
Together with [[Japan]], [[India]], and [[Brazil]], Germany is currently seeking a permanent seat on the [[UN Security Council]].
===Armed Forces===
[[Image:Luftwaffe Panavia Tornado.jpg|thumb|250px|Luftwaffe [[Panavia Tornado]]]]
[[Image:Leopard2A6.jpg|thumb|250px|Heer [[Leopard 2|Leopard 2A6]]]]
Germany's military, the ''[[Bundeswehr]]'', is a defence force with ''[[Heer]]'' (German Army), ''[[German Navy|Deutsche Marine]]'' (German Navy), ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' (German Air Force), ''Zentraler Sanitätsdienst'' (Central Medical Services) and ''Streitkräftebasis'' (Joint Service Support Command) branches. It employs some 257,000 soldiers (since 2001 also women in active fighting branches) and 125,000 civilians. 50,000 of the soldiers are 18-23-year-old men on national duty for currently at least 9 months. In peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence, currently [[Franz Josef Jung]]. If Germany is at war, the Chancellor becomes commander in chief of the German 'Bundeswehr'.
The military budget has not kept up with the Bundeswehr's mission, which has changed dramatically from protecting Germany's borders against a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion into a mobile unit deployed around the world. The funding levels for the Bundeswehr have actually been falling since 1990, when military spending amounted to about 3.5 % of gross domestic product. Today, defence spending equals about 1.2 % of German GDP, compared to the [[NATO]] average of 2.3 % and the [[United States]]' more than 4 %. Critics argue that the current budget of € 24.4 billion is too small to finance the necessary transformation of the Bundeswehr into a well-equipped force ready for NATO and [[United Nations|UN]] led missions abroad. Opponents argue that the transformation from a manpower based army securing the Eastern border to a modernized force with less soldiers kept in pay is duly reflected in a lower budget.
Currently, the German military has about 1,180 troops stationed in [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]; 2,650 Bundeswehr soldiers are serving in [[Kosovo]]; 3,900 Bundeswehr troops are assisting the [[United States|US]] anti-terrorism operation called [[Operation Enduring Freedom|Enduring Freedom]] off the Horn of Africa. In [[Afghanistan]], 4,500 German troops currently make up t |
and an extraordinary plague of locusts (1:1-2:11).
#The prophet then calls on his countrymen to repent and to turn to God, assuring them of his readiness to forgive (2:12-17), and foretelling the restoration of the land to its accustomed fruitfulness (18-26).
#Then follows a prophecy which is interpreted as Messianic within Christian tradition.
#Finally, the prophet foretells portents and judgments as destined to fall on the enemies of God (ch. 3, but in the Hebrew text 4).
==Use in the New Testament==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Joel !! New Testament
|-
|Then afterwards I will pour out my spirit on all flesh; your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions. Even on the male and female slaves, in those days, I will pour out my spirit. I will show portents in the heavens and on the earth, blood and fire and columns of smoke. The sun shall be turned to darkness, and the moon to blood, before the great and terrible day of the LORD comes. Then everyone who calls on the name of the LORD shall be saved; for in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those who escape, as the LORD has said, and among the survivors shall be those whom the LORD calls. (Joel 2:28-32) || "In the last days it will be, God declares, that I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men shall dream dreams. Even upon my slaves, both men and women, in those days I will pour out my Spirit;and they shall prophesy. And I will show portents in the heaven above and signs on the earth below,blood, and fire, and smoky mist. The sun shall be turned to darkness and the moon to blood,before the coming of the Lord’s great and glorious day. Then everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved." (Acts 2:17-21)
|-
|Then everyone who calls on the name of the LORD shall be saved; for in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those who escape, as the LORD has said, and among the survivors shall be those whom the LORD calls. (Joel 2:32) || For, 'Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved.' (Romans 10:13)
|}
All quotations taken from the [[New Revised Standard Version]].
==External links==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=341&letter=J ''Jewish Encyclopedia'']: Book of Joel
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08419a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'']: Joel
===Links to Translations===
[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15759 Yoel - Joel (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
[[Christian]] translations:
* [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/29_joel.htm Joel at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/index.php?search=joel&version=31 Joel at BibleGateway] (New International Version and others)
* [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Joel Joel at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/Joe/Joe001.html#top Joel at BlueLetter Bible] (King James Version and others, plus commentaries)
==Sources==
Thomas J. Finley, Everyman's Bible Commentary: Joel, Obadiah, and Micah. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1996)
Douglas Stuary, Word Biblical Commentary: Hosea - Jonah. (Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987)
William Sanford LaSor, Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament, 2nd Ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdsmans Publishing Co., 1996)
[[Category:Nevi'im|Joel, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Joel]]
[[de:Joël (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Joël]]
[[ko:요엘 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Yoel]]
[[he:יואל]]
[[jv:Yoel]]
[[nl:Joël]]
[[pl:Księga Joela]]
[[fi:Joelin kirja]]
[[sv:Joel]]
[[zh:約珥書]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Amos</title>
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<username>Wknight94</username>
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<comment>rv non-notable addition</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">* '''Amos''' was one of the [[Minor Prophets]] (see [[Amos (prophet)]]) and putative author of the [[Book of Amos]]'
*'''AMOS''' is the name of a series of [[Israel]]i ([[Israel Aircraft Industries|IAI]]-built) civilian [[communications satellite]]s in [[Geostationary orbit]] (launched 1996, [[2003]]). See ''[[:he:עמוס 2]]''
* [[Amos, son of Nephi]] and [[Amos, son of Amos]] are two minor figures in the [[Book of Mormon]]
* '''AMOS BASIC''' is a [[programming language]] for the [[Amiga|Commodore Amiga]] computer. See [[AMOS BASIC programming language]]
* '''AMOS''' is the Advanced MOrtar System. See [[AMOS]]
* '''AMOS''' is the [[Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory]].
* '''Amos''' is a town in Québec. See [[Amos, Quebec]]
* '''Amos''' is the name of a [[cookie]] company, See [[Famous Amos]]
** And its founder. See [[Wally Amos]]
* [[Tori Amos]] is a singer.
* [[Amos Meller]] is an [[Israel]]i [[composer]] and [[Conducting|conductor]].
* [[Amos Oz]] is an Israeli [[writer]].
* [[Amos Tversky]] was a pioneer of [[cognitive science]].
* [[Amos Dolbear]] was an [[United States|American]] [[inventor]].
* '''Amos''' is the name of a software for aircraft maintenance ([[MRO]]). See http://www.swiss-as.com
*'''AMOS''' ('''A'''nalysis of '''MO'''ment '''S'''tructures) is a structural equation modelling software: http://www.spss.com/amos
*'''Amos''' is the [[NATO reporting name]] of the [[Vympel R-33]] air-to-air missile.
*[[Amos Urban Shirk]], American businessman, author and prodigious reader of encyclopedias.
*[[AMOS_Operating_System|AMOS]] is a small computer operating system.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Amos]]
[[he:עמוס]]
[[fr:Amos]]
[[nl:Amos]]
[[pl:AMOS]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Hosea</title>
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<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Hosea}}
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''''Book of Hosea''''' is a book of the [[Hebrew Bible]], known to Christians as the [[Old Testament]] written by [[Hosea]]. This book stands first in order among the "[[Minor prophets]]." This was the longest of the prophetic books written before the [[Babylonian captivity]].
Hosea prophesied in a dark and melancholy period of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]'s history, the period of the Northern Kingdom's decline and fall in the [[8th century BCE]]. The sins of the people, their priests and their rulers had brought upon them great national disasters. Their various sins (homicide, fornication, perjury, theft, idolatry, impiety and others) are mentioned and criticized. An interpolated list of kings made Hosea into a contemporary of [[Isaiah]].
The book may be divided into two parts, the first containing chapters 1-3, and symbolically representing the idolatry of Israel under imagery borrowed from the matrimonial relation; Hosea [[marriage|marries]] a [[prostitute]], as the [[Tetragrammaton|Lord]] said, ''"The people in this land have acted like prostitutes and abandoned the Lord."''
The figures of marriage and adultery are common in the Old Testament writings to represent the spiritual relations between [[God]] and the people of Israel. Here we see the apostasy of Israel and their punishment, with their future repentance, forgiveness, and restoration.
The second part, containing 4-14, is a summary of Hosea's discourses, filled with denunciations, threatenings, exhortations, promises, and revelations of mercy.
The unique contribution of Hosea is the extended allegory of marriage given in chapters 1-3. While a few commentators believe this section to be entirely symbolic, most believe that the events described did occur.
First, Hosea was directed by [[Yahweh]] to marry a [[harlot]], and he did so. This was a symbolic act, representing Yahweh's covenant with Israel. What was the nation of Israel when Yahweh chose to enter into a covenant relationship with it? It was a group of ex-slaves who chose to worship a golden calf rather than Yahweh, the God who had rescued them from slavery. Thus, Yahweh characterizes the nation as a harlot.
Second, Hosea and his wife, [[Gomer]], have a son. Yahweh commands that the son be named Jezreel. This name refers to a valley in which much blood had been shed in Israel's history, especially by the kings of the Northern Kingdom. The naming of this son was to stand as a prophecy against the reigning house of the Northern Kingdom, that they would pay for that bloodshed.
Third, the couple has a daughter. Yahweh commands that she be named No Pity or Not Pitied, to show Israel that, although Yahweh will still have pity on the [[Southern Kingdom]], He will no longer have pity on the [[Northern Kingdom]]; its destruction is imminent.
Fourth, a son is born to Gomer. It is questionable whether this child was Hosea's, for Yahweh commands that his name be Not My People, or more simply, Not Mine. The child bore this name of shame to show that the Northern Kingdom would also be shamed, for its people would no longer be known as God's People.
Following this, the prophecy is made that someday this will all be changed, that Yahweh will indeed have pity on his people, Israel.
Chapter two describes a divorce. This divorce seems to be the end of the covenant between Yahweh and the Northern Kingdom. However, it is probable that this was again a symbolic act, in which Hosea divorced Gomer for infidelity, and used the occasion to preach the message of Yahweh's rejection of the Northern Kingdom. He ends this prophecy with the declaratio |
ter, in Cronenberg's work, are less problems to be overcome than agents of personal transformation. Similarly, in ''[[Crash (1996 film)|Crash]]'' (1996), people who have been injured in car crashes attempt to view their ordeal as "a fertilising rather than a destructive event".
Aside from ''The Dead Zone'' (1983) and ''The Fly'', Cronenberg has not generally worked within the world of big-budget, mainstream [[Hollywood]] filmmaking, although he has had occasional near misses. At one stage he was considered by [[George Lucas]] as a possible director for ''[[Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi|Return of the Jedi]]'' but was passed. Cronenberg also worked for nearly a year on a version of ''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'' but experienced "creative differences" with producers [[Dino de Laurentiis]] and Ronald Shusett. A different version of the film was eventually made by [[Paul Verhoeven]]. In the late 1990s Cronenberg was announced as director of a sequel to another Verhoeven film, ''[[Basic Instinct]]'', but this also fell through. His most recent work, the thriller ''[[A History of Violence (film)|A History of Violence]]'' (2005), is one of his highest budgeted and most mass audience-accessible to date. He has said that the decision to direct it was influenced by his having had to defer some of his salary on the low-budgeted ''Spider'', but it is one of his most critically acclaimed films to date.
Cronenberg has hired [[Howard Shore]] to compose the [[soundtrack]] to nearly all of his films (see [[List of noted film director and composer collaborations]]). Other regular collaborators include [[actor]] Robert Silverman, [[art director]] Carol Spier, [[sound editor]] Bryan Day, [[film editor]] Ronald Sanders and, from 1979 until 1988, [[cinematographer]] Mark Irwin.
Since 1988's ''[[Dead Ringers (film)|Dead Ringers]]'' Cronenberg has worked with cinematographer [[Peter Suschitzky]] on each of his films. Suschitzky was the director of photography for ''[[Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back]]'', and Cronenberg has repeatedly said that Suschitzky's work in that film made it the most beautiful sci-fi film he'd ever seen, which was a motivating factor to work with him on ''[[Dead Ringers (film)|Dead Ringers]]''.
Cronenberg has also appeared in the films of other directors as an actor. Most of his roles are cameo appearances, as in ''Into The Night'' or ''[[Alias (TV series)|Alias]]'', but on occasion he has played major roles, as in ''[[Nightbreed]]'' or ''[[Last Night]]''. He has not played major roles in any of his own films, but he did put in a brief appearance as a [[gynaecologist]] in ''The Fly'', and he can also be glimpsed among the sex-crazed hordes in ''Shivers''.
In [[2002]], he was made an Officer of the [[Order of Canada]].
==Selected films==
*''[[Transfer (film)|Transfer]]'' (1966) (short)
*''[[From the Drain]]'' (1967) (short)
*''[[Stereo (film)|Stereo]]'' (1969)
*''[[Secret Weapons]]'' (TV) (1970) (episode of the series ''[[Programme X]]'')
*''[[Crimes of the Future]]'' (1970)
*''[[Tourettes (movie)|Tourettes]]'' (TV) (1971)
*''[[The Victim (TV episode)|The Victim]]'' (TV) (1975) (episode of the [[CBC Television|CBC]] series ''[[Peep Show]]'')
*''[[The Lie Chair (TV episode)|The Lie Chair]]'' (TV) (1975) episode of the CBC series ''[[Peep Show (Canadian television series)|Peep Show]]'')
*''[[Shivers (film)|Shivers]]'' (1975)
*''[[The Italian Machine]]'' (TV) (1976) (episode of the CBC series ''[[Teleplay (Canadian television series)|Teleplay]]'') [http://www.channel4.com/film/media/video/I/italian_machine_lg_01.ram watch it here] ([[RealMedia]])
*''[[Rabid]]'' (1977)
*''[[Fast Company (1979 film)|Fast Company]]'' (1979)
*''[[The Brood]]'' (1979)
*''[[Scanners]]'' (1981)
*''[[Videodrome]]'' (1982)
*''[[The Dead Zone (film)|The Dead Zone]]'' (1983)
*''[[The Fly (1986)|The Fly]]'' (1986)
*''[[Dead Ringers (film)|Dead Ringers]]'' (1988)
*''[[Naked Lunch (film)|Naked Lunch]]'' (1991)
*''[[Nightbreed]]'' (1990, as an actor)
*''[[M. Butterfly (film)|M. Butterfly]]'' (1993)
*''[[Crash (1996 film)|Crash]]'' (1996)
*''[[Last Night]]'' (1998, as an actor)
*''[[eXistenZ]]'' (1999)
*''[[Camera (2000 short film)|Camera]]'' (2000) (short)
*''[[Jason X]]'' (2001, as an actor)
*''[[Spider (film)|Spider]]'' (2002)
*''[[A History of Violence (film)|A History of Violence]]'' (2005)
==Bibliographies==
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/cronenberg.html David Cronenberg Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]
==External links==
{{commons|David Cronenberg}}
*{{imdb name|id=0000343|name= David Cronenberg}}
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/cronenberg.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
*[http://plasmapool.50webs.com/ The Plasma Pool: David Cronenberg Fan Site]
*[http://www.davidcronenberg.de/ A fine fan site]
*[http://www.salon.com/people/bc/1999/11/30/cronenberg/ An article on Salon.com]
*[http://www.splicedonline.com/features/cronenberg.html An interview, circa 1999]
{{Footer Movies David Cronenberg}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dale Earnhardt</title>
<id>7893</id>
<revision>
<id>42146423</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:08:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<comment>/* Death */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{inappropriate tone}}
'''Ralph Dale Earnhardt, Sr.''' (born [[April 29]], [[1951]] &ndash; [[February 18]], [[2001]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[NASCAR]] driver. He was born in [[Kannapolis, North Carolina]], right outside of [[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]], to Ralph Lee Earnhardt and Martha Coleman. He died in a racing accident in turn four of the final lap of the 2001 [[Daytona 500]].
==Early life==
Dale Earnhardt was born in [[Kannapolis, North Carolina]], the son of a race car driver [[Ralph Earnhardt]], who participated in the formative years of the NASCAR circuit's [[Grand National Division]] (the precursor to today's Nextel Cup Series). The allure of the racer's life attracted Dale to the sport although Ralph pushed the boy to stay in school to educate himself in hopes of avoiding the fate of being a simple [[laborer]] in one of the cotton mill's that populated the Kannapolis area. Much to his father's dismay, Dale quit school at the age of 16 to pursue racing and, as he became a young adult, to support his wife and their first son, Kerry.
Ralph Earnhardt would die of a [[heart attack]] while working on his race car in [[1973]]. The weight of his father's death was great upon Dale's shoulders and it would take many years before his success in racing would make him feel as though he had "proved" himself to his father's memory.
==Racing career==
Dale Earnhardt began his [[Winston Cup]] career in 1975, making his very first start at the [[Charlotte Motor Speedway]] in the [[World 600]], located in [[Charlotte]], [[North Carolina]]. Earnhardt drove an [[Ed Negre]] car and finished 22nd in the race. It wasn't a very promising start. Earnhardt would compete in 8 more races until, at the age of 28, got his first full time ride with Rod Osterlund Racing.
'''1979'''
Earnhardt started the [[1979]] season with car owner [[Rod Osterlund]], who had fielded a full time team for [[Dave Marcis]] with 1 win and several top 10 point finishes. The two hit it off with each other right away. They ran well at [[Daytona]] and Earnhardt notched his very first win on [[April 1st]], [[1979]], at the [[Bristol Motor Speedway]] dueling NASCAR legends [[Darrell Waltrip]] and [[Bobby Allison]]. Earnhardt ran well the rest of the year, despite missing 4 races due to a broken collarbone suffered at [[Pocono]], and would finish the year with 1 win, 11 Top 5's, 17 Top 10's, 4 poles, a 7th place points finish, and the [[NASCAR Rookie of the Year]] award.
'''1980: The First Championship'''
The dawning of a new decade in [[Winston Cup]] racing started with a bang for Dale Earnhardt as he won the [[Busch Clash]] (later renamed the [[Budweiser Shootout]]), a non-points race for all of the years previous [[Pole position|pole]] winners. But that would not be the last of his accomplishments that year. Earnhardt would get his 1st points-race win of the year at the [[Atlanta Motor Speedway]]. Earnhardt would go on to win at [[Bristol]], [[Nashville]], [[Martinsville]], and at [[Charlotte]], despite losing his [[crew chief]] midway through the year. Earnhardt went on to win his first championship, becoming the first driver to win the title the year after winning rookie of the year, the only one to accomplish that feat. Also crew chief [[Jake Elder]] left Osterlund. Jake claimed that he couldn't stand to work for any body for too long. That's how he got the nick name "Suitcase Jake".
'''1981: The Lost Year'''
Osterlund sold the team to [[J.D. Stacy]] in mid-1981. While Stacy had made millions in the [[oil]] business and was determined to put a ton of money into the racing |
ny [[exploitation film]]s were made that targeted the urban [[African American]] audience. The films featured primarily black [[actor]]s, and were the first to have [[soundtrack]]s of [[funk]] and [[soul music]]. Although criticized by civil-rights groups for their use of [[stereotype]]s, they addressed the great and newfound demand for afrocentric entertainment, and were immensely popular among black audiences.
Almost all blaxploitation films featured exaggerated sexuality and violence. When set in the [[Northern United States|North]] of the U.S., they tended to take place in the [[ghetto]] and deal with [[pimp]]s, [[drug dealer]]s, and [[hit man|hit men]]. When set in the [[Southern United States|South]], the movies most often took place on a plantation and dealt with [[slavery]] and [[miscegenation]]. In all these films, it was common to see drugs, the [[Afro]] hairstyle, "pimpmobiles," and crooked and corrupt white police officers. Controversy was heightened by the fact that these films were often written and directed by Caucasian directors, although movies created by African Americans with similar themes have also been labeled as &ldquo;blaxploitation.&rdquo;
These films were made for an African American audience and often showed negative depictions of caucasian characters throughout the films. This was most clearly seen as whites were often cast as crooked and racist police officers or government officials called "[[honky]]" on several occasions. [[Italian Americans]] were specifically portrayed negatively as drug dealing members of the [[Mafia]] whom black characters would often rip off. Anti-Italian epithets such as [[dago]] and [[wop]] were used in conjunction with honky against these characters. At the same time, these films set a negative stereotype of [[African Americans]], the audience they were trying to reach, as pimps and drug dealers. These were illegal jobs that many whites stereotyped blacks as having especially in the northern ghettoes and as a result a call against Blaxploitation had occurred.
The [[NAACP|National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]], the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]], and the [[Urban League]] joined together to form the [[Coalition Against Blaxploitation]]. Backed by many black film professionals, this group received much media exposure and quickened the death of the genre by the late 1970s. Though still regarded as [[racism|racist]] by many, some film scholars defend the [[cinematic genre]] as instrumental in bringing greater screen presence to African Americans.
Furthermore, blaxploitation films laid the foundation for future filmmakers to address racial controversies regarding [[inner city]] [[poverty]]. Since the early 1990s, a new wave of acclaimed African-American filmmakers have focused on African American urban life in their films (particularly [[Spike Lee]]'s ''[[Do the Right Thing]]'' and [[John Singleton]]'s ''[[Boyz N the Hood]]'').
== Famous blaxploitation films ==
:''see also'' [[List of blaxploitation films]]
* ''[[Abby]]'' (1974) was a blaxploitation version of [[The Exorcist]] and starred then rising star [[Carol Speed]] as a virtuous young woman possessed by a demon; Ms. Speed also sings the title song. [[William H. Marshall]] (of [[Blacula]] fame) conducts the exorcism of Abby on the floor of a [[discotheque]].
* ''[[Black Belt Jones]]'' (1974) - Better known for his role as 'Mister Williams' from the Bruce Lee film "Enter the Dragon;" [[Jim_Kelly_%28martial_artist%29|Jim Kelly]] was given a leading role in this martial arts film. In it he plays Black Belt Jones, a federal agent/martial arts expert who takes on the mob as he avenges the murder of a karate school owner.
* ''[[Black Caesar]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Blackenstein]]'' (1973) is a joking quasi-sequel to Blacula, featuring a black [[Frankenstein's monster]].
* ''[[Blacula]]'' (1972) is a take on [[Dracula]], featuring an African prince [[William H. Marshall]] bitten by a [[vampire]].
* ''[[Boss Nigger]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Cleopatra Jones]]'' (1973) and its sequel, ''[[Cleopatra Jones and the Casino of Gold]]'' (1975), are films about a tough, street-smart black woman. The first film marked the beginning of a subgenre of blaxploitation films which focused on strong female leads who took an active role in shootouts and fights. Some of these films include ''[[Coffy]]'', ''[[Black Belt Jones]]'', ''[[Foxy Brown (1974 film)|Foxy Brown]]'', and ''[[Get Christie Love!]]''.
* ''[[Coffy]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Coonskin (film)|Coonskin]]'' (1975) is an animated [[satire]] of the blaxploitation genre, directed by [[Ralph Bakshi]].
* ''[[Cotton Comes to Harlem]]'' was written and directed by the African American [[Ossie Davis]] in [[1970]]. It featured two black NYPD detectives Coffin Ed played by [[Raymond St. Jacques]] and Gravedigger Jones played by [[Godfrey Cambridge]] who were looking for a money filled bail of cotton stolen by a corrupt reverend named Deke O'Malley. ''[[Blazing Saddles]]'' star [[Cleavon Little]] makes an appearance in the film.
* ''[[Darktown Strutters]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Dolemite]]'' (1975) is a comedy which is a parody of blaxploitation films, centered around a black pimp of dubious sexual orientation. It was immensely popular and spawned several sequels.
* ''[[Foxy Brown (1974 film)|Foxy Brown]]'' (1974) features the charismatic actress [[Pam Grier]] as Foxy Brown.
* ''[[Get Christie Love!]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Live And Let Die]]'' (1973)
* ''[[The Mack]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Mandingo (film)|Mandingo]]'' (1975). Based on a series of novels, this blaxploitation film was set in the American South during the [[U.S. Civil War]] and focused on the sexual relations between slaveowners&rsquo; wives and slaves. It was followed by a sequel, ''[[Drum (1976 film)|Drum]]'', which became a favorite among black audiences for a scene in which a slave literally tears the [[testicles]] off of a white slave driver.
* ''[[Passion Plantation]]'' (1976)
* ''[[Shaft (1971 film)|Shaft]]'' (1971) features [[Richard Roundtree]] as the black detective John Shaft, a character comparable to [[James Bond]] and [[Dirty Harry]]. The soundtrack has contributions from such prominent musicians as [[Isaac Hayes]], whose recording of the titular song won several awards, including an [[Academy Award]]. Perhaps the most famous blaxploitation film, it was deemed culturally relevant by the [[Library of Congress]]. It spawned two sequels, ''[[Shaft's Big Score|Shaft&rsquo;s Big Score]]'' (1972) and ''[[Shaft in Africa]]'' (1973), as well as a [[Shaft (2000 film)|remake]] in 2000.
* ''[[Space Is the Place]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Superfly (film)|Superfly]]'' (1972) had a soundtrack by [[Curtis Mayfield]] and is considered to be a classic of the genre.
* ''[[Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song|Sweet Sweetback&rsquo;s Baadasssss Song]]'' (1971), written and directed by Melvin Van Peebles. This tale of a black male prostitute turned vigilante is considered by many to be the first true blaxploitation film, and the film that thrust afrocentric films into the spotlight. (Van Peebles himself does not consider his film to be a part of the genre.)
* ''[[Trouble Man]]'' (1972)
* ''[[Truck Turner]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Watermelon Man (film)|Watermelon Man]]'' (1970). Written by a white man ([[Herman Raucher]]) but directed by an African American ([[Melvin Van Peebles]]), this film about a white man who is turned into a black man is considered a forebearer of the 1970s blaxploitation boom.
* ''[[Willie Dynamite]]'' (1974)
== Later media references ==
Later movies such as ''[[Austin Powers in Goldmember]]'' (2002) and ''[[Undercover Brother]]'' (2002) , as well as [[Quentin Tarantino]]&rsquo;s ''[[Jackie Brown (film)|Jackie Brown]]'' (1997) and ''[[Kill Bill]], Vol. 1'' (2003), feature [[pop culture]] nods to the blaxploitation genre. The parody ''Undercover Brother'', for instance, starred [[Eddie Griffin]] as an Afro-topped agent for a clandestine organization satirically known as the ''"B.R.O.T.H.E.R.H.O.O.D"''. Likewise, ''Austin Powers in Goldmember'' co-stars [[Beyoncé Knowles]] as the [[Tamara Dobson]]/[[Pam Grier]]-inspired [[heroine]], ''“Foxxy Cleopatra”''. Furthermore, the acclaimed film auteur and noted fan of [[exploitation film]]s, [[Quentin Tarantino]], has made countless references to the blaxploitation genre in his films, in addition to ''Jackie Brown''. In a famous scene in ''[[Reservoir Dogs]]'', for instance, the main characters engage in a brief discussion regarding ''[[Get Christie Love!]]'', a mid-1970s blaxploitation [[television series]]. Similarly, in the catalytic scene of ''[[True Romance]]'' , the characters are seen viewing the movie ''[[The Mack]]''.
[[John Singleton]]&rsquo;s remake of ''[[Shaft (2000 film)|Shaft]]'' (2000) is a modern-day interpretation of a classic blaxploitation film. The [[1997]] film ''[[Hoodlum]]'' starring [[Laurence Fishburne]] was an attempt at gangster blaxploitation, portraying a fictional account of black mobster [[Ellsworth "Bumpy" Johnson|Ellsworth &ldquo;Bumpy&rdquo; Johnson]]. In [[2004]], [[Mario Van Peebles]], Melvin&rsquo;s son, released ''[[Baadasssss!]]'', a movie based on the making of his father&rsquo;s movie in which Mario played his father.
Furthermore, Blaxploitation films have made a profound impact on contemporary [[hip hop culture]]. Several prominent [[hip hop music|hip hop]] artists (including [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]], [[Big Daddy Kane]], [[Ice T]], [[Slick Rick]], and [[Too $hort]]) have taken the no-nonsense [[pimp]] persona popularized by the films ''[[Superfly]]'', ''[[The Mack]]'', and ''[[Willie Dynamite]]'', as inspiration for their own works. In fact, many hip-hop artists have paid tribute to pimping within their lyrics (most notably [[50 cent]]'s hit single "''[[P.I.M.P.]]''") and have openly embraced the pimp image in their [[music videos]], by i |
untry}}, with a total area of 1,702 km². It is an overseas ''[[département in France|département]]'' (''[[département d'outre-mer]], or DOM'') of [[France]]. Like the other DOMs, Guadeloupe is also one of the 26 ''[[Région in France|régions]]'' of France (''as a [[région d'outre-mer]]''), and an integral part of the Republic.
== History ==
[[Image:GuadeloupeVue.jpg|left|thumb|View from Guadeloupe]]
Guadeloupe was populated from [[300 BC]] by the [[Arawak]] Amerindians, who fished and developed agriculture on the island. It was next inhabited by the [[Carib]]s, who pushed out most of the Arawak in the [[8th century]], and who renamed the island "Karukera" or the "Island of beautiful waters".
During his second trip to America [[Christopher Columbus]] became the first European to land on Guadeloupe on [[14 November]] [[1493]]. He called it ''Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura'', after the image of the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] venerated at the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Royal Monastery of Santa Maria de Guadalupe|monastery of Villuercas]], in [[Guadalupe, Extremadura]].
The French took possession of the island in [[1635]] and wiped out many of the Carib. It was annexed to France in [[1674]]. Over the next century, the island was seized several times by the [[United Kingdom|British]]. One indication of Guadeloupe's prosperity at this time is that in the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] ([[1763]]), France abandoned its territorial claims in [[Canada]] in return for British recognition of French control of Guadeloupe.
[[Image:Chutes du Carbet.Guadeloupe.jpg|right|thumb|left|Carbet Falls]]
In an effort to take advantage of the chaos ensuing from the [[French Revolution]], Britain attempted to seize Guadeloupe in [[1794]] and held it from [[April 21]] to [[June 2]]. The French retook the island under the command of [[Victor Hugues]], who succeeded in freeing the [[Slavery|slave]]s. They revolted and turned on the slave-owners who controlled the [[sugar]] plantations, but when American interests were threatened, [[Napoleon]] sent a force to suppress the rebels and reinstitute slavery. [[Louis Delgrès]] and a group of revolutionary soldiers killed themselves on the slopes of the Matouba volcano when it became obvious that the invading troops would take control of the island. The occupation force killed approximately 10,000 Guadeloupeans in the process of restoring "order" to the island.
On [[February 4]], [[1810]] the British once again seized the island and held it until [[March 3]], [[1813]], when it was ceded to [[Sweden]] as a consequence of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. Sweden already had a colony in the area, but merely a year later Sweden left the island to France in the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Treaty of Paris]] of [[1814]]. An ensuing settlement between Sweden and the British gave rise to the [[Guadeloupe Fund]]. French control of Guadeloupe was finally acknowledged in the [[Treaty of Vienna]] in [[1815]]. Slavery was abolished on the island in [[1848]] at the initiative of [[Victor Schoelcher]]. Today the population of Guadeloupe is a blend of Europeans, Africans and Indians.
== Geography ==
[[Image:Guadeloupe1.png|thumb|320px|In green (with red legend) are the constituent parts of the Guadeloupe ''région''/''département'' among the [[Leeward Islands]].]]
[[Image:Guadeloupe map.png|frame|Map of the Guadeloupe archipelago]]
''Main Article: [[Geography of Guadeloupe]]''
Guadeloupe comprises five [[island]]s: [[Basse-Terre]], [[Grande-Terre]] (separated from Basse-Terre by a narrow sea channel called salt river) with the adjacent islands of [[La Désirade]], [[Les Saintes]] and [[Marie-Galante]]. Basse-Terre has a rough [[volcanic]] relief whilst Grande-Terre features rolling hills and flat plains.
Further to the north, [[Saint-Barthélemy]] and the French part of [[Saint Martin]] come under the jurisdiction of Guadeloupe. On [[December 7]], [[2003]], both of these areas voted to become an overseas territorial collectivity. [http://www.statoids.com/ugp.html]
== Demographics ==
'''[[Population]]:''' 426,493 (July 2000 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
25% (male 54,603; female 52,339)
<br>''15-64 years:''
66% (male 139,640; female 142,706)
<br>''65 years and over:''
9% (male 15,647; female 21,558) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
1.11% (2000 est.)
'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
17.25 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''[[Death]] rate:'''
6.01 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-0.15 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
0.98 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.73 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
9.77 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
76.99 years
<br>''male:''
73.82 years
<br>''female:''
80.3 years (2000 est.)
'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
1.93 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''[[Nationality]]:'''
<br>''noun:''
Guadeloupian(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Guadeloupe
'''[[Ethnic group]]s:'''
[[blacks|black]] or [[mulatto]] 90%, [[white]] 5%, East [[India]]n, [[Lebanon|Lebanese]], [[China|Chinese]] less than 5%
'''[[Religion]]s:'''
[[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 95%, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[paganism|pagan]] [[African mythology|African]] 4%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 1%
'''[[Language]]s:'''
[[French language|French]] (official) 99%, [[Creole language|Creole]] [[patois]]
'''[[Literacy]]:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
90%
<br>''male:''
90%
<br>''female:''
90% (1982 est.)
== Politics ==
{{Politics of Guadeloupe}}
{{CIA}}
'''National holiday:'''
National Day, [[Taking of the Bastille]], [[14 July]] (1789)
'''Constitution:'''
[[28 September]] [[1958]] ([[French Constitution]])
'''Legal system:'''
[[French legal system]]
'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal
'''[[Executive branch]]:'''
<br>''chief of state:''
President [[Jacques Chirac]] of [[France]] (since [[17 May]] [[1995]]), represented by Prefect [[Dominique Vian]] (since [[6 August]] [[2002]])
<br>''head of government:''
President of the General Council [[Jacques Gillot]] (since [[26 March]] [[2001]]); President of the Regional Council [[Lucette Michaux-Chevry]] (since [[22 March]] [[1992]])
<br>''cabinet:''
NA
<br>''elections:''
French president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; prefect appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; the presidents of the General and Regional Councils are elected by the members of those councils
<br>''election results:''
NA
'''[[Legislative branch]]:'''
unicameral General Council or Conseil General (42 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the unicameral Regional Council or Conseil Regional (41 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)
<br>''elections:''
General Council - last held [[22 March]] [[1998]] (next to be held by NA 2004); Regional Council - last held [[15 March]] [[1998]] (next to be held NA 2004)
<br>''election results:''
General Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - left-wing candidates 11, PS 8, RPR 8, PPDG 6, right-wing candidates 5, PCG 3, UDF 1; Regional Council - percent of vote by party - RPR 48.03%, PS/PPDG/diverse left parties 24.49%, PCG 5.29%, diverse right parties 5.73%; seats by party - RPR 25, PS/PPDG/diverse left parties 12, PCG 2, diverse right parties 2
<br>''note:''
Guadeloupe elects two representatives to the [[French Senate]]; elections last held NA September 1995 (next to be held NA September 2004); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 1, FGPS 1; Guadeloupe elects four representatives to the [[French National Assembly]]; elections last held [[25 May]] - [[1 June]] [[1997]] (next to be held NA 2002); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FGPS 2, RPR 1, PPDG 1
'''[[Judicial branch]]:'''
Court of Appeal or ''Cour d'Appel'' with jurisdiction over Guadeloupe, [[French Guiana]], and [[Martinique]].
'''[[Political parties]] and leaders:'''
* Communist Party of Guadeloupe or PCG [[Christian Celeste]]
* FGPS [[Dominique Larifla]]
* Progressive Democratic Party or PPDG [[Henri Bangou]]
* Rally for the Republic or RPR [[Aldo Blaise]]
* Socialist Party or PS [[Georges Louisor]]
* Union for French Democracy or UDF [[Marcel Esdras]]
'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''
* Christian Movement for the Liberation of Guadeloupe or KLPG
* General Federation of Guadeloupe Workers or CGT-G
* General Union of Guadeloupe Workers or UGTG
* Movement for Independent Guadeloupe or MPGI
'''International organisation participation:'''
[[FZ]], [[WCL]], [[WFTU]]
''''''''See Also:''''''''
*[[Colonial and Departmental Heads of Guadeloupe]]
== Culture ==
[[Image:Flag of Guadeloupe (local).svg|right|thumb|The unofficial local flag used on Guadeloupe.]]
[[Image:Blason Guadeloupe.png|right|thumb|100px|The unofficial local blazon used on Guadeloupe.]]
Guadeloupe's culture is probably best known for the islanders' literary achievements. Particularly the poetry of [[Saint-John Perse]], the pseudonym used by [[Alexis Leger]]. Perse won the [[Nobel Prize]] for [http://nobelprize.org/literature/ Literature] in 1960 "for the soaring flight and the evocative imagery of his poetry which in a visionary fashion reflects the conditions of our time."
Also culturally important are the arts, particularly painting. Music and dance are also popular, and the mix of African and French cultures created a few important forms on the island. Islanders enjoy many local dance styles including |
y England's non-participation in the world cup finals until 1950. The pressure put on club chairman Joe Mears to withdraw is referenced in this [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?xml=/sport/2005/04/06/sfnphi06.xml&sSheet=/sport/2005/04/06/ixfooty.html ''Telegraph'' article]. See also {{cite book | author=Greaves, Jimmy | title=Greavsie | publisher=Time Warner Books| year=2003| id=ISBN 0316725293}}, ch2, for a brief account of the affair.
</div>
==References==
*{{cite book | author=Batty, Clive | title=Kings of the King's Road: The Great Chelsea Team of the 60s and 70s| publisher=Vision Sports Publishing Ltd| year=2004| id=ISBN 0954642813}}
*{{cite book | author=Batty, Clive | title=A Serious Case of the Blues: Chelsea in the 80s| publisher=Vision Sports Publishing Ltd| year=2005| id=ISBN 1905326025}}
*{{cite book | author=Glanvill, Rick | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography - The Definitive Story of the First 100 Years| publisher=Headline Book Publishing Ltd| year=2005| id=ISBN 0755314654}}
*{{cite book | author=Hadgraft, Rob | title=Chelsea: Champions of England 1954-55| publisher=Desert Island Books Limited| year=2004| id=ISBN 1874287775}}
*{{cite book | author=Harris, Harry | title=Chelsea's Century| publisher=Blake Publishing| year=2005| id=ISBN 184454110X}}
*{{cite book | author=Ingledew, John | title=And Now Are You Going to Believe Us: Twenty-five Years Behind the Scenes at Chelsea FC| publisher=John Blake Publishing Ltd| year=2006| id=ISBN 1844542475}}
*{{cite book | author=Matthews, Tony | title=Who's Who of Chelsea | publisher=Mainstream Publishing| year=2005| id=ISBN 1845960106}}
*{{cite book | author=Mears, Brian | title=Chelsea: A 100-year History | publisher=Mainstream Sport| year=2004| id=ISBN 1840188235}}
*{{cite book | author=Mears, Brian | title=Chelsea: Football Under the Blue Flag| publisher=Mainstream Sport| year=2002| id=ISBN 1840186585}}
==External links==
{{BBC Football Info|BBClinkname=c/chelsea}}
*[http://www.chelseafc.co.uk Official website]
*[http://www.chelseafcauctions.com Official Auction website]
*[http://soccernet.espn.go.com/team?id=363&cc=5739 Soccernet's Chelsea coverage]
*[http://www.4thegame.com/club/cfc/ 4thegame.com's Chelsea page]
*[http://www.sportinglife.com/football/premiership/chelsea/news/ Chelsea coverage from Sportinglife.com]
*[http://www.cfc-net.co.uk/content/default.asp CFCnet]
*[http://www.chelseafc-blog.blogspot.com/ Unofficial Chelsea Blog]
*[http://www.chelseablog.com Chelsea Football Club Blog (Unofficial)]
*[http://www.sportnetwork.net/main/s379.htm 50 Years Over 100 Years]
*[http://www.chelseafootballclub.net/ Chelsea Football Club Fansite]
*[http://www.chelsea-mad.co.uk/ Chelsea MAD Fansite]
*[http://www.teamtalk.com/teamtalk/News/Story_Listing/0,,1773,00.html/ Chelsea FC news from Teamtalk.com]
*[http://footballclubs.dyndns.org/multiclubcities.php?co=england&map=london&showing=all%20clubs%20in%20Levels%201-6#chelsea Chelsea stadium location]
*[http://www.interviewbooks.com/chelsea.htm Chelsea Football Songs]
*[http://www.chelseavn.com Chelsea Fans Club Vietnam]
*[http://www.footballchants.org/viewChantsRecent.php?teams=10 Chelsea Football Chants]
*[http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/premierleague-team/chelsea.html Chelsea statistics]
{{Champions League 2005/06}}
{{FA_Premier_League}}
[[Category:English football clubs]]
[[Category:Chelsea F.C.| ]]
[[Category:FA Premier League]]
[[Category:1905 establishments]]
[[Category:Sport in London]]
[[ar:نادي تشيلسي]]
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[[he:צ'לסי (קבוצת כדורגל)]]
[[lt:ChelseaFC]]
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[[ja:チェルシーFC]]
[[no:Chelsea FC]]
[[nn:Chelsea FC]]
[[pl:Chelsea Londyn]]
[[pt:Chelsea FC]]
[[ro:Chelsea F.C.]]
[[ru:Челси (футбольный клуб)]]
[[simple:Chelsea F.C.]]
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[[zh:切尔西足球俱乐部]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CANDU reactor</title>
<id>7475</id>
<revision>
<id>41999378</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:20:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BenBreen2003</username>
<id>27787</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Chronology */ Minor spelling correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''CANDU reactor''' is a [[Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor]] designed in the late [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] by a partnership between [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]] (AECL) and the [[Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario]] (now known as [[Ontario Power Generation]]), as well as several private industry participants. The acronym "CANDU", a registered trademark of [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]], stands for "CANada Deuterium Uranium". This is a reference to its deuterium oxide ([[heavy water]]) [[neutron moderator|moderator]] and its use of [[natural uranium]] fuel. All current power reactors in Canada are of the CANDU type. Canada markets this power-reactor product abroad.
==Design features==
[[Image:CANDU reactor schematic.png|thumb|right|400px|Schematic Diagram of a CANDU reactor.]]CANDU reactors have some unique design features that may provide advantages over other reactor designs:
*CANDU uses natural, [[enriched uranium|unenriched uranium]] (0.7% U-235) oxide as fuel; hence, it needs a more efficient [[neutron moderator|moderator]] than most other power reactor designs - in this case [[heavy water]] (D<sub>2</sub>O, [[deuterium]] oxide<!-- No need to Wikilink "Deuterium oxide" itself; that simply redirects back to "Heavy Water" -->). This means that they can be operated without expensive [[uranium enrichment|fuel enrichment]] facilities. Most less-developed countries find this attractive because they cannot afford the enrichment facilities, and cannot be assured of access to enriched uranium. The [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT), which implements a safeguard regime under the auspices of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], regulates access to nuclear materials such as enriched uranium.
*The moderator is in a large tank called a [[calandria]], penetrated by several hundred horizontal pressure tubes which form channels for the fuel, cooled by a flow of heavy water under high pressure in the primary cooling circuit, reaching 290 °C. The high pressure within the tank prevents heavy water from boiling. As in the [[pressurized water reactor]], the primary coolant generates steam in a secondary circuit to drive the turbines. The pressure tube design means that the reactor can be refuelled continuously, without shutting down, as the fuel channels can be accessed individually.
*CANDU are designed to be constructed without large pressure vessels. The large pressure vessels commonly used in [[light-water]] reactors are extremely expensive, and require heavy industry that is lacking in many countries. At the time, Canada lacked such industries, and designed the reactor not to require them. Instead, the reactor pressurizes only small tubes that actually contain the fuel. These tubes are constructed of a special [[zirconium]] [[alloy]] ([[Zircaloy]]) that is relatively transparent to neutrons.
*A CANDU fuel assembly consists of a bundle of 37 half metre long [[fuel rod]]s ([[ceramic]] fuel pellets in [[zircaloy]] tubes) plus a support structure, with 12 bundles lying end to end in a fuel channel. [[Control rod]]s penetrate the calandria vertically, and a secondary shutdown system involves injecting [[gadolinium]] nitrate solution to the moderator.<sup><small>[[#Notes|1]]</small></sup> The heavy water moderator circulating through the body of the calandria vessel also yields some waste heat.
*Since the bulk moderator of the reactor is maintained at relatively low temperature and pressure, the equipment to monitor and act on the core is quite a bit less complex. It only has to cope with high radiation and high [[neutron flux]]. In particular, the control rods and emergency equipment are simpler and more reliable than in other reactor types.
*The reactor has the least down-time of any known type. This is partly because so much of the reactor operates at low temperatures and pressures. It is also caused by the unique fuel-handling system. The pressure tubes containing the fuel rods can be individually opened, and the fuel rods changed without taking the reactor out of service.
*Another advantage is that fuel use is the most efficient known. This is due to the use of heavy water as the moderator. The efficiency is also increased because of the in-operation refuelling mechanism permits the fuel assemblies to be shuffled to the most efficient parts of the reactor core as their reactivity changes. Most other reactor designs need to insert degradable poisons in order to lower the high reactivity of their initial fresh fuel load. This is not necessary in a CANDU.
*Another advantage of the fuel management system is that the reactors can potentially be operated as low temperature [[breeder reactor]]s. CANDU can operate very efficiently because their [[neutron economy]] is so good. They can breed fuel from natural [[thorium]], if uranium is unavailable. CANDU can even be operated to "burn" former [[nuclear weapon]]s material ([[MOX]] fuel cycle) to a less-reactive state effectively rendering it useless for [[warhead]]s while at the same time turning the relatively easily handled weapons grade material into highly radioactive waste. Fuel cycle tests also have included the "DUPIC" fuel cycle, or "direct use of spent PWR fuel in CANDU", where used fuel from a PWR reactor is packaged into a CANDU fuel bundle with only physical reprocessing (cut into pieces) but no chemical reprocessing. Where BWR designs require the reactivity associated wi |
td>A spring of teal</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[turdidae|thrushes]]''' </td><td>A mutation of thrushes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[turkey (bird)|turkeys]]''' </td><td>A raffle of turkeys</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[turkey (bird)|turkeys]]''' </td><td>A rafter of turkeys</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[Turtle Dove|Turtle Doves]]''' </td><td>A pitying of turtledoves</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[waterfowl|waterfowl]]''' </td><td>A knob of waterfowl</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[waterfowl|waterfowl]]''' </td><td>A plump of waterfowl</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[wigeon|Wigeon]]''' </td><td>A coil of widgeon</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[woodpecker|woodpeckers]]''' </td><td>A descent of woodpeckers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
</table>
==External links==
[http://www.nzbirds.com/more/nouns.html An exhaustive (though possibly partly fictitious) list of collective nouns for birds]
[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Birds]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of collective nouns for reptiles and amphibians</title>
<id>7154</id>
<revision>
<id>15905234</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-08T01:00:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sam Hocevar</username>
<id>65709</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[User:Sietse Snel/Fix common mistakes|fix miscapitalisation; please help us fix common mistakes in the article space]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Also see [[Collective noun]]
<table border = 0>
<tr><td> '''SUBJECT''' </td><td>'''COLLECTIVE TERM''' &nbsp;</td><td> <center>'''STATUS'''</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crocodile|crocodiles]]''' </td><td>A bask of crocodiles</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crocodile|crocodiles]]''' </td><td>A congregation of crocodiles</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crocodile|crocodiles]]''' </td><td>A float of crocodiles</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[crocodile|crocodiles]]''' </td><td>A nest of crocodiles</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[Cobra (snake)|cobras]]''' </td><td>A quiver of cobras</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[European dragon|dragons]]''' </td><td>A flight of dragons</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[European dragon|dragons]]''' </td><td>A weyr of dragons</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[European dragon|dragons]]''' </td><td>A wing of dragons</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[frog|frogs]]''' </td><td>An army of frogs</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[frog|frogs]]''' </td><td>A colony of frogs</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[frog|frogs]]''' </td><td>A knot of frogs</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[iguana|iguanas]]''' </td><td>A mess of iguanas</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[lizard|lizards]]''' </td><td>A lounge of lizards</td><td> Spurious </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[Monitor lizard|monitors]]''' </td><td>A bank of monitors</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[rattlesnake|rattlesnakes]]''' </td><td>A rhumba of rattlesnakes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[snake|snakes]]''' </td><td>A bed of snakes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[snake|snakes]]''' </td><td>A den of snakes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[snake|snakes]]''' </td><td>A nest of snakes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[snake|snakes]]''' </td><td>A pit of snakes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[snake|snakes]]''' </td><td>A slither of snakes</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[toad|toads]]''' </td><td>A knot of toads</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[turtle|turtles]]''' </td><td>A bale of turtles</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[turtle|turtles]]''' </td><td>A dule of turtles</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[turtle|turtles]]''' </td><td>A nest of turtles</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[turtle|turtles]]''' </td><td>A turn of turtles</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[viper|vipers]]''' </td><td>A nest of vipers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
</table>
[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Reptiles and amphibians]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of collective nouns for fish, invertebrates, and plants</title>
<id>7155</id>
<revision>
<id>19605648</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-25T23:09:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.161.184.2</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Also see [[Collective noun]]
The square root signs, &#8730;, below signify a widespread usage in both [[North American English]] and [[Commonwealth English]].
<table border = 0>
<tr><td> '''SUBJECT''' </td><td>'''COLLECTIVE TERM'''</td><td> <center>'''STATUS'''</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[ant]]s''' </td><td>A colony of ants</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[ant]]s''' </td><td>A swarm of ants</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[ant]]s''' </td><td>An army of ants</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bacteria]]''' </td><td>A culture of bacteria</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bass (fish)|bass]]''' </td><td>A shoal of bass</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bean]]s''' </td><td>A hill of beans</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bee]]s''' </td><td>A grist of bees</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bee]]s''' </td><td>A hive of bees</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bee]]s''' </td><td>A swarm of bees</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[blackfish]]''' </td><td>A grind of blackfish</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[butterfly|butterflies]]''' </td><td>A kaleidoscope of butterflies</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[butterfly|butterflies]]''' </td><td>A rabble of butterflies</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[butterfly|butterflies]]''' </td><td>A rainbow of butterflies</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[caterpillar]]s''' </td><td>An army of caterpillars</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[clam]]s''' </td> |
t one was without love in the past. And yet &mdash; love would not be the moving, the gripping, the searing experience that it is if the moved, gripped, seared soul were not conscious of the fact that up to this moment it had not been moved or gripped. Thus a shock was necessary before the self could become the beloved soul. And the soul is ashamed of its former self, and that it did not, under its own power, break this spell in which it was confined. This is the shame that blocks the beloved mouth that wishes to make acknowledgment. The mouth has to acknowledge its past and still present weakness by wishing to acknowledge its already present and future bliss. (Rosenzweig 1970: 179)
Thus, the immediate response to God's commandment to love is to confess, "I have sinned." For Rosenzweig this confession is not a source of shame; on the contrary, by speaking a truth about the past, it makes love in the present possible and thus "abolishes shame."
Consequently, Rosenzwieg does not believe that this confession requires absolution:
:It is not God that need cleanse it [the soul of the beloved, i.e. Israel] of its sin. Rather it cleanses itself in the presence of his love. It is certain of God's love in the very moment that shame withdraws from it and it surrenders itself in free, present admission &mdash; as certain as if God had spoken into its ear that "I forgive" which is longed for earlier when it confessed to him its sins of the past. It no longer needs this formal absolution. It is freed of its burden at the very moment of daring to assume all of it on its shoulders. So too the beloved no longer needs the acknowledgment of the lover which she longed for before she admitted her love. At the very moment when she herself dares to admit it, she is as certain of his love as if he were whispering his acknowledgment into her ear. (Rosenzweig 1970: 180-181)
In other words, Rosenzweig sees in the Hebrew Bible a "grammar of love" in which God can communicate "I love you" only by demanding "You must love me," and Israel can communicate "I love you" only by confessing "I have sinned." Therefore, this confession does not lead God to offer an unnecessary absolution; it merely expresses Israel's love for God.
But "What then is God's answer to this 'I am thine' by which the beloved soul acknowledges him" if it is not "absolution?" Rosenzweig's answer is: revelation: "He cannot make himself known to the soul before the soul has acknowledged him. But now he must do so. For this it is by which revelation first reaches completion. In its groundless presentness, revelation must now permanently touch the ground." (Rosenzweig 1970: 182) Revelation, epitomized by Sinai, is God's response to Israel's love. Contrary to Paul, who argued that "through the law comes knowledge of sin" (Romans 3: 20), Rosenzweig argues that it is because of and after a confession of sin that God reveals to Israel knowledge of the law.
For Rosenzweig as for the [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbis]], [[Song of Songs]] provides a paradigm for understanding the love between God and Israel, a love that "is strong as death" (Song of Songs 8:6; Rosenzweig 1970: 202). God's love is as strong as death because it is love for the People Israel, and it is as a collective that Israel returns God's love. Thus, although one may die, God and Israel, and the love between them, lives on. In other words, Song of Songs is "the focal book of revelation" (Rosenzweig 1970: 202) where the "grammar of love" is most clearly expressed. But, Rosenzweig argues, this love that is as strong as death ultimately transcends itself, as it takes the form of God's law &mdash; for it is the law that binds Israel as a people, and through observance of the law that each Jew relives the moment of revelation at Mt. Sinai. Ultimately, Song of Songs points back to Leviticus and the rest of the Torah.
Song of Songs largely describes a clandestine love affair, forbidden by the woman's brothers (Song of Songs 8: 8-9), and scorned by her friends (Song of Songs 5:9). For Rosenzweig, the concealed nature of this romance is emblematic of the way lovers lose themselves in one another. Yet the book itself struggles against this private love. "O that you were like a brother to me," the woman cries, "that nursed at my mother's breast! If I met you outside, I would kiss you, and none would despise me" (Song of Songs 8:1). The point, for Rosenzweig, is that love neither can nor should remain private.
:Now she is his. Is she? Does not something ultimate still separate them at the pinncale of love &mdash; beyond even that "Thou art mine" of the lover, beyond even that peace which the beloved found in his eyes, this last word of her overflowing heart? Does there not still remain one last separation? The lover has explained his love for her .... But will this explanation do? Does not life demand more than explanation, more than the calling by name? Does it not demand reality? And a sob escapes the blisfully overflowing heart of the beloved and forms into words, words which haltingly point to something unfulfilled, something which cannot be fuliflled in the immediate revelation of love: "O that you were like a brother to me!" Not enough that the beloved lover calls his bride by the name of sister in the flickering twilight of allusion. The name ought to be the truth. It should be heard in the bright light of "the street," not whispered into the beloved ear in the dusk of intimate duo-solitude, but in the eyes of the multitude, officially &mdash; "who would grant" that! Yes, who would grant that? Love no longer grants it. In truth, this "who would grant" is no longer directed to the beloved lover. Love after all always remains between two people; it knows only of I and Thou, not the street. This longing cannot be fulfilled in love ... (Rosenzweig 1970: 203-204)
It cannot be fulfilled in love. For Rosenzweig, as for the Rabbis, it can be fulfilled only in law. This is the meaning of revelation: Israel's love for God provides Him with the means to enter the world, and through His commandments to Israel their love enters "the street." It is through the revelation of God's commandments, according to Rosenzweig, that the love portrayed in Song of Songs becomes the love commanded in Leviticus. Just as God's love for the Children of Israel is one of the ways that he extends Himself into the world, the necessary response by the Jews &mdash; the ''way'' to love God in return &mdash; is to extend their own love out towards their fellow human beings.
This extension of God's love into the world, through the People Israel, is the point of Leviticus 19:18. According to Bloom, however, this love has a different character than the romantic love celebrated in Song of Songs. He argues that to understand the commandment to love one's neighbor one must look at the other commandments that form its context, beginning with verse 9:
:When you reap the harvest of your land, you shall not reap all the way to the edges of your field, or gather the gleanings of your harvest. You shall not pick your vineyard bare, or gather the fallen fruit of your vineyard; you shall leave them for the poor and the stranger: I the Lord am your God.
:You shall not steal; you shall not deal deceitfully or falsely with one another. You shall not swear falsely by My name, profaning the name of your God: I am the Lord.
:You shall not defraud your neighbor. You shall not commit robbery. The wages of a laborer shall not remain with you until morning. You shall not insult the deaf, or place a stumbling block before the blind. You shall fear your God: I am the Lord.
:You shall not render an unfair decision: do not favor the poor or show deference to the rich; judge your neighbor fairly. Do not deal basely with your fellows. Do not profit by the blood of your neighbor: I am the Lord.
:You shall not hate your kinsman in your heart. Reprove your neighbor, but incur no guilt because of him. You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against your kinsfolk. Love your neighbor as yourself: I am the Lord.
According to Bloom these accompanying commandments reveal that for Israel, love "in the street" takes the form of "just dealing." Similarly, theologian William Herberg argued that "justice" is at the heart of the Jewish notion of love, and the foundation for Jewish law:
:The ultimate criterion of justice, as of everything else in human life, is the divine imperative &mdash; the law of love .... Justice is the institutionalization of love in society .... This law of love requires that every man be treated as a Thou, a person, an end in himself, never merely as a thing or a means to another's end. When this demand is translated into laws and institutions under the conditions of human life in history, justice arises. (1951: 148)
The arguments of Rosenzweig, Herberg, and Bloom echo the teachings of the [[Rabbinic Judaism|the Rabbis]], who taught that the written and oral [[Torah|Torahs]] provide the way to express this love-as-just-dealing. This view is encapuslated in one of the most famous rabbinic stories, that of the time a man once challenged [[Hillel the Elder]], an important [[Pharisee]] who lived at the end of the 1st century BCE, to explain the entire law ([[Torah]]) while standing on one foot. Hillel replied, "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbor. That is the whole Torah; the rest is commentary. Go and study it." Rosenzweig suggests that Hillel presented the commandment from Leviticus in the negative form (do not do it) as a way of setting up his own, affirmative, commandment: to go |
of anointing is sometimes stressed by mentioning the need for it alongside reference to the person in question: e.g., "The priest that is anointed shall carry of the blood into the tabernacle of the testimony" ([[Leviticus|Lev]] [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&bk=03&ch=004&l=16 4:16]). Many writers feel that some [[Jew]]s came to expect a leader who would embody the elements of priest, king, and prophet, and whom they therefore termed "the Messias", which served as a title. The association with being anointed and being a leader makes these words in some senses equivalent. They expressed their hopes for this leader particularly in their prayers known as the [[Psalms]], which often make reference to God and "his anointed", many of which references some Christians interpret as prophetic.
=== Anointing in the [[New Testament]] and subsequent rites ===
Anointing is used in the New Testament to heal the sick, to bless for ministry, to give thanks to Jesus, and to prepare for burial. According to Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions, as Christ was the anointed one, so is [[apostolic succession]], manifest in those priests who carry on the ministry of Christ, premised upon an anointing. Oil is used in a number of the [[sacrament]]s of these traditions. Practices vary slightly from East to West. Every Christian in the Roman [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches is anointed with oil at least once, if he or she receives the sacraments according to each organization's plan. Protestant organizations' rites, however, do not always include anointing with oil.
== History in the New Testament ==
''See [[Jesus]] and [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]''.
In the [[New Testament]] it is both suggested that a savior, long awaited, had come and shall [[Second Coming|return]].
== Distinctions between "Jesus", "Christ", and "God" ==
The term "Christ" is often used synonymously with "Jesus". A difference in usage is sometimes for variety of speech, and sometimes a subtlety intended to emphasize the totality of His person and function in [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|Salvation]]. For example, Ott refers to "Jesus" when emphasizing an event in the New Testament, while he refers to "Christ" in discussing the nature of [[God]].
=== The Christian mainstream view ===
There is a temporal distinction between "Jesus" and "Christ", not to mention "God". God, in the Christian belief system, exists outside of the time continuum and is not restricted by the confines of time (e.g., limitations, aging, development, evolution, etc.).
"Jesus", on the other hand, is the temporal manifestation of the "[[Logos]]" -- the divine "Word" of God, and, in Christian Trinitarian parlance, the second person of the [[Holy Trinity]] (Father, Son and Holy Spirit). "Jesus" was born, lived, suffered, and died. However, for the Christian believer, the story of "Jesus" does not end there. With the Resurrection, there is the fulness of recognition within the Christian community of the interconnectedness of the [[Logos]] and the person of "Jesus" -- the human person now intensely glorified and beyond the confines of the temporal sphere of events and effects.
"Christ" is an appellation in Greek (Χριστός), corresponding to the Hebrew word "[[Messiah]]" -- the [[Savior]] or Anointed One. This term pertains more to the role to be performed by the "chosen one of God" (another possible translation of the term "Christ"). The problem with this word for the person of Jesus is that the term means different things to different people. Most especially, the term "Messiah" refers most often in Jewish beliefs of the Roman era to the hoped-for leader who would not only be a spiritual leader but a political one as well. Hence, we have grounds for why this term might cause consternation and skepticism -- if not downright hostility -- not only for Romans, but also for the Jewish leadership of the Temple at the time of Jesus.
=== The Gnostic Christ ===
The [[gnosticism|gnostic]]s generally believed not in a Jesus who was both a Divine Person and a human person, but in a spiritual Christ who indwelt Jesus. Through the spiritual path of gnosticism, followers of these schools believed that they could experience the same knowledge, or ''[[gnosis]]''<!-- suggestion: don't disambiguate "gnosis" -->. Their theology was or is [[dualism|dualistic]] and premised upon demigods, salvation for the elect, and the actions of God who sends periodic saviors. This was considered heresy by the Early Church as per the first [[Ecumenical Council]], which occurred at Nicaea in 325 ad, although condemnation of the belief existed well before.
=== The esoteric Christian tradition ===
In the western esoteric tradition, [[Essenes|Essenian]] and later [[Rosicrucian]], there is a distinction to be made between [[Jesus]] and the [[Christ]] {{ref|Christ_esoteric_Christian_tradition}}. Jesus is considered an high Initiate of the human life wave (which evolves under the cicle of [[reincarnation|rebirth]]) and of a singularly pure type of mind, vastly superior to the great majority of the present humanity. He was educated during his youth among the Essenes and thus prepared himself for the greatest honor ever bestowed upon a human being: to deliver his pure, passionless, highly evolved physical body and [[etheric body|vital body]] (already attuned to the high vibrations of the 'life spirit'), in the moment of the [[Baptism of Jesus|Baptism]], to the Christ being for His ministry in the physical world. Christ is described as the highest Spiritual Being of the life wave called [[Archangels]] and has completed His union ("the Son") with the second aspect of [[The_Rosicrucian_Cosmo-Conception#The_Rosicrucian_conception_of_God_and_the_scheme_of_evolution|God]].
''See also [[Second_Coming#Esoteric_Christian_tradition|Second Coming (of the Christ)]] according to the [[Esoteric Christianity|esoteric Christian]] tradition.''
== Expansions and appropriations of "Christ" ==
"Christ" has taken on such power and significance as a theological, religious and/or devotional term that it has been appropriated and/or expanded by various theologians and religious writers so as to take it beyond its merely Christian context. The development of Judeo/Christian religious concepts in a world religious context may be startling to the orthodox, but is part of the full picture and contemporary meaning of the term "Christ".
[[Paramahansa Yogananda]] - writes about a "Christ Consciousness" interchangeably with "[[Krishna]] Consciousness"
[[Matthew Fox]] - speaks of "the [[Cosmic]] Christ"
etc.
One belief is the idea or concept that 'Jesus ''became'' Christ;' i.e. his 'flesh was transformed to [[spirit]].' By taking a spiritual and good path through life, Jesus was reunited with his true holy nature ([[redemption]]) and preserved forever in God.
However in this view, this psychic force is often called 'the Christ,' or sometimes 'Christ consciousness,' etc; drawing a separation between God (whose nature some maintain we cannot fathom or comprehend) and the [[Holy Spirit]], which has experience (through Jesus) and therefore compatibility with our mortal and frail humanity. This separation of spiritual concepts is embodied in the Christian [[Trinity]].
In many branches of Christianity, some limitations on extra-cultural interactivity result in [[Dogma|dogmatic]] interpretations of the meaning of "the Christ" to refer only to "Christendom" (i.e. confirmed "Christians") as opposed to ''all of spiritual humanity,'' that may have equal devotion to 'the Christ,' yet may refer to it by another name: i.e. [[God]], [[Krishna]], etc.
In Eastern religious traditions, for example, "God" remains mysterious and unknowable and therefore only implied; described instead by personifications
([[deities]]) which are manifestations of particular aspects of God's power. In mortal form, the Christian Jesus is akin to these personifications, with the caveat that he alone is the deity; all of God's powers that are relevant or understandable to man, are manifest through Jesus. Thus, where ''Christ'' is a synonym for the Holy Spirit, the Trinity of Father (God) Son (Jesus) and Holy Spirit (Christ) are unified, though each remain distinct.
== Slang usage ==
The [[interjection]] "Christ!" is often used as a sign of surprise or anger, without a direct religious reference - that is, as a [[profanity|swear word]]. Devout Christians find this usage blasphemous, as they feel it cheapens God's Holy Name and violates the Mosaic [[Ten Commandments|Commandment]] against taking His name in vain.
"Christ" is also the name of a British [[humour]] [[fanzine]].[http://www.spellingmistakescostlives.com/christ/]
== Reference literature ==
# {{note|Christ_esoteric_Christian_tradition}}, Max Heindel, ''[[The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception]]'' (Part III, Chapter XV: [http://www.rosicrucian.com/rcc/rcceng15.htm Christ and His Mission]), November 1909, ISBN 0-911274-34-0
*Ludwig Ott, ''Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma'', 1957.
*Joshua McDowell and Don Stewart, ''Handbook of Today's Religions'', Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1983.
*Tom Harpur, "The Pagan Christ. Recovering the Lost Light." Thomas Allen Publishers, Toronto, (2004)
== External links ==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374x.htm A. J. Maas, ''Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ'', Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/6111/pneumatikos/gnostic.htm Paul A. Hughes, ''The Gnostic Christ: Gnosticism vs. Christianity'']
*[http://www.salagram.net/ |
ww.coe.int/t/E/human_rights/ecri/1-ECRI/2-Country-by-country_approach/ Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports]
*[http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/J/ State University of New York at Buffalo, The Jedwabne Tragedy]
*[http://www.cyberroad.com/poland/jews_today.html Jews in Poland today]
*[http://www.adl.org/main_Anti_Semitism_International/Default.htm Anti-Defamation League's report on International Anti-Semitism]
*[http://memri.org/ The Middle East Media Research Institute] - documents antisemitism in Middle-Eastern media.
**[http://www.philosophistry.com/specials/europe/ Map of Attitudes Toward Jews in 12 European Countries] based on a [http://www.adl.org/main_Anti_Semitism_International/as_survey_2005.htm 2005 ADL Survey]
*[http://www.zionism-israel.com/his/judeophobia.htm Judeophobia: A short course on the history of anti-Semitism] at [http://www.zionism-israel.com] Zionism and Israel Information Center.
*[http://www.zionism.netfirms.com/ArabAntiZionism.htm Arab and Muslim Anti-Zionism and anti-Semitiem] A mini study with extensive links and resources.
*[http://www.pinteleyid.com If Not Together, How?]: Research by April Rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism, and related teaching tools about antisemitism, for activists.
[[Category:Anti-Semitism|*]]
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<timestamp>2002-08-21T |
rs== [http://www.dollymania.net/awards.html]
Parton is perhaps the most-honored female country performer of all time. She holds 25 U.S. gold, platinum and multi-platinum honors from the RIAA. She has seen 24 songs reach No. 1 on the Billboard country charts, a record for a female artist. She has 41 career top 10 country albums, a record for any artist, and 110 career charted singles over the past 40 years. All inclusive sales of singles, albums, hit's collections, paid digital downloads and compilation usage during Parton's career have reportedly reached 100 million records around the world.
She has received seven Grammy Awards and a total of 42 Grammy nominations. In the American Music Awards, she has taken home the AMA trophy three times but seen 18 nominations. At the Country Music Association, she has received 10 awards and 42 nominations. At the Academy of Country Music, she has been given five awards and 36 nominations.
Parton has been nominated for two [[Academy Awards]]. In 1981, she was nominated for Best Original Song for "9 to 5" from the film of the same name. In 2006, she was nominated again in the same category for the song "Travelin' Thru" from the film [[Transamerica]]. She has been nominated for an [[Emmy]] Award. She has received five [[Golden Globe]] nominations.
She has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] for Recording at 6712 Hollywood Boulevard in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]], awarded in 1984; a star on the Nashville Star Walk for Grammy winners; and a bronze sculpture on the courthouse lawn in Sevierville, Tennessee.
She was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in 1969. In 1986, she was named one of Ms. Magazine's Women of the Year. She was given an honorary doctorate from Carson-Newman College in 1990.
In 1999, Parton received country music's highest honor, induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame. This was followed by induction into the National Academy of Popular Music/Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2001.
She was honored in 2003 with a tribute album called ''Just Because I'm a Woman: Songs of Dolly Parton''. The artists who recorded versions of Parton's songs included [[Melissa Etheridge]] ("I Will Always Love You"), [[Alison Krauss]] ("9 to 5"), [[Shania Twain]] ("Coat of Many Colors"), [[Me'shell Ndegeocello|Me'Shell NdegéOcello]] ("Two Doors Down"), [[Norah Jones]] ("The Grass is Blue"), and [[Sinéad O'Connor]] ("Dagger Through the Heart"); Parton herself contributed a rerecording of the title song, originally the title song for her first RCA album in 1968.
Parton was awarded the [[Living Legend medal]] by the U.S. [[Library of Congress]] on [[April 14]], [[2004]], for her contributions to the cultural heritage of the United States. This was followed in [[2005 in art|2005]] with the [[National Medal of Arts]], the highest honor given by the U.S. government for excellence in the arts.
Her efforts to preserve the bald eagle through the American Eagle Foundation's sanctuary at Dollywood earned her the Partnership Award from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2003. And her national literacy program, Dolly Parton's Imagination Library, has resulted in her receiving the Association of American Publishers' AAP Honors in 2000, Good Housekeeping's Seal of Approval in 2001 (the first time the seal had been given to a person), the American Association of School Administrators' Galaxy Award in 2002, Chasing Rainbows Award from the National State Teachers of the Year in 2002, and Child and Family Advocacy Award from the Parents As Teachers National Center in 2003. The program distributes more than 2.5 million free books to children annually across more than 40 states.
She is one of only five solo women (others include [[Reba McEntire]], [[Barbara Mandrell]], [[Shania Twain]], and [[Loretta Lynn]]), to win the [[Country Music Association]]'s highest honor, "Entertainer Of The Year"
==Hit singles (top 40 pop/top 10 country)== [http://www.dollymania.net/chartb.html]
*[[1967 in music|1967]] "[[The Last Thing on My Mind]]" (with Porter Wagoner) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1968 in music|1968]] "Holdin' On To Nothing" (with Porter Wagoner) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1968 in music|1968]] "We'll Get Ahead Someday" (with Porter Wagoner) (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] "Yours Love" (with Porter Wagoner) (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] "Just Someone I Used to Know" (with Porter Wagoner) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] "Tomorrow Is Forever" (with Porter Wagoner) (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] "[[Mule Skinner Blues]]" (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] "Daddy Was An Old Time Preacher Man" (with Porter Wagoner) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] "[[Joshua (song)]]" #108 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] "Better Move it On Home" (with Porter Wagoner) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] "[[Coat of Many Colors (album)]]" (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] "Touch Your Woman" (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] "Lost Forever in Your Kiss" (with Porter Wagoner) (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1973 in music|1973]] "If Teardrops Were Pennies" (with Porter Wagoner) (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] "[[Jolene]]" #60 U.S., #7 U.K. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] "[[I Will Always Love You]]" (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] "Please Don't Stop Loving Me" (with Porter Wagoner) (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] "Love Is Like A Butterfly"(#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] "The Bargain Store" (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] "The Seeker" (#2 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] "Say Forever You'll Be Mine" (with Porter Wagoner) (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] "We Used To" (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] "Is Forever Longer Than Always" (with Porter Wagoner) (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1976 in music|1976]] "All I Can Do" (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1977 in music|1977]] "Light of a Clear, Blue Morning" #87 U.S. (#11 COUNTRY)
*[[1977 in music|1977]] "[[Here You Come Again]]" #3 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1978 in music|1978]] "Two Doors Down" #19 U.S.
*[[1978 in music|1978]] "It's All Wrong (But It's All Right)" (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1978 in music|1978]] "Heartbreaker" #37 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1979 in music|1979]] "Baby I'm Burning" #25 U.S.
*[[1979 in music|1979]] "I Really Got The Feeling" (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1979 in music|1979]] "You're the Only One" #59 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1979 in music|1979]] "Sweet Summer Lovin'" #77 U.S. (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] "Starting Over Again" #36 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] "Making Plans" (with Porter Wagoner) (#2 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] "Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You" (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1981 in music|1981]] [[9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)|"9 to 5"]] #1 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1981 in music|1981]] "[[But You Know I Love You]]" #41 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] "Single Women" (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] "Heartbreak Express" (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] "[[I Will Always Love You]]" (1982 recording) #53 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] "Hard Candy Christmas" (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] "Everything's Beautiful" (with [[Willie Nelson]]) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1983 in music|1983]] "[[Islands in the Stream]]" (with [[Kenny Rogers]]) #1 U.S., #7 UK (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] "Save the Last Dance for Me" #45 U.S. (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] "Tennessee Homesick Blues" (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] "God Won't Get You" (#10 COUNTRY)
*[[1985 in music|1985]] "Don't Call it Love" (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1985 in music|1985]] "Real Love" #91 U.S. (with [[Kenny Rogers]]) (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1986 in music|1986]] "Think About Love" (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1987 in music|1987]] "To Know Him is to Love Him" (with [[Emmylou Harris]]) and [[Linda Ronstadt]]) (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1987 in music|1987]] "Telling Me Lies" (with [[Emmylou Harris]]) and [[Linda Ronstadt]]) (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1987 in music|1987]] "Those Memories Of You" (with [[Emmylou Harris]]) and [[Linda Ronstadt]]) (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1988 in music|1988]] "Wildflowers" (with [[Emmylou Harris]]) and [[Linda Ronstadt]]) (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1989 in music|1989]] "Why'd Ya' Come In Here Lookin' Like That?" (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1989 in music|1989]] "Yellow Roses" (#1 COUNTRY) (Backing Vocals : [[Ken Dodd]])
*[[1991 in music|1991]] "Rockin' Years" (with Ricky Van Shelton) (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[2004 in music|2004]] "Baby It's Cold Outside" (with Rod Stewart) (#2 ADULT CONTEMPORARY)
*[[2005 in music|2005]] "When I Get Where I'm Going" (with [[Brad Paisley]]) #39 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
==Charting albums== [http://www.dollymania.net/charta.htm]
*[[1967 in music|1967]] "Hello I’m Dolly" (#11 COUNTRY)
*[[1968 in music|1968]] "Just Between You And Me" (with Porter Wagoner) (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1968 in music|1968]] "Just Because I‘m A Woman" (#22 COUNTRY)
*[[1968 in music|1968]] "Just The Two Of Us" (with Porter Wagoner) #184 U.S. (#11 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] "In The Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)" (#15 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] "Always, Always" (with Porter Wagoner) #162 U.S. (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] "My Blue Ridge Mountain Boy" #194 U.S. (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] "The Fairest Of Them All" (#13 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] "Porter Wayne and Dolly Rebecca" (with Porter Wagoner) #137 U.S. (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in |
<title>Amethyst</title>
<id>1366</id>
<revision>
<id>41252368</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T02:02:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.8.110.18|68.8.110.18]] ([[User talk:68.8.110.18|talk]]) to last version by 85.157.107.161</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
'''Amethyst''' (SiO<sub>2</sub>) is a violet or purple variety of [[quartz]] often used as an [[ornamental stone|ornament]]. The name is generally said to be derived from the Greek ''a'', "not," and ''methuskein'', "to intoxicate," expressing the old belief that the stone protected its owner from [[drunkenness]]. It was held that wine drunk out of a cup of amethyst would not [[Intoxication|intoxicate]]. However, the word may probably be a corruption of an Oriental name for the stone.
[[Image:Amethyst.bed.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A bed of amethyst crystals on base rock, 13cm (5in) long]]
In the [[20th century]], the color of amethyst was attributed to the presence of [[manganese]]. However, since it is capable of being greatly altered and even discharged by heat, the color was believed by some authorities to be from an organic source. [[Iron|Ferric]] [[thiocyanate]] was suggested, and [[sulfur]] was said to have been detected in the mineral. As of 2005, impurity atoms are known to be responsible of the colour of the amethyst.
On exposure to heat, amethyst generally becomes yellow, and much of the [[citrine]], [[cairngorm]], or yellow quartz of jewelry is said to be merely "burnt amethyst". Veins of amethystine quartz are apt to lose their color on the exposed outcrop.
Amethyst is composed of an irregular superposition of alternate [[lamellar structure|lamellae]] of right-handed and left-handed quartz. It has been shown that this structure may be due to mechanical stresses. As a consequence of this composite formation, amethyst is apt to break with a rippled fracture, or to show "thumb markings", and the intersection of two sets of curved ripples may produce on the fractured surface a pattern something like that of "engine turning". Some mineralogists, following Sir [[David Brewster]], apply the name of amethyst to all quartz which exhibits this structure, regardless of color.
[[Image:Amethyst cut.jpg|Amethyst|thumb|250px]]
Amethyst was used as a [[gemstone]] by the ancient [[Egypt]]ians and was largely employed in antiquity for [[intaglio]]s. Beads of amethyst are found in [[Anglo-Saxon]] graves in [[England]]. It is a widely distributed [[mineral]], but fine, clear specimens that are suitable for cutting as ornamental stones are confined to comparatively few localities. Such [[crystal]]s occur either in the cavities of mineral-veins and in [[granite|granitic]] rocks, or as a lining in [[agate]] [[geode]]s. A huge geode, or "amethyst-grotto", from near Santa Cruz in southern [[Brazil]] was exhibited at the [[Düsseldorf]] Exhibition of [[1902]]. Many of the hollow agates of Brazil and [[Uruguay]] contain a crop of amethyst crystals in the interior. Much fine amethyst comes from [[Russia]], especially from near [[Mursinka]] in the [[Ekaterinburg]] district, where it occurs in drusy cavities in granitic rocks. Many localities in [[India]] yield amethyst; and it is found also in [[Sri Lanka]], chiefly as pebbles.
[[Image:Srr046a.jpg|6 Carat Pear Shape Amethyst Ring|thumb|250px]]
Due to its popularity as a gemstone, several descriptive terms have been coined in the gem trade to describe the varying colors of amethyst. "Rose de France" is usually a pale pinkish lavender or lilac shade (usually the least sought color). The most prized color is an intense violet with red flashes and is called "Siberian", although gems of this color may occur from several locations other than [[Siberia]], notably [[Uruguay]] and [[Zambia]]. In more recent times, certain gems (usually of Bolivian origin) that have shown alternate bands of amethyst purple with citrine orange have been given the name [[ametrine]].
Purple [[corundum]], or [[sapphire]] of amethystine tint, is called Oriental amethyst, but this expression is often applied by jewellers to fine examples of the ordinary amethystine quartz, even when not derived from eastern sources. Professional gemological associations, such as the [[Gemological Institute of America]] (GIA) or the [[American Gemological Society]] (AGS), discourage the use of the term "Oriental amethyst" to describe any gem, as it may be misleading.
Amethyst occurs at many localities in the [[United States]], but these specimens are rarely fine enough for use in jewelry. Among these may be mentioned Amethyst Mountain, [[Texas]]; [[Yellowstone National Park]]; [[Delaware County, Pennsylvania]]; [[Haywood County, North Carolina]]; and Deer Hill, and Stow, [[Maine]]. It is found also in the [[Lake Superior]] district. Amethyst is relatively common in northwestern [[Ontario]], but uncommon elsewhere in [[Canada]]; it was selected as the provincial mineral of Ontario in 1975.
==Value==
Traditionally included in the cardinal, or most valuable, gemstones (along with [[diamond]], [[sapphire]], [[ruby]] and [[emerald]]), amethyst has lost much of its substantial value due to the discovery of extensive deposits in locations such as [[Brazil]]. Even high-quality examples are often sold in large unfinished slabs, or as geodes, in everyday locations.
==Amethyst in folklore and astrology==
Amethyst is the [[birthstone]] associated with February. It is also associated with the [[constellation]]s of [[Pisces]], [[Aries]] (especially the violet and purple variety), [[Aquarius]], and [[Sagittarius]]. It is a symbol of heavenly understanding, and of the pioneer in thought and action on the philosophical, religious, spiritual and material planes. Ranking members of the [[Catholic]] Church traditionally wear rings set with a large amethyst as part of their office.
==See also==
{{Commons|Amethyst}}
*[[List of minerals]]
{{1911}}
[[Category:Gemstones]]
[[Category:Quartz varieties]]
[[bg:Аметист]]
[[ca:Ametista]]
[[de:Amethyst]]
[[es:Amatista]]
[[fr:Améthyste]]
[[ga:Aimitis]]
[[he:אחלמה]]
[[hu:Ametiszt]]
[[nl:Amethist]]
[[ja:アメジスト]]
[[pl:Ametyst]]
[[pt:Ametista]]
[[ru:Аметист]]
[[sk:Ametyst]]
[[sl:Ametist]]
[[fi:Ametisti]]
[[sv:Ametist]]
[[uk:Аметист]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albertosaurus</title>
<id>1367</id>
<revision>
<id>41056732</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:55:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sheep81</username>
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<comment>rearrangem,ent</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Albertosaurus''
| fossil_range = [[Late Cretaceous]]
| image = Albertosaurus model.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Archosaur|Archosauria]]
| ordo = [[Saurischia]]
| subordo = [[Theropod|Theropoda]]
| familia = [[Tyrannosaurid|Tyrannosauridae]]
| subfamilia = [[Albertosaurinae]]
| genus = '''''Albertosaurus'''''
| species = '''''A. sarcophagus'''''
| binomial = ''Albertosaurus sarcophagus''
| binomial_authority = [[Henry Fairfield Osborn|Osborn]], 1905
}}
'''''Albertosaurus''''' is a [[genus]] of [[tyrannosaurid]] [[theropod]] [[dinosaur]] from the [[Late Cretaceous]] Period of [[North America]]. It was a large [[bipedal]] [[predator]] with a massive head and tiny forelimbs, much like the better-known ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', although not quite as big. Adults reached up to 30 feet (9 meters) in length.
==Etymology==
The genus ''Albertosaurus'' can be translated as "Alberta lizard" and is named for the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Alberta]], in which it was found. The name also incorporates the [[Greek language|Greek]] term ''sauros'', meaning "lizard," which is the most common suffix used in dinosaur names.
There is one named [[species]] considered valid today (''A. sarcophagus''). This name has the same [[etymology]] as the [[sarcophagus|funeral container]] of the same name: a combination of the Greek words ''sarx'', meaning "flesh," and ''phagos'', meaning "to eat." This refers to its quite obvious carnivorous habits.
Both genus and species were named by famous [[United States|American]] [[paleontologist]] [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] in [[1905]].
==Taxonomy==
''Albertosaurus'' is a member of the family [[Tyrannosauridae]] and is united with the closely related ''Gorgosaurus'' in the subfamily [[Albertosaurinae]]. Holtz (2004) also places the newly described ''[[Appalachiosaurus]]'' in this subfamily, while Carr et al. (2005) do not.
===Invalid Species===
Other species have been named. ''A. arctunguis'', also from Alberta, was found to be a [[junior synonym]] of ''A. sarcophagus'' by Russell (1970). ''A. megagracilis'' (later renamed ''[[Dinotyrannus]]''), is a smaller animal from the [[Hell Creek Formation]] of [[Montana]], and is now thought to be a juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus''.
===Synonymy with Gorgosaurus?===
In [[1970]], [[Dale Russell]] examined [[fossil]]s of both ''Albertosaurus'' and another tyrannosaurid, ''[[Gorgosaurus]]'', which comes from slightly older sediments, and found very few differences to separate them. While retaining the two as different species, he assigned them to the same genus. ''Gorgosaurus libratus'' was not named until [[1914]], so the name ''Albertosaurus'' retained [[ICZN|priority]] as the genus name since it was older, creating the new combination ''Albertosaurus libratus''.
This name found common use for a few decades, but a recent reanalysis of tyrannosaurid [[skull]]s performed by influential paleontologist [[Phil Currie]] in [[2003]] found that the differences are more |
rates coverage of its subject that is comprehensive or authoritative, or both.
As the original meaning of the word indicates, the Jewish and Christian Bibles are actually collections of several books considered by adherents to be inspired by [[God]] or to record God's relationship with humanity or a particular nation.
==The Hebrew Bible==
{{main|Tanakh}}
[[Image:241530 7953 torah.jpg|thumb|The holy Jewish scripture: The Torah. Background: [[Magen David|Star of David]], [[Menorah]].]]
The Hebrew Bible (also known as the Jewish Bible, or תנ"ך, [[Tanakh]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) consists of 24 books. Tanakh is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible: the [[Torah]] (Pentateuch), [[Nevi'im]](Prophets), and [[Ketuvim]] (Writings).
===Torah===
The [[Torah]], or "Teaching," is also known as the five books of [[Moses]], thus [[Humash|Chumash]] or [[Pentateuch]] (Hebrew and Greek for "five," respectively).
The five books are:
*I [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] (''Bereishit'' &#1489;&#1512;&#1488;&#1513;&#1497;&#1514;),
*II [[Exodus]] (''Shemot'' &#1513;&#1502;&#1493;&#1514;),
*III [[Leviticus]] (''Vayikra'' &#1493;&#1497;&#1511;&#1512;&#1488;),
*IV [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] (''Bemidbar'' &#1489;&#1502;&#1491;&#1489;&#1512;), and
*V [[Deuteronomy]] (''Devarim'' &#1491;&#1489;&#1512;&#1497;&#1501;)
The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people.
*The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the [[Creation (theology)|creation]] (or ordering) of the world, and the history of God's early relationship with humanity.
*The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Hebrew patriarchs, [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]] (also called [[Israel]]), and Jacob's children (the "Children of Israel"), especially [[Joseph]]. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt.
*The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of [[Moses]], the greatest Hebrew prophet, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. His story coincides with the story of the liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in Egypt, to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai, and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.
Traditionally, the Torah contains 613 [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]], or commandments, of God, revealed during the passage from slavery in the land of Egypt to freedom in the land of Canaan. These commandments provide the basis for Jewish law [[Halakha]] and are elaborated in the [[Talmud]].
The Torah is divided into fifty-four portions which are read in turn, from the beginning of [[Genesis]] to the end of Deuteronomy, each [[Shabbat|Sabbath]]. The cycle ends and recommences at the end of [[Sukkot]], which is called [[Simchat Torah]].
====The Two Torahs====
By the Hellenistic period of Jewish history, Jews were divided over the nature of the Torah. Some (for example, the [[Sadducees]]) believed that the Chumash contained the entire Torah, that is, the entire contents of what God revealed to Moses at Sinai and in the desert. Others, principally the [[Pharisees]], believed that the Chumash represented only that portion of the revelation that had been written down (i.e., the Written Torah or the Written Law), but that the rest of God's revelation had been passed down orally (thus composing the Oral Law or Oral Torah). Orthodox Jews today believe that the [[Talmud]] consists of the Oral Torah committed to writing.
====The Four Sources====
Although Orthodox Jews generally believe that the Torah was given to the Children of Israel at Sinai "Min Hashamayim", from the heavens &mdash; that is, that God actually dictated the words of [[Torah]] to [[Moses]] atop Mount Sinai &mdash; most [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist Jews]], as well as many liberal Christian scholars, now accept the [[documentary hypothesis]]. This theory posits that the Written Torah has its origins in earlier sources who lived during the time of the monarchy, labeled J (Yahwists), E (Elohim), D (Deuteronomists), and P (Priests). These in turn may go back to oral traditions and/or drew on (and sometimes parodied) earlier [[Ancient Near East|ancient Near Eastern]] mythology. Julius Wellhausen, who in the late 1800s gave this hypothesis a definitive formulation, suggested that these sources were edited together or redacted during the time of [[Ezra]], perhaps by Ezra himself. Since that time Wellhausen's theory has been widely debated by critical scholars (most notably by [[Yehezkel Kaufman]]). Some have questioned the coherence of each of the four sources, and claims that they are the work of four authors or even four distinct traditions. Nevertheless, virtually all non-Orthodox Jews accept that the Bible was written by human beings over some period of time.
Jewish scholars who accept the documentary hypothesis differ as to whether these sources were or were not divinely inspired, and also differ over the nature and extent of their obligation to the 613 commandments and to the body of law represented in the Oral Torah, although each branch of Judaism recognizes both the Written and Oral Torahs as central to Jewish tradition, whether it be conceived of as sacred, national, or cultural.
===Nevi'im===
The [[Nevi'im]], or "Prophets," tells the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, judged the kings and the Children of Israel. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Portions of the prophetic books are read on the Sabbath (Shabbat). The [[Book of Jonah]] is read on [[Yom Kippur]].
According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books. Contemporary translations subdivide these into seventeen books.
The eight books are:
* I. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] or Yehoshua [&#1497;&#1492;&#1493;&#1513;&#1506;]
* II. [[Book of Judges|Judges]] or Shoftim [&#1513;&#1493;&#1508;&#1496;&#1497;&#1501;]
* III. [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] or Shmu'el [&#1513;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1500;] (often divided into two books; Samuel may be considered the last of the judges (his sons were named judges, but rejected by the people) or the first of the prophets; it was he who negotiated on behalf of the Children of Israel with God to anoint a King)
* IV. [[Books of Kings|Kings]] or Melakhim [&#1502;&#1500;&#1499;&#1497;&#1501;] (often divided into two books)
* V. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] or Yeshayahu [&#1497;&#1513;&#1506;&#1497;&#1492;&#1493;]
* VI. [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] or Yirmiyahu [&#1497;&#1512;&#1502;&#1497;&#1492;&#1493;]
* VII. [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] or Yehezq'el [&#1497;&#1495;&#1494;&#1511;&#1488;&#1500;]
* VIII. Trei Asar (The Twelve [[Minor Prophets]]) &#1514;&#1512;&#1497; &#1506;&#1513;&#1512;
*# [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] or Hoshea [&#1492;&#1493;&#1513;&#1506;]
*# [[Book of Joel|Joel]] or Yo'el [&#1497;&#1493;&#1488;&#1500;]
*# [[Book of Amos|Amos]] [&#1506;&#1502;&#1493;&#1505;]
*# [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]] or Ovadyah [&#1506;&#1489;&#1491;&#1497;&#1492;]
*# [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] or Yonah [&#1497;&#1493;&#1504;&#1492;]
*# [[Book of Micah|Micah]] or Mikhah [&#1502;&#1497;&#1499;&#1492;]
*# [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]] or Nachum [&#1504;&#1495;&#1493;&#1501;]
*# [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] or Habaquq [&#1495;&#1489;&#1511;&#1493;&#1511;]
*# [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] or Tsefania [&#1510;&#1508;&#1504;&#1497;&#1492;]
*# [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] [&#1495;&#1490;&#1497;]
*# [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] or Zekharia [&#1494;&#1499;&#1512;&#1497;&#1492;]
*# [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] or Malakhi [&#1502;&#1500;&#1488;&#1499;&#1497;]
The Torah and the Nevi'im have an epical quality, although they have no human hero (Moses and David are, in many ways, antiheroes; one may consider the Children of Israel collectively to be the hero of the epic, or, if one must choose a single character, God).
===Ketuvim===
The [[Ketuvim]], or "Writings," were, according to critical scholars, mostly written during or after the Babylonian Exile and were among the last books to be canonized. According to Rabbinic tradition, many of the psalms in the book of [[Psalms]] are attributed to [[King David]]; [[King Solomon]] wrote three books: [[Song of Songs]] in his youth, [[Book of Proverbs | Proverbs]] at the prime of his life, and [[Ecclesiastes]] at old age; and the prophet [[Jeremiah]] wrote [[Lamentations]]. The [[Book of Job]] is the only Biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew. The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a Moabite) who married a Jew and, upon his death, followed in the ways of the Jews; according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of [[King David]]. Five of the books, called "The Five Scrolls" (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: [[Song of Songs]] on [[Passover]]; the [[Book of Ruth]] on [[Shavuot]]; [[Lamentations]] on the [[Ninth of Av]]; [[Ecclesiastes]] on [[Sukkot]]; and the [[Book of Esther]] on |
on FAQ - Eric Clapton Frequently Asked Questions]
* [http://www.clapton.pl Clapton.pl Polish Unofficial Eric Clapton Website]
* [http://www.guitartablaturearchive.net/ericclaptontabs.html Eric Clapton Guitar Tabs]
* [http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/search.asp?q=Eric+Clapton&pos=2 Eric Clapton at the SoundtrackINFO project]
* [http://crossroadsantigua.org/ Clapton's "Crossroads" Rehab centre, Antigua]
* [http://www.eclapton.co.uk Eric Clapton Forum, dedicated to Eric and his music, join other fans from around the world and discuss the guitar legend]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/entertainment/showbiz/newsid_1740000/1740042.stm ''Clapton marries in secret'', BBC, 3 January, 2002]
* [http://www.bluespower.tk More on Eric]
* [http://www.ericclaptonfaq.com/questions/What_is_Eric_Claptons_real_surname_Clapp_or_Clapton.htm Clapp or Clapton]
* [http://www.eric-clapton.co.uk Unofficial Eric Clapton fansite]
* {{musicbrainz artist|id=618b6900-0618-4f1e-b835-bccb17f84294|name=Eric Clapton}}
[[Category:1945 births|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Living people|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Blues guitarists|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Blues singers|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Blues singer-songwriters|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:British blues musicians|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:British guitarists|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:British male singers|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:British rock musicians|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:English guitarists|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Natives of Surrey|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Rock guitarists|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Rock singer-songwriters|Clapton, Eric]]
[[af:Eric Clapton]]
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[[es:Eric Clapton]]
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[[fr:Eric Clapton]]
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[[it:Eric Clapton]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emerson, Ralph Waldo</title>
<id>10050</id>
<revision>
<id>15907891</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic Data Systems Corp.</title>
<id>10051</id>
<revision>
<id>15907892</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T11:31:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Electronic Data Systems]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic Data Systems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic Data Systems</title>
<id>10052</id>
<revision>
<id>41656493</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T21:09:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.118.135.21</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Electronic Data Systems Corp |
company_logo = [[Image:Logo eds.gif|EDS logo]] |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]]|
company_slogan = |
foundation = [[1962]]|
location = [[Plano, TX]], [[USA]]|
key_people = [[Michael H. Jordan]], Chairman & CEO |
num_employees = 118,000|
industry = [[Information technology]] services |
products = [[Computer Services]]|
revenue = [[Image:red down.png]]$20.669 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]]) |
homepage = [http://www.eds.com/ www.eds.com]
}}
'''Electronic Data Systems''' (EDS) {{nyse|EDS}} ([[London Stock Exchange|LSE]]: [http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/pricesnews/prices/system/detailedprices.htm?sym=US2856611049USGBXIRSQ2310655EDC EDC]) is a global [[IT consulting]] company that defined the [[outsourcing]] business when it was established in 1962 by [[Ross Perot]]. It is headquartered in [[Plano, Texas]]. [[General Motors]] acquired the company in 1984. EDS became an independent company again in 1996. In 2004, it employed 117,000 people located in 60 countries, and reported revenues of US$20.7 billion. EDS is ranked as one of the largest services companies on the FORTUNE 500 list.
For 2004, 56% of revenue came from the Americas (Canada, Latin America, and the United States); 27% from Europe, Middle East, and Africa; 5% from Asia-Pacific; 4% from A.T. Kearney (EDS' management consulting subsidiary); and 8% from "other", such as currency exchange, asset sales, etc. Services' revenue was: Infrastructure 52%, Applications software 24%, Business process outsourcing 12%, A.T. Kearney (management consulting) 4%, and other 8%.
Of historical significance, just prior to the overthrow of the Shah of Iran, EDS was the IT company that developed the Iranian social security information system. During the 1979 overthrow, several EDS employees were detained by the transitioning government of Iran, causing H. Ross Perot to undertake extraordinary clandestine measures to get these employees out of Iran, events told in Ken Follett's book On Wings of Eagles.
In 2006 EDS sold A.T. Kearney by a management buyout.
==Services==
EDS catalogs its services into three service portfolios which are [http://www.eds.com/services/infrastructure/ Infrastructure], [http://www.eds.com/services/apps/ Applications], [[Business Process Outsourcing]] (BPO) [http://www.eds.com/services/bpo/]. Infrastructure services includes maintaining the operation of part or all of a client's computer and communications infrastructure, such as networks, mainframes, "midrange" and Web servers, desktops/laptops, and printers. Applications services involves the developing, integrating, and/or maintaining of applications software for clients. Business process outsourcing includes performing a business function for a client, like payroll, call centers, insurance claims processing, and so forth.
EDS has three [[subsidiaries]] which are [http://www.excelleratehro.com/ ExcellerateHRO], [http://www.solcorp.com/ SOLCORP] and [http://www.wendover.com/ Wendover]. ExcellerateHRO offers [[human resources]] (HR) outsourcing services jointly owned by Towers Perrin. SOLCORP provides software solutions and services for the life insurance and wealth management industries. Wendover supports consumer lending products.
EDS establishes a number of [[business alliances]] with other companies in the EDS Global Alliance program. The alliances are grouped into three which are the [http://www.eds.com/services/alliances/agility/ EDS Agility Alliance], [http://www.eds.com/services/alliances/solution/ Solution Alliances] and [http://www.eds.com/services/alliances/technology/ Technology Alliances].
EDS services a wide range of industries [http://www.eds.com/industries/] including communications, consumer, retail, energy, financial, government, healthcare, manufacturing, and transportation.
===Agile Enterprise===
EDS in 2004 began promoting its [http://www.eds.com/services/agileenterprise/ Agile Enterprise] architecture, which it has developed with partners in the [http://www.eds.com/services/alliances/agility/ EDS Agility Alliance].
Members include [[Cisco Systems]], [[Dell, Inc.]], [[EMC Corporation]], [[Microsoft]], [[Oracle Corporation]], [[SAP AG]], [[Siebel Systems]], [[Sun Microsystems]], [http://www.towersperrin.com Towers Perrin], and [[Xerox]].
The architecture is intended to help clients move from a legacy of 40 years of patchwork systems development to a modern architecture, which EDS claims will be both cheaper to operate and more adaptable to business change.
==Locations==
EDS operates in 60 countries. In the US, EDS' largest locations are in the metropolitan areas of [[Dallas Fort Worth Metroplex|Dallas-Ft. Worth, Texas]], [[Detroit, Michigan]], and [[Northern Virginia]]. There are hundreds of sites throughout the US, in almost every state. In the UK, large sites are in London, Derby, Newcastle, Milton Keynes, Hook, Lytham, Blackpool and Telford. In Canada, major offices are in [[Ottawa]], [[Oshawa]], [[Toronto]], [[St. Catharines]] and [[Calgary]]. [[Brazil]], [[Germany]], [[Australia]],[[New Zealand]] and [[Spain]] also have major facilities.
EDS' [[Plano, Texas]], campus is located about 20 miles (30 km) north of downtown [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]. The campus consists of 3,521,000 square feet (327,000 m&sup2;) of office and data center space on 270 acres (1.1 km&sup2;) of land. It is the center of the 2,665 acre (11 km&sup2;) [http://www.legacyinplano.com/ Legacy in Plano] real estate development, which EDS built.
==Clients==
Most of EDS' clients are very large companies and governments that need services from a company of EDS' scale. EDS' largest client is [[General Motors|GM]] (General Motors), which accounts for 9.7% of EDS' revenue. Since GM has plants in 32 countries, EDS is one of a few IT services companies that can handle that kind of a client. EDS is attempting to cut GM IT costs by offshoring some work to cheaper labour markets such as [[India]], [[China]], [[New Zealand]], [[Brazil]] and [[Spain]].
Another large EDS client is the U.S. Navy. In [[2000]], they won a contract for the creation of a US$9 billion [[intranet]] linking the [[United States Navy|Navy]] and the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]]. This initiative is known as the [[Navy Marine Corps Intranet]], or simply NMCI. In 2004, NMCI accounted for about 4% of EDS' revenue. NMCI has been called the largest private network in the world, with approximately 400,000 "seats". EDS is providing th |
n-aggression pact]] known as the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] in 1939. [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] claims in his memoirs that the Soviets believed this was necessary to buy them time to prepare for an expected war with Germany. Stalin expected the Germans not to attack until 1942, but the pact ended in 1941 when [[Nazi]] Germany invaded the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]]. Fascism and communism reverted to being lethal enemies. The war, in the eyes of both sides, was a war between ideologies.
==Fascism and religion==
{{main|Clerical fascism}}
Some expressions of fascism have been closely linked with religious political movements. This combination is referred to as '''[[Clerical fascism]]''', a prime example of which is the [[Ustashe]] in [[Croatia]].
===Fascism and the Catholic Church===
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A controversial topic is the relationship between fascist movements and the Roman Catholic Church. As mentioned above, [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s [[1891]] [[encyclical]], ''[[Rerum Novarum]]'' included doctrines that fascists used or admired. Forty years later, the corporatist tendencies of ''Rerum Novarum'' were underscored by Pope Pius XI's [[May 25]], [[1931]] encyclical ''[[Quadragesimo Anno]]''{{ref|Quadragesimo}} restated the hostility of ''Rerum Novarum'' to both unbridled competition and [[class struggle]]. The criticism of both socialism and capitalism in these encyclicals was not fascist ''per se'', but by weakening support for either alternative such writings arguably opened the door to fascism.
In the early 1920s, the Catholic party in Italy (''Partito Popolare'') was in the process of forming a coalition with the Reform Party that could have stabilized Italian politics and thwarted Mussolini's projected coup. On [[October 2]], [[1922]], [[Pope Pius XI]] circulated a letter ordering clergy not to identify themselves with the ''Partito Popolare'', but to remain neutral, an act that undercut the party and its alliance against Mussolini. Following Mussolini's rise to power, the Vatican's [[Secretary of State]] met ''Il Duce'' in early 1923 and agreed to dissolve the ''Partito Popolare'', which Mussolini saw as an obstacle to fascist rule. In exchange, the fascists made guarantees regarding Catholic education and institutions.
In 1924, following the murder of the leader of the Socialist Party by fascists, the ''Partito Popolare'' joined with the Socialist Party in demanding that the King dismiss Mussolini as Prime Minister, and stated their willingness to form a coalition government. Pius XI responded by warning against any coalition between Catholics and socialists. The Vatican ordered all priests to resign from the ''Partito Popolare'' and from any positions they held in it. This led to the party's disintegration in rural areas where it relied on clerical assistance.
The Vatican subsequently established [[Catholic Action]] as a non-political lay organization under the direct control of bishops. The organization was forbidden by the Vatican to participate in politics, and thus was not permitted to oppose the fascist regime. Pius XI ordered all Catholics to join Catholic Action. This resulted in hundreds of thousands of Catholics withdrawing from the ''Partito Popolare'', and joining the apolitical Catholic Action. This caused the Catholic Party's final collapse.{{ref|Cephas}}
When Mussolini ordered the closure of Catholic Action in May 1931, Pius XI issued an encyclical, ''[[Wikisource:Non Abbiamo Bisogno|Non Abbiamo Bisogno]]''. This document stated the Catholic Church's opposition to the dissolution, and argued that the order "unmasked the pagan intentions of the Fascist state". Under international pressure, Mussolini decided to compromise, and Catholic Action was saved. For Catholics, the encyclical's disapproval of any system that puts the nation above God or humanity remains doctrine.
Aside from certain ideological similarities, the relationship between the Church and fascist movements in various countries has often been close. An early example is [[Austria]] which developed a quasi-fascist authoritarian Catholic regime some call the "[[Austrofascism|Austro-fascist]]" ''[[Ständestaat]]'' between 1934 and 1938. There is little debate over [[Slovakia]], where the fascist dictator was a Catholic [[monsignor]]; and the [[Independent State of Croatia]], where the fascist [[Ustashe]] identified itself as a Catholic movement. The [[Iron Guard]] in [[Romania]] identified itself as an Eastern Orthodox movement (with no connection to Roman Catholicism), and had particularly strong leanings toward [[clerical fascism]]. (''See also [[Involvement of Croatian Catholic clergy with the Ustaša regime]].'')
The [[Vichy France|Vichy]] regime in France was also deeply influenced by the reactionary Catholic-influenced ideology of the ''[[Action Française]]''. This group had actually been led by an agnostic and condemned by the Catholic Church in 1926. Many of its members were reactionary Catholics so this condemnation damaged the group, but then in 1938 the condemnation was lifted. Conversely, many Catholic priests were persecuted under the Nazi regime, and many Catholic laypeople and clergy played notable roles in sheltering [[Jew]]s during [[the Holocaust]].
===Fascism and the Protestant churches===
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Protestantism in Italy and Spain was not as significant as Catholicism. The connection between the German form of Fascism, Nazism, and Protestantism has long been debated, with some saying that the Protestant denominations, especially the German Lutheran Church, was close. According to some scholars, especially Richard Steigman-Gall (''The Holy Reich: Protestantism and the Nazi
Movement, 1920-1945'') the relationship was collaborationist. Hitler, in his manifesto, ''Mein Kampf'', listed [[Martin Luther]] as one of Germany's great historic reformers. In Luther's 1543 book ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', Luther advocated the burning of [[synagogue]]s and schools, the [[deportation]] of Jews, and many other measures that resemble the actions later taken by the Nazis.
The overwhelming majority of Protestant church leaders in Germany made no comment on the Nazis' growing anti-Jewish activities. Many Protestants opposed the governments of the [[Weimar Republic]] in the 1920s which they saw as coalitions between the Socialists and the Catholic Centre party. In 1932, many German Protestants joined together to form the [[German Christians|German Christian Movement]] which enthusiastically supported Nazi propaganda, and sought to join Church and State. 3,000 of the 17,000 Protestant pastors in Germany were to join the movement. Hitler wished to unite a Protestant church of 28 different federations into one nationalist body. Pastor [[Ludwig Müller]], the leader of the German Christian Movement, was soon appointed Hitler's advisor on religious affairs. He was elected Reich's Bishop in charge of the German Protestant churches in 1933.
An "Aryan Paragraph" was introduced to the constitution which stated that no one of non-Aryan background, or married to anyone of non-Aryan background, could serve as either a pastor or church official. Pastors and officials who had married a non-Aryan were to be dismissed. Much of the [[Lutheran]] and [[Methodist]] establishment in Germany had fallen behind Hitler in his promise to oppose [[Bolshevism]] and instability.
The new measures began to raise some opposition to the German Christians from a minority of Lutherans and Evangelicals who had become increasingly disillusioned with unethical practices of the Nazis and disliked state interference in church affairs. [[Dietrich Bonhoffer]], a Lutheran pastor (though arguably of a liberal theological persuasion), was vocal in his opposition of the Nazis. Though there is some debate as to his actual involvement in planning the assassination attempt of Hitler, he was found guilty and executed for his alleged part in the conspiracy. A small group of Protestant clergy under [[Martin Niemoeller]] and Dietrich Bonhoffer separated from the main churches to form the [[Confessing Church]]. The group had limited effect, however, as it was forced to meet secretly and was dispersed by the Nazis by 1939, and the effect of Protestantism on inhibiting Nazism in Germany was limited at best.
==Fascism as an international phenomenon==
It is often a matter of dispute whether a certain government is to be characterized as fascist, authoritarian, totalitarian, or a police state. Regimes that are alleged to have been either fascist or sympathetic to fascism include:
[[Austria]] ([[1933]]-[[1938]]) - [[Austro-fascism]]: Dollfuß dissolved parliament and established a clerical-fascist dictatorship which lasted until Austria was incorporated into Germany through the ''[[Anschluss]]''. Dollfuß's idea of a "Ständestaat" was borrowed from Mussolini.
[[Italy]] ([[1922]]-[[1943]]) - The first fascist country, it was ruled by Benito Mussolini (''Il Duce'') until he was dismissed and arrested on the [[25 July]] [[1943]]. Mussolini was then rescued from prison by German troops, and set up a short lived puppet state named "Repubblica di Salò" in northern Italy under the protection of the German army.
[[Germany]] ([[1933]]-[[1945]]) - Ruled by the Nazi movement of [[Adolf Hitler]] ''(der Führer)''. In the terminology of the Allies, Nazi Germany was as their chief enemy the mightiest and best-known fascist [[state]]. See above for a discussion on the differences and similarities between Nazism and fascism.
[[Japan]] ([[1931]]-[[1945]]) - Right-wing elements in Japan,
including industrialists, military officers, and the nobility,
had long opposed democracy as anathema to national unity. Military cliques begun to dominate the national government starting in the 1930s. In [[1936]], Japan and Germany signed the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]], aimed at countering |
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
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<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number! There's something wrong with the infobox and Software2 has been deprecated, so I'm changing this infobox and I'll ignore the warning above-->{{Infobox_Software| name = Apache HTTP Server
|screenshot = [[Image:Apache_HTTPd_logo.png|355px|center|Apache HTTPd Logo]]
|caption =
|developer = [[Apache Software Foundation]]
|latest_release_version =
|latest_release_date =
|latest_preview_version =
|latest_preview_date =
|operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
|genre = [[HTTP web server]]
|license =
|website = [http://www.apache.org/ www.apache.org]
}}
<!--[[Image:Apache_HTTPd_logo.png|355px|right|Apache HTTPd Logo]] -->
'''Apache HTTP Server''' is a [[free software]]/[[open-source software|open source]] [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]] [[web server]] for [[Unix]]-like systems ([[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], [[Linux]], and [[Unix|UNIX systems]]), [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Novell NetWare]] and other platforms. Apache is notable for playing a key role in the initial growth of the [[World Wide Web]], and continues to be the most popular web server in use, serving as the reference platform against which other web servers are designed and judged.
Apache features highly configurable error messages, [[Database management system|DBMS]]-based authentication databases, and [[content negotiation]]. It is also supported by several [[graphical user interface]]s (GUIs) which permit easier, more intuitive configuration of the server.
The Apache HTTP Server is developed and maintained by an open community of developers under the auspices of the [[Apache Software Foundation]].
==History==
Apache web server was originally created by [[Robert McCool|Rob McCool]], who was heavily involved with the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] web server, known simply as [[NCSA HTTPd]]. When Rob left NCSA in mid-1994, the development of httpd stalled, leaving a variety of patches for improvements circulating through e-mails.
Rob McCool was not alone in his efforts. Several other developers helped form the original "Apache Group": [[Brian Behlendorf]], [[Roy Fielding|Roy T. Fielding]], [[Rob Hartill]], David Robinson, Cliff Skolnick, Randy Terbush, Robert S. Thau, Andrew Wilson, Eric Hagberg, Frank Peters, and Nicolas Pioch.
The author claims the name was initially chosen as a catchy name in order to be original, but the most widespread interpretation (which almost immediately surfaced) is that the name comes from the fact that when it was developed in early [[1995]], it consisted of changes in the code to the most popular HTTP server of the time, [[NCSA HTTPd]] 1.3 and was therefore "a patchy" server. However, in the FAQ on the server's official site, it is stated: "The name 'Apache' was chosen from respect for the Native American Indian tribe of [[Apache]] (Indé), well-known for their superior skills in warfare strategy and their inexhaustible endurance".
At the time, Apache was the only viable [[open source]] alternative to the [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]] web server (currently known as [[Sun Java System Web Server]]). It has since evolved to rival other [[Unix]]-based [[HTTP]] servers in terms of functionality and performance. Since April [[1996]] Apache has been the most popular HTTP server on the [[Internet]]. By May [[1999]] Apache installations served 57% of all [[web site]]s. Its popularity continued to rise, and in February 2006 Apache served 68% of all [[web site]]s ([http://news.netcraft.com/archives/2006/02/02/february_2006_web_server_survey.html Netcraft Web Server Survey, February 2006]). [[Microsoft]]'s [[Internet Information Services]] (IIS) is the main competitor to Apache, trailed by Sun Microsystem's [[Sun Java Web Server]] and a host of other applications such as [[Zeus Web Server|Zeus]].
==License==
{{main|Apache License}}
The [[Open-source license|License]] under which software from the Apache Foundation is distributed is a distinctive part of the Apache HTTP Server's history and presense in the open source software environment. The Apache License is atypical in that it allows for the distribution of both open- and closed-source [[Fork (software development)|derivations]] of the source code.
Furthermore, it is perhaps surprising that the [[Free Software Foundation]] does not consider the Apache License to be "compatible" with the [[GPL]], meaning that software licensed under the Apache License cannot be integrated with software that is distributed under the GPL. Here is what the FSF says about the Apache License:
:This is a free software license but it is incompatible with the GPL. The Apache Software License is incompatible with the GPL because it has a specific requirement that is not in the GPL: it has certain patent termination cases that the GPL does not require. (We don't think those patent termination cases are inherently a bad idea, but nonetheless they are incompatible with the GNU GPL.)
==Usage==
Apache is primarily used to serve static and [[Dynamic Web page|dynamic]] content on the World Wide Web. Many [[Web application|web applications]] are designed expecting the environment and features that Apache provides.
Apache is the web server component of the popular [[web server application stack]] called [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP]] ([[Linux]], Apache, [[MySQL]], [[PHP]]/[[Perl]]/[[Python programming language|Python]]).
Apache is redistributed as part of various [[proprietary software|proprietary]] packages,for example: the [[Oracle database]] or the [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[WebSphere]] [[application server]]. [[Mac OS X]] integrates Apache as its built-in web server. It is also supported in some way by [[Borland]] in the [[Kylix programming tool|Kylix]] and [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]] development tools. Apache is included with [[Novell Netware]] 6.5, where it is the default web server.
Apache is used for many other tasks where content needs to be made available in a secure and reliable way. One example is sharing files off of a personal computer over the Internet. A user who has Apache installed on their desktop can put arbitrary files in the Apache's document root which can then be shared.
Programmers developing web applications often use a locally installed version of Apache in order to preview and test code as it is being developed.
==Features==
Apache supports a variety of features, many implemented as compiled modules which extend the core functionality. These can range from server-side programming language support to authentication schemes. Some common language interfaces support [[mod_perl|Perl]], [[mod_python|Python]], [[Apache Rivet|Tcl]], and [[PHP]]. Popular authentication modules include mod_access, mod_auth, and mod_digest. A sample of other features include [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]] and [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]] support (mod_ssl), a [[proxy server|proxy]] module, a useful URL rewriter (also known as a [[rewrite engine]], implemented under mod_rewrite), custom log files (mod_log_config), and filtering support (mod_include and mod_ext_filter). Apache logs can be analysed through a web browser using free scripts such as [[AWStats]] or [[Visitors]].
==Apache 2==
Version 2 of the Apache server was written from scratch and contains no code from NCSA. The Apache 2.x core has several major enhancements over Apache 1.x. These include [[Thread (computer science)|UNIX threading]], better support for non-Unix platforms (such as Windows), a new Apache [[application programming interface|API]], and [[IPv6]] support.
Version 2.2 introduced a new auth API that allows for more flexibility, it also features improved cache modules and proxy modules.
==See also==
* [[Comparison of web servers]]
* [[Stronghold (software)|Stronghold]], commercial version formerly distributed by [[Red Hat]]
* [[ApacheBench]]
* [[POSSE project]]
==External links==
* [http://www.apache.org/dist/httpd/binaries/win32/ Apache download page] ''Excellent site for beginners to download Apache.''
* [http://httpd.apache.org/ Apache official website]
* [http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.0/new_features_2_0.html New Features in Apache 2.0]
* [http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/new_features_2_2.html New Features in Apache 2.2]
* [http://svn.apache.org/viewcvs.cgi/httpd/httpd/trunk/ SVN trunk of Apache 2.x]
* [http://apache.on-the-net.com/ Apache GUIs]
* [http://uptime.netcraft.com/up/ Netcraft Uptime Survey], a service tracking uptime of web servers
* [http://www.onlamp.com/apache/ Apache DevCenter]
* [http://www.apacheweek.com/ Apache Week]
* [http://www.apachenews.org/ Apache News Online]
* [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Software/Internet/Servers/WWW/Apache/ Links at Open Directory Project]
* [http://linuxtecharticles.com/chrootingapache.html Learn how to secure Apache, with a jail]
==Further Reading==
*{{cite book | author=Lopez, Daniel | title= Sams Teach Yourself Apache 2 in 24 Hours| publisher= Sams| year= June 12, 2002| id=ISBN 0672323559}} Excellent easy to use book, the 3rd chapter, which explains how to install Apache, can be viewed on Amazon.com [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0672323559/ here] ''(must register with Amazon first before viewing book pages)'' Page 45 explains how to download Apache on windows.
*{{cite book | author= Wrightson, Katherine| title=Apache Server 2.0: A Beginner's Guide | publisher= Osborne/McGraw-Hill| year= September 5, 2001| id=ISBN 007219183X}} Complex language makes this guide difficult to understand except for computer administrators familiar with the jargon.
[[Category:Web server software]]
[[Category:Apache Software Foundation projects|HTTP Server]]
{{FOLDOC}}
[[cs:Apache HTTP Server]]
[[da:Apa |
serif"> פ </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| צ
<span style="font-family: serif"> צ </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ק
<span style="font-family: serif"> ק </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ר
<span style="font-family: serif"> ר </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ש
<span style="font-family: serif"> ש </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ת
<span style="font-family: serif"> ת </span>
|-
| ||style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ם
<span style="font-family: serif"> ם </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ן
<span style="font-family: serif"> ן </span>
|||||style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ף
<span style="font-family: serif"> ף </span>
|style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top| ץ
<span style="font-family: serif"> ץ </span>
|||||style="font-size:300%" height=40 valign=top|
|}
==Description==
Both the old Hebrew script and the modern Hebrew script have only one [[Case (orthography)|case]], but in the modern script some letters have special [[final form|final forms]] used only at the end of a word. This is similar to the [[Arabic alphabet]], although much simpler. The Hebrew alphabet is an [[abjad]]: [[vowel|vowels]] are normally not indicated. Where they are it is because a weak [[consonant]] such as א ''alef'', ה he, ו ''vav'', or י ''yod'' has combined with a previous vowel and become silent or by imitation of such cases in spelling of other forms.
To preserve the proper vowel sounds, scholars developed several different sets of [[diacritic]] symbols called ''[[nikud]]'' (ניקוד; literally: "applying points"). One of these, the Tiberian system, eventually prevailed. [[Aaron ben Moses ben Asher]], and his family for several generations, are credited for refining and maintaining the system. These points are normally used only for special purposes, such as [[Bible|Biblical]] books intended for study, in [[poetry]], or when teaching the language to children. The Tiberian system also includes a set of [[cantillation]] marks used to indicate how scriptural passages should be chanted, used in synagogue recitations of scripture (although these marks do not appear in the scrolls).
Hebrew letters may also be used as [[number|numbers]]; see the entry on [[Hebrew numerals]]. This use of letters as numbers is used in [[Kabbalah]] ([[Judaism|Jewish]] [[mysticism]]) in a practice known as [[gematria]].
==Main table==
The following table is a breakdown of each letter in the Hebrew alphabet, describing its written [[glyph]] or glyphs, its name or names, its [[Latin script]] [[transliteration]] values used in academic work, and its [[pronunciation]] in reconstructed historical forms and [[dialect|dialects]] using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]. If two glyphs are shown for a letter, then the left-most glyph is the Final form of the letter (or right-most glyph if your browser doesn't support right-to-left text layout).
===Name and transliteration===
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=3 | Symbol
!! colspan=6 | Name
!! colspan=4 | Transliteration
|-
! colspan=3 | Academic !! rowspan=2 | Uni-<br>code Stan-<br>dard !! rowspan=2 | [[Israeli Hebrew|Israeli]]
!! rowspan=2 | Ash-<br>kenazi
!! colspan=3 |Academic !! rowspan=2 | Israeli
|-
! [[Unicode|Uni-<br>code]] !! [[Typeface|Font]]-friendly !! [[ISO-8859-1]]-friendly !! Uni-<br>code!! Font-friendly!! ISO-8859-1-friendly
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|א
|| {{unicode|ʾā́lep̄}} || ’āleph || 'àleph
|| alef || alef || alef
|| {{unicode|ʾ}} || ’ || '
|| ' (1)
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ב
|| {{unicode|bêṯ, ḇêṯ}} || bêth, bhêth || bêth, bhêth
|| bet || bet, vet || beis, veis
|| {{unicode|b, ḇ}} || b, bh || b, bh
|| b, v
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ג
|| {{unicode|gímmel, ḡímel}} || gímel, ghímel || gímel, ghímel
|| gimel || gimel || gimmel
|| {{unicode|g, ḡ}} || g, gh || g, gh
|| g
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ד
| {{unicode|dā́leṯ, ḏā́leṯ}} || dāleth, dhāleth || dàleth, dhàleth
|| dalet || dalet || doles
|| {{unicode|d, ḏ}} || d, dh || d, dh
|| d
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ה
|| ? || hê || hê
|| he || he, hei, e, ei || hei
|| {{unicode|h, Ḏ}} || ? || ?
|| h (2)
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ו
|| {{unicode|wāw}} || wāw || wàw
|| vav || vav || vov, vof
|| ? || w || w
|| v
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ז
|| ? || záyin || záyin
|| zayin || zayin || zayin
||? || z || z
|| ?
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ח
|| {{unicode|ḥêṯ, (3) ḫêṯ}} || ħêth, (3) xêth || h`êth, (3) xêth
|| het || chet || ches
|| {{unicode|ḥ, (3) ḫ}} || ħ, (3) x || h`, (3) x
|| kh, ch (4)
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ט
|| {{unicode|ṭêṯ}} || ţêth || t`êth
|| tet || tet || tes
|| {{unicode|ṭ}} || ţ || t`
|| t
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|י
|| {{unicode|yôḏ}} || yôdh || yôdh
|| yod || yod, yud || yud
|| ? ||y || y
|| y, i (8)
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ך כ
|| {{unicode|kāp̄, ḵāp̄}} || kāph, khāph || kàph, khàph
|| kaf || kaf, chaf || kof, chof
|| {{unicode|k, ḵ}} || k, kh || k, kh
|| k, ch
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ל
|| {{unicode|lā́meḏ}} || lāmedh || làmedh
|| lamed || lamed || lomed
|| ? || l || l
|| l
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ם מ
|| mēm || mēm || mèm
|| mem || mem || mem
|| ? || m|| m
|| m
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ן נ
|| ? || nûn || nûn
|| nun || nun || nun
|| ? || n || n
|| n
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ס
|| {{unicode|sā́mekh}} || sāmekh || sàmekh
|| samekh || samech || somech
|| ? || s|| s
|| s
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ע
|| {{unicode|ʿáyin,}} (3) {{unicode|ġáyin}} || ‘áyin, (3) ġáyin || `áyin, (3) 3áyin
|| ayin || ayin || ayin, oyin
|| {{unicode|ʿ}}, (3) {{unicode|ġ}} || ‘, (3) ġ || `, (3) 3
|| ' (9)
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ף פ
|| {{unicode|pê, p̄ê}} || pê, phê || pê, phê
|| pe || pe, pei, fe/fei || pei, fei
|| {{unicode|p, p̄}} || p, ph || p, ph
|| p, f
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ץ צ
|| {{unicode|ṣāḏê}} || şādhê || s`àdhê
|| tsadi || tzadi, tzadik || tsodi, tsodik
|| {{unicode|ṣ}} || ş || s`
|| tz, ts, z
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ק
|| {{unicode|qōp̄}} || qôph || qôph
|| qof || kof, kuf || kuf
|| ? || k || k
|| q
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ר
|| {{unicode|rêš}} || rêš || rêsh
|| resh || resh, reish || reish
|| ? || r|| r
|| r
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ש
|| {{unicode|šîn, śîn}} || šîn, śîn || shîn, lhîn
|| shin || shin, sin || shin, sin
|| {{unicode|š, ś}} || š, ś || sh, lh
|| sh, s
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ת
|| {{unicode|tāw, ṯāw}} || tāw, thāw || tàw, thàw
|| tav || tav, taf || tov, tof, sov, sof
|| {{unicode|t, ṯ}} || t, th || t, th
|| t
|}
===Numerical value and pronunciation===
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=3 | Symbol
!! rowspan=3 | Numerical<br>Value
!! colspan=7 | Pronunciation ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
|-
!! rowspan=2 | [[Israeli Hebrew|Modern Israeli]]
!! rowspan=2 | [[Ashkenazi Hebrew language|Ashkenazi]]
!! rowspan=2 | [[Sephardi Hebrew language|Sephardi]]
!! rowspan=2 | [[Yemenite Hebrew language|Yemenite]]
!! rowspan=2 | [[Tiberian Hebrew|Tiberian]]
!! colspan=2 | Reconstructed
|-
! [[Mishnaic Hebrew|Mishnaic]] !! [[Biblical Hebrew|Biblical]]
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|א
|| 1
|| [ [[glottal stop|{{IPA|ʔ}}]], - {{IPA|]}} || [ - ] || {{IPA|[ ʔ, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʔ, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʔ, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʔ, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʔ ]}}
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ב
|| 2
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced bilabial plosive|b]], [[voiced labiodental fricative|v]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ b, v~v̥ ]}} || {{IPA|[ b, b~[[voiced bilabial fricative|β]]~v ]}} || {{IPA|[ b ]}} || {{IPA|[ b, v ]}} || {{IPA|[ b, β ]}} || {{IPA|[ b ]}}
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ג
|| 3
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced velar plosive|ɡ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɡ~ɡ̊ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɡ, ɡ~[[voiced velar fricative|ɣ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiced postalveolar affricate|ʤ]], ɣ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɡ, ɣ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɡ, ɣ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɡ ]}}
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ד
|| 4
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced alveolar plosive|d]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ d~d̥ ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiced dental plosive|d̪]]~[[voiced dental fricative|ð]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ d̪, ð ]}} || {{IPA|[ d̪, ð ]}} || {{IPA|[ d̪, ð ]}} || {{IPA|[ d̪ ]}}
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ה
|| 5
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless glottal fricative|h]]~[[glottal stop|ʔ]], - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h ]}}
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ו
|| 6
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced labiodental fricative|v]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ v~v̥ ]}} || {{IPA|[ v ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[labial-velar approximant|w]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ w ]}} || {{IPA|[ w ]}} || {{IPA|[ w ]}}
|-
| align="center" style="font-size:200%"|ז
|| 7
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ z~z̥ ]}} || {{IPA |
ramming language|C]]'s syntax for incrementing a variable in place, and it highlights the verbosity of COBOL's syntax compared to C. The joke is that in C, the expression "C++" increments "C" (hence the name of the incrementally-extended language C++), whereas the equivalent in COBOL would be an unusably long name for a language.
=== Defense ===
On the other hand, COBOL is not one of the approximately 4000 academic languages. It is a business language used globally. Advocates claim that typically those who criticize the language have never been COBOL programmers and often misrepresent it. As software technology advances, COBOL incorporates the strong and proven developments. All computer fads have produced some good ideas along with a lot of failed ideas. This includes the [[Computer-aided software engineering|CASE]] era of the 1980s which was supposed to eliminate the programmer, the [[Object-oriented programming|OO]] era of the 1990s which was supposed to minimize code redundancy and prevent runtime aborts, and the [[Model-driven architecture|MDA]] era beginning around 2000, which is supposed to eliminate the programmer and computer languages altogether. The charter of COBOL to provide functionality while maintaining reliability and stability in applications will always be challenged by language advocates with another way to do something - "one more function".
As far as COBOL's syntax, in almost all modern COBOL implementations, the compilers are not case sensitive, although the compiler will capitalize all keywords prior to parsing.
If one wants to make COBOL more verbose than it has to be, one usually can. For example the COBOL code for the quadratic equation
<math>
x=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt {b^2-4ac\ }}{2a}.
</math>
can be written, using the "compute" verb, which can handle quite complex and deeply-nested statements in algebraic form, like this:
COMPUTE X = (-B + (B ** 2 - (4 * A * C)) **.5) / (2 * A)
or this:
MULTIPLY B BY B GIVING B-SQUARED.
MULTIPLY 4 BY A GIVING FOUR-A.
MULTIPLY FOUR-A BY C GIVING FOUR-A-C.
SUBTRACT FOUR-A-C FROM B-SQUARED GIVING RESULT-1.
COMPUTE RESULT-2 = RESULT-1 ** .5.
SUBTRACT B FROM RESULT-2 GIVING NUMERATOR.
MULTIPLY 2 BY A GIVING DENOMINATOR.
DIVIDE NUMERATOR BY DENOMINATOR GIVING X.
== See also ==
Other third-generation programming languages:
* [[Algol programming language|ALGOL]]
* [[APL programming language|APL]]
* [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]]
* [[Fortran|FORTRAN]]
* [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]]
* [[PL/I]]
* [[RPG programming language|RPG]]
* [[C programming language|C]]
* [[C++]]
* [[Java programming language|Java]]
* [[C Sharp programming language|C#]]
== References ==
* [[Jean E. Sammet|Sammet, J.E.]] (1981). "The Early History of COBOL." In ''History of Programming Languages,'' by Wexelblat, R.L., ed. New York: [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] Monograph Series.
== External links ==
* [http://home.comcast.net/~wmklein/FAQ/COBOLFAQ.htm COBOL FAQ]
* [http://www.cobol.com/ COBOL.com - The COBOL Community]
* [http://www.cobolstandards.com/ COBOL-Standard Committee]
* [http://www.cs.vu.nl/COBOL COBOL grammar and COBOL research]
* [http://www.cobolportal.com/ COBOLPortal]
* [http://www.cobolreport.com CobolReport.com]
* [http://www.infogoal.com/cbd/cbdhome.htm The COBOL Center]
* [http://www.csis.ul.ie/cobol/default.htm COBOL Tutorial]
* [http://cobol.404i.com/ COBOL Beginners Tutorial]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Eureka/2006/ring.htm "All Things COBOL" webring]
* [http://www.cobug.com/ COBOL User Groups : COBUG]
* [http://www-306.ibm.com/software/awdtools/cobol/ IBM COBOL including Mainframe (zOS)]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/mvstips COBOL & Mainframe related Discussion Group]
* [http://endway.50webs.com COBOL & Mainframe related Resources]
{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:COBOL| ]]
[[ar:كوبول]]
[[bs:COBOL]]
[[cs:COBOL]]
[[da:COBOL]]
[[de:COBOL]]
[[es:COBOL]]
[[eo:COBOL]]
[[fr:Cobol]]
[[gl:Cobol]]
[[ko:코볼]]
[[hr:Cobol]]
[[id:COBOL]]
[[ia:COBOL]]
[[it:COBOL]]
[[he:COBOL]]
[[lt:Cobol]]
[[hu:COBOL programozási nyelv]]
[[nl:COBOL]]
[[ja:COBOL]]
[[no:COBOL]]
[[pl:COBOL]]
[[pt:COBOL]]
[[ru:КОБОЛ]]
[[sk:COBOL]]
[[sl:COBOL]]
[[fi:COBOL]]
[[sv:COBOL]]
[[th:ภาษาโคบอล]]
[[tr:COBOL]]
[[uk:Кобол]]
[[zh:COBOL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crew</title>
<id>6801</id>
<revision>
<id>36859862</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T23:07:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Bringing "External links", "See also" and "Reference" sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''crew''' comprises a body or a class of people who work at a common activity, generally in a structured or [[hierarchy | hierarchical]] organization. The word has particular nautical resonances: the tasks involved in operating a [[ship]], particularly a [[sailing ship]], providing numerous specialities within a ship's crew, often organised with a [[chain of command]]. Traditional nautical usage strongly distinguishes [[Commissioned officer|officer]]s from crew, though the two groups combined form the ship's company. Members of a crew are often referred to by the title "[[Crewman]]" and as well as "[[Crewmember]]".
Occasionally, a crew may refer to a [[gang]], especially if involved in some illicit activity.
For a specific [[sport]]ing usage, see [[sport rowing]].
The word "crew" may also refer to a '''stage crew''', which are the stage hands at such events as plays or any type of show related to a [[theater]] or theatrical production.
==See also==
*[[J.Crew]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Schiffsbesatzung]]
[[no:Mannskap]]
[[pl:Za&#322;oga]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CCD</title>
<id>6803</id>
<revision>
<id>37250898</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T20:12:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
<id>119438</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''CCD''' can stand for:
*[[Charge-coupled device]]
*[[California College Democrats]]
*[[Confraternity of Christian Doctrine]]
*[[Carbonate Compensation Depth]]
*[[Census County Division]], a term used by the [[United States Census Bureau]]
*[[Council for a Community of Democracies]]
*[[Cleidocranial dysostosis]]
*[[MiniCD]]
*[[Camouflage]], [[concealment]] and [[deception]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:CCD]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charge-coupled device</title>
<id>6804</id>
<revision>
<id>41913944</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:06:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.170.107.68</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CCD.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A specially developed CCD used for [[ultraviolet]] imaging in a wire bonded package.]]
A '''charge-coupled device''' ('''CCD''') is a [[sensor]] for recording images, consisting of an [[integrated circuit]] containing an array of linked, or coupled, [[capacitor]]s. Under the control of an external circuit, each capacitor can transfer its electric [[charge]] to one or other of its neighbours. CCDs are used in [[digital photography]] and [[astronomy]] (particularly in [[Photometry (astronomy)|photometry]], optical and [[UV]] [[spectroscopy]] and high speed techniques such as [[lucky imaging]]).
== History ==
The CCD was invented in [[1969]] by [[Willard Boyle]] and [[George E. Smith|George Smith]] at AT&T [[Bell Labs]]. The lab was working on the Picture-phone and on the development of semiconductor [[bubble memory]]. Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed 'Charge "Bubble" Devices'. The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a [[semiconductor]]. As the CCD started its life as a memory device, one could only "inject" charge into the device at an input register. However, it was immediately clear that the CCD could receive charge via the [[photoelectric effect]] and electronic images could be created. By [[1970]] Bell researchers were able to capture images with simple linear devices; thus the CCD was born. Several companies, including [[Fairchild Semiconductor]], [[RCA]] and [[Texas Instruments]], picked up on the invention and began development programs. Fairchild was the first with commercial devices and by [[1974]] had a linear 500 element device and a 2-D 100 x 100 pixel device.
In January 2006, Boyle and Smith recieved the [[Charles Stark Draper Prize]] which is presented by the [[National Academy of Engineering]] for their work on the CCD.
== Applications ==
CCDs containing grids of [[pixel]]s are used in [[digital camera]]s, [[image scanner|optical scanners]] and video cameras as light-sensing devices. They commonly respond to 70% of the [[wiktionary:incident|incident]] light (meaning a [[quantum efficiency]] of about 70%) making them more efficient than photographic film, which captures only about 2% of the incident light. As a result CCDs were rapidly adopted by astronomers.
[[Image:CCD line sensor.JPG|thumb|right|One-dimensional CCD from a [[fax machine]].]]
An image is projected by a [[Lens (optics)|lens]] on the capacitor array, causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the [[light]] intensity at that location. A one-dimensional array, used in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of the image, while a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures the whole image or a rectangular portion of it. Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control cir |
e potential effects of [[quantum computing]] are already being considered by good cryptographic system designers.
==Modern cryptography==
The modern field of cryptography can be broken down into several areas of study. The following are the main ones, but they are not the only ones.
===Symmetric-key cryptography===
''Main article'': [[Symmetric key algorithm]]
Symmetric-key cryptography refers to encryption methods in which both the sender and receiver share the same key (or in which their keys are different, but related in an easily computable way). Other terms include ''secret-key'', ''private-key'', ''one-key'' and ''single-key'' cryptography. This was the only kind of encryption known for all of recorded history until 1976.
[[Image:SAFER.png|thumbnail|One iteration (out of 6&ndash;10) of the block cipher [[SAFER]]-K. Modern computer-implemented ciphers can be a lot more complex than those performed by hand or electromechanical machines.]]
The study of modern symmetric-key cryptography relates mainly to the study of [[block ciphers]] and [[stream ciphers]] and their applications. A [[block cipher]] is the modern form of a polyalphabetic cipher: block ciphers take a block of plaintext data and a key, and output a block of ciphertext data of the same size. Block ciphers are not secure cryptosystems themselves (by modern standards, it is unacceptable for the encryption of a single plaintext to always be the same), but may be used in a [[Block cipher modes of operation|mode of operation]] such as [[cipher block chaining|CBC mode]] to implement secure encryption. [[DES]] and [[AES]] are block ciphers accepted as [[cryptography standards]], but many others have been proposed; see [[:Category:Block ciphers|Category:Block ciphers]].
Stream ciphers, by contrast, use a key but no plaintext input, and produce a [[Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator|pseudorandom]] output stream. To encrypt with a stream cipher, the output is combined with the plaintext, as in the [[one-time pad]]. [[RC4]] is an example of a well-known stream cipher; see [[:Category:Stream ciphers|Category:Stream ciphers]].
Symmetric-key cryptography encompasses problems other than encryption, mainly those that can be accomplished with block ciphers. For instance:
* [[Cryptographic hash functions]] take a long input (often a message) and output a short [[hash function|hash]] of it. Despite that infintitely many [[hash collision]]s must exist (pairs of inputs that lead to the same output), they should be difficult for any efficient algorithm to find. [[MD5]] and [[SHA-1]] are well-known examples of cryptographic hash functions; see [[:Category:Cryptographic hash functions|Category:Cryptographic hash functions]].
* [[Message authentication code]]s (MACs) are much like cryptographic hash functions, except that a secret key is needed to compute the value. As the name suggests, MACs can be used for ''message authentication''.
===Public-key cryptography===
''Main article'': [[Public-key cryptography]]
Symmetric-key cryptosystems either use the same key for encryption and decryption, or the key used for decryption is easily calculated from the key used for encryption. The main drawback of symmetric ciphers is that the two communicating parties must share a secret key: it may be difficult to initially establish the secret. In a groundbreaking 1976 paper, [[Whitfield Diffie]] and [[Martin Hellman]] proposed the notion of ''public-key'' cryptography in which two different but related keys are used: one for encryption and one for decryption (public-key cryptography is also called ''asymmetric-key'' cryptography because of the difference between the keys). In a public-key cryptosystem, the encryption key may be freely distributed, as long as the decryption key remains secret, hence, the encryption key is the ''public key'' and the decryption key is the ''private'' or ''secret key''. Diffie and Hellman showed that public-key cryptography was possible by presenting the [[Diffie-Hellman]] key exhange protocol. In [[1978]], [[Ronald Rivest]], [[Adi Shamir]], and [[Len Adleman]] invented [[RSA]], the first public-key cipher. However, in [[1997]], it became known that asymmetric cryptography was first invented secretly at [[GCHQ]], a [[UK|British]] intelligence organization, in the early [[1970s]], and that both Diffie-Hellman and RSA had been previously discovered in secret (by [[Malcolm Williamson]] and [[Clifford Cocks]], respectively).
[[RSA]], in addition to being the first known example of a public-key cryptosystem, is also one of the most popular. Other popular public-key cryptosystems include the [[Cramer-Shoup cryptosystem]] and various [[Elliptic curve cryptography|elliptic curve techniques]]. See [[:Category:Asymmetric-key cryptosystems|Category:Asymmetric-key cryptosystems]]
In addition to encryption, public-key cryptography includes [[digital signature]]s. A digital signature is meant to be digital version of a [[signature]], which should be easy for the correct user to produce, but difficult for anyone else to [[forgery|forge]]. However, digital signatures surpass this notion by incorporating the message to be signed in the computation of a signature: thus, digital signatures cannot simply be moved from one document to another. In a digital signature scheme, there are two algorithms: one for ''signing'', in which the secret key is combined with the message, and one for ''verification,'' in which the public key is used to compare the digital signature to the message. [[RSA]] can also be used for digital signatures, and some schemes such as [[DSA]] and [[ElGamal signature scheme|ElGamal signatures]] are designed especially for signatures. Digital signatures are central to the operation of [[public key infrastructure]] and many network security schemes (e.g., [[Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos]], most [[VPN]]s, etc).
Public-key algorithms are most often based on the [[computational complexity]] of [[number theory]] problems. Because of this,
most public-key algorithms involve operations like [[modular arithmetic|modular]] multiplication and exponentiation, which are much more expensive than the techniques used to create block ciphers. As such, public-key cryptosystems are usually used in a hybrid system, in which a fast symmetric cipher is used for the bulk of the message, while the symmetric key used is sent with the message, encrypted using the public-key cipher. Similarly, hybrid signature schemes are often used, in which a cryptographic hash function is computed, and only the resulting hash is digitally signed.
===Cryptanalysis===
''Main article'': [[Cryptanalysis]]
The goal of cryptanalysis is to find some weaknesses or insecurity in a cryptographic scheme. Cryptanalysis might be undertaken by a hostile attacker, attempting to subvert a system; or by the system's designer (or others) wishing to evaluate whether a system is secure. In modern practice, however, cryptographic techniques usually come with proofs that establish security of the system (at least, under clear and hopefully reasonable assumptions).
It's a common fallacy that every encryption method can be broken by someone, even if we include intelligence agencies such as the [[NSA]]. For instance, [[Claude Shannon]] proved that the one-time pad cipher is unbreakable, provided the key material is truly [[random numbers|random]], never reused, kept secret from all possible attackers, and of equal or greater length than the message. Apart from the one-time pad, most encryption can be broken with enough computational effort, but the amount of effort needed to break a cipher may be exponential compared to the amount of effort needed to ''use'' the cipher. In such cases, security can still be achieved if the parameters (such as key length) are large enough that the exponential effort is beyond the estimated ability of the adversary.
There are a wide variety of cryptanalytic attacks, and they can be classified in several ways. One distinction concerns what an attacker can know and do in order to learn secret information. In a [[ciphertext-only attack]], the cryptanalyst has access only to the ciphertext (modern cryptosystems are usually immune to ciphertext-only attacks). In a [[known-plaintext attack]], the cryptanalyst has access to a ciphertext and its corresponding plaintext (or many such pairs). In a [[chosen-plaintext attack]], the cryptanalyst may chose a plaintext and learn its corresponding ciphertext (perhaps many times). Finally, in a [[chosen-ciphertext attack]], the cryptanalyst may choose ciphertexts and learn their corresponding plaintexts.
Cryptanalysis of symmetric-key techniques typically involves looking for attacks against block ciphers or stream ciphers that are better than should exist for a perfect cipher. For example, a brute force attack against DES would take one known plaintext and 2<sup>55</sup> operations, to try approximately half of the possible keys. However, one attack against DES requires 2<sup>50</sup> known plaintexts and 2<sup>50</sup> operations to recover the secret key. [[Differential cryptanalysis]] and [[linear cryptanalysis]] are some recent important techniques in the cryptanalysis of block ciphers.
Public-key techniques are all based on the difficulty of various computational problems. The most famous of these is the problem of [[integer factorization]] (the RSA cryptosystem is based on a problem related to factoring), but the [[discrete logarithm]] problem is also especially important. Much of the important public-key cryptanalysis concerns numerical algorithms for solving these computational problems efficiently. For instance, the best algorithms for solving the [[elliptic curve cryptography|elliptic curve-based]] version of discrete logarithm are much worse than the best known algorithms for factoring. Therefore, to achieve an eq |
g the [[Solar System]].
*1989 - Mayumi Moriyama becomes [[Japan|Japan's]] first female cabinet secretary.
*[[1991]] - [[Linus Torvalds]] first says in a post to the comp.os.minix [[newsgroup]] that he is working on a new free [[computer]] [[operating system]].
*1991 - [[Belarus]] declares independence from the [[Soviet Union]]
* [[1997]] - [[Sluggy Freelance]], one of the oldest and well known [[webcomics]] is made.
*[[2003]] - The [[Tli Cho]] land claims agreement is signed between the [[Dogrib]] [[First Nations]] and the [[Canada|Canadian]] federal government in [[Rae-Edzo, Northwest Territories]].
*2003 - Fifty-two are killed in two [[Islamic]] terrorist bomb blasts in [[Mumbai]], [[India]].
*[[2005]] - Tom Boonen wins the World Championship cycling in Madrid, Spain.
*2005 - [[Hurricane]] [[Hurricane Katrina|Katrina]] makes landfall on the Miami-Dade/Broward county line, hours after reaching hurricane strength.
==Births==
*[[1530]] - Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia]] (d. [[1584]])
*[[1561]] - [[Philippe van Lansberge]], Dutch astronomer (d. [[1632]])
*[[1624]] - [[François de la Chaise]], French confessor of [[Louis XIV of France]] (d. [[1709]])
*[[1635]] - Sir [[Henry Morgan]], Welsh privateer (d. [[1688]])
*[[1662]] - [[John Leverett the Younger]], American President of Harvard (d. [[1724]])
*[[1719]] - [[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]], French painter (d. [[1795]])
*[[1724]] - [[George Stubbs]], British painter (d. [[1806]])
*[[1744]] - [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], German writer (d. [[1803]])
*[[1767]] - [[Antoine Louis Léon de Richebourg de Saint-Just]], French revolutionary and writer (d. [[1794]])
*[[1772]] - King [[William I of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1843]])
*[[1786]] - King [[Ludwig I of Bavaria]] (d. [[1868]])
*[[1796]] - [[James Lick]], California land baron (d. [[1876]])
*[[1802]] - [[Nikolaus Lenau]], Austrian poet (d. [[1850]])
*[[1819]] - [[Allan Pinkerton]], American private detective (d. [[1884]])
*[[1836]] - [[Bret Harte]], American writer (d. [[1902]])
*[[1841]] - [[Emil Theodor Kocher|Emil Kocher]], Swiss medical researcher, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1917]])
*[[1845]] - King [[Ludwig II of Bavaria]] (d. [[1886]])
*[[1850]] - [[Charles Richet]], French scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1935]])
*[[1882]] - [[Sean T. O'Kelly|Sean O'Kelly]], [[President of Ireland]] (d. [[1966]])
*[[1898]] - [[Helmut Hasse]], German mathematican (d. [[1975]])
*[[1900]] - Sir [[Hans Adolf Krebs]], German physician and biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1981]])
*[[1902]] - [[Stefan Wolpe]], German-born composer (d. [[1972]])
*[[1903]] - [[Árpád Élő]], Hungarian physicist (d. [[1992]])
*[[1909]] - [[Ruby Keeler]], Canadian singer and actress (d. [[1993]])
* 1909 - [[Michael Rennie]], English actor (d. [[1971]])
*[[1912]] - [[Erich Honecker]], head of state of East Germany (d. [[1994]])
*[[1913]] - [[Walt Kelly]], American cartoonist (d. [[1973]])
*[[1916]] - [[Van Johnson]], American actor
*1916 - [[Frederick Chapman Robbins]], American pediatrician and virologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[2003]])
*[[1917]] - [[Mel Ferrer]], American actor
*[[1918]] - [[Leonard Bernstein]], American conductor and composer (d. [[1990]])
* 1918 - [[Richard Greene]], English actor (d. [[1985]])
*[[1919]] - [[George Wallace]], Governor of Alabama (d. [[1998]])
*[[1921]] - [[Monty Hall]], Canadian-born game show host
*1921 - [[Brian Moore (novelist)|Brian Moore]], Northern Irish-born writer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1927]] - [[Althea Gibson]], American tennis player (d. [[2003]])
*[[1928]] - [[Herbert Kroemer]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1930]] - Sir [[Sean Connery]], Scottish actor
*[[1931]] - [[Regis Philbin]], American television host
* 1933 - [[Wayne Shorter]], American musician
* 1933 - [[Tom Skerritt]], American actor
*[[1935]] - [[Charles Wright (poet)|Charles Wright]], American poet
*[[1938]] - [[David Canary]], American actor
* 1938 - [[Frederick Forsyth]], English author
*[[1939]] - [[John Badham]], American film director
*[[1940]] - [[José Van Dam]], Belgian baritone
*[[1944]] - [[Anthony Heald]], American actor
*[[1946]] - [[Rollie Fingers]], baseball player
*[[1947]] - [[Anne Archer]], American actress
*[[1949]] - [[Martin Amis]], English novelist
* 1949 - [[John Savage (actor)|John Savage]], American actor
* 1949 - [[Gene Simmons]], Israeli-born bassist
*[[1951]] - [[Rob Halford]], English singer ([[Judas Priest]])
*[[1952]] - [[Peter Wolf]], American singer and composer
*[[1954]] - [[Elvis Costello]], English musician
*[[1958]] - [[Tim Burton]], American film director, producer, and screenwriter
*[[1961]] - [[Billy Ray Cyrus]], American singer
*[[1962]] - [[David Packer]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Maxim Kontsevich]], Russian mathematician
* 1964 - [[Blair Underwood]], American actor
*[[1968]] - [[Rafet El Roman]], Turkish singer and composer
* 1968 - [[Stuart Murdoch (musician)|Stuart Murdoch]], Scottish musician ([[Belle & Sebastian]])
* 1968 - [[Rachael Ray]], American cook and television host
*[[1969]] - [[Cameron Mathison]], Canadian actor
*[[1970]] - [[Claudia Schiffer]], German model
*[[1972]] - [[Marvin Harrison]], American football player
*[[1976]] - [[Alexander Skarsgård]], Swedish actor
*[[1978]] - [[Franck Queudrue]], French footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Rachel Bilson]], American actress
*[[1987]] - [[Stacey Farber]], Canadian actress
==Deaths==
*[[383]] - [[Gratian]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[359]])
*[[1192]] - [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy]] (b. [[1142]])
*[[1270]] - King [[Louis IX of France]]
*[[1282]] - [[Thomas Cantilupe]], English saint
*[[1330]] - [[James Douglas (the Black)|James Douglas]], Scottish soldier (b. [[1286]])
*[[1482]] - [[Margaret of Anjou]], queen of [[Henry VI of England]] (b. [[1429]])
*[[1554]] - [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]], English politician (b. [[1473]])
*[[1632]] - [[Thomas Dekker]], English dramatist
*[[1650]] - [[Richard Crashaw]], English poet
*[[1688]] - [[Henry Morgan]], Welsh privateer
*[[1699]] - King [[Christian V of Denmark]] (b. [[1646]])
*[[1711]] - [[Edward Villiers, 1st Earl of Jersey]], English politician
*[[1742]] - [[Carlos Seixas]], Portuguese composer (b. [[1704]])
*[[1774]] - [[Niccolò Jommelli]], Italian composer (b. [[1714]])
*[[1776]] - [[David Hume]], Scottish philosopher and historian (b. [[1711]])
*[[1792]] - [[Jacques Cazotte]], French writer (b. [[1719]])
*[[1822]] - [[William Herschel]], German-born astronomer (b. [[1738]])
*[[1867]] - [[Michael Faraday]], English scientist (b. [[1791]])
*[[1900]] - [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], German philosopher (b. [[1844]])
*[[1900]] - [[Kuroda Kiyotaka]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (b. [[1840]])
*[[1904]] - [[Henri Fantin-Latour]], French painter (b. [[1836]])
*[[1908]] - [[Henri Becquerel]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1852]])
*[[1925]] - [[Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf]], Austro-Hungarian field marshal (b. [[1852]])
*[[1938]] - [[Aleksandr Kuprin]], Russian writer (b. [[1870]])
*[[1942]] - [[George Edward Alexander Windsor]], Duke of Kent (b. [[1902]])
*[[1945]] - [[John Birch (missionary)|John Birch]], American intelligence officer and missionary (b. [[1918]])
*[[1967]] - [[Stanley Bruce]], eighth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. [[1883]])
*[[1967]] - [[Paul Muni]], Polish actor (b. [[1895]])
*[[1967]] - [[George Lincoln Rockwell]], American Nazi Party leader (b. [[1918]])
*[[1971]] - [[Ted Lewis (musician)|Ted Lewis]], American musician and entertainer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1976]] - [[Eyvind Johnson]], Swedish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1900]])
*[[1979]] - [[Stan Kenton]], American musician and bandleader (b. [[1911]])
*[[1980]] - [[Gower Champion]], American dancer, actor, and choreographer (b. [[1919]])
*[[1984]] - [[Truman Capote]], American author (b. [[1924]])
*[[1984]] - [[Waite Hoyt]], baseball player (b. [[1899]])
*[[1985]] - [[Samantha Smith]], American social activist and actress (plane crash) (b. [[1972]])
*[[1990]] - [[Morley Callaghan]], Canadian writer (b. [[1903]])
*[[2000]] - [[Carl Barks]], American cartoonist (b. [[1901]])
*[[2001]] - [[Aaliyah]], American singer (plane crash) (b. [[1979]])
*[[2002]] - [[Dorothy Hewett]], Australian writer (b. [[1923]])
*[[2005]] - [[Peter Glotz]], German social democrat (b. [[1939]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Opiconsivia]] held in honor of [[Ops]].
*[[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - [[Genesius of Arles]], Saint [[Louis IX of France]], [[Saint Joseph Calasanz]]
*[[Uruguay]] - National Day (independence from Brazil in [[1825]]).
*[[Philippines]] - National Heroes' Day.
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/25 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/dailycontent?month=8&day=25 Encyclopædia Britannica: This Day in History]
----
[[August 24]] - [[August 26]] - [[July 25]] - [[September 25]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:25 Augustus]]
[[ar:25 أغسطس]]
[[an:25 d'agosto]]
[[ast:25 d'agostu]]
[[bg:25 август]]
[[be:25 жніўня]]
[[bs:25. august]]
[[ca:25 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 25]]
[[cv:Çурла, 25]]
[[co:25 d'aostu]]
[[cs:25. srpen]]
[[cy:25 Awst]]
[[da:25. august]]
[[de:25. August]]
[[et:25. august]]
[[el:25 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:25 de agosto]]
[[eo:25-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 25]]
[[fo:25. august]]
[[fr:25 août]]
[[fy:25 augustus]]
[[ga:25 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:25 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 25일]]
[[hr:25. kolovoza]]
[[io:25 di agosto]]
[[id:25 Agustus]]
[[ia:25 de augusto]]
[[ie:25 august]]
[[is:25. ágúst]]
[[it:25 agosto]]
[[he:25 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:25 Agustus]]
[[ka:25 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:25 zélnika]]
[[ku:25'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 25]]
[[lb:25. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 25]]
[[mk:25 август]]
[[ms:25 Ogos]]
[[nap:25 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:25 augustus]]
[[ja:8月25日]]
[[no:2 |
3</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[collagen]], the '''collagen helix''' is a major shape in [[quaternery structure]]. It consists of a triple [[helix]] made of the repetitious [[amino acid]] sequence [[glycine]] - [[proline]] - [[hydroxyproline]].
Each of the three chains is stabilized by the [[steric repulsion]] due to the [[pyrrolidone]] rings of [[proline]] and [[hydroxyproline]] [[residue]]s. The pyrrolidone rings keep out of each other’s way when the [[polypeptide]] chain assumes this extended [[helical]] form, which is much more open than the tightly coiled form of the [[alpha helix]].
The three chains are [[hydrogen bonded]] to each other. The [[hydrogen bond donors]] are the [[peptide]] NH groups of [[glycine]] residues. The [[hydrogen bond acceptors]] are the CO groups of residues on the other chains. The OH group of [[hydroxyproline]] also participates in hydrogen bonding. The rise of the collagen helix (superhelix) is 290 picometres (0.29 nm) per residue.
:''See also :'' [[tertiary structure]] -- [[alpha helix|&alpha; helix]] -- [[beta sheet|&beta; sheet]]
[[Category:Protein structural motifs]]
[[es:Hélice de colágeno]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cosmic censorship hypothesis</title>
<id>7609</id>
<revision>
<id>34781214</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T18:16:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.63.141.202</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expert|December 2005}}
In [[general relativity]], the '''cosmic censorship hypothesis (CCH)''' is a conjecture about the nature of [[gravitational singularity|singularities]] in [[spacetime]].
Singularities that arise in the solutions of [[Einstein's field equation|Einstein's equations]] are typically hidden within [[event horizon]]s, and therefore cannot be seen from the rest of spacetime. Singularities which are not so hidden are called ''[[naked singularity|naked]]''.
The '''weak cosmic censorship hypothesis''' conjectures that no naked singularities other than the [[Big Bang]] singularity exist in the universe.
==Basics==
The fundamental concern is that since the physical behavior of singularities is unknown, if singularities can be seen from the rest of spacetime, [[causality]] may break down, and [[physics]] may lose its predictive power. The issue cannot be avoided, since according to the [[Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems]], singularities are inevitable in physically reasonable situations. Still, in the absence of naked singularities, the universe is deterministic &mdash; it's possible to predict the entire evolution of the universe, knowing only its condition at a certain moment of time (more precisely, everywhere on a [[spacelike]] 3-dimensional hypersurface, called the [[Cauchy surface]]). Failure of the cosmic censorship hypothesis leads to the failure of determinism, because it is impossible to predict the behavior of space-time in the causal future of a naked singularity.
The hypothesis was first formulated by [[Roger Penrose]] in 1969, and it is not stated in a completely formal way. In a sense it is more of a research program proposal: part of the research is to find a proper formal statement that is physically reasonable and that can be proved to be true or false (and that is sufficiently general to be interesting).
==Problems with the concept==
There are a number of difficulties in formalizing the hypothesis:
* there are technical difficulties with properly formalizing the notion of a singularity.
* it is not difficult to construct spacetimes which have naked singularities, but which are not "physically reasonable". A formal statement needs some set of hypotheses which exclude these situations.
* It could happen that an observer inside the event horizon could see the singularity. The version of the conjecture which excludes this case is the ''strong cosmic censorship hypothesis''.
* [[Caustic]]s may occur in simple models of gravitational collapse, and can appear to lead to singularities. These have more to do with the simplified models of bulk matter used, and in any case have nothing to do with general relativity, and need to be excluded.
* Computer models of gravitational collapse have shown that naked singularities can arise, but these models rely on very special circumstances (such as spherical symmetry). These special circumstances need to be excluded by some hypothesis.
In 1991, [[John Preskill]] and [[Kip Thorne]] bet against [[Stephen Hawking]] that the hypothesis was false. They won the bet (for a T-shirt to cover the winner's nakedness) due to the discovery of the special situations just mentioned. Hawking later reformulated the bet to exclude those technicalities. The revised bet is still open.
== The strong cosmic censorship hypothesis ==
While the weak cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts that any observer who has observed a singularity is destined to fall into it, it does not give a timeframe for this to happen. As such, for classical general relativity to be a complete theory, an observer of a naked singularity should still have a theory to explain what is observed; Penrose thus formulated a stronger version of the cosmic censorship hypothesis (known as the '''strong cosmic censorship hypothesis''') that asserts that no singularity is ever visible to any observer.
== References ==
* Earman, John: ''Bangs, Crunches, Whimpers, and Shrieks: Singularities and Acausalities in Relativistic Spacetimes'' (1995), see especially chapter 2 (ISBN 0-19-509591-X)
* Penrose, Roger: "The Question of Cosmic Censorship", Chapter 5 in ''Black Holes and Relativistic Stars'', Robert Wald (editor), (1994) (ISBN 0-226-87034-0)
* Penrose, Roger: "Singularities and time-asymmetry", Chapter 12 in ''General Relativity: An Einstein Centenary Survey'' (Hawking and Israel, editors), (1979), see especially section 12.3.2, pp. 617-629 (ISBN 0-521-22285-0)
* Shapiro, S. L., and Teukolsky, S. A.: "Formation of Naked Singularities: The Violation of Cosmic Censorship", Physical Review Letters '''66''', 994-997 (1991)
* Wald, Robert, ''General Relativity'', 299-308 (1984) (ISBN 0-226-87033-2)
== See also ==
* [[Black hole information paradox]]
* [[Chronology protection conjecture]]
==External links==
*[http://www.theory.caltech.edu/people/preskill/old_naked_bet.html The old bet] (conceded in 1997)
*[http://www.theory.caltech.edu/people/preskill/new_naked_bet.html The new bet]
[[Category:Black holes]]
[[Category:General relativity]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catholic</title>
<id>7610</id>
<revision>
<id>41890474</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:42:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>EivindFOyangen</username>
<id>840127</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rev vand</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Catholic''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]]) {{Polytonic|καθολικός}}, universal, from {{Polytonic|καθόλου}}, in general: {{Polytonic|κατα-}}, according to + {{Polytonic|ὅλου}}, neuter genitive of {{Polytonic|ὅλος}}, whole) can be used as a specifically [[Christian]] religious term with a number of meanings:
* In one widely used sense, it refers to the members, beliefs, and practices of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], particularly in countries and languages associated with the Protestant Reformation, where the attachment "Roman" was once used by early Protestants to disparage Catholic claims to be the sole historical Christian Church. Though many identify Roman Catholicism exclusively with the [[Latin Rite|Latin or Western]] Church, its variety is seen in the more than twenty other [[particular Church]]es, the "[[Eastern Rite|Eastern Catholic Churches]]", all in full [[Communion (Christianity)|communion]] with the [[Pope]]. Major Eastern Catholic churches in communion with the Pope include the Ukrainian, Greek, Greek Melkite, Maronite, Ruthenian Byzantine, Coptic Catholic, Syro-Malabar, Syro-Malankara, Chaldean, and Ethiopian Catholic Churches.
* Some Protestant Christians use the term ''catholic'' (lower-case ''c'') to refer to the belief that all [[Christianity|Christians]] are part of one Church, regardless of denominational divisions. This "universal" interpretation is often used to understand the phrase "[[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church|one holy catholic and apostolic Church]]" in the [[Nicene Creed]], the phrase "the catholic faith" in the [[Athanasian Creed]], and the phrase "holy catholic church" in the [[Apostles' Creed]].
* It can be used to refer to those Christian Churches which maintain that their [[episcopal|Episcopate]] can be traced directly back to the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]s, and that they are therefore part of a broad catholic (or universal) body of believers. Among those who regard themselves as ''Catholic'' but not ''Roman Catholic'' are members of the various [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es (such as the [[Greek Orthodox]] and [[Russian Orthodox]]), the [[Oriental Orthodox]], the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Anglican]]s, and some very small groups such as the [[Old Catholic Church]], the [[Independent Catholic]], the [[Ancient Catholic|Ancient]] and [[Liberal Catholic Church]]es, as well as the [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] (though the latter prefer the lower-case "c," and, like Anglicans, stress that they are both Protestant ''and'' Catholic). These various churches that regard themselves as part of a broad Catholic Church are distinguished primarily by their use of the [[Nicene Creed]], in which believers acknowledge the "[[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church|one holy catholic and apostolic Church]]." The Nicene Creed is of course also used by the Roman Catho |
ork of the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor; and granting amnesty.
Decisions are made based on a majority vote if more than half of the Chamber is present, except in cases of national rights and constitutional issues.
See http://www.sabor.hr/
The last parliamentary elections were held [[November 23]] [[2003]].
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Croatia|Elections in Croatia}}
{{Croatian presidential election, 2005}}
Main article: [[Croatian presidential election, 2005]]
{{Croatian parliamentary election, 2003}}
Main article: [[Croatian parliamentary election, 2003]]
==Judiciary branch==
The [[Croatian Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] (''Vrhovni sud'') of the Republic of Croatia is the highest court. Court hearings are open, and judgments are made publicly, except in issues of privacy of the accused. Judges are appointed by the National Judicial Council and judicial office is permanent (until seventy years of age). President of the Supreme Court is elected on 4-year term by the Croatian Parliament at the proposal of the President of the Republic.
See http://www.vsrh.hr/
The [[Croatian Constitutional Court|Constitutional Court]] (''Ustavni sud'') of the Republic of Croatia decides on the constitutionality of laws and has the right to repeal a law it finds unconstitutional. It also can impeach the president. The body is made up of thirteen judges on 8-year term. The president of the Constitutional Court is elected by the court for a 4-year term.
See http://www.usud.hr/
The [[Croatian National Judicial Council|National Judicial Council]] (''Državno Sudbeno Vijeće'') of the Republic appoints all judges. It is a body consisting of a president and fourteen members proposed and elected by the Parliament for 4-year terms, maximum two terms.
== Regional government ==
{{wikinewspar|Results of 2005 Croatian local government elections}}
The country is composed of 20 counties (županijas) and one city (grad, [[Zagreb]]). The counties and county centers are:
# [[Zagrebacka zupanija|Zagrebačka]], Zagreb
# [[Krapinsko-zagorska zupanija|Krapinsko-zagorska]], Krapina
# [[Sisacko-moslavacka zupanija|Sisačko-moslavačka]], Sisak
# [[Karlovacka zupanija|Karlovačka]], Karlovac
# [[Varazdinska zupanija|Varaždinska]], Varaždin
# [[Koprivnicko-krizevacka zupanija|Koprivničko-križevačka]], Koprivnica
# [[Bjelovarsko-bilogorska zupanija|Bjelovarsko-bilogorska]], Bjelovar
# [[Primorsko-goranska zupanija|Primorsko-goranska]], Rijeka
# [[Licko-senjska zupanija|Ličko-senjska]], Gospić
# [[Viroviticko-podravska zupanija|Virovitičko-podravska]], Virovitica
# [[Pozesko-slavonska zupanija|Požeško-slavonska]], Požega
# [[Brodsko-posavska zupanija|Brodsko-posavska]], Slavonski Brod
# [[Zadarska zupanija|Zadarska]], Zadar
# [[Osjecko-baranjska zupanija|Osječko-baranjska]], Osijek
# [[Sibensko-kninska zupanija|Šibensko-kninska]], Šibenik
# [[Vukovarsko-srijemska zupanija|Vukovarsko-srijemska]], Vukovar
# [[Splitsko-dalmatinska zupanija|Splitsko-dalmatinska]], Split
# [[Istarska zupanija|Istarska]], Pazin
# [[Dubrovacko-neretvanska zupanija|Dubrovačko-neretvanska]], Dubrovnik
# [[Medjimurska zupanija|Međimurska]], Čakovec
# [[Zagreb|Grad Zagreb]]
Counties are regional self-government units that carry out the affairs of regional significance, and in particular the affairs related to education, health service, area and urban planning, economic development, traffic and traffic infrastructure and the development of network of educational, health, social and cultural institutions.
In practice, this autonomy is very limited since counties must obbey national laws and executive orders from the national level.
Municipalities and towns are local self-government units that carry out the affairs of local jurisdiction by which the needs of citizens are directly fulfilled, and in particular the affairs related to the organization of localities and housing, area and urban planning, public utilities, child care, social welfare, primary health services, education and elementary schools, culture, physical education and sports, customer protection, protection and improvement of the environment, fire protection and civil defense.
== Short political history ==
The [[Croatian Communist Party]] was the only party during [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|socialist Yugoslavia]], 1945-1990. The change of the name to League of Communists of Croatia (''Savez Komunista Hrvatske'', SKH) in the fifties was intended to emphasize the advisory role of the party, while actual power was supposed to be in hands of the working class. There were very few controversies and factional clashes in the SKH. Among the most important was the so called "[[Croatian Spring]]" in 1971 when some leaders of the SKH, most notably [[Savka Dabčević-Kučar]] and [[Miko Tripalo]] attempted to increase the political and economical independence of Croatia from other Yugoslav republics. Although "Croatian Spring" was broken, the leaders lost their political position and were forced into isolation, and less important leaders were persecuted, practically all the intentions of the mentioned national leaders were accepted and introduced in Yugoslavian constitution from 1974.
That constitution was relatively unfortunate in a sense that it did not delimit the responsibilities of the republics and federation in Yugoslavia clearly. As a result, when League of Communists lost its unity and authority, and republics started to make opposite, even aggressive political movements, the central government of Yugoslavia was unable to act. As a result, neither a peaceful break up, nor a military putsch was possible in the time of crisis, and country ended in bloody, tragic war.
In the situation where Serb leaders, especially members of the [[Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts]] and Serbian president [[Slobodan Milošević]] started to threaten Croatia and prepare for a war, the first multi-party elections took place in 1990. The League of Communists changed its policy and name to the "Party of Democratic Changes" (SDP), however, the impression of the people was that this party could not respond to Milošević's threats adequately. The right-wing was represented by the [[Croatian Democratic Union]] (HDZ), led by the communist general, later Croatian nationalist and dissident [[Franjo Tuđman]].
Third bloc at the elections was Coalition of People's Accord, alliance of mostly moderate nationalist parties that included [[Croatian Social Liberal Party]] (HSLS), [[Social Democrats of Croatia]] (SDSH), [[Croatian Democratic Party]] (HDS), as well as many prominent veterans of Croatian Spring. Due to [[voting system]] that favoured two strong parties, coalition got surprisingly few seats during that election, and HDZ won easily.
However, increased crime in all parts of the society and a growing personal cult of Franjo Tuđman caused revival of the popularity of the at one moment almost dead ex-communist party. Vujić's SDSH united with SDP. HSLS split into two parties, led by their charismatic leaders: [[Vlado Gotovac]]'s [[Liberal Party (Croatia)|Liberal Party]], and the more nationalist [[Dražen Budiša]] won administrative control over HSLS. In following years, these two leaders, especially Budisa led inconsistent policy which resulted in a significant drop in support for the once third most important party in Croatia. D. Budisa even left the party at one point, but he was persuaded to return.
For the 2000 elections, the [[Social Democratic Party of Croatia]] (SDP) and the [[Croatian Social Liberal Party]] (HSLS) agreed on a join electoral list as did the [[Croatian Peasants Party]] (HSS), [[Croatian People's Party]] (HNS), [[Liberal Party of Croatia]] (LS), and [[Istrian Democratic Assembly]] (IDS). Although these six parties went into the election under two separate lists they had negotiated an outline agreement for a coalition before the election and were known as the "šestorica" or "the six".
The six-party center-left coalition was in power until June 2001 when IDS left the governing coalition over its inability to win greater autonomy for Istria.
HSLS split (again; the initial splitoff formed LS) in 2002; the main faction left the government while a dissenting faction formed LIBRA and stayed in power.
The SDP-led coalition remained in power until the [[Croatian parliamentary election, 2003|legislative elections of 2003]], when they narrowly lost the majority to HDZ and other center-right parties.
HDZ formed a government in December 2003, even though they haven't formed a major coalition with parties like HSS and [[Croatian Party of Rights|HSP]]. It appears, however, that the new HDZ, under the leadership of I. Sanader, is positioned significantly more on the center than early HDZ was.
Accession to membership of the [[European Union]] is presently a stated national goal for most mainstream parties, although they vary in the amount of cooperation with the EU rules. The main issues remain in the areas of post-war recovery: both political (refugee return, war crime trials) and economic (agricultural import/export policy).
One of the more recent trends in Croatian politics is deep alienation of Croatian public from Croatian political establishment. It manifested itself on the latest presidential and local elections through record low turnouts and support for candidates and options that represented alternative to Croatian political mainstream.
One of the stated reasons for such alienation is in mainstream political parties being oriented towards centre and having almost identical platforms. Another is parties being heavily centralised and perceived more as representatives of their leaders' personal interests than any palpable political platform. [[Proportional representation]] voting system which leads to coalition governments that often don't make any political se |
k IIA. 16 aircraft were supplied to the Soviet Union, and the rest to the US Army Air Force. It was later redesignated '''RP-40G'''.
* '''P-40J''' : Proposed version to be powered by a turbocharged Allison engine. None were ever built.
* '''P-40K''', an Allison engined P-40L, with the nosetop scoop retained and the Allison configured scoop and cowl flaps. 21 suppiled to the RAF as the '''Kittyhawk Mk III'''.
* '''P-40M''', version generally similar to the P-40K, with a stretched fuselage like the P-40L and powered by an Allison V-1710-81 engine giving better performance at altitude (compared to the previous Allison versions). It had some detail improvements and it was characterized by two small air scoops just before the exhaust pipes. Most of them were supplied to Allied countries (mainly UK and USSR), while some others remained in the USA for advanced training. Supplied to the RAF as the '''Kittyhawk Mk.III'''.
* '''P-40N''', the final production model. The P-40N featured a stretched rear fuselage to counter the torque of the larger, late-war Allison engine, and the rear deck of the cockpit behind the pilot was cut down at a moderate slant to improve rearward visibility. A great deal of work was also done to try and eliminate excess weight to improve the Warhawk's climb rate. Early N production blocks dropped a .50 cal (12.7 mm) gun from each wing, bringing the total back to 4; later production blocks reintroduced it after complaints from units in the field.
Supplied to Royal Air Force as the '''Kittyhawk Mk IV'''.
* '''P-40P''' : The designation of 1,500 aircraft ordered with V-1650-1 engines, but actually built as the P-40N with V-1710-81 engines.
* '''XP-40Q''' with a 4-bladed prop, cut-down rear fuselage and bubble canopy, supercharger, squared-off wingtips and tail surfaces, and improved engine with two-speed supercharger was tested, but its performance was not enough of an improvement to merit production when compared to the current late model '''P-47D'''s and '''P-51D'''s pouring off the production lines. The XP-40Q was however the fastest of the P-40 series, with a top speed of 422 mph becoming possible as a result of the introduction of a high-altitude supercharger gear. (No P-40 model with a single-speed supercharger could even approach 400 mph or 640 km/h.) With the end of hostilities in Europe, the P-40 came to the end of its life.
* '''P-40R''' : The designation of P-40F and P-40L aircraft, converted into training aircraft in 1944.
* '''RP-40''' : Some American P-40s were converted into reconnaissance aircraft.
* '''TP-40''' : Some P-40s were converted into two-seat trainers.
* '''Twin-Engined P-40''' The idea for this proposed version, was to fit two Rolls-Royce Merlin in-line piston engines, to the wings of a P-40C single-engined fighter aircraft. None were ever built.
==Specifications==
{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin:3px; border="1" solid #87CEEB;" align="center"
|- align="center"
|
|'''P-40E'''
|'''P-40N'''
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|General characteristics
|- align="center"
|Crew||One||One
|- align="center"
|Length||31 ft 8 in (9.66 m)||33 ft 4 in (10.16 m)
|- align="center"
|[[Wingspan]]||37 ft 4 in (11.38 m)||37 ft 4 in (11.38 m)
|- align="center"
|Height||12 ft 4 in (3.76 m)||12 ft 4 in (3.76 m)
|- align="center"
|Wing area||235.94 ft&sup2; (21.92 m&sup2;)||235.94 ft&sup2; (21.92 m&sup2;)
|- align="center"
|Empty weight||6,350 lb (2,880 kg)||6,405 lb (2,905 kg)
|- align="center"
|Loaded weight||8,280 lb (3,760 kg)||7,730 lb (3,505 kg)
|- align="center"
|[[Maximum Take-Off Weight|Maximum gross takeoff weight]]||8,810 lb (4,000 kg)||8,860 lb (4,020 kg)
|-
|Powerplant||align="center"|1x [[Allison V-1710]]-39, 1,150 hp (860 kW)
|
* 1x [[Allison V-1710]]-81, 1,200 hp (895 kW)
* Late-series P-40N-40 had V-1710-115, 1,360 hp (1,015 kW)
|- align="center"
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Performance
|- align="center"
|[[Vno|Maximum speed]]||360 mph (580 km/h)||378 mph (608 km/h) at 5,000 m (16,400 ft)
|- align="center"
|[[Vc|Cruise speed]]||270 mph (435 km/h)||280 mph (455 km/h)
|- align="center"
|Range||650 mi (1,050 km)||745 mi (1,200 km)
|- align="center"
|[[Service ceiling]]||29,000 ft (8,840 m)||31,000 ft (9,450 m)
|- align="center"
|[[Rate of climb|Climb rate]]||2,100 ft/min (10.7 m/s)||2,240 ft/min (11.4 m/s)
|- align="center"
|[[Wing loading]]||35.1 lb/ft&sup2; (171.5 kg/m&sup2;)||32.8 lb/ft&sup2; (159.9 kg/m&sup2;)
|- align="center"
|[[Power-to-weight ratio|Power/mass]]||0.14 hp/lb (0.23 kW/kg)||0.16 hp/lb (0.26 kW/kg)
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Armament
|-
|
|
* 6x .50 cal (12.7 mm) Browning [[M2 machine gun]]s, 281 rounds/gun
* Up to 1,500 lb (680 kg) of bombs on three hardpoints.
|
* 6x .50 cal (12.7 mm) Browning [[M2 machine gun]]s
* Up to 1,500 lb (680 kg) of bombs on three hardpoints.
|}
==Famous P-40 pilots==
* [[Gregory Boyington]] Flying Tiger and later leader of the [[Black Sheep Squadron]].
* [[Clive Caldwell|Clive "Killer" Caldwell]], Australia's greatest WW2 ace. (Caldwell scored most of his 28.5 kills while flying Tomahawks in North Africa.)
* [[John Gorton]], [[Prime Minister of Australia]], 1968-71. (He survived two serious crashes. One required Gorton to undergo extensive [[plastic surgery]], and his face changed significantly as a result. When asked in later life what his most memorable flight had been, Gorton replied: "The one in which I got my face mixed up with the instrument panel of a Kittyhawk.")
* [[James Morehead]], earned the [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguised Service Cross]] and the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] after leading the first succeful aerial attack against Japanese fighters during WW2.
* [[Robert Lee Scott, Jr.]] commander of the 23rd Fighter Group of the [[Fourteenth Air Force]].
* [[Len Waters]], the only [[indigenous Australian|Australian Aboriginal]] fighter pilot of WW2.
== P-40s on film ==
*In the contemporary [[John Wayne]] movie ''[[Flying Tigers (movie)|Flying Tigers]]'', real P-40s are featured, along with some inaccurate studio models.
*In the 1945 film ''[[God is My Co-Pilot (film)|God is My Co-Pilot]]'' about the Flying Tigers and the USAAF pilots who replaced them in [[China]] and [[Burma]], real P-40s are featured.
*In ''[[Tora Tora Tora]]'', P-40s are depicted at the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], both being shot up on the ground, and shooting down Zeros.
*A P-40 is in the less-than-capable hands of a [[John Belushi]] character in the comedy ''[[1941 (film)|1941]]''.
*In the [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternative history]]/[[science fiction]] [[pastiche]] ''[[Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow]]'' (2004), a [[computer graphics|computer-generated]] P-40 performs amazing feats, including doubling as a submarine, an ability which would have been appreciated by many WW2 fliers, had it been possible.
*In the film ''[[Pearl Harbor (film)|Pearl Harbor]]'' P-40s are the main plane seen in the film besides the Japanese Zeros. Rafe Macauley and Danny Walker fly these during the raid on Pearl Harbor being the only two pilots able to get in the air. This also happened in the real [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], but the pilots were [[George Welch|George "Wheaties" Welch]] and [[Ken Taylor]].
== References ==
* Bowers, PM, Angellucci, E. (1987) ''The American Fighter.'' Orion Books. ISBN 0517565889
* Donald, D, Lake J. (eds.) (1996) ''Encyclopedia of world military aircraft.'' AIRtime Publishing. ISBN 1880588242
* Johnsen, FA. (1999) ''P-40 Warhawk (Warbird History).'' Motorbooks International. ISBN 0760302537
* Molesworth C. (2003) ''P-40 Warhawk Aces of the Pacific (Aircraft of the Aces).'' Osprey. ISBN 1841765368
* Swanborough, G, Bowers, PM. (1989) ''United States Military Aircraft Since 1909.'' Smithsonian. ISBN 0874748801
* Wagner, R. (1965) ''Aircraft in Profile No. 35: The Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk. '' Profile Publications. ASIN B0007KAXNW
* Wagner, R. (1982) ''American Combat Planes, Third Enlarged Edition.'' Doubleday. ISBN 0385131208
==Related content==
'''Designation sequence'''
[[Curtiss XP-37|XP-37]] -
[[P-38 Lightning|P-38]] -
[[P-39 Airacobra|P-39]] -
'''P-40''' -
[[Seversky XP-41|XP-41]] -
[[Curtiss XP-42|XP-42]] -
[[P-43 Lancer|P-43]]
'''Related development'''
* [[P-36 Hawk]]
* [[North American Aviation]] [[P-51 Mustang]]
'''Similar aircraft'''
* [[Yakovlev Yak-1]]
'''Related lists'''
[[List of military aircraft of the United States]] - [[List of fighter aircraft]]
'''See also'''
'''External links'''
* [http://www.warbirdforum.com/avg.htm Annals of the Flying Tigers]
* [http://www.hill.af.mil/museum/photos/wwii/p-40.htm Curtiss P-40N-CU]
* [http://home.att.net/~jbaugher1/p40.html Joe Baugher's American Military Aircraft website]
* [http://www.p40warhawk.com/index.htm The P-40 Warhawk]
* [http://staff.jccc.net/droberts/p40/p40a.html P-40.com]
{{airlistbox}}
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[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1930-1939|P-40]]
[[de:Curtiss P-40]]
[[fr:Curtiss P-40 Warhawk]]
[[zh:P-40]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Creed</title>
<id>7212</id>
<revision>
<id>40561416</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T12:58:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mpatel</username>
<id>172616</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>recat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a statement of belief}}
A '''creed''' is a statement of [[belief]] — usually [[religion|religious]] belief — or [[faith]].The word derives from the Latin ''[[credo]]'' for ''I believe''.
==Christian creeds== |
ainly located in coastal areas.
Japan is situated in a [[Volcano|volcanic]] zone on the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]], at the juncture of the [[Philippine Plate]], [[Pacific Plate]], [[Eurasian Plate]], and [[North American Plate]]. Frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive [[earthquake]]s, often resulting in [[tsunami]]s, occur several times each century. Twenty percent of the world's earthquakes magnitude 6.0 and higher are epicentered in Japan. The most recent major quakes include the [[2004 Chuetsu Earthquake]] and the [[Great Hanshin earthquake|Great Hanshin Earthquake]] of [[1995]]. [[Onsen|Hot springs]] are numerous, and have been developed as resorts.
===Climate===
Japan is a temperate region with four seasons of varying severity--five, if the rainy season is included. Japan's average temperature for the summer time is 30°C, and for the winter, it is 4.7°C. Because of its great length from north to south, Japan's [[climate]] varies from region to region: the far north is very cold in the [[winter]], while the far south is [[subtropical]]. The climate is also affected by the seasonal winds, blown from the continent to the ocean in winters and vice versa in [[summer]]s. The waters of the [[Kuroshio Current]] also warm the Pacific side of Japan, sustaining the [[coral reefs]] of Japan, the northernmost coral reefs in the world. Due to severe water pollution, these reefs are now dying.
Japan's main [[Monsoon|rainy season]] begins (tsuyu-iri) in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaido in late July. The rainy season begins in most of Honshu around the 8th of [[June]] and ends (tsuyu-ake) around the 20th of [[July]]. In late summer and early [[autumn]], [[typhoon]]s develop from [[tropical depression]]s generated near the [[equator]], and track from the southwest to the northeast, often bringing heavy rain.
Japan's varied geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:
*[[Hokkaido]]: Hokkaido has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. [[precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
*[[Sea of Japan]]: The northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the [[Föhn wind]] phenomenon.
*Central Highlands (''[[Chuo-kochi]]''): A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
*[[Inland Sea|Seto Inland Sea]] (''Seto-naikai''): The Mountains of the [[Chugoku region|Chugoku]] and [[Shikoku]] regions block the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
*Pacific Ocean: Experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
*Nansei-shoto ([[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyu]]) or Southwest Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. [[Tropical cyclone|Typhoons]] are common; in 2004 a record 10 typhoons reached the main islands.
===Regions===
{{main|Regions of Japan}}
Japan is commonly divided into [[Regions of Japan|regions]]. [[Honshu]], by far the largest and most populated island, is typically divided into five (or more) regions. The other islands constitute one region each. From north to south, these are the:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
Honshu:
* [[Tohoku region|Tohoku]] - north-eastern Honshu in which [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]] and [[Fukushima, Fukushima|Fukushima]] are large cities.
* [[Kantō region|Kanto]] - includes [[Tokyo]], [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]], [[Yokohama]], [[Yokosuka, Kanagawa|Yokosuka]], and surrounding coastal plain. Also includes [[Gunma Prefecture|Gunma]], [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]], [[Chiba Prefecture|Chiba]], [[Tochigi Prefecture|Tochigi]], and [[Ibaraki Prefecture|Ibaraki]] Prefectures.
* [[Chubu region|Chubu]] - mountainous middle region dominated by the [[Japanese Alps]]. The Sea of Japan side is the [[Hokuriku region]], and the Pacific side is the [[Tokai region]]. The main cities of Hokuriku are [[Niigata, Niigata|Niigata]] and [[Kanazawa, Ishikawa|Kanazawa]], and the main cities of Tokai are [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]] (the nation's fourth largest) and [[Shizuoka, Shizuoka|Shizuoka]].
* Kinki or [[Kansai]] region - ancient center of culture and commerce, including [[Osaka]], [[Kyoto]], [[Kobe]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], [[Wakayama Prefecture|Wakayama]], [[Shiga Prefecture|Shiga]] and [[Mie Prefecture|Mie]] Prefectures.
* [[Chugoku region|Chugoku]] - includes the cities [[Hiroshima]] and [[Okayama, Okayama|Okayama]].
{{col-2}}
Other islands:
* [[Hokkaido]] - major cities are [[Sapporo, Hokkaido|Sapporo]] and [[Hakodate, Hokkaido|Hakodate]].
* [[Shikoku]] - the smallest of the main four islands, known as a destination for Buddhist pilgrims. The main cities are [[Matsuyama, Ehime|Matsuyama]] and [[Takamatsu, Kagawa|Takamatsu]].
* [[Kyushu]] - southernmost of the four main islands. The main towns include [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], [[Kitakyushu, Fukuoka|Kitakyushu]] and [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]].
* [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] - semitropical southern island chain reaching out to [[Taiwan]]. The only major city is [[Naha, Okinawa|Naha]].
{{col-end}}
===Prefectures===
{{main|Prefectures of Japan}}
The [[Local Government Law]] of Japan divides the country into 47 [[prefectures of Japan|prefectures]], which carry out administrative duties, independently of the central government. Voters in each prefecture elect a governor and a legislative assembly. Each prefecture has an administrative bureaucracy.
== Economy ==
<div style="float:right;">
[[Image:Wfm_kansai_closeup.jpg|thumb|none|Japan's construction industry has been aided by huge civil works projects. One of the most well known is [[Kansai International Airport]], built on an [[artificial island]] at a total cost of $30 billion. A second runway is also under construction which will more than double the airport's land area.]]
</div>
{{main|Economy of Japan}}
Government-industry cooperation, aid from the United States following World War II, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, emphasis on education, and a comparatively small defense allocation have helped Japan advance with extraordinary speed to become the second largest economy in the world, after the U.S. For three decades, overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely due to the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the slowing of the US and [[Asian|Asia]] economies.
However, the economy saw signs of strong recovery in 2005. GDP growth for the year was 2.8%, with a fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rate of the US and European Union during the same period. Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor in leading the growth. Hence, the Japanese government predicts that recovery will continue into 2006.
Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called [[keiretsu]]; the powerful enterprise unions and ''[[shunto|shuntō]]''; cozy relations with government bureaucrats, and the guarantee of lifetime employment (''shushin koyo'') in big corporations and highly [[labour union|unionized]] [[blue-collar]] factories. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.
The current government of [[Junichiro Koizumi]] has enacted or attempted to pass (sometimes with failure) major privatization and foreign-investment laws intended to help stimulate Japan's dormant economy. Although the effectiveness of these laws is still ambiguous, the economy has begun to respond, but Japan's aging population is expected to place further strain on growth in the near future.
===Agricultural sector===
Japan uses a system of terrace farming to build in a small area due to lack of available land. Japanese agriculture has one of the world's highest levels of productivity per unit area. Japan's small [[agriculture|agricultural]] sector, however, is also highly subsidized and protected, with government regulations that favor small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America. Imported [[rice]], the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of 490% and restricted to a quota of only 3% of the total rice market. Although Japan is usually self-sufficient in rice (except for its use in making rice crackers and processed foods), the country must import about 50% of its requirements of other [[Cereal|grain]] and fodder crops, and relies on imports for most of its supply of [[meat]]. Japan maintains one of the world's largest [[fishing]] fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch, prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as [[tuna]]. Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial [[whaling in Japan|whaling]].
===Industrial sector===
Industry, one-fourth of Japan's [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], is heavily dependent on imported raw materials and [[fuel]]s. Internationally, Japan is best known for its [[automobile|automotive]], optics, and [[electronics]] industries, as the home of big m |
or any DNS servers that do not have them cached. And, any DNS changes on your domain other than the NS records and authoritative DNS server names can be nearly instantaneous, if you choose for them to be (by lowering the TTL once or twice ahead of time, and waiting until the old TTL expires before making the change).
===DNS in the real world===
[[Image:DNS in the real world.svg|right|thumb|400px|DNS resolving from program to OS resolver to ISP resolver to greater system.]]
Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution is handled transparently via client applications such as web browsers ([[Mozilla Firefox]], [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]], [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], [[Internet Explorer]], etc), mail clients ([[Outlook Express]], [[Mozilla Thunderbird]], etc), and other internet applications. When a request is made which necessitates a DNS lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the local DNS resolver in the operating system which in turn handles the communications required.
The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to a designated DNS server or servers. In the case of most home users, the [[internet service provider|Internet service provider]] to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either configure that server's address manually or allow [[Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol|DHCP]] to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers will generally point to their own nameservers. This name server will then follow the process outlined above in ''DNS in theory'', until it either successfully finds a result, or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.
====Broken Resolvers====
An additional level of complexity is introduced when resolvers violate the rules of the DNS protocol. A number of large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules (presumably to allow them to run on less-expensive hardware than a fully-compliant resolver), such as disobey TTLs, or indicate a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.
As a final level of complexity, some applications such as Web browsers also have their own DNS cache, in order to reduce use of the DNS resolver library itself, which can add extra difficulty to DNS debugging, as it obscures which data is fresh, or lies in which cache. These caches typically have very short caching times of the order of 1 minute. A notable exception is [[Internet Explorer]]. Recent versions cache DNS records for 30 minutes[http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=KB;en-us;263558].
===Other DNS applications===
The system outlined above provides a somewhat simplified scenario. The DNS includes several other functions:
*Hostnames and IP addresses do not necessarily match on a one-to-one basis. Many hostnames may correspond to a single IP address: combined with [[virtual hosting]], this allows a single machine to serve many web sites. Alternatively a single hostname may correspond to many IP addresses: this can facilitate [[fault-tolerance|fault tolerance]] and load distribution, and also allows a site to move physical location seamlessly.
*There are many uses of DNS besides translating names to IP addresses. For instance, [[Mail transfer agent|Mail transfer agents]] use DNS to find out where to deliver [[e-mail]] for a particular address. The domain to mail exchanger mapping provided by [[MX_record|MX records]] accommodates another layer of fault tolerance and load distribution on top of the name to IP address mapping.
*[[Sender Policy Framework]] controversially takes advantage of a DNS record type, the TXT record.
*To provide resilience in the event of computer failure, multiple DNS servers provide coverage of each domain. In particular, thirteen root servers exist worldwide. DNS programs or operating systems have the IP addresses of these servers built in. The [[United States|USA]] hosts, at least nominally, all but three of the root servers. However, because many root servers actually implement [[anycast]], where many different computers can share the same IP address to deliver a single service over a large geographic region, most of the physical (rather than nominal) root servers now operate outside the USA.
The DNS uses [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] and [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] on [[computer port|port]] 53 to serve requests. Almost all DNS queries consist of a single UDP request from the client followed by a single UDP reply from the server. TCP typically comes into play only when the response data size exceeds 512 bytes, or for such tasks as [[DNS zone transfer|zone transfer]]. Some operating systems such as [[HP-UX]] are known to have resolver implementations that use TCP for all queries, even when UDP would suffice.
==Standards==
* RFC 882 Concepts and Facilities (Depricated by RFC 1034)
* RFC 883 Domain Names: Implementation specification (Depricated by RFC 1035)
* RFC 1032 Domain administrators guide
* RFC 1033 Domain administrators operations guide
* RFC 1034 Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities.
* RFC 1035 Domain Names - Implementation and Specification.
* RFC 1183 New DNS RR Definitions
* RFC 1706 DNS NSAP Resource Records
* RFC 1876 Location Information in the DNS ([[LOC record|LOC]])
* RFC 1886 DNS Extensions to support [[IPv6|IP version 6]]
* RFC 1912 Common DNS Operational and Configuration Errors
* RFC 1995 Incremental Zone Transfer in DNS
* RFC 1996 A Mechanism for Prompt Notification of Zone Changes (DNS NOTIFY)
* RFC 2136 Dynamic Updates in the Domain Name System (DNS UPDATE)
* RFC 2181 Clarifications to the DNS Specification
* RFC 2308 Negative Caching of DNS Queries (DNS NCACHE)
* RFC 2317 Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation
* RFC 2672 Non-Terminal DNS Name Redirection
* RFC 2782 A DNS RR for specifying the location of services (DNS [[SRV_record|SRV]])
* RFC 2845 Secret Key Transaction Authentication for DNS (TSIG)
* RFC 2874 DNS Extensions to Support IPv6 Address Aggregation and Renumbering
* RFC 3403 Dynamic Delegation Discovery System (DDDS) ([[NAPTR]] records)
==Types of DNS records==
Important categories of data stored in the DNS include the following:
*An '''A record''' or '''address record''' maps a hostname to a 32-bit [[IPv4]] address.
*An '''[[AAAA record]]''' or '''IPv6 address record''' maps a hostname to a 128-bit [[IPv6]] address.
*A '''CNAME record''' or '''[[canonical name]] record''' makes one domain name an alias of another. The aliased domain gets all the subdomains and DNS records of the original.
*An '''[[MX record]]''' or '''mail exchange record''' maps a domain name to a list of [[mail exchange server]]s for that domain.
*A '''PTR record''' or '''pointer record''' maps an [[IPv4]] address to the [[canonical name]] for that host. Setting up a PTR record for a hostname in the <tt>in-addr.arpa</tt> domain that corresponds to an IP address implements [[reverse DNS lookup]] for that address. For example (at the time of writing), <tt>www.icann.net</tt> has the IP address 192.0.34.164, but a PTR record maps <tt>164.34.0.192.in-addr.arpa</tt> to its canonical name, <tt>referrals.icann.org</tt>.
*An '''NS record''' or '''name server record''' maps a domain name to a list of DNS servers authoritative for that domain. Delegations depend on NS records.
*An '''SOA record''' or '''start of authority record''' specifies the DNS server providing ''authoritative'' information about an Internet domain, the email of the domain administrator, the domain serial number, and several timers relating to refreshing the zone.
*An '''[[SRV record]]''' is a generalized service location record.
*A '''[[TXT record]]''' allows an administrator to insert arbitrary text into a DNS record. For example, this record is used to implement the [[Sender Policy Framework]] specification.
Other types of records simply provide information (for example, a [[LOC record]] gives the physical ''location'' of a host), or experimental data (for example, a '''WKS record''' gives a list of servers offering some ''well known service'' such as HTTP or POP3 for a domain).
==Internationalized domain names==
''Main article: [[Internationalized domain name]]''
Domain names must use only a subset of [[ASCII]] characters&mdash;the [[Roman alphabet]] in upper and lower case, the digits 0 through 9, and the [[hyphen]]. This prevented the representation of names and words of many languages natively. [[ICANN]] has approved the [[Punycode]]-based [[Internationalized domain name|IDNA]] system, which maps [[Unicode]] strings into the valid DNS character set, as a workaround to this issue. Some [[domain name registry|registries]] have adopted IDNA.
==DNS software==
:''See [[comparison of DNS server software]].''
DNS-oriented [[utility software|utilities]] include:
* dig (the "domain information groper")
*[[mysqlBind]] - BIND 8/9 DNS server administration system for one or hundreds of DNS servers. [[GPL]] licensed.
==Legal users of domains==
===Registrant===
No one in the world really "owns" a domain name except the [[Network Information Centre]] (NIC), or [[domain name registry]]. Most of the NICs in the world receive an annual fee from a legal user in order for the legal user to utilise the domain name (i.e. a sort of a leasing agreement exists, subject to the registry's terms and conditions). Depending on the various naming convention of the r |
man Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]s, [[Roma (people)|Roma]], [[Wiccan]]s, [[Druidry|Druid]]s, [[neopagan]]s, [[satanic ritual abuse|Satanists]], and [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] [[Protestant]] [[missionaries]].
== Blood libel against followers of Ancient Greek religion ==
When the [[Christianization]] of Greece occurred, there was an attempt to portray all sacrifices as blood sacrifices, but contrary to popular Christian myth sacrifices to the Greek gods were typically in the forms of wealth. Human blood sacrifices were exceedingly rare and, in most Greek cities they were illegal. Early Christians spread myths about Christian children being abducted and having their throats slit in various temples. Such myths are similar to the [[blood libel]] accusations against Jews. Human blood sacrifices were seen by the Greek people as barbaric and laws against them were believed to be part of what separated the Greeks from those they considered barbarians, even after Romanization occurred.
== Blood libel against Jews ==
:''Main article'': [[Blood libel against Jews]]
Blood libels against the Jews were a common form of [[anti-semitism]] during the Middle Ages, though there is obviously no ritual involving human blood in Jewish law or custom. Though the first recorded instance was in the writings of [[Apion]], who claimed that the Jews sacrificed Greek victims in the Temple, there are no existent records of the blood libel against the Jews from that period until the legend surrounding [[William of Norwich]] in the 12th century, but the libel afterward became an increasingly common accusation. In many cases, anti-Semitic blood libels served as the basis for a ''blood libel cult'', in which the alleged victim of human sacrifice was worshipped as a Christian martyr, but the claim has pre-Christian origins. Many Jews were killed as a result of false blood libels, which continued into the 20th century, with the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in Russia and the [[Kielce pogrom]] in Poland, and the persistence of blood libel stories in the Arab world.
== Blood libel against Christians ==
:''Main article'': [[Blood libel against Christians]]
During the [[1st century|first]] and [[2nd century|second]] centuries, some [[Roman Empire|Roman]] commentators misunderstood the ritual of the [[Eucharist]] and related teachings. While celebrating the Eucharist, Christians drink red wine in response to the words "This is the blood of Christ". [[Propaganda]] arguing that the Christians literally drank blood was written and used to [[persecution of Christians|persecute Christians]]. Romans were highly suspicious of Christian [[adoption]]s of abandoned Roman babies and this was suggested as a possible source of the blood.
In the [[Mandaeanism|Mandaean]] scripture, the [[Ginza Rba]], a purportedly Christian group called the "Minunei" are accused of it against the Jews: "They kill a Jewish child, they take his blood, they cook it in bread and they proffer it to them as food." (Ginza Rba 9.1).
== Contemporary blood libel myths in the West ==
Accusations of ritual murder are being advanced by different groups to this day. In the United States, this is especially noticeable in certain branches of the anti-[[abortion]] movement, which has produced numerous charges against doctors performing the procedure.{{fact}}
One claim stated that physicians in [[China]] who perform abortions consider the fetus a delicacy and eat it. The story, reported from [[Hong Kong]] by [[Bruce Gilley]], was investigated by Senator [[Jesse Helms]], and gruesome artwork reminiscent of traditional depictions of blood libel was featured in several anti-abortion campaigns.[http://www.jesus21.com/poppydixon/sex/chinese_eating_fetuses.html]
The only use for human fetal tissue is in the medical research field, particularly [[stem cell research]]. [http://www1.od.nih.gov/oir/sourcebook/oversight/human-tissue-use.htm] [http://www.nesu.mphy.lu.se/nectar/eth.1.html]
Another contemporary blood libel in the United States alleges, falsely, that both neopagans and Satanists use human blood, sexual abuse, or ritual murder, especially of children, in their rituals. Often [[Satanism]], all of the diverse [[neopagan]] religions, the role playing game [[Dungeons and Dragons]], and sometimes Roman Catholicism and liberal or non-fundamentalist Christian denominations, are portrayed as expressions of one monolithic and ancient global conspiracy of Satan-worshippers. [[Mike Warnke]] (''The Satan Seller''), [[Bill Schnoebelen]] (''Wicca: Satan's Little White Lie''), [[Lawrence Pazder]] and [[Michelle Smith (author)|Michelle Smith]] (''[[Michelle Remembers]]''), [[Jon Watkins]] [http://www.exposingsatanism.org/witchcraft.htm], [[John Frattarola]] (''America's Best Kept Secret''), [[Bill Pricer]], and [[Ken Wooden]] (''Child Lures'') are some of the voices of these libels.
In impoverished parts of [[Latin America]], members of the Marxist group [[Shining Path]] tell rural villagers that Americans will kidnap and murder their children. The purported reasons for these supposed abductions/murders are human sacrifice and organs harvesting.
Many Jewish groups were shocked by the publication in 2003 by the British newspaper [[The Independent]] of a cartoon depicting Ariel Sharon eating a baby. [http://www.somethingjewish.co.uk/articles/627__grotesque__cartoon_.htm] The Israeli government complained to the [[Press Complaints Commission]] that the cartoon alluded to the blood libel of Jews eating Christian children; Dave Brown, the author, responded that the cartoon was in fact inspired by [[Goya]]'s painting ''Saturn Devouring his Son'' and was not anti-Semitic in intent. The PCC accepted Brown's argument, stating "There is nothing inherently anti-semitic about the Goya image or about the myth of Saturn devouring his children, which has been used previously to satirise other politicians accused of sacrificing their own 'children' for political purposes".[http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,961357,00.html] The cartoon ultimately earned Brown the British [[Political Cartoon Society]]'s Political Cartoon of the Year award.
== The decline of belief in ritual murder ==
Belief in ritual murder has gradually disappeared from mainstream Christianity, and child-martyrs have been purged from the official Catholic calendar of saints. Nevertheless, similar accusations are still being made by some Muslim groups against the Jews, and the same accusations were defended by [[Nazism]] and related movements in the twentieth century.
== See also ==
*[[List of blood libels against Jews]]
*[[vampirism]]
*[[witch hunt]]
*[[host desecration]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.adl.org/presrele/islme%5F62/3790%5F62.asp Anti-Defamation League condemns Egyptian blood libel]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/reaction.html Blood libel in 1840 Syria]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_blib1.htm Blood Libel, Host Desecration, and other Myths] (on religioustolerance.org)
* [http://www.independent.co.uk/story.jsp?story=350273 The Independent] -- info on ''Horseman Without a Horse''
* [http://www.snopes.com/religion/blood.htm Blood Feast] Snopes.com Info page
* [http://memri.org/bin/media.cgi?ID=114704 Updated Blood Libel in Mideast Media]
* [http://www.discord.org/~lippard/jetrep.html The JET report on murerous and cannabalistic Satanist allegations in the Broxtowe child abuse case.]
[[he:עלילת דם]]
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[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:Moral panics]]
[[Category:Hoaxes]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bagpuss</title>
<id>4942</id>
<revision>
<id>38163634</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T17:04:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pearle</username>
<id>112114</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Changing {{cleanup}} to {{cleanup-date|February 2006}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
'''''Bagpuss''''' was a popular UK [[children's television series]] of the [[1970s]], made by [[Smallfilms]]. It is fondly and widely remembered, despite the fact that only 13 episodes were ever made.
[[Image:bagpuss.jpg|thumb|right|Bagpuss and the mice]]
The program would open with a narrated series of [[sepia tone|sepia]] tinted still photos, showing Emily (played by animator [[Peter Firmin]]'s daughter [[Emily Firmin|Emily]]), a little girl who would find lost and broken things. She would take them home to Bagpuss's shop, and before she went away, she sang a little rhyme to Bagpuss (the most important, beautiful, magical, saggy old cloth [[cat]] in the whole wide world):
:Bagpuss, dear Bagpuss
:Old Fat Furry Catpuss
:Wake up and look at this thing that I bring
:Wake up, be bright, be golden and light
:Bagpuss, oh hear what I sing
And she went away. Then Bagpuss would wake up, with a tremendous yawn, and the program shifted from sepia photographs to colour [[stop motion]], revealing Bagpuss' stripes to be a startling fluorescent pink. And when Bagpuss woke up, all his friends woke up too, and various toys in the shop came to life: Gabriel the Toad and a [[rag doll]] called Madeleine. The wooden woodpecker bookend became Professor Yaffle, and the mice carved on the side of the mouse organ scurried around. [[Sandra Kerr]] and [[John Faulkner]] provided the voices of Madeleine and Gabriel respectively; all the other voices (including the narrator) were by [[Oliver Postgate]].
The toys would discuss what the new object was; someone (usually Madeleine) would tell a story related to the object (shown in an animated thought bubble over Bagpuss's head), usually with a song, which would be accompanied by Gabriel on the [[banjo]] (which often sounded a lot more like a [[guitar]]), and then the mice, singing in high pitched squeaky harmony as they worked, would mend the broken object. The new thing would be put in the Shop |
sumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs. While somewhat uncommon, entire CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal. Two notable examples of this are the [[ARM architecture|ARM]] compliant [[AMULET microprocessor|AMULET]] and the [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]] R3000 compatible MiniMIPS. Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous. For example, using asynchronous [[Arithmetic logic unit|ALUs]] in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains. While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations. This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for [[embedded computer]]s {{Ref harvard|Garside1999|Garside et al. 1999|a}}.
===Parallelism===
[[Image:Nopipeline.png|thumb|250px|right|Model of a subscalar CPU. Notice that it takes fifteen cycles to complete three instructions.]]
{{main|Parallel computing}}
The description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take. This type of CPU, usually referred to as subscalar, operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time.
This process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs. Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction. As a result the subscalar CPU gets "hung up" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution. Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased. This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach scalar performance (one instruction per clock). However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per cycle).
Attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel. When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques. [[Instruction level parallelism]] (ILP) seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the utilization of on-die execution resources), and [[thread level parallelism]] (TLP) purposes to increase the number of [[Thread (computer science)|thread]]s (effectively individual programs) that a CPU can execute simultaneously. Each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application. {{ref|parallelperformance}}
====ILP: Instruction pipelining and superscalar architecture====
[[Image:Fivestagespipeline.png|thumb|250px|right|Basic five-stage pipeline. In the best case scenario, this pipeline can sustain a completion rate of one instruction per cycle.]]
[[Image:Superscalarpipeline.png|thumb|250px|right|Simple superscalar pipeline. By fetching and dispatching two instructions at a time, a maximum of two instructions per cycle can be completed.]]
{{main articles|[[Instruction pipelining]], [[Superscalar]]}}
One of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing. This is the simplest form of a technique known as [[instruction pipelining]], and is utilized in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs. Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages. This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired.
Pipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict. To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs. Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so). A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage).
Further improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further. Designs that are said to be superscalar include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units. In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously). If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously. In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle.
Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher. The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible. This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of [[CPU cache]]. It also makes [[Hazard (computer architecture)|hazard]]-avoiding techniques like [[branch prediction]], [[speculative execution]], and [[out-of-order execution]] crucial to maintaining high levels of performance. By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed. Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may or may not be needed after a conditional operation completes. Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies.
In the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls. The original [[Intel Pentium]] (P5) had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock. Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar. Intel's successor to the Pentium architecture, [[Intel P6|P6]], added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance.
Both simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per cycle (IPC). {{ref|ipcrate}} Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar. In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA. The strategy of the [[very long instruction word]] (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design's complexity.
====TLP: Simultaneous thread execution====
Another strategy commonly used to increase the parallelism of CPUs is to include the ability to run multiple [[thread (computer science)|thread]]s (programs) at the same time. In general, high-TLP CPUs have been in use much longer than high-ILP ones. Many of the designs pioneered by [[Cray]] during the late 1970s and 1980s concentrated on TLP as their primary method of enabling enormous (for the time) computing capability. In fact, TLP in the form of multiple thread execution improvements has been in use since as early as the 1950s {{Ref harvard|Smotherman2005|Smotherman 2005|a}}. In the context of single processor design, the two main methodologies used to accomplish TLP are [[chip-level multiprocessing]] (CMP) and [[simultaneous multithreading]] (SMT). On a higher level, it is very common to build computers with multiple totally independent CPUs in arrangements like [[symmetric multiprocessing]] (SMP) and [[non-uniform memory access]] (NUMA). {{ref|singlechiptlp}} While using very different means, all of these techniques accomplish the same goal: increasing the number of threads that the CPU(s) can run in parallel.
The CMP and SMP methods of parallelism are similar to one another and the most straightforward. These involve little more conceptually than the utilization of two or more complete and independent CPUs. In the case of CMP, multiple processor "cores" are included in the same package, sometimes on the very same [[integrated circuit]]. {{ref|cmp}} SMP, on the other hand, includes multiple independent packages. NUMA is somewhat similar to SMP but uses a nonuniform memory access model. This is important for computers with many CPUs |
who tied down tens of thousands of French troops. The continual losses of troops caused Napoleon to describe this conflict his "Spanish ulcer". The British gave this aid because it cost them much less than it would have done to equip British soldiers to face the French troops in conventional warfare. This was one of the most successful partisan wars in history and was where the word ''guerrilla'' was first used in this context. The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] lists [[Wellington]] as the oldest known source, speaking of "Guerillas" in 1809.
Poet [[William Wordsworth]], a former radical turned conservative, showed a surprising early insight into guerrilla methods in his pamphlet on the [[Convention of Cintra]].
* "It is manifest that, though a great army may easily defeat or disperse another army, less or greater, yet it is not in a like degree formidable to a determined people, nor efficient in a like degree to subdue them, or to keep them in subjugation–much less if this people, like those of Spain in the present instance, be numerous, and, like them, inhabit a territory extensive and strong by nature. For a great army, and even several great armies, cannot accomplish this by marching about the country, unbroken, but each must split itself into many portions, and the several detachments become weak accordingly, not merely as they are small in size, but because the soldiery, acting thus, necessarily relinquish much of that part of their superiority, which lies in what may be called the enginery of war; and far more, because they lose, in proportion as they are broken, the power of profiting by the military skill of the Commanders, or by their own military habits. The experienced soldier is thus brought down nearer to the plain ground of the inexperienced, man to the level of man: and it is then, that the truly brave man rises, the man of good hopes and purposes; and superiority in moral brings with it superiority in physical power.” (''William Wordsworth: Selected Prose'', [[Penguin Classics]] 1988, page 177-8.)
===== Others =====
*In [[1848]], both [[The Nation (Irish newspaper)|''The Nation'']] and [[United Irishman|''The United Irishman'']] advocated guerrilla warfare to overthrow English rule in [[Ireland]], though no actual warfare took place.
*The [[Poland|Poles]] used guerrilla warfare during the [[January Uprising]] of 1863 - 1865, against [[Tsarist Russia]].
====Europe 1900 &ndash; 2000 ====
===== Anglo&ndash;Irish War =====
The wars between '''Ireland''' and the '''United Kingdom''' have been long and over the centuries have covered the full spectrum of the types of warfare. The Irish fought the first successful 20th century war of independence against the British Empire and the United Kingdom. After the military failure of the [[Easter Rising]] in [[1916]], the [[Irish Republican Army]] (IRA) resorted to guerrilla tactics involving both [[urban warfare]] and [[flying column]]s in the countryside during the [[Anglo-Irish War]] (War of Independence) of [[1919]] to [[1921]]. The British security forces were fought to a standstill and the government of the UK agreed to meet representatives of the Irish uprising to negotiate a settlement. The settlement which resulted &mdash; the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] &mdash; satisfied few. It created the [[Irish Free State]] of 26 counties as a dominion within the British Empire; the other 6 counties remained part of the UK. The '''IRA''' fought an unsuccessful [[Irish Civil War|Civil War]] (1921-23) against the '''Irish free staters''' using tactics similar to those used against the British but lost. The partition of Ireland laid the seeds for the later [[the Troubles|troubles]].
===== World War II =====
[[Image:Soviet guerilla.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Soviet partisan fighters behind German lines in Belarus in 1943]]
In [[World War II]], several guerrilla organisations (often known as [[resistance movement|resistance movements]]) operated in the countries occupied by [[Nazi Germany]]. These included the Polish [[Home Army]], [[Soviet partisans]] (see also [[Russian Guerrilla Warfare of WWII]]), [[National Liberation Army of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav Partisans]], Bulgarian NOVA ,[[French resistance]] or [[Maquis (WW2)|Maquis]], Italian partisans, [[ELAS]] and royalist forces in [[Greece]]. Many of these organisations received help from the [[Special Operations Executive]] (SOE) which along with the [[British Commando|commandos]] was initiated by [[Winston Churchill]] to "''"set Europe ablaze"''. The SOE was originally designated as 'Section D' of [[MI6]] but its aid to resistance movements to start fires clashed with MI6's primary role as an intelligence-gathering agency. When Britain was under threat of invasion, SOE trained [[Auxiliary Units]] to conduct guerrilla warfare in the event of invasion. Not only did SOE help the resistance to tie down many German units as garrison troops, so directly aiding the conventional war effort, but also guerrilla incidents in occupied countries were useful in the propaganda war, helping to repudiate German claims that the occupied countries were pacified and broadly on the side of the Germans. When the [[USA]] entered the war, the US [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) co-operated and enhanced the work of SOE as well as working on its own initiatives in the Far East. Even the [[Home Guard]] were trained in guerilla warfare in the case of invasion of England. [[Osterly Park]] was the first of 3 such school established to train the Home Guard.
===== Post World War II =====
After World War II, during [[1940s]] and [[1950s]], thousands of fighters in [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] participated in unsuccessful guerrilla warfare against Soviet occupation.
In the late [[1960s]] [[the Troubles]] started in [[Northern Ireland]]. They had their seeds in the Anglo-Irish War, and came to an end with the signing of the [[Good Friday Agreement]] in the [[1900s|mid-1990s]] (1998). The peace is fragile and it is too early to tell if a permanent end to the conflict has occurred and which group, if any, won. Although both loyalist and republican paramilitaries carried out terrorist atrocities against [[civilian]]s which were often tit-for-tat, a case can be made for saying that attacks such as the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] carried out on British soldiers at [[Warrenpoint]] in [[1979]] was a well planned guerrilla ambush {{ref|news.bbc.co.uk.780}}. The [[PIRA]], [[Loyalist]] [[paramilitary|paramilitaries]] and various anti-[[Good Friday Agreement]] splinter-groups could be called guerrillas but are usually called terrorists by both the [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Ireland|Irish]] governments. The news media such as the [[BBC]] and [[CNN]] will often use the term "gunmen" as in ''"IRA gunmen" {{ref|www.bbc.co.uk.781}} or "Loyalist gunmen" {{ref|www.cnn.com.782}} committed a "terrorist" act''. Since 1995 CNN also uses guerrilla as in ''"IRA guerrilla" and "Protestant guerrilla" {{ref|www.cnn.com.783}}''. [[Reuters]], in accordance with its principle of not using the word terrorist except in direct quotes, refers to "''guerrilla groups''"{{ref|www.reuters.co.uk.784}}.
==== Europe 2000 &ndash; present ====
Currently, the [[Basque people|Basque]] [[ETA]] and [[Corsica]]n [[FLNC]] and other groups such as the [[History of Modern Greece|Greek]] [[Marxist]] [[Revolutionary Organization 17 November]] claim to be guerrillas, but are commonly recognized as terrorists since they have murdered civilians on some occasions (collateral damages according to them) and not always purely legitimate military targets. Furthermore, this is how the governments and media of their respective countries (foreign invader governments according to these groups) prefer to refer to them.
The ongoing war between pro-independence groups in [[Chechnya]] and the Russian government is currently the most active guerrilla war in Europe. Most of the incidents reported by the Western news media are very gory terrorist acts against Russian civilians committed by Chechen separatists outside Chechnya. However, within Chechnya the war has many of the characteristics of a classic guerrilla war. See the article [[History of Chechnya]] for more details.
=== Guerrillas in the American Revolutionary War ===
While the [[American Revolutionary War]] is often thought of as a guerrilla war, guerrilla tactics were uncommon, and almost all of the battles involved conventional set-piece battles. Some of the confusion may be due to the fact that generals [[George Washington]] and [[Nathaniel Greene]] successfully used a strategy of harassment and progressively grinding down British forces instead of seeking a decisive battle, in a classic example of [[asymmetric warfare]]. Nevertheless the theater tactics used by most of the American forces were those of conventional warfare. One of the exceptions was in the south, where the brunt of the war was upon [[militia]] forces who fought the enemy [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] troops and their [[Loyalist]] supporters, but used concealment, surprise, and other guerrilla tactics to much advantage. General [[Francis Marion]] of [[South Carolina]], who often attacked the British at unexpected places and then would fade into the swamps by the time the British were able to get organized enough to return fire, was named by them ''The Swamp Fox''. However, even in the south, most of the major engagements were set-piece battles of conventional warfare. See also [[Ethan Allen]] and the [[Green Mountain Boys]], for another Revolutionary example.
===Guerrillas in the American Civil War===
Irregular warfare in the [[American Civil War]] followed the patterns of irregular warfare in 19th century Europe. Structually, irregular warfare can be divided into three different types conducted d |
e is the town of ''[[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]]'' (pronounced to rhyme with ''threading'') vs. the gerund ''reading'', as in reading a book (pronounced to rhyme with ''feeding''). At one time the bookseller [[Blackwell's]] had a branch in Reading, signed "Blackwells Reading Book Shop", in which either pronunciation made sense.
See also [[List of English homographs]].
=== Self-antonymns ===
''Main article: [[Auto-antonym]].''
A few English words have such disparate definitions that one meaning is the opposite of another. These are called "self-antonyms", "auto-antonyms" or "contronyms". Examples include ''cleave'' or ''clip'' (joining things together or taking them apart), ''fast'' (move quickly or fix in one spot), ''enjoin'' (to cause something to be done, to forbid something from being done), and ''inflammable'' (able to be burned or fire-proof).
===Sequences of words formed by the addition of letters===
The nine-word sequence ''I'', ''in'', ''sin'', ''sing'', ''sting'', ''string'', ''staring'', ''starting'' (or ''starling''), ''startling'' can be formed by successively adding one letter to the previous word.
There are a number of other nine-word sequences that use only common words, and numerous shorter sequences, such as the seven-word ''a'', ''at'', ''rat'', ''rate'', ''irate'', ''pirate'', ''pirates''.
If rare words, proper names and/or obsolete words are allowed then sequences of at least eleven words are possible. One example is: ''a'', ''ma'' (mother), ''mac'' (raincoat, British), ''[[mace (spice)|mace]]'' (spice), ''[[macle]]'' (mineral), ''[[macule]]'' (skin spot), ''maculae'' (plural of ''macula'', variant of ''macule''), ''maculate'' (blotchy), ''masculate'' (to make strong, obsolete), ''emasculate'', ''emasculated''.
''Al'', ''Ala'', ''Alan'', and ''Alana'' is a sequence consisting only of first names.
A seven-word sequence in which letters are added to the ''end'' of the previous word is: ''ma'', ''max'' (used in phrases such as ''to the max''), ''maxi'' (a long skirt), ''maxim'', ''maxima'' (plural of ''[[maximum]]''), ''maximal'', ''maximals'' (plural of ''[[maximal]]'', used as noun in mathematics). An eight-word sequence including proper nouns is: ''ta'' (thanks, British), ''tam'' (Scottish cap), ''[[Tama]]'' (asteroid), ''[[Tamar]]'' (English river), ''[[tamari]]'' (soy sauce), ''[[tamarin]]'' (monkey), ''[[tamarind]]'' (tree), ''tamarinds'' (plural).
The one-syllable word ''are'', with the addition of one letter, becomes ''[[area]]'', a word with three syllables.
A six-word sequence in which letters are added to the ''beginning'' of the words is: ''hes'' (plural of ''he'', used as a noun to mean a male), ''shes'' (plural of ''she''), ''ashes'', ''lashes'', ''plashes'' (plural of ''plash'', a splashing sound), ''splashes''.
==="ough" words===
The most notorious group of letters in the English language, ''ough'', is commonly pronounced at least ten different ways. Ough is in fact a word in its own right; it is an exclamation of disgust similar to "ugh".
{| class="wikitable"
![[Pronunciation|Pron.]] !![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !!Example !!Comment
|--- valign="top"
|"UFF" ||{{IPA|[&#652;f}}] ||tough, enough ||
|--- valign="top"
|"OFF" ||{{IPA|[&#596;f}}] or {{IPA|[&#594;f}}] ||cough, [[trough]] ||''Trough is pronounced like 'troth' by some speakers of American English''
|--- valign="top"
|"OW" ||{{IPA|[a&#650;}}] ||bough ||
|--- valign="top"
|"OH" ||{{IPA|[&#601;&#650;}}] ||though, [[dough]] ||
|--- valign="top"
|"AW" ||{{IPA|[&#596;&#720;}}] ||[[thought]] ||
|--- valign="top"
|"OO" ||{{IPA|[u&#720;}}] ||through, [[slough]] || ''Slough is pronounced as 'slew' or to rhyme with "bough" or to rhyme with "tough" in American English, in British English it rhymes with "bough" or "tough"''
|--- valign="top"
|"UH" ||{{IPA|[&#601;}}] ||thorough, [[borough]] ||''Both pronounced as 'OH' in American English''
|--- valign="top"
|"UP" ||{{IPA|[&#652;p}}] ||[[hiccough]] ||''Variant spelling of "hiccup", though the latter form is recommended in both British and US''
|--- valign="top"
|"UFF" ||{{IPA|[&#650;f}}] ||wough ||''Compare "wuff"''
|--- valign="top"
|"UKH" ||{{IPA|[ux}}] ||sough ||''In some words in [[Scots language|Scots]]; otherwise pronounced 'UFF' or 'OW' ''
|--- valign="top"
|"OHKH" ||{{IPA|[&#601;&#650;x}}] ||jough, turlough ||''[[Manx language|Manx]] and [[Irish language|Irish]] respectively''
|--- valign="top"
|"OCK" ||{{IPA|[&#596;k}}] ||hough ||''More commonly spelled "hock" from the 20th Century onwards''
|--- valign="top"
|"OKH" ||{{IPA|[&#594;x}}] ||[[lough]] ||''A lake; Irish analogue of [[Scots language|Scots]] "loch"''
|}
The original pronunciation in all cases was the last one. However the ''kh'' sound has disappeared from most modern English dialects. As it faded, different speakers replaced it by different near equivalents in different words. Thus the present confusion resulted.
The two "ough"s in the English place name [[Loughborough]] are pronounced differently, resulting in ''Luffburruh''.
''Tough'', ''though'', ''through'', and ''thorough'' are formed by adding an additional letter each time, yet none of them rhymes with another.
== Long words ==
''Main article: [[Longest word in English]].''
''[[Antidisestablishmentarianism]]'' listed in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', was considered the longest English word for quite a long time, but today the medical term ''[[Longest word in English#A coined term | pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis]]'' is usually considered to have the title, despite the fact that it was coined to provide an answer to the question 'What is the longest English word?'.
The ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'', in its [[1992]] and subsequent editions, declared the "longest real word" in the English language to be '''[[floccinaucinihilipilification]]''' at 29 letters. Defined as ''the act of estimating (something) as worthless'', its usage has been recorded as far back as [[1741]].
[[Chemical nomenclature]] of [[organic compound]]s and especially [[protein]]s can easily beat any record, as offical nomenclature rules lead to legitimate names thousands of letters long.
=== Longest one-syllable word ===
''Main article: [[List of the longest English words with one syllable]].''
The longest one-[[syllable]] word in the English language is either ''squirrelled'', ''scraunched'', or one of several 9-letter words. The first two words may be pronounced using more than one syllable in some [[accent]]s. ''Rhythmlessly'' is the longest with only one [[vowel]].
== Unrhymable words ==
In the most common form of [[rhyme]], words rhyme if they end in identically or nearly-identically sounding syllables, and match in stress. If a word has an unusual or unique ending syllable and no other word has a [[stress pattern]] to match, it does not rhyme. Excluding disputed loan words, whose foreign sounds make them obviously difficult, unrhymable English words include ''chimney'', ''depth'', ''month'', ''orange'', ''pint'', ''purple'', and ''wasp''. Of these, ''[[orange (word)|orange]]'' is arguably the one most famous for being unrhymable.
''Silver'' is commonly considered unrhymable, however it rhymes with [[chilver]], a young fish.
Note that some words rhyme if we allow prefixed derivatives of them (like ''empurple'' or ''desilver''), but this is not commonly considered proper rhyme.
The most common way to concoct a "rhyme" for such words &mdash; usually in humorous poetry &mdash; is to rhyme it with the first syllable of a word that is split over two lines. An example is rhyming ''orange'' with ''car eng/ine'', noted by [[Douglas Hofstadter]]. Likewise, [[Stephen Sondheim]] rhymed ''silver'' with "will, ver-/bosity, and time", and [[Willard R. Espy]] managed the couplet "I might distil Ver-/ona's silver". On a similar note, ''orange'' has been rhymed with "door hinge".
== Words with large numbers of meanings ==
Scanning the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' reveals an astounding 76 definitions of the word ''run''. The top five words with large numbers of meanings are:
# ''[[run]]'' (76)
# ''[[Set_(disambiguation)|set]]'' (63)
# ''[[point]]'' (49)
# ''[[strike]]'' (48)
# ''[[light]]'' (47)
==Acronyms as words ==
Some acronyms have attained the status of words. Many are company names that were either deliberately created for marketing reasons or have morphed from true acronyms over time, such as [[Compaq]], a computer company; [[Qantas]], an Australian airline; and [[Nasdaq]], the US electronic stock market. Others are organizations, such as [[Nato]], the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (spelled with all capital letters in the U.S.).
Other examples include [[qwerty]] &ndash; the name of the most common keyboard layout, [[WYSIWYG]], pronounced 'Wizzywig', describing a computer program which displays accurate previews of work.
==Typewriter words==
The longest words spelt solely with the left hand when typing properly using a [[QWERTY]] keyboard may be the 14-letter ''[[aftercataract]]s'' (secondary cataracts of the eye) and ''sweaterdresses'' (plural of ''[[sweaterdress]]'', a knitted dress). The longest common words are the 12-letter ''desegregated'', ''desegregates'', ''reverberated'', ''reverberates'' and ''stewardesses''.
The 13-letter chemical name ''[[phyllophyllin]]'' can be typed solely with the right hand. The longest such word that is reasonably common is the 9-letter |
rison camp, with the sinner securely tied, blindfolded, gagged, and drugged and contrasts the two versions of Divine rescue offered:
::"The Calvinist view of the divine invasion is simple. God invades the camp, carries the prisoner out, strips the prisoner of her shackles and blinders, and injects "faith" into the prisoner's veins. The former prisoner, having already been rescued from prison and positioned outside the walls, now trusts the Deliverer because of the potency of the administered faith serum. God has been the lone actor throughout, in the sense that the human response of faith is directly and irresistibly caused by God...
::"The classical Arminian believes that God steals into the prison and makes it to the bedside of the victim. God injects a serum that begins to clear the prisoner's mind of delusions and quell her hostile reactions. God removes the gag from the prisoner's mouth and shines a flashlight around the pitch-black room. The prisoner remains mute as the Rescuer's voice whispers "Do you know where you are? Let me tell you! Do you know who you are? Let me show you!" And the wooing begins, divine truth begins to dawn on the prisoner's heart and mind; the Savior holds up a small mirror to show the prisoner her sunken eyes and frail body. "Do you see what they've done to you, and do you see how you've given yourself to them?" Even in the dim light, the prisoner's weakened eyes are beginning to focus. The rescuer continues "Do you know who I am, and that I want you for myself?" Perhaps the prisoner makes no obvious advance but does not turn away. The questions keep coming: "Can I show you pictues of who you once were and the wondrous plans I have for you in the years to come?" The prisoner's heartbeat quickens as the Savior presses on: "I know that part of you suspects that I have come to harm you. But let me show you something - my hands, they're a bit bloody. I crawled through the awful tangle of barbed wire to get you." Now here in this newly created sacred space, in this moment of new possibility, the Savior whispers "I want to carry you out of here right now! Give me your heart! Trust me!"{{ref|50-Dongell}}
* '''Perseverance''' - Arminians believe that future salvation and eternal life is secured in Christ and protected from all external forces, but is [[Conditional Preservation of the Saints | conditional on remaining in Christ]] and can be lost through apostasy. This conditional perseverance is in contrast to the doctrine of [[Perseverance of the Saints]] and concept of "once saved, always saved". Pawson comments:
::"The Arminian position is accurately portrayed by someone throwing a lifeline to a drowning man and saying 'grab hold of this and keep holding on tightly until I pull you to safety.' I would maintain that no one rescued in this way would dream that he had saved himself or even made a 'contribution' which merited his rescue. He would be filled with gratitude towards his rescuer."{{ref|51-Pawson}}
==See also==
{|
| valign="top" |
'''Doctrine'''
* [[Total depravity]]
* [[Prevenient grace]]
* [[Unlimited atonement]]
* [[Substitutionary atonement]]
** [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | Penal satisfaction atonement]]
** [[Atonement (Governmental view) | Governmental atonement]]
* [[Free will]]
* [[Conditional election]]
* [[Conditional preservation of the Saints]]
| valign="top" |
'''People, History, Denominations'''
* [[Jacobus Arminius]]
* [[Hugo Grotius]]
* [[Remonstrants | The Remonstrants]]
* [[Methodism]]
** [[John Wesley]]
** [[Charles Wesley]]
* [[Anglicanism]]
* [[Pentecostalism]] & [[Charismatics]]
* [[Baptist | General & Free Will Baptists]]
* [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]]
| valign="top" |
'''Opposing Views'''
* [[Calvinism]]
** [[Five points of Calvinism]]
** [[John Calvin]]
** [[Unconditional election]]
** [[Limited atonement]]
** [[Irresistible grace]]
** [[Perseverance of the Saints]]
* [[Pelagianism]]
** [[Pelagius]]
** [[Semi-Pelagianism]]
|}
==Further reading==
''Pro''
*Ashby, Stephen M (contributor) and Harper, Steven (contributor) ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002) ISBN 0310234395 - Stephen Ashby and Steven Harper present and defend their cases for Reformed Arminianism (classical) and Wesleyan Arminianism respectively against Michael Horton (Classical Calvinism), Norman Geisler (Moderate Calvinism) and each other.
*Forlines, Leroy F., Pinson, Matthew J. and Ashby, Stephen M. ''The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2001) ISBN 0892658649 - Forlines and his co-authors present a comprehensive systematic theology of salvation from an Arminian perspective.
*Forster, Roger and Marston, Paul ''God's Strategy in Human History'' 2nd ed. (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2000) ISBN 1579102735 - The authors take a deep look at the grammatical and historical contexts of New Testament passages dealing with predestination and election, along with historical sources from the first 300 years A.D., and come to Arminian conclusions.
*Pawson, David ''Once Saved, Always Saved? A Study in Perseverance and Inheritance'' (London: Hodder & Staughton, 1996) ISBN 0340610662 - British pastor and theologian takes a deeper look at the Scriptural, historical, and theological arguments against the doctrine of "once saved, always saved".
*Picirilli, Robert ''Grace, Faith, Free Will: Contrasting Views of Salvation: Calvinism and Arminianism'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2002) ISBN 0892656484 - Picirilli takes a closer look at the life and views of Jacobus Arminius and presents his historical and theological argument for Reformation Arminianism (classical).
*Shank, Dr. Robert ''Elect in the Son'' (Bethany House Publishers, 1989) ISBN 1556610920 - The classic defense of Arminianism. First published in the mid-20th century, it remains one of the primary defenses of Arminian thought.
*Walls, Jerry L. and Dongell, Joseph R. ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'' (Downer's Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004) ISBN 0830832491 - Walls and Dongell present their Scriptural and philosophical arguments against Calvinism, focusing primarily on the nature of human freedom, divine sovereignty, self-consistency, and the Christian life.
''Con''
*Grudem, Wayne ''Systematic Theology'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995) ISBN 0310286700 - A well-reasoned and Scriptural systematic theology that presents a Calvinist view.
*Peterson, Robert A. and Williams, Michael D. ''Why I Am Not an Arminian'' (Downer's Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004) ISBN 0830832483 - The counterpoint to ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'' presents a Scriptural and philosophical case against Arminianism.
*White, James R. ''The Potter's Freedom'' (Calvary Press, 2000) ISBN 1879737434 - A Calvinist response to Norman Geisler's ''Chosen but Free'' (in which Geisler presents a "moderate Calvinism" that only holds to perseverance of the Saints), it is widely considered by both supporters and opponents to be a strong, consistent portrayal of Calvinism.
==Notes==
<div style="font-size:smaller;">
'''History'''
<br>''see [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]] for additional notes''
<br> (1) {{note|1-BFM}} "The Baptist Faith and Message, 2000 Revision" (http://www.sbc.net/bfm/bfm2000.asp#iv)
<br> (2) {{note|2-Harmon}} Harmon, Richard W. ''Baptists and Other Denominations'' (Nashville: Convention Press, 1984) 17-18, 45-46
<br> (3) {{note|3-Walls}} Walls, Jerry and Dongell, Joseph ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'' (Downer's Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004) 12-13, 16-17
<br> (4) {{note|4-Walls}} Ibid., 7-20
<br>'''Classical Arminianism'''
<br> (5) {{note|5-Ashby}} Ashby, Stephen "Reformed Arminianism" ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 137
<br> (6) {{note|6-Arminius}} Arminius, James ''The Writings of James Arminius'' (three vols.), tr. James Nichols and W.R. Bagnall (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1956), I:252
<br> (7) {{note|7-Arminius}} Ibid., I:316
<br> (8) {{note|8-Arminius}} Ibid., III:454
<br> (9) {{note|9-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views'', 140
<br> (10) {{note|10-Picirilli}} Picirilli, Robert ''Grace, Faith, Free Will: Contrasting Views of Salvation: Calvinism and Arminianism'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2002), 154ff
<br> (11) {{note|11-Forlines}} Forlines, Leroy F., Pinson, Matthew J. and Ashby, Stephen M. ''The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2001), 313-321
<br> (12) {{note|12-Arminius}} Arminius ''Writings'', III:311
<br> (13) {{note|13-Arminius}} Ibid.
<br> (14) {{note|14-Pawson}} Pawson, David ''Once Saved, Always Saved? A Study in Perseverance and Inheritance'' (London: Hodder & Staughton, 1996), 109ff
<br> (15) {{note|15-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 203
<br> (16) {{note|16-Picirilli}} Ibid., 204ff
<br> (17) {{note|17-Arminius}} Arminius ''Writings'', I:254
<br> (18) {{note|18-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views'', 159
<br>'''Wesleyan Arminianism'''
<br> (19) {{note|19-Harper}} Harper, Steven "Wesleyan Arminianism" ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002) 227ff
<br> (20) {{note|20-Harper}} Ibid., 239-240
<br> (21) {{note|21-Wesley}} Wesley, John "A Call to Backsliders" ''The Works of John Wesley'', ed. Thomas Jackson, 14 vols. (London: Wesley Methodist Book Room, 1872; repr, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1986) 3:211ff
<br> (22) {{note|22-Wesley}} Wesley, John "A Plain Account of Christian Perfection", ''Works''
<br> (23) {{note|23-Wesley}} Wesley, John "The End of Christ’s Coming", ''Works''
<br> (24) {{note|24-Wesl |
[Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie]] (RCD) control a large section of the east; and government forces or their allies hold the west and south of the country. There were reports that the conflict is being prolonged as a cover for extensive looting of the substantial natural resources in the country (including [[diamond]]s, [[copper]], [[zinc]], and [[coltan]]). The conflict was reignited in January 2002 by ethnic clashes in the northeast and both Uganda and Rwanda then halted their withdrawal and sent in more troops.
Talks between Kabila and the rebel leaders (held in [[Sun City, South Africa|Sun City]]) lasted a full six weeks (beginning in April 2002). In June they signed a peace accord in which Kabila would share power with former rebels. By June 2003 all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo.
Ethnic clashes in the northeast were still continuing in 2004, especially violence between the Hema and Lendu tribes in the Kivu region of eastern Congo.
Presently, DR Congo is in an transitional period, where a constution has been approved by voters and presidential elections expected to be held in June 2006.
== Further reading ==
* Forbath, Peter. (1977) ''The River Congo'', Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-122490-1.
* Conrad, Joseph. (1902) ''Heart of Darkness''. (fiction)
* Gondola, Ch. Didier. (2002) ''The History of Congo'', Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-31696-1. Covers Congolese history from the prehistoric period to 2002.
* Hall, Richard. (1974) ''Stanley: an adventurer explored'', Purnell.
* Kingsolver, Barbara. (1998) ''The Poisonwood Bible'', HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-017540-0. (fiction)
* Pakenham, Thomas. (1991) ''The scramble for Africa'', Abacus. ISBN 0-349-10449-2.
* Rodney, Walter. (1974) ''How Europe underdeveloped Africa'', Howard University Press. ISBN 0-88258-013-2.
* Hochschild, Adam. (1999) ''King Leopold's Ghost'', Mariner Books . ISBN 0618001905
== External links ==
* [http://www.boondocksnet.com/congo/ "Reforming the Heart of Darkness"] Concerning the Congo under Léopold II
* [http://www.banknotes.com/cd.htm "Banknotes of DR Congo"]
* [http://www.banknotes.com/zr.htm "Banknotes of Zaire"]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
[[Category:History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]
[[de:Geschichte der Demokratischen Republik Kongo]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[es:Historia de Congo, R.D.]]
[[fr:Congo belge]]
[[nl:Belgisch Kongo]]
[[sv:Belgiska Kongo]]
[[ln:Kɔ́ngɔ (ntangó ya banɔ́kɔ́)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
<id>8023</id>
<revision>
<id>40557734</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T12:08:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>better map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] includes the greater part of the Congo River Basin, which covers an area of almost 1 million square kilometers (400,000 sq. mi.). The country's only outlet to the Atlantic Ocean is a narrow strip of land on the north bank of the Congo River.
[[Image:ISS007-E-6305.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Image of Kinshasa and Brazzaville, taken by NASA]]
The vast, low-lying central area is a basin-shaped plateau sloping toward the west and covered by tropical rainforest. This area is surrounded by mountainous terraces in the west, plateaus merging into savannas in the south and southwest, and dense grasslands extending beyond the Congo River in the north. High mountains are found in the extreme eastern region.
The DRC lies on the Equator, with one-third of the country to the north and two-thirds to the south. The climate is hot and humid in the river basin and cool and dry in the southern highlands. South of the Equator, the rainy season lasts from October to May and north of the Equator, from April to November. Along the Equator, rainfall is fairly regular throughout the year. During the wet season, thunderstorms often are violent but seldom last more than a few hours. The average rainfall for the entire country is about 1.07 metres (42 in).
[[Image:Congo Democratic Republic Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of the DR of the Congo]]
'''Location:'''
Central [[Africa]], northeast of [[Angola]]
'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|0|00|N|25|00|E|type:country}}
'''Map references:'''
Africa
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
2,345,410 km²
<br>''land:''
2,267,600 km²
<br>''water:''
77,810 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly less than one-fourth the size of the US
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''total:''
10,744 km
<br>''border countries:''
Angola 2,511 km, [[Burundi]] 233 km, [[Central African Republic]] 1,577 km, [[Republic of the Congo]] 2,410 km, [[Rwanda]] 217 km, [[Sudan]] 628 km, [[Tanzania]] 473 km, [[Uganda]] 765 km, [[Zambia]] 1,930 km
'''Coastline:'''
37 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''exclusive economic zone:''
boundaries with neighbors
<br>''territorial sea:''
12 nm
'''Climate:'''
tropical; hot and humid in equatorial river basin; cooler and drier in southern highlands; cooler and wetter in eastern highlands; north of Equator - wet season April to October, dry season December to February; south of [[Equator]] - wet season November to March, dry season April to October
[[image:LocationDRCongo.png|200px|thumb|right|Location of country on world map]]
'''Terrain:'''
vast central basin is a low-lying plateau; mountains in east
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
[[Atlantic Ocean]] 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
Pic Marguerite on [[Mont Ngaliema]] (Mount Stanley) 5,110 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[cobalt]], [[copper]], [[cadmium]], [[petroleum]], industrial and gem [[diamond]]s, [[gold]], [[silver]], [[zinc]], [[manganese]], [[tin]], [[germanium]], [[uranium]], [[radium]], [[bauxite]], [[iron]] ore, [[coal]], [[hydropower]], timber
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
2.96% (1998 est), 3% (1993 est.)
<br>''permanent crops:''
0.52% (1998 est.), 0% (1993 est.)
<br>''permanent pastures:''
7% (1993 est.)
<br>''forests and woodland:''
77% (1993 est.)
<br>''other:''
96.52 (1998 est.), 13% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
110 km² (1998 est.), 100 km&sup2; (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
periodic [[drought]]s in south; [[Congo River]] floods (seasonal); in the east, in the [[Great Rift Valley]], there are active [[volcano]]es
'''Environment - current issues:'''
poaching threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; deforestation; refugees responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching; mining of minerals (coltan - a mineral used in creating capacitors, diamonds, and gold) causing environmental damage
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
Environmental Modification
'''Geography - note:'''
straddles [[Equator]]; very narrow strip of land that controls the lower [[Congo River]] and is only outlet to South [[Atlantic Ocean]]; dense tropical rain forest in central river basin and eastern highlands
:''See also :'' [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]
[[es:Geografía de la República Democrática del Congo]]
[[fr:Géographie de la République démocratique du Congo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
<id>8024</id>
<revision>
<id>39374533</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:20:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Congo dem demographie.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Democratic Republic of the Congo, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
The population of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] was estimated at 46.7 million in [[1997]]. As many as 250 [[ethnic group]]s have been distinguished and named. The most numerous people are the [[Bakongo]], [[Luba]], and [[Mongo]]. Although 700 local [[language]]s and [[dialect]]s are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by the use of [[French language|French]] and the intermediary languages [[Kikongo]], [[Tshiluba language|Tshiluba]], [[Swahili]], and [[Lingala language|Lingala]].
About 80% of the Congolese population are [[Christian]], predominantly [[Roman Catholic]]. Most of the non-Christians adhere to either traditional [[religion]]s or syncretic [[sect]]s. Traditional religions embody such concepts as [[monotheism]], [[animism]], [[vitalism]], [[spirit]] and [[ancestor worship]], [[witchcraft]], and [[sorcery]] and vary widely among ethnic groups; none is formalized. The syncretic sects often merge Christianity with traditional beliefs and rituals. The most popular of these sects, [[Kimbanguism]], was seen as a threat to the [[Belgian Congo|colonial regime]] and was banned by the [[Belgium|Belgians]]. Kimbanguism, officially "the church of Christ on Earth by the prophet [[Simon Kimbangu]]," now has about 3 million members, primarily among the [[Bakongo]] of Bas-Congo and [[Kinshasa]]. In [[1969]], it was the first independent [[Africa]]n church admitted to the [[World Council of Churches]].
Before [[History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#The_First_Republic_.281960-1965.29|independence]], [[education]] was largely in the hands of religious groups. The [[primary school]] system was well-developed at inde |
n today, are known as the [[Ancient Tenements]]. Most of these date back to the 14th century and sometimes earlier.
Some way into the moor stands the town of [[Princetown, England|Princetown]], the site of the notorious [[Dartmoor (HM Prison)|Dartmoor Prison]], which was originally built both by, and for, [[Napoleonic]] prisoners of war. The prison has a (now misplaced) reputation for being escape-proof, both due to the buildings themselves and its physical location.
The Dartmoor landscape is scattered with the marks left by the many generations who have lived and worked there over the centuries - such as the remains of the once mighty [[Dartmoor tin-mining]] industry, and farmhouses long since abandoned.
Indeed the [[Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor|industrial archaeology of Dartmoor]] is a subject in its own right.
==Myths and literature==
[[Image:Dartmoor a.jpg|thumb|]]
Dartmoor, an eerie place even in high summer, abounds with myths and legends.
The moor is reputedly the haunt of [[pixie]]s, a headless horseman, a mysterious pack of 'spectral hounds', and a large black dog. During [[The Great Thunderstorm, Widecombe|the Great Thunderstorm]] of 1638, Dartmoor was even said to have been visited by the [[Devil]].
Many landmarks have ancient legends and [[ghost]] stories associated with them, such as the mysterious [[Jay's Grave]], the ancient burial site at [[Childes Tomb|Childe's Tomb]], and the oddly shaped rockpile called [[Bowerman's Nose]].
A few stories have emerged in recent decades, such as the 'hairy hands', that are said to attack travellers on the B3212 near [[Two Bridges]]. Several motorists have claimed that the hands materialised in front of them, grasped the wheel and forced their vehicle off the road.
Dartmoor has inspired a number of artists and writers, such as [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] in ''[[The Hound of the Baskervilles]]'', [[Eden Phillpotts]], [[Beatrice Chase]], [[Agatha Christie]] and the Reverend [[Sabine Baring-Gould]].
==Ownership==
The land of Dartmoor is owned by several different organizations and people. 57.3% of it is private land, much of which is owned by the [[Duke of Cornwall]], a title held under a charter of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] by the [[Prince of Wales]]. The Ministry of Defence owns 14% (detailed later in this article), 3.8% is owned by water companies, 3.7% by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]], 1.8% by the [[Forestry Commission]] and 1.4% by Dartmoor's [[National Park Authority]].
==Access==
There are almost [[450]] miles of [[footpath]]s and [[bridleway]]s on Dartmoor. Dartmoor differs from some other [[List of national parks of England and Wales|National Parks in England and Wales]], in that since a 1985 [[Act of Parliament]] much of it has been designated as 'Access Land', with no restrictions on where walkers can roam. This Access Land remains privately owned land.
There are still footpaths in these areas, but they are for guidance and convenience &ndash; they do not have to be kept to, and in fact footpaths in these sections of the Park are generally not waymarked. This is not connected with the [[Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000]], which has established similar rights in other rural parts of the country. Dartmoor is largely unaffected by this legislation because of its existing arrangements.
===Letterboxing===
The definitive guide to walking on Dartmoor was written by the Victorian walker [[William Crossing]].
Dartmoor is the birthplace of the popular outdoor pursuit of [[letterboxing]], which has become increasingly popular in recent decades. Watertight containers, or 'letterboxes' are hidden throughout Dartmoor, each containing a visitor's book and a rubber stamp. The original intention was for walkers to leave a letter or postcard, which would then be collected and posted by the next person to visit the site.
Until the 1970s there were no more than a dozen such sites around the moor, usually in the most inaccessible locations. Today there are thousands of letterboxes, many within easy walking distance of the road. Clues to their locations are placed in other letterboxes or on the Internet.
=== Use by the Ministry of Defence ===
The [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] areas are surrounded by red and white posts and warning signs. Members of the public are allowed access, except when these areas are being used for live firing; those wishing to walk there must check the firing times.
Although the MoD only uses a small section of the moor it warns on its [http://www.dartmoor-npa.gov.uk/index/visiting/content_manager_templatepage-3.htm website] that there could be unexploded weaponry anywhere on the moor, because of more widespread use in the past.
When the extension of military training on Dartmoor was approved in [[January]] [[2003]], it proved controversial. The [[National Park Authority]] received 1,700 objections before making the decision. Objectors to the plans claim that Dartmoor should be an area for recreation, and that the training disturbs the peace.
==Preserving Dartmoor==
[[Image:Dartmoor Clapper Bridge.jpg|thumb|The clapper bridge at Postbridge]]
The integrity of this landscape, many human geographical features of which date back further than the [[Bronze Age]], remains under threat from the industrial conglomerates [[Imerys]] and [[Watts Blake Bearne]].
These companies hold extensive china-clay mining licences from the [[British Government]] but have recently renounced them after sustained public pressure from bodies such as the [[Dartmoor Preservation Association]].
Many of these licences predate much of the heavy machinery which is in use today. Imerys have been singled out particularly for criticism since their 'development' of [[Lee Moor]] destroyed a considerable number of archaeologically significant sites.
[[image:4893548885125.jpg|thumb|left|A damaged [[English Electric Lightning]] on one of the Dartmoor firing ranges as depicted on [[Suede (band)|Suede's]] ''[[Sci-Fi Lullabies]]'' [[compilation album]].]]The British government have made promises to protect the integrity of the moor; however, the cost of compensating the companies for these antiquated licences which would not have been granted in today's political climate may prove to be prohibitive.
The northern part of the moor has been used by the [[British Army]] and [[Royal Marines]] for manoeuvres and live-firing exercises; this is part of a tradition of military usage which dates back to the [[Napoleonic wars]]. There is a large Army training camp at [[Okehampton]].
Recently, this usage of the moor has been challenged by a number of groups such as the [[Open Space Society]] and the Dartmoor Preservation Association.
During her lifetime, [[Sylvia Sayer|Lady Sayer]] was also an outspoken critic of the damage which she perceived that the army were doing to the moor.
==National Park Authority==
The National Park Authority is established to manage the park. It comprises 26 members, coming from [[Devon]] [[County Council]], local [[District Council]]s and well as Government appointees.
==Towns and villages==
[[image:050715_023_uk-dev-hay.jpg|thumb|350px|Dartmoor landscape from Hay Tor.]]
Dartmoor has a population of about 33,400 people. The main towns and villages are:
*[[Ashburton, England|Ashburton]]
*[[Belstone]]
*[[Buckfast, England|Buckfast]]
*[[Chagford, England|Chagford]]
*[[Holne]]
*[[Manaton]]
*[[Moretonhampstead]]
*[[Okehampton]]
*[[Ponsworthy]]
*[[Postbridge, Devon|Postbridge]]
*[[Poundsgate]]
*[[Princetown, England|Princetown]]
*[[South Tawton]]
*[[South Zeal]]
*[[Sticklepath]]
*[[Tavistock]]
*[[Widecombe-in-the-Moor]]
*[[Yelverton, Devon|Yelverton]]
==Features==
===Well known landmarks===
*[[Bowerman's Nose]] - (unusual rock formation)
*[[Dartmoor reservoirs|Burrator Reservoir]] - (late Victorian reservoir)
*[[Childes Tomb|Childe's Tomb]] - (ancient burial site)
*[[Church House, South Tawton]] - (15th century [[church ales]] house)
*[[Crazywell Pool]] - (artificial lake)
*[[Dartmeet]] - (meeting point of East and West Dart)
*[[Devonport Leat]] - (man-made water channel)
*[[Duck's Pool, Dartmoor]] - (memorial to local writer [[William Crossing]])
*[[Eylesbarrow]] - (disused tin min)
*[[Grey Wethers]] - (pair of ancient stone circles)
*[[Grimspound]] - (Bronze Age settlement)
*[[High Willhays]] - (highest point on Dartmoor)
*[[Jay's Grave]] - (mysterious burial site)
*[[Tavistock Canal]] - (19th century canal)
*[[Two Bridges]] - (18th century coaching inn)
*[[Warren House Inn]] - (highest inn in SW England)
===Tors===
[[Image:050715 096 uk dev cox.jpg|thumb|Photo of Cox Tor]]
Dartmoor is known for its [[tor]]s. A tor is a large [[hill]], usually topped with rocks.
*[[Fox Tor]] - (overlooking the mires that inspired [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]])
*[[Hound Tor]]
*[[Hay Tor]]
*Cox Tor
{{listdev}}
===Rivers===
The levels of rainfall on Dartmoor are considerably higher than in the surrounding lowlands. With much of the national park covered in thick layers of [[peat]], the rain is readily absorbed, and is usually distributed slowly, so that the moor is rarely dry.
As a result, there are numerous rivers and streams. These have played a key role in shaping the ancient landscape, and have also provided a vital source of power to the traditional industries on the moor - especially tin mining and quarrying.
After prolonged periods of rain, a sudden, heavy shower can lead to a severe surge in water levels, transforming even a small stream into a dangerous torrent - impassable to walkers.
The best known river is clearly the [[River Dart]], which is divided into the East Dart and West Dart, until they join at [[Dartmeet]]. Other significant rivers which rise within the national park include:
*[[River Ashburn|Ashburn]]
*[[River Avon, Devon|Avon]]
*[[River Bovey|Bovey]]
*[[East Okement River|East Okement]]
*[[East Webburn River|East Webbu |
uot; In the book of Revelation, the number is "a thousand thousands, and many tens of thousands".
Though the older writings usually mention one angel of the Lord, embassies to men as a rule comprised several messengers. The inference, however, is not to be drawn that God Himself or one particular angel was designated: the expression was given simply to God's power to accomplish through but one angel any deed, however wonderful.
Angels are referred to in connection with their special missions as, for instance, the "angel which hath redeemed," "an interpreter," "the angel that destroyed," "messenger of the covenant," "angel of his presence," and "a band of angels of evil" (Gen. xlviii. 16; Job, xxxiii. 23; II Sam. xxiv. 16; Mal. iii. 1; Isa. lxiii. 9; Ps. lxxviii. 49, R. V.). When, however, the heavenly host is regarded in its most comprehensive aspect, a distinction may be made between [[cherub]]im, [[seraph]]im, ḥayyot ("living creatures"), ofanim ("wheels"), and arelim (another name for Thrones). God is described as riding on the cherubim and as "the Lord of hosts, who dwelleth between the cherubim"; while the latter guard the way of the [[Tree of Life]] (I Sam. iv. 4, Ps. lxxx. 2, Gen. iii. 24). The seraphim are described by [[Isaiah]] (vi. 2) as having six wings; and [[Ezekiel]] describes the ḥayyot (Ezek. i. 5 et seq.) and ''ofanim'' as heavenly beings who carry God's throne.
In post-Biblical times, the heavenly hosts became more highly organized (possibly as early as Zechariah [iii. 9, iv. 10]; certainly in Daniel), and there came to be various kinds of angels; some even being provided with names, as will be shown below.
=== Purpose ===
In the Bible, angels are a medium of God's power; they exist to execute God's will. Angels reveal themselves to individuals as well as to the whole nation, in order to announce events, either good or bad, affecting humans. Angels foretold to [[Abraham]] the birth of [[Isaac]], to [[Manoah]] the birth of [[Samson]], and to Abraham the destruction of [[Sodom]]. Guardian angels were mentioned, but not, as was later the case, as guardian spirits of individuals and nations. God sent an angel to protect the [[Hebrews|Hebrew people]] after their [[exodus]] from [[Egypt]], to lead them to the [[promised land]], and to destroy the hostile tribes in their way (Ex. 23.20, Num. 20.16).
In Judges (ii. 1) an angel of the Lord—unless here and in the preceding instances (compare Isa. xlii. 19, Ḥag. i. 13, Mal. iii. 1), a human messenger of God is meant—addressed the whole people, swearing to bring them to the promised land. An angel brought [[Elijah (prophet)|Elijah]] meat and drink (I Kings, xix. 5); and as God watched over [[Jacob]], so is every [[piety|pious]] person protected by an angel, who cares for him in all his ways (Ps. xxxiv. 7, xci. 11). There are angels militant, one of whom smites in one night the whole [[Assyria]]n army of 185,000 men (II Kings, xix. 35); messengers go forth from God "in ships to make the careless [[Ethiopia]]ns afraid" (Ezek. xxx. 9); the enemy is scattered before the angel like chaff (Ps. xxxv. 5, 6).
Avenging angels are mentioned, such as the one in II Sam. xxiv. 15, who annihilates thousands. It would seem that the pestilence was personified, and that the "evil angels" mentioned in Ps. lxxviii. 49 are to be regarded as personifications of this kind. "Evil" is here to be taken in the causative sense, as "producing evil"; for, as stated above, angels are generally considered to be by nature beneficent to man. They glorify God, whence the term "glorifying angels" comes (Ps. xxix. 1, ciii. 20, cxlviii. 2; compare Isa. vi. 2 et seq.).
They constitute God's court, sitting in council with Him (I Kings, xxii. 19; Job, i. 6, ii. 1); hence they are called His "council of the holy ones" (Ps. lxxxix. 7, R. V.; A. V. "assembly of the saints"). They accompany God as His attendants, when He appears to man (Deut. xxxiii. 2; Job, xxxviii. 7). This conception was developed after the Exile; and in the [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]], angels of various shapes are delegated "to walk to and fro through the earth" in order to find out and report what happens (Zech. vi. 7).
In the prophetic books, angels appear as representatives of the prophetic spirit, and bring to the prophets God's word. Thus the prophet [[Haggai]] was called God's messenger (angel); and it is known that "Malachi" is not a real name, but means "messenger" or "angel". In I Kings, xiii. 18, an angel brought the divine word to the prophet.
In some places, it is implied that angels existed before the Creation (Gen. i. 26; Job, xxxviii. 7). The earlier Biblical writings did not speculate about them; simply regarding them, in their relations to man, as God's agents. Consequently, they did not individualize or denominate them; and in Judges, xiii. 18, and Gen. xxxii. 30, the angels, when questioned, refuse to give their names. In Daniel, however, there occur the names Michael and Gabriel. Michael is [[Israel]]'s representative in Heaven, where other nations—the [[Iran|Persia]]ns, for instance—were also represented by angelic princes. More than three hundred years before the Book of Daniel was written, Zechariah graded the angels according to their rank, but did not name them. The notion of the seven eyes (Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10) may have been affected by the representation of the seven archangels and also possibly by the seven ''amesha spentas'' of Zoroastrianism (compare Ezek. ix. 2).
== Jewish views ==
Angels appear in several [[Tanakh|Old Testament]] (Hebrew Bible) stories, in addition to the ones previously mentioned above. These include the warning to [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] of the imminent destruction of [[Sodom]]. Many Bible chapters mention an "angry God" who sends His angel to smite the enemies of the Israelites. Traditional Jewish biblical commentators have a variety of ways of explaining what an angel is. The earliest Biblical books present angels as heavenly beings created by God, some of whom apparently are endowed with free will. Later biblical books in the Tanakh present a stunningly different view of angels, as the Jewish beliefs about such things developed over the many years covered in the Bible. Such a differing perspective on angels is discovered in the [[Book of Ezekiel]], where these angels bear no relation whatsoever to the former understanding of what an angel was.
The [[archangel (beings)|archangel]]s named in post-exile Judaism are [[Gabriel]], [[Michael]], [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]], [[Uriel (archangel)|Uriel]], [[Raguel (archangel)|Raguel]], [[Sariel (archangel)|Sariel]], and [[Jerahmeel (archangel)|Jerahmeel]]. Gabriel and Michael are mentioned in the book of [[Daniel]], Raphael in the [[book of Tobit]] (from the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Apocrypha]] or [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] [[Deuterocanonical books|Deuterocanon]]) and the remaining four in the [[book of Enoch]] from the [[Old Testament]] [[Pseudepigrapha]] (considered canonical by the [[Ethiopian Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]]).
===Maimonides and rationalism===
In the [[Middle Ages]], some Jews developed a [[rationalism|rationalist]] view of angels that is still accepted by many Jews today. The rationalist view of angels, as held by [[Maimonides]], [[Gersonides]], [[Samuel Ibn Tibbon]], etc., states that God's actions are never mediated by a violation of the laws of nature. Rather, all such interactions are by way of angels. Even this can be highly misleading: Maimonides harshly states that the average person's understanding of the term "angel" is ignorant in the extreme. Instead, he says, the wise man sees that what the [[Bible]] and [[Talmud]] refer to as "angels" are actually metaphors for the various laws of nature, or the principles by which the physical universe operates, or kinds of platonic eternal forms. This is explained in his ''Guide of the Perplexed'' II:4 and II:6.
<small>
:II:4
:: ''"...This leads [[Aristotle]] in turn to the demonstrated fact that God, glory and majesty to Him, does not do things by direct contact. God burns things by means of fire; fire is moved by the motion of the sphere; the sphere is moved by means of a disembodied intellect, these intellects being the 'angels which are near to Him', through whose mediation the spheres [planets] move....thus totally disembodied minds exist which emanate from God and are the intermediaries between God and all the bodies [objects] here in this world."''
:II:6
:: ''"...Aristotle's doctrine that these disembodied spheres serve as the nexus between God and existence, by whose mediation the sphere are brought into motion, which is the cause of all becoming, is the express import of all the Scriptures. For you will never in Scripture any activity done by God except through an angel. And "angel", as you know, means messenger. Thus anything which executes a command is an angel. So the motions of living beings, even those that are inarticulate, are said explicitly by [[Scripture]] to be due to angels.''
::''...Our argument here is concerned solely with those "angels" which are disembodied intellects. For our Bible is not unaware that God governs this existence through the mediation of angels...(Maimonides then quotes discussions of angels from [[Genesis]], [[Plato]], and [[Midrash]] Bereshit Rabbah)...the import in all these texts is not—as a primitive mentality would suppose—to suggest any discussion or planning or seeking of advice on God's part. How could the Creator receive aid from the object of his creation? The real import of all is to proclaim that existence—including particular individuals and even the formation of the parts |
ting the hook, and assessing where the vessel ends up. After figuring out on the chart where a desirable location would be, the vessel need to actually see what the situation is like; there may be other boats who thought that would be a good spot, or weather conditions are different than expected, or even additional hazards not noted on the chart which make a planned location undesirable.
If the location is good, the location to drop the anchor should be approached from down wind or down current, whichever is stronger. As the chosen spot is approached, the vessel should be stopped or even beginning to drift back. The anchor should be lowered quickly but under control until it is on the bottom. The vessel should continue to drift back, and the cable should be veered out under control so it will be relatively straight.
Once the desired scope is laid out (a minimum of 8:1 for setting the anchor, and 5:1 for holding, though the preferred ratio is 10:1 for both setting, and holding power), the vessel should be gently forced astern, usually using the auxiliary motor but possibly by backing a sail. A hand on the anchor line may telegraph a series of jerks and jolts, indicating the anchor is dragging, or a smooth tension indicative of digging in. As the anchor begins to dig in and resist backward force, the engine may be throttled up to get a thorough set. If the anchor continues to drag, or sets after having dragged to far, it should be retrieved and moved back to the desired position (or another location chosen.)
With the anchor set in the correct location, everything should be reconsidered. Is the location protected, now and for the forecast weather? Is the bottom a suitable holding ground, and is the anchor the right one for this type of bottom? Is there enough depth, both now and at low tide? Especially at low tide but also at all tide states, is there enough room for the boat to swing? Will another vessel swing into us, or will we swing into another vessel, when the tide or wind changes?
Some other techniques have been developed to reduce swing, or to deal with heavy weather.
:* [[Anchor#Forked moor|Forked moor]]
:* [[Anchor#Bow and Stern|Bow and Stern]]
:* [[Anchor#Bahamian moor|Bahamian moor]]
:* [[Anchor#Backing an anchor|Backing an anchor]]
==== Forked moor ====
Using two anchors set approximately 45° apart, or wider angles up to 90°, from the bow is a strong mooring for facing into strong winds. To set anchors in this way, first one anchor is set in the normal fashion. Then, taking in on the first cable as the boat is motored into the wind and letting slack while drifting back, a second anchor is set approximately a half-scope away from the first on a line perpendicular to the wind. After this second anchor is set, the scope on the first is taken up until the vessel is lying between the two anchors and the load is taken equally on each cable.
This moor also to some degree limits the range of a vessel's swing to a narrower oval. Care should be taken that other vessels will not swing down on the boat due to the limited swing range.
==== Bow and stern ====
Not to be mistaken with the '''[[Anchor#Bahamian moor|Bahamian moor]]''', below.
In the ''Bow and Stern'' technique, an anchor is set off each the bow and the stern, which can severely limit a vessel's swing range and also align it to steady wind, current or wave conditions. One method of accomplishing this moor is to set a bow anchor normally, then drop back to the limit of the bow cable (or to double the desired scope, e.g. 8:1 if the eventual scope should be 4:1, 10:1 if the eventual scope should be 5:1, etc.) to lower a stern anchor. By taking up on the bow cable the stern anchor can be set. After both anchors are set, tension is taken up on both cables to limit the swing or to align the vessel.
==== Bahamian moor ====
Similar to the above, a ''Bahamian moor'' is used to sharply limit the swing range of a vessel, but allows it to swing to a current. One of the primary characteristics of this technique is the use of a swivel as follows: the first anchor is set normally, and the vessel drops back to the limit of anchor cable. A second anchor is attached to the end of the anchor cable, and is dropped and set. A swivel is attached to the middle of the anchor cable, and the vessel connected to that.
The vessel will now swing in the middle of two anchors, which is acceptable in strong reversing currents but a wind perpendicular to the current may break out the anchors as they are not aligned for this load.
==== Backing an anchor ====
Also known as ''Tandem anchors'', in this technique two anchors are shackled to a single cable running crown-to-shank. With the leading anchor holding the cable down and the tension between the anchors taking load off, this technique can develop great holding power and has been used in "ultimate storm" circumstances. It does not limit swinging range, and might not be appropriate for crowded anchorages.
=== Kedging ===
''Kedging'' is a technique for moving or turning a ship by using a relatively light anchor known as a ''kedge''. It was of particular relevance to sailing warships which used them to out-manoeuvre opponents when the wind had dropped but might be used by any vessel in confined, shoal water to place it in a more desirable position, provided she had enough manpower.
== References ==
{{commons|anchor}}
* Edwards, Fred; ''Sailing as a Second Language: An illustrated dictionary,'' 1988 Highmark Publishing; ISBN 0-87742-965-0
* Hinz, Earl R.; ''The Complete Book of Anchoring and Mooring, Rev. 2d ed.,'' 1986, 1994, 2001 Cornell Maritime Press; ISBN 0-87033-539-1
* Hiscock, Eric C.; ''Cruising Under Sail, second edition,'' 1965 Oxford University Press; ISBN 0-19-217522-X
* Pardey, Lin and Larry; ''The Capable Cruiser,''; 1995 Pardey Boooks/Paradise Cay Publications; ISBN 0-9646036-2-4
* Rousmaniere, John; ''The Annapolis Book of Seamanship,'' 1983, 1989 Simon and Schuster; ISBN 0-671-67447-1
* Smith, Everrett; ''Cruising World's Guide to Seamanship: Hold me tight,'' 1992 New York Times Sports/Leisure Magazines
== External links ==
* [http://www.northstarmarinesupplies.com/ North Star Marine Supplies]- Popular online anchoring store.
* [http://www.inamarmarine.com/pdf/Moorings.pdf Inamar recommendations for safe moorings]
* [http://www.nightbeacon.com/lighthouseinformation/articles/Lightship_Anchors.htm Lightship anchors]
* [http://www.rocna.com/boat_anchors/new_gen_boat_anchors.html A Process of Evolution] — An essay on boat anchors by New Zealand boatbuilder, offshore cruiser, & consultant Peter Smith
* [http://www.expressandstar.com/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive=20&num=59220&printer=1 the titanic task that put the town on the map]
* [http://titanic-model.com/articles/anchor/titanics_center_anchor.htm titanics centre anchor].
* [http://www.yampy.co.uk/netherton/article.php?article=yamp782.txt all about the anchor some good photos]
* [http://www.newman.ac.uk/Students_Websites/~w.j.smith/history.html history of netherton]
[[Category:Nautical terms]]
[[Category:Ship construction]]
[[Category:Sailing ship elements]]
[[da:Anker (søfart)]]
[[de:Anker]]
[[es:ancla]]
[[fa:لنگر]]
[[fr:Ancre]]
[[he:עוגן]]
[[io:Ankro]]
[[ja:錨]]
[[la:Ancora]]
[[lv:Enkurs]]
[[nl:Anker (schip)]]
[[pl:Kotwica]]
[[pt:Âncora]]
[[ru:Корабельный якорь]]
[[fi:Ankkuri]]
[[sv:Ankare]]
[[zh:锚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anbar</title>
<id>1359</id>
<revision>
<id>37226663</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T16:36:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KI</username>
<id>701676</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cleanup</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the province of Iraq see [[al Anbar]]''
'''Anbar''', originally called '''Firuz Shapur''', or '''Perisapora''', a town founded about AD [[350]] by [[Shapur II of Persia|Shapur (Sapor) II]], [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] king of [[Persia]], on the east bank of the [[Euphrates]], just south of the Nahr Isa, or Sakhlawieh [[canal]], the northernmost of the canals connecting that river with the [[Tigris]], in lat. 33 deg. 22' N., long. 43 deg. 49' E.
It was captured and destroyed by the emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] in A.D. [[363]], but speedily rebuilt.
It became a refuge for the [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Jew]]ish colonies of that region, and there are said to have been 90,000 Jews in the place at the time of its capture by [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] in [[657]].
The Arabs changed the name of the town to Anbar ("[[granaries]]").
Abu al-Abbas as-Saffah, the founder of the [[Abbasid]] caliphate, made it his capital, and such it remained until the founding of [[Baghdad]] in [[762]]. It continued to be a place of much importance throughout the Abbasid period, but now it is now entirely deserted, occupied only by ruin mounds. Their great extent indicates the former importance of the city.
==References==
*{{1911}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anazarbus</title>
<id>1360</id>
<revision>
<id>37553930</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T19:18:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vriullop</username>
<id>750481</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwiki +ca</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Anazarbus''' (med. '''Ain Zarba'''; mod. [[Anavarza]]) was an ancient [[Cilicia]]n city, situated in [[Anatolia]] in modern [[Turkey]], in the [[Aleian plain]] about 10 miles west of the main stream of the [[Pyramus river]] (Jihun) and near its tributary the [[Sempas Su]].
A lofty isolated ridge formed its [[acropolis]]. Though some of the masonry in the ruins is certainly pre-Roman, the [[Suda]]'s identification of it with [[Cyinda]], famous as a treasure city in the wars of [[Eumenes of Cardia]], cannot be accepted in the face of [[Strabo]]'s express location of Cyinda in western Cilicia. |
Church]] teaches that the college of the bishops has succeeded, in the Church, to the group of the apostles, not that the bishops are apostles; and that, among the bishops, primacy belongs to the Bishop of Rome, as primacy among the apostles belonged to St Peter, not that the pope is on the same level as the Apostle Peter ([http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm &lsquo;&rsquo;Catechism of the Catholic Church,&rsquo;&lsquo;] 880-881).
== Sources ==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07644a.htm "St. Ignatius of Antioch", Catholic Encyclopedia (1910).]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/434lerins-canon.html Chapter 4 of ''The Comminatorium'']
*[http://sor.cua.edu/History/index.html Patriarchate of Antioch, history]
*[http://www.cired.org/ Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, history]
*[http://www.patriarchate.org/ Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]
*[http://www.ccel.org/bible/kjv/preface/pref1.htm Preface to the King James Bible]
*[http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgbmxd/saepius.htm ''Sæpius Officio'', Encyclical of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, 1897]
*[http://www.affirmingcatholicism.org/ Anglo-Catholic ''Affirming Catholicism'' Website]
*[http://www.anglocatholicsocialism.org/ Anglo-Catholic history]
*[http://www.elca.org/communication/brief.html#whylutheran Evangelical Lutheran Church in America: ''Why a Lutheran Church''?]
*[http://www.staugustineshouse.org/index.html St. Augustine's House Lutheran Monastery]
*[http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See &mdash; The Vatican's Official Website]
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church]
*[http://www.catholic.com Catholic Answers (catholic.com)] &mdash; Catholic [[Apologetics]]
*[http://cuf.org Catholics United for the Faith] &mdash; An orthodox/conservative Catholic advocacy organization
*[http://www.aboutcatholics.com/ About Catholics] &mdash; Information about specific beliefs
*[http://www.ewtn.com/ Eternal Word Television Network] &mdash; A Catholic Broadcast Organization
*[http://www.usccb.org/statements.shtml US Conference of Catholic Bishops - Joint statements]
== Additional reading ==
*''Without Roots: The West, Relativism, Christianity, Islam'' by Pope Benedict XVI, formerly Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (Basic Books, 0465006345, 2006).
*''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' &mdash; English translation (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000). ISBN 1574551108 [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm]
*H. W. Crocker III, ''Triumph &mdash; The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History'' (Prima Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0761529241
*Eamon Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes'' (Yale Nota Bene, 2002). ISBN 0300091656
*K. O. Johnson, ''Why Do Catholics Do That?'' (Ballantine, 1994). ISBN 0345397266
== See also ==
*[[Roman Catholic Church]]
*[[Criticism of the Catholic Church]]
*[[Catholic Bible Contradictions]]
*[[Anti-Catholicism]]
*[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]
*[[Roman Catholics by country]]
*[[Ruthenian Catholic Church]]
*[[Assyrian Church of the East]]
*[[Oriental Orthodox]]
*[[Eastern Orthodox]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[List of Christian denominations]]
*[[History of Christianity]]
*[[Neo-Lutheranism]]
*[[Anglo-Catholicism]]
*[[Old Catholic Church]]
*[[Independent Catholic Churches]]
*[[Lapsed Catholic]]
*[[Liturgical Year]]
*[[Real Presence]]
*[[Eucharist]]
*[[Divine Liturgy]]
*[[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]
*[[Order (religious)|Religious Orders]]
*[[Purgatory]]
*[[Saint]]
*[[Roman Catholic Church sex abuse scandal|Sex abuse scandal]]
*[[Traditionalist Catholic]]
*[[Vatican City]]
*[[List of popes]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See &mdash; The Vatican's Official Website]
*[http://www.newadvent.org New Advent] A library of public domain Catholic writings
*[http://www.thetablet.co.uk/ The Tablet - International Catholic weekly]
*[http://www.firstthings.com/ First Things, magazine of US Catholic opinion]
*[http://www.americamagazine.org/ America magazine, published by the Jesuits]
*[http://ncronline.org/ National Catholic Reporter]
*[http://www.commonwealmagazine.org/ Commonweal Magazine - published by American lay Catholics]
*[http://www.catholic.com Catholic Answers] The largest Catholic Apologetics Organization in North America. Dedicated to the reasoned spread and defense of the Catholic Faith.
*[http://www.catholic-convert.com/DesktopDefault.aspx Defenders of the Catholic Faith] Web site of renowned Catholic author Steve Ray, a convert from the Baptist Faith.
*[http://www.scotthahn.com/ Web site of Dr. Scott Hahn] Web site of world-famous Catholic convert, Dr. Scott Hahn. A convert from Prebyterianism, Dr. Scott Hahn's studies of theology, history, and Scripture have lead thousands into the Catholic Church from all over the world.
*[http://www.chnetwork.org/ The Coming Home Network] The Coming Home Network was founded by Marcus Grodi a former Protestant pastor as a means of helping Protestant clergy all over the world convert to Catholicism.
*[http://wikicath.org WikiCath] An online encyclopedia that anyone can edit with the goal of compiling all knowledge of the Catholic Church, Her Sacred Tradition, and Her dignified history.
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Christian theology| ]]
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[[bs:Katoličanstvo]]
[[ca:Catolicisme]]
[[cs:Katolictví]]
[[da:Katolicisme]]
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[[es:Catolicismo]]
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[[he:&#1504;&#1510;&#1512;&#1493;&#1514; &#1511;&#1514;&#1493;&#1500;&#1497;&#1514;]]
[[hr:Katoli&#269;anstvo]]
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[[ka:კათოლიციზმი]]
[[nl:Katholicisme]]
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[[pt:Catolicismo]]{{Link FA|pt}}
[[ru:&#1050;&#1072;&#1090;&#1086;&#1083;&#1080;&#1094;&#1080;&#1079;&#1084;]]
[[simple:Catholicism]]
[[sl:Katoli&#353;tvo]]
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[[zh:&#22825;&#20027;&#25945;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cretaceous</title>
<id>5615</id>
<revision>
<id>41751883</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:10:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.68.99.139|209.68.99.139]] ([[User talk:209.68.99.139|talk]]) to last version by Mr Chuckles</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cretaceous''' [[period (geology)|period]] is one of the major divisions of the [[geologic timescale]], reaching from the end of the [[Jurassic]] period, about 146 million years ago ([[annum|Ma]]), to the beginning of the [[Paleocene]] [[epoch (geology)|epoch]] of the [[Tertiary]] period (65.5 Ma). The end of the Cretaceous also defines the boundary between the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Cenozoic]] [[era (geology)|eras]].
{{Mesozoic Footer}}
==Name and dating==
As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the Cretaceous are well identified, but the exact dates of the period's start and end are uncertain by a few million years. No great [[extinction]] or burst of diversity separated the Cretaceous from the Jurassic. However, the end of the period is most sharply defined, being placed at an [[iridium]]-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the [[Chicxulub Crater|Chicxulub impact crater]] in [[Yucatan]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. This layer has been tightly dated at 65.5 Ma. This [[bolide]] collision is probably responsible for the major, extensively-studied [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]]. The Cretaceous (from [[Latin]] ''creta'', for chalk) was named for the extensive beds of chalk ([[calcium carbonate]] deposited by the shells of marine [[invertebrate]]s) found in the upper Cretaceous of [[Britain]] and adjacent continental [[Europe]].
==Divisions==
The Cretaceous is usually separated into [[Lower Cretaceous|Lower]] and [[Upper Cretaceous]] [[epoch (geology)|Epoch]]s. The [[faunal stage]]s from youngest to oldest are:
{|
| '''Upper/Late Cretaceous'''
|-
| [[Maastrichtian]]
| (70.6 &plusmn; 0.6 &ndash; 65.5 &plusmn; 0.3 [[annum|Ma]])
|-
| [[Campanian]]
| (83.5 &plusmn; 0.7 &ndash; 70.6 &plusmn; 0.6 Ma)
|-
| [[Santonian]]
| (85.8 &plusmn; 0.7 &ndash; 83.5 &plusmn; 0.7 Ma)
|-
| [[Coniacian]]
| (89.3 &plusmn; 1.0 &ndash; 85.8 &plusmn; 0.7 Ma)
|-
| [[Turonian]]
| (93.5 &plusmn; 0.8 &ndash; 89.3 &plusmn; 1.0 Ma)
|-
| [[Cenomanian]]
| (99.6 &plusmn; 0.9 &ndash; 93.5 &plusmn; 0.8 Ma)
|-
| &nbsp;
|-
| '''Lower/Early Cretaceous'''
|-
| [[Albian]]
| (112.0 &plusmn; 1.0 &ndash; 99.6 &plusmn; 0.9 Ma)
|-
| [[Aptian]]
| (125.0 &plusmn; 1.0 &ndash; 112.0 &plusmn; 1.0 Ma)
|-
| [[Barremian]]
| (130.0 &plusmn; 1.5 &ndash; 125.0 &plusmn; 1.0 Ma)
|-
| [[Hauterivian]]
| (136.4 &plusmn; 2.0 &ndash; 136.4 &plusmn; 1.5 Ma)
|-
| [[Valanginian]]
| (140.2 &plusmn; 3.0 &ndash; 136.4 &plusmn; 2.0 Ma)
|-
| [[Berriasian]]
| (145.5 &plusmn; 4.0 &ndash; 140.2 &plusmn; 3.0 Ma)
|}
==Paleogeography==
During the Cretaceous, the late [[Paleozoic]] - early Mesozoic [[supercontinent]] of [[Pangea]] completed its breakup into present day [[continent]]s, althou |
[[Four Great Inventions of ancient China|Four Great Inventions]].
The first type of gunpowder was [[black powder]]. Neither its inventors nor exact date of creation is known. Historians of various cultures have postulated that it was invented between the seventh or ninth centuries by either the [[Chinese]] or the [[Arabs]]. Others credit [[Roger Bacon]], an English [[Alchemy|Alchemist]]. It is also possible that black powder was invented by many cultures at around the same time. Regardless of origin, it was the first chemical propellant and the first
explosive recorded in history.
Black powder is a mixture of saltpetre ([[potassium nitrate]] or, less frequently, [[sodium nitrate]]), [[sulfur|sulphur]] and [[charcoal]] with a ratio (by weight) of approximately 15:3:2 respectively. The ratio has altered over the centuries of its use, and can be altered somewhat depending on the purpose of the powder. Unlike smokeless propellants, it acts more like an explosive since its burn rate is not affected by pressure, but it is a very poor explosive because it has a very slow decomposition rate and therefore a very low [[brisance]]. This same property that makes it a poor explosive makes it useful as a propellant — the lack of brisance keeps the black powder from shattering the barrel, and directs the energy to propelling the bullet. Historically, potassium nitrate was [[Potassium nitrate#Manufacture|extracted]] from manure by a process superficially similar to composting. '''Nitre beds''' took about a year to produce crystallized potassium nitrate.
The main disadvantages of black powder are a relatively low energy density (compared to modern smokeless powders) and the extremely large quantities of soot left behind. During the combustion process, less than half of black powder is converted to gas. The rest ends up as a thick layer of soot inside the barrel and a dense cloud of white smoke. In addition to being a nuisance, the residue in the barrel is hydrophilic and an anhydrous caustic substance. When moisture from the air is absorbed, the [[Potassium Oxide|potassium]] or [[Sodium Oxides|oxide]] turn into [[hydroxide|hydroxides]], which will corrode [[wrought iron]] or [[steel]] gun barrels. Black powder arms must be well cleaned inside and out after firing to remove the residue. The size of the granules of powder and the confinement determine the burn rate of black powder. Finer grains result in a closer mix of the ingredients, which results in a faster burn. Tight confinement in the barrel causes a column of black powder to explode, which is the desired result. Not seating the bullet firmly against the powder column can result in a harmonic shockwave, which can create a dangerous overpressure condition and damage the gun barrel. One of the advantages of [[black powder]] is that precise loading of the charge is not as vital as with smokeless powder firearms and is carried out using volumetric measures rather than precise weight. However, overloading causing damage to a gun and its shooter is still possible. The lack of pressure sensitivity means that the mass of the bullet makes little or no difference to the amount of powder used. A full charge of black powder seated by just a small wad of paper, with no bullet, will still burn just as quickly as if it had a full weight bullet in front of it. This makes black powder well suited for blank rounds, signal flares, and rescue line launches.
==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|gunpowder}}
*[[Firework]]
*[[Cannon]]
*[[Musket]]
*[[Arquebus]]
*[[Guns]]
==External links and references==
*[http://www.silk-road.com/artl/gun.shtml Gun and Gunpowder]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/2430/gporigins.html The Origins of Gunpowder]
*[http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/cannon.htm Cannons and Gunpowder]
*[http://www.gabarin.com/ayh/Articles/articles%203.htm History of Science and Technology in Islam]
*[http://www.musketeer.ch/blackpowder/powder_frameset.html Ulrich Bretschler's Gunpowder Chemistry page]
*[http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restricted/2006/January/letters.asp A letter on gunpowder chemistry and sodium vs. potassium nitrate]
[[Category:Explosives]]
[[Category:Firearm propellants]]
[[Category:Granular materials]]
[[ar:بارود]]
[[cs:Střelný prach]]
[[da:Krudt]]
[[de:Schießpulver]]
[[es:Pólvora]]
[[fa:باروت]]
[[he:אבק שריפה]]
[[ja:火薬]]
[[nl:buskruit]]
[[no:Krutt]]
[[pl:Proch]]
[[sk:Pušný prach]]
[[sl:smodnik]]
[[fi:Ruuti]]
[[sv:Krut]]
[[zh:火药]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grampus</title>
<id>12738</id>
<revision>
<id>34893217</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T15:11:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Commander Keane</username>
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<minor />
<comment>moved [[Grampus (disambiguation)]] to [[Grampus]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Grampus}}
'''Grampus''' may mean:
*An alternative common name for the [[orca]].
*The [[Grampus (genus)]], the name of the genus that includes [[Risso's Dolphin]] as its only species.
*[[CSS Grampus|CSS ''Grampus'']], a Confederate river steamer.
*[[HMS Grampus|HMS ''Grampus'']], a number of ships and submarines of the Royal Navy.
*[[USS Grampus|USS ''Grampus'']], a number of ships of the United States Navy.
*The [[Grampus class submarine]]s built in the style of [[HMS Grampus (N56)|HMS ''Grampus'' (N56)]].
*[[Grampus Heritage and Training, Ltd.]], an [[archaeology]] and traditional skills organization in northern England.
*[[Grampus (tugs)]] a character from children's series TUGS.
*[[Nagoya Grampus Eight]], a Japanese soccer club.
{{disambig}}
[[sl:Grampus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gustav I Vasa</title>
<id>12739</id>
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<id>24815965</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T15:09:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
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<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gustav I of Sweden]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gary Kildall</title>
<id>12740</id>
<revision>
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<comment>add links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GaryKildall.jpg|thumb|right|Gary Kildall]]
'''Gary Arlen Kildall''' ([[May 19]], [[1942]] &ndash; [[July 11]], [[1994]]) was the creator of the [[CP/M]] [[operating system]] and [[GEM Desktop]] [[graphical user interface]], and founder of [[Digital Research|Digital Research, Inc.]]
==Career==
Kildall received his PhD in computer science from the [[University of Washington]] in [[1972]]. While working as a professor at the [[Naval Postgraduate School]] (NPS) [[US Navy]] in [[Monterey, California]], he created implementations of the [[PL/I programming language]] for the [[Intel 4004]] and [[Intel 8008|8008]] CPUs. He referred to these versions as [[PL/M programming language|PL/M]] (M for microcomputer). During this time Kildall introduced the theory of [[data-flow analysis]] that is widely used in [[optimizing compiler]]s. [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE&id=512945]
In [[1973]], Kildall began work on a disk operating system in order to create a host development environment for PL/M on microcomputers, and ended up with [[CP/M]]. He founded Digital Research after his resignation from NPS in [[1976]] and continued work on CP/M, which he originally sold in classified ads in the back pages of computer magazines. With the release of the [[Altair 8800]] in January 1975 there was a commercial system capable of running CP/M, and before the end of the year a number of clones had appeared with disk drives that required it. By [[1977]], it was the most popular microcomputer operating system in existence, running on nearly every [[Intel 8080]] or Zilog [[Z80]] based computer.
In [[1980]], [[International Business Machines|IBM]] approached Digital Research for a version of CP/M for its upcoming [[IBM PC]]. Legend has it that Kildall snubbed the IBM representatives by going flying in his [[Pitts Special]] (an aerobatic biplane) for several hours. Although widespread, the story is generally not accepted to be true because it was Kildall's wife, [[Dorothy McEwen|Dorothy]], who handled business negotiations, not Kildall himself. Another story has it that IBM representatives wanted Dorothy to sign their standard [[non-disclosure agreement]], which Dorothy considered overly burdensome. Kildall associate [[Gordon Eubanks]] has said that the non-disclosure ''was'' signed, but that Kildall was not enthusiastic about porting CP/M to the IBM PC's [[Intel 8088|8088]] processor{{ref|Eubanks_History1}}. IBM related the story to Bill Gates, who was already providing the [[ROM]] [[BASIC]] interpreter for the PC, and Gates offered to provide an operating system as well. He obtained rights to a [[QDOS]], a CP/M compatible OS made by [[Tim Paterson]] of Seattle Computer products, licensed it to IBM, and [[MS-DOS]]/[[PC-DOS]] was born.
The possible infringement problems between PC-DOS and CP/M have been the source of much speculation, with secondhand accounts of threatened lawsuits and secret deals, but none of the parties involved ever spoke publicly. Kildall wrote a 226-page memoir shortly before his death in 1994 that contained his account, but the memoir to date has not been published, although it served as source material for a chapter about Kildall and CP/M in the [[2004]] book ''They Made America'' by [[Harold Evans]].
Kildall believed that PC-DOS infringed on CP/M's [[copyright]], but [[software copyright]] law was in its infancy&mdash;the decision in the landmark [[Apple v. Franklin]] case was still two years away&mdash;and by the accounts of Kildall's employees and |
nued existence of price controls and supply guarantees left over from the former Soviet style command economy. As State owned enterprises continue to be dismantled and workers shift to higher productivity sectors, this deflationary effect will continue to put pressure on prices in the economy.
Preferential tax incentives are also given as a direct fiscal incentive to manufacture in China, whether for export or for the local market of 1.3 billion. China is attempting to harmonize the system of taxes and duties it imposes on enterprises, domestic and foreign alike. As a result, preferential tax and duty policies that benefit exporters in special economic zones and coastal cities have been targeted for revision.
China's high growth in the global markets has caused notable disputes, especially the trade imbalance with the United States. The discrepancy is largely attributed to the fact that Chinese corporations can produce many products desired in the US far more cheaply than other parts of Asia or Latin America, and expensive products produced in America are in large part uncompetitive compared to European or Asian goods. Another factor cited by some people was the unfavorable [[exchange rate]] between the [[Renminbi|Chinese yuan]] and the [[United States dollar]] to which it used to be [[Fixed exchange rate|pegged]]. On [[July 21]], [[2005]] the [[People's Bank of China]] announced that it would move to a floating peg ([[managed float]]), allowing its currency to move against the United States dollar by 0.3% a day. The yuan's trading band against other currencies is 3% a day. Many high tech American companies have difficulty exporting to China due to federal government restrictions. This may also have contributed to the widening trade gap between the 2 countries. With the elimination of clothing quotas, China stands to take over a large chunk of the worldwide textile industry. [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/26/business/worldbusiness/26CHIN.html?th] [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/02/business/02CHIN.html?th]
In 2003, China's GDP in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] reached $6.4 trillion, becoming the [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html second-largest in the world]. Using conventional measurements, China's GDP is expected to become [http://www.guardian.co.uk/china/story/0,7369,1666876,00.html the world's fourth-largest in 2005]. With its large population this still gives an average GNP per person of only an estimated $5,000, about 1/7th that of the United States. The officially reported growth rate for 2003 was 9.1%.
The disparity in wealth between the coastal strip and the remainder of the country remains wide. To counter this potentially destabilizing problem, the government has initiated the [[China Western Development]] strategy (2000), the [[Revitalize Northeast China]] initiative (2003), and the [[Rise of Central China]] policy (2004), which are all aimed at helping the interior of China to catch up.
The map on the right shows the economic regions of [[Mainland China]] covered under these strategies.
==Transportation==
[[Image:Shanghai_Transrapid_002.jpg|left|thumb|160px|[[Magnetic levitation]] train in [[Shanghai]].]]
[[Image:Karakorum-carretera-d08.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[Karakoram Highway]] is the highest international road in the world.]]
{{main articles|[[Transportation in the People's Republic of China]], [[Transportation in Hong Kong]], and [[Transportation in Macau]]}}
Transportation in the mainland of the People's Republic of China has improved remarkably starting in the late 1990s as part of a government effort to link the entire nation through a series of expressways known as the [[National Trunk Highway System]]. Private car ownership is increasing but remains uncommon, in large part due to government policies designed to make car ownership expensive through the use of taxes and toll roads.
Air travel has increased considerably, although remains out of reach for most ordinary mainland Chinese. Long distance transportation for most mainland Chinese is still dominated by the railways and bus systems.
Cities are increasingly building underground or light rail systems, such as in [[Shanghai]]. [[Hong Kong]] has one of the most modern transport systems in the world.
==Culture==
[[Image:Chinese_New_Year's_poetry.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Hand-painted [[Chinese New Year]]'s poetry pasted on the sides of doors leading to people's homes, Old Town, [[Lijiang City|Lijiang]], [[Yunnan]].]]
[[Image:SunWuKongInBeijingOpera.jpg|thumb|right|200px|One of the most famous [[Chinese literature|Chinese literary]] characters, [[Sun Wukong]], in [[Beijing opera]].]]
[[Image:Chinese meal.JPG|thumb|Chinese meal|200px|right|Meals are treated as important social events. A Chinese meal in [[Jiangsu]] province.]]
[[Image:Late_afternoon_band_practice.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Musical hobbies are increasingly popular and available.]]
{{main|Culture of China}}
China's traditional values were derived from the orthodox version of [[Confucianism]]/[[conservatism]], which was taught in schools and was even part of [[imperial civil service examinations]]. However, the term Confucianism is somewhat problematic in that the system of thought which reached its high-water mark in Qing Dynasty imperial China was in fact composed of several strains of thought, including [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]], which in many ways departed from the original spirit of Confucianism; indeed by the height of imperial China, the right of the individual ethical conscience and the right to criticise tyrannical governments and demand change had largely been prohibited by "orthodox" thinkers. Currently, there are neo-Confucians who believe that contrary to that line of thought, democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values". See [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccba/cear/issues/fall97/graphics/special/debary/debary.htm]
The leaders who directed the efforts to change Chinese society after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 were raised in the old society and had been marked with its values. PRC leaders sought to change some traditional aspects, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and Confucian education, while preserving others, such as the family structure. Some observers believe that the Communist period following 1949 is very much in continuity with traditional [[Chinese history]], rather than revolutionary.
On the other hand, some observers believe that the Communist period following 1949 has fundamentally altered or damaged the foundations of Chinese culture. At various times in the history of the PRC, many aspects of traditional Chinese culture were labeled 'regressive and harmful' or 'vestiges of feudalism' by the regime or by prominent movements (e.g. by the [[Red Guards (China)|Red Guards]] during the [[Cultural Revolution]]), such as [[Confucianism]], traditional art, literature, and performing arts; for example, [[Beijing opera]] was "reformed" to conform to communist propaganda. The brutality of the Cultural Revolution itself has also been described as destructive to China's traditional moral values. The institution of the [[Simplified Chinese]] orthography reform is controversial as well, with some considering it harmless, and others viewing it as an assault on Chinese culture. However, China has since moved away from attempting to reform all of its traditional art forms. As time has progressed, the PRC government has accepted much of traditional Chinese culture as an integral part of Chinese society; current Chinese national policy often lauds these as important achievements of the Chinese civilization and emphasizes them as being integral to the formation of Chinese national identity. The PRC has also promoted feelings of nationalism in recent years, regarded by some observers as an effort to provide legitimacy for its rule.
{{seealso|Chinese art|Chinese clothing|Chinese cuisine|Chinese language|Chinese literature|Chinese written language|List of Chinese people|Cinema of China|Chinese Animation|Music of China|Religion in China|Holidays in the People's Republic of China}}
==Sports==
[[Image:Demonstrating_Kung_Fu_at_Daxiangguo_Monestary,_Kaifeng,_Henan.JPG|thumb|160px|right|[[Kung Fu]] demonstration at [[Daxiangguo Monestary]] in [[Kaifeng]], [[Henan]].]]
[[Image:Yao_Ming_-_2004_flag_carrier.png|thumb|100px|[[Yao Ming]] carrying the [[Chinese flag]] at the [[2004 Athens Olympics]].]]
{{main|Sports in China}}
===Popular Sports===
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world, spanning the course of several millennia. The following is a list of some of the predominant sports in the PRC.
'''Table Tennis''' - ''Ping pang qiu'' ( 乒乓球) is the official name for [[ping pong]] or [[table tennis]] in China. China has consistently been one of the best ping pong playing nations in the world and is home to what many consider to be the greatest player of all time, [[Deng Yaping]].
<!--FIFA, http://www.fifa.com/en/history/index/0,1284,103480,00.html?articleid=103480-->
'''Soccer''' - [[Soccer]] (or football) is another widely popular sport in China. A form of soccer was played in China some 10,000 years ago. It achieved extreme popularity around 2,000 years ago when the game transformed from a more hands-on style of play to being played primarily by kicking. The earliest form of soccer was known as 'caju', literally meaning 'to kick ball', played with a leather ball full of hair. Today, international soccer is seeing a resurgence in popularity. However, due to the scarcity of large, open areas, it remains mostly a [[spectator sport]] in the urban areas.
'''Basketball''' - Because of the low infrastructure requirement, [[basketball]] is a popular sport participated in by young people, especially young men and boys. The [[United States of America|American]] [[National Basketball Associa |
otenoids on Herbal Phytochemistry]
[[Category:Vitamins]]
[[Category:Food colorings]]
[[Category:Terpenes and terpenoids]]
[[Category:Carotenoids]]
[[ar:كاروتين]]
[[de:Carotine]]
[[es:Caroteno]]
[[fr:Carotène]]
[[lt:Karotinas]]
[[nl:Caroteen]]
[[ja:Β-カロテン]]
[[pl:Karoten]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cyclic adenosine monophosphate</title>
<id>6988</id>
<revision>
<id>41770037</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:53:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trickywiki</username>
<id>1012236</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:CAMP.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Structure of cAMP]]
[[Image:CAMP.PNG|400px|thumb|right|CAMP represented in three ways, the left with sticks-representation, the middle with structure formula, and the right with space filled representation. Red = Oxygen, Lightblue=Carbon, White=Hydrogen, Darkblue=Nitrogen and Purple= Phosphorus]]
'''Cyclic adenosine monophosphate''' ('''cAMP''', '''cyclic AMP''' or 3'-5'-cyclic [[adenosine monophosphate]]) is a [[molecule]] that is important in many biological processes; it is derived from [[adenosine triphosphate]] (ATP).
cAMP is a [[second messenger]], used for intracellular [[signal transduction]], such as transferring the effects of [[hormone]]s like [[glucagon]] and [[adrenaline]], which cannot get through the cell membrane. Its main purpose is the activation of [[protein kinase]]s; it is also used to regulate the passage of [[calcium|Ca<sup>2+</sup>]] through [[ion channels]].
=== cAMP synthesis and decomposition ===
cAMP is synthesized from ATP by [[adenylate cyclase]]. Adenylate cyclase is located at the cell membranes. It is activated by the hormones glucagon and adrenaline and by [[G protein]]. Liver adenylate cyclase responds more strongly to glucagon, and muscle adenylate cyclase responds more strongly to adrenaline.
cAMP decomposition into AMP is catalyzed by the enzyme [[phosphodiesterase]]. This enzyme is inhibited by high concentrations of [[caffeine]], so it is possible that the stimulatory effect of this drug is the result of the raised cAMP levels that it causes (However it seems the concentrations required for caffeine to be effective are very high and a more likely explanation for the drug's effects involve the adenosine molecule).
Molecular Formula: C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>12</sub>N<sub>5</sub>O<sub>6</sub>P
Molecular Weight: 329.21
=== Protein kinase activation ===
Cyclic AMP is involved in some protein kinases. For example, PKA (protein kinase A, also known as [[cAMP-dependent protein kinase]]) is normally inactive as a tetrameric [[holoenzyme]], consisting of 2 [[catalysis|catalytic]] and 2 regulatory units (C<sub>2</sub>R<sub>2</sub>), with the regulatory units blocking the catalytic centers of the catalytic units.
Cyclic AMP binds to specific locations on the regulatory units of the protein kinase, and causes dissociation between the regulatory and catalytic subunits, thus activating the catalytic units and enabling them to phosphorylate substrate proteins.
=== Glycogen decomposition regulation ===
cAMP controls many biological processes, including [[glycogen]] decomposition into [[glucose]] (glycogenolysis), and [[lipolysis]].
=== Role of cAMP in bacteria ===
In [[bacterium|bacteria]], the level of cAMP varies depending on the medium used for growth. In particular, cAMP is low when glucose is the carbon source. This occurs through inhibition of the cAMP-producing enzyme, adenylate cyclase, as a side effect of glucose transport into the cell. The transcription factor CRP (or CAP) forms a complex with cAMP and thereby is activated to bind to DNA. CRP-cAMP increases expression of a large number of genes, including some encoding [[enzyme]]s that can supply energy independent of glucose.
=== Role of cAMP in Dictyostelium discoideum ===
The chemotactic movements of the cells are organized by periodic waves of cAMP that propagate through the cell. The waves are the result of a regulated production and secretion of extracellular cAMP and a spontaneous biological oscillator that initiates the waves at centers of territories.
==External links==
*''[http://www.assaydesigns.com/products/catalog/immuno_assay/product_cAMP.htm cyclic AMP ELISA Kit from Assay Designs]'', manufacturer of reliable kit measuring cyclic AMP concentrations
== See also ==
* [[Cyclic guanosine monophosphate]] (cGMP)
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<page>
<title>Channel Islands/Jersey</title>
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<page>
<title>Cimabue</title>
<id>6991</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-21T09:41:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cimabue 025.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Crucifix'' (1287-88) Panel, 448 x 390 cm <br> [[Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze|Basilica di Santa Croce]], Florence]]
'''Cenni di Pepo (Giovanni) Cimabue''' (c [[1240]] in [[Florence, Italy]] — c [[1302]] in Florence, Italy) also known as Bencivieni Di Pepo or in modern Italian, Benvenuto Di Giuseppe was a [[Florence|Florentine]] [[painter]] and creator of [[mosaic]]s, better known as the artist who discovered [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]] and with him moved towards treating figures as individuals. Cimabue is generally thought of as the last great painter working in the [[Byzantine art|Byzantine tradition]]. The art of this time showed scenes and styles that appeared relatively flat. Cimabue was a pioneer in the move towards more realism with figures more realistically shaded and more proportional. His works influenced later artists such as [[Giotto_di_Bondone|Giotto]].
Not much is known about his life, and there is little surviving documentation. His life was described in [[Giorgio Vasari]]'s ''The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects'', widely regarded as the first art history book. However, this book was written over 200 years after Cimabue's death, so although it is one of the few records we have of him, its accuracy is unknown. It says:
:''Instead of studying his letters, Cimabue spent all his time covering his paper and his books with pictures showing people, horses, houses, and various other things he dreamt up.''
==See also==
{{Commons|Category:Cimabue}}
* [[List of painters]]
* [[List of Italian painters]]
* [[List of famous Italians]]
==Sources==
*{{cite book
| author=Vaughn, William
| title=Encyclopedia of Artists
| publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc
| year=2000
| id=ISBN 0-19-521572-9
}}
[[Category:1240 births|Cimabue]]
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<page>
<title>Corporocracy</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Corporatocracy]]
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<title>Carl Gustav XVI</title>
<id>6993</id>
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<username>Minesweeper</username>
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<title>Corporotocracy</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Corporatocracy]]
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<page>
<title>Corporatocracy</title>
<id>6997</id>
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<id>40332084</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T21:47:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maschewel82</username>
<id>959438</id>
</contributor>
<comment>re: John Perkin's "Confessions of an Economic Hit Man"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Corporatocracy''' (sometimes '''corporocracy''') is a [[neologism]] coined by proponents of the [[Global Justice Movement]] to describe a [[government]] bowing to pressure from corporate entities.
While anyone can become a shareholder in principle, in reality it is frequently only the wealthy who can afford to own enough stock to directly influence the voting (and hence the activities) of a corporation. Hence the ''corporatocracy'' might be considered somewhat synonymous with [[pl |
ot; London, MacMillan Press, 1978.
* [[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]]. ''Civilization and Capitalism : 15th - 18th Century'' 3 vols.
* [[Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.|Chandler, Alfred D., Jr.]] ''The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business''. Cambridge, Mass., and London: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977.
* [[John Kenneth Galbraith| Galbraith, John Kenneth]]. ''The New Industrial State'', 4th ed., 1985.
*[[John Gray (LSE)]]. ''False Dawn: The Delusions of Global Capitalism '', Granta, 2002 ISBN 1862075301
* [[David Harvey|Harvey, David]]. "The Political-Economic Transformation of Late Twentieth Century Capitalism." In Harvey, David. ''The Condition of Postmodernity''. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0631162941
* [[Robert L. Heilbroner| Heilbroner, Robert L.]] ''The Nature and Logic of Capitalism'', 1985.
* [[David Landes| Landes, David S.]] ''The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present''. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1969.
* [[Karl Marx| Marx, Karl]]. ''Capital: A Critical Analysis of Capitalist Production'', 3 vol., 1886&#8211;1909; first published in German as ''Das Kapital: Kritik der politischen Oekonomie'', 1867&#8211;1894.
* [[C. Wright Mills| Mills, C. Wright.]]: The Power Elite.
* [[Jerry Z. Muller| Muller, Jerry Z.]], "The Mind and the Market - Capitalism in Modern European Thought". New York: Alfred A. Knopf (Random House), 2002
* [[Kevin Philips| Philips, Kevin]]: Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich.
* [[Ayn Rand| Rand, Ayn]]. ''Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal'' ISBN 0451147952
* [[W.W. Rostow| Rostow, W. W.]] ''The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960.
* [[Murray Rothbard| Rothbard, Murray]]. ''Man, Economy, and State: A Treatise on Economic Principles'', (2 volumes.) 1962.
* [[Adam Smith| Smith, Adam]]. ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', 1776.
* [[Derek Sayer]]. ''Capitalism and Modernity: An excursus on Marx and Weber'', [[Routledge]], 1996.
* [[Derek Wall| Wall, Derek]]. ''An Babylon and Beyond: The Economics of Anti-capitalist, Anti-globalist and Radical Green Movements. London: Pluto. ISBN: 0745323901
* [[Immanuel Wallerstein| Wallerstein, Immanuel]]: The Modern World System.
[[Category:Capitalism]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Marxist theory]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Society]]
[[ar:رأسمالية]]
[[bg:Капитализъм]]
[[ca:Capitalisme]]
[[cs:Kapitalismus]]
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[[es:Capitalismo]]
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[[fi:Kapitalismi]]
[[fr:Capitalisme]]
[[gl:Capitalismo]]
[[he:קפיטליזם]]
[[hu:Kapitalizmus]]
[[id:Kapitalisme]]
[[it:Capitalismo]]
[[ja:資本主義]]
[[ko:자본주의]]
[[ln:Kapitalismɛ]]
[[lt:Kapitalizmas]]
[[mk:Капитализам]]
[[nl:Kapitalisme]]
[[nn:Kapitalisme]]
[[no:Kapitalisme]]
[[pl:Kapitalizm]]
[[pt:Capitalismo]]
[[ru:Капитализм]]
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[[sl:Kapitalizem]]
[[sv:Kapitalism]]
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[[tr:Kapitalizm]]
[[vi:Chủ nghĩa tư bản]]
[[zh:资本主义]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Capitalism/different meanings</title>
<id>5418</id>
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<id>15903628</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Larry_Sanger</username>
<id>216</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Capitalism]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Computer system</title>
<id>5419</id>
<revision>
<id>41868756</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:31:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rchamberlain</username>
<id>181580</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''computer system''' is the synthesis of [[Computer hardware|hardware]] and [[Computer software|software]]. A typical computer system employs a [[computer]] that uses programmable devices to store, retrieve, and process data. [http://computing-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/computer+system] The [[personal computer]] or PC exemplifies one example of a computer system. An [[Automatic Teller Machine]] (ATM) is another example of a computer system. The [[Internet]] does NOT exemplify a computer system persay, but rather a [[computer network|network]] of computers. [http://www.orafaq.com/glossary/faqglosi.htm]
Even the simplest computer classifies as a computer system, because at least two components (hardware and software) have to work together. But the real meaning of "computer system" comes with interconnection. Many computer systems can interconnect, that is, join to become a bigger [[system]]. Interconnecting computer systems can prove difficult due to incompatibilities. Sometimes these difficulties occur between differing hardware and sometimes between differing software.
Designers of different computer systems do not necessarily aim to interconnect their creations with any other system. Technically knowledgable people can often configure disparate computers to communicate using a set of rules and constraints known as [[protocol (computing)|protocols]]. Protocols attempt to precisely define the communication within and between computing endpoints. If two computer systems define the same [[protocol (computing)|protocols]], they may be capable of interconnecting and become a part of a larger [[system]].
==See also==
*[[Apple Computer]]
*[[Embedded Linux]]
*[[Computer]]
*[[Information systems]]
*[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]
*[[IEEE]] standards
*[[Legacy system]]
*[[Embedded system]]
[[Category:Computer systems|*]]
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[[ms:Sistem komputer]]
[[pl:System informatyczny]]
[[sv:Datasystem]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cross ownership</title>
<id>5420</id>
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<timestamp>2005-11-24T23:08:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dfmock</username>
<id>250953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Media Cross Ownership */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cross ownership''' is a method of reinforcing business relationships by owning stock in the companies with which a given company does business. In the US, it also refers to a type of investment in different mass-media properties in one market.
==Cross ownership of stock==
Some countries where cross ownership of shares is a major part of the business culture are:
* [[Japan]]
* [[Germany]]
Positives of cross ownership:
* Closely ties each business to the economic destiny of its business partners
* Promotes a slow rate of economic change
Cross ownership of shares is criticized for:
* Stagnating the economy
* Wasting capital that could be used to improve productivity
* Expanding economic downturns by preventing reallocation of capital
A major factor in perpetuating cross ownership of shares is a high [[capital gains]] tax rate. A company has less incentive to sell cross owned shares if taxes are high because of the immediate reduction in the value of the assets.
For example, a company owns $1000 of stock in another company that was originally purchased for $200. If the capital gains tax rate is 50% (like Germany) and the company sells the stock,
the company has $600 which is 40 percent less than before it sold the stock.
Long term cross ownership of shares combined with a high capital tax rate greatly increases periods of asset deflation both in time and in severity.
==Media Cross Ownership==
Cross ownership also refers to a type of media ownership in which one type of communications (say a newspaper) owns or is the sister company of another type of medium (such as a radio or TV station). One example is ''[[The New York Times]]'' 's ownership of [[WQXR]] Radio and the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'''s similar relationship with [[WGN]] Radio and Television.
The [[Federal Communications Commission]] generally does not allow cross ownership, to keep from one license holder having too much local media ownership, unless the license holder obtains a waiver, such as [[News Corporation]] and the [[Tribune Company]] have in New York.
The mid-1970s cross-ownership guidelines grandfathered already-existing crossownerships, such as ''Tribune''-WGN, ''New York Times''-WQXR and the ''[[New York Daily News]]'' ownership of [[WPIX]] Television and Radio.
[[Category:Management]][[category:Strategic management]]
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<page>
<title>Cardiology</title>
<id>5421</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-12T22:16:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ksheka</username>
<id>40019</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Disorders of the [[heart valves]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cardiology''' is the branch of [[medicine]] dealing with disorders of the [[heart]] and [[blood vessel]]s. The field is commonly divided in the branches of ''congenital heart defects'', ''coronary artery disease'', ''heart failure'', ''valvular heart disease'' and ''electrophysiology''. Physicians specializing in this field of medicine are called '''cardiologists'''.
== Anatomy & physiology ==
=== [[Heart|Basic anatomy]] (Structure of the heart) ===
* [[Epicardium]]
* [[Pericardium]]
* [[Myocardium]]
* [[Papillary muscle]]
* [[Endocardium]]
* [[Coronary circulation]] (Blood supply of the heart)
* [[Heart valve]]s
=== [[Circulatory system]] (Blood supply of the body) ===
* [[Cardiac output]]
* [[Heart rate]]
* [[Vascular resistance]]
* [[Blood vessel]]s
=== [[Pulmonary circulation]] (Oxygenation of the blood) ===
* [[Pulmonary artery]]
* [[Pulmonary vein]]
=== [[Cardiac |
first as the MP43, then MP43/1, and finally as the MP44/Sturmgewehr 44 (abbreviated StG44). It immediately entered large scale production. More than 5,000 units had been produced by February 1944, and 55,000 by the following November.
Following the end of the war, the [[Soviet Union]] developed the [[AK-47]], which was vaguely similar in concept and layout to the German StG44, but extremely different mechanically. It fired the [[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] cartridge, which had been developed during WWII. The round was similar to the StG44's in that the bullet was of a similar caliber to the Russian rifle ammunition.
===1960s and 1970s: Lighter automatic weapons and lighter smaller bullets===
''Many of these automatic firearms used intermediate cartridges with much lighter bullets and smaller calibers, but fired at very high velocity, kinetic energy ranged between 1300&ndash;1800J (960&ndash;1,330 foot-pounds), velocities of 900&ndash;1050m/s (2,950&ndash;3,450 ft/s), and bullets of 3&ndash;4g (46&ndash;62 grains).''
[[Image:Stgw 90.jpg|thumb|right|[[SIG 550]] ([[Switzerland|Swiss]]). The SIG fires [[Gw Pat.90]], which has the same caliber as the [[5.56 mm NATO]]]]
Many nations continued the development of traditional high-powered rifles with ranges of 500 meters (550 yards) and beyond. Most designs of this period used low-caliber but high-velocity ammunition, with some experiments in [[flechette]]s and other exotic ammunition.
Statistical studies of World War II battles performed by the [[U.S. Army]] revealed that infantry combat beyond 300 meters (325 yards) was rare. The Russians saw no reason to make a rifle that shot beyond a rifleman's ability to aim. Therefore, a lighter, less-powerful cartridge could be effective. This permitted a lighter rifle and enabled troops to carry more ammunition, making them more autonomous &mdash; a greater amount of the lighter ammunition could be transported in the same amount of space. In addition, the smaller size and handiness of an assault rifle would benefit [[tank]] crews, support troops, and units with missions other than [[front line]] combat. The [[5.56 x 45 mm NATO|5.56 × 45 mm NATO]] cartridge was developed in the 1960s, and was adopted for use in the [[M16 (rifle)|M16]] assault rifle. The M16A1 version soon followed, and was then replaced in 1982 by the M16A2.
The [[Soviet Union]] also developed its own similar round, the [[5.45 x 39 mm|5.45 × 39 mm]], which was used in the [[AK-74]], the successor of the [[AK-47]].
These rounds are usually considered less lethal than the previous generation of assault rifle rounds that fired larger rifle caliber ammunition with reduced propellant, but the smaller caliber and lighter bullets achieve higher velocities than even a hunting rifle bullet. These high speeds induce additional lethality through bullet shattering, although these high speed rounds generally do not exceed the momentum of the heavier (but slower) bullets of the less sophisticated AK-47. Any pointed (spitzer) round will tumble in soft tissue. If the jacket has a cannelure like the U.S. 5.56 × 45 mm M193 round, the bullet will fragment, leading to significant blood loss and internal damage.
Blood loss leads to indirect incapacitation, but often takes longer than direct destruction of tissue. Since combat use of rifles expends around 50,000 rounds in suppressive fire for each combatant killed, trading lighter cartridge weight and lower recoil for slower but more sure incapacitation often makes good sense.
The key to the assault rifle concept is firing at both known ''and suspected'' enemy positions. This allows an attacking infantry unit to shoot at a hidden enemy first, rather than waiting for the enemy to fire first. Good volume and distribution of aimed suppressive fire delivered by infantry squad members as they maneuver, prevents enemy return fire, and in turn allows the assaulting unit to maneuver through enemy fields of fire faster. Faster maneuver limits the assaulting unit's vulnerability to small arms fire, [[artillery]], [[mortar]]s, or counter-attack. Of course this requires a larger basic ammunition load and steady supply of rifle ammunition.
===1970s, 1980s, 1990s: New form factors and features===
''Many of these automatic firearms usually used the same rounds as in older eras, but focused on using new form factors, materials, and added features like standard [[Telescopic sight|telescopic]] and [[Red dot sight|reflex]] sights.''
[[Image:FAMAS dsc06877.jpg|thumb|[[FAMAS]] ([[France]]). It was adopted in 1978]]
The biggest change since adoption of high velocity rounds of 5 mm caliber and higher, has been designs that have new form factors, sights, electronics, and materials. A number of [[bullpup]] rifles entered service in the late 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Although bullpup rifles had existed since the 1930s, the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[EM2]] was one of the few bullpup assault rifles prior to this time. Examples of the new trend include the [[FAMAS]], [[Steyr AUG]], and [[SA80]]. They were all bullpup rifles that made heavy use of composites and plastics with ambidextrous controls, and the latter both added a low-power [[telescopic sight]] to the standard service version. The [[SAR-21]], the [[Tavor TAR-21]], and [[QBZ-95]] follow a similar trend as well, with a bullpup configuration and heavy use of composites.
The [[Heckler & Koch G36]], adopted in the late 1990s by [[Spain]] and [[Germany]], is of the traditional configuration, but also has integral telescopic and red dot sights and composite exterior. The [[XM8 rifle]], developed from the G36, had similar features, but also added more electronics such as [[laser]] sight, round counter, and integral [[infrared]] laser and pointers.
The trend in the new designs, and very likely future ones, is towards more integrated features and lighter weight with new materials and configurations. Introduction of a new ammunition would require retooling factories, phasing out conventional ammunition and in general infrastructure change that is considered by many military planners too expensive to undertake.
Some have called for a reintroduction of larger caliber rounds to improve conventional lethality, or an increase in caliber in the 6&ndash;7 mm range, with rifle round velocities and lower mass bullets: a kind of intermediate philosophy between the smaller caliber&ndash;faster modern rounds and the standard caliber–slower rounds of the previous generation. China in the late 1980's introduced a 5.8 × 42 mm round, with an initial velocity of 930 m/s, 4.26 g bullet and 1,842 J of energy, China claims the new round provides superior performace and lethality to the NATO and modern Soviet intermediate rounds. In the United States, [[Remington]] has developed the [[6.8 mm Remington SPC]] cartridge, which is the same overall length at the 5.56 x 45 mm NATO round but fires a bullet the same caliber at the [[.270 Winchester]] hunting cartridge. Its similar size to the 5.56 × 45 mm means that existing rifles can be converted without an excessive amount of trouble. Development of a [[G11|4.73 mm]] [[caseless ammunition]] and advanced assault rifle in the 1970&ndash;1980s by Germany was effectively halted by the [[German reunification]] in 1990, and that rifle never entered full production.
=="Assault weapons" vs. Fully-automatic weapons==
Primarily in the [[United States]], the term ''[[assault weapon]]'' is an arbitrary (and politicized) phrase generally used to describe a collection of '''''semi-automatic''''' firearms that have certain features associated with military/police use, such as a folding stock, [[flash suppressor]], [[bayonet]], protruding pistol grip, or the ability to accept a detachable magazine of a capacity larger than ten rounds. The phrase ''assault weapon'' has been used primarily in relation to a specific expired [[gun law]] that was commonly known as the '[[Federal assault weapons ban|Assault Weapons Ban]]', '[[Clinton]] gun ban', or '1994 crime bill'. It is a common misconception that the assault weapons ban restricted weapons capable of fully-automatic fire, such as assault rifles and [[machine gun]]s. Fully-automatic weapons were unaffected by the ban because they have been heavily restricted since the [[National Firearms Act]] of 1934, and other, more recent laws.
The term 'assault weapon' has often been erroneously used to describe machine guns. Many states and localities still use the term [[assault weapon]] with a variety of variations following the California model loosely. See separate article on [[assault weapon]]s for further information.
==See also==
*[[Automatic firearm]] for clarification on similar categories
*[[Battle rifle]]
*[[Federal assault weapons ban (USA)]]
*[[Firearm action]]
*[[Gas-operated]]
*[[List of firearms]]
==External links==
* [http://www.quarry.nildram.co.uk/Assault.htm Assault Rifles and their Ammunition: History and Prospects]
[[Category:Rifles]]
[[Category:Assault rifles|*]]
[[de:Sturmgewehr]]
[[fr:Fusil d'assaut]]
[[he:רובה סער]]
[[ja:アサルトライフル]]
[[ko:돌격소총]]
[[lt:Automatas]]
[[no:Automatgevær]]
[[pl:Karabin automatyczny]]
[[ru:Автомат (оружие)]]
[[sl:Jurišna puška]]
[[fi:Rynnäkkökivääri]]
[[sv:Automatkarbin]]
[[zh:突击步枪]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Animal</title>
<id>721</id>
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<id>42091723</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:48:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Animals
| image = Sea nettles.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Sea nettle]]s, ''Chrysaora quinquecirrha''
| domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
| regnum = '''Animalia'''
| regnum_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Phyla
| subdivis |
ome to the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington]] and the [[Episcopal Diocese of Delaware]]. The [[A.U.M.P. Church]], the oldest African-American denomination in the nation, was founded in Wilmington and still has a very substantial presence in the state. Delaware also hosts an [[Islamic]] [[mosque]] in the [[Ogletown, Delaware|Ogletown]] area, as well as a [[Hindu]] temple in [[Hockessin, Delaware|Hockessin]].
[[Synagogues]] include Congregation Beth Emeth (Reform) in Wilmington, Congregation Beth El (Reform) in Newark, and Congregation Beth Shalom (Conservative) in Wilmington, Congregation Beth Sholom (Conservative) in Dover, and Adas Kodesh Shel Emeth (Traditional) in Wilmington.
=== Sports ===
Delaware's professional sports teams are the [[Wilmington Blue Rocks]] [[minor league baseball]] team, a Class A affiliate of the [[Boston Red Sox]] who play at [[Daniel S. Frawley Stadium]], and the [[Delaware Griffins]], part of the [[Women's Professional Football League]]. Delaware is also home to the Delaware Smash who play [[World Team Tennis]]. The Smash were led in 2005 by [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] champion [[Venus Williams]].
In place of in-state professional sports teams, many Delawareans follow either [[Philadelphia]], [[New Jersey]], or [[Baltimore]] teams, depending on their location within the state, with Philadelphia teams receiving the largest fan following. In addition, the [[University of Delaware]]'s football team has a loyal following, with [[Delaware State University]]'s team enjoying popularity on a much lesser scale.
Delaware is home to [[Dover International Speedway]] and [[Dover Downs]]. DIS, also known as the ''Monster Mile'', hosts two [[NASCAR]] races each year. Dover Downs is a popular [[harness racing]] facility. In what may be the only co-located horse and car-racing facility in the nation, the Dover Downs track is located inside the DIS track.
Delaware has been home to professional wrestling outfit [[CZW]], particularly the annual Tournament of Death.
=== Botanical gardens ===
*[[Delaware Center for Horticulture]]
*[[Mt. Cuba Center]]
*[[University of Delaware Botanic Gardens]]
*[[Winterthur Museum and Grounds]]
=== Music in Delaware ===
{{see|Music of Delaware}}
=== Festivals ===
The [[Big August Quarterly]] is an annual religious festival held in Wilmington, Delaware, and is sometimes called "Big Quarterly" or "August Quarterly". The festival began in [[1814]] by [[Peter Spencer]] in connection with the "quarterly" meeting (or "conference") of the [[Spencer Churches|African Union Church]]. Out of the four meetings during the year, the one in August became the "annual conference" of the Church when ministers' assignments for the next year were announced, among other business -- it was a time for free blacks and slaves alike to come together (from the multi-state area) and celebrate their faith with singing, dancing, testifying, and feasting. It is the oldest such celebration in the country. Senator Biden's remarks on the significance of the "Big Quarterly" were published in the ''Congressional Record for'' [[30 July]] [[1981]] (Vol. 127, No. 117) and for [[9 August]] [[1984]] (Vol 130, No. 106).
Every year, the [[Delaware Sängerbund]] ([[German language|German]] for ''Singers Alliance'') holds a three day long [[Oktoberfest]]. Although the cultural significance of the Sängerbund has diminished over the years, the festival is extremely popular and attracts visitors from all over the East Coast.
The city of Wilmington is home to several ethnic festivals, including the Puerto Rican Festival, which includes a parade, the Polish Festival, the Greek Festival held at the Greek Orthodox Church, and the Italian Festival. Wilmington's substantial [[Polish-American]] population supports a yearly [[Casimir Pulaski Day|Pulaski Day]] Parade in March as well as a summer Polish Festival, hosted by [[Hedwig of Poland|Saint Hedwig]]'s Roman Catholic Church. The Italian Festival is held in an area of Wilmington known as Little Italy by Saint Anthony's Roman Catholic Church in Wilmington, and covers several blocks. It runs from sunup to sundown for a week, and features Italian food, merchandise, live music, bars, amusement park rides, and the All Saints parade on the closing night of the festival.
In [[Bethany Beach, Delaware|Bethany Beach]], the end of the summer season is honored each year with a traditional [[jazz funeral]] down the town's [[boardwalk]]. And at the end of October, [[Rehoboth Beach, Delaware|Rehoboth Beach]] holds its annual "Sea Witch Halloween and Fiddlers' Festival".
One of Delaware's most bizarre -- and enjoyable -- traditions is Sussex County's [[Punkin Chunkin]], where unused pumpkins from the Halloween season are ejected almost one mile high in the air by [[hydraulic]] or air-powered cannons. Putatively a competition to see which team can create the most powerful cannon, it is also a popular occasion for drinking and [[tailgate]] parties.
== Education ==
Delaware was the origin of ''[[Belton v. Gebhart]]'', one of the four cases which was combined into [[Brown v. Board of Education]], the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] decision that led to the end of [[racial segregation|segregated]] public schools. Significantly, ''Belton'' was the only case in which the state court found '''for''' the plaintiffs, thereby ruling that segregation was unconstitutional. Even more ironically, Delaware's segregated school system was substantially supported by donations from the wealthy [[Du Pont family|du Pont family]] beginning with the Civil War, when the [[DuPont|Du Pont Company]]'s profits grew thanks to a high demand for its gunpowder products.
Unlike many states, Delaware's educational system is centralized in a state Superintendent of Education, with local school boards retaining control over taxation and some curriculum decisions. A statewide [[standardized test]], the Delaware Student Testing Program (DSTP), was implemented to comply with the [[No Child Left Behind Act]].
A "three-tiered diploma" system fostered by Governor Ruth Ann Minner, which awarded "basic", "standard", and "distinguished" high-school diplomas based on a student's performance in the Delaware State Testing Program, was recently discontinued by the General Assembly after many Delawarians questioned its fairness.
===Colleges and universities===
<table><tr><td valign=top>
*[http://www.law.widener.edu/ Widener University School of Law]
*[[Delaware State University]]
*[[Delaware Technical and Community College]]
*[[Drexel University]] at Wilmington
*[[Goldey-Beacom College]]
</td><td valign=top>
*[[University of Delaware]]
*[[Wesley College, Delaware|Wesley College]]
*[[Wilmington College]]
</td></tr></table>
== Miscellaneous information ==
* The [[USS Delaware|USS ''Delaware'']] was named in honor of this state.
* Delaware is also known as ''The Diamond State'' and the ''Small Wonder''.
*There is no [[sales tax]] in Delaware.
* [[Reggae]] artist [[Bob Marley]] lived for a time in Delaware.
===Other places named Delaware===
{{see|Delaware (disambiguation)}}
There are cities, towns, boroughs, townships, and counties named "Delaware" in the states of [[Indiana]], [[Iowa]], [[New York]], [[Ohio]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], and several "Delawares" in each of the states of [[Pennsylvania]] and [[New Jersey]]. There's even a "Delaware" in the province of [[Ontario|Ontario, Canada]].
The [[Delaware River]] is a major river in the eastern United States, rising in [[New York]] State, forming the boundary between [[New Jersey]] and [[Pennsylvania]], and emptying into [[Delaware Bay]], which separates New Jersey from the state of Delaware.
===Delaware Native Americans===
'''Delaware''' is also the name of a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] group (called in their own name [[Lenni Lenape]]) that was very influential in the dawning days of the United States. A band of the Nanticoke tribe of Indians still remains in Sussex County.
===See also===
* [[Delaware Colony]]
* [[Delaware corporation]]
* Some neighboring states contain locations named [[Delaware Township]] or [[Delaware County]].
* [[Delaware state symbols]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Delaware}}
*[http://www.delaware.gov/ State of Delaware homepage]
*[http://datamil.delaware.gov/ Delaware Map Data]
*[http://www.state.de.us/planning/information/dpc.shtml Delaware Population Projections]
*[http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/24.htm The Emancipation Proclamation] Includes a short introduction.
*[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/senate/constitution/amdt13.html U.S. Senate site with the full U.S. Constitution and the Thirteenth Amendment] "Slavery and Involuntary Servitude"
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/10000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/delaware Delaware Newspapers]
*[http://delaware.historical-markers.org Delaware's Historical Markers]
*[http://www.newsday.com/news/local/wire/newjersey/ny-bc-nj--scotus-lngproject0123jan23,0,4409457.story?coll=ny-region-apnewjersey Article on the Delaware-New Jersey border dispute (1/26/2006)]
== References ==
; supporting the [[#Transportation|transportation section]]
* {{cite book
| last = Delaware Department of Transportation Public Relations
| year = 2004
| title = Delaware Transportation Facts 2004
| publisher = DelDOT Division of Planning
| url = http://www.deldot.gov/static/pubs_forms/trans_facts/factbook_2004.pdf
}}
{{United States}}
{{Delaware}}
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nity and Rabbinical [[Judaism]] since the outset. Debates between the early Christians - who at first understood themselves as a movement ''within'' Judaism, not as a separate religion - and other Jews initially revolved around the question whether [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]] was the [[Messiah]] or not, which also encompassed the issue of his divinity. Once [[gentiles]] were converted to Christianity, the question arose whether and how far these Gentile Christians were obliged to follow Jewish law in order to follow Jesus (see Paul's [[Letter to the Galatians]]). It was decided that gentiles did not have to follow Jewish law, but Paul also questioned the validity of Jewish Christian's adherence to the Jewish law in relation to faith in Christ.
The increase of the numbers of Gentile Christians in comparison to Jewish Christians eventually resulted in a rift between Christianity and Judaism, which was further increased by the [[Jewish-Roman wars]] ([[66]]-[[73]] and [[132]]-[[135]]) that drove Jews into the [[diaspora]] and further diminished Jewish Christians.
Also, the two religions differed in their legal status in the [[Roman Empire]]: Judaism, restricted to the [[Jewish people]], was exempt from obligation to the Roman state religion and since the reign of [[Julius Caesar]] enjoyed the status of a "[[licit]] religion". Christianity however was not restricted to one people and as Jewish Christians were excluded from the synagogue they also lost the protection of the status of Judaism. Since the reign of [[Nero]] Christianity was considered to be illegal and Christians were frequently subjected to persecution, differing regionally. In the third century systematic persecution of Christians began and lasted until [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]]'s conversion to Christianity. In [[390]] [[Theodosius I]] made Christianity the new state religion. While pagan cults and [[Manichaeism]] were surpressed, Judaism retained its legal status as a "licit religion", though anti-Jewish violence still occurred. In the fifth century, some legal measures worsened the status of the Jews in the Roman Empire.
== Assimilation ==
{{main|Assimilation (sociology)}}
The assimilation of Jews into majority non-Jewish culture is perhaps the single issue where Christians and Jews differ most sharply. The [[conversion]] of a Jewish born person to Christianity may be seen by Jews as a scourge ("[[silent Holocaust]]") and by some Christians as a "[[blessing]] from God" for the salvation of a non-Christian for their conversion to Christianity. In the reverse situation, though perhaps more rare, similar sentiments among partisans might also apply.
== [[Anti-Judaism]] ==
Perhaps best described as 'religious anti-Semitism,' [[anti-Judaism]] is a manifestation of a religious hostility toward Jews, based in Christian religious doctrine. Many scholars of Jewish-Christian relations distinguish [[anti-Judaism]] from [[anti-Semitism]], regarding the latter as opposition based solely on racial and ethnic considerations.
Although some Christians have considered anti-Judaism contrary to Christian teaching, it has historically been expressed by [[Christianity|Christian]] leaders and laypersons. In many cases, the practical tolerance towards the Jewish religion and Jews prevailed. Some Christian groups, particularly in recent years, have condemned verbal [[Anti-Judaism]].
This article begins by describing passages in the New Testament that some feel are anti-Judaist, as well as anti-Judaist statements and acts by the [[Church Fathers]]. It goes on to discuss developments in the 20th century, both promoting and opposing anti-Semitism.
During the past 1800 years, many Christians have had anti-Jewish attitudes. Some historians and many Jews hold that for most of its history, most of Christianity was openly anti-Semitic and that the severity, type and extent of this anti-Semitism have varied much over time; the earliest form was theological anti-Judaism.
Some apparently anti-Jewish ideas present among Christians are not a result of specific anti-Jewish Biblical ideals, but instead a manifestation of Christian rejection of other religions as alternative ways to God. In this sense, Christianity owes a debt of gratitude for the past, yet asserts that the time of Judaism is past, therefore invalidating Judaism as a viable means of salvation.
==Anti-Semitism and the New Testament==
{{main|Jews in the New Testament}}
Few Jews consider the New Testament anti-Semitic as such. The main concern of most Jews today is how the New Testament has ''been used'' to legitimate or provoke anti-Semitism. A number of elements of the New Testament are anti-Jewish. Among them are:
* the claim that Jews are responsible for the murder of Jesus. This is exemplified by [[I Thessalonians]] 2:14-15:
:For you, brethren, became imitators of the churches of God in Christ Jesus which are in Judea; for you suffered the same things from your own countrymen as they did from the Jews, who killed both the Lord Jesus and the prophets, and drove us out, and displease God and oppose all men.
* the claim that the Jewish covenant with God has been superseded by a new covenant.
* criticisms of the Pharisees.
* criticisms of Jewish parochialism or particularism.
These elements of the New Testament have their origins in first-century history. Christianity began as a branch of Judaism. Virtually all of Jesus's followers during his life were Jews, and it was even a matter of controversy, many years after his death, as to whether non-Jews could even be considered Christians at all. There is some debate about whether Jesus intended to start a new religion or whether he considered himself a reformer in the prophetic tradition. (See for example the [[Gospel of Matthew]] Chapter 5, verses 17-19, and Chapter 16, verse 18.)
Although the Gospels offer accounts of confrontations and debates between Jesus and other Jews, such conflicts were common among Jews at the time. Scholars disagree on the historicity of the Gospels, and have offered different interpretations of the complex relationship between Jewish authorities and Christians before and following Jesus's death. These debates hinge on the meaning of the word "[[messiah]]," and the claims of early Christians.
The Gospels make several claims about Jesus: that he was a preacher, faith healer, messiah. The first two claims describe roles popular in first century Judea; were Jesus principally a preacher and healer, there is no reason to think he would have come into conflict with Jewish authorities. The claim that he was the messiah, however, is more controversial. The Hebrew word ''mashiyakh'' (&#1502;&#1513;&#1497;&#1495;) typically signified "king" &ndash; a man, chosen by God or descended from a man chosen by God, to serve as a civil and military authority. If Jesus made this claim during his life, it is not surprising that many Jews, weary of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] occupation, would have supported him as a liberator. It is also likely that Jewish authorities would have been cautious, out of fear of Roman reprisal.
Jesus was considered by Christians to be the Messiah, while for most Jews the death of Jesus would have been sufficient proof that he was not the Messiah. If early Christians preached that Jesus was about to return, it is virtually certain that Jewish authorities would have opposed them out of fear of Roman reprisal.
Such fears would have been well grounded: Jews revolted against the Romans in [[66]] CE, which culminated with the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in [[70]] CE. They [[Bar Kokhba's revolt|revolted]] again under the leadership of the professed messiah [[Simon Bar Kokhba]] in [[132]] CE, which culminated in the expulsion of the Jews from the [[Land of Israel]], which [[Hadrian]] renamed into [[Syria Palæstina|Palestine]] to wipe out memory of Jews there.
At the time, Christianity was still considered a sect of Judaism, but the messianic claims alienated many Christians (including Jewish converts) and sharply deepened the [[schism]].
Another source of tension between early Christians and Jews was the question of observance of Jewish law. Early Christians were divided over this issue: Some Jewish Christians, among which were converts from the party of the Pharisees, believed that Christians had to be Jews and observe Jewish law, while [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] argued that Christians did not have to observe all of Jewish law, and did not have to be circumcised, which was a requirement for male Jews. The issue was settled in the [[Council of Jerusalem]], in which Paul and Barnabas participated as representatives of the church at Antioch. The Council decided that they would not subject Gentile converts to the Law of Moses nor circumcision, but ordered them to stay away from eating meat with blood still on it, eating the meat of strangled animals, eating food offered to idols, and sexual immorality.
Some scholars (influenced by Martin Luther) have interpreted Paul's writings as rejecting the validity of Jewish law. A small number of historians suggest that Paul accepted the authority of the law, but understood that it excluded non-Jews. This is not a generally accepted view.
Although Gentiles could convert to Judaism and thus be included, the point remained that people could enter this covenant with God only by being Jewish. Some say that by replacing the written law (the [[Torah]]) with Christ as the sign of the covenant, Paul sought to transform Judaism into a universal religion. It is evident that Paul saw himself as a Jew, but other Jews rejected this universalism; after Paul's death, Christianity emerged as a separate religion, and Pauline Christianity emerged as the dominant form of Christianity, especially after Paul, James and the other apostles agreed on a compromise set of requirements (Acts 15). Some Christia |
formulae for [[pi]].
He was elected [[Lucasian professor]] of [[mathematics]] in 1669. In that day, any fellow of Cambridge or [[Oxford University|Oxford]] had to be an ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder ''not'' be active in the church (presumably so as to have more time for science). Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and [[Charles II of England |Charles II]], whose permission was needed, accepted this argument. Thus a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.
====Optics====
From 1670 to 1672 he lectured on [[optics]]. During this period he investigated the [[refraction]] of [[light]], demonstrating that a [[Prism (optics)|prism]] could decompose [[white light]] into a [[optical spectrum|spectrum]] of colours, and that a [[Lens (optics)|lens]] and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light.
He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties, by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus the colours we observe are the result of how objects interact with the incident ''already-coloured'' light, '''not''' the result of objects ''generating'' the colour. For more details, see [[Isaac Newton's early life and achievements#Newton's theory of colour|Newton's theory of colour]]. Many of his findings in this field were criticized by later theorists, the most well-known being [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], who postulated his own colour theories.
[[Image:NewtonsTelescopeReplica.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A replica of Newton's 6-inch reflecting telescope of 1672 for the [[Royal Society]].]]
From this work he concluded that any refracting [[telescope]] would suffer from the [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] of light into colours, and invented a reflecting telescope (today, known as a [[Newtonian telescope]]) to bypass that problem. By grinding his own mirrors, using [[Newton's rings]] to judge the [[quality]] of the [[optics]] for his telescopes, he was able to produce a superior instrument to the refracting telescope, due primarily to the wider diameter of the mirror. (Only later, as glasses with a variety of refractive properties became available, did [[Lens (optics)#Chromatic aberration|achromatic]] lenses for refractors become feasible.) In 1671 the [[Royal Society]] asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope. Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes ''On Colour'', which he later expanded into his ''Opticks''. When [[Robert Hooke]] criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. The two men remained enemies until Hooke's death.
In one experiment, to prove that colour perception is caused by pressure on the eye, Newton slid a darning needle around the side of his eye until he could poke at its rear side, dispassionately noting "white, darke<!--sic--> & coloured circles" so long as he kept stirring with "y<sup>e</sup> bodkin." <!--Christianson is not clear on what Newton concluded from this-->
Newton argued that light is composed of particles, but he had to associate them with [[wave]]s to explain the [[diffraction]] of light (''Opticks'' Bk. II, Props. XII-XX). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for diffraction. Today's [[quantum mechanics]] restores the idea of "[[wave-particle duality]]", although [[photon]]s bear very little resemblance to Newton's ''corpuscles'' (e.g., corpuscles refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium).
{{dubious}}
Newton is believed to have been the first to explain precisely the formation of the [[rainbow]] from water droplets dispersed in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] in a rain shower. Figure 15 of Part II of Book One of the ''Opticks'' shows a perfect illustration of how this occurs.
In his ''Hypothesis of Light'' of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the [[luminiferous aether|ether]] to transmit forces between particles. Newton was in contact with [[Henry More]], the [[Cambridge Platonists|Cambridge Platonist]] who was born in [[Grantham]], on [[alchemy]], and now his interest in the subject revived. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. [[John Maynard Keynes]], who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: he was the last of the magicians."{{citeneeded}} Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science {{fn|2}}. (This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science.) Had he not relied on the [[occult]] idea of [[action at a distance (physics)|action at a distance]], across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity. (See also [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]].)
In 1704 Newton wrote ''[[Opticks]]'', in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. The book is also known for the first exposure of the idea of the interchangeability of [[mass]] and [[energy]]: "Gross bodies and light are convertible into one another...". Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional [[electrostatic generator]], using a [[glass]] globe (Optics, 8th Query).
====Gravity and motion====
[[Image:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition.]]
{{further|[[the writing of Principia Mathematica]]}}
In 1679, Newton returned to his work on [[classical mechanics|mechanics]], i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of [[planet]]s, with reference to [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler's]] [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|laws of motion]], and consulting with Hooke and [[John Flamsteed|Flamsteed]] on the subject. He published his results in ''De Motu Corporum'' (1684). This contained the beginnings of the laws of motion that would inform the ''Principia''.
The ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' (now known as the ''Principia'') was published on [[5 July]], [[1687]]{{fn|1}} with encouragement and financial help from [[Edmond Halley]]. In this work Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that were not to be improved upon for more than two hundred years. He used the Latin word ''gravitas'' (weight) for the force that would become known as [[gravity]], and defined the law of [[universal gravitation]]. In the same work he presented the first analytical determination, based on [[Boyle's law]], of the [[speed of sound]] in air.
With the ''Principia'', Newton became internationally recognised. He acquired a circle of admirers, including the [[Switzerland|Swiss]]-born mathematician [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier]], with whom he formed an intense relationship that lasted until 1693. The end of this friendship led Newton to a [[nervous breakdown]].
===Later life===
[[Image:Newtonshair.JPG|left|thumb|229px|A lock of Newton's hair in [[Trinity College, Cambridge]].]]
{{details|Isaac Newton's later life}}
In the 1690s Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the [[Bible]]. [[Henry More]]'s belief in the [[infinity]] of the universe and rejection of [[Cartesian dualism]] may have influenced Newton's religious ideas. A manuscript he sent to [[John Locke]] in which he disputed the existence of the [[Trinity]] was never published. Later works — ''The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended'' (1728) and ''Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John'' (1733) — were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy (see above){{fn|2}}.
Newton was also a member of the [[Parliament of England]] from 1689 to 1690 and in 1701, but his only recorded comments were to complain about a cold draft in the chamber and request that the window be closed.
Newton moved to [[London]] to take up the post of warden of the [[Royal Mint]] in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of [[Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax]], then [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]. He took charge of England's great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Master Lucas (and finagling [[Edmond Halley]] into deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch). Newton became [[Master of the Mint]] upon Lucas' death in 1699. These appointments were intended as [[sinecure]]s, but Newton took them seriously, exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters. He retired from his Cambridge duties in 1701. Ironically, it was his work at the Mint, rather than his contributions to science, which earned him a [[knighthood]]. Newton was knighted by [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] in 1705.
Newton was made President of the [[Royal Society]] in 1703 and an associate of the French [[French Academy of Sciences|Académie des Sciences]]. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of [[John Flamsteed]], the [[Astronomer Royal]], by attempting to steal his catalogue of observations.
Newton died in [[London]] and was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]]. His niece, [[Catherine Barton Conduitt]]{{fn|3}}, served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on [[Jermyn Street]] in London; he was her "very loving Uncle" {{fn|4}}, according to his letter to her when she was recovering from [[smallpox]].
In later years there has been some speculation that Newton had [[Asperger syndrome]], a form of [[autism]]. See [[People speculated to have been autistic]].
==Religious views==
[[Image:Bolton-newton.jpg|thumb|right|Isaac Newton (''Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889'')]]
{{main|Isaac Newto |
n when allowed by officials, and spares for punctures only. After Raikkonen destroyed his Mercedes due to a flat spot, the rule was modified to allow dangerous non-puncture officially inspected changes in the interest of safety. While tire rules usually are implemented primarily for safety and/or cost reduction, some detractors felt that this rule was an attempt to mix the grid up due to Ferrari/Schumacher's dominance on Bridgestones over the past five years; Ferrari did, in fact, lose out as Michelin found itself better able to cope with the rule changes. The new downforce rules were continuations of the previous years to decrease overall downforce and ease breakaway speed safety, while at the same time optimizing advertising space on wings and body.
New qualifying rules were enacted as well. The then current qualifying format, a single flying lap on race fuel, replaced one which was used for the first part of the 2005 season (until the [[2005 European Grand Prix]]) which involved two separate sessions, one on Saturday and a second on Sunday morning, with the starting grid drawn up according to the fastest aggregate time of each driver. This was ditched after complaints from spectators, who felt that the Saturday session was meaningless, and broadcasters, who did not want to broadcast so much Formula One on a Sunday. Both the teams and the drivers are still unhappy with the qualifying system, however, and several alternative formats have been suggested for use from 2006 onwards.{{ref|quali_proposal}}
Beginning with the 2006 season, engine displacement will be decreased, a 2.4L [[V8]] replacing the current 3.0L [[V10]]. However, some teams will be allowed to continue using the V10 with a rev limiter in order to cut costs. In the long run, the FIA intends to introduce greater restrictions on testing and the introduction of standardised electronic units and tires.
Over the coming years, radical changes will be made to the rules. In [[2005-10-05]], the FIA proposal of enhancing overtaking won the support of the teams by agreeing about the new rear wing concept -that would eliminate the current single rear wing and replace it with two box-like wings, one behind each rear wheel. These changes are due in [[2007]]. [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000102&sid=aT4_0uPwjwvI&refer=uk]
Also, in [[2005-10-24]], the Formula One commission decided to switch the competition to the "KO" system. All cars are permitted on the track. At the end of the first 15-minute period the slowest six cars can take no further part in qualifying. These cars will make up the last six grid positions in the order of their times, the fastest occupying 17th position. The times for the fifteen remaining cars are reset for the next session. At the end of the second 15-minute period the slowest six cars can take no further part in qualifying. These cars will make up the grid in positions eleven to sixteen in the order of their times, the fastest occupying 11th position. The times for the ten remaining cars will be reset for the next session. For the final period, lasting 20 minutes, the cars will be arranged on the grid in positions one to ten in the order of their times, the fastest occupying pole position.In the first two 15-minute sessions, cars may run any fuel load and drivers knocked out after those sessions may refuel ahead of the race. However, the top-ten drivers must begin the final 20-minute session with the fuel load on which they plan to start the race. They will be weighed before they leave the pits, and whatever fuel they use in the 20 minutes may be replaced at the end of the session. These changes will be applicable for the 2006 season. [http://cars.grandprix.com.au/news/fagp_news/formula_one_qualifying_2006_it_s_a_knock_out]
Also, the 2006 season will see the return of the tyre changes during the pitstops. The thinking behind this is that the reduced engine size will offset any performance gain. Drivers also have access to slightly more tyres than in 2005 - seven sets of dry-weather, four sets of wet-weather and three sets of extreme-weather. Drivers must make a final choice of dry-weather compound ahead of qualifying.
=== Small teams ===
The [[Ford Motor Company]]'s decision to pull out of Formula One at the end of 2004 exposed the vulnerabilities of some small teams. [[Jaguar Racing]] was sold to [[Red Bull]] and is now known as [[Red Bull Racing]].
[[Jordan Grand Prix|Jordan]] and [[Minardi]] both relied on Ford's [[Cosworth]] engines. Jordan then signed deal to use [[Toyota]] engines, while Minardi continued to use Cosworth engines under Cosworth's new owners.
Jordan was bought by Russo-Canadian company Midland in 2005 and from 2006 will be rebadged as [[Midland F1]]. In June 2005, BMW bought a majority stake in [[Sauber]] and intends to run the team as a factory entry in 2006. The Williams team will cease their partnership with BMW as a result, instead opting to run Cosworth engines for 2006. Arguably, the final small team disappeared with the September 2005 purchase of Minardi by Red Bull. In 2006, the Faenza-based team will be run as a junior team named [[Scuderia Toro Rosso]] (initially known as Squadra Toro Rosso), although technically the team is a separate entity to Red Bull Racing.
BAR-Honda's former driver Takuma Sato has found a home with new team [[Super Aguri F1]] (headed by Japanese former F1 racer Aguri Suzuki). The team will start the year with 2002 [[Arrows]] chassis bought from former Minardi chief [[Paul Stoddart]] powered by Honda engines. The team plans to introduce a new car later in the season.
== Notes ==
# {{note|Minardi}} [http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns15578.html Red Bull confirms Minardi purchase]
# {{note|EJ_privateers}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33854 Jordan: Privateer era is over]
# {{note|Schumacher_record}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula_one/2141834.stm Schumacher makes history]
# {{note|team_orders}} [http://www.sportstaronnet.com/tss2552/stories/20021228004509100.htm It was Ferrari all the way]
# {{note|Canada_view_fig2005}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/Feature.aspx?Type=General&PO_ID=34763 F1 third biggest global TV draw] referenced from ITV-F1, published [[31 December]] [[2005]]
# {{note|tyre_scandal}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula_one/4109292.stm Seven teams boycott US Grand Prix]
# {{note|Shorter_calendar}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=31568 Sauber: 19 races is too many]
# {{note|Mexico}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32086 Mexican GP back on track]
# {{note|South_Africa}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=31507 Bernie in South Africa pledge]
# {{note|Russia}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32153 Bernie promises Russian race]
# {{note|EU_tobacco}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32007 Confusion over tobacco laws]
# {{note|Bernie_USGP}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33729 Bernie confident of Indy future]
# {{note|quali_proposal}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33754 Drivers suggest qualifying plan]
# {{note|Super_Aguri}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula_one/4530158.stm F1 gives Super Aguri green light] from BBC Sport, published [[21 December]] [[2005]]
# {{note|Arrows}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula_one/4440756.stm Super Aguri could run Arrows cars] from BBC Sport, published [[23 November]] [[2005]]
== References ==
*Arron, Simon & Hughes, Mark (2003). ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/redirect?link_code=ur2&camp=1789&tag=averyws-20&creative=9325&path=ASIN/0760316880 The Complete Book of Formula One]''. Motorbooks International.
* ''Bernie confident of Indy future'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33729 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''Bernie in South Africa pledge'' (2004). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=31507 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''Bernie promises Russian race'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32153 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''Confusion over tobacco laws'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32007 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''Drivers suggest qualifying plan'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33754 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''FIA Archive.'' (2004). [http://www.fia.com/archive/index_1024.html Federation Internationale de l'Automobile]. Retrieved [[25 October]] [[2004]].
* ''Formula One Regulations.'' (2004). [http://www.fia.com/sport/Regulations/f1regs.html Federation Internationale de l'Automobile]. Retrieved [[23 October]] [[2004]].
* Gross, Nigel et al (1999). Grand Prix Motor Racing. In, ''100 Years of Change: Speed and Power'' (pp. 55-84). Parragon.
* ''Insight.'' (2004). [http://www.formula1.com/insight/ The Official Formula 1 Website]. Retrieved [[25 October]] [[2004]].
* Jones, Bruce (1997). ''The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Formula One''. Hodder & Stoughton.
* Jones, Bruce (1998). ''Formula One: The Complete Stats and Records of Grand Prix Racing''. Parragon.
* Jones, Bruce (2003). ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/redirect?link_code=ur2&camp=1789&tag=averyws-20&creative=9325&path=tg/detail/-/1842228137 The Official ITV Sport Guide: Formula One Grand Prix 2003]''. Carlton. Includes foreword by Martin Brundle.
* ''Jordan: Privateer era is over'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33854 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* Jones, Bruce (2005). ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/redirect?link_code=ur2&camp=1789&tag=averyws-20&creative=9325&path=tg/detail/-/1844425088 The Guide to 2005 FIA Formula One World Championship : The World's Bestselling Grand Prix Guide]''. Carlton.
* ''Mexican GP back on track'' (2005) |
ts) or "at/in college" (for American students). Among this group, Commonwealth English has "in [[hospital]]" (as a patient), where American English requires ''in '''the''' hospital''. (A nurse, visitor, etc. would be "in the hospital" in both systems, as the implied role (of patient) does not apply.)
*American English distinguishes ''in back of'' [behind] from ''in '''the''' back of''; the former is unknown in the UK and liable to misinterpretation as the latter. Both however distinguish ''in front of'' from ''in the front of''.
* American [[legislator]]s and [[lawyer]]s always use the preposition "of" between the name of a legislative act and the year it was passed, while their British equivalents do not. Compare ''[[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]]'' to ''[[Disability Discrimination Act 1995]]''.
===Different prepositions in certain contexts===
* In the United States, the word ''through'' can mean "up to and including" as in ''Monday through Friday''. In the UK ''Monday to Friday'', or ''Monday to Friday inclusive'' is used instead; ''Monday through to Friday'' is also sometimes used. (In some parts of Northern England the term ''while'' can be used in the same way, as in ''Monday while Friday'', whereas in Northern Ireland ''Monday till Friday'' would be more natural.)
* In American English, "in" is never used to describe which street one lives in, whereas in British English "in" is sometimes used when describing a certain place in the street. For example, in British usage one would always live "on Churchill Road", but might also live "in the middle of Churchill Road". Thus the lyric "our house, in the middle of our street" from "Our House" by the British band [[Madness (band)|Madness]] is confusing to many Americans. Note that the use of "on" and "in" in British English depends on where the house is; one doesn't live "in the end of Churchill Road", nor lives "in the corner"
* After ''talk'' American can use the preposition ''with'' but British always uses ''to'' (i.e. "I'll talk with Dave / I'll talk to Dave". The American form is sometimes seen as more [[politically correct]] in British organisations, inducing the ideal of discussing (with), as opposed to lecturing (to). This is, of course, unless talk is being used as a noun, for example: "I'll have a talk with him" in which case this is acceptable in both British and American English.
* In American English ''from'' is the preposition prescribed for use after the word ''different'': "American English is different from British English in several respects." While considered technically incorrect by prescriptionists, ''different than'' is also commonly heard in the US. The British phrasing ''different to'', however, is almost entirely unknown in the US. When grammar is taught formally in the UK, both ''different than'' and ''different to'' are regarded as incorrect, whereas ''different from'' is considered correct by those who subscribe to grammatical [[Prescription and description|prescription]].
* It is common in British English to say ''opposite to''. American English uses ''opposite of''.
===Miscellaneous grammatical differences===
* In American English there is a normative rule which says that, for a non-human antecedent, ''which'' should not be used in [[Restrictive clause|restrictive relative clauses]]. According to ''[[The Elements of Style]]'' (p. 59), "''That'' is the defining, or restrictive pronoun, ''which'' the nondefining, or nonrestrictive. See Rule 3."
* In names of American rivers, the word ''river'' usually comes after the name (for example, ''[[Colorado River]]''), whereas for British rivers it comes before (as in ''[[River Thames]]''). One exception present in British English is the ''[[Fleet River]]'', which is rarely called the ''River Fleet'' by [[Londoner]]s outside of official documentation. An exception in the U.S. is the ''[[River Raisin]]'' in [[Michigan]] named by the French.
* In British English the word ''sat'' is often colloquially used to cover ''sat'', ''sitting'' and ''seated'': "I've been sat here waiting for half an hour." "The bride's family will be sat on the right side of the church." This construction is not often heard outside the UK. In the 1960s, its use would mark a speaker as coming from the north of England but by the turn of the 21st century this form had spread to the south. Its use often conveys lighthearted informality, as many speakers intentionally use an ungrammatical construction they would probably not use in [[Formal written English|formal written English]]. This colloquial usage is widely understood by British speakers. Similarly ''stood'' can be used instead of ''standing''. To an American these usages may imply that the subject had been involuntarily forced to sit or stand.
* In most areas of the United States, the word ''with'' is also used as an adverb: "I'll come with" instead of "I'll come along". However, in some British Dialects, 'come with' is used as an abbreviation of 'come with me', as in "I'm going to the office - come with" instead of "I'm going to the office - come with me".
==Word derivation and compounds==
* Directional suffix ''-ward(s)'': British ''forwards'', ''towards'', ''rightwards'', etc.; American ''forward'', ''toward'', ''rightward''. The forms with ''-s'' are only used as adverbs or prepositions in American English, though ''-s'' forms are becoming less common save for ''afterwards''. In British English, there is a semantic difference in the usage of the two possible forms. The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' states the following about ''forward'' and ''forwards'': "/.../ the latter expresses a definite direction viewed in contrast with other directions. In some contexts either form may be used without perceptible difference of meaning; the following are examples in which only one of them can be used: 'The ratchet-wheel can move only ''forwards''<nowiki>'</nowiki>; 'the right side of the paper has the maker's name reading ''forwards''<nowiki>'</nowiki>; 'if you move at all it must be ''forwards''<nowiki>'</nowiki>; 'my companion has gone ''forward''<nowiki>'</nowiki>; 'to bring a matter ''forward''<nowiki>'</nowiki>; 'from this time ''forward''<nowiki>'</nowiki>."
* Commonwealth English allows agentive ''-er'' suffix for ''[[football]]'' (also ''[[cricket]]''; often ''[[netball]]''; occasionally ''[[basketball]]''). American English always uses ''football player'' rather than ''footballer''. Where the sport's name is usable as a verb, the suffixation is standard in both American English and British English: for example, ''[[golf]]er'', ''[[Ten-pin_bowling|bowler]]'', and ''[[Shooting_sports|shooter]]''.
* English writers everywhere occasionally make new compound words from common phrases; for example, ''health care'' is now being replaced by ''healthcare'' on both sides of the Atlantic. However, American English has made certain words in this fashion which are still treated as phrases in most Commonwealth countries. For example, Americans write "trademarks," but some other countries write "trade-marks" or "trade marks."
* In [[English_compound#Compound_nouns|compound noun]]s of the form <verb>&lt;noun>, sometimes American English favours the [[Infinitive#Bare_infinitive|bare infinitive]] where British English favours the [[gerund]]. Examples include: ''[[jump rope|jump&nbsp;rope]]'' / ''skipping&nbsp;rope''; ''racecar'' / ''racing&nbsp;car''; ''rowboat'' / ''rowing&nbsp;boat''; ''sailboat'' / ''sailing&nbsp;boat''. In each of these pairs, the former term is more common in America than the UK and the latter more common in the UK than America (although it is not necessarily the case that the former is more common than the latter within America or the latter more common than the former within the UK).
* Singular attributives in one country may be plural in the other, and ''vice versa''. For example, the UK has a ''drugs problem'' while the United States has a ''drug problem'' (although the singular usage is also commonly heard in the UK); Americans read the "[[Sports]]" section of a newspaper, while the British read the "Sport" section.
==Lexis==
Most of the differences are in connection with concepts originating from the [[nineteenth century]] to the mid [[twentieth century]], where new words were coined independently; almost the entire vocabularies of the [[automobile|car/automobile]] and [[railway|railway/railroad]] industries (see [[Rail terminology]]) are different between the UK and America, for example. Other sources of difference are slang or vulgar terms, where frequent new coinage occurs, and idiomatic phrases, including phrasal verbs. The differences most likely to create confusion are those where the same word or phrase is used for two different concepts. Regional variations even within the U.S. or the UK can create the same problems.
Generally, American words can be freely interchanged with their British versions within the [[United Kingdom]] and English-speaking Commonwealth nations, without leading to confusion, though this may cause irritation. The reverse situation causes worse problems. However, there are some exceptions, such as ''gas'' (as in ''gasoline''), and ''stroller'' (in the sense of ''pushchair'') which would be misunderstood by speakers of British English, as well as common trademark names unknown in the other country, such as ''Dumpster'' (U.S.) or ''Sellotape'' (UK). There are, however, many pitfalls that Americans can fall into without realising it; for example, referring to a woman's ''fanny'' in the |
tion]] toured Rockwell's Four Freedoms paintings around the country after their publication in 1943. The Four Freedoms Tour raised over $130,000,000 in [[war bond]] sales.
Rockwell's Four Freedoms paintings were also reproduced as [[postage stamp]]s by the [[United States Post Office]].
== Awards ==
The Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute [http://www.feri.org/] honors outstanding individuals who have demonstrated a lifelong commitment to these ideals. The [[Four Freedoms Award]] medals are awarded at ceremonies at [[Hyde Park, New York]] and [[Middelburg]], [[Netherlands]] during alternate years. Among the laureates have been:
*[[Harry S. Truman]]
*[[John F. Kennedy]]
*[[James Earle Carter]]
*[[Averell Harriman]]
*[[Coretta Scott King]]
*[[Elie Wiesel]]
*[[Thomas P. O'Neill]]
*[[William Brennan]]
*[[Mike Mansfield]]
*H.R.H. [[Princess Juliana]] of the [[Netherlands]]
*[[Vaclav Havel]]
*[[Mikhail Gorbachev]]
*The [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]]
*H.M. [[Juan Carlos]] of [[Spain]]
*[[Shimon Peres]]
==See also==
*[[Liberalism in the United States]]
*[[Four Freedoms (European Union)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/od4freed.html Full text and audio of the Four Freedoms speech]. An excerpt of the Four Freedoms section is also available.
*[http://www.feri.org/common/news/details.cfm?QID=2089&clientid=11005 Full text of the Four Freedoms speech.]
*[http://www.fourfreedoms.org/about.html Four Freedoms Democratic Club]
*[http://www.best-norman-rockwell-art.com/four-freedoms.html Norman Rockwell's Four Freedoms Paintings]
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/inaugural/bush-2.html Complete text of Second Inaugural Address by President Bush on January 20, 2005]
[[Category:World War II speeches]][[Category:State of the Union]][[Category:Novels]][[Category:World War II politics]]
[[de:Die vier Freiheiten]]
[[zh:四大自由]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frederic Sanger</title>
<id>10982</id>
<revision>
<id>15908769</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-22T06:38:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.41.198.130</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Redirect to his real name...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick Sanger]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First-order logic</title>
<id>10983</id>
<revision>
<id>41931290</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:31:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dhruvee</username>
<id>132859</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Predicate calculus}}
'''First-order predicate calculus''' or '''first-order logic''' ('''FOL''') is a system of [[mathematical logic]], extending [[propositional logic]] (equivalently, [[sentential logic]]) and in turn extended by [[second-order logic]].
The atomic sentences of first-order predicate logic have the form <math>P(t_1,\ldots,t_n)</math> (a [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] with one or more "subjects") rather than being propositional letters as in [[propositional logic]]. This is usually written without parentheses or commas, as below.
The new ingredient of first-order logic not found in [[propositional logic]] is [[quantification]]:
where <math>\phi</math> is any sentence, the new constructions <math>\forall x \phi</math> and <math>\exists x\phi</math>, read "for all ''x'', <math>\phi</math>" and "for some ''x'', <math>\phi</math>", are introduced. For convenience in explaining our intentions, we write <math>\phi</math> as <math>\phi(x)</math> and
let <math>\phi(a)</math> represent the result of replacing all (free) occurrences of ''x'' in <math>\phi(x)</math> with ''a'', then <math>\forall x\phi(x)</math> means that <math>\phi(a)</math> is true for any value of ''a'' and <math>\exists x\phi</math> means that there is an ''a'' such that <math>\phi(a)</math> is true. Values of the variables are taken from an understood [[universe of discourse]]; a refinement of first-order logic allows variables ranging over different sorts of object.
In [[second-order logic]] (and further systems of [[higher-order logic]]), quantifiers over predicate letters are introduced: for example, equality
can be '''defined''' in second-order logic by <math>x=y \equiv_{def}\forall P(P(x) \leftrightarrow P(y))</math>. Quantification over predicates is not permitted in first-order logic.
First-order logic has sufficient expressive power for the formalization of virtually all of mathematics. A [[first-order theory]] consists of a set of [[axioms]] (usually finite or [[recursively enumerable]]) and the statements deducible from them. The usual set theory [[ZFC]] is an example of a first-order theory, and it is generally accepted that all of classical mathematics can be formalized
in [[ZFC]]. There are other theories that are commonly formalized independently in first-order logic (though they do admit implementation in set theory) such as [[Peano arithmetic]].
==Defining first-order logic==
A [[predicate calculus]] consists of
* formation rules (i.e. recursive definitions for forming [[well-formed formula]]s).
* transformation rules (i.e. [[inference rule]]s for deriving theorems).
* a (possibly countably infinite) set of axioms or axiom schemata.
The axioms considered here are the ''logical'' axioms which are part of the predicate calculus. Further, ''non-logical'' axioms are added in specific first-order theories: these are not regarded
as truths of logic but as truths of the particular theory under consideration.
When the set of axioms is infinite, it is required that there is an [[algorithm]] which can decide for a given well-formed formula whether it is an axiom or not. Furthermore, there should be an algorithm which can decide whether a given application of an inference rule is correct or not.
It is important to note that the predicate calculus can be formalized in many equivalent ways; there is nothing canonical about the axioms and rules of inference given here, but any formalization will yield the same theorems of logic (and deduce the same theorems from any set of non-logical axioms).
==Vocabulary==
The "vocabulary" is composed of
# A set of '''predicate variables''' (or '''relations''') each with some valence &ge;1, which are often denoted by uppercase letters P, Q, R,...
# A set of '''constants''', often denoted by lowercase letters a, b, c,... .
# A set of '''functions''', each of some valence &ge; 1, which are often denoted by lowercase letters f, g, h,... .
# An infinite set of '''variables''', often denoted by lowercase letters x, y, z,... .
# Symbols denoting logical operators: ¬ ([[logical not]]), <math>\wedge</math> ([[logical conjunction|logical and]]), <math>\vee</math> ([[logical disjunction|logical or]]), &rarr; ([[logical conditional]]), &harr; ([[logical biconditional]]).
# Symbols denoting quantifiers: <math>\forall</math> ([[universal quantification]]), <math>\exists</math> ([[existential quantification]]).
# Left and right parenthesis.
# An identity or equality symbol = is sometimes but not always included in the vocabulary.
There are several minor variations listed below:
*Some symbols may be omitted as primitive and taken as abbreviations instead; e.g. (P &harr; Q) is an abbreviation for (P &rarr; Q) <math>\wedge</math> (Q &rarr; P). The minimum number of operators and quantifiers needed is three (or two if we define the operator nor or nand); for example, ¬, <math>\wedge</math>, and <math>\forall</math> suffice.
*Some older books and papers use the notation &phi;&sup;&psi; for &phi;&rarr;&psi; and ''x''&Pi;(&phi;) for &forall;''x'' &phi;.
*Equality is sometimes considered to be a part of first order logic; if it is then the equality symbol is included. This case is sometimes called '''first order logic with equality'''.
*Constants are really the same as functions of valence 0, so it would be possible to omit constants and allow functions to have any valence. But it is traditional and convenient to use the term "function" only for functions of valence at least 1.
*In the definition above relations must have valence at least 1. It is possible to allow relations of valence 0; these could be considered as truth values, such as "true" and "false". This usually makes little difference, because it is usually possible to define "true" in terms of other symbols, for example as &forall;x (x = x).
*There are many different conventions about where to put parentheses; for example, one might write &forall;x or (&forall;x). Sometimes one uses colons or full stops instead of parentheses to make formulas unambiguous. One interesting but rather unusual convention is "[[Polish notation]]", where one omits all parentheses, and writes &and;, &or;, and so on in front of their arguments rather than between them. Polish notation is compact and elegant, but rare because it is hard for humans to read it.
* A technical observation (of which one can make what one will, philosophically) is that if there is a function symbol of arity 2 representing an ordered pair (or predicate symbols of arity 2 representing the projection relations of an ordered pair) then one can dispense entirely with functions or predicates of arity >2. Of course the pair or projections need to satisfy the natural axioms.
The sets of constants, functions, and relations are usually considered to form a '''language''', while the variables, logical operators, and quantifiers are usually considered to belong to the logic. For e |
inging together various English blues musicians, such as [[John Mayall]] as well as [[Brian Jones]], [[Mick Jagger]] and [[Keith Richards]], who went on to form the [[Rolling Stones]].
He also brought previously unknown American blues artists to England to perform. There is an apocryphal story that the Rolling Stones went to stay at Korner's house late one night, in the early '60s, after a performance. They entered in the accepted way, by climbing in through the kitchen window, to find [[Muddy Waters]]'s band sleeping on the kitchen floor.
Always a blues purist, Korner criticised better-known British blues musicians, during the blues boom of the late '60s, for their blind adherence to [[Chicago blues]], as if the music came in no other form.
Ironically, he would have his greatest commercial success in the early [[1970s]] with a [[jazz-rock]] band
called [[C. C. S. (pop group)|C. C. S.]] - short for ''The Collective Consciousness Society'', formed with musical director [[John Cameron]], singer [[Peter Thorup]] and record producer [[Mickie Most]]. They had hits with "[[Walkin']]", "[[Tap Turns on the Water]]", "[[Brother (song)|Brother]]" which later became the theme tune to the Top 20 (later Top 40) on [[BBC]] [[BBC Radio 1|Radio 1]], "[[The Band Played the Boogie]]", and the best-remembered, an instrumental version of [[Led Zeppelin]]'s "[[Whole Lotta Love]]". This version was used for many years as the theme music for the [[television]] show "[[Top Of The Pops]]".
After they disbanded in 1974 he formed another group, [[Snape (group)|Snape]]. In his last years, he turned more to broadcasting, and presented a weekly blues and soul show for [[BBC]] [[BBC Radio 1|Radio 1]].
{{Listen|filename=CCS - Whole Lotta Love excerpt.ogg|title=CCS - Whole Lotta Love excerpt|description=An excerpt from the C. C. S. version of ''Whole Lotta Love''}}
==External links==
*[http://alexis-korner.net Alexis Korner website]
*[http://www.radiorewind.co.uk/Alexis_Korner_page.htm Alexis Korner page at Radio Rewind]
[[Category:1928 births|Korner, Alexis]]
[[Category:1984 deaths|Korner, Alexis]]
[[Category:English musicians|Korner, Alexis]]
[[de:Alexis Korner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Armoured personnel carrier</title>
<id>2283</id>
<revision>
<id>40563908</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T13:28:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bastin8</username>
<id>154626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>United Kingdom</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:M113.jpg|thumb|right|The [[M113]], one of the most common tracked APCs, on duty during the [[Vietnam War]].]]
'''Armoured personnel carriers''' (APCs) are light [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s for the transport of [[infantry]]. They usually have only a [[machine gun]] although variants carry [[recoilless rifle]]s, [[anti-tank guided missile]]s (ATGMs), or [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s. They are not really designed to take part in a direct-fire battle, but to carry the troops to the battlefield safe from [[shrapnel]] and [[ambush]]. They may have [[wheel]]s or [[Caterpillar track|tracks]]. Examples include the American [[M113]] (tracked), the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[FV 432 AFV|FV 432]] (tracked), the [[France|French]] [[Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé|VAB]] (wheeled), the [[Germany|German]] [[Boxer MRAV]] (wheeled) and the Soviet [[BTR-60 |BTR]] (wheeled).
==History==
[[Image:Bt7 6.jpg|thumb|right|Before the advent of APCs, some forces practised very dangerous [[tank desant]] tactics]]
During [[World War I]], when the [[tank]] was developed, the British [[Mark I (tank)|Mark V]] tank was designed with a small passenger compartment to carry troops. By some definitions this can be considered the first armoured personnel carrier. The first specialised APC was the [[Mark IX tank|Mark IX]] of [[1918]].
Often, APCs were simply armoured cars with the capacity for carrying troops, but they evolved into purpose-built vehicles to suit the demands of motorised warfare from [[World War II]].
In [[1944]], the commander of [[2nd Canadian Corps]], General [[Guy Simonds]], ordered the conversion of 72 [[United States|US]]-produced [[M7 Priest]] self-propelled [[howitzer]]s to personnel carriers. They were due for replacement anyway, as the howitzer barrels were worn out. The howitzer was removed, and the resulting hole was plugged with whatever steel was available. The vehicle was called [[Kangaroo (armoured personnel carrier)|Kangaroo]], after the workshop which did the conversion. Later in the war Canadian-built [[Ram tank|Ram]] tanks were used as a basis for the majority of conversions, as they were then obsolete and the original Kangaroos were worn out.
After the war different specialised APCs were developed. The United States developed a series of tracked vehicles, culminating in the M113 "box on tracks", of which 80,000 were made. The [[Soviet Union]] developed the wartime [[BTR-40]] into a series of 8-wheeled APC.
At the end of the [[1980s]], [[Israel]] converted captured [[T-55]] tanks to APCs, reminiscent of WWII conversions. The result is one of the best protected APCs in the world, called [[IDF Achzarit]].
==Technology==
[[Image:VAB armoured personnel carrier DSC00846.jpg|right|thumb|A French VAB, one of the most common wheeled APCs]]
Most armoured personnel carriers use a [[diesel engine]] comparable to that used in a large [[truck]] or in a typical city [[bus]] (APCs are often known to troops as 'Battle Taxis' or 'Battle Buses'). The M113 for instance used the same engine as the standard [[General Motors]] urban bus. A single M113 moving at top speed generates as much noise as a General Motors urban bus moving at top speed. However, the typical armoured personnel carrier can carry only six to ten soldiers while a typical urban bus can carry thirty to fifty seated passengers, and hundreds when standing passengers are included.
Most APCs are amphibious. Usually tracked APCs are powered by their tracks in the water, and wheeled APCs have propellors or [[water jet]]s. Preparations for amphibious operations usually comprises checking the integrity of the hull and folding down a trim wane in front. Swimming required fairly still waters, and good entry and exit points. Speed in water is typically 3-6 km/h.
Armour on APCs are usually simple steel or [[aluminium]] armour, sufficient for protection against small arms fire and most shell fragments. Just about any type of anti-tank weapon can defeat the armour of an APC.
The usual armament for an APC is a 12.7 (.50) or 14.5 mm heavy [[machine gun]]. This is mounted on top of the vehicle, either on a simple [[pintle mount]], sometimes with a gun shield, or a small turret. Sometimes an automatic [[grenade launcher]] is used instead.
==The APC in action==
[[Image:BTR-80 and Bradley.jpg|right|thumb|APC vs. IFV: [[United States|US]] [[M2 Bradley]] IFV on the left and [[Russia|Russian]] [[BTR-80]] APC on the right]]
[[Image:Stryker deployment.jpg|right|thumb|US infantrymen de-bussing from a [[Stryker]] wheeled APC. Note the lowered ramp for easy access.]]
[[Romania]]n Transporter Auto Blindat APCs that made infamous front-line news in 1989 were mostly eight-wheeled, massive Romanian clones of the Soviet [[BTR-60]] APC. Soldiers hated this machine, with uncomfortable access from above and heavy latches that seemed designed to snap one's fingers off. Limited visibility and clumsy manoeuvrability in an urban environment might have contributed (along with bad will, of course) to the numbers of deaths through crushing during the [[Romanian Revolution]].
The idea of the APC has arrived in the modern era to become the [[IFV]], from which troops can fight, firing their weapons from ports in the vehicle, instead of just being transported by it; examples being the US [[M2 Bradley]] or Russian [[BMP-1|BMP]] series.
Actual combat experience has however shown that infantry cannot fight effectively from their vehicle and a mounted attack is practically suicidal. As a result, most infantry vehicles no longer have firing ports; most of those on the M2 Bradley for example have been covered over by additional armour protection. They have been omitted completely from newer designs. As a result the main distinction between an APC and IFV is now simply that an IFV mounts an automatic cannon of 20-40mm calibre for heavier fire support and anti armour capability, while an APC is armed only with machine guns.
Many APC designs have been converted to IFVs by the addition of such an automatic cannon, and many chassis’s are produced in both machine gun and grenade launcher armed APC and cannon armed IFV form. The reason for doing this may be cost, or the need for more interior space on some vehicles, as automatic cannon and their ammunition supply may reduce the number of infantry that can be carried.
== See also==
*[[Infantry fighting vehicle]]
[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles by type]]
[[Category:Armoured personnel carriers|*]]
[[da:Pansret mandskabsvogn]]
[[de:Transportpanzer]]
[[he:נגמ"ש]]
[[nl:Armoured personnel carrier]]
[[ja:装甲兵員輸送車]]
[[no:Pansret personellkjøretøy]]
[[pl:Transporter opancerzony]]
[[pt:Veículo blindado de transporte de pessoal]]
[[sl:Oklepni transporter]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Assault gun</title>
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<comment>/* World War II */ some minor additions and rephrasing; and BTW SU-85 was a tank destroyer, not an assault gun</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''assault gun''' is a [[gun]] or [[howitzer]] mounted on a motor vehicle or armored chassis, designed for use in the [[direct fire]] role |
ard, P. D., and Brownlee, D., 2000. ''Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe''. Springer Verlag.
*Zalta, E. N., 2000, "[http://mally.stanford.edu/leibniz.pdf A (Leibnizian) Theory of Concepts]," ''Philosophiegeschichte und logische Analyse / Logical Analysis and History of Philosophy 3'': 137-183.
==Quotes== <!--Please move the following to Wikiquote, if not already there-->
[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz More quotes.] Wiener (1951: 567-70) lists 44 quotable "proverbs" beginning with "Justice is the charity of the wise."
*"In the realm of spirit, seek clarity; in the material world, seek utility." Mates's (1986: 15) translation of Leibniz's motto.
*"With every lost hour, a part of life perishes." "Deeds make people." Loemker's (1969: 58) translation of other Leibniz mottoes.
*"The ''monad''... is nothing but a simple substance which enters into compounds. ''Simple'' means without parts... Monads have no windows through which anything could enter or leave." ''Monadology'' (LL §67.1,7)
*"...no matter how God might have created the world, it would always have been regular and in a certain general order. But God has chosen that world which is the most perfect, that is to say, which is at the same time the simplest in its hypotheses and the richest in phenomena..." ''Discourse on Metaphysics'' (LL §35.6)
*"I am convinced that the unwritten knowledge scattered among men of different callings surpasses in quantity and in importance anything we find in books, and that the greater part of our wealth has yet to be recorded.... The chief defect of many scholars is that they occupy themselves only with vague and well-worn arguments when there are so many opportunities for exercising their minds on solid and real objectives, to the advantage of the public. Hunters, fishermen, merchants, sea voyagers, and even games of skill as well as of chance, furnish material with which to augment substantially the useful sciences.Even in the games of children there are things to interest the greatest mathematician." (''Discourse Touching the Method of Certitude and the Art of Discovery in Order to End Disputes and to Make Progress Quickly'', W 47. Translation revised.)
*"I maintain that men could be incomparably happier than they are, and that they could, in a short time, make great progress in increasing their happiness, if they were willing to set about it as they should. We have in hand excellent means to do in 10 years more than could be done in several centuries without them, if we apply ourselves to making the most of them, and do nothing else except what must be done." (Translated in Riley 1972: 104, and quoted in Mates 1986: 120)
==See also==
*[[monadology]]
*[[monad]]
*[[characteristica universalis]]
*[[universal language]]
*[[Calculus ratiocinator]]
*[[alphabet of human thought]]
*[[Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy]]
*[[Leibniz-Gemeinschaft]]
*[[Leibniz formula]]
*[[digital philosophy]]
* [[Anthropic Principle]]
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/f_leibniz.html Online texts] prepared by Jonathan Bennett.
*[http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosophers/leibniz/ Leibnitiana] -- Gregory Brown.
* [http://www.videolexikon.com/skriptfachgebiet_Geschichte.htm ''Monadologie'', in German.]
* [http://www.leibniz-translations.com/ Lloyd Strickland's web page.] Scroll down for many Leibniz links.
*[http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/leibsoc.htm Table of contents] for the ''Leibniz Review'', 1998-.
* [http://www.egs.edu/resources/gottfriedleibniz.html European Graduate School - Gottfried Leibniz.]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Leibniz}}
* [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/leibnitz.htm Leibniz biography and bibliography.]
* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/leib-met.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Leibniz] -- Douglas Burnham.
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Leibniz on:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-ethics/ Ethics] -- Andrew Youpa.
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-causation/ Causation] -- Mark Bobro.
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-evil/ Problem of evil] -- Michael Murrary.
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-mind/ Philosophy of mind] -- Kulstad and Carlin.
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/LAP_LEO/LEIBNITZ_LEIBNIZ_GOTTFRIED_WILH.html Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed.]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Leibniz+Gottfried+Wilhelm+Freiherr+von | name=Gottfried Leibniz}}
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[[Category:1646 births|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
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[[Category:Christians in science|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[ar:غوتفريد لايبنتز]]
[[bg:Готфрид Лайбниц]]
[[bn:গটফ্রিট লিবনিত্স]]
[[bs:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]]
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[[hr:Gottfried Leibniz]]
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[[ja:ゴットフリート・ライプニッツ]]
[[ko:고트프리트 라이프니츠]]
[[la:Godefridus Guilielmus Leibnitius]]
[[mk:Готфрид Лајбниц]]
[[nl:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]]
[[no:Gottfried Leibniz]]
[[pl:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]]
[[pt:Gottfried Leibniz]]
[[ro:Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz]]
[[ru:Лейбниц, Готфрид Вильгельм]]
[[sk:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]]
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[[sr:Готфрид Вилхелм Лајбниц]]
[[sv:Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz]]
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[[uk:Ляйбніц Ґотфрід Вільгельм]]
[[zh:戈特弗里德·威廉·莱布尼茨]]</text>
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<title>Gray matter</title>
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<comment>redirecting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grey matter]]</text>
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<title>Gamma World</title>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] avoid redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Gamma World
|image= [[image:Gamma_World_Book.jpg||200 px]]
|caption= '''Gamma World''' Basic Rules Booklet cover
|designer= [[James M. Ward]]
|publisher= [[TSR, Inc.|TSR]]<br>[[Wizards of the Coast]] ''(4<small>th</small> edition)''<br>[[[[Sword & Sorcery]]]] ''(d20 edition)''
|date= 1978 ''(1<small>st</small> edition)''<br>1983 ''(2<small>nd</small> edition)''<br>1986 ''(3<small>rd</small> edition)''<br>1992 ''(4<small>th</small> edition)''<br>2000 ''(5<small>th</small> edition)''<br>2003 ''(d20 edition)''
|genre= [[Science fiction]]
|system= Custom, [[d20 System]], [[Alternity]] ''(4<small>th</small> edition)''
|footnotes=
}}
'''Gamma World''' is a [[science fiction]] [[role-playing game]] produced by [[TSR, Inc.|TSR]], the makers of ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'' and created by [[James M. Ward]].
==Description==
This post-[[Nuclear warfare|apocalyptic]] game takes place in a far future world, where [[technology]], [[Psionics (role-playing game)|psionics]], [[mutation]]s, and [[ionizing radiation|radiation]] interplay and mix in a ruined world that has reverted to [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]].
Likely sources of inspiration for this game are probably the uncountable numbers of sci-fi/post-apocalypse films of the [[1950s]], [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]; although not initially ''[[Mad Max]]'' ([[1979]]), the [[Hanna-Barbera]] cartoon ''[[Thundarr the Barbarian]]'' ([[1980]]), or ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'' (1979), as they were released after the first edition was published in [[1978]] and only influenced later versions. Gamma World is descended from the earlier TSR game [[Metamorphosis Alpha]] ([[1976]]), which involved the mutated crew of a generation [[starship]] named ''Warden''. A component of this starship appears in the old ''Dungeons & Dragons'' [[List of Dungeons & Dragons modules|module]] "[[Expedition to the Barrier Peaks]]". Metamorphosis Alpha is probably inspired by the [[Robert A. Heinlein]] novel ''[[Orphans of the Sky]]'' ([[1941]]).
The original mechanics are similar in many respects to the original ''D&D'' game system, although the second ([[1983]]) and third ([[1986]]) editions changed things substantially. In particular, the third edition resembled TSR's ''[[Marvel Super-Heroes (role-playing game)|Marvel Super-Heroes]]''. The Fourth Edition ([[1992]]) was closer to second-edition ''Advanced Dungeons and Dragons'' (AD&D), and in fact is very similar in gameplay to the current d20 system rules. The Fifth Edition was based on TSR's [[Alternity]] system&mdash;a system which was canceled a month before t |
the text and have the final say on it.
The law is then sent to the [[President of France]] for signature. At this point, the President of France, the speaker of either house or a delegation of 60 deputies or 60 senators can ask for the text to undergo constitutional review before being put into force; it is then sent before the [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]]. The President can also, only once per law, send the law back to parliament for another review. Otherwise, the President must sign the law. After being countersigned by the concerned ministers, it is then sent to the ''[[Journal Officiel de la République Française|Journal Officiel]]'' for publication.
===Budget===
:''See also: [[Taxation in France]].''
[[Image:JO200109337.png|thumb|right|The ''LOLF'']]
The Finance Bills (''lois de finances'') and the financing law of social security (''lois de financement de la sécurité sociale'') are special bills, voted following specific procedures.
Because of the importance of allowing government and social security organizations to proceed with the payment of their suppliers, employees, and recipients, without risk of a being stopped by parliamentary discord, these bills are specially constrained. In the past, parliamentarians would often add unrelated amendments (''cavaliers budgétaires'') to the finance bills, in order to get such amendments passed &ndash; because of the reduced time in which the budget is examined. However, these are nowadays considered unconstitutional. If Parliament cannot agree on a budget within some specified reasonable bounds, the government is entitled to adopt a budget through [[ordinance]]s: this threat prevents parliamentarians from threatening to bankrupt the executive.
The way the Finance Bill is organized, and the way the government has to execute the budget, were deeply reformed in [[2001]] by the ''Loi organique n°2001-692 du 1er août 2001 relative aux lois de finances'', generally known as the LOLF. Because of the major changes involved, the application of the law was gradual, and the first budget to be fully passed under LOLF will be the 2006 budget, passed in late 2005.
The LOLF divides expenses according to identifiable "missions" (which can be subdivided into sub-missions etc.). The performance of the administration and public bodies will be evaluated with respect to these missions.
The budget of the national government was forecast to be 288.8 billion [[Euro]] in 2005. This includes neither Social Security, nor the budgets of local governments.
===Multiple mandates===
It has long been customary for members of parliaments to have, in addition to their mandate as deputy or senator, some local mandate, such as mayor of a city; thus, the phrases "deputy-mayor" (''député-maire'') and "senator-mayor" (''sénateur-maire''). This is known as the ''cumul'' of electoral mandates. Proponents of the ''cumul'' allege that having local responsibilities ensures that members of parliament stay in contact with the reality of their constituency; also, they are said to be able to defend the interest of their city etc. better by having a seat in parliament.
In recent years, the ''cumul'' has been increasingly criticized. Critics contend that lawmakers that also have some local mandate cannot be assiduous to both tasks; for instance, they may neglect their duties to attend parliamentary sittings and commission in order to attend to tasks in their constituency. The premise that holders of dual office can defend the interest of their city etc. in the National Parliament is criticized in that national lawmakers should have the national interest in their mind, not the advancement of the projects of the particular city they are from. Finally, this criticism is part of a wider criticism of the political class as a cozy, closed world in which the same people make a long career from multiple positions.
As a consequence, laws that restrict the possibilities of having multiple mandates have been enacted.
===Economic and Social Council===
''Main article: [[French Economic and Social Council]]''
The Economic and Social Council is a [[consultative]] assembly. It does not play a role in the adoption of statutes and regulations, but advises the lawmaking bodies on questions of social and economic policies.
The executive may refer any question or proposal of social or economic importance to the Economic and Social Council.
The Economic and Social Council publishes reports, which are sent to the [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]], the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]], and the [[French Senate|Senate]]. They are published in the ''[[Journal Officiel de la République Française|Journal Officiel]]''.
==Judiciary==
:''Main article: [[Justice in France]].''
France's political system, in keeping with [[rule of law]], has an independent [[judiciary]], meaning that it has court systems whose decisions are not ''de jure'' controlled by the executive or legislative branches.
France has a system of [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]], but ''jurisprudence'' plays an important role similar to that of [[case law]].
The most distinctive feature of the French judicial system is that it is divided into the judicial and the administrative orders of courts.
===Judicial Order===
The judicial order of courts judges civil and penal cases. It consists of, in first instance: courts, courts of appeal, and the [[Cour de cassation]] at its helm.
Judges are civil servants, but enjoy special statutory protection from the executive. They may not be moved or promoted without their consent. Their careers are overseen by the High Council of the Magistracy.
The prosecution service, on the other hand, responds to the Minister of Justice. This has in the past led to suspicions of pressures to drop litigation against politicians suspected of corruption, and the topic of the status of the prosecutors comes up regularly in political discussions.
Trial by [[jury]] is used in the judgment of the most severe crimes, by the [[Court of Assizes|Courts of Assizes]]. The full court &ndash; 3 judges and 9 jurors (12 jurors on appeal) &ndash; determines first guilt, then, if guilty, the sentence. Jurors are drawn at random from voters' rolls.
Pre-judgment proceedings are [[inquisitorial]], but the actual court appearance is rather [[adversarial]].
The [[burden of proof]] in criminal proceedings is on the [[prosecution]], and the accused is constitutionally presumed innocent until declared guilty.
Certain specialized courts of first instance are staffed with elected judges. For instance, courts deciding cases of labor law are staffed with an equal number of judges from employers' unions and employees' unions. A similar arrangement holds for courts dealing with rural land leases.
===Administrative Order===
[[Image:DSC00652_conseil_etat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Conseil d'État sits in the ''Palais Royal'']]
The Administrative Order of Courts judges most litigations against public bodies. It consists of administrative tribunals, administrative courts of appeals, and the [[Conseil d'État]] at litigation at its helm.
The [[Conseil d'État]] hears cases against executive decisions and has the power to quash governmental decisions and regulations if they do not conform to applicable constitutional or statutory law, or to the general principles of law.
The proceedings are essentially [[written]] and [[inquisitorial]], with both parties being called by the judges to explain themselves in writing.
===Constitutional Council===
''Main article: [[Constitutional Council of France]]''
Neither the judiciary nor the administrative courts can judge the constitutionality of statute laws. While technically not part of the judiciary, the '''Constitutional Council''' examines legislation and decides whether it conforms to the [[constitution]] and [[treaty|treaties]], prior to its promulgation: in all cases for organic laws, and only under referral from the [[President]] of the Republic, the president of the [[Senate]], the President of the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]], the [[Prime Minister]] or 60 senators or 60 members of the [[National Assembly]] for normal laws. The Constitutional Council may refuse statutes as unconstitutional if they contradict the principles of the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] (cited in the preamble of the Constitution) or the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (accepted by [[treaty]]).
The Constitutional Council comprises members appointed for 9 years (3 every 3 years), three members appointed by the President, three members appointed by the President of the National Assembly, and three appointed by the President of the Senate.
===Financial jurisdictions===
The Court of Accounts (''[[Cour des Comptes]]''), assisted by regional accounting courts, audits the finances of the State, public institutions and public bodies. It publishes a yearly official report and may refer criminal matters to prosecutors. It can also directly fine public accountants for mishandling of funds, and refer civil servants who misused funds to the Court of Financial and Budgetary Discipline.
The Court and the chambers do not judge the accountants of private organizations. However, in some circumstances, they may audit their accounting.
==Ombudsman==
In [[1973]] the position of ''médiateur de la République'' (the Republic's [[ombudsman]]) was created. The obdusman is charged with solving, without the need to a recourse before the courts, the disagreements between citizens and the administrations and other entities charged with a mission of a public service; proposing reforms to the Government and the administrations in order to further these goals; and actively participating in the international promotion of [[human rights]].
The ombudsman is appointed for a period of 6 years by the President of the Republic in |
ayed easily without a position shift. Tuning in fifths can also make the instrument louder, because the strings have more common overtones, causing the strings to vibrate sympathetically.
== Technique ==
<!-- Created Technique section in order to clean up the Design section. JGK 4/2/05 -->
The player stands or sits and holds the instrument upright, slightly tilted toward him or her. While standing, the bottom edge of the bass rests in between the players' left thigh and pelvis. The bass is supported by the left leg and ''not'' the left hand. Because of this, the left hand is free to move up and down the fingerboard. When standing, the bass' height is set so that the player may easily place the right hand close to the bridge, either with the bow (arco) or plucking (pizzicato). The left hand is free to range along the strings, from above the player's head, down to the end of the fingerboard. While sitting, a tall stool (which is measured by the players' seam length) is used. The left foot rests on the stool rung. The right foot rests on the floor with the leg bent. The left edge of the bass rests upon the players' left knee, while the right edge of the bass rests between the right knee and thigh. In the sitting position, the double bass player's stance is similar to a 'cello player. Although the sitting position is often used by orchestral musicians for reasons of simple comfort or preference of technique, soloists often stand and extend the endpin higher than normal while also adopting a sloping stance over the shoulder of the instrument in order to more comfortably reach the upper register in high passages. At the base of the double bass is a metal spike called the ''endpin'', which rests on the floor. As with other [[string instrument]]s, the double bass is played with a bow (arco) or by plucking the strings (pizzicato).
== Playing styles ==
When playing the extreme upper range of the instrument (above the G below middle C), the player will shift his hand out from behind the neck and flatten it out, using the side of his thumb as a finger. This technique is called ''thumb position'' and is also a technique used on the [[cello|'cello]]. While playing in thumb position, the little finger is not used because its range is inefficient.
Two advanced techniques should also be mentioned that extend the harmonic and textural range of the instrument. These being the use of natural [[harmonics]] (a technique often used by [[Giovanni Bottesini]]) and sometimes even "false" harmonics where the thumb stops the note and the octave or other harmonic is activated by lightly touching the string at the relative node point.
In popular music genres, the instrument is usually played with amplification and almost exclusively played with a form of ''pizzicato'' where the sides of the fingers are used in preference to the tips of the fingers.
In traditional jazz, swing, and some other styles of music, it is sometimes played in the ''slap style''. This is a vigorous version of pizzicato where the strings are "slapped" against the fingerboard between the main notes of the bass line. The main notes are either played normally or by pulling the string away from the fingerboard and releasing it so that it bounces off the fingerboard, producing a distinctive percussive attack in addition to the expected pitch. Notable ''slap style'' bass players have included [[Bill Johnson (jazz musician)|Bill Johnson]], [[Wellman Braud]], [[Pops Foster]], and [[Milt Hinton]], whose use of the technique was often highly syncopated and virtuosic, sometimes interpolating two, three, four, or more slaps in between notes of the bass line. ''Slap Style'' had an important influence on [[bass guitar|electric bass guitar]] players who from about 1970 developed a technique called ''Slap and Pop'', where the thumb of the plucking hand is used to hit the string, making a slapping sound but still allowing the note to ring, and the index or middle finger of the plucking hand is used to pull the string back so it hits the fretboard, achieving the pop sound described above.
[[Slam Stewart]], a jazz bassist in the [[1940s]], took solos in which he bowed the bass and sang along in octave harmony. He used a German bow so he could play pizzicato with the sides of his fingers and still hold the bow. [[Charles Mingus]] is another notable jazz bassist, regarded as one of the foremost virtuosi of the instrument in the genre.
Difficulties in sound and performance of the instrument include projection. Despite the size of the instrument, it is relatively quiet, primarily due to the fact that its range is so low. When writing solo passages for the instruments, composers take extreme care in their [[orchestration]]. Dexterity is also an issue, as the instrument cannot play nearly as quickly as a [[violin]], although changes in modern playing technique have reduced this problem. Decreased playing dexterity is due to the instruments longer and thicker strings and [[inertia]]. Vibrating the large strings of the bass takes more effort than vibrating the tiny strings of a violin. Therefore, composers tend to shy away from giving the bass extremely fast passages or large jumps in range. Intonation, as with all unfretted [[string instruments]], is arguably the biggest difficulty to overcome in mastering the instrument. Because of the size of the instrument, the positions for the fingers are much further apart than they would be on a violin.
Additionally, some rockabilly and rock bassists have taken advantage of the large size of the double bass by balancing themselves, or "surfing" upon the instrument as a trick during performances. This is a visual entertainment technique and can seriously damage an instrument, if it is not robust enough to withstand such treatment.
== Double bass bow ==
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{| align=right
|[[Image:German doublebass bow.jpg|thumb|German bow]]
|-
|[[Image:AGK bass bow.jpg|thumb|French bow]]
|}
{| align=left
|[[Image:German bow hold.jpg|thumb|German bow hold]]
|-
|[[Image:AGK bass bow grip.jpg|thumb|French bow hold]]
|}
There are two kinds of bows used in double bass playing: German and French. They are different in both design and playing technique. The French bow is a heavier and shorter version of the bow used by the modern [[violin family]], and held in almost the same way, with the palm facing down. The index, middle, and ring fingers rest over the top of the stick and the thumb grasps the frog. Unlike the rest of the violin family, where the little finger rests on top of the stick, the little finger on the French bow rests on the side of the frog with the other fingers.
The German bow has a much larger frog and is held with the palm angled upwards, as used for the upright members of the [[viol]] family. When held the correct way, the thumb rests on top of the stick. The index and middle fingers are held together and support where the frog meets the stick. Contrary to what most people think, the ring finger just hangs and does absolutely nothing. The little finger supports the other side of the frog from underneath. There are many schools of thought on correct grip for both the French and German bow, but individuals may simply choose a preference based on what style works best with a particular bow, bass, and playing style.
The bass bow is strung with white or black horsehair or a combination of black and white (known as salt and pepper), as opposed to the customary white horsehair used on the bows of other string instruments. The slightly rougher black hair more effectively "grabs" the heavier strings.
In order to help the hair to grip the string, string players use [[rosin]] on the hair of their bows. Unlike violin rosin, which is hard and dry, bass rosin is softer and stickier, to give the greater adhesion to the strings required on the larger instrument.
== Strings ==
Some basses have five strings; the additional string may be either an extra high string (tuned to C) or an extra low string tuned to B. Such basses are larger than usual, somewhat harder to play, and rare. In order for a double bass to have five strings, the instrument must be designed to handle the increased pressure on the top and neck caused by the additional string.
[[Image:IMG_3268.sized.jpg|thumb|right|Chromatic 'C' Extension By Chris Threlkeld-Wiegand courtesy Heartlandstring Bass Shop http://heartlandsbs.com/gallery2/main.php?g2_view=core.ShowItem&g2_itemId=568]]
Many four-string basses have a 'C extension' which extends the lowest string down as far as low C, a note an octave below the lowest note on the cello. This may take the form of an extra section of fingerboard mounted up over the head of the bass, which requires the player to reach back over the pegs to play, or of a mechanical lever system where keys are positioned next to the neck in the positions which the corresponding notes would occupy if the instrument had a fifth string. The extension is invaluable in classical music, because the bass often does not have a separately written part but is told to play the 'cello part an octave lower, a practice known as 'doubling'.
There are two main string materials. Traditionally the strings have been made of gut, and since the 20th century, steel has been the most popular material due to its better playability. Gut strings are nowadays mostly used by individual players who prefer the tone of the gut string. Some bassists who perform in baroque ensembles use gut strings to get a lighter, "warmer-sounding" tone that is more appropriate for music from the 1600s an |
[[Wilderness]]
* [[Assarting]]
== Sources and References ==
* BBC TV series 2005 on the history of geological factors shaping human history
* A Natural History of Europe - 2005 co-production including BBC and ZDF
* Whitney, Gordon G. 1996. ''From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain : A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America from 1500 to the Present''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 052157658X
*Williams, Michael. 2003. ''Deforesting the Earth''. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. ISBN 0226899268
* Wunder, Sven. 2000. ''The Economics of Deforestation: The Example of Ecuador''. [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan Press]], London. ISBN 0333731468
*FAO / CIFOR report. Forests and Floods: Drowning in Fiction or Thriving on Facts?
== External links ==
* [http://www.fao.org/forestry/index.jsp FAO Forestry]
* [http://www.rcfa-cfan.org/english/issues.12-3.html CFAN] - [[CIDA]] Forestry Advisory Network
* [http://www.mongabay.com/home.htm Mongabay.com]
* [http://dmc.engr.wisc.edu/courses/hazards/BB02-09.html University of Wisconsin: Natural Hazrds: deforestation]
* [http://www.rainforestphotos.net Deforestation of the Central American Rainforest - Photos ]
* [http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80a02e/80A02E00.htm Himalayan Dilemma]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=0.870633,-60.152893&spn=1.132265,1.252441&t=k&hl=en Amazon Deforestation (Google maps) ]
* [http://www.yeomansplow.com.au/priority-one] (Chapter 8)
== External links: historic deforestation ==
* [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/forest.htm Wang Hongchang, "Deforestation and Desiccation in China :A Preliminary Study"]
[[Category:Climate forcing agents]]
[[Category:Environmental threats]]
[[Category:Forestry]]
[[es:Deforestación]]
[[fr:Déforestation]]
[[gl:Deforestación]]
[[it:Disboscamento]]
[[ja:森林破壊]]
[[nl:Ontbossing]]
[[oc:Desboscament]]
[[pl:Wylesianie]]
[[pt:Desflorestação]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Desertification</title>
<id>8104</id>
<revision>
<id>41731523</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:05:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.64.8.69</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Prehistoric patterns */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aralship2.jpg|thumb|300px|Ship stranded by the retreat of the [[Aral Sea]]]]
'''Desertification''' is the [[Land degradation|degradation]] of land in [[arid]], [[semi arid]] and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors including [[Climate|climatic]] variations and human activities. Modern desertification often arises from the demands of increased populations that settle on the land in order to grow [[agriculture|crops]] and graze [[animal]]s.
However, there has been major controversy over the definition of the term, as well as its causes. Attempts to define or map areas that are or have turned into desert have been sharply criticized. What is usually less controversial is the fact of biodiversity loss, and loss of productive capacity, such as the transition from grassland dominated by perennial grasses to one dominated by perennial shrubs. In the southwestern deserts of the United States, semiarid ecosystems dominated by perennial bunchgrasses, including [[blue grama]] and [[black grama]], have been replaced by shrublands dominated by creosotebush since the early 1900's. The change in vegetation is thought to have induced desertification in this region.
==Causes==
In some regions around the world, deserts are separated sharply from surrounding, less arid areas by mountains and other contrasting landforms that reflect basic structural differences in the regional geology. In other areas, desert fringes form a gradual transition from a dry to a more humid environment, making it more difficult to define the desert border. These transition zones have very fragile, delicately balanced ecosystems. Desert fringes often are a mosaic of [[microclimate]]s. Small hollows support vegetation that picks up heat from the hot winds and protects the land from the [[prevailing wind]]s. After rainfall the vegetated areas are distinctly cooler than the surroundings.
In these marginal areas human activity may stress the [[ecosystem]] beyond its tolerance limit, resulting in degradation of the land. By pounding the soil with their hooves, [[livestock]] compact the substrate, increase the proportion of fine material, and reduce the [[percolation]] rate of the soil, thus encouraging [[erosion]] by wind and water. Grazing and the collection of firewood reduce or eliminate plants that help to bind the soil.
It is a misconception that [[drought]]s cause desertification. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands. Well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In some areas, [[nomad]]s moving to less arid areas disrupt the local ecosystem and increase the rate of erosion of the land. Nomads are trying to escape the desert, but because of their land-use practices, they are bringing the desert with them.
Some arid and semi-arid lands can support crops, but additional pressure from greater populations or decreases in rainfall can lead to the few plants present disappearing. The [[soil]] becomes exposed to [[wind]], causing soil particles to be deposited elsewhere. The top layer becomes eroded. With the removal of shade, rates of [[evaporation]] increase and salts become drawn up to the surface. This is [[soil salination|salinisation]], and inhibits plant growth. The loss of plants causes less moisture to be retained in the area, which may change the [[climate]] pattern leading to lower rainfall.
This degradation of formerly productive land is a complex process. It involves multiple causes, and it proceeds at varying rates in different climates. Desertification may intensify a general climatic trend toward greater aridity, or it may initiate a change in local climate. Desertification does not occur in linear, easily mappable patterns. Deserts advance erratically, forming patches on their borders. Areas far from natural deserts can degrade quickly to barren soil, rock, or sand through poor land management. The presence of a nearby desert has no direct relationship to desertification. Unfortunately, an area undergoing desertification is brought to public attention only after the process is well underway. Often little or no data are available to indicate the previous state of the ecosystem or the rate of degradation. Scientists still question whether desertification, as a process of global change, is permanent or how and when it can be halted or reversed.
==Prehistoric patterns==
Desertification is a historic phenomenon; the world's great deserts were formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independent of human activities. Paleodeserts, large [[sand sea]]s now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, extend well beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the [[Sahara]]. Many deserts have come about around western asia because of an overpopulation of prehistoric species and subspecies during the late [[Cretaceous]] era.
Through [[Palynology|dated fossil]] [[pollen]], it has been found that today's [[Sahara]] [[desert]] has been changing between desert and fertile [[savanna]]. Studies also show that advance and retreat depend on yearly rainfall.
==Historical and current desertification==
* ''See, [[Timeline of environmental events]]''
Desertification became well known in the 1930s, when parts of the [[Great Plains]] in the United States turned into the "[[Dust Bowl]]" as a result of drought and poor practices in farming, although the term itself was not used until almost 1950. During the dust bowl period, millions of people were forced to abandon their farms and livelihoods. Greatly improved methods of agriculture and land and water management in the Great Plains have prevented that disaster from recurring, but desertification presently affects millions of people in almost every continent.
Desertification is widespread in many areas of [[China]]. The populations of rural areas have increased since [[1949]] for political reasons as more people have settled there. While there has been an increase in livestock, the land available for grazing has decreased. Also the importing of [[European]] [[cattle]] such as [[Holstein Friesian|Friesian]] and Simmental, which have higher food intakes, has made things worse.
Overgrazing has made the [[Rio Puerco Basin]] of central [[New Mexico]] one of the most eroded river basins of the American West and has increased the high [[sediment]] content of the river.
==Countering desertification==
A number of schemes have been tried to reduce the rate of desertification and regain lost land. [[legume|Leguminous plants]], which use [[nitrogen]] they extract from the air, can be planted. Stones placed around the base of trees increase the shade available for plants and insects. Artificial grooves in the ground can be dug to retain moisture and trap wind-pollinated seeds. In [[Iran]] [[petroleum]] is being sprayed over semi-arid land with crops. This coats seedlings to prevent moisture loss and stop them being blown away. Windbreaks made from trees and bushes to reduce soil [[erosion]] and [[evapotranspiration]] was widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the [[1980]]s in the [[Sahel]] area of [[Africa]].
With many of the local people using trees for firewood and cooking the problem has become acute. In order to gain further supplies of fuel the local population add more pressure to the depleted forests; thus adding to the desertification process. [[Solar ovens]] are being advocated as a means to relieving some of this pressure u |
y to be changed soon. See [[Conscription in Greece]] for more information.
Women may serve in the Greek military, but cannot be conscripted.
==Component forces and their organization==
The Greek military is overseen by the '''Greek National Defense General Staff''' &mdash; Γενικό Επιτελείο Εθνικής Άμυνας.
===Hellenic Army &mdash; Ελληνικός Στρατός===
[[Image:GES_Greece.PNG|right|50px]]
*'''Hellenic Army General Staff''' &mdash; Γενικό Επιτελείο Στρατού (ΓΕΣ)
*Strength
** Active Duty : 109,266
**Mobilization Strength: 365,000
''For more information see the main article on the'' [[Hellenic Army]].
===Hellenic Navy &mdash; Ελληνικό Πολεμικό Ναυτικό===
[[Image:GEN Greece.PNG|right|50px]]
*'''Hellenic Admiralty''' &mdash; Γενικό Επιτελείο Ναυτικού (ΓΕΝ)
**'''Chief of Naval Operations''' &mdash; Αρχηγός Γενικού Επιτελείου Ναύτικου (Α/ΓΕΝ)
**'''Admiralty Board''' &mdash; Ανώτατο Ναυτικό Συμβούλιο (ΑΝΣ)
**'''Deputy Chief of Naval Operations''' &mdash; Υπαρχηγός ΓΕΝ (Υ/ΓΕΝ)
''For more information, see the main article on the'' [[Hellenic Navy]].
===Hellenic Air Force &mdash; Ελληνική Πολεμική Αεροπορία===
[[Image:Haf.PNG|right|50px]]
*'''Hellenic Air Force General Staff''' &mdash; Γενικό Επιτελείο Αεροπορίας (ΓΕΑ)
''For more information, see the main article on the'' [[Hellenic Air Force]].
=== Hellenic Coast Guard &mdash; Ελληνικό Λιμενικό Σώμα ===
Administered by the '''[[Hellenic Republic Ministry of Mercantile Marine|Ministry of Mercantile Marine]]''' (Υπουργείο Εμπορικής Ναυτιλίας)
''For more information, see the article'' [[Hellenic Coast Guard]].
==References and links==
===See also===
* [[Conscription#Greece|Conscription in Greece]]
* [[Greece]]
* [[Hellenic Republic Ministry of National Defense]]
* [[List of Greek military bases]]
* [[Military]]
* [[Military history of Greece]]
* [[Military history of Greece during World War II]]
* [[401 military hospital|401 Γενικό Νοσοκομίο Στρατού - 401 General Army Hospital]]
* [[251 Geniko Nosokomio Aeroporias|251 Γενικό Νοσοκομίο Αεροπορίας - 251 General Hospital of Hellenic Airforce]]
===External links===
*[http://www.defencetalk.com/pictures/showgallery.php/cat/4222 Greece Military Pictures at DefenceTalk.com Military Gallery]
* [http://www.army.gr/ Hellenic Army General Staff]
* [http://www.hellenicnavy.gr/ Hellenic Navy General Staff]
* [http://www.haf.gr/ Hellenic Air Force General Staff]
* [http://www.stratologia.gr/ Greek Selective Service Administration Website]
* [http://www.mod.gr/ Greek Ministry of Defense]
* [http://www.army.gr/html/GR_Army/dieuthinseis/401/index.html Official Web Site of 401 GSNA Military Hospital in Greek]
* [http://www.omhroi.gr/ Greek anti-conscription/conscientious objector website]
* [http://www.stoxos.gr/ Greek pro-conscription website]
*[http://www.defencetalk.com Global Military & Defence News, Pictures and Discussions] DefenceTalk.com
{{Greek Military}}
{{NATO}}
[[Category:Militaries|Greece]]
[[Category:Military of Greece|Military of Greece]]
[[bg:Армия на Гърция]]
[[ru:Армия Греции]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Greece</title>
<id>12117</id>
<revision>
<id>41025275</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T15:49:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naddy</username>
<id>28830</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Bilateral relations with Turkey */ diacritic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Greece}}
Greece was elected by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] to the [[United Nations Security Council]], on [[15 October 2004]] , as a non-permanent member for 2005 and 2006.
Prominent issues in Greek foreign policy include the enduring [[Cyprus]] problem, Greek-Turkish differences over the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]], a dispute over the name of the [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]], and relations with the [[United States|USA]].
=Relations per geographic area=
==South East Europe==
===Bilateral relations with Turkey ===
'''''Main article [[Greco-Turkish relations]]'''''
Greece and Turkey carried out a population exchange in the [[1920s]] in an attempt to reduce tensions between the two countries. It was not a complete exchange of minorities, as significant Greek communities remained in [[Istanbul]] and Turkish communities stayed in [[Western Thrace]]. Nevertheless, the strategy worked, and the two sides enjoyed good relations and cooperation in the [[1930s]]. They began to deteriorate in the mid-[[1950s]], however, mainly because of [[Cyprus]]. Relations have been steadily improving again since the turn of the century.
The decade of [[1950s]] was marked by the actions of [[EOKA]], a Cypriot nationalist group fighting the [[United Kingdom|British]] colonial government and demanding a unification of Cyprus with Greece (''[[enosis#Enosis|enosis]]''). There have been claims that EOKA was also targeting the [[Turkish Cypriot]] community.
In [[1960]], Some members of EOKA were indignant over the fact that ''enosis'' was not granted, and formed [[EOKA#EOKA-B|EOKA-B]] to instigate a [[coup]] against [[Presidents of Cyprus|President of Cyprus]] [[Makarios III]]. The [[July 15]], [[1974]] coup was supported by the [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|Greek military junta]] in [[Athens]]. Turkey reacted with a military invasion that helped bring about the fall of the Greek military dictatorship. It also led to the [[de facto]] division of Cyprus. The atrocities instigated by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots on the island led to the demolishment of the military junta and the restitution of democracy in Greece.
The Turkish government has claimed that the invasion was justified by the [[1960 Treaty of Guarantee|guarantorship agreement]] between [[Turkey]], [[Greece]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. [[EOKA]] and [[EOKA#EOKA-B|EOKA-B]] no longer exist, but Turkish troops remain on the island, and a separate state was proclaimed in [[1975]] under the name [[Turkish Federated State of Northern Cyprus]]. The name was changed to [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] on [[15 November]], [[1983]]. This self proclaimed state is not a UN member and is not recognized by any nation except [[Turkey]]. [[Azerbaijan]] maintains unofficial relations with the "TRNC" but has not officially recognized it except for a resolution from a subnational legislative body.
{{dubious}}
Since then, Greece has strongly supported Greek-Cypriot efforts, calling for the removal of Turkish troops and the restoration of a unified state. The Republic of Cyprus has received strong support from Greece in international forums. Greece has a military contingent on Cyprus, and Greek officers fill some key positions in the Greek Cypriot National Guard, as permitted by the constitution of Cyprus. The United Nations proclaimed the northern part of the island as occupied territory and the Republic of Cyprus has not changed its inaugural constitution: it always considers northern Cypriots as citizens of the Republic and grants them with the privileges of the southern Cypriots.
Other issues dividing Greece and Turkey involve the delimitation of the [[continental shelf]] in the Aegean Sea, territorial waters and airspace, and the condition of the Greek minority in Turkey and the Muslim minority in Greece. Greek and Turkish officials held meetings in the [[1970s]] to discuss differences on Aegean questions, but Greece discontinued these discussions in the fall of [[1981]]. In [[1983]], Greece and Turkey held talks on trade and tourism, but these were suspended by Greece when Turkey recognized the illegal Turkish-Cypriot declaration of an independent state in northern Cyprus in November 1983.
After a dangerous dispute in the Aegean in March [[1987]] concerning oil drilling rights, the Prime Ministers of Greece and Turkey exchanged messages exploring the possibility of resolving the dispute over the continental shelf. Greece wanted the dispute to be decided by the International Court of Justice. Turkey preferred bilateral political discussions. In early [[1988]], the Turkish and Greek Prime Ministers met at [[Davos, Switzerland]], and later in [[Brussels]]. They agreed on various measures to reduce bilateral tensions and to encourage cooperation. New tensions over the Aegean Sea surfaced in November [[1994]], precipitated by Greece's claims that the Law of the Sea Treaty states that it reserved the right to declare a 12&nbsp;[[nautical mile]] (22 km) territorial sea boundary around its Aegean islands as permitted by the treaty. Turkey stated that it would consider any such action a cause for war. New technical-level bilateral discussions began in 1994 but soon fizzled-out.
In January [[1996]], Greece and Turkey came close to an armed confrontation over the question of which country had sovereignty over an [[Imia-Kardak crisis|islet in the Aegean]]. In July [[1997]], on the sidelines of the [[NATO]] summit in Madrid, Greek and Turkish leaders reached agreement on six principles to govern their bilateral relations. Within a few months, however, the two countries were again at odds over Aegean airspace and sovereignty issues. Tensions remained high for months, although various confidence-building measures were discussed to reduce the risk of military accidents or conflict in the Aegean, under the auspices of the [[NATO]] Secretary General.
Relations between the two countries began to improve steadily since a devasting earthquake in [[Izmit|Kocaeli]] on [[August 17]] [[1999]]. Greece was among the first countries to send aid and rescue teams to the region, and Turkey returned the gesture when a smaller earthquake shook Athens later that year. Since then, Greece has come out in support of Turkey's bid for [[European Union|EU]] membership, and there has been greatly increased co-operation between the two countries to resolve the [[Cyprus dispute]].
It must be noted that the Republic of Cyprus is |
/articles.htm#hadith Skeptical views of hadith]
*[http://www.islamicreform.org/index.php?id=8,7,0,0,1,0 Hadith - Critical Views]
*[http://www.fonsvitae.com/prophetic.html Books and Resources on Hadith]
[[Category:Islamic law]]
[[Category:Islamic texts]]
[[Category:Quran]]
[[Category:Aqidah]]
{{Link FA|id}}
[[ar:حديث نبوي]]
[[bs:Hadis]]
[[da:Hadith]]
[[de:Hadith]]
[[es:Hadiz]]
[[fr:Hadith]]
[[ko:하디스]]
[[id:Hadits]]
[[it:Hadith]]
[[he:חדית']]
[[sw:Hadithi za Mtume Muhammad]]
[[nl:Hadith]]
[[ja:ハディース]]
[[pl:Hadis]]
[[pt:Hadith]]
[[ru:Хадис]]
[[sv:Hadith]]
[[tr:Hadis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Haploidy</title>
<id>13750</id>
<revision>
<id>15911342</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-13T22:25:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Petaholmes</username>
<id>59986</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ploidy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heterozygote</title>
<id>13751</id>
<revision>
<id>41685390</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:26:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.158.101.7</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>removed * [[John Ken Santos]] from see also</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Heterozygote''' cells are [[diploid]] or [[polyploid]] and have different [[allele|alleles]] at a ''[[locus]]'' (position) on homologous [[chromosome|chromosomes]]. When an organism is referred to as a heterozygote or as being '''heterozygous''' for a specific [[gene]], it means that the organism carries a different version of that [[gene]] on each of the two corresponding [[chromosome]]s. '''Heterozygosity''' refers to the state of being a heterozygote, but in [[population genetics]], it commonly refers to the fraction of individuals in a population that are heterozygous for that locus.
In a heterozygous individual, each allele produces its own unique protein or enzyme. The result is a mixture of the two rather than a combination of the two into one. If the presence of the abnormal enzyme produces an abnormal effect in the heterozygote, the abnormal allele is termed a [[Dominant_gene|dominant]] gene. In other cases, especially when the abnormal allele produces a nonfunctional enzyme, the abnormal enzyme molecules have no obvious effect on the heterozygote. The individual is an [[asymptomatic carrier]] of the abnormal allele, which is referred to as a [[recessive]] gene.
To symbolize how a gene is inherited (''Main article:'' [[Mendelian inheritance]]), the dominant allele is indicated with an upper case character and the recessive with a lower case character. The colour of Mendel's peas are often indicated as ''PP'' for the [[dominance relationship|dominant]] homozygote, which produces a pink flower, and ''pp'' for the [[dominance relationship|recessive]] homozygote, which produces a white flower. When these are crossed, the F1 or first filial generation receives a chromosome with the ''P'' gene from the pink-flowered parent and a corresponding chromosome with the ''p'' gene from the white-flowered parent. All of the F1 generation are heterozygous, and this is indicated with ''Pp''. All of the F1 plants produce pink flowers.
Some genes are neither dominant nor recessive to another [[allele]]. In such cases, both genes affect the heterozygote. Sometimes the result is intermediary: when a red carnation is crossed with a white carnation, they produce heterozygous carnations with pink flowers. If the test is sensitive enough, the heterozygote has the phenotype of both parents: when a person who is homozygous for the A [[blood type]] gene marries a person who is homozygous for the B blood type gene, they produce heterozygous children who test positive for both A and B blood type.
== See also ==
* [[homozygote]]
* [[dominant gene]]
* [[recessive gene]]
[[de:Heterozygotie]]
[[es:Heterocigoto]]
[[et:Heterosügootsus]]
[[he:הטרוזיגוט]]
[[nl:Heterozygoot]]
[[pl:Heterozygota]]
[[Category:Classical genetics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HGH</title>
<id>13752</id>
<revision>
<id>36474831</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T07:45:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>152.15.230.95</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[three-letter acronym]] '''HGH''' may refer to:
*[[Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport]], China - IATA airport code
*[[Human growth hormone]]
*[[HGH (band)]]
{{tla-dab}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Human growth hormone</title>
<id>13753</id>
<revision>
<id>39299582</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T04:41:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.113.104.47</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">*For physiology of human growth hormone, see [[growth hormone]].
*For deficiency diseases, see [[growth hormone deficiency]].
*For diseases of GH excess, see [[acromegaly]] and [[gigantism]].
*For GH treatment, see [[growth hormone treatment]].
*For "HGH" products, black market use, nonmedical uses, and other GH-related nonsense promulgated on the internet, see [[HGH controversies]] and [[growth hormone treatment]].
*For IGF and IGF1 related information, see [[insulin-like growth factor 1]].
{{disambig}}
[[de:HGH (Band)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homozygote</title>
<id>13754</id>
<revision>
<id>36272017</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T22:24:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elf</username>
<id>40082</id>
</contributor>
<comment>translating to English</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''homozygote's''' [[cell (biology)|cell]]s are [[diploid]] or [[polyploid]] and have the same [[allele]]s at a ''[[locus]]'' (position) on [[homologous chromosome]]s. When an organism is referred to as being '''homozygous''' for a specific gene, it means that it carries two identical copies of that gene for a given trait on the two corresponding [[chromosome]]s (e.g., the [[genotype]] is ''AA'' or ''aa''). Such a cell or such an organism is called a '''homozygote'''.
A '''homozygous dominant''' genotype occurs when a particular locus has two copies of the [[dominant gene|dominant]] allele (e.g., ''AA''). A '''homozygous recessive''' genotype occurs when a particular locus has two copies of the [[recessive gene|recessive]] allele (e.g., ''aa''). This occurs when both parents carry at least one copy of the allele.
In humans and many other animals it refers in particular to [[X-linked gene]]s in males who under usual circumstances have only one X chromosome and are homozygous for all genes that are located on the X-chromosome.
== See also ==
* [[heterozygote]]
* [[hemizygote]]
[[Category:Classical genetics]]
[[de:Homozygotie]]
[[et:Homosügootsus]]
[[es:Homocigoto]]
[[fr:Homozygote]]
[[he:הומוזיגוט]]
[[hu:Homozigóta]]
[[nl:Homozygoot]]
[[pl:Homozygota]]
[[fi:Homotsygootti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hull (watercraft)</title>
<id>13755</id>
<revision>
<id>28322493</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-14T19:01:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eugene van der Pijll</username>
<id>22016</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Spellcheck8|Spellcheck8]] to last version by YurikBot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''hull''' is the body or frame of a [[ship]] or [[boat]]. It is a central concept in [[water]] [[vessel]]s. The hull is essentially what keeps the water from entering the boat and acts as the [[wall]]s and [[floor]] of the vessel.
Nearly all watercraft, from small [[boat]]s to the largest [[ship]]s adhere to one general class of hull shapes that serve the needs of stability and efficient propulsion, featuring
* horizontal cross-sections that have narrow, usually pointed, fronts (at the bow),
* smooth widening from the bow until roughly the middle (the beam), and often narrowing smoothly but usually significantly to the extreme end (the stern), whose width may range from a large to an insignificant fraction of the beam width), and
* characteristic vertical cross-sections perpendicular to the beam.
Such a cross section will usually feature
* an open top on a small boat ([[kayak]]s being the most familar exceptions), or a level deck (with various superstructures) on large boats or on ships,
* below that level, possibly widening and/or narrowing to some extent, smoothly, down the relatively sharp bend called the "knees",
* below the knees, either having a relatively flat bottom or narrowing smoothly to an angled seam at the center, and
* usually featuring either a [[keel]] or retractable [[centerboard]] at that centerline, or retractable [[sideboard (boat)|sideboard]]s roughly vertical and close to the most vertical portion of the hull.
Nevertheless, other general shapes are feasible; the [[coracle]] is a relatively extreme example, and many cargo barges, with all cross-sections close to rectangular, are a radical departure from both the coracle and the tapered hulls described above. Large ships have a [[bulbous bow]] to reduce effective [[drag (fluid mechanics)|drag]] and thus increase fuel efficiency.
Especially important in hulls constructed from materials that are denser than water, such as steel, the hull traps a volume of air that lowers the overall [[density]] of the vessel, providing [[buoyancy]] so it floats. Hulls constructed of materials that are less dense than water, such as some types of [[wood]], will float even when full of water, barring sufficient weight of heavier-than-water cargo and superstructure.
Hulls of the [[Stone Age|earliest design]] are thought to have each consisted of a hollowed out [[tree]] bole: in effect the first [[canoe]]s. Hull construction then proceeded to keeled hulls, use of [[ballast]], and on to modern double [[steel]] hulls with waterproof s |
appears on the disc. In broad terms the format is a two-channel (four-channel sound is an allowed option within the Red Book format, but has never been implemented) stereo 16-bit [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] encoding at a 44.1&nbsp;kHz [[sampling rate]]. [[Reed-Solomon error correction]] allows the CD to be scratched to a certain degree and still be played back.
The sampling rate of 44.1&nbsp;kHz is inherited from a method of converting digital audio into an analog video signal for storage on video tape, which was the most affordable way to store it at the time the CD specification was being developed. A device that turns an analog audio signal into PCM audio, which in turn is changed into an analog video signal is called a [[PCM adaptor]]. This technology could store six samples (three samples per each [[stereo]] channel) in a single horizontal line. A standard [[NTSC]] video signal has 245 usable lines per field, and 59.94 fields/s, which works out at 44,056 samples/s. Similarly [[PAL]] has 294 lines and 50 fields, which gives 44,100 samples/s. This system could either store 14-bit samples with some error correction, or 16-bit samples with almost no error correction. There was a long debate over whether to use 14 or 16 bit samples and/or 44,056 or 44,100 samples/s when the Sony/Philips task force designed the compact disc; 16 bits and 44.1 kilo-samples/s prevailed. The Sony PCM-1610 and PCM-1630 are well known examples of PCM adaptors used in conjunction with the Sony [[U-matic]] VCR.
=== Storage capacity ===
The main parameters of the CD (taken from the September 1983 issue of the [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|compact disc specification]]) are as follows:
*Scanning velocity: 1.2–1.4 m/s ([[constant linear velocity]]) - Equivalent to about 500 rpm at the inside of the disc, or about 200 rpm at the outside edge.
*Track pitch: 1.6&nbsp;μm.
*Disc diameter 120&nbsp;mm.
*Disc thickness: 1.2&nbsp;mm.
*Inner radius program area: 25&nbsp;mm.
*Outer radius program area: 58&nbsp;mm.
The program area is 86.05&nbsp;cm², so that the length of the recordable spiral is 86.05/1.6&nbsp;=&nbsp;5.38&nbsp;km. With a scanning speed of 1.2&nbsp;m/s, the playing time is 74&nbsp;minutes, or around 650&nbsp;MB of data on a CD-ROM. If the disc diameter were 115&nbsp;mm, the maximum playing time would have been 68 minutes, i.e., six minutes less. A disc with data appearing slightly more densely is allowable. Using a linear velocity of 1.2&nbsp;m/s and a track pitch of 1.5&nbsp;micrometre leads to a playing time of 80&nbsp;minutes, or a capacity of 700&nbsp;MB. This is the limit for most conventional audio CDs today.
Another technique to increase the capacity of a disc is store data in the lead out groove that is normally used to indicate the end of a disk, and an extra minute or two of recording is often possible. However, these discs can cause problems in playback when the end of the disc is reached.
The 74-minute playing time of a CD, being more than that of most long-playing vinyl albums, was often used to the format's advantage during the early years when CDs and LPs vied for commercial sales. CDs would often be released with one or more bonus tracks, enticing consumers to buy the CD for the extra material. However, attempts to combine double LPs onto one CD occasionally resulted in an opposing situation in which the CD would actually offer fewer tracks than the LP equivalent.
CD capacities are always given in binary units. A "700 MB" (or "80 minute") CD has a nominal capacity of about 700 [[MiB]]. But [[DVD]] capacities are given in decimal units. A "4.7 GB" DVD has a nominal capacity of about 4.38 [[GiB]].
== Data structure ==
Under a microscope, all that is visible is a series of various-sized pits arranged in a long spiral, starting near the inner hole.
As bit-times are counted off, a transition (pit-to-land, or land-to-pit) is interpreted as a "1" bit, while a constant region (all-land or all-pit) is interpreted as a "0" bit.
Each 14 consecutive bits are grouped and decoded using [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]] to get a byte. Each 14-bit EFM word alternates with a 3-bit merging word.
The smallest entity in the CD audio format is called a ''frame''. A frame can accommodate six complete 16-bit stereo samples, i.e. 2×2×6&nbsp;=&nbsp;24&nbsp;bytes. Data in a CD-ROM are organized in both frames and sectors. A frame comprises 33 bytes, of which 24 are audio bytes (six full stereo samples), eight error correction, CIRC-generated, bytes plus one subcode byte. The eight bits of a subcode byte are available for control and display. In total we have 33*(14+3) = 561 channel bits. A 27-bit unique synchronization word is added, so that the number of channel bit in a frame totals 588. The synchronization word cannot occur in the normal bit stream, and can thus be used to identify the beginning of a frame.
A CD-ROM ''sector'' contains 98&nbsp;frames, and holds 98×24&nbsp;=&nbsp;2352&nbsp;bytes.
The CD-ROM is in essence a data disc, which cannot rely on error concealment, and it requires therefore a higher reliability of the retrieved data. In order to achieve improved error correction and detection, a CD-ROM has a third layer of Reed-Solomon error correction.
Note that the [[CIRC]] error correction system used in the CD audio format has two interleaved layers. A Mode-1 CD-ROM, which has the full third layer error correction capability, contains a net 2048&nbsp;bytes of the available 2352 per sector. In a Mode-2 CD-ROM, which is mostly used for video files, there are 2336 user-available bytes per sector. The net byte rate of a Mode-1 CD-ROM is 44.1k×2048/(6×98)&nbsp;=&nbsp;153.6 kB/s. The playing time is 74&nbsp;minutes, or 4440&nbsp;seconds, so that the net capacity of a Mode-1 CD-ROM is 682&nbsp;MB.
A 1x speed CD drive reads 75 consecutive sectors per second.
A CD-ROM (data) sector contains 2352 bytes:
* 12 bytes: sync
* 4 bytes: sector ID
* 2 048 bytes: user data
* 4 bytes: error detection
* 8 bytes: null
* 276 bytes: error correction
An audio CD has a very different structure:
... <!-- what ? -->
=== Subcode ===
Besides digital audio, a CD contains digital data called "subcode", which is multiplexed with the digital audio. The data in a CD are arranged in frames. A frame comprises 33 bytes, of which 24 are audio bytes (six full stereo samples), eight error correction, [[CIRC]]-generated, bytes plus one subcode byte. The eight bits of a subcode byte are available for control and display. The eight bits are used as eight different subcoding channels, and given letters designating their usage: ''P'', ''Q'', …, ''W''. Thus each channel has a bit rate of 7.35 (=44.1/6) kbit/s.
In each sector there are 2352&nbsp;[[byte]]s (24×98) of audio content data and 96&nbsp;bytes of subchannel data.
The 96&nbsp;bytes of subchannel information in each sector contain four packets of 24&nbsp;bytes apiece:
1 byte for command,
1 byte for instruction,
2 bytes for parityQ,
16 bytes for data, and
4 bytes parityP.
Each of the 96&nbsp;subchannel data bytes can be thought of as being divided into eight [[bit]]s. Each of these bits corresponds to a separate stream of information. These streams are called "channels", and are labeled starting with the letter ''P'', like so:
{| cellpadding=3
|-
|'''Channel'''
|P
|Q
|R
|S
|T
|U
|V
|W
|-
|'''Bit'''
|7
|6
|5
|4
|3
|2
|1
|0
|}
Channel ''P'' is a simple pause/music flag, which can be used for low-cost search systems. Quite a few players ignore it in favor of the ''Q'' Channel.
Channel ''Q'' is used for control purposes of more sophisticated players. It contains positioning information, the [[Media Catalog Number|Media Catalog Number (MCN)]], and [[International Standard Recording Code|International Standard Recording Code (ISRC)]]. The ISRC is used by the media industry, and contains information about the country of origin, the year of publication, owner of the rights, as well as a serial number, and some additional tags:
;Data: This track contains Data (rather than audio). Can be used for muting in audio CD players.
;Copy Flag: Used by the [[Serial Copy Management System]] to indicate permission to digitally copy the track.
;[[Four Channel Compact Disc Digital Audio|Four Channel Audio]]: The track uses four channel audio. This is very rarely used on Compact Discs.
;Pre-Emphasis: The audio track was recorded with pre-emphasis. Used very rarely on Compact Discs.
Channels ''R''…''W'' are unused by Red-Book compliant CDs, and have been used for extensions to the standard.
=== CD-Text ===
CD-Text is part of the [[CD-G|CD+G]] extension to the [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]] standard for audio CDs. It allows for storage of additional information (e.g. album name, song name, and artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD. The information is stored in the lead-in area of the CD, where there is roughly five kilobytes of space available, or in the ''R'' through ''W'' Subchannels on the disc, which are not used by strict Red Book CDs. About 31 megabytes of information can be stored there. The text is stored in a format usable by the [[Interactive Text Transmission System]] (ITTS). ITTS is also used by Digital Audio Broadcasting or the [[MiniDisc]].
Note that the [[CD-G|CD+G]] or “karaoke” extension also uses the R-W subchannels or subcodes to store low resolution graphics.
== The SPARS Code for audio CDs ==
[[Image:Cd-r.jpg|right|thumb|250px|CD-R disc, top side]]
Many CDs, especially classical music and many popular recordings, come with a three-letter code printed on the back known as the SPARS ([[acronym]] for [[Society of Professional Audio Recording Studios]]) Code, where "A" stands for [[analog signal|analog]] and "D" stands for [[digit |
gh the key Black Sea ports of [[Poti|P'ot'i]] and [[Batumi]]. The growing trade deficit, continuing problems with [[tax evasion]] and [[Political corruption|corruption]], and political uncertainties cloud the short-term economic picture. However, revived investment could spur higher economic growth in [[2000]], perhaps up to 6%.
==In greater depth==
Georgia's economic recovery has been hampered by the separatist disputes in [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]], a persistently weak economic infrastructure, resistance to reform on the part of some corrupt and reactionary factions, and the Russian and Asian economic crises. Under President [[Shevardnadze]]'s leadership, the government has nonetheless guided the economy to impressive gains: slashing inflation, meeting most [[IMF]] targets through its July 1998 review, and qualifying for economic structural adjustment facility credit status, introducing a stable national currency (the [[Lari (Georgia)|lari]]), introducing free market prices of bread products, preparing for the second stage of accession to the [[World Trade Organization]] (the first stage has already been met), signing agreements that allow for development of a pipeline to transport Caspian oil across Georgia to the [[Black Sea]], and passing laws on commercial banking, land, and tax reform. However, as a result of the fallout from the Russian and Asian economic crises, Georgia has been unable to meet IMF conditions recently.
Georgia's deficit fell from the 1996 rate of 6.2% to 3.6% in 1997. The Government expects to continue reducing the country's deficit to 3% in 1998. President Shevardnadze recently announced that tax revenues have risen dramatically, and recent tax reform, encouraged by the IMF, should lead to further increases. However, Georgia needs to implement its tax legislation and take concrete steps to meet IMF programs. Although total revenue increased from 1996 to 1997, these increases were lower than expected. International financial institutions continue to play a critical role in Georgia's budgetary calculations. Multilateral and bilateral grants and loans totaled 116.4 million lari in 1997 and are expected to total 182.8 million lari in 1998.
There has been strong progress on structural reform. All prices and most trade have been liberalized, legal-framework reform is on schedule, and massive government downsizing is underway. More than 10,500 small enterprises have been privatized, and although privatization of medium- and large-sized firms has been slow, more than 1,200 medium- and large-sized companies have been set up as joint stock companies. A law and a decree establishing the legal basis and procedures for state property privatization should continue to reduce the number of companies controlled by the state.
Due to a lack of investment, Georgia's transportation and communication infrastructure remains in very poor condition. Parliament has set an agenda to start the [[privatization]] of the [[telecommunication]]s industry, although there is still resistance to the plan and Parliament needs to draft implementing legislation.
Georgia's [[electricity market |electrical energy sector]] is in critical condition. Shortages of electricity have resulted in public unrest. In 1998, Georgia began to privatize its energy distribution system and expects to privatize its [[electricity generation |energy generation]] system by 2000. Privatization is the only means to generate the capital needed to rehabilitate the sector.
To encourage and support the reform process, the [[United States]]. is joining other donors in shifting the focus of assistance from humanitarian to technical and institution-building programs. Provision of legal and technical advisors is complemented by training opportunities for parliamentarians, law enforcement officials, and economic advisors. The U.S. is increasingly willing to impose conditions on assistance in order to encourage improved performance on key issues and privatization of key sectors, including energy. Georgia continues to depend on humanitarian aid, which is increasingly targeted to most-needy groups.
Georgian agricultural production is beginning to recover following the devastation caused by the civil unrest and the restructuring necessary following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Livestock production is beginning to rebound, although it faces periodic disease. Domestic grain production is increasing, and will require sustained political and infrastructure improvements to ensure appropriate distribution and return to farmers. Tea, hazelnut, and citrus production have suffered greatly as a result of the conflict in Abkhazia, an especially fertile area.
While approximately 30% of the Georgian economy is agricultural, crops spoil in the field because farmers either cannot get their produce to market or must pay costs that drive market prices above those for imported goods. In concert with European assistance, Georgia has taken steps to control the quality of and appropriately market its natural spring water. Georgian viniculture, well supported during Soviet times, is internationally acclaimed and has absorbed some new technologies and financing since 1994.
==Other statistics==
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
24.6% of GDP (2005 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
* ''lowest 10%:'' 2.3%
* ''highest 10%:'' 27.9% (1996)
'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
37.1 (1996)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
citrus, grapes, tea, hazelnuts, vegetables; livestock
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
3% (2000)
'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 8.634 [[TWh]] (2003)
* ''consumption:'' 8.63 TWh (2003)
* ''exports:'' 0.25 TWh (2003)
* ''imports:'' 0.85 TWh (2003)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 19.7%
* ''hydro:'' 80.3%
* ''nuclear:'' 0%
* ''other:'' 0% (2001)
'''Oil:'''
* ''production:'' 1,982 bbl/day (2003)
* ''consumption:'' 13,000 bbl/day (2003 est.)
* ''exports:'' NA
* ''imports:'' NA
'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 60 million m&sup3; (2001 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 1.16 billion m&sup3; (2001 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 m&sup3; (2001 est.)
* ''imports:'' 1.1 billion m&sup3; (2001 est.)
'''Current account balance:'''
$-439.3 million (2005 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
scrap metal, machinery, chemicals; fuel reexports; citrus fruits, tea, wine
'''Imports - commodities:'''
fuels, machinery and parts, transport equipment, grain and other foods, pharmaceuticals
'''Reserves of foreign exchange & gold:'''
$350.1 million (2005 est.)
'''Debt - external:'''
$1.9 billion (2003)
'''Currency exchange rates:'''
lari per US dollar - 2.12 (2004), 2.1457 (2003), 2.1957 (2002), 2.073 (2001), 1.9762 (2000)
==See also==
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
{{Asia in topic|Economy of}}
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Georgia]]
[[Category:Economy of Georgia| ]]
[[de:Wirtschaft Georgiens]]
[[es:Economía de Georgia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Georgia</title>
<id>12063</id>
<revision>
<id>31468492</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-15T14:18:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Asia in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
554,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
150 (1995)
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
Country has two cellular telephone networks of GSM 900/1800 standard: MagtiCom LTD (http://www.magticom.com) with more than 600,000 customers and Geocell LTD (http://www.geocell.ge). Cellular network market counts more than 1,000,000 customers total - coverage extends up to 95% of its populated territory as of 2005; urban areas 20 telephones/100 people; rural areas 4 telephones/100 people; intercity - a fiber-optic line connects T'bilisi to K'ut'aisi (Georgia's second largest city); nationwide pager service
<br>''international:''
Georgia and [[Russia]] are working on a fiber-optic line between P'ot'i and [[Sochi]] (Russia); present international service is available by microwave, landline, and satellite through the [[Moscow]] switch; international electronic mail and [[teleprinter|telex]] service available
'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM 7, FM 12, shortwave 4 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
3.02 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
12 (plus repeaters) (1998)
'''Televisions:'''
2.57 million (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
10 at least(2003), with most of them providing dial up 14.4-56.6 kbit/s and some - ADSL/DSL/Cable services.
'''[[Country codes|Country code]]: 995 (Top-level domain):''' GE
:''See also :'' [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
{{Asia in topic|Communications in}}
[[Category:Communications in Georgia| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Georgia</title>
<id>12064</id>
<revision>
<id>39350867</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T15:55:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.157.203.232</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[Highway]]s */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[transport]] network in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]''' is in poor condition and disrupted by ethnic conflict, criminal activities, and fuel shortages; network lacks maintenance and repair (source: [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000).
==[[Railway]]s==
<br>''total:''
1,583 km in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines
<br>''broad gauge:''
1,583 km 1.520-m gauge (1993)
City with [[metro]] system: [[Tbilisi]] (see [[Tbilisi Metro]]).
* In April [[2005]], an agreement was signed to build a railway from [[Turkey]] through [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] to [[Azerbaijan]] probably using [[Standard gauge]] (1435mm) so that it can eventually link with [[Transportation in China| |
/www.circleid.com/ CircleID: Community discussions involving ICANN and Internet Governance]
* [http://www.cfit.info/ Coalition For ICANN Transparency]
* [http://dailychanges.com DailyChanges.com] - a Free ICANN Registrar Statistics site
*{{Citenews | title=U.N. Summit to Focus on Internet | date=December 5, 2003 | org=Washington Post | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A36852-2003Dec4?language=printer}}
*{{Citenews | title=ICANN imposes $2 internet tax | date=March 31, 2005 | org=The Register | url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/03/31/icann_2buck_fee}}
*{{Citenews | title=Bush administration annexes internet | date=July 1, 2005 | org=The Register| url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/07/01/bush_net_policy/}}
*{{Citenews | title=Power grab could split the net | date=October 3, 2005 | org=CNET | url=http://news.com.com/2010-1071_3-5886556.html}} (Includes discussion.)
**[http://www.dotlove.org the dot love company] - proposal for ".love" (and related domains such as .thanks) as sTLDs
*[http://www.unifiedroot.com Unified Root] - Unified Root (for-profit alternative to ICANN), based on Public Root technology
*[http://www.dotberlin.de/ dotBERLIN Website]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Internet governance]]
[[Category:Domain Name System]]
[[ca:ICANN]]
[[de:Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]]
[[es:ICANN]]
[[eo:ICANN]]
[[fr:Internet corporation for assigned names and numbers]]
[[gl:ICANN]]
[[it:ICANN]]
[[he:ICANN]]
[[nl:Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]]
[[ja:ICANN]]
[[no:ICANN]]
[[pl:ICANN]]
[[pt:ICANN]]
[[ru:Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]]
[[fi:ICANN]]
[[tr:ICANN]]
[[zh:互联网名称与数字地址分配机构]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iterative method</title>
<id>15237</id>
<revision>
<id>30388519</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-06T21:12:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.2.135.109</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computation]]al [[mathematics]], an '''iterative method''' attempts to solve a problem (for example an equation or system of equations) by finding successive [[approximation]]s to the solution starting from an initial guess. This approach is in contrast to direct methods, which attempt to solve the problem in one-shot (like solving a linear system of equations ''Ax'' = ''b'' by finding the inverse of the [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] A). Iterative methods are useful for problems involving a large number of variables (sometimes of the order of millions), where direct methods would be prohibitively expensive and in some cases impossible even with the best available computing power.
==Newton's method==
One of the most familiar iterative methods is usually taught in 1st-year calculus: [[Newton's method]].
==Attractive fixed points==
If an equation can be put into the form ''f''(''x'') = ''x'', and a solution '''x''' is an attractive [[fixed point (mathematics)|fixed point]] of the function ''f'', then one may begin with a point ''x''<sub>1</sub> in the basin of attraction of '''x''', and let ''x''<sub>''n''+1</sub> = ''f''(''x''<sub>''n''</sub>) for ''n''&nbsp;&ge;&nbsp;1, and the sequence {''x''<sub>''n''</sub>}<sub>''n''&nbsp;&ge;&nbsp;1</sub> will converge to the solution '''x'''.
==Linear systems==
In the case of a [[linear system]], the two main classes of iterative methods are the '''stationary iterative methods''', and the more general [[Krylov subspace]] methods.
===Stationary iterative methods===
Stationary iterative methods solve a linear system with an [[operator]] approximating the original one; and based on a measurement of the error (the residual), form a [[correction equation]] for which this process is repeated. While these methods are simple to derive, implement, and analyse, convergence is only guaranteed for a limited class of matrices.
===Krylov subspace methods===
Krylov subspace methods form an [[orthogonal basis]] of the sequence of successive matrix powers times the initial residual (the '''Krylov sequence'''). The approximations to the solution are then formed by minimizing the residual over the subspace formed. The prototypical method in this class is the [[conjugate gradient method]].
===Convergence===
Since these methods form a basis, it is evident that the method converges in ''N'' iterations, where ''N'' is the system size. However, in the presence of rounding errors this statement does not hold; moreover, in practice ''N'' can be very large, and the iterative process reaches sufficient accuracy already far earlier. The analysis of these methods is hard, depending on a complicated function of the [[spectrum of an operator|spectrum]] of the operator.
===Preconditioners===
The approximating operator that appears in stationary iterative methods can also be incorporated in Krylov subspace methods (alternatively, preconditioned Krylov methods can be considered as accelerations of stationary iterative methods), where they become transformations of the original operator to a presumably better conditioned one. The construction of preconditioners is a large research area.
===History===
Probably the first iterative method appeared in a letter of [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] to a student of his. He proposed solving a 4-by-4 system of equations by repeatedly solving the component in which the residual was the largest.
The theory of stationary iterative methods was solidly established with the work of [[D.M. Young]] starting in the 1950s. The Conjugate Gradient method was also invented in the 1950s, with independent developments by [[Cornelius Lanczos]], [[Magnus Hestenes]] and [[Eduard Stiefel]], but its nature and applicability were misunderstood at the time. Only in the 1970s was it realized that conjugacy based methods work very well for [[partial differential equation]]s, especially the elliptic type.
== External links ==
* [http://www.netlib.org/linalg/html_templates/Templates.html Templates for the Solution of Linear Systems]
* [http://www.math.uu.nl/people/vorst/cgnotes.ps.gz Lecture notes on iterative methods]
* [http://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~saad/books.html Y. Saad: ''Iterative Methods for Sparse Linear Systems'', 1st edition, PWS 1996]
[[Category: Numerical analysis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International judicial institution</title>
<id>15238</id>
<revision>
<id>41057772</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T20:04:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bolivian Unicyclist</username>
<id>642800</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''International judicial institutions''' can be divided into [[court]]s, arbitral [[tribunal]]s and [[Quasi-judicial_body|quasi-judicial]] institutions. Courts are permanent bodies, with near the same composition for each case. Arbitral tribunals, by contrast, are constituted anew for each case. Both courts and arbitral tribunals can make binding decisions. Quasi-judicial institutions, by contrast, make rulings on cases, but these rulings are not in themselves legally binding; the main example is the individual complaints mechanisms available under the various UN human rights treaties.
Institutions can also be divided into global and regional institutions.
The listing below incorporates both currently existing institutions, defunct institutions that no longer exist, institutions which never came into existence due to non-ratification of their constitutive instruments, and institutions which do not yet exist, but for which constitutive instruments have been signed. It does not include mere proposed institutions for which no instrument was ever signed.
==Global institutions: Courts==
*[[International Court of Justice]]
*[[International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
*[[International Criminal Court]]
*[[WTO Appelate Body]]
*[[International Military Tribunal]] (defunct)
*[[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] (defunct)
*[[International Prize Court]] (never established)
==Global institutions: Arbitral Tribunals==
*[[Permanent Court of Arbitration]]
*[[WTO Dispute Settlement Panels]]
*[[International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes]]
==Global institutions: Quasi-judicial Institutions==
<!-- - ''check whether the names below are correct, and if the below institutions are the optional procedure ones'' -->
*[[Human Rights Committee]]
*[[Committee on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination]]
*[[Committee on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women]]
==Regional institutions: Africa==
*[[African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights]]
==Regional institutions: Americas==
*[[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]]
*[[Central American Court of Justice]] (defunct?)
*[[ALADI]], [[CARICOM]], [[MERCOSUR]], Central American Community institutions?
==Regional institutions: Europe==
*[[European Court of Justice]]
*[[European Court of Human Rights]]
*[[European Tribunal in Matters of State Immunity]]
*[[European Nuclear Energy Tribunal]]
*[[Benelux Court of Justice]]
[[Category:International law]][[Category:International organizations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Prize Court</title>
<id>15239</id>
<revision>
<id>30009874</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-03T12:15:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Itai</username>
<id>17456</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The capturing of [[prize]]s (enemy equipment, vehicles, and especially ships) during wartime is a tradition that goes back as far as organized warfare itself.
The '''International Prize Court''' was an [[internatio |
m was characterized by [[energy]] and [[matter]] flows between its constituent elements. Others considered this vision limited, and preferred to understand an ecosystem in terms of [[cybernetics]]. From this view an ecological system is not a structured functional unit in equilibrium, but a functional organisation at ''dynamic equilibrium'', or what was also called ''steady state.'' The branch of ecology that gave rise to this view has become known as [[Systems Ecology]]. Steady state is understood as the phase of an ecological systems evolution when the [[organism]]s are "balanced" with each other and their environment. This balance is achieved through various types of interactions, such as [[predation]], [[parasite|parasitism]], [[mutualism]], [[commensalism]], [[Competition#Competition_in_Biology_and_Ecology|competition]], and [[amensalism]]. Introduction of new elements, whether abiotic or biotic, into an ecosystem tend to have a disruptive effect. In some cases, this can lead to ecological collapse and the death of many native species. The abstract notion of [[ecological health]] attempts to measure the robustness and recovery capacity for an ecosystem. That is, how far the ecosystem is away from steady state.
The size and scale of an ecosystem can vary widely. It may be a whole [[forest]], as well as a small [[pond]], or even the geobiosphere itself. Different ecosystems are often separated by [[geography|geographical]] barriers, like [[desert]]s, [[mountain]]s or [[ocean]]s, or are isolated otherwise, like [[lake]]s or [[river]]s. As these borders are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend into each other. As a result, the whole [[earth]] can be seen as a single ecosystem, or a lake can be divided into several ecosystems, depending on the scale used.
==History==
The term ecosystem first appeared in a 1935 publication by the British ecologist [[Arthur Tansley]] (Tansley, 1935). However, the term had been coined already in 1930 by Tansley's colleague [[Roy Clapham]], who was asked if he could think of a suitable word to denote the physical and biological components of an environment considered in relation to each other as a unit. Tansley expanded on the term in his later work, adding the [[ecotope]] concept to define the spatial context of ecosystems (Tansley, 1939). Modern usage of the term derives from the work of [[Raymond Lindeman]] in his classic study of a Minnesota lake (Lindeman, 1942). Lindeman's central concepts were that of ''functional organisation'' and ''ecological energy efficiency'' ratios. This approach is connected to [[ecological energetics]] and might also be thought of as environmental rationalism. It was subsequently applied by [[Howard T. Odum| H.T.Odum]], sometimes called the 'father' of ecosystems ecology, in founding the transdiscipline known as [[Systems Ecology]].
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Symbiosis]]
==See also==
*[[Pond ecosystem]]
*[[Aquatic ecosystem]]
*[[Biogeochemical cycle]]
*[[Biome]]
*[[Biosphere]]
*[[Biosphere 2]]
*[[Corporate Ecosystem]]
*[[Ecological yield]]
*[[Ecosystem ecology]]
*[[Ecotope]]
*[[Ecotourism]]
*[[Edge effect]]
*[[Eugene Odum]]
*[[Food chain]]
*[[Hypolith]]
*[[Invasive species]]
*[[Landscape ecology]]
*[[Media ecosystem]]
*[[Overfishing]]
*[[Trophic level]]
*[[Systems Ecology]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/ecosystems.htm Teaching about Ecosystems]
* [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx Millennium Ecosystem Assessment] (2005)
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/ecosystems/index.htm A popularized version of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment] by [[GreenFacts]].
* [http://www.beringclimate.noaa.gov Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem - current status]
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ Arctic Ecosystems and Climate: A Near Realtime Arctic Change website]
== References ==
*Lindeman, R. L. 1942. The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology. ''Ecology'' '''23''': 399-418.
*Patten, B.C. 1959. An Introduction to the Cybernetics of the Ecosystem: The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect. ''Ecology'' 40, no. 2.: 221-231.
*Tansley, A. G. 1935. The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms. ''Ecology'' '''16''': 284-307.
*Tansley, A.G. 1939. The British Islands and their Vegetation. Volume 1 of 2. University Press, Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 484 pg.
[[Category:Ecology|Ecosystem]]
[[Category:Sustainability|Ecosystem]]
[[ar:نظام بيئي]]
[[br:Ekosistem]]
[[ca:Ecosistema]]
[[cs:Ekosystém]]
[[cy:Ecosystem]]
[[da:Økosystem]]
[[de:Ökosystem]]
[[es:Ecosistema]]
[[eo:Ekosistemo]]
[[eu:Ekosistema]]
[[fr:Écosystème]]
[[gl:Ecosistema]]
[[ko:생태계]]
[[io:Biocirkumaro]]
[[it:Ecosistema]]
[[he:מערכת אקולוגית]]
[[lt:Ekosistema]]
[[nl:Ecosysteem]]
[[ja:生態系]]
[[no:Økosystem]]
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[[pt:Ecossistema]]
[[ro:Ecosistem]]
[[ru:Экосистема]]
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[[uk:Екосистема]]
[[zh:生态系统]]</text>
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<page>
<title>E (mathematical constant)</title>
<id>9633</id>
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<id>41757119</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:58:30Z</timestamp>
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<username>GrinBot</username>
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<comment>robot Modifying: he, it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:E-ruud.png|thumb|''e'' is the unique number, such that the derivative of ''e''<sup>''x''</sup> at ''x''=0 equals 1.]]
The [[mathematical constant]] '''''e''''' is the base of the [[natural logarithm]]. It is occasionally called '''Euler's number''' after the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[mathematician]] [[Leonhard Euler]], or '''Napier's constant''' in honor of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] mathematician [[John Napier]] who introduced [[logarithm]]s. It is one of the most important numbers in mathematics, alongside the additive and multiplicative identities [[0 (number)|0]] and [[1 (number)|1]], the [[imaginary unit]] ''i'', and [[pi|&pi;]], the circumference to diameter ratio for any circle. It has a number of equivalent definitions; some of them are given below. Its value to the 29th decimal digit is:
:''e'' ≈ 2.71828 18284 59045 23536 02874 7135
==History==
The first references to the constant were published in [[1618]] in the table of an appendix of a work on logarithms by John Napier. However, this did not contain the constant itself, but simply a list of natural logarithms calculated from the constant. It is assumed that the table was written by [[William Oughtred]]. The first indication of ''e'' as a constant was discovered by [[Jacob Bernoulli]], trying to find the value of the following expression.
: <math>\lim_{n\to\infty} \left(1+\frac{1}{n}\right)^n</math>
The first known use of the constant, represented by the letter b, was in correspondence from [[Gottfried Leibniz]] to [[Christiaan Huygens]] in [[1690]] and [[1691]]. Leonhard Euler started to use the letter e for the constant in [[1727]], and the first use of ''e'' in a publication was Euler's ''Mechanica'' ([[1736]]). While in the subsequent years some researchers used the letter c, e was more common and eventually became the standard.
The exact reasons for the use of the letter e are unknown, but it may be because it is the first letter of the word ''[[exponential]]''. Another possibility is that Euler used it because it was the first [[vowel]] after [[a]], which he was already using for another number, but his reason for using vowels is unknown. It is unlikely that Euler chose the letter because it is his first initial, since he was a very modest man, always trying to give proper credit to the work of others.{{rf|1|OConnor}}
==Definitions==
The three most common definitions of ''e'' are listed below.
# The [[limit (mathematics)|limit]]
#:<math>e = \lim_{n\to\infty} \left( 1 + \frac{1}{n} \right)^n</math>
#:
# The sum of the [[infinite series]]
#:<math>e = \sum_{n = 0}^\infty \frac{1}{n!} = \frac{1}{0!} + \frac{1}{1!} + \frac{1}{2!} + \frac{1}{3!} + \frac{1}{4!} + \cdots</math>
#::where ''n''! is the [[factorial]] of ''n''.
#:
# The unique [[real number]] ''x'' > 0 such that
#:<math>\int_{1}^{x} \frac{1}{t} \, dt = {1}</math>
#::(that is, the number ''x'' such that area under the [[hyperbola]] <math> f(t)=1/t </math> from 1 to ''x'' is equal to 1).
These different definitions can be [[characterizations of the exponential function|proven]] to be equivalent.
==Properties==
The [[exponential function]] ''e''<sup>''x''</sup> is important because it is the unique function (up to multiplication by a constant) which is its own [[derivative]], and therefore, its own [[antiderivative|primitive]]:
:<math>\frac{d}{dx}e^x=e^x</math> and
:<math>\int e^x\,dx=e^x + C</math>, where ''C'' is the [[arbitrary constant of integration]].
It is known that ''e'' is [[Irrational number|irrational]] ([[Proof that e is irrational|proof]]) and even more, [[Transcendental number|transcendental]] ([[Lindemann-Weierstrass theorem|proof]]). It was the first number to be proved transcendental without having been specifically constructed for this purpose (cf. [[Liouville number]]); the proof was given by [[Charles Hermite]] in [[1873]]. It is conjectured to be [[normal number|normal]]. It features in [[Euler's formula]], one of the most important identities in mathematics:
:<math>e^{ix} = \cos(x) + i\sin(x).\,\!</math>
The special case with ''x'' = &pi; is known as [[Euler's identity]]:
:<math>e^{i\pi}+1 =0 ,\,\!</math>
described by [[Richard Feynman]] as ''Euler's jewel'', connecting arguably the five most important numbers in math.
The following is an infinite [[simple continued fraction]] expansion of ''e'' (sequence [[OEIS:A005131|A005131]] in [[Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences|OEIS]]):
:<math>e = [1; 0, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 4, 1, 1, 6, 1, 1, 8, 1, \ldots,1, 2n, 1,\ld |
umbers, for example one kilobyte of memory could be used to store numbers up to about 2466 digits long.
A [[Boolean algebra|Boolean]] or [[Flag (computing)|Flag]] type is a type which can represent only two values: 0 and 1, usually identified with ''false'' and ''true'' respectively. <!-- Pascal has them the other way around --> This type can be stored in memory using a single bit, but is often given a full byte for convenience of addressing and speed of access.
A four-bit quantity is known as a ''[[nibble]]'' (when eating, being smaller than a ''bite'') or ''nybble'' (being a pun on the form of the word ''byte''). One nibble corresponds to one digit in [[hexadecimal]] and holds one digit or a sign code in binary-coded decimal.
== Pointers ==
A [[reference (computer science)|pointer]] is often, but not always, represented by an integer of specified width. This is often, but not always, the widest integer that the hardware supports directly. The value of this integer is the ''memory address'' of whatever the pointer points to.
== Bytes and octets ==
{{main|Byte}}
The term ''byte'' initially meant &#8216;the least addressable unit of memory&#8217;. In the past, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, and 9-bit bytes have all been used. There have also been computers that could address individual bits (&#8216;bit-addressed machine&#8217;), or that could only address 16- or 32-bit quantities (&#8216;word-addressed machine&#8217;). The term ''byte'' was usually not used at all in connection with bit- and word-addressed machines.
The term ''octet'' always refers to an 8-bit quantity. It is mostly used in the field of [[computer network]]ing, where computers with different byte widths might have to communicate.
In modern usage ''byte'' almost invariably means eight bits, since all other sizes have fallen into disuse; ''byte'' has thus come to be synonymous with ''octet''.
Bytes are used as the [[physical unit|unit]] of [[computer storage]] of all kinds. One might speak of a 50-byte text string, a 100 KB (kilobyte) file, a 128 MB (megabyte) [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] module, or a 30 GB (gigabyte) [[hard disk]]. The prefixes used for byte measurements are usually written the same as the [[SI prefix]]es used for other measurements, but they often have somewhat different values, powers of 1024 rather than 1000, as illustrated in the table below. See [[binary prefix]] for further discussion of this difference.
{| class="wikitable"
! Prefix
! Name
! [[SI]] Meaning
! Binary meaning
! Size difference
|-
| k or K
| kilo
| 10<sup>3</sup>&nbsp; &nbsp;= 1000
| 2<sup>10</sup> = 1024
| 2.40%
|-
| M
| mega
| 10<sup>6</sup>&nbsp; &nbsp;= 1000<sup>2</sup>
| 2<sup>20</sup> = 1024<sup>2</sup>
| 4.86%
|-
| G
| giga
| 10<sup>9</sup>&nbsp; &nbsp;= 1000<sup>3</sup>
| 2<sup>30</sup> = 1024<sup>3</sup>
| 7.37%
|-
| T
| tera
| 10<sup>12</sup> = 1000<sup>4</sup>
| 2<sup>40</sup> = 1024<sup>4</sup>
| 9.95%
|-
| P
| peta
| 10<sup>15</sup> = 1000<sup>5</sup>
| 2<sup>50</sup> = 1024<sup>5</sup>
| 12.59%
|}
== Words ==
{{main|Word (computer science)}}
The term ''word'' is used for a small group of bits which are handled simultaneously by processors of a particular [[computer architecture|architecture]]. The size of a word is thus CPU-specific. Many different word sizes have been used, including 6-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 18-, 24-, 32-, 36-, 39-, 48-, 60-, and 64-bit. Since it is architectural, the size of a ''word'' is usually set by the first CPU in a family, rather than the characteristics of a later compatible CPU. The meanings of terms derived from ''word'', such as ''longword'', ''doubleword'', ''quadword'', and ''halfword'', also vary with the CPU and OS.
[[As of 2004]], 32-bit word sizes are most common among general-purpose computers, with 64-bit machines used mostly for large installations. [[Embedded system|Embedded processors]] with 8- and 16-bit word size are still common. The [[36-bit word length]] was common in the early days of computers, but word sizes that are not a multiple of 8 have vanished along with non-8-bit bytes.
[[Category:Data types]]
[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]
[[de:Integer (Datentyp)]]
[[it:Numero intero (informatica)]]
[[ja:整数型]]
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[[pl:Liczby ca&#322;kowite (zapis komputerowy)]]
[[ru:&#1062;&#1077;&#1083;&#1099;&#1081; &#1090;&#1080;&#1087;]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Infectious disease</title>
<id>14795</id>
<revision>
<id>41618370</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:34:01Z</timestamp>
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<username>DabMachine</username>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Doctor]] to [[Physician]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[medicine]], '''infectious disease''' or '''communicable disease''' is [[disease]] caused by a [[biology|biological]] agent such as by a [[virus]], [[bacterium]] or [[parasite]]. This is contrasted to [[physics|physical]] causes, such as [[burn (injury)|burn]]s or [[chemistry|chemical]] ones such as through [[intoxication]].
== Basics ==
Infectious diseases are the invasion of a [[host (biology)|host]] organism by a foreign [[replicator]], generally microorganisms, often called ''microbes,'' that are invisible to the naked eye. Microbes that cause illness are also known as ''pathogens.'' The most common pathogens are various bacteria and viruses, though a number of other microorganisms, including some kinds of [[fungi]] and [[protozoa|protozoa,]] also cause disease. [[Prions]] are borderline, and [[meme]]s would not usually be considered in this scope. An infectious disease is termed ''contagious'' if it is easily transmitted from one person to another.
An organism that a microbe infects is known as the host for that microbe. In the human host, a microorganism causes disease by either disrupting a vital body process or stimulating the immune system to mount a defensive reaction. An immune response against a pathogen, which can include a high fever, inflammation, and other damaging symptoms, can be more devastating than the direct damage caused by the microbe.
=== Agents and vectors ===
Infectious disease requires an ''agent'' and a ''mode of transmission'' (or ''[[Vector_(biology)|vector]]''). A good example is [[malaria]], which is caused by Plasmodial [[parasite]]s, chiefly ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' but does not affect humans unless the vector, the [[Anopheles]] [[mosquito]], is around to introduce the parasite into the [[human]] bloodstream.
The vector does not have to be biological. Many infectious diseases are transmitted by droplets which enter the airway (e.g. [[common cold]] and [[tuberculosis]]).
==Mortality from infectious diseases==
The [[World Health Organization]] collects information on global deaths by [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems|International Classification of Disease (ICD) code categories]]. The following table lists the top infectious disease killers which caused more than 100,000 deaths in 2002 (estimated). 1993 data is also included for comparison.
{| cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 border=1
|
|
|2002
|
|''1993''
|
|-
|
|World population
| 6.2 billion
|
| 5.5 billion
|-
|
|Total deaths from all causes
| 57 million
| 100%
| 51 million
|-
| '''Rank'''
| '''Cause of death'''
| '''Number'''
| '''Percentage of total'''
| ''Number''
| ''1993 Rank''
|-
|
| I. Communicable diseases category
| 14.9 million
| 26.0%
|-
| 1
|
:[[Lower respiratory tract infection|Lower respiratory infection]]s
| 3.9 million
| 6.8%
| 4.1 million
| 1
|-
| 2
|
:[[HIV]]/[[AIDS]]
| 2.8 million
| 4.9%
| 0.7 million
| 7
|-
| 3
|
:[[Gastroenteritis|Diarrheal disease]]s
| 1.8 million
| 3.2%
| 3.0 million
| 2
|-
| 4
|
:[[Tuberculosis]] (TB)
| 1.6 million
| 2.7%
| 2.7 million
| 3
|-
| 5
|
:[[Malaria]]
| 1.3 million
| 2.2%
| 2.0 million
| 4
|-
| 6
|
:[[Measles]]
| 0.6 million
| 1.1%
| 1.1 million
| 5
|-
| 7
|
:[[Pertussis]]
| 0.30 million
| 0.5%
| 0.36 million
| 7
|-
| 8
|
:[[Tetanus]]
| 0.21 million
| 0.4%
| 0.15 million
| 12
|-
| 9
|
:[[Meningitis]]
| 0.17 million
| 0.3%
| 0.25 million
|8
|-
| 10
|
:[[Syphilis]]
| 0.16 million
| 0.3%
| 0.19 million
| 11
|-
| 11
|
:[[Hepatitis B]]
| 0.10 million
| 0.2%
| 0.93 million
| 6
|-
|
|
:[[Tropical disease]]s (6)
| 0.13 million
| 0.2%
| 0.53 million
| 9, 10, 16, 17, 18
|}
<!-- following is indented as a footnote for the table -->
:''(Note: The other categories of death are maternal and perinatal conditions (5.2%), nutritional deficiencies (0.9%), noncommunicable conditions (58.8%), and injuries (9.1%).)''
----
The top three single agent disease killers are [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]], [[tuberculosis|TB]], and [[malaria]]. Lower respiratory infections (which include various [[pneumonia]]s) and diarrheal diseases are caused by many different [[virus]]es, [[bacterium|bacteria]] or [[parasite]]s.
Childhood diseases include [[pertussis]], [[poliomyelitis]], [[diphtheria]], [[measles]], and [[tetanus]]. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths.
Tropical diseases include [[trypanosomiasis]], [[Chagas disease]]. [[schistosomiasis]], [[leishmaniasis]], [[filariasis|lymphatic filariasis]], and [[onchocerciasis]].
From 1993 to 2002, the death ranking for AIDS went up from 7th to 2nd and Hepatitis B went down from 6th to 11th. While the number of deaths has decreased in almost every disease, it has increased four-fold in [[AIDS]].
===Historic pandemics===
A [[pandemic]] (or global [[epidemic]]) is a disease that affects people over an extensive geographical a |
o be eaten. <!-- poor example .. who would boil each potato separately? and making a salad in general requires no cooking ... -->
The [[analysis of algorithms|analysis and study of algorithms]] is one discipline of [[computer science]], and is often practiced abstractly (without the use of a specific [[programming language]] or other implementation). In this sense, it resembles other mathematical disciplines in that the analysis focuses on the underlying principles of the algorithm, and not on any particular implementation. The pseudocode is simplest and abstract enough for such analysis.
== Classes ==
There are various ways to classify algorithms, each with its own merits.
=== Classification by implementation ===
One way to classify algorithms is by implementation means.
* '''Recursion''' or '''iteration''': A [[recursive algorithm]] is one that invokes (makes reference to) itself repeatedly until a certain condition matches, which is a method common to [[functional programming]]. Iterative algorithms use repetitive constructs like loops and sometimes additional data structures like stacks to solve the given problems. Some problems are naturally suited for one implementation to other. For example, [[towers of hanoi]] is well understood in recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or less complex) iterative version, and vice versa.
* '''Serial''' or '''parallel''': Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time. Those computers are sometimes called serial computers. An algorithm designed for such an environment is called a serial algorithm, as opposed to [[parallel algorithm]]s, which take advantage of computer architectures where several processors can work on a problem at the same time. Parallel algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems and pass them to many processors and put the results back together at one end. The resource consumption in parallel algorithms is both processor cycles on each processors and also the communication overhead between the processors. Sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their communication overhead is expensive. Recursive algorithms are generally parallelizable. Some problems have no parallel algorithms, and are called inherently serial problems. Those problems cannot be solved faster by employing more processors. Iterative [[numerical methods]], such as [[Newton's method]] or the [[three body problem]], are algorithms which are inherently serial.
* '''Deterministic''' or '''random''': Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decision at every step of the algorithm. Random algorithms as their name suggests explore the search space randomly until an acceptable solution is found. Various heuristic algorithms (see below) generally fall into the random category.
* '''Exact''' or '''approximate''': While many algorithms reach an exact solution, [[approximation algorithm]]s seek an approximation which is close to the true solution. Approximation may use either a deterministic or a random strategy. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems.
=== Classification by design paradigm ===
Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm. There is a certain number of paradigms, each different from the other. Furthermore, each of these categories will include many different types of algorithms. Some commonly found paradigms include:
* '''Divide and conquer'''. A [[divide and conquer algorithm]] repeatedly reduces an instance of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem (usually [[recursion|recursively]]), until the instances are small enough to solve easily. One such example of divide and conquer is merge sorting. Sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in conquer phase by merging them. A simpler variant of divide and conquer is called '''decrease and conquer algorithm''', that solves an identical subproblem and uses the solution of this subproblem to solve the bigger problem. Divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so conquer stage will be more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms. An example of decrease and conquer algorithm is [[binary search algorithm]].
* '''[[Dynamic programming]]'''. When a problem shows [[optimal substructure]], meaning the optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems, and [[overlapping subproblems]], meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, we can often solve the problem quickly using ''dynamic programming'', an approach that avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed. For example, the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted [[graph (mathematics)|graph]] can be found by using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming and [[memoization]] go together. The main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is, subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer, where as the overlap of subproblems occur in dynamic programming. The difference between the dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or memoization of recursive calls. Where subproblems are independent, there is no chance of repetition and memoization does not help, so dynamic programming is not a solution for all. By using memoization or maintaining a table of subproblems already solved, dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of many problems to polynomial complexity.
* '''The greedy method'''. A [[greedy algorithm]] is similar to a [[dynamic programming|dynamic programming algorithm]], but the difference is that solutions to the subproblems do not have to be known at each stage; instead a "greedy" choice can be made of what looks best for the moment. Difference between dynamic programming and greedy method is, it extends the solution with the best possible decision (not all feasible decisions) at a algorithmic stage based on the current local optimum and the best decision (not all possible decisions) made in previous stage. It is not exhaustive, and does not give accurate answer to many problems. But when it works, it will be the fastest method. The most popular greedy algorithm is finding the minimal spanning tree as given by [[kruskal's algorithm|Kruskal]].
* '''Linear programming'''. When solving a problem using [[linear programming]], the program is put into a number of linear [[inequality|inequalities]] and then an attempt is made to maximize (or minimize) the inputs. Many problems (such as the [[Maximum flow problem|maximum flow]] for directed [[graph (mathematics)|graphs]]) can be stated in a linear programming way, and then be solved by a 'generic' algorithm such as the [[simplex algorithm]]. A complex variant of linear programming is called integer programming, where the solution space is restricted to all integers.
* '''[[Reduction (complexity)|Reduction]]''': It is another powerful technique in solving many problems by transforming one problem into another problem. For example, one [[selection algorithm]] for finding the median in an unsorted list is first translating this problem into sorting problem and finding the middle element in sorted list. The goal of reduction algorithms is finding the simplest transformation such that complexity of reduction algorithm does not dominate the complexity of reduced algorithm. This technique is also called ''transform and conquer''.
* '''Search and enumeration'''. Many problems (such as playing [[chess]]) can be modeled as problems on [[graph theory|graphs]]. A [[graph exploration algorithm]] specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems. This category also includes the [[search algorithm]]s and [[backtracking]].
* '''The probabilistic and heuristic paradigm'''. Algorithms belonging to this class fit the definition of an algorithm more loosely.
# [[Probabilistic algorithm]]s are those that make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly); for some problems, it can in fact be proven that the fastest solutions must involve some [[randomness]].
# [[Genetic algorithm]]s attempt to find solutions to problems by mimicking biological [[evolution]]ary processes, with a cycle of random mutations yielding successive generations of "solutions". Thus, they emulate reproduction and "survival of the fittest". In [[genetic programming]], this approach is extended to algorithms, by regarding the algorithm itself as a "solution" to a problem. Also there are
# [[Heuristic (computer science)|Heuristic]] algorithms, whose general purpose is not to find an optimal solution, but an approximate solution where the time or resources to find a perfect solution are not practical. An example of this would be [[local search (optimization)|local search]], [[taboo search]], or [[simulated annealing]] algorithms, a class of heuristic probabilistic algorithms that vary the solution of a problem by a random amount. The name "simulated annealing" alludes to the metallurgic term meaning the heating and cooling of metal to achieve freedom from defects. The purpose of the random variance is to find close to globally optimal solutions rather than simply locally optimal ones, the idea being that the random element will be decreased as the algorithm settles down to a solution.
=== Classification by field of study ===
Every field of science has its own problems and needs efficient algorithms. Related problems in one field are often studied together. Some example classes are [[search algorithm]]s, [[sort algorithm]]s, [[merge algorithm]]s, [[numerical analysis|numerical algorithms]], [[graph theory|graph algorithms]], [[string a |
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