Datasets:
CrowdMind
/
enwik8

Dataset card Data Studio Files
xet
Community
text
stringlengths
1.83k
10k
anguage|Greek]] '''Ἀγησιλάος'''), king of [[Sparta]], of the [[Eurypontid]] family, was the son of [[Archidamus II]] and Eupolia, and younger step-brother of [[Agis II]], whom he succeeded about [[401 BC]]. Agis had, indeed, a son [[Leotychides]], but he was set aside as illegitimate, current rumour representing him as the son of [[Alcibiades]]. Agesilaus' success was largely due to [[Lysander]], who hoped to find in him a willing tool for the furtherance of his political designs; in this hope, however, Lysander was disappointed, and the increasing power of Agesilaus soon led to his downfall. In [[396 BC]] Agesilaus was sent to Asia with a force of 2000 Neodamodes (enfranchized Helots) and 6000 allies to secure the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] cities against a [[Persian Empire|Persian]] attack. On the eve of sailing from [[Aulis]] he attempted to offer a sacrifice, as [[Agamemnon]] had done before the [[Troy|Trojan]] expedition, but the [[Thebes, Greece|Thebans]] intervened to prevent it, an insult for which he never forgave them. On his arrival at [[Ephesus]] a three months' truce was concluded with [[Tissaphernes]], the [[satrap]] of [[Lydia]] and [[Caria]], but negotiations conducted during that time proved fruitless, and on its termination Agesilaus raided [[Phrygia]], where he easily won immense booty since [[Tissaphernes]] had concentrated his troops in Caria. After spending the winter in organizing a [[cavalry]] force, he made a successful incursion into [[Lydia]] in the spring of [[395 BC]]. [[Tithraustes]] was thereupon sent to replace Tissaphernes, who paid with his life for his continued failure. An armistice was concluded between Tithraustes and Agesilaus, who left the southern satrapy and again invaded [[Phrygia]], which he ravaged until the following spring. He then came to an agreement with the satrap [[Pharnabazus]] and once more turned southward. It was said that he was planning a campaign in the interior, or even an attack on [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] himself, when he was recalled to [[Greece]] owing to the war between Sparta and the combined forces of [[Athens]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], [[Argos]] and several minor states. A rapid march through [[Thrace]] and [[Macedon]]ia brought him to [[Thessaly]], where he repulsed the Thessalian cavalry who tried to impede him. Reinforced by [[Phocis|Phocian]] and [[Orchomenus|Orchomenian]] troops and a Spartan army, he met the confederate forces at [[Chaeronea]] in [[Boeotia]], and in a hotly contested battle was technically victorious, but the success was a barren one and he had to retire by way of [[Delphi]] to the [[Peloponnese]]. Shortly before this battle the Spartan [[navy]], of which he had received the supreme command, was totally defeated off [[Knidos|Cnidus]] by a powerful Persian fleet under [[Conon]] and [[Pharnabazus]]. Subsequently Agesilaus took a prominent part in the [[Corinthian War]], making several successful expeditions into Corinthian territory and capturing [[Lechaeum]] and [[Piraeus]]. The loss, however, of a mora, destroyed by [[Iphicrates]], neutralized these successes, and Agesilaus returned to Sparta. In [[389 BC]] he conducted a campaign in [[Acarnania]], but two years later the [[Peace of Antalcidas]], warmly supported by Agesilaus, put an end to hostilities. When war broke out afresh with Thebes the king twice invaded [[Boeotia]] ([[378 BC]], [[377 BC]]), and it was on his advice that [[Cleombrotus]] was ordered to march against Thebes in [[371 BC]]. Cleombrotus was defeated at Leuctra and the Spartan supremacy overthrown. In [[370 BC]] Agesilaus tried to restore Spartan prestige by an invasion of [[Mantinea]]n territory, and his prudence and heroism saved Sparta when her enemies, led by [[Epaminondas]], penetrated [[Laconia]] that same year, and again in [[362 BC]] when they all but succeeded in seizing the city by a rapid and unexpected march. The [[battle of Mantinea (362 BC)]], in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace: Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her supremacy. In order to gain money for prosecuting the war Agesilaus had supported the revolted [[satrap]]s, and in [[361 BC]] he went to [[Egypt]] at the head of a [[mercenary]] force to aid [[Tachos]] against Persia. He soon transferred his services to Tachos's cousin and rival [[Nectanebo II]], who, in return for his help, gave him a sum of over 200 talents. On his way home Agesilaus died at the age of 83, after a reign of some 41 years. Agesilaus was of small stature and unimpressive appearance, and was somewhat lame from birth. These facts were used as an argument against his succession, an [[oracle]] having warned Sparta against a &quot;lame reign.&quot; He was a successful leader in [[guerrilla warfare]], alert and quick, yet cautious--a man, moreover, whose personal bravery was unquestioned. As a statesman he won himself both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies, but of his patriotism there can be no doubt. He lived in the most frugal style alike at home and in the field, and though his campaigns were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content to enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as he had set forth. The worst trait in his character is his implacable hatred of Thebes, which led directly to the [[battle of Leuctra]] and Sparta's fall from her position of supremacy. According to [[Plutarch]], he was once asked whether he wanted a memorial erected in his honour. He replied, “If I have done any noble action, that is a sufficient memorial; if I have done nothing noble, all the statues in the world will not preserve my memory.” (In [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: Εἰ γὰρ τι καλὸν ἔργον πεποίηκα, τοῦτο μνημεῖον ἐστίν; εἰ δὲ μηδὲν, οὐδ' οἱ πάντες ἀνδριάντες.) His daughter [[Cynisca]] became the only woman in ancient history to win at the [[ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]]. Quote - Do not go after any man with nothing left to lose, for he will come back at you with the strength of 10 men. == External links == * Biography: [http://www.gottwein.de/Lat/nepos/ages01.php Cornelis Nepos (latin - german)] * [http://www.livius.org/ag-ai/agesilaus/agesilaus.htm Agesilaus] from [http://www.livius.org Livius.Org] {{Plutarch's lives}} [[Category:360 BC deaths]] [[Category:Pederastic lovers]] [[Category:Rulers of Sparta]] [[Category:Ancient Greek generals]] [[de:Agesilaos II.]] [[fr:Agésilas II]] [[he:אגסילאוס]] [[nl:Agesilaüs II]] [[no:Agesilaus II]] [[pl:Agesilaos II]] [[fi:Agesilaos]] [[zh:阿格西莱二世]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Agis</title> <id>1551</id> <revision> <id>18706747</id> <timestamp>2005-07-12T23:26:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BDAbramson</username> <id>196446</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agis''' may refer to: * [[Agis I]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King. * [[Agis II]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King. * [[Agis III]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King. * [[Agis IV]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King. [[Plutarch]] included a chapter on him in his [[Parallel Lives]]. *'''Agis'''---a [[Paionian]] king of the pre-Hellenistic era. *'''Agis'''---an ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] author. {{disambig}} [[nl:Agis]] [[pl:Agis]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Antonio Agliardi</title> <id>1552</id> <revision> <id>34400910</id> <timestamp>2006-01-08T20:27:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Drini</username> <id>195374</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] fixing redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Antonio Cardinal Agliardi''' ([[September 4]], [[1832]] &amp;ndash; [[May 1]], [[1915]]) was a [[Roman Catholic]] [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]], [[archbishop]], and papal diplomat. He was born at Cologno ([[province of Bergamo|Bergamo]]), [[Italy]]. He studied [[theology]] and [[canon law]], and after acting as parish priest in his native diocese for twelve years was sent by the [[pope]] to [[Canada]] as a [[bishop]]'s [[chaplain]]. On his return he was appointed secretary to the [[Congregation of the Propaganda]]. In [[1884]], he was created by [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] [[archbishop of Caesarea]] ''in partibus'' and sent to [[India]] as an [[Apostolic Delegate]] to report on the establishment of the [[hierarchy]] there. In [[1887]] he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the [[concordat]] arranged with [[Portugal]]. The same year he was appointed secretary to the Congregation ''super negotiis ecclesiae extraordinariis'', in [[1889]] became papal [[nuncio]] at [[Munich]] and in [[1892]] at [[Vienna]]. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical disputes by which [[Hungary]] was divided in [[1895]], he was made the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government and in [[1896]] was recalled. In the [[consistery]] of 1896 he was elevated to [[Cardinal Priest]] of ''[[Ss. Nereo ed Acheillo]]'''. In [[1899]] he was made [[Cardinal Bishop]] of [[Albano]]. In [[1903]], he was named vice-chancellor of the Catholic Church, and became the Chancellor of the [[Apostolic Chancery]] in the [[Secretariat of State (Vatican)|Secretariat of State]] in [[1908]]. He died in [[Rome]]. ==References== *{{1911}} *[http://catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bagliardi.html Catholic-Hierarchy.org] [[Category:1832 births|Agliardi]] [[Category:1915 deaths|Agliardi]] [[Category:Diplomats of the Holy See|Agliardi]] [[Category:Italian cardinals|Agliardi]] [[Category:Natives of Lombardy|Agliardi]] [[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops|Agliardi]] [[de:Antonio Agliardi]] [[no:Antonio Agliardi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Agnes of Meran</title> <id>1553</id> <revision>
onomic fiefdoms; tax revenues had collapsed. Still in deep depression by the mid-1990s, Russia's economy was hit further by the financial crash of [[1998]]. Nevertheless, reversion to a socialist command economy seemed almost impossible, meeting widespread relief in the West. Russia's economy has also recovered somewhat since [[1999]], thanks to the rapid rise of the world price of oil, by far Russia's largest export, but still remains far from Soviet-era output levels. After the 1998 financial crisis, Yeltsin was at the end of his political career. Just minutes before the first day of [[2000]], Yeltsin made a surprise announcement of his resignation, leaving the government in the hands of the little-known Prime Minister [[Vladimir Putin]], a former KGB official and head of the KGB's post-Soviet successor agency. In 2000, the new acting president easily defeated his opponents in the presidential election on [[March 26]], winning on the first ballot. In 2004 he was reelected with 71 percent of the vote and his allies won legislative elections, but with international and domestic observers citing flaws. International observers were even more alarmed by late [[2004]] moves to further tighten the presidency's control over parliament, civil society, and regional officeholders. ==Notes== &lt;small&gt; &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; For a discussion of the development of the class structure in Tsarist Russia see [[Theda Skocpol|Skocpol, Theda]]. ''[[States and Social Revolutions]]: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China''. Cambridge U Press, 1988.&lt;br&gt; &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; For an analysis of the reaction of the elites to the revolutionaries see Manning, Roberta. ''The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government''. Princeton University Press, 1982.&lt;br&gt; &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Peter Nolan, ''China's Rise, Russia's Fall''. Macmillan Press, 1995. pp. 17&amp;ndash;18.&lt;br&gt; &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; See Fairbanks, Jr., Charles H. 1999. &quot;The Feudalization of the State&quot;. ''Journal of Democracy'' 10(2):47&amp;ndash;53.&lt;br&gt; ==References== '''Pre-revolutionary Russia''' *Becker, Seymour. &quot;Nobility and Privilege in Late Imperial Russia&quot;, in ''American Historical Review'' 92:4 (October 1987) pp. 1006&amp;ndash;1007. *Russia : a country study / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress; edited by Glenn E. Curtis. Washington, DC : Federal Research Division, Library of Congress,1998. DK510.23 .R883 1998 *Hobsbawm, Eric. ''The Age of Revolution'', 1789&amp;ndash;1848 Vintage, 1996. *Manning, Roberta. ''The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government''. Princeton University Press, 1982. *Skocpol, Theda. ''States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China''. Cambridge U Press, 1988. '''Soviet era''' *Cohen, Stephen F. ''Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. *Fitzpatrick, Sheila. ''The Russian Revolution''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. *Goldman, Marshall I. &quot;Economic Problems in the Soviet Union&quot;, ''Current History'', 82, October 1983, 322&amp;ndash;25. *Paul R. Gregory and Robert C. Stuart, ''Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure'', Addison-Wesley,Seventh Edition, 2001/ *Lewin, Moshe. ''Russian Peasants and Soviet Power''. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968. *McCauley, Martin. ''The Soviet Union 1917&amp;ndash;1991''. 2d ed. London: Longman, 1993. *Remington, Thomas. ''Building Socialism in Bolshevik Russia''. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984. '''Post-Soviet era''' *Cohen, Stephen. ''Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post-Communist Russia''. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. *Fairbanks, Jr., Charles H. 1999. &quot;The Feudalization of the State.&quot; ''Journal of Democracy'' 10(2):47&amp;ndash;53. *Paul R. Gregory and Robert C. Stuart, ''Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure'', Addison-Wesley, Seventh Edition, 2001. *Medvedev, Roy. ''Post-Soviet Russia A Journey Through the Yeltsin Era'' {{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2004-08-09|RussianHistory1.ogg|RussianHistory2.ogg}} {{commonscat|Historical maps of Russia}} *[http://www.badley.info/history/Russia.country.year.index.html Russia chronology World History Database] ==See also== *[[Politics of Russia]] *[[Economy of Russia]] *[[Russian colonization of the Americas]] *[[History of the administrative division of Russia]] *[[List of famous Russians]] *[[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union]] *[[Military history of the Soviet Union]] *[[Timeline of Russian history]] [[Category:History of Europe|Russia]] [[Category:History of Russia| ]] [[ar:تاريخ روسيا]] [[de:Geschichte Russlands]] [[es:Historia de Rusia]] [[fr:Histoire de la Russie]] [[ko:러시아의 역사]] [[hr:Povijest Rusije]] [[it:Storia della Russia]] [[he:היסטוריה של רוסיה]] [[lt:Rusijos istorija]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Rusland]] [[ja:ロシアの歴史]] [[no:Russlands historie]] [[nn:Russisk historie]] [[pl:Historia Rosji]] [[pt:História da Rússia]] [[ru:История России]] [[sr:Историја Русије]] [[fi:Venäjän historia]] [[sv:Rysslands historia]] [[uk:Історія Росії]] [[zh:俄罗斯历史]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Christianity</title> <id>14117</id> <revision> <id>42119334</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:16:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Neddyseagoon</username> <id>883252</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Developing Christianity outside the Mediterranean world */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}} This article outlines the '''history of [[Christianity]]''' and provides links to relevant topics. == Roots of Christianity == To see Christianity's common roots and relationship with other world religions, see [[Christianity and world religions]]. === Jewish background === {{main articles|[[Christ]] and [[Messiah]]}} Christian beliefs state that the preincarnate Christ was involved in the Creation of all things ([[John]] 1:3, [[Colossians]] 1:16, [[Hebrews]] 1:2) and as Angel of Yahweh (see [[Genesis]] 16:7-14; Genesis 24:7; [[Exodus]] 14:19; [[2 Kings]] 19:35; [[1 Chronicles]] 21:1-27; [[Zechariah]] 1:12-13; [[1 Corinthians]] 10:4). The peoples, whose faith point to this Messiah, began with Adam and Eve (Genesis 3:15) and continued as the Jewish &quot;nation.&quot; Jesus and his first [[disciples|followers]] were [[Jew]]s and Jewish [[Proselytes]]. His teaching was based on the [[Hebrew Scriptures]], and he sometimes referred to other traditional writings of [[Judaism]]. Christianity continued to use the Jewish [[scriptures]] (the [[Tanakh]] became their [[Old Testament]]) and accept such fundamental [[doctrines]] of Judaism as [[monotheism]], (and thus, in turn, Judaism's sole deity [[God#Biblical definition of God|YHWH]]) and the belief in a moshiach ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] term usually rendered [[messiah]] in English, which is equivalent to the term, [[Christ]] &amp;mdash; ''Christos'' in [[Greek language|Greek]]). However, from the outset, according to the [[New Testament]], the teachings of Jesus were seen by the Jewish religious leaders as being incompatible with Judaism, which itself was very diverse during the time of [[Iudaea Province]]. In a New Testament account which is contested by many Jews as being non-historical, the temple priesthood and the [[Sanhedrin]] (the supreme religious and civic court of [[Jerusalem]], at that time) conspired to have Jesus put to death by the Roman authorities. He taught things about his identity and authority which they believed were incompatible with the [[Mosaic Law]], with the Jewish traditions of doctrine and of the worship of the God of Israel. &quot;This was why the Jews were seeking all the more to kill him, because not only was he breaking the [[Sabbath]], but he was even calling God his own Father, making himself equal with God.&quot; ([[Gospel of John|John]] 5:18 ([[ESV]])). Some testified that he sought to destroy [[Herod's Temple]]: &quot;Now the chief priests and the whole Council were seeking false testimony against Jesus that they might put him to death&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 26:59 (ESV)). From the time of his [[crucifixion]] forward, the Jewish leaders are said to have attempted to suppress those who followed his teaching. But, after his death and resurrection, according to the ''[[Acts of the Apostles]]'', the [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]] formed a community, a church distinct from other Jews and Greeks, into which they allowed uncircumcised [[Gentiles]] to enter by [[baptism]]. They began to be called [[Nazarenes]] and [[Christians]], while openly declaring Jesus to be the Christ. Christianity also continued many of the patterns found in Judaism at that time, such as adapting the [[liturgical]] form of worship of the [[synagogue]] to [[church]] [[parishes]]; [[prayer]]; use of sacred scriptures; a [[priesthood]]; a religious [[calendar]] in which certain events and/or beliefs are specifically commemorated on certain days each year; use of [[music]] in hymns and prayer; giving [[tithe]]s to the Church; and [[ascetic]] disciplines such as [[fasting]] and [[alms|almsgiving]]. Christians initially adopted the Greek translations of the Jewish scriptures, known as the [[Septuagint]], as their own [[Bible]], and later also [[biblical canon|canonized]] the books of the [[New Testament]]. === Life of Jesus of Nazareth === *[[Jesus]] *[[Historical Jesus]] *[[Sermon on the Mount]] *[[Apostle|Twelve Apostles]] *[[Pharisees]] *[[John the Baptist]] == Earliest emergence of Christianity == Debatably and Biblically speaking, Christianity began with the Messianic promise (Genesis 3:15) at the dawn of creation and therefore with Adam and Eve, the first people with faith in the Messiah (Christ) to come. It then follows the history of those peoples, mostly the Jewish &quot;nation,&quot; who kep
iet. With a very few exceptions, they also depends on long-chain fatty acids in their diet, especially 18-carbon chains. A lack of these fatty acids will affect ther development in a negative way, causing such things as longer time to mature and deformed adults. We can also find [[polyembryony]] in some insects. A single fertilized egg from polyembryonic parastic wasps can actually divide into literally thousands of separate embryos. [[image:insect.anartia.amathea.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[butterfly]] is the adult stage of an insect with complete metamorphosis. This species is ''[[Anartia amathea]]''.]] Most insects hatch from [[egg (biology)|eggs]], others are [[ovoviviparous]] or [[viviparous]], and all undergo a series of [[moult]]s as they develop and grow in size. This manner of growth is necessitated by the exoskeleton. Moulting is a process by which the individual escapes the confines of the exoskeleton in order to increase in size, then grows a new outer covering. In most types of insects, the young, called '''nymphs''', are basically similar in form to the adults (an example is the grasshopper), though wings are not developed until the adult stage. This is called ''incomplete [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]]''. ''Complete metamorphosis'' distinguishes the [[Endopterygota]], which includes many of the most successful insect groups. In these species, an egg hatches to produce a '''[[larva]]''', which is generally worm-like in form, and can be divided into five different forms; eruciform (caterpillar-like), scarabaeiform (grublike), campodeiform (elongated, flattened, and active), elateriform (wireworm-like) and vermiform (maggot-like). The larva grows and eventually becomes a '''[[pupa]]''', a stage sealed within a [[cocoon]] or [[chrysalis]] in some species. There are three types of pupae; obtect, exarate and coarctate. In the pupal stage, the insect undergoes considerable change in form to emerge as an adult, or '''[[imago]]'''. Butterflies are an example of an insect that undergoes complete metamorphosis. Some insects have even evolved [[hypermetamorphosis]]. Other development traits are [[haplodiploidy]], [[polymorphism]], [[paedomorphosis]] (metathetely and prothetely), [[sexual dimorphism]], [[parthenogenesis]] and more rarely [[hermaphroditism]]. ==Behavior== [[Image:Flies around 60 watt light globe.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Flies attracted to a light in summer]] Many insects possess very refined organs of [[sense|perception]]. In some cases, their senses can be more capable than humans. For example, bees can see in the [[ultraviolet]] spectrum, and male moths have a specialized sense of smell that enables them to detect the [[pheromone]]s of female moths over distances of many kilometers. Many insects also have a well-developed number sense, especially among the solitary wasps. The mother wasp lays her eggs in individual cells and provides each egg with a number of live caterpillars on which the young feed when hatched. Some species of wasp always provide five, others twelve, and others as high as twenty-four caterpillars per cell. The number of caterpillars is different among species, but it is always the same for each sex of eggs. The male solitary wasp in the genus ''Eumenus'' is smaller than the female, so the mother supplies him with only five caterpillars; the larger female receives ten caterpillars in her cell. She can in other words distinguish between both the numbers five and ten in the caterpillars she is providing and which cell contains a male or a female. [[Social insect]]s, such as the [[ant]] and the [[bee]], are the most familiar species of [[Eusociality|eusocial]] animal. They live together in large well-organized colonies that are so tightly integrated and genetically similar that the colonies are sometimes considered [[superorganism]]s. ==Roles in the environment and human society== [[Image:Aedes aegypti biting human.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Aedes aegypti]]'', a parasite, and vector of [[dengue]] and [[yellow fever]]]] Many insects are considered pests by humans. Insects commonly regarded as pests include those that are parasitic ([[mosquito]]es, [[lice]], [[bedbug]]s), transmit diseases ([[mosquito]]s, [[fly|flies]]), damage structures ([[termite]]s), or destroy agricultural goods ([[locust]]s, [[weevil]]s). Many [[entomologist]]s are involved in various forms of [[pest (animal)|pest]] control, often using [[insecticides]], but more and more relying on methods of [[biocontrol]]. Although pest insects attract the most attention, many insects are beneficial to the [[natural environment|environment]] and to [[human]]s. Some [[pollination|pollinate]] [[flowering plant]]s (for example [[wasp]]s, [[bee]]s, [[butterfly|butterflies]], [[ant]]s). Pollination is a trade between plants that need to reproduce, and pollinators that receive rewards of [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] and [[pollen]]. A serious environmental problem today is the [[pollinator decline|decline of populations of pollinator]] insects, and a number of species of insects are now cultured primarily for [[pollination management]] in order to have sufficient pollinators in the field, [[orchard]] or [[greenhouse]] at [[bloom]] time. Insects also produce useful substances such as [[honey]], [[wax]], [[lacquer]] and [[silk]]. [[Honeybee]]s, (pictured above) have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey, although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more significant for [[beekeeper]]s. The [[silkworm]] has greatly affected human history, as [[Silk Road|silk-driven trade]] established relationships between China and the rest of the world. [[Fly]] larvae ([[maggot]]s) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop [[gangrene]], as they would only consume dead flesh. This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals. Insect larvae of various kinds are also commonly used as fishing bait. In some parts of the world, insects are used for human food (&quot;[[Entomophagy]]&quot;), while being a [[taboo]] in other places. There are proponents of developing this use to provide a major source of [[protein]] in human [[nutrition]]. Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects already are present in many foods, especially grains. Most people do not realize that [[food laws]] in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit the quantity. According to [[cultural materialism|cultural materialist]] anthropologist [[Marvin Harris]], the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have protein sources that require less work, like farm birds or cattle. [[Image:A lubber grasshopper eats a piece of grass.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Lubber grasshopper]] Many insects, especially [[beetle]]s, are [[scavenger]]s, feeding on dead animals and fallen trees, [[recycling]] the biological materials into forms found useful by other [[organism]]s. The ancient [[Egyptian religion]] adored beetles and represented them as [[scarabeum]]s. Although mostly unnoticed by most humans, the most useful of all insects are [[insectivore]]s, those that feed on other insects. Many insects, such as [[grasshopper]]s, can potentially reproduce so quickly that they could literally bury the earth in a single season. However, there are hundreds of other insect species that feed on grasshopper eggs, and some that feed on grasshopper adults. This role in ecology is usually assumed to be primarily one of [[bird]]s, but insects, though less glamorous, are much more significant. For any pest insect one can name, there is a species of wasp that is either a [[parasitoid]] or [[predator]] upon that pest, and plays a significant role in controlling it. Human attempts to control pests by insecticides can backfire, because important but unrecognized insects already helping to control pest populations are also killed by the poison, leading eventually to population explosions of the pest species. ==Taxonomy== &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt; '''Subclass:''' [[Apterygota]] :'''Orders''' :* [[Archaeognatha]] (Bristletails) :* [[Thysanura]] (Silverfish) :* [[Monura]] - ''extinct'' '''Subclass:''' [[Pterygota]] :*'''Infraclass:''' &quot;[[Paleoptera]]&quot; (paraphyletic) ::'''Orders''' ::* [[Ephemeroptera]] (mayflies) ::* [[Palaeodictyoptera]] - ''extinct'' ::* [[Megasecoptera]] - ''extinct'' ::* [[Archodonata]] - ''extinct'' ::* [[Diaphanopterodea]] - ''extinct'' ::* [[Protodonata]] - ''extinct'' ::* [[Odonata]] ([[dragonfly|dragonflies]] and [[damselfly|damselflies]]) :*'''Infraclass:''' [[Neoptera]] ::* '''Superorder:''' [[Exopterygota]] :::'''Orders''' ::* [[Caloneurodea]] - ''extinct'' ::* [[Titanoptera]] - ''extinct'' ::* [[Protorthoptera]] - ''extinct'' :::'''Polyneoptera''' ::* [[Grylloblattodea]] (ice-crawlers) ::* [[Mantophasmatodea]] (gladiators) ::* [[Plecoptera]] (stoneflies) ::* [[Embioptera]] (webspinners) ::* [[Zoraptera]] (angel insects) ::* [[Dermaptera]] (earwigs) :::''' Orthopteroidea ''' ::* [[Orthoptera]] ([[grasshopper]]s, etc) ::* [[Phasmatodea]] (walking sticks) :::'''Dictyoptera''' ::* [[Blattodea]] (cockroaches) ::* [[Isoptera]] (termites) ::* [[Mantodea]] (mantids) :::'''Paraneoptera''' ::* [[Psocoptera]] (booklice, barklice) ::* [[Thysanoptera]] (thrips) ::* [[Phthiraptera]] ([[lice]]) ::* [[Hemiptera]] (true [[bug (disambiguation)|bug]]s) :* '''Superorder:''' [[Endopterygota]] ::'''Orders''' ::* [[Hymenoptera]] ([[ant]]s, [[bee]]s, etc.) ::* [[beetle|Coleoptera]] (beetles) ::* [[Strepsiptera]] (twisted-winged parasites) :::'''Neuropteroidea''' ::* [[Raphidioptera]] (snakeflies) ::* [[Megaloptera]] ([[alderfly|alderflies]], etc.) ::* [[Neuroptera]] (net-veined insects) :::'''Mecopteroidea''' ::* [[Mecoptera]] (scorpionflies, etc.) ::* [[Siphonaptera]] ([[flea]]s) ::* [[Diptera]] (true [[fly|flies]]) ::* [[Protodiptera]] ''extinct'' :::'''Amphiesmenoptera''' ::* [[Trichoptera]] ([[caddisfly|caddisflies]]) ::* [[Lepidoptera]] (
[[1991]] - [[Gulf War]]: Ground troops cross the [[Saudi Arabia]] border and enter [[Iraq]], thus starting the ground-phase of the war. * 1991 - In [[Thailand]], [[General}} [[Sunthorn Kongsompong]] leads a bloodless [[coup d'état]], deposing [[Prime Minister]] [[Chatichai Choonhavan]]. * [[1992]] - The [[Communist Party of Georgia|Socialist Labour Party]] is founded in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. * [[1993]] - [[Gary Coleman]] wins a $1,280,000 [[lawsuit]] against his parents. * [[1995]] - The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] gains 30.28 to close at 4,003.33, closing above 4,000 for the [[Closing milestones of the Dow Jones Industrial Average|first time]]. * [[1997]] - A large fire occurs in the [[Russia]]n [[Space station]], [[Mir]]. * [[1998]] - [[Tornado]]es in central [[Florida]] destroy or damage 2,600 structures and kill 42. * 1998 - [[Osama bin Laden]] publishes a [[fatwa]] declaring [[jihad]] against all [[Jew]]s and [[Crusaders]]. * 1998 - [[Netscape Communications Corporation]] announces the foundation of [[Mozilla Organization|mozilla.org]], to co-ordinate the development of the [[open source]] [[Mozilla]] [[web browser]]. * [[1999]] - [[Kurd]]ish rebel leader [[Abdullah Öcalan]] is charged with [[treason]] in [[Ankara]], [[Turkey]]. * 1999 - [[White supremacist]] [[John William King]] is found guilty of kidnapping and killing [[African American]] [[James Byrd Jr]] by dragging him behind a truck for two miles. * 1999 - An [[avalanche]] destroys the [[Austria|Austrian]] village of [[Galtür]], killing 31. * [[2005]] - [[Slovakia Summit 2005]] begins, marking the first occasion when a sitting [[President of the United States|American President]] visits [[Slovakia]]; [[George W. Bush|Bush]] and [[Vladimir Putin|Putin]] are in attendance. ==Births== *[[1417]] - [[Pope Paul II]] (d. [[1471]]) *[[1633]] - [[Samuel Pepys]], English diarist (d. [[1703]]) *[[1646]] - [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1709]]) *[[1648]] - [[Arabella Churchill (royal mistress)|Arabella Churchill]], English mistress of [[James II of England]] (d. [[1730]]) *[[1680]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville]], French colonizer and Governor of Louisiana (d. [[1767]]) *[[1685]] - [[George Friderich Handel|Georg Friederich Händel]], German composer (d. [[1759]]) *[[1688]] - Queen [[Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden]] (d. [[1741]]) *[[1723]] - [[Richard Price]], Welsh philosopher (d. [[1791]]) *[[1743]] - [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]], German-born banker (d. [[1812]]) *[[1840]] - [[Carl Menger]], Austrian economist (d. [[1921]]) *[[1868]] - [[W.E.B. DuBois]], American civil rights leader (d. [[1963]]) *[[1873]] - [[Liang Qichao]], Chinese scholar (d. [[1929]]) *[[1874]] - [[Konstantin Päts]], Estonian president (d. [[1956]]) *[[1878]] - [[Kazimir Malevich]], Ukrainian painter and art theorist (d. [[1935]]) *[[1883]] - [[Victor Fleming]], American director (d. [[1949]]) *1883 - [[Karl Jaspers]], German philosopher (d. [[1969]]) *[[1889]] - [[Musidora]], French actress and director (d. [[1957]]) *[[1899]] - [[Erich Kästner]], German writer (d. [[1974]]) *[[1904]] - [[William L. Shirer]], American historian (d. [[1993]]) *1904 - [[Leopold Trepper]], Soviet spy (d. [[1982]]) *[[1908]] - [[William McMahon]], twentieth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1988]]) *[[1914]] - [[Theofiel Middelkamp]], Dutch cyclist (d. [[2005]]) *[[1915]] - [[Jon Hall]], American actor (d. [[1979]]) *1915 - [[Paul Tibbets]], American pilot *[[1918]] - [[Richard G. Butler]], American fascist (d. [[2004]]) *[[1924]] - [[Allan McLeod Cormack]], South-African born physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1998]]) *[[1928]] - [[Vasili Lazarev]], cosmonaut (d. [[1990]]) *[[1932]] - [[Majel Barrett]], American actress *[[1937]] - [[Tom Osborne (football coach)|Tom Osborne]], American football coach and politician *[[1938]] - [[Diane Varsi]], American actress (d. [[1992]]) *[[1940]] - [[Peter Fonda]], American actor *[[1943]] - [[Fred Biletnikoff]], American football player and coach *[[1944]] - [[Johnny Winter]], American musician *[[1945]] - [[Allan Boesak]], South African activist *[[1951]] - [[Ed Jones (football player)|Ed Jones]], American football player *1951 - [[Patricia Richardson]], American actress *[[1952]] - [[Brad Whitford]], American musician ([[Aerosmith]]) *[[1954]] - [[Viktor Yushchenko]], [[President of Ukraine]] *[[1955]] - [[Howard Jones (musician)|Howard Jones]], British pop singer *[[1958]] - [[Tony Barrell (journalist)|Tony Barrell]], English writer and journalist *1958 - [[David Sylvian]], English musician *[[1959]] - [[Richard Dodds]], British field hockey player *[[1960]] - [[Alan Griffin]], [[Australia]]n politician and member for [[Division of Bruce|Bruce]] in the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] *[[1963]] - [[Bobby Bonilla]], former baseball player *[[1965]] - [[Kristin Davis]], American actress *1965 - [[Michael Dell]], American computer manufacturer *1965 - [[Helena Suková]], former [[Czech Republic|Czech]] tennis player *[[1973]] - [[André Tanneberger]], German DJ *[[1974]] - [[Jaime Villarreal]], Mexican musician *[[1977]] - [[Kristina Šmigun]], Estonian cross-country skier *[[1978]] - [[Dan Snyder]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[2003]]) *[[1981]] - [[Gareth Barry]], English footballer *[[1983]] - [[Ahmed Hossam|Mido]], Egyptian footballer *[[1994]] - [[Dakota Fanning]], American child actress &lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt; ==Deaths== *[[1100]] - [[Emperor Zhezong]] of China (b. [[1077]]) *[[1270]] - [[Saint Isabel of France]], daughter of [[Louis VIII of France]] (b. [[1225]]) *[[1447]] - [[Pope Eugenius IV]] (b. [[1383]]) *1447 - [[Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester]] (b. [[1390]]) *[[1464]] - [[Zhengtong]], Emperor of China (b. [[1427]]) *[[1526]] - [[Diego Colón]], Spanish Viceroy of the Indies *[[1554]] - [[Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk]], English poltician (executed) *[[1572]] - [[Pierre Certon]], French composer *[[1603]] - [[Andrea Cesalpino]], Italian philosopher, physician, and botanist (b. [[1519]]) *[[1669]] - [[Leo Aitzema]], Dutch historian and statesman (b. [[1600]]) *[[1704]] - [[Georg Muffat]], French composer (b. [[1653]]) *[[1730]] - [[Pope Benedict XIII]] (b. [[1649]]) *[[1766]] - [[Stanislaw Leszczynski]], [[King of Poland]] (b. [[1677]]) *[[1781]] - [[George Taylor]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence *[[1792]] - [[Joshua Reynolds]], English painter (b. [[1723]]) *[[1800]] - [[Joseph Warton]], English literary critic (b. [[1722]]) *[[1821]] - [[John Keats]], English poet (b. [[1795]]) *[[1848]] - [[John Quincy Adams]], 6th [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1767]]) *[[1855]] - [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (b. [[1777]]) *[[1897]] - [[Woldemar Bargiel]], German composer (b. [[1828]]) *[[1908]] - [[Johannes Friedrich August von Esmarch]], German surgeon (b. [[1823]]) *[[1922]] - [[Albert Victor Bäcklund]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1845]]) *[[1930]] - [[Horst Wessel]], Nazi ideologue and composer (b. [[1907]]) *[[1934]] - [[Edward Elgar]], English composer (b. [[1857]]) *[[1948]] - [[John Robert Gregg]], Irish-born publisher and inventor (b. [[1866]]) *[[1955]] - [[Paul Claudel]], French poet and playwright (b. [[1868]]). *[[1965]] - [[Stan Laurel]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1890]]) *[[1969]] - King [[Saud of Saudi Arabia]] (b. [[1902]]) *[[1973]] - [[Dickinson W. Richards]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1895]]) *[[1974]] - [[Harry Ruby]], American composer and writer (b. [[1895]]) *[[1979]] - [[W.A.C. Bennett]], Canadian politician (b. [[1900]]) *[[1990]] - [[José Napoleón Duarte]], [[President of El Salvador]] (b. [[1925]]) *[[1995]] - [[Melvin Franklin]], American singer ([[The Temptations]]) (b. [[1942]]) *1995 - [[James Herriot]], English writer (b. [[1916]]) *[[1997]] - [[Tony Williams]], American jazz drummer (b. [[1945]]) *[[2000]] - [[Ofra Haza]], Israeli singer (b. [[1957]]) *[[2000]] - [[Stanley Matthews]], English Footballer (b. [[1915]]) *[[2003]] - [[Robert K. Merton]], American sociologist (b. [[1910]]) *[[2004]] - [[Vijay Anand]], Indian film director (b. [[1934]]) *2004 - [[Carl Anderson (singer)|Carl Anderson]], American singer (b. [[1945]]) *2004 - [[Sikander Bakht]], Governor of Kerala (b. [[1918]]) *2004 - [[Don Cornell]], American singer (b. [[1919]]) *2004 - [[Carl Liscombe]], Canadian hockey player (b. [[1915]]) &lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt; ==Holidays and observances== * [[Roman Empire]] - [[Terminus (mythology)|Terminalia]] held in honor of [[Terminus (mythology)|Terminus]]. * [[Catholicism]] - Feast day of St [[Polycarp of Smyrna]]. * [[Guyana]] - [[Mashramani-Republic Day]]. * [[Russia]] - [[Day of Motherland's Defender]] (formerly [[Red Army|Red Army Day]] or [[Day of Soviet Army and Navy]]). * [[Brunei]] - [[National Day]]. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/23 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060223.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=23 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[February 22]] - [[February 24]] - [[January 23]] - [[March 23]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:23 Februarie]] [[ar:23 فبراير]] [[an:23 de frebero]] [[ast:23 de febreru]] [[bg:23 февруари]] [[be:23 лютага]] [[bs:23. februar]] [[ca:23 de febrer]] [[ceb:Pebrero 23]] [[cv:Нарăс, 23]] [[co:23 di frivaghju]] [[cs:23. únor]] [[cy:23 Chwefror]] [[da:23. februar]] [[de:23. Februar]] [[et:23. veebruar]] [[el:23 Φεβρουαρίου]] [[es:23 de febrero]] [[eo:23-a de februaro]] [[eu:Otsailaren 23]] [[fo:23. februar]] [[fr:23 février]] [[fy:23 febrewaris]] [[ga:23 Feabhra]] [[gl:
liberal-conservative block was of greater number. {{office-table}} |[[List of Danish monarchs|Queen]] |[[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]] | |[[14 January]] [[1972]] |- |[[Prime Minister of Denmark|Prime Minister]] |[[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] |[[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]] |[[27 November]] [[2001]] |- |Other Government party | |[[Det Konservative Folkeparti|Kons]] | |} See also the [[Cabinets of Denmark]] and the [[List of Prime Ministers of Denmark|List of Prime Ministers]] ==Parliament== Between [[1849]] and [[1953]], the [[Folketing]] was a house of a [[bicameral]] ''[[Rigsdag]]'', the other house being the ''[[Landsting (Denmark)|Landsting]]'', which was indirectly elected. However, the [[Constitution of Denmark|1953 Constitution]] established a [[unicameral]] ''Folketing'' of not more than 179 members, of whom two are elected from the [[Faroe Islands]] and two from [[Greenland]]. Elections are held at least every four years, but the prime minister can dissolve the ''Folketing'' at any time and call for new elections. ''Folketing'' members are elected by a complicated system of proportional representation; any party receiving at least 2% of the total national vote receives representation. The result is a multiplicity of parties (seven currently in parliament), the largest of which received 29% of the votes ([[as of 2005]]). Electorate participation lies normally above 85%. == Political conditions == Political life in Denmark is orderly and democratic. Political changes occur gradually through a process of consensus, and political methods and attitudes are generally moderate. The [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]], historically identified with a well-organized labor movement but today appealing more broadly to the middle class, has held power either alone in [[minority cabinet|minority cabinets]] or as dominant party in [[coalition cabinet|coalition cabinets]] for most of the postwar period. [[1982]] to [[1993]], and since the [[Danish parliamentary election, 2001|2001 election]] Denmark has been governed by [[Liberalism|liberal]]-[[conservative]] coalitions &amp;ndash; currently led by [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] as Prime Minister. The vulnerability implicit in a minority coalition has been evidenced in recent coalition failure to achieve consensus on issues such as extensive reforms on matters of labor market, taxation, and the [[Social welfare|welfare system]]. Consensus decision-making is the most prominent feature of Danish politics. It often allows the small centrist parties to play a larger role than their size suggests. Although the centrist Radikale party sometimes shows traces of its pacifist past, particularly on defense spending, most major legislation is passed by sizeable majorities. == Political parties and elections == {{elect|List of political parties in Denmark|Elections in Denmark}} Denmark elects a [[legislature]] on a national level. The '''[[Folketing|Danish Parliament]]''' (''Folketinget'') has 179 members elected for four year terms. 135 of them are elected by [[proportional representation]] in 17 [[constituency|constituencies]] and 40 others are allotted in proportion to the total vote of the parties. The [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Greenland]] directly elect 2 members each. {{Danish parliamentary election, 2005}} {{main|Danish parliamentary election, 2005}} == See also== *[[Constitution of Denmark]] [[Category:Politics of Denmark]] [[es:Política de Dinamarca]] [[pt:Política da Dinamarca]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DegreeConfluenceProject</title> <id>7918</id> <revision> <id>15905951</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Degree Confluence Project]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Doors</title> <id>7919</id> <revision> <id>15905952</id> <timestamp>2004-06-18T05:37:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sarge Baldy</username> <id>23320</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>changing redirect to the band</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[The Doors]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DravidianLanguages</title> <id>7920</id> <revision> <id>15905953</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dravidian languages]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Derivative</title> <id>7921</id> <revision> <id>41559768</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:45:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NongBot</username> <id>817745</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: ca</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[derivative (disambiguation)]].'' {{Calculus}} In [[mathematics]], the '''derivative''' is defined to be the ''instantaneous rate of change'' of a function. The derivative is one of the two central concepts of [[calculus]]. (The other is the [[integral]]; the two are related via the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]].) The simplest type of derivative is the derivative of a real-valued [[function (mathematics)|function]] of a single [[real number|real]] variable. It has several interpretations: * The derivative gives the [[slope]] of the [[tangent]] to the [[graph of a function|graph]] of the function at a point. In this way, derivatives can be used to determine many geometrical properties of the graph, such as [[concavity]] or [[convex|convexity]]. * The derivative provides a mathematical formulation of '''rate of change'''; it measures the rate at which the function's value [[change]]s as the function's [[parameter|argument]] changes. This derivative is the kind usually encountered in a first course on calculus, and historically was the first to be discovered. However, there are also many [[derivative (generalizations)|generalizations of the derivative]]. The remainder of this article discusses only the simplest case (real-valued functions of real numbers). ==Differentiation and differentiability== In physical terms, '''differentiation''' expresses the rate at which a quantity, ''y'', changes with respect to the change in another quantity, ''x'', on which it has a [[function (mathematics)|functional relationship]]. Using the symbol &amp;Delta; to refer to change in a quantity, this rate is defined as a [[limit of a function|limit]] of difference quotients :&lt;math&gt; \frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x} &lt;/math&gt; as &amp;Delta;''x'' approaches 0. In [[Leibniz_notation|Leibniz's notation for derivatives]], the derivative of ''y'' with respect to ''x'' is written :&lt;math&gt; \frac{dy}{dx} &lt;/math&gt; suggesting the ratio of two [[infinitesimal]] quantities. The above expression is pronounced in various ways such as &quot;''dy by dx''&quot; or &quot;''dy over dx''&quot;. The form &quot;''dy dx''&quot; is also used conversationally, although it may be confused with the notation for element of area. Modern mathematicians do not bother with &quot;dependent quantities&quot;, but simply state that differentiation is a mathematical [[operator|operation]] on functions. One precise way to define the derivative is as a limit: :&lt;math&gt;\lim_{h \to 0}\frac{f(x+h) - f(x)}{h}.&lt;/math&gt; A function is '''differentiable''' at a point ''x'' if the above limit exists (as a finite real number) at that point; a function is differentiable on an [[Interval (mathematics)|interval]] if it is differentiable at every point within the interval. As an alternative, the development of [[nonstandard analysis]] in the 20th century showed that Leibniz's original idea of the derivative as a ratio of infinitesimals can be made as rigorous as the formulation in terms of limits. If a function is not [[Continuous function|continuous]] at ''x'', then there is no tangent line and the function is therefore not differentiable at ''x''; however, even if a function is continuous at ''x'', it may not be differentiable there, as in the case of the function ''y''=|''x''|, which has a kink at ''x''=0. In other words, differentiability implies continuity, but not vice versa. One famous example of a function that is continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere is the [[Weierstrass function]]. The derivative of a differentiable function can itself be differentiable. The derivative of a derivative is called a '''second derivative'''. Similarly, the derivative of a second derivative is a '''third derivative''', and so on. ==Newton's difference quotient== The derivative of a function ''f'' at ''x'' is geometrically the slope of the tangent line to the graph of ''f'' at ''x''. Without the concept which we are about to define, it is impossible to directly find the slope of the [[tangent]] line to a given function, because we only know one point on the tangent line, namely (''x'', ''f''(''x'')). Instead, we will approximate the tangent line with multiple [[secant line]]s that have progressively shorter [[distance]]s between the two intersecting points. When we take the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of the slopes of the nearby secant lines in this progression, we will get the slope of the tangent line. The derivative is then defined by taking the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of the slope of [[Secant line|secant lines]] as they approach the [[tangent]] line. [[Image:Tangent-calculus.png|thumb|300px|Tangent line at (''x'', ''f''(''x''))]] [[Image:Secant-calculus.png|thumb|300px|Secant to curve ''y''= ''f''(''x'') determined by points (''x'', ''f''(''x'')) and (''x''+''h'', ''f''(''x''+''h'')).]] To find the slopes
most any creature smaller than themselves. Some lesser known members of the feline family include hybrids bred in captivity such as the [[liger]], and the [[tigon]]. The [[liger]] remains as the largest cat in the feline family, even surpassing the size of the [[tiger]] (it should be noted, however, that the tiger remains the largest feline found in nature). There are 37 known [[species]] of felines in the world today that all descended from a common ancestor c. 10.8 million years ago. This species originated in Asia and spread across continents by crossing [[land bridge]]s. As reported in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', testing of [[mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]] and [[nuclear DNA]] by Warren Johnson and Stephen O'Brien of the U.S. [[National Cancer Institute]] demonstrated that ancient cats evolved into eight main lineages that diverged in the course of at least 10 migrations (in both directions) from continent to continent via the [[Bering land bridge]] and [[Isthmus of Panama]]. The ''[[Panthera]]'' species are the oldest and the ''[[Felis]]'' species are the youngest. They estimated that 60% of the modern species of cats developed within the last million years. Prior to this discovery, biologists had been largely unable to establish a family tree of cats from the fossil record because the fossils of different cat species all look very much alike, differing primarily in size. The felines' closest relatives are thought to be the [[civet]]s, [[hyena]]s, and [[mongoose]]s. All feline species share a genetic anomaly that prevents them from tasting sweetness [http://genetics.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0010003]. ==Classification== *'''Subfamily Felinae''' **[[Genus]] ''[[Felis]]'' *** [[Wild Cat]], ''Felis silvestris'' **** [[Cat|Domestic Cat]], ''Felis silvestris catus'' *** [[Sand Cat]], ''Felis margarita'' *** [[Jungle Cat]], ''Felis chaus'' *** [[Black-footed Cat]], ''Felis nigripes'' *** [[Chinese Desert Cat]], ''Felis bieti'' **Genus ''[[Pallas Cat|Otocolobus]]'' *** [[Pallas Cat]], ''Otocolobus manul'' **Genus ''[[Catopuma]]'' *** [[Asiatic Golden Cat]], ''Catopuma temminckii'' *** [[Bay Cat]], ''Catopuma badia'' **Genus ''[[African Golden Cat|Profelis]]'' *** [[African Golden Cat]], ''Profelis aurata'' **Genus ''[[Prionailurus]]'' *** [[Leopard Cat]], ''Prionailurus bengalensis'' *** [[Fishing Cat]], ''Prionailurus viverrinus'' *** [[Flat-headed Cat]], ''Prionailurus planiceps'' *** [[Rusty-spotted Cat]], ''Prionailurus rubiginosus'' **Genus ''[[Lynx]]'' *** [[Eurasian Lynx]], ''Lynx lynx'' *** [[Spanish Lynx]], ''Lynx pardinus'' *** [[Canadian Lynx]], ''Lynx canadensis'' *** [[Bobcat]], ''Lynx rufus'' **Genus ''[[Caracal]]'' *** [[Caracal]], ''Caracal caracal'' **Genus ''[[Serval|Leptailurus]]'' *** [[Serval]], ''Leptailurus serval'' **Genus ''[[Jaguarundi|Herpailurus]]'' *** [[Jaguarundi]], ''Herpailurus yaguarondi'' **Genus ''[[Oncifelis]]'' *** [[Pampas Cat]], ''Oncifelis colocolo'' *** [[Geoffroy's Cat]], ''Oncifelis geoffroyi'' *** [[Kodkod]], ''Oncifelis guigna'' **Genus ''[[Andean Cat|Oreailurus]]'' *** [[Andean Cat]], ''Oreailurus jacobita'' **Genus ''[[Leopardus]]'' *** [[Ocelot]], ''Leopardus pardalis'' *** [[Margay]], ''Leopardus wiedii'' *** [[Little Spotted Cat]], ''Leopardus tigrinus'' **Genus ''[[Puma]]'' *** [[Puma]], ''Puma concolor'' *'''Subfamily Pantherinae''' **Genus ''[[Marbled Cat|Pardofelis]]'' *** [[Marbled Cat]], ''Pardofelis marmorata'' **Genus ''[[Clouded Leopard|Neofelis]]'' *** [[Clouded Leopard]], ''Neofelis nebulosa'' **Genus ''[[Snow Leopard|Uncia]]'' *** [[Snow Leopard]], ''Uncia uncia'' **Genus ''[[Panthera]]'' *** [[Lion]], ''Panthera leo'' *** [[Tiger]], ''Panthera tigris'' *** [[Leopard]], ''Panthera pardus'' *** [[Jaguar]], ''Panthera onca'' *'''Subfamily Acinonychinae''' **Genus ''[[Cheetah|Acinonyx]]'' *** [[Cheetah]], ''Acinonyx jubatus'' ==Alternative classification== Genetic research gives a very different classification for the cat family. Lineage 1: Panthera, Uncia, Neofelis &lt;br /&gt; Lineage 2: Lynx, Pardofelis &lt;br /&gt; Lineage 3: Puma, Herpailurus, Acinonyx (possibly), Catopuma (possibly)&lt;br /&gt; Lineage 4: Leptailurus, Caracal, Profelis &lt;br /&gt; Lineage 5: Leopardus, Oncifelis, Oreailurus &lt;br /&gt; Lineage 6: Felis, Otocolobus &lt;br /&gt; Lineage 7: Prionailurus &lt;br /&gt; ==Fossil felines== The oldest known felines (''[[Aelurogale]]'', ''[[Eofelis]]'') emerged in the [[Eocene]]. Better known is ''[[Proailurus]]'', which lived in the [[Oligocene]] and [[Miocene]] eras. During the Miocene it gave way to ''[[Pseudaelurus]]''. ''Pseudaelurus'' is believed to be the latest common ancestor of the three above-mentioned subfamilies and another subfamily, the ''[[Machairodontinae]]''. This group, better known as the sabertooth cats, became extinct in the Late [[Pleistocene]] era. It includes the genera ''[[Smilodon]]'', ''[[Machairodus]]'', ''[[Dinofelis]]'' and ''[[Homotherium]]''. ==References== *[http://nmnhgoph.si.edu/msw/ Mammal Species of The World] *[http://www.csew.com/felidtag/pages/Reports/taxon_legal.htm Taxonomic and Legal Status of the Felidae] *[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/htbin-post/Taxonomy/wgetorg?mode=Undef&amp;id=9681&amp;lvl=3&amp;keep=1&amp;srchmode=1&amp;unlock National Center for Biotechnology Information] *[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=180580 ITIS Report] *&quot;[http://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-sci-cats7jan07,1,3077938.story?coll=la-news-science Ancient Wanderlust Key to Cat Family Tree]&quot;, ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', January 7, 2006 *[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/01/0111_060111_cat_evolution.html Cats Climb New Family Tree] (National Geographic News - January 11, 2006) ==See also== * [[Phantom cat]] [[Category:Felines| ]] [[bg:Коткови]] [[ca:Felí]] [[cs:Kočkovití]] [[da:Kattefamilien]] [[de:Katzenartige]] [[et:Kaslased]] [[es:Felino]] [[eo:Felisedoj]] [[fr:Felidae]] [[gl:Felino]] [[ko:고양잇과]] [[id:Felidae]] [[it:Felidae]] [[he:חתוליים]] [[jv:Felidae]] [[la:Felidae]] [[lt:Katiniai]] [[lb:Kazen]] [[li:Katte]] [[nl:Katachtigen]] [[ja:ネコ科]] [[no:Kattefamilien]] [[nn:Kattedyr]] [[oc:Felidae]] [[pl:Kotowate]] [[pt:Felino]] [[ru:Кошачьи]] [[sk:Mačkovité]] [[fi:Kissaeläimet]] [[sv:Kattdjur]] [[vi:Họ Mèo]] [[wa:Tchetidî]] [[zh:猫科]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Folklore</title> <id>11303</id> <revision> <id>41803554</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:28:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>El C</username> <id>92203</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.147.151.48|24.147.151.48]] ([[User talk:24.147.151.48|talk]]) to last version by DabMachine</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Folklore''' is the body of [[verbal]] expressive [[culture]], including [[folktales|tales]], [[legend]]s, [[oral history]], [[proverb]]s, [[joke]]s, [[superstition|popular belief]]s current among a particular population, comprising the [[oral tradition]] of that culture, [[subculture]], or [[group]]. The academic and usually [[ethnology|ethnographic]] study of folklore is known as [[folkloristics]]. ==History== The concept of folklore developed as part of the [[19th century]] ideology of [[romantic nationalism]], leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological goals; only in the [[20th century]] did [[Ethnography|ethnographers]] begin to attempt to record folklore without overt political goals. The [[Brothers Grimm]], [[Wilhelm Grimm|Wilhelm]] and [[Jakob Grimm]], collected orally transmitted German tales and published the first series as ''Kinder- und Hausmärchen'' (&quot;Children's and Household Tales&quot;) in [[1812]]. The term was coined in [[1846]] by an Englishman, [[William Thoms]], who wanted to use an [[Anglo-Saxon]] term for what was then called &quot;popular antiquities.&quot; [[Johann Gottfried von Herder]] first advocated the deliberate recording and preservation of folklore to document the authentic spirit, tradition, and identity of the German people; the belief that there can be such authenticity is one of the tenets of the [[romantic nationalism]] which Herder developed. The definition most widely accepted by current scholars of the field is &quot;artistic communication in small groups,&quot; coined by [[Dan Ben-Amos]] a scholar at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], and the term, and the associated field of study, now include non-verbal art forms and customary practices. ==The study of folklore== While folklore can contain religious or mythic elements, it typically concerns itself with the mundane traditions of everyday life. Folklore frequently ties the practical and the esoteric into one narrative package. It has often been conflated with mythology, and vice versa, because it has been assumed that any figurative story that does not pertain to the dominant beliefs of the time is not of the same status as those dominant beliefs. Thus, [[Rome|Roman]] religion is called &quot;myth&quot; by [[Christianity|Christians]]. In that way, both myth and folklore have become catch-all terms for all figurative narratives which do not correspond with the dominant belief structure. Sometimes &quot;folklore&quot; is religious in nature, like the tales of the [[Wales|Welsh]] ''[[Mabinogion]]'' or those found in [[Iceland|Icelandic]] [[skaldic poetry]]. Many of the tales in the ''[[Golden Legend]]'' of [[Jacob de Voragine]] also embody folklore elements in a Christian context: examples of such [[Christian mythology]] are the themes woven round [[Saint George]] or [[Saint Christopher]]. In this case, the term &quot;folklore&quot; is being used in a pejorative sense. That is, while the tales of [[Odin]] the Wanderer have a religious value to the Norse who composed the stories, because it does not fit into a Christian configurat
of Arms of the Falkland Islands]] |- style=&quot;font-size: smaller;&quot; | style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Flag of the Falkland Islands|Flag]] | style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Coat of Arms of the Falkland Islands|Coat of Arms]] |} |- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | style=&quot;font-size:95%&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[List of state mottos|Motto]]: ''Desire the right'' |- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | style=&quot;font-size:95%&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[National anthem|Anthem]]: [[God Save the Queen]] |- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffffff;&quot; | [[Image:LocationFalklandIslands.png|Location of the Falkland Islands]] |- | '''[[Capital]]''' | [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]] |- | '''Status''' | [[British overseas territory|Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]] |- | '''[[Official language|Official&amp;nbsp;language(s)]]''' | [[English language|English]] |- |'''[[Governor of the Falkland Islands|Governor]]''' |[[Howard Pearce]] |- | '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water || [[List of countries by area|not ranked]]&lt;br /&gt; [[1 E10 m²|12,173 km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br /&gt; - |- | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2003 [[Estimation|E]])&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]] || [[List of countries by population|not ranked]]&lt;br /&gt; 2,967&lt;br /&gt; 0.24/km&amp;sup2; |- |'''[[Currency]]''' |[[Falkland pound]] (FKP; fixed to [[Pound Sterling|GBP]]) |- |'''[[Time zone]]''' |[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4 ([[Daylight Saving Time|DST]] -3) |- |'''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' |[[.fk]] |- |'''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]''' |500 |} The '''Falkland Islands''' are an [[archipelago]] in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]], 300 miles (483 km) from the coast of [[South America]]. They consist of two main islands, [[East Falkland]] and [[West Falkland]], and a number of smaller islands. The Falklands is an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]], on East Falkland, is the capital and largest city. The [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands|sovereignty of the Falkland Islands]] has been disputed since their discovery, with [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Argentina]] and the [[United Kingdom]] all claiming possession after establishing settlements on the islands. The French and Spanish claims have long been abandoned, but Argentina maintains a claim over the islands, which they call '''''Islas Malvinas''''', a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] translation of the earlier French name, ''Îles Malouines''. The sovereignty dispute was the source of the 1982 [[Falklands War]], in which the islands were invaded and briefly occupied by Argentina. The United Kingdom dispatched a task force to the Islands and, after a month-long war, the Argentine Forces surrendered and the islands returned to British control. The sovereignty of the islands remains disputed, but the majority of islanders themselves wish to remain British. ==History== {{main|History of the Falkland Islands}} The Falkland Islands were uninhabited when they were first discovered by [[Europe]]an explorers. Disputed evidence exists of prior settlement by humans based on the existence of the [[Falkland Island fox]], or Warrah on the islands. It is thought this fox was brought to the island by humans, although it may have reached the islands itself via a land bridge during the last [[ice age]]. The first European explorer widely credited with sighting the islands is [[Sebald de Weert]], a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] sailor, in 1600. Although several [[England|English]] and Spanish historians maintain their own explorers discovered the islands earlier, some older maps, particularly Dutch ones, used the name 'Sebald Islands', after de Weert. However, the islands appear on numerous Spanish and other maps beginning in the 1520s. In January of 1690 English sailor [[John Strong]], captain of the ''Welfare'', was heading for [[Puerto Deseado|Port Desire]] (in Argentina), but driven off course by contrary winds, he reached the Sebald Islands instead and landed at Bold Cove. He sailed between the two principal islands and called the passage &quot;Falkland Channel&quot; (now [[Falkland Sound]]), after [[Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland]] (1659-1694), who as [[Commissioner]] of the [[Admiralty]] had financed the expedition and who later became First Lord of the Admiralty. From this body of water the island group later took its collective English name. The [[French language|French]] name Îles Malouines was given to the islands by early 18th century French mariners from the [[Brittany|Breton]] port of [[Saint-Malo]], &quot;malouin&quot; being the adjective derived from &quot;Malo&quot;. The [[Spanish language|Spanish]] name Islas Malvinas is derived from the French name. The first settlement on the Falkland Islands was founded by [[France]] in 1764 on Berkeley Sound, at [[Port Louis, Falkland Islands|Port Louis]], [[East Falkland]]. Unaware of the French presence, in January, 1765 English captain [[John Byron]] explored and claimed [[Saunders Island]], at the western end of the group, where he named the harbour of [[Port Egmont]], and sailed near other islands, which he also claimed for king [[George III of Great Britain]]. A British settlement was built at Port Egmont in 1766. Also in 1766, Spain acquired the French colony, and after assuming effective control in 1767, placed the islands under a governor subordinate to [[Buenos Aires]]. Spain attacked Port Egmont, ending the British presence there in 1770, but Britain returned in 1771 and remained until 1774. Upon her withdrawal in 1774 Britain left behind a [[Commemorative plaque|plaque]] asserting her claims, but from then on Spain ruled unchallenged, maintaining a settlement until 1811. On leaving in 1811, Spain, too, left behind a plaque asserting her claims. Argentina declared [[independence]] in 1816 and laid claim to the Islands, which were then uninhabited. Actual occupation began in 1820 with the foundation of a settlement and a penal colony. The settlement was destroyed by the [[United States]] in 1831 during a dispute over [[fishing]] rights. Britain [[1833 invasion of the Falkland Islands|returned to the islands in 1833]], removed the remainder of the Argentine settlement, and began to populate the islands with its own citizens. [[Image:IMG 0685-port-stanley.jpg|thumb|275px|[[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]].]] The [[Royal Navy]] built a base at [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]], and the islands became a strategic point for navigation around [[Cape Horn]]. The [[World War I]] naval battle, the [[Battle of Falkland Islands]] took place in December 1914, with a British victory over the [[Germany|Germans]]. During [[World War II]], Stanley served as a Royal Navy station and serviced ships who took part in the [[Battle of the River Plate]]. Sovereignty over the islands became an issue again in the latter half of the 20th century. Argentina, which had never renounced its claim to the islands, used the newly formed [[United Nations]] as an avenue for pursuing its claims, and talks between the British and Argentine foreign missions took place in the 1960s. However the talks never came to any meaningful conclusion, and a major sticking point in any negotiations was the 2,000 inhabitants of mainly British descent who prefer that the islands remain British territory. On [[April 2]], [[1982]], Argentina [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands|invaded the Falkland Islands]] and other British territories in the South Atlantic ([[South Georgia]] and the [[South Sandwich Islands]]), encouraged in part by the United Kingdom's reduction in military capacity in the South Atlantic, and as a diversion from poor economic performance at home. World reaction to the invasion ranged from support in the [[Latin America]]n countries, to opposition in Europe, the Commonwealth, and eventually the United States. The British sent a large expeditionary force to retake the islands leading to the [[Falklands War]]. After a short but fierce naval and air war, the British landed at San Carlos Water on [[May 21]] and a land war followed until the Argentinean forces surrendered on [[June 14]]. Following the war, the British increased their military presence on the islands, constructing [[RAF Mount Pleasant]] and increasing the military garrison. Falkland Islanders were also granted full British citizenship. Although the UK and Argentina since resumed diplomatic relations in 1989, no further negotiations on sovereignty have taken place. ==Politics== {{main|Politics of the Falkland Islands}} [[Image:Howard Pearce.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Howard Pearce]], [[Governor of the Falkland Islands]].]] Executive authority comes from the Queen and is exercised by the [[Governor of the Falkland Islands|Governor]] on her behalf. The Governor is also responsible for the administration of [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], as these islands have no native inhabitants. Defence and Foreign Affairs are the responsibility of the United Kingdom. Under the [[constitution]], the latest version of which came into force in 1985, there is an [[Executive Council]] and a [[Legislative Council]]. The Executive Council, which advises the Governor, is also chaired by the Governor. It consists of the Chief Executive, Financial Secretary and three Legislative Councillors, who are elected by the other Legislative Councillors. The Legislative Council consists of the Chief Executive, Financial Secretary and the eight Legislative Councillors, of whom five are elected from Stanley and three from [[Camp (Falkland Islands)|Camp]], for four year terms. It is presided over by the Speaker, currently Geoffrey Lionel Blake. The loss of the war against Britain over control of t
eremonies and speeches. * [[Canada]] - Beginning of government's [[fiscal year]] * [[India]] - Start of [[financial year]]. * [[Brielle]] celebrates victory of [[1572]] over Spaniards. * In [[San Marino]], two [[Captains Regent]], elected by Parliament, take office for six months * Date that [[bobhouse]]s, used for ice-fishing, must be taken off frozen lakes in [[New Hampshire]]. * [[International Day of the Birds]] * In [[England and Wales]], local government reorganisations traditionally happen on April 1. * [[Pigasus Award]] announcement ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/1 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050401.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&amp;day=01 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[March 31]] - [[April 2]] - [[March 1]] - [[May 1]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:1 April]] [[ar:1 إبريل]] [[an:1 d'abril]] [[ast:1 d'abril]] [[bg:1 април]] [[be:1 красавіка]] [[bs:1. april]] [[ca:1 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 1]] [[cv:Ака, 1]] [[co:1 d'aprile]] [[cs:1. duben]] [[cy:1 Ebrill]] [[da:1. april]] [[de:1. April]] [[et:1. aprill]] [[el:1 Απριλίου]] [[es:1 de abril]] [[eo:1-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 1]] [[fo:1. apríl]] [[fr:1er avril]] [[fy:1 april]] [[ga:1 Aibreán]] [[gl:1 de abril]] [[ko:4월 1일]] [[hr:1. travnja]] [[io:1 di aprilo]] [[ilo:Abril 1]] [[id:1 April]] [[ia:1 de april]] [[ie:1 april]] [[is:1. apríl]] [[it:1 aprile]] [[he:1 באפריל]] [[jv:1 April]] [[ka:1 აპრილი]] [[csb:1 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:1'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 1]] [[lb:1. Abrëll]] [[li:1 april]] [[hu:Április 1]] [[mk:1 април]] [[ms:1 April]] [[nap:1 'e abbrile]] [[nl:1 april]] [[ja:4月1日]] [[no:1. april]] [[nn:1. april]] [[oc:1 d'abril]] [[pl:1 kwietnia]] [[pt:1 de Abril]] [[ro:1 aprilie]] [[ru:1 апреля]] [[sco:1 Aprile]] [[sq:1 Prill]] [[scn:1 di aprili]] [[simple:April 1]] [[sk:1. apríl]] [[sl:1. april]] [[sr:1. април]] [[fi:1. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:1 april]] [[tl:Abril 1]] [[tt:1. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 1]] [[th:1 เมษายน]] [[vi:1 tháng 4]] [[tr:1 Nisan]] [[uk:1 квітня]] [[ur:1 اپریل]] [[wa:1î d' avri]] [[war:Abril 1]] [[zh:4月1日]] [[pam:Abril 1]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Antisymmetric relation</title> <id>1176</id> <revision> <id>41074394</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:03:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wasseralm</username> <id>389528</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>de:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[binary relation]] ''R'' on a [[set]] ''X'' is '''antisymmetric''' if, for all ''a'' and ''b'' in ''X'', if ''a'' is related to ''b'' and ''b'' is related to ''a'', then ''a''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''b''. In [[mathematical notation]], this is: :&lt;math&gt;\forall a, b \in X,\ a R b \and b R a \; \Rightarrow \; a = b&lt;/math&gt; [[inequality|Inequalities]] are antisymmetric, since for different numbers ''a'' and ''b'' not both ''a &amp;le; b'' and ''a &amp;ge; b'' can be true. Note that 'antisymmetric' is not the logical negative of '[[symmetric relation|symmetric]]' (whereby ''aRb'' implies ''bRa''). (N.B.: Both are properties of relations expressed as universal statements about their members; their logical negations must be existential statements.) Thus, there are relations which are both symmetric and antisymmetric (e.g., [[equality (mathematics)|the equality relation]]) and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric (e.g., [[divisibility]] on the [[integer]]s). Antisymmetry is different from [[Asymmetric relation|asymmetry]]. According to one definition of '''asymmetric''', anything that fails to be symmetric is asymmetric; the definition of antisymmetry is more specific than this. Another definition of '''asymmetric''' makes asymmetry equivalent to antisymmetry plus [[reflexive relation|irreflexivity]]. ==Examples== * [[Equality (mathematics) |Equality]] * &quot;... is even, ... is odd&quot; ::::::[[Image:Evenandodd.PNG]] ==Properties containing antisymmetry== * [[Partial order]] - An antisymmetric relation that is also [[transitive relation|transitive]] and [[reflexive relation|reflexive]]. * [[Total_order|total order]] - An antisymmetric relation that is also [[transitive relation|transitive]] and [[total relation|total]]. ==See also== * [[Symmetry in mathematics]] * [[Symmetric relation]] [[Category:Set theory]] [[cs:Antisymetrická relace]] [[de:Antisymmetrie]] [[es:Relación antisimétrica]] [[he:אנטי סימטריות]] [[ko:반대칭관계]] [[pl:Relacja antysymetryczna]] [[sk:Antisymetrická relácia]] [[zh:反对称关系]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aleister Crowley</title> <id>1177</id> <revision> <id>42059129</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:53:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pacula</username> <id>111499</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Mountaineering */ minor rewording for clarity</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aleister Crowley.jpg|thumb|right|235px|Aleister Crowley]] '''Aleister Crowley''', born '''Edward Alexander Crowley''' ([[12 October]] [[1875]] – [[1 December]] [[1947]]) was an [[occult]]ist, [[mystic]], [[sexual revolution]]ary, and drug user (especially [[opium]]). Other interests and accomplishments were wide-ranging (he was a [[chess master]], [[mountain climber]], [[poet]], [[writer]], [[painter]], [[astrologer]] and social [[critic]]). He was quite notorious during his life, and was dubbed &quot;The Wickedest Man In the World&quot;; the term first appeared in [[1928]] in ''[[John Bull (disambiguation)|John Bull]]'', a [[tabloid]] pictorial of the day. ==Biography== Edward Alexander Crowley was born in [[Royal Leamington Spa]], [[Warwickshire]], [[England]], between 11:00pm and 12 midnight on [[12 October]] [[1875]]. His father, Edward Crowley, once maintained a lucrative family [[brewery]] business and was retired at the time of Aleister's birth. His mother, Emily Bertha Bishop, drew roots from a [[Devon]] and [[Somerset]] family. Aleister grew up in a staunch [[Plymouth Brethren]] household. His father, after retiring from his daily duties as a brewer, took up the practice of [[preaching]] at a fanatical pace. Daily Bible studies and private tutoring were mainstays in young Aleister's childhood; however, after his father's death, his mother's efforts at indoctrinating her son in the Christian faith only served to provoke Aleister's [[scepticism]]. As a child, young Aleister's constant rebellious behaviour displeased his devout mother to such an extent she would chastize him by calling him &quot;The Beast&quot; (from the Book of Revelation), an epithet that Crowley would later happily adopt for himself. He objected to the labelling of what he saw as life's most worthwhile and enjoyable activities as &quot;sinful&quot;. In response, Crowley created his own philosophical system, ''Scientific Illuminism'' — a synthesis of various Eastern [[mysticism|mystical]] systems (including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Tantra]], the predecessor to Western sex magick, [[Zoroastrianism]] and the many systems of Yoga) fused with the Western occult sciences of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] and the many reformed rituals of [[Freemasonry]] he later reformulated within the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (O.T.O). This system also appeals to scientific and philosophical [[scepticism]]. His undergraduate studies in [[chemistry]] at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] helped forge the [[scientific scepticism]] that later culminated in the many-volumed and unparalleled occult publication, ''[[The Equinox]].'' Following the death of his father, the young Aleister (then &quot;Alec&quot; or &quot;Alick&quot;) turned to a form of [[Satanism]] in grief. However, within a few years he abandoned this for [[atheism]] and [[hedonism]], or in his words, &quot;began to behave like a normal, healthy human being.&quot; During the year [[1897]], he slowly came to view earthly pursuits as useless and began his lifelong exploration of esoteric matters. A number of events contributed to this change. (The [[Aleister Crowley#Chess|section on chess]] in this article gives one example.) Involved as a young adult in the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], he first studied mysticism with and made enemies of [[William Butler Yeats]] and [[Arthur Edward Waite]]. Like many in occult circles of the time, Crowley voiced the view that Waite was a pretentious bore through searing critiques of Waite's writings and editorials of other authors' writings. His friend and former Golden Dawn associate [[Allan Bennett]] introduced him to the ideas of [[Buddhism]], while [[MacGregor Mathers|Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers]], acting leader of the Golden Dawn organization, acted as his early mentor in western magick but would later become his enemy. Several decades after Crowley's participation in the Golden Dawn, Mathers claimed copyright protection over a particular ritual and sued Crowley for infringement after Crowley's public display of the ritual. In a book of fiction entitled ''[[Moonchild]],'' Crowley portrayed Mathers as the primary villain, including him as a character named SRMD, using the abbreviation of Mathers' magical name. Arthur Edward Waite also appeared in ''Moonchild'' as a villain named Arthwaite, while Bennett appeared in ''Moonchild'' as the main character's wise mentor, Simon Iff. While he did not officially break with Mathers until [[1904]], Crowley lost faith in this teacher's abilities soon after the [[1900]] schism in the Golden Dawn (if not before). Later that year, Crowley travelled to Mexico and continued his magical studies in isolation. AC's writings suggest that he discovered the word ''[[Abracadabra|Abrahadabra]]'' during this time. (The article on this word explains the spelling.) In October of [[1901]
re seems to have been no special occasion for the writing of this letter, as already noted. Unlike his epistle to the Colossians, which was written to refute doctrines which had sprung up in that church, Paul's object in writing Ephesians was plainly not polemical. Ephesians could have been written to sum up Paul's teaching to the church in Ephesus, or even to several churches he had founded in Asia Minor. The major theme in the letter is the Church and, in particular, its foundation in Christ as part of the will of the Father. In the [[Epistle to the Romans]], Paul writes from the point of view of [[justification (theology)|justification]] by the imputed righteousness of Jesus; here he writes from the point of view specially of union with Christ, who is the head of the true church. ==Relation between this epistle and that to the Colossians== The style and subject matter of this epistle is very close to that of the epistle to the Colossians. There are about 42 passages in Ephesians which appear to be expansions from the epistle to Colossae. Some of these parallel passages are given below: * Eph 1:7; Col 1:14 * Eph 1:10; Col 1:20 * Eph 3:2; Col 1:25 * Eph 5:19; Col 3:16 * Eph 6:22; Col 4:8 * Eph 1:19&amp;ndash;2:5; Col 2:12,13 * Eph 4:2&amp;ndash;4; Col 3:12&amp;ndash;15 * Eph 4:16; Col 2:19 * Eph 4:32; Col 3:13 * Eph 4:22&amp;ndash;24; Col 3:9,10 * Eph 5:6&amp;ndash;8; Col 3:6&amp;ndash;8 * Eph 5:15,16; Col 4:5 * Eph 6:19,20; Col 4:3,4 * Eph 5:22&amp;ndash;6:9; Col 3:18&amp;ndash;4:1 Two explanations for this are commonly given: # If we accept that Ephesians was written by Paul at about the same time as he wrote Colossians, then he may have written Colossians first as a more specific letter to deal with particular problems in the Colossian church. He then may have expanded on some of the material in this letter in order to write a more general letter to either the Ephesian church or to a group of churches. # If the letter were written by someone else in Paul's name or style, then that person may have used material from Paul's letter to the Colossians. ==Style== &quot;The letters of the apostle are the fervent outburst of pastoral zeal and attachment, written without reserve and in unaffected simplicity; sentiments come warm from the heart, without the shaping out, pruning, and punctilious arrangement of a formal discourse. There is such a fresh and familiar transcription of feeling, so frequent an introduction of colloquial idiom, and so much of conversational frankness and vivacity, that the reader associates the image of the writer with every paragraph, and the ear seems to catch and recognize the very tones of living address.&quot; &quot;Is it then any matter of amazement that one letter should resemble another, or that two written about the same time should have so much in common and so much that is peculiar? The style of this [[epistle]] is exceedingly animated, and corresponds with the state of the apostle's mind at the time of writing. Overjoyed with the account which their messenger had brought him of their [[faith]] and [[holiness]] (Eph 1:15), and transported with the consideration of the unsearchable wisdom of God displayed in the work of man's redemption, and of his astonishing love towards the [[Gentiles]] in making them partakers through faith of all the benefits of Christ's death, he soars high in his sentiments on those subjects, and gives his thoughts utterance in sublime and copious expression. {{eastons}} ==External links== Online translations of the [[Epistle to the Ephesians]]: * {{biblegateway||Ephesians}} * [http://www.christnotes.org/bible.php?q=Ephesians+1 ''Ephesians'' at Christ Notes] (various versions) &lt;center&gt; &lt;br&gt; {| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot; |colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible''' |- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot; |Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;[[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] |'''[[Epistles]]''' |Followed by:&lt;br&gt;[[Epistle to the Philippians|Philippians]] |} &lt;/center&gt; [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:New Testament books|Ephesians]] [[de:Brief des Paulus an die Epheser]] [[es:Epístola a los Efesios]] [[fr:Épître aux Éphésiens]] [[ko:에페소인들에게 보낸 편지]] [[id:Surat Paulus kepada Jemaat di Efesus]] [[jv:Layang Paulus Efesus]] [[nl:Brief van Paulus aan de Efeziërs]] [[pl:List do Efezjan]] [[pt:Epístola aos Efésios]] [[fi:Kirje efesolaisille]] [[sv:Efesierbrevet]] [[zh:以弗所書]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European</title> <id>9870</id> <revision> <id>15907731</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Europe]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electrical bus</title> <id>9872</id> <revision> <id>35493797</id> <timestamp>2006-01-17T03:34:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Giftlite</username> <id>37986</id> </contributor> <comment>wikify</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''electrical bus''' (sometimes spelled ''buss'') is a physical electrical interface where many devices share the same electric connection. This allows signals to be transferred between devices (allowing [[information]] or [[Electric power|power]] to be shared). A bus often takes the form of an array of wires that terminate at a [[connector]] which allows a device to be plugged onto the bus. * Buses are used for connecting components of a [[computer]]: a common example is the [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus in [[personal computer|PC]]s. See [[computer bus]]. * Buses are used for communicating between computers (often [[microprocessor]]s). See [[computer bus]]. * Buses are used for distribution of electrical power to components of a system. The (usually) thick conductors used are called [[busbar]]s. In an electrical laboratory, for example, a bare bus-bar will sometimes line the wall, to be used by the engineers and technicians for its high electrical current carrying capacity, which allows a convenient approximation to ''zero voltage'', or ''[[Ground (electricity)|ground]]'' in the [[United States|US]], and ''[[Ground (electricity)|earth]]'' in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. * In analysis of an electric power network a &quot;bus&quot; is any node of the [[One-line diagram|single-line diagram]] at which [[voltage]], [[Current (electricity)|current]], power flow, or other quantities are to be evaluated. These may or may not correspond with heavy electrical conductors at a [[Electrical substation|substation]]. See also [[distributed generation]], [[Switched-mode power supply|Switched-mode power supply; SMPS]]. [[Category:Electrical components]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Esperanto language</title> <id>9873</id> <revision> <id>15907733</id> <timestamp>2004-04-11T07:08:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brion VIBBER</username> <id>51</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to &quot;Esperanto&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Esperanto]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Exploit (computer security)</title> <id>9875</id> <revision> <id>41539568</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:55:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>131.151.145.30</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer security]], an '''exploit''' is a piece of [[software]] that takes advantage of a [[software bug|bug]], [[glitch]] or [[vulnerability (computer science)|vulnerability]], leading to [[privilege escalation]] or [[denial of service]] on a computer system. There are several methods of classifying exploits. The most common is by how the exploit contacts the vulnerable software. A 'remote exploit' works over a network and exploits the security vulnerability without any prior access to the vulnerable system. A 'local exploit' requires prior access to the vulnerable system and usually increases the privileges of the person running the exploit past those granted by the [[system administrator]]. Exploits against client applications also exist, usually consisting of modified servers that send an exploit if accessed with client application. Exploits against client applications may also require some interaction with the user and thus may be used in combination with [[social engineering (computer security)|social engineering]] methods. Exploits can also be classified by the type of vulnerability they attack. See [[buffer overflow]], [[integer overflow]], [[format string attacks]], [[race condition]], [[cross-site scripting]], [[cross-site request forgery]], [[return-to-libc attack]], [[code injection]] and [[SQL injection]] bugs. Another classification is by the action against vulnerable system: unauthorised data access, code execution, [[denial of service]]. Many exploits are designed to provide [[superuser]]-level access to a computer system. However, it is also possible to use several exploits, first to gain low-level access, then to escalate privileges repeatedly until one reaches root. Normally a single exploit can only take advantage of a specific software vulnerability. Often, when an exploit is published, the vulnerability is fixed through a [[patch (computing)|patch]] and the exploit becomes obsolete for newer versions of the software. This is the reason why some [[Black hat|blackhat hackers]] do not publish their exploits but keep them private to themselves or other malicious crackers. Such exploits are referred to as '[[zero day]] exploits' and to obtain access to such exploits is the primary desire of unskilled malicious attackers, often nicknamed [[script kiddie]]s
t; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,056,160&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,212,431&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,867,926&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,271,661&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,358,887&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;British Isles&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,147,733&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,172,723&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,573,534&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,783,082&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,122,911&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,772,169&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,626,241&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,199,079&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,340,812&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;United Kingdom&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,402,923&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Great Britain&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,224,091&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,135,489&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,221,283&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,167,623&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,251,402&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;917,598&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;770,414&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;587,775&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;379,093&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;England&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;809,563&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;813,853&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;877,719&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;840,513&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;908,141&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;662,676&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;550,924&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;431,692&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;278,675&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Scotland&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;354,323&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;254,570&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;261,076&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;233,524&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;242,231&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;170,136&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;140,835&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;108,518&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;70,550&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Wales&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;60,205&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;67,066&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;82,488&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;93,586&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;100,079&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;83,302&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;74,533&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;45,763&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;29,868&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Great Britain n.e.c.&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;951&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,484&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,122&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,802&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern Ireland&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;178,832&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Ireland&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;744,810&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,037,234&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,352,2
as a standalone sentence. This also allows the double contraction &quot;'tisn't&quot;, for &quot;it is not&quot;. The word &quot;ye&quot;, &quot;yis&quot; or &quot;yous&quot;, otherwise archaic, is still used in place of &quot;you&quot; for the second-person plural. &quot;Ye'r&quot; &quot;Yisser&quot; or &quot;Yousser&quot; are the possessive forms, e.g. &quot;What's yisser weather like over in France this time o' the year?&quot; The verb &quot;mitch&quot; is common in Ireland, indicating being truant from school. This word appears in [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], but is seldom heard these days in [[British English]], although pockets of usage persist in some areas (notably South [[Wales]], [[Devon]], and [[Cornwall]]). In some parts of Ireland, in particular the eastern seaboard, when someone is telling tall tales he is said to be &quot;blowing&quot; or &quot;bilowen&quot; out of him/her, which is likely to be a preservation of the [[Middle English]] &quot;bilowen&quot; or &quot;bi-lyen&quot;, as seen in [[Piers Plowman]] (by [[William Langland]] ): &quot;2.22 - And bilowen hire to lordes þat lawes han to kepe.&quot; &quot;Gassin&quot; is a common descriptor in rural areas for a child, and derives from the word &quot;garcon&quot; (meaning &quot;boy&quot;) as used by 12th century [[Norman]] settlers. For influence from [[Scotland]] see [[Ulster Scots language|Ulster Scots]]. ==Turns of phrase== '''Amn't''' is used as an abbreviation of &quot;am not&quot;, by analogy with &quot;isn't&quot; and &quot;aren't&quot;. This can be used as a tag question (&quot;I'm making a mistake, amn't I?&quot;), or as an alternative to &quot;I'm not&quot; (&quot;I amn't joking&quot;), and the double negative is also used (&quot;I'm not late, amn't I not?&quot;). '''Arra''' is used also. Arra tends to be used after something bad has happened, when someone is looking on the bright side (&quot;Arra, we'll go next week&quot;, &quot;Arra, 'tis not the end of the world&quot;). &lt;!--- Is &quot;arra&quot; based on &quot;alright&quot;/&quot;all right&quot;? Or is it just a nondescript groany interjectiony sort of word, like &quot;ohhhhh&quot; or &quot;urrrrgghhh&quot; or &quot;ahhhh&quot; or &quot;owwww&quot;? I hope someone will fill in the etymology of &quot;arra&quot; here. ---&gt; '''Come here to me now''' or '''Come here and I'll tell ya something''' is used to mean &quot;Listen to this&quot; or &quot;I have something to tell you&quot; and can be used as &quot;Come here and tell me&quot;. The phrase &quot;Tell me this&quot;, short for &quot;Tell me this and tell me no more&quot;, is also common. These phrases tend to imply a secretiveness or revelatory importance to the upcoming bit of information. '''The devil''' is used in Irish as an expletive, eg. ''Cén áit sa diabhal a bhfuil sé?'' &quot;Where the devil is he?&quot; (the Irish version is literally &quot;What place in the devil is he?&quot;). This has been translated into Irish as a mild expletive, used in the song &quot;Whiskey in the Jar&quot; in the line &quot;But the devil take the women, for they never can be easy&quot;. ''Diabhal'' is also used for negation in Irish, and this usage might be carried over to Hiberno-English: ''diabhal fear'' &quot;devil a man&quot;, for &quot;not a soul&quot;. Various '''insults''' have been transferred directly from Irish and have a very mild meaning in English: e.g. ''Lúdramán'', ''Amadán'', ''pleidhce'', ''rogue'', ''eejit'' (''idiot''), all (loosely) meaning &quot;fool&quot; or &quot;messer&quot; (''messer'' is also a Hiberno-Irish turn of phrase). &quot;Langer&quot; is a variant used especially in Cork. Also more prevalent in [[Cork]] is a profligation of colourful emphasis-words; in general any turn of phrase associated with a superlative action is used to mean ''very'', and are often calculated to express these in a negative light and therefore often unpleasant by implication - &quot;he's a howling/ thundering/ rampaging/ galloping/ screeching langer, so he is.&quot; The practice is widespread in the rest of Hiberno-English but such a feature of Corkonian speech that it is now commonly lampooned when imitating the accent. '''[[Reduplication]]''' is not an especially common feature of Irish; nevertheless in rendering Irish phrases into English it is occasionally used: * ''ar bith'' corresponds to English ''at all'', so the stronger ''ar chor ar bith'' gives rise to the form '''at all at all''' **''I've no money at all at all.'' * ''ar eagla go...'' (lit. ''on fear that'') means ''in case ...''. The variant ''ar eagla na heagla'', (lit ''on fear of fear'') implies the circumstances are more unlikely. The corresponding Hiberno-English phrases are ''to be sure'' and '''to be sure to be sure'''. In this context, these are not, as might be thought, disjuncts meaning 'certainly'; they could better be translated ''in case'' and ''just in case''. Nowadays normally spoken with conscious levity. ** ''I brought some cash in case I saw a bargain, and my credit card 'to be sure to be sure'.'' '''So''' is often used for emphasis (&quot;I can speak Irish, so I can&quot;), or it may be tacked on to the end of a sentence to indicate agreement (&quot;Bye so&quot;, &quot;Let's go so&quot;, &quot;That's fine so&quot;, &quot;We'll do that so&quot;). The word is also used to contradict a negative statement (&quot;You're not pushing hard enough&quot; - &quot;I am so!&quot;). '''Sure''' is often used as a tag word, emphasising the obviousness of the statement. Can be used as &quot;to be sure&quot;, the famous Irish stereotype phrase. Or &quot;Sure, I can just go on Wednesday&quot;, &quot;I will not, to be sure.&quot; &quot;Sure Jayzus&quot; is often used as a very mild expletive to express dismay. Casual conversation in many parts of Ireland includes a variety of colourful turns of phrase. Some examples: *'''Yer man''' (your man) and '''Yer wan''' (your one) are used in referring to an individual known by the party being addressed, but not being referred to by name. The phrases are an unusual sort of half-translation of a parallel Irish-language phrase, &quot;mo dhuine&quot; (literally 'my person'). The nearest equivalents in colloquial English usage would be &quot;whatsisname&quot; and &quot;whatsername&quot;. Note also &quot;wan&quot; for female person may be a direct usage of the Irish 'bean' (woman). In Newfoundland the same form exists as 'buddy,' who is a generic nameless person. They use the word not always in the sense of 'my friend' but more in the sense of 'what's his name'. 'I went inside to ask for directions and buddy said to go left at the lights'. *'''a soft day''' &amp;ndash; referring to a rainy day with that particular soft drizzle, and an overcast sky, but yet relatively bright. This is a translation of the Irish &quot;lá bog&quot;. *'''Fecking''' is a mild abusive equivalent in force to &quot;bleeding&quot; or &quot;darned.&quot; It is not a parallel of the English word &quot;[[fuck]]ing&quot;, despite their similarity, and is generally less offensive. &quot;Feck&quot; is the corresponding expletive. The noun &quot;fecker&quot; is slightly stronger but not vulgar. These terms were lately introduced to Britain by [[Father Ted]]. In old Dubliner slang, &quot;to feck' is also slang for &quot;to steal&quot;, as in the phrase, &quot;We went to the orchard and fecked some apples.&quot; It can also mean &quot;to throw&quot;, especially if something is being thrown where it shouldn't, as in &quot;We fecked his schoolbag into the river.&quot; Some areas of South Yorkshire use the word &quot;fetch&quot; to mean bring, &quot;fetch me a glass of water, I'm gagged.&quot; throw &quot; I fetched it up the tree and now its stuck&quot; or arrive &quot;We fetched up in Barnsley before 4 o'clock&quot; *'''Yoke''' is typically used in place of the word &quot;thing&quot;, for instance &quot;gimme that yoke there&quot;. It's also used as an insult: &quot;you're some yoke&quot;. *'''Now''' is often used at the end of sentences or phrases as a semantically empty word, completing an utterance without contributing any apparent meaning. Examples include &quot;Bye now&quot; (= &quot;goodbye&quot;), &quot;There you go now&quot; (= when giving someone something), &quot;Ah now!&quot; (= expressing dismay), &quot;Hold on now&quot; (= &quot;wait a minute&quot;), &quot;Now then&quot; as a mild attention-getter, etc. This usage is universal among English dialects, but occurs more frequently in Hiberno-English. *'''To''' is often omitted from sentences where it would exist in British English. For example, &quot;I am not allowed go out tonight&quot;, instead of &quot;I am not allowed ''to'' go out tonight&quot;. There are many terms for having consumed a drop too much drink, many are used elsewhere, but the Irish tendency is to attempt to find the most descriptive adjective yet on each occasion. Some examples: &quot;scuttered&quot;, &quot;stocious/stotious&quot;, &quot;locked&quot;, ''&quot;langered&quot;'', &quot;mouldy&quot; (pron. mowldy as in &quot;fowl&quot;), &quot;polluted&quot;, &quot;flootered&quot;, &quot;plastered&quot;, ''&quot;bolloxed&quot;'', &quot;well out of it&quot;, ''&quot;wankered&quot;'', ''&quot;fucked&quot;'', ''&quot;fuckered&quot;'', &quot;binned&quot;, ''&quot;gee-eyed&quot;'', &quot;buckled&quot;, ''&quot;steaming&quot;'', &quot;messy&quot;, &quot;sloppy&quot;, &quot;wasted&quot;, &quot;paralytic&quot;, &quot;full as a boot&quot;, &quot;legless&quot;, &quot;hammered&quot; , &quot;blootered&quot;, &quot;squooshed&quot;, &quot;banjoed&quot;, &quot;bingoed&quot; . (''Phrases in italics are more &quot;colourful&quot;'') Some turns of phrase are more localised and their meaning may not be widespread throughout the country, while others are more transient and fall out of use after a number of years. ==Lexicon== Hiberno-English vocabulary is largely the same as British English, though there are varia
, C and E (http://curezone.com/foods/aloevera.html). It has even been referred to as “a pharmacy in a plant” (Farrar, 2005). Aloes also contain [[anthraquinone gycoside]]s, [[resin]]s, [[polysaccharide]]s, [[sterol]]s, [[gelonin]]s, and [[chromone]]s. It is also a source of a class of chemicals called ''Aloin''s. === Chemical properties of Aloin === [[Image:Split Aloe.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Split Aloe]] Aloins are soluble and easily extracted by water. Aloes is the expressed juice of the leaves of the plant. When the leaves are cut, the juice that flows out is collected and evaporated. After the juice has been removed, the leaves are sometimes boiled, to yield an inferior kind of aloes. According to W. A. Shenstone, two classes of Aloins are to be recognized: (1) [[nataloin]]s, which yield [[picric acid|picric]] and [[oxalic acid]]s with [[nitric acid]], and do not give a red coloration with nitric acid; and (2) [[barbaloin]]s, which yield [[aloetic acid]] (C&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;), [[chrysammic acid]] (C&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;), picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, being reddened by the acid. This second group may be divided into a-barbaloins, obtained from Barbadoes aloes, and reddened in the cold, and b-barbaloins, obtained from Socotrine and Zanzibar aloes, reddened by ordinary nitric acid only when warmed or by fuming acid in the cold. Nataloin (2C&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;·H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O) forms bright yellow scales. Barbaloin (C&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;) forms yellow [[Prism (geometry)|prism]]atic crystals. Aloes also contain a trace of volatile oil, to which its odour is due. === Medicinal use of Aloin === The dose is 130-320 mg, that of aloin being 30-130 mg. Aloes can be absorbed from a broken surface and will then cause purging. When given internally it increases the actual amount as well as the rate of flow of the [[bile]]. It hardly affects the [[small intestine]], but markedly stimulates the muscular coat of the [[large intestine]], causing purging in about fifteen hours. There is hardly any increase in the intestinal secretion, the drug being emphatically not a hydragogue cathartic. There is no doubt that its habitual use may be a factor in the formation of haemorrhoids; as in the case of all drugs that act powerfully on the lower part of the intestine, without simultaneously lowering the venous pressure by causing increase of secretion from the bowel. Aloes also tends to increase the menstrual flow and therefore belongs to the group of emmenagogues. Aloin is preferable to aloes for therapeutic purposes, as it causes less, if any, pain. It is a valuable drug in many forms of constipation, as its continual use does not, as a rule, lead to the necessity of enlarging the dose. Its combined action on the bowel and the [[uterus]] is of especial value in chlorosis, of which amenorrhoea is an almost constant symptom. The drug is obviously contraindicated in pregnancy and when haemorrhoids are already present. Many well-known patent medicines consist essentially of aloes. == Lign-aloes and Agarwood == The lign-aloes are quite different from plants of the ''Aloe'' genus. The term &quot;Aloes&quot; is used in the [[Bible]] (Numbers 24:6), but as the trees usually supposed to be meant by this word are not native in [[Syria]], it has been suggested that the [[Septuagint]] reading in which the word does not occur is to be preferred. Lign-aloe is a corruption of the Latin ''lignum-aloe'', a wood, not a resin. [[Dioscorides]] refers to it as ''agallochon'', a wood brought from [[Arabia]] or [[India]], which was odoriferous but with an astringent and bitter taste. This may be ''[[Agarwood]]'', a native of East India, [[South East Asia]], and [[China]], which supplies the so-called eagle-wood or aloes-wood, which contains much resin and oil. ==[[Species]]== There are around 400 species in the genus ''Aloe''. For a full list, see [[List of species of genus Aloe]]. Common species include: *''[[Aloe angelica]]'' - Wylliespoort Aloe *''[[Aloe arborescens]]'' - Candelabra Aloe, Tree Aloe, Krantz Aloe [[Image:Babosa1.jpg|thumb|right|Candelabra Aloe (''Aloe arborescens'')]] *''[[Aloe aristata]]'' - Torch Plant, Lace Aloe *''[[Aloe barberae]]'' - Tree Aloe *''[[Aloe brevifolia]]'' - Shortleaf Aloe *''[[Aloe castanea]]'' - Cat's Tail Aloe *''[[Aloe ciliaris]]'' - Climbing Aloe *''[[Aloe comosa]]'' - Clanwilliam's Aloe *''[[Aloe dichotoma]]'' - quiver tree or kokerboom [[Image:Aloe dichotoma.jpg|thumb|right|Aloe dichotoma (''Aloe dichotoma'')]] *''[[Aloe dinteri]]'' - Namibian Partridge Breast Aloe *''[[Aloe distans]]'' - Jeweled Aloe *''[[Aloe excelsa]]'' - Noble Aloe, Zimbabwe Aloe *''[[Aloe ferox]]'' - Cape Aloe, Tap Aloe, Bitter Aloe *''[[Aloe glauca]]'' - Blue Aloe *''[[Aloe humilis]]'' - Spider Aloe *''[[Aloe khamiensis]]'' - Namaqua Aloe *''[[Aloe longistyla]]'' - Karoo Aloe, Ramenas *''[[Aloe maculata]]'' - Soap Aloe, Zebra Aloe *''[[Aloe mitriformis]]'' - Gold Tooth Aloe *''[[Aloe nobilis]]'' - Gold Tooth Aloe *''[[Aloe perryi]]'' - Perry's Aloe *''[[Aloe pictifolia]]'' - Kouga Aloe *''[[Aloe pillansii]]'' - Bastard Quiver Tree *''[[Aloe plicatilis]]'' - Fan Aloe *''[[Aloe polyphylla]]'' - Spiral Aloe *''[[Aloe pratensis]]'' - Rosette Aloe *''[[Aloe ramosissima]]'' - Maidens Quiver Tree *''[[Aloe saponaria]]'' - African Aloe *''[[Aloe speciosa]]'' - Tilt-head Aloe *''[[Aloe striata]]'' - Coral Aloe *''[[Aloe tauri]]'' - Bullocks Bottle Brush Aloe *''[[Aloe variegata]]'' - Partridge-breasted Aloe, Tiger Aloe *''Aloe vera'' - True Aloe, Barbados Aloe, Common Aloe, Yellow Aloe, Medicinal Aloe * ''[[Aloe zebrina]]'' - Zebra Aloe ;Hybrids * ''Aloe x spinosissima'' - Gold-tooth Aloe &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Aloe aristata.jpg|Aloe aristata Image:Aloe vera flower bud.jpg|Flower bud of Aloe Vera Image:Aloe Vera flower.jpg|Aloe Vera flower Image:Aloe Vera.jpg &lt;/gallery&gt; ==Heraldry== The aloe plant occurs as a charge in [[heraldry]]. ==References== *News Target: http://www.newstarget.com/001560-02.html *International Aloe Science Council: http://www.iasc.org/aloe.html *University of Maryland Medical Center: http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsHerbs/Aloech.html *Craig, Winston. “The All-purpose Gel,” Vibrant Life; July 2001. *Farrar, Maureen Meyers. “Skin Deep,” Better Nutrition; July 2005. *http://curezone.com/foods/aloevera.html == External links == {{commons|Aloe}} * [http://www.aloeverabenefits.com/what-is-in-aloe-vera.html What is in Aloe Vera?] &quot;Inside the leaf of the medicinal herb&quot; * [http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/aloe.html Aloe vera] &quot;King's American Dispensatory&quot; * [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/aloes027.html Aloe] &quot;A Modern Herbal&quot; * [http://www.herbmed.org/herbs/herb3.htm Aloe vera] HerbMed * [http://www.aloeverabenefits.com/aloe-vera-plant.html Aloe Vera Plant] &quot;Detailed history of the Aloe Vera plant&quot; * [http://www.best-home-remedies.com/herbal_medicine/herbs/aloe.htm Aloe Herb - Uses And Side Effects] * [http://www.mcp.edu/herbal/aloe/aloe.pdf Aloe vera] (pdf) Longwood Herbal Task Force * [http://www.aloeverabenefits.com/is-aloe-vera-useful-in.html Is Aloe Vera useful in treating sickness?] &quot;Recent research findings on its medicinal uses&quot; * [http://www.homeoint.org/books3/kentmm/aloe.htm Aloe (aloe)] &quot;Kent's Lectures on Homeopathic Materia Medica&quot; * [http://www.homeoint.org/books5/allenprimer/aloe.htm Aloe] &quot;A Primer of Materia Medica for practitioners of Homoeopathy&quot; * [http://www.foreverliving.com Forever Living Products(FLP)]World's Largest Aloe Vera Distributor * [http://www.aloesajten.com/benefits-of-aloe-vera-juice.php Benefits of Aloe Vera Juice] [[Category:Liliopsida]] [[Category:Medicinal plants]] [[de:Aloen]] [[es:Aloe]] [[fr:Aloès]] [[id:Lidah Buaya]] [[it:Aloe (botanica)]] [[he:אלוורה]] [[hu:Aloe vera]] [[ms:Lidah buaya]] [[ja:アロエ]] [[pl:Aloes]] [[zh:芦荟]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alured of Berkeley</title> <id>1651</id> <revision> <id>15900117</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alured of Beverley]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alyattes II</title> <id>1652</id> <revision> <id>30700370</id> <timestamp>2005-12-09T10:45:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dimadick</username> <id>24198</id> </contributor> <comment>Added link to his daughter</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alyattes II''', king of [[Lydia]] ([[619 BC|619]]-[[560 BC]]), the real founder of the [[Lydian empire]], was the son of [[Sadyattes]], of the house of the [[Mermnadae]]. For several years he continued the war against [[Miletus]] begun by his father, but was obliged to turn his attention to the [[Medes]] and [[Babylonians]]. On [[May 28]], [[585 BC]], during a battle on the [[Halys]] against [[Cyaxares]], king of Media, a [[solar eclipse]] took place (see also [[Thales]]); hostilities were suspended, peace concluded, and the Halys fixed as the boundary between the two kingdoms. Alyattes drove the [[Cimmeria|Cimmerii]] (see [[Scythia]]) from [[Asia]], subdued the [[Carians]], and took several [[Ionia]]n cities ([[Izmir|Smyrna]], [[Colophon]]). ([[Izmir|Smyrna]] was sacked and destroyed c.[[600 BC]], the inhabitants forced to move to the country.) He standardised the weight of coins (1 Stater = 168 grains of wheat). The coins were produced using an anvil die technique and stamped with the Lion's head, the symbol
e character class, the Demoness. It focuses on the attempted resurrection of Eidolon by the wizard Praevus, and takes place in a fifth continent featuring a Sino-Tibetan setting. Following the tradition from ''HeXen'' and ''Heretic'', Raven released the [[source code]] to ''HeXen II'' in [[2000]]. This time the source was released under the [[GNU General Public License]], allowing ports to be made to different platforms like [[Linux]]. == External links == *[http://www.ravensoft.com/hexen2.html Official website from Raven] *[http://www.idsoftware.com/games/hexen/hexen2/ Official website from id Software] *[http://www.ravensoft.com/portal.html Official website for the ''Portal of Praevus'' expansion] *[http://www.raven-games.com/hex2faq/ Official Hexen II FAQ] *[http://uhexen2.sourceforge.net/ Hammer of Thyrion source port] *[http://newhexen.raven-games.com/ NewHexen source port] *[http://www.hexenworld.net/ HeXenWorld] *[http://www.mobygames.com/game/hexen-ii HeXen II at MobyGames] [[Category:1997 computer and video games]] [[Category:Windows games]] [[Category:Apple Macintosh games]] [[Category:Linux games]] [[Category:First-person shooters]] [[Category:Id Software games]] [[Category:Raven Software games]] [[Category:Activision games]] [[fr:Hexen II]] [[it:Hexen II]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heretic II</title> <id>13614</id> <revision> <id>39872818</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T13:20:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.48.35.253</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Heretic II | image = | developer = [[Raven Software]] | publisher = [[Activision]] | designer = | engine = [[Quake II engine|Quake II]] | released = [[November 24]], [[1998]] | genre = [[Third-person shooter]] | modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]] | ratings = [[ESRB]]: Mature (M) | platforms = [[Personal computer|PC]], [[Apple Macintosh|Mac]], [[Linux]] | media = | requirements = | input = }} '''Heretic II''' is a [[fantasy]] [[third-person shooter]] game developed by [[Raven Software]] and published by [[Activision]] in [[1998]], continuing the story of Corvus, the main character from its predecessor, [[Heretic (computer game)|Heretic]]. Using a modified [[Quake II]] engine, the game features a mix of the third-person camera angle with the [[first-person shooter]]s action, making up for a new gaming experience at the time. Its predecessor was also famous within the genre, despite the differences in both gameplay and story. Heretic II was later ported to [[Linux]] by [[Loki Software]]. ==External links== *[http://www.ravensoft.com/heretic2.html Heretic II Official Website] *[http://www.raven-games.com/h2faq.php Official Heretic II FAQ] *[http://www.hereticii.com/ hereticii.com] {{shooter-cvg-stub}} [[Category:1998 computer and video games]] [[Category:Raven Software games]] [[Category:Third-person shooters]] [[Category:Activision games]] [[Category:Linux games]] [[Category:Windows games]] [[it:Heretic II]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hardware</title> <id>13615</id> <revision> <id>38586991</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T07:38:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jake Lancaster</username> <id>683484</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* See also */ Fixed link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the computer term, see [[Computer hardware]]}} '''Hardware''' is the general term that is used to describe physical [[artifacts]] of a [[technology]]. It can be equipment such as [[fastener]]s, [[Key (lock)|keys]], [[Lock (device)|locks]], [[hinge]]s, [[latch]]es, [[corner]]s, [[handles]], [[wire]], [[chain]]s, [[plumbing]] supplies, [[tool]]s, [[utensil]]s, [[cutlery]] and [[machine]] parts, especially when they are made of [[metal]]. In the [[United States]], hardware has been traditionally sold in &quot;[[hardware store]]s&quot;. Though often used interchangeably to mean &quot;hand tools,&quot; hardware historically referred to the metal bits that were used to make wooden products stronger, more functional, longer lasting and easier to fabricate/assemble than if they did not have the benefit of metal fittings. In a looser sense, hardware can be major [[military]] equipment, or [[electronics|electronic]] equipment, or [[Computer hardware|computer]] equipment. ==See also== *'''''[[Hardware (TV series)|Hardware]]''''' is also a [[United Kingdom|British]] television [[sitcom]], starring [[Martin Freeman]]. *'''''[[Hardware (comics)|Hardware]]''''' is also the name and title character of a [[comic book]] series published by [[Milestone Media]]. *'''''[[Hardware (1990 movie)|Hardware]]''''' is also a [[1990]] [[science fiction]] film, starring [[Dylan McDermott]] and [[Stacey Travis]]. *'''''[[Hardware (band)|Hardware]]''''' was also an independent British [[New Wave music]] band *'''''[[Hardware River]]''''' is a [[river]] in [[Virginia]] [[Category:Hardware (mechanical)]] [[bg:&amp;#1061;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;]] &lt;!--[[de:Metallwaren]]--&gt; [[fa:&amp;#1587;&amp;#1582;&amp;#1578;&amp;#8204;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;]] [[mk:Хардвер]] [[pl:Sprzęt]] [[sl:Strojna oprema]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Howard Carter</title> <id>13616</id> <revision> <id>42037446</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:42:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Shanes</username> <id>94147</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rm High Traffic template</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Howardcartertut.jpg|thumb|280px|Howard Carter in 1925.]] [[Image:Plate_LXXA.jpg|thumb|260px|Plate LXXA shows detail on a ceremonial walking staff found buried with [[Tutankhamun]]; it depicts &quot;the two foes,&quot; or &quot;the Northern and Southern enemies of Egypt.&quot; Carter continued, &quot;The Asiatic type (A)&quot; -- shown here -- &quot;is ivory,&quot; and &quot;the African type (B)&quot; -- shown with this one, below -- &quot;is ebony.&quot; Photo: Harry Burton.]] '''Howard Carter''' ([[May 9]], [[1874]] &amp;ndash; [[March 2]], [[1939]]) was an [[England|English]] [[archeology|archaeologist]] and [[Egyptology|Egyptologist]]. He is most famous as the discoverer of [[KV62]], the tomb of [[Tutankhamun]] in the [[Valley of the Kings]], [[Luxor]], [[Egypt]]. Howard Carter was born in 1874 in [[Brompton, Kensington]], [[London]], the youngest son of 8 children. His father, [[Samuel Carter]], was an artist. His mother was Martha Joyce (Sands) Carter. Carter grew up in [[Swaffham]], in northern [[Norfolk]], and had no formal education. His father trained him in the fundamentals of drawing and [[painting]]. Carter began work in [[1891]], at the age of 17, copying inscriptions and paintings in [[Egypt]]. He worked on the excavation of [[Beni Hasan]], the gravesite of the princes of [[Middle Egypt]], c. [[2000 BC]]. Later he came under the tutelage of [[William Flinders Petrie]]. He is also famous for finding the remains of Queen [[Hatshepsut]]'s tomb in [[Deir el-Bahri]]. In [[1899]], at the age of 25, Carter was offered a position working for the [[Egyptian Antiquities Service]], from which he resigned as a result of a dispute between Egyptian site guards and a group of drunken French tourists in [[1905]]. After several hard years, Carter was introduced, in [[1907]], to [[George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon|Lord Carnarvon]], an eager amateur who was prepared to supply the funds necessary for Carter's work to continue. Soon, Carter was supervising all of Lord Carnarvon's [[excavation]]s. Lord Carnarvon financed Carter's search for the tomb of a previously unknown [[Pharaoh]], [[Tutankhamun]], whose existence Carter had discovered. After a few months of fruitless searching, Carnarvon was becoming dissatisfied with the lack of return from his investment and, in 1922, he gave Carter one more season of funding to find the tomb. On [[November 4]], [[1922]] Carter found the steps leading to Tutankhamen's tomb (subsequently [[KV (Egypt)|designated]] [[KV62]]), by far the best preserved and most intact pharaonic tomb ever found in the [[Valley of the Kings]]. He wired Lord Carnarvon to come, and on [[November 26]], [[1922]], with Lord Carnarvon, Carnarvon's daughter, and others in attendance, Carter made the famous &quot;tiny breach in the top left hand corner&quot; of the doorway, and was able to peer in by the light of a candle and see that many of the gold and ebony treasures were still in place. He did not yet know at that point whether it was &quot;a tomb or merely a cache,&quot; but he did see a promising sealed doorway between two sentinel statues. The next several weeks were spent carefully cataloguing the contents of the antechamber. On [[February 16]], [[1923]], Carter opened the sealed doorway, and found that it did indeed lead to a burial chamber, and he got his first glimpse of the [[sarcophagus]] of Tutankhamun. While unwrapping the linens of the mummy, presumably looking for treasure, the skull of the ancient king fell away from the body. The impact from its fall out of the tomb made a dent in the skull. Ancient Egyptians believed a king could only be immortal if the body rested undisturbed, so some believe the name of the king must still be spoken today as a remembrance. After cataloguing the extensive finds, Carter retired from archaeology and became a collector. He visited the [[United States]] in [[1924]], and gave a series of illustrated lectures in [[City of New York|New York City]] which were attended by very large and enthusiastic audiences. He died in [[England]] in [[1939]] at the age of 64. The archaeologist's death at this advanced age despite being the driving force behind the opening of Tutankhamun's tomb is the most common piece of evidence put forward b
he [[Brownshirts]] and [[Blackshirts]] to try and seize power. This method proved ineffective, and since then most Islamists have used the cell based structure commonly used by leftist groups. Ideologically there is little evidence that fascism had much influence on the development of Islamism. The far-right French doctor [[Alexis Carrel]] had an important influence on Qutb's thought, and the well-read Qutb also seems to have had a passing knowledge of ''[[Mein Kampf]]''. Several Islamist groups have embraced [[Nazi]] like [[anti-Semitism]], as an outgrowth of Islamist [[anti-Zionism]]. Several authors, among which [[Daniel Pipes]] [http://danielpipes.org/article/81] and [[Michael Ledeen]] [http://www.nationalreview.com/ledeen/ledeen200310170840.asp] have prominently equated Islamism to [[fascism]] and coined the word &quot;''[[Islamofascism]]''&quot;. Cavelos and Laidi state in [ISBN 0415167175] ''A World without Meaning'' that Islamism shares more characteristics with fascism than with communism, in that it does not have a definite progress belief, which communism has, and that three characteristics are shared by Islamism, communism and fascism: a totalitarian political claim, a global discourse about society in which the theme of exclusion is central and a political and social apparatus which respond to the demands of disadvantageous groups. The most direct western parallel to Islamism is, however, not fascism, but [[Dominionism]] (put in place in the past such as during [[The Protectorate]] of [[Oliver Cromwell]]). == Islamist movements == * International &amp;mdash; [[Al-Qaida]], the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], and [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] * [[Afghanistan]] &amp;mdash; [[Taliban]] * [[Algeria]] &amp;mdash; [[Armed Islamic Group|Groupe Islamique Armé]], [[Islamic Salvation Front]], [[Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat|Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat]] * [[Egypt]] &amp;mdash; [[Gama'at Islamiya]] * [[Lebanon]] &amp;mdash; [[Hizballah]] * [[Iraq]]i [[Kurdistan]] &amp;mdash; [[Islamic Movement in Kurdistan]], [[Islamic Group Kurdistan|Islamic Group of Kurdistan]], [[Kurdistan Islamic Union|Islamic Union of Kurdistan]] * [[Iran]] [[Kurdistan]] &amp;mdash; [[Khabat]] * [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]] &amp;mdash; [[Hamas]] * [[Central Asia]] &amp;mdash; [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] * [[South Asia]] &amp;mdash; [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] (there are Jamaats in India, Pakistan and Wahhabism), [[Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen]] * [[Turkey]] &amp;mdash; [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]] (disputed), [[Felicity Party (Turkey)|Felicity Party]] * [[Bahrain]] &amp;mdash; [[Al Wefaq]] [[Asalat]] == See also == * [[Kafir]] * [[Dhimmi]] * [[Hadith]] * [[Islamist terrorism]] * [[Islamofascism]] * [[Jihad]] * [[Mujahedeen]] * [[Mutaween]] (&quot;religious police&quot;) * [[Neofascism and religion]] * [[Sharia]] * [[Theocracy]] * [[Wahhabism]] ==External links== *[http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&amp;Area=sr&amp;ID=SR3104 List of Islamist websites] as of July 16, 2004 *[http://www.icapi.org International Coalition Against Political Islam] *[http://www.marxists.de/religion/harman/index.htm The Prophet and the Proletariat] - critique and history of religion and rebellion in the Middle East *[http://www.meforum.org/article/447 ''Is Islamism a Threat?''] - a panel discussion hosted by Middle East Quarterly, December 1999 *[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0994/9409021.htm ''Evaluating the Islamist Movement''] - written by Greg Noakes, an American Muslim who works at the Washington Report *[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0695/9506017.htm ''Muslim Scholars Face Down Fanaticism''] - written by Aicha Lemsine, an Algerian journalist and author. *[http://jihadwatch.org/ Discussion and Opinion regarding Terrorism and Islamic Reform ] *[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Terms.htm Coming to Terms: Fundamentalists or Islamists?] on terminology, by [[Martin Kramer]] *[http://www.danielpipes.org/article/304 Daniel Pipes - ''Is Islamism Dead?: The Future of Islamism in the Muslim World''] *[http://www.civitas.org.uk/pdf/cs29.pdf The Institute for the Study of Civil Society report - The ‘West’, Islam and Islamism] ==Further reading== * ''[[Onward Muslim Soldiers|Onward Muslim Soldiers: How Jihad Still Threatens America and the West]]'', [[Robert Spencer]], Regnery Publishing, [[2003]] * ''Children of Abraham: An Introduction to Islam for Jews'', Khalid Duran with Abdelwahab Hechiche, The American Jewish Committee and Ktav, [[2001]] * ''Islamic Fundamentalism.'', Youssef M. Choueiri. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990. * ''The Islamism Debate'', [[Martin Kramer]], University Press, [[1997]] * ''Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook'', Charles Kurzman, Oxford University Press, [[1998]] * ''The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution: The Jama'at-i Islami of Pakistan'', Vali Nasr, Univ. of California Press, [[1994]] * ''The Failure of Political Islam'', Olivier Roy, Harvard Univ. Press, [[1994]] * ''The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder'', [[Bassam Tibi]], Univ. of California Press, [[1998]] * ''Pioneers of Islamic Revival.'' ed. Ali Rahnema. London: Zed Books, 1994. [[Category:Islam]] [[Category:Political theories]] [[Category:Religion and politics]] [[ar:إسلام سياسي]] [[br:Islamouriezh]] [[da:Islamisme]] [[de:Islamischer Fundamentalismus]] [[es:Islamismo]] [[fr:Islamisme]] [[he:אסלאמיזם]] [[nl:Islamisme]] [[ja:イスラム主義]] [[no:Islamisme]] [[nn:Islamisme]] [[pl:Islamista]] [[pt:Fundamentalismo islâmico]] [[sv:Islamism]] [[tr:İslamcılık]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Instructional theory</title> <id>15014</id> <revision> <id>38833559</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T23:07:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cmdrjameson</username> <id>101935</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Remove refs from Amazon URL</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Instructional theory''' is a discipline that focuses on how to structure material for promoting the education of humans, particularly youth. Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, ''instructional theory'' is typically divided into two categories: the cognitive and behaviorist schools of thought. Instructional theory was spawned off the 1956 work of [[Benjamin Bloom]], a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his [[Taxonomy of Education Objectives]] — one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. One of the first instructional theorists was [[Robert M. Gagne]], who in 1965 published ''[[Conditions of Learning]]'' for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research. Renowned psychologist [[B. F. Skinner]]'s theories of behavior were highly influential on instructional theorists because their hypotheses can be tested fairly easily with the [[scientific process]]. It is more difficult to demonstrate cognitive learning results. [[Paulo Freire]]'s [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0826412769 Pedagogy of the Oppressed] — first published in English in 1968 — had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various &quot;banking&quot; models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship. In the context of [[e-learning]], a major discussion in instructional theory is the potential of [[learning object]]s to structure and deliver content. A stand-alone [[educational animation]] is an example of a learning object that can be re-used as the basis for different learning experiences. There are currently many groups trying to set standards for the development and implementation of [[learning object]]s. At the forefront of the standards groups is the [[Department of Defense]]'s [[Advanced Distributed Learning]] initiative with its [[SCORM]] standards. SCORM stands for ''Shareable Content Object Reference Model.'' ==See also== * [[Learning theory (education)|Learning theory]] * [[Instructional design]] * [[Instructional technology]] * [[Educational technology]] ==External links== * [http://www.edu-cyberpg.com Educational CyberPlayGround Online Curriculum] * [http://www.adlnet.org Advanced Distributed Learning] * [http://www.fsu.edu/~edres Department of Educational Research] [[Category:Alternative education]] [[Category:Educational psychology]] [[Category:Pedagogy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IRA</title> <id>15015</id> <revision> <id>41839907</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:06:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>211.28.195.66</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Other uses */ fix typo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Please do not add links in the text on this page. The Manual of Style says that disambiguation pages should link only to the pages which are being disambiguated. Please do not include any more text than is sufficient to achieve disambiguation - if you want to add material, use the relevant main article. --&gt; The acronym '''IRA''' may refer to: ==Irish Republican Army== ;:''See also [[List of IRAs]]'' ;* [[Irish Republican Army]], the self-proclaimed Army of the &quot;Irish Republic&quot; that fought the Irish War of Independence against British rule, 1916 - 1921 ;* [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)]]: Originally the Anti-Treaty or Republican side in the Irish Civil War of 1922 - 1923. It split again in 1969 :&amp;ndash; ;* [[Official Irish Republican Army ]]: in 1969, the movement split between a Marxist and a more militant traditionalist wing. The former became known as the &quot;Official&quot; IRA; ;* [[Provisional Irish Republican Army ]]: the traditionalist side in the 1969 split, today the largest republican paramilitary group. '''''It is to this group that the term &quot;IRA&quot; nearly always refers today.''''' ;* [[Continuity Irish Republican Army]]: a small breakaway from the Provisional IRA, form
an undesireable group or ideology. ===Patents=== Copyleft-like ideas are also increasingly being suggested for patents (so, hinging on a [[patent law]] framework instead of on a [[copyright law]] framework), such as [[open patent]] [[patent pool|pool]]s that allow royalty-free use of patents contributed to the pool under certain conditions (such as surrendering the right to apply for new patents that are not contributed to the pool). This has not taken off, perhaps in part because patents are relatively expensive to obtain, whereas copyright is obtained for free. Since for most copylefted creations the copyleft characteristic is however only secured by [[copyright law]], patenting mechanisms can threaten the copyleft freedoms attached to such creations, when [[patent law]] is allowed to overrule [[copyright]] (or in any other way limit the free expansion of copylefted creations), which might be the case for the new rules regarding [[patent]]s developed in the [[European Union]] in the early [[21st century]] (see also article on [[Community Patent]]). There seems to be no easy answer to such threats, while it is considered that generally communities developing copylefted products have neither the resources nor the organization for complex patenting procedures. However, an organized answer to such issues seems to start emerging from places like [[Groklaw]]. Also [[IBM]] could be considered by the [[open source community]] as rather an ally, when it comes to combining traditional [[copyright]] protection for copylefted creations with [[patent]]ed inventions, see: [http://www.infoworld.com/article/04/08/04/HNdonofirokeynote_1.html Infoworld article notifying that IBM says it won't assert patents against Linux kernel] ==Commercial exploitation of copylefted creations== Commercial exploitation of copylefted works differs from [[Intellectual_property_rights#Economic_view|traditional commercial exploitation via Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)]]. Exploitation of copylefted works include circumventing the license by gaining only knowledge of the work, or by a model of services--including consultancy and support--for a copylefted work. Generally, financial profit is expected to be much lower in a &quot;copyleft&quot; business than in a business using proprietary works. Firms with proprietary products can make money by exclusive sales, by single and transferable ownership, and lucrative litigation rights over the work. ===Development of copylefted industrial products=== The competitiveness of copylefted works to proprietary ones is heightened for businesses able to adopt any of a variety of copylefted products that are already written and therefore lowering software development costs. Commercial ventures are able to use their resources to make revenues with the software in other ways, and without the worry of other companies getting an unfair advantage. Copyleft enables volunteer programmers and organizations to feel involved and contribute to software and feel confident any future derivatives will remain accessible to them, and that their contributions are part of a larger goal, like developing the [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]] of an [[Operating system|OS]]. Copylefting software makes clear the intent of never abusing or hiding any knowledge that is contributed. Copyleft also ensures that all contributing programmers and companies can not fork proprietary versions to have create an advantage over another. The argument for investments in [[research and development]] for copyleft businesses may seem weak, by not having exclusivity over the profits gained from the result. Economically, copyleft is considered the only mechanism able to compete with monopolistic firms that rely on financial exploitation of copyright, trademark and patent laws. ===Commercialization of copylefted industrial products=== Commercial distributors of [[Linux]]-based systems (like [[Red Hat]] and [[Mandriva]]) might have had some ups and downs in finding a successful construction (or [[business model|Business Model]]) for setting up such businesses, but in time it was shown to be possible to base a business on a commercial service surrounding a copylefted creation. One well-known example is Mandrake, who was one of the first companies to succeed on the [[stock market]] after the implosion of large parts of the [[Information technology|IT]] market in the early [[21st century]]. They also had success in convincing government bodies to switch to [[Mandriva|their flavor of Linux]]. However, apart from rare exceptions like [[Debian]], most Linux distributors don't limit their business to copylefted software. There appears to be no real reason why an exploitation of commercial services surrounding copylefted creations would not be possible in small-scale business, which as a business concept is no more complex than making money with a &quot;public domain&quot; recipe for brewing coffee&amp;mdash;successfully exploited by so many cafeteria owners. However, there are few examples so far of [[Small and Medium-sized Enterprise|SME]]s having risked such a leap for their [[core business]]. [[UserLinux]], a project set up by [[Bruce Perens]], supports the emergence of such small-scale business based on ''[[free software]]'', that is, copylefted or otherwise freely licensed computer programs. The [http://www.userlinux.com UserLinux website] showcases some [[Case study|case studies]] and success stories of such businesses... ===Commercialization of copylefted art=== In art the concept of a &quot;commercial service surrounding a copylefted creation&quot; is maybe (even) harder to put in practice than in software development. Public performances could be considered as one of a few possibilities of providing such &quot;services&quot;. The music industry objected to peer-to-peer file exchanging software, but the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] gave some suggestions to resolve the issue.[http://www.eff.org/share/compensation.php] Some are more hard on ideas commerce and say: &quot;Intellectual 'property' does not behave like material property. If I give you a physical object I may no longer have use or control of that thing, and may ask for something in return, some payment or barter. But when I give you an idea, I lose nothing. I can still use that idea as I wish. I need ask nothing in return.&quot; Often copylefted artistic creations can be seen to have a (supporting) [[publicity]] function, promoting other, more traditionally copyrighted creations by the same artist(s). Artists sticking to an uncompromising copylefting of the whole of their artistic output, could, in addition to services and consultancy, revert to some sort of [[Patron#Art|patronage]] (sometimes considered as limiting artistic freedom), or to other sources of income, not related to their artistic production (and so mostly limiting the time they can devote to artistic creation too). The least that can be said is that copylefting in art tends toward keeping the art thus produced as much as possible out of the commercial arena&amp;mdash;which is considered as an intrinsic positive goal by some. Some artists use copyleft licenses such as the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license that don't allow commercial use. In this way they can choose to sell their creations without having to compete with others selling copies of the same works. Where copylefted art has a large audience of modest means or a small audience of considerable wealth, the act of releasing the art may be offered for sale. See [[Street Performer Protocol]]. This approach can be used for the release of new works, or can be used for the conversion of proprietary works to copylefted works. See [[Blender (software)|Blender]]. ==See also== *[[All Rites Reversed]] *[[Anti-copyright]] *[[Copynorms|Copynorms]] *[[Copyright-free]] *[[Copyright]] *[[Creative Commons]] *[[Intellectual property]] *[[Intellectual rights]] *[[Magnatune]] *[[Open source record label]] *[[Public domain]] *[[Share-alike]] *[[GNU Free Documentation License]] *[[GNU General Public License]] ==External links== ===General=== *[http://www.libresociety.org Libre Society website] *[http://www.freeculture.org FreeCulture.org] *[http://www.eff.org/ The Electronic Frontier Foundation] *[http://www.eyemagazine.com/opinion.php?id=117&amp;oid=290 Eye Magazine - Copyleft and Copyright article] ===Copyleft and [[Computer software|software]]=== *[http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/copyleft.html What is copyleft?] -- by [[Richard Stallman]] *[http://www.copyleft.co.nz/ Copyleft New Zealand] *[http://eu.conecta.it/paper.pdf a European report (2000)] -- Report includes section about possible economic models for Free/Libre and Open Source Software. *[http://members.optushome.com.au/brendanscott/papers/freesoftwaretco150702.html Why Free Software's Long Run TCO must be lower] - An economic analysis of copylefted software and the software market. *[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2002059632_linus11.html Linus Torvalds on commercial potential of Linux software (October 2004 interview)] ===Copyleft applied in artistic creation=== *[http://artlibre.org/licence.php/lalgb.html The Free Art license] *[http://www.creativecommons.org Creative Commons website] ===Copyleft Music artists=== *[http://magnatune.com/ MagnaTune], [http://disfish.com/ Dishfish], [http://www.quidmusic.com/ QuidMusic], [http://www.onclassical.com/ OnClassical] - Music Labels that use copyleft *[http://www.wifiblanes.com/blog/solo/mp3-copyleft/ Mp3 by MuSiK] *[http://musique-libre.org/ Musique-libre.org] - French based copyleft music portal - archive also in English *[http://www.dance-industries.com/ Dance-Industries] and [http://www.rock-industries.com/ Rock-Industries] - Copyleft music distribution &quot;the right way&quot;. *[http://kahvi.org/ Kahvi Collective] *[http://www.medusarecords.org Medusa Records] *[http://www.ko-rec.org/ Ko-operative Rec
timestamp> <contributor> <username>Khaosworks</username> <id>60133</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Other appearances */ punctuation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Doctorwhocharacter| image= [[Image:davros.jpg|200px]] &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;David Gooderson as Davros| name=Davros| affiliation=[[Dalek]]s| race=[[Kaled]]| planet=[[Skaro]]| era=Unspecified| start= [[Genesis of the Daleks]]| finish= [[Remembrance of the Daleks]]| portrayed= [[Michael Wisher]]&lt;br/&gt;[[David Gooderson]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Terry Molloy]] }} '''Davros''' is a character from the long-running [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction on television|science fiction television]] series ''[[Doctor Who]]'', responsible for the genesis of the Doctor's deadliest enemies, the [[Dalek]]s. He was created by [[Terry Nation]]. ==Character== Davros is a [[scientist]] from the planet [[Skaro]] whose people, the [[Kaleds]], were engaged in a bitter thousand-year war of attrition with their enemies, the [[Thal (Doctor Who)|Thals]]. Horribly scarred and crippled after what is simply described on screen as an &quot;accident&quot;, with only one functioning arm and one cybernetic &quot;eye&quot; mounted on his forehead, for much of his existence he depended completely upon his mobile life-support chair which enclosed the lower half of his body. It would become an obvious inspiration for his eventual design of the Dalek. Davros is a [[megalomania]]c &amp;mdash; he believed that through his creations, the Daleks, he would become the supreme being and ruler of the universe. He is a brilliant scientist who has demonstrated mastery of [[robotics]], [[metallurgy]], [[chemistry]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[cloning]], [[genetic engineering]], [[biology]] and [[military tactic]]s. ==Appearances== {{spoiler}} ===Original series=== When he first encountered the [[Fourth Doctor]] in the 1975 serial ''[[Genesis of the Daleks]]'', Davros (played by [[Michael Wisher]]) was the chief scientist of the Kaleds, heading the Scientific Division. He had already survived six assassination attempts. Davros realised that contamination from the [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] and [[biological weapon|biological]] weapons used in the war were mutating the Kaled race, and artificially accelerated the process to examine the ultimate evolutionary end product. The mutations were weak and crippled, no more than brains with tentacular appendages and with no hope of survival on their own. His solution was to remove all emotions pertaining to weakness, such as compassion, mercy and kindness, and place the mutants in tank-like &quot;travel machines&quot; that were partly based on the design of his wheelchair. He named these creatures Daleks, an [[anagram]] of Kaled. Davros quickly became obsessed with his creations, considering them to be the ultimate form of life and superior to all others. To stop his own people from shutting down his Dalek project, he arranged for them to be wiped out by the Thals. The Daleks then exterminated the Thal victors, but ultimately turned on Davros and apparently killed him. He proved too effective a character to be kept dead and was resurrected four years later in 1979's ''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]'' (played by [[David Gooderson]] using Wisher's mask, which was too large for his face). The Daleks unearthed their creator -- who had apparently been in [[suspended animation]] since his &quot;death&quot; in ''Genesis'' -- to help them break a [[logic|logical]] empasse in their war against the [[android]] [[Movellans]]. However the Dalek force was destroyed by the Doctor, and Davros was captured and imprisoned by the Earth Empire. [[Image:MolloyDavros.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Terry Molloy as Davros]] In the [[Fifth Doctor]] story ''[[Resurrection of the Daleks]]'' (1983), a small Dalek force aided by human mercenaries liberated Davros (now played by [[Terry Molloy]]) from his prison ship, needing his expertise to find an antidote for a Movellan-created virus that had all but wiped them out. Believing his creations to be treacherous, Davros began using mind-control on Daleks and humans, ultimately releasing the virus to kill off the Daleks before they could exterminate him. However, at the end of the story, he apparently succumbed to the virus himself before he could escape. Davros emerged as &quot;The Great Healer&quot; of the funeral and [[cryogenics|cryogenic]] preservation centre Tranquil Repose in the [[Sixth Doctor]] story ''[[Revelation of the Daleks]]'' (1985), where he used frozen bodies to engineer a new variety of Daleks loyal to him, distinguished from the original Daleks by their white and gold livery and slightly changed design. In this story there appeared to be ''two'' Davroses, one who was a head in a tank (apparently a clone) and the other in a chair (which could now hover), appearing when the clone was killed by an assassin. Davros could now fire electric bolts from his hand, although this was shot off shortly before his original creations arrived to destroy his second generation of Daleks and transport him to Skaro to face trial. Davros's last appearance (played by Molloy) was as the [[Dalek variants#Dalek Emperor|Dalek Emperor]] in ''[[Remembrance of the Daleks]]'' (1988), with his white and gold Daleks now termed &quot;[[Dalek variants#Imperial Dalek|Imperial Daleks]]&quot;. By this time Davros, who had apparently conquered Skaro and reduced his original race of Daleks to the status of renegades, was physically reduced to a head in a customised Dalek casing. Both Skaro and the Imperial Dalek mothership were apparently destroyed by the [[Seventh Doctor]] using the [[Time Lord]] artifact known as the [[Hand of Omega]]. However, a Dalek on the bridge of Davros's ship reported that the Emperor's escape pod was being launched at the time of its destruction, leaving a clear route to bring Davros back in the future. ===New series=== In the [[2005]] series, it was revealed that the Daleks and the [[Time Lord]]s had engaged in a mutually destructive Time War, although the Dalek Emperor survived to build a new race of Daleks. When the Emperor made its appearance in the season finale, ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'', it was a Dalek mutant floating in tank of fluid connected to a giant Dalek shell, and was evidently not Davros. Davros's status at this point, or any role he may have played in the Time War, is unknown. An article by [[Russell T. Davies]] in the ''Doctor Who Annual 2006'' states that one of the &quot;Dalek Puppet Emperors&quot; openly declared his hostilities towards the Time Lords and their planet, [[Gallifrey]]. This may be a reference to Davros's threats against the Time Lords in ''Remembrance of the Daleks''. ===Other appearances=== Terry Molloy has reprised his role as Davros in the [[Doctor Who spin-offs|spin-off]] [[radio drama|audio plays]] produced by [[Big Finish Productions]], mostly notably ''[[Davros (Doctor Who audio)|Davros]]'' (taking place during the [[Sixth Doctor]]'s era), which explored the scientist's life prior to his crippling injury, which is attributed to a Thal nuclear attack. The upcoming Big Finish minseries ''I, Davros'', also starring Molloy, will explore Davros's early life further. The [[Eighth Doctor]] audio ''[[Terror Firma]]'' picks up Davros's story after the events of ''Remembrance'', and ends with his personality being subsumed completely into that of the Emperor. This seemed to contradict the events of the [[Eighth Doctor Adventures]] novel ''War of the Daleks'' by [[John Peel (writer)|John Peel]], where an unmerged Davros was placed on trial by the Dalek Prime, a combination of the Dalek Emperor and the [[Dalek variants#Dalek Supreme|Dalek Supreme]]. The novel also revealed that the planet Antalin had been terraformed to resemble Skaro and destroyed in its place. It was also revealed the Dalek/Movellan war (and indeed most of Dalek history before the destruction of &quot;Skaro&quot;) was actually faked for Davros' benefit. ''War of the Daleks'', like the audio plays, is of uncertain [[canon (fiction)#Doctor Who)|canonicity]] when it comes to the television series. ''War'' however, was so badly received by some fans that they even disavowed it within the continuity of the novels. Others welcomed ''War'' for having the Daleks reassert their original independence from Davros. At the conclusion of ''War'', Davros was seemingly disintegrated by a [[Dalek variants#Spider Dalek|Spider Dalek]] on the order of the Dalek Prime. However, Davros had previously subverted the programming of one of the Spider Daleks, and even he was not certain in the end if he was being disintegrated or being [[teleportation|teleported]] away to safety, leaving the possibility open for his return. How ''Terror Firma'' and ''War'' can be reconciled is not clear, and provides support to the proposition that the novels and the audio plays take place in separate continuities. However, this has not prevented some fans from [http://www.sci-fi-online.50megs.com/newletters/fan05-11-18_Who.htm trying to do so]. ==See also== *[[History of the Daleks]] ==External links== * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/doctorwho/episodeguide/genesisofdaleks/quote.shtml Some quotes from ''Genesis of the Daleks''.] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/classic/episodeguide/dalekhistory1.shtml ''First History of the Daleks'' (and Second).] * [http://www.doctorwho.co.uk/news/news_060203_idavros.shtml Information on ''I, Davros'' on Big Finish's website] [[Category:Daleks]] [[Category:Doctor Who villains]] [[Category:Fictional aliens]] [[Category:Fictional cyborgs]] [[Category:Mad scientists]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DreamCast</title> <id>9139</id> <revision> <id>32731660</id> <timestamp>2005-12-26T03:16:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ReyBrujo</username> <id>139561</id> </contributor> <comm
end the [[Boston Police Department]] strike. He later wrote to labor leader [[Samuel Gompers]], &quot;there is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, anytime.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.americanpresident.org/history/calvincoolidge/ American President - Calvin Coolidge]&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;[http://ap.grolier.com/article?assetid=0071560-0&amp;templatename=/article/article.html Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia] - Calvin Coolidge &lt;/ref&gt; ==Presidency 1923-1929== ===Assumption=== Coolidge made a half-hearted effort to secure the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[United States President|presidential]] nomination in 1920, losing to [[Senator]] [[Warren G. Harding]] of [[Ohio]]. Party leaders wanted to nominate [[Wisconsin]] [[Senator]] [[Irvine Lenroot]] for [[United States Vice President|vice president]]. However, convention delegates stampeded and nominated Coolidge. The Harding-Coolidge ticket won handily against [[Governor of Ohio|Ohio Governor]] [[James M. Cox]] and [[Assistant Secretary of the Navy]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in a [[Landslide victory|landslide]], 60.36 to 34.19 percent (404 to 127 in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]]). [[Image:Calvin Coolidge, Mrs. Coolidge and Senator Curtis.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[President]] Coolidge, his wife Grace &amp; [[List of United States Senators from Kansas|Kansas senator]] [[Charles Curtis]] on their way to the Capitol building on inauguration day, [[March 4]], [[1925]].]] Harding was inaugurated on [[March 4]], [[1921]], and served until [[August 2]], [[1923]]. Upon Harding's death, Coolidge became President on August 2, 1923. Coolidge was visiting at the family home, still without [[electricity]] or [[telephone]], when he got word of Harding's death. His father, a [[notary public]], administered the oath of office in the family's parlor by the light of a [[kerosene]] lamp at 2:47 am 3rd August 1923; Coolidge was resworn by [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[William Howard Taft]] upon his return to [[Washington, D.C.]] *Note: Warren G. Harding died in California, August 2nd (PST), Calvin Coolidge was in Vermont, the morning of August 3rd (EST). ===&quot;Silent Cal&quot;=== It is said that a White House dinner guest once made a bet with her friends that she could get the president to say at least three words during the course of the meal. Upon telling Coolidge of her wager, he replied simply with the words &quot;You lose.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.midtermpapers.com/18832.htm &quot;Silent Cal&quot;] &lt;/ref&gt; However, another one of Coolidge's dinner guests had this to say &quot;I cannot help feeling that persons who complained about his silence as a dinner partner never really tried to get beyond trivialities to which he did not think it worth while to respond.&quot; Before his election in [[1924]], Coolidge's younger son, Calvin, Jr., contracted a blister from playing tennis on the [[White House]] courts. The blister became infected, and Calvin, Jr. died. After that, Coolidge, a man of few words who had already earned the nickname &quot;Silent Cal,&quot; became more withdrawn. People who knew the President said he never fully recovered from his son's death. He said that &quot;when he died, the glory of the Presidency went with him.&quot; ===Policies=== [[Image:Coolidge.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|Coolidge, reporters, and cameramen]] Even though Coolidge was said to be somewhat tight-lipped, he delivered more speeches than any other president up to that time. Making use of the new medium of [[radio]], he delivered an address about once a month. He also managed to hold 520 press conferences, averaging 7.8 per month, somewhat higher than [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] who averaged about 6.9. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.jfklibrary.org/coolidge_morrissey.html The Many Myths of Calvin Coolidge] - Charles T. Morrissey, 1978, [[John F. Kennedy Library and Museum]] &lt;/ref&gt; Coolidge's press conferences, however, reflected his reticent personality with a vengeance. [[Louis Lyons]], a Washington newsman in the 1920s and later an official of Harvard's [[Nieman Foundation for Journalism]], recalled that Coolidge required all questions to be submitted in advance, written on slips of paper. When reporters were admitted to his office, he would go through the slips, discarding any he had no desire to address. Occasionally, he would flip through the entire stack and announce, &quot;I have no questions today.&quot; The reporters were not allowed to quote him directly, or even to attribute his remarks to &quot;a White House spokesman.&quot; It was nothing like today's open, sometimes disputatious press conferences. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.nieman.harvard.edu/reports/99-4_00-1NR/Lyons_Calvin.html Calvin Coolidge and the Press] - Louis M. Lyons, September 1964, [[The Nieman Foundation for Journalism]] at [[Harvard University]] &lt;/ref&gt; He was easily elected President of the United States in his own right in [[United_States_presidential_election%2C_1924|1924]]. Coolidge made use of the new medium of radio and made radio history several times while president: his [[inauguration]] was the first presidential inauguration broadcast on radio; on [[February 12]], [[1924]] he became the first President of the United States to deliver a political speech on radio and on [[February 22]] he also became the first to deliver such a speech from the [[White House]]. [[Image:Coolidge public address.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Coolidge addressing a crowd at [[Arlington National Cemetery]] in [[1924]].]] Coolidge was the last President of the United States who did not attempt to intervene in [[free market]]s, letting [[business cycle]]s run their course. During his Presidency, the United States experienced a wildly successful period of economic growth: the so-called &quot;[[Roaring Twenties]].&quot; Coolidge not only lowered taxes, but also reduced the [[national debt]]. Although some later commentators have dismissed Coolidge as a doctrinaire, [[laissez-faire]] ideologue, historian Robert Sobel offers some context based on Coolidge's sense of [[federalism]]: &quot;As Governor of Massachusetts, Coolidge supported wages and hours legislation, opposed [[child labor]], imposed economic controls during [[World War I]], favored safety measures in factories, and even worker representation on corporate boards. Did he support these measures while president? No, because in the 1920s, such matters were considered the responsibilities of state and local governments.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.jfklibrary.org/coolidge_sobel.html Coolidge and American Business] - Robert Sobel, [[John F. Kennedy Library and Museum]] &lt;/ref&gt; A notable foreign-affairs initiative of the Coolidge administration was the [[Kellogg-Briand Pact]] of 1928, named for Coolidge's Secretary of State, [[Frank Kellogg]], and for [[France|French]] foreign minister [[Aristide Briand]]. The treaty, ratified in 1929, committed signatories including the U.S., the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], and [[Japan]] to &quot;renounce [[war]], as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/kbpact/kbpact.htm Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928] - The Avalon Project, [[Yale University]] &lt;/ref&gt; Coolidge did not seek renomination; he announced his decision with typical terseness: &quot;I do not choose to run for President in [[1928]].&quot; After leaving office, he and wife Grace returned to Northampton, Mass., where his political career had begun. === Major presidential acts === *Signed [[Immigration Act of 1924]] *Signed [[Revenue Act of 1924]] *Signed [[Revenue Act of 1926]] *Signed [[Radio Act of 1927]] *Signed [[Revenue Act of 1928]] ===Administation and Cabinet=== [[Image:Coolidge after signing indian treaty.jpg|right|thumb|250px|On [[June 2]], [[1924]], President Coolidge had signed a bill granting [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s full U.S. [[citizenship]]. Coolidge is shown above on [[October 22]], [[1924]] holding a ceremonial hat given to him by the [[Smoki]] Indian tribe of [[Prescott, Arizona]].]] {| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM''' |- !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''Calvin Coolidge'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1929 |- |align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|''None''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1925 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles G. Dawes]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1925&amp;ndash;1929 |- !bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;| |- |align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles Evans Hughes]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1925 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Frank B. Kellogg]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1925&amp;ndash;1929 |- |align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Andrew Mellon]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1929 |- |align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John W. Weeks]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1925 |- |align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Dwight F. Davis]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1925&amp;ndash;1929 |- |align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|At
TS-105]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|167.28 |- ![[Expedition 3]] |''[[Frank L. Culbertson]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Vladimir N. Dezhurov]] - Russia&lt;br&gt;[[Mikhail Tyurin]] - Russia |[[August 10]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;21:10:15 UTC |[[STS-105]] |[[December 17]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;17:56:13 UTC |[[STS-108]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|128.86 |- ![[Expedition 4]] |''[[Yury Onufrienko]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Dan Bursch]] - U.S.A.&lt;br&gt;[[Carl Walz]] - U.S.A. |[[December 5]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;22:19:28 UTC |[[STS-108]] |[[June 19]], [[2002]]&lt;br&gt;09:57:41 UTC |[[STS-111]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|195.82 |- ![[Expedition 5]] |''[[Valery Korzun]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Sergei Treschev]] - Russia&lt;br&gt;[[Peggy Whitson]] - U.S.A. |[[June 5]], [[2002]]&lt;br&gt;21:22:49 UTC |[[STS-111]] |[[December 7]], [[2002]]&lt;br&gt;19:37:12 UTC |[[STS-113]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|184.93 |- ![[Expedition 6]] |''[[Kenneth Bowersox]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Nikolai Budarin]] - Russia&lt;br&gt;[[Donald Pettit]] - U.S.A. |[[November 24]], [[2002]]&lt;br&gt;00:49:47 UTC |[[STS-113]] |[[May 4]], [[2003]]&lt;br&gt;02:04:25 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-1]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|161.05 |- ![[Expedition 7]] |''[[Yuri Malenchenko]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Edward Lu]] - U.S.A. |[[April 26]], [[2003]]&lt;br&gt;03:53:52 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-2]] |[[October 28]], [[2003]]&lt;br&gt;02:40:20 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-2]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|184.93 |- ![[Expedition 8]] |''[[Michael Foale]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Alexander Kaleri]] - Russia |[[October 18]], [[2003]]&lt;br&gt;05:38:03 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-3]] |[[April 30]], [[2004]]&lt;br&gt;00:11:15 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-3]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|194.77 |- ![[Expedition 9]] |''[[Gennady Padalka]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Fincke]] - U.S.A. |[[April 19]], [[2004]]&lt;br&gt;03:19:00 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-4]] |[[October 24]], [[2004]]&lt;br&gt;00:32:00 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-4]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|185.66 |- ![[Expedition 10]] |''[[Leroy Chiao]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Salizhan Sharipov]] - Russia |[[October 14]], [[2004]]&lt;br&gt; 03:06 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-5]] |[[April 24]], [[2005]]&lt;br&gt;22:08:00 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-5]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|192.79 |- ![[Expedition 11]] |''[[Sergei Krikalev]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[John L. Phillips]] - U.S.A. |[[April 15]], [[2005]]&lt;br&gt; 00:46:00 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-6]]&lt;br&gt; |[[October 11]], [[2005]] &lt;br&gt; 01:09:00 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-6]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|179.02 |- ![[Expedition 12]] |''[[William McArthur]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Valery Tokarev]] - Russia |[[October 1]], [[2005]]&lt;br&gt; 03:54:00 UTC |[[Soyuz TMA-7]]&lt;br&gt; |Planned: [[April 8]] [[2006]] |[[Soyuz TMA-7]] |style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|~189 |- ![[Expedition 13]] |''[[Pavel Vinogradov]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Jeffrey Williams]] - U.S.A.&lt;br&gt;[[Thomas Reiter]] - Germany |colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;|Scheduled [[March 30]]&amp;ndash;[[September 23]], [[2006]] |- ![[Expedition 14]] |''[[Michael Lopez-Alegria ]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Mikhail Tyurin]] - Russia&lt;br&gt;[[Sunita Williams]] - U.S.A. |colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;|Scheduled for [[september 13]], [[2006]]&amp;ndash;March [[2007]] |- ![[Expedition 15]] |''[[Olag Kotov]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Clayton Anderson]] - U.S.A.&lt;br&gt;[[Fyodor Yurchikhin]] - Russia&lt;br&gt; |colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;|Scheduled for [[March 9]]&amp;ndash;September [[2007]] |} The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of [[August 28]], [[2005]], it has had 141 (non-distinct) visitors. [[Mir]] had 137 (non-distinct) visitors (See [[Space station#List of occupied space stations, with statistics|Space station]]). {{International Space Station}} ==See also== ===ISS-related articles=== {{commons|International Space Station}} *[[List of International Space Station visitors]] *[[List of ISS spacewalks]] performed from the ISS or visiting spacecraft *[[List of manned spaceflights to the ISS]] for a comprehensive chronological list of all manned spacecraft that have visited the ISS, including the spacecraft's respective crews *[[List of unmanned spaceflights to the ISS]] &amp;mdash; Progress supply flights and unmanned automatic docking space station modules &lt;!-- Maybe someone can add (make) a list of respective unmanned craft as well? --&gt; ===Other=== *[[Space station]] for statistics of occupied space stations *[[Salyut]] *[[Skylab]] *[[Mir]] *[[Soyuz spacecraft]] *[[Progress spacecraft]] *[[Kliper]] *[[Transhab]] *[[International Space Station (Orbiter sim) | Rendering]] of ISS in [[Orbiter (sim)| Orbiter]] [[space flight]] [[flight_simulator|simulator]] *[[Herman Potočnik]] ==References== [[Image:ISS altitude.gif|thumb|right|200px|{{Note|altitude}} A graph of the altitude of the ISS since launch]] *[http://www.spaceref.com/iss/ SpaceRef] - Regularly updated detailed status reports of the station. *[http://vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/td9702.pdf ISS Familiarization and Training Manual - NASA July 1998 (PDF format)] *[http://www.spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/isstodate.html Current ISS Vital Statistics] ==External links== * [http://science.nasa.gov/Realtime/JTrack/3D/JTrack3D.html NASA 3D Java Tracker for ISS and other Satellites] * [http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/iss/default.asp International Space Station &amp;mdash; CSA Site] * [http://www.energia.ru/english/energia/iss/iss.html International Space Station &amp;mdash; Energia site] * [http://www.esa.int/esaHS/iss.html International Space Station &amp;mdash; ESA site] * [http://www.jaxa.jp/missions/projects/iss_human/index_e.html International Space Station &amp;mdash; JAXA site] * [http://www.aeb.gov.br/conteudo.php?ida=28&amp;idc=118 International Space Station &amp;mdash; AEB site] * [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html International Space Station &amp;mdash; NASA site] * [http://stream1.euronews.net:8080/ramgen/mag/space-issquovadis-en.rm?usehostname International Space Station &amp;mdash; EuroNews report (Real player video stream)] * [http://www.astronautix.com/craft/intation.htm International Space Station] from [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]] * [http://spd.nasa.gov/ NASA Space Partnership Development] * [http://procurement.jsc.nasa.gov/cots/ NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program] * [http://spacelink.nasa.gov/NASA.Projects/Human.Exploration.and.Development.of.Space/Space.Product.Development/.index.html Spacelink &amp;mdash; Space Product Development] * [http://www.planetary.org/ The Planetary Society] * http://www.seds.org/pub/seds/National/misc/why-space * [http://http://www.perseus.gr/Astro-Sat-Trans-2005-07-28.htm Solar Transit: ISS with Discovery] &amp;mdash; The ISS with STS-114 transit the sun. * [http://esa.heavens-above.com/esa/iss_step1.asp See the ISS from your home town] * [http://www.heavens-above.com/ Heavens Above] &amp;mdash; locate ISS, and find when to view it, from any location. * [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/future/index.html NASA Human Spaceflight - ISS Assembly Sequence webpage] and [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/sightings/cities/index.cgi ISS sighting by city] * [http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/shuttle/manifest.txt Unofficial Shuttle Launch Manifest] * [http://gmaps.tommangan.us/spacecraft_tracking.html Track the ISS] with Google Maps * http://www.issfanclub.com {{International Space Station}} {{ISS modules}} {{US manned space programs}} {{Russian manned space programs}} [[Category:International Space Station]] [[Category:Space stations]] [[Category:Manned spacecraft]] [[Category:Big Science]] {{Link FA|bg}} {{Link FA|fr}} {{Link FA|pt}} [[bg:Международна космическа станция]] [[ca:Estació Espacial Internacional]] [[cs:Mezinárodní vesmírná stanice]] [[da:Den Internationale Rumstation]] [[de:Internationale Raumstation]] [[es:Estación Espacial Internacional]] [[eo:Internacia Kosmostacio]] [[fr:Station spatiale internationale]] [[gl:Estación Espacial Internacional]] [[id:Stasiun Luar Angkasa Internasional]] [[is:Alþjóðlega geimstöðin]] [[it:Stazione Spaziale Internazionale]] [[he:תחנת החלל הבינלאומית]] [[hu:Nemzetközi Űrállomás]] [[nl:Internationaal ruimtestation ISS]] [[ja:国際宇宙ステーション]] [[nn:Den internasjonale romstasjonen]] [[no:Den internasjonale romstasjonen]] [[pl:Międzynarodowa Stacja Kosmiczna]] [[pt:Estação Espacial Internacional]] [[ru:Международная космическая станция]] [[sk:Medzinárodná vesmírna stanica]] [[sr:Међународна свемирска станица]] [[fi:Kansainvälinen avaruusasema]] [[sv:ISS]] [[vi:Trạm Vũ trụ Quốc tế]] [[zh:国际空间站]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Irish</title> <id>15044</id> <revision> <id>41888675</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:09:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Reinoutr</username> <id>158685</id> </contributor> <comment>reverted vandalism by 193.112.136.21</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Irish''' may refer to: * [[Irish people]], people of Irish ethnicity, originating from Ireland * [[Irish language]], a Goidelic language spoken on the island of Ireland and by small diaspora communities worldwide * [[Irish whiskey]], a famous type of whiskey of Irish origin * &quot;Fighting Irish&quot;, the athletic teams of the [[University of Notre Dame]], sometimes referred simply as the Irish [[Category:Ireland]] {{disambig}} [[de:Irisch]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cosmicomics</title> <id>15045</id> <revision> <id>34366742</id> <timestamp>2006-01-08T14:09:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.68.228.49</ip> </contributor> <comment>Interwiki Persian</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cosmicomics''' is a series of short stories by [[Italo Calvino]]. Each story takes a scientific fa
Defeat]]''. After the release of ''[[Half-Life 2]]'' Valve developed these mods for the sequel and sold them through their Internet [[digital distribution]] software, [[Steam (content delivery)|Steam]]. Recently, computer games have also been used as a [[digital art]] medium. See [[artistic computer game modification]] and [[Machinima]]. ==Naming== Non-gamers use several [[umbrella term]]s for console, PC, arcade, handheld, and similar games since they do not agree on the best name. For many, either &quot;computer game&quot; or &quot;video game&quot; describes these games as a whole. Other commonly used terms include &quot;entertainment software,&quot; &quot;interactive entertainment media,&quot; &quot;electronic interactive entertainment,&quot; &quot;electronic game,&quot; &quot;software game,&quot; and &quot;videogame&quot; (as one word). Gamers are quite happy to use the vague term &quot;games&quot;, or &quot;videogame/video game&quot; to distinguish them from board games and card games when necessary. Computer and video games are a subset of [[interactive media]], which includes [[virtual reality]], [[flight simulators|flight]] and [[engineering]] simulation, [[multimedia]] and the [[World Wide Web]]. ==See also== {{sisterlinks|Computer and video games}} * [[List of gaming topics|Computer and video game articles by topic]] * [[:Category:Computer and video games|Computer and video game articles by category]] * [[Computer and video game industry]] ==References== # {{note|pcsales}} {{cite web | publisher = Entertainment Software Association (ESA) | year = 2004 | url = http://theesa.com/facts/sales_genre_data.php | title = Sales &amp; Genre data | accessdate = February 12 | accessyear = 2006 }} # {{note|avgage}} {{cite web | publisher = Entertainment Software Association (ESA) | year = 2006 | url = http://www.theesa.com/facts/top_10_facts.php | title = Top 10 Industry Facts | accessdate = February 12 | accessyear = 2006 }} # {{note|piracy}} {{cite web | author = Blodget, Henry | year = April 12, 2005 | url = http://slate.msn.com/id/2116629/ | title = How to Solve China's Piracy Problem | publisher = Slate.com | accessdate = February 12 | accessyear = 2006 }} # {{note label|sales|a|a}} {{note label|sales|b|b}} {{cite web | year = January 18, 2005 | url = http://gameinfowire.com/news.asp?nid=5650 | title = U.S. video game industry sales dip in 2004 | publisher = Game Info Wire | accessdate = February 12 | accessyear = 2006 }} # {{note|uspcsales}} {{cite web | author = Winegarner, Beth | year = January 28, 2005 | url = http://www.gamespot.com/news/2005/01/28/news_6117438.html | title = Game sales hit record highs | publisher = Gamespot | accessdate = February 12 | accessyear = 2006 }} * {{cite web | author = Lieu, Tina | date = August 1997 | url = http://www.cjmag.co.jp/magazine/issues/1997/aug97/0897pcgames.html | title = Where have all the PC games gone?&quot; | publisher = Computing Japan }} * {{cite web | author = Costikyan, Greg | date = 1994 | url = http://www.costik.com/nowords.html | title = I Have No Words &amp; I Must Design }} * {{cite web | author = Crawford, Chris | date = 1982 | url = http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/game-book/Coverpage.html | title = The Art of Computer Game Design }} * {{cite web | author = Jensen, Kirk | date = 2006 | url = http://www.gameznstuff.com/content/view/32/37/ | title = Video Games Vs The Movies }} &lt;!-- =============================================================================================== Please do not add links here without first discussing your potential addition on the talk page. =============================================================================================== (Select the &quot;discussion&quot; tab.) There have been concerns raised over (having too many) external links. Some people feel that this section is being used to advertise, or that links may be otherwise innappropriate -- that is, not helpful to the reader. If you feel that you have a good link to add, please propose it in the talk page. If you add a link without discussion, your edit may be reverted. =============================================================================================== --&gt; {{VideoGameGenre}} {{vg-industry}} [[Category:Computer and video games| {{PAGENAME}}]] [[ca:Videojoc]] [[cs:Počítačová hra]] [[da:Computerspil]] [[de:Computerspiel]] [[eo:Komputila ludo]] [[es:Videojuego]] [[fa:???????? ?????????]] [[fi:Tietokonepeli]] [[fr:Jeu vidéo]] [[he:???? ????]] [[it:Videogioco]] [[ja:??????????]] [[ko:??? ??]] [[lt:Kompiuterinis žaidimas]] [[nl:Computerspel]] [[nn:dataspel]] [[no:Dataspill]] [[pl:Gry komputerowe]] [[pt:Jogo electrónico]] [[ru:???????????? ????]] [[simple:Video game]] [[sr:???????????? ????]] [[sv:Datorspel]] [[th:เกมคอมพิวเตอร์และวิดีโอเกม]] [[tr:Bilgisayar Oyunlari]] [[zh:電子遊戲]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christianity/Symbolism</title> <id>5364</id> <revision> <id>15903575</id> <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:51:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christian symbolism]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christianity/Fish</title> <id>5365</id> <revision> <id>15903576</id> <timestamp>2004-08-13T19:52:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ichthys]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cambrian</title> <id>5367</id> <revision> <id>41886085</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:30:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cambrian''' is a major division of the [[geologic timescale]] that begins about 542 [[annum|Ma]] (million years ago) at the end of the [[Proterozoic]] [[eon (geology)|eon]] and ended about 488.3 Ma with the beginning of the [[Ordovician]] [[Geologic period|period]] ([[International Commission on Stratigraphy|ICS]], 2004). It is the first period of the [[Paleozoic]] [[Era (geology)|era]] of the [[Phanerozoic]] eon. The Cambrian is the earliest period in whose rocks are found numerous large, distinctly-fossilizable [[Metazoa|multicellular]] organisms that are more complex than sponges or medusoids. During this time, roughly fifty separate major groups of organisms or &quot;[[Phylum (biology)|phyla]]&quot; (a phylum defines the basic body plan of some group of modern or extinct animals) emerged suddenly, in most cases without evident precursors. This radiation of animal phyla is referred to as the '''[[Cambrian explosion]]'''. {{Paleozoic Footer}} == Cambrian subdivisions == The Cambrian period follows after the [[Neoproterozoic]] and is followed by the [[Ordovician]] period. The Cambrian is divided into three [[geologic time scale|epoch]]s — the [[Early Cambrian]] (Lower Cambrian, Caerfai or Waucoban), [[Middle Cambrian]] (St Davids or Albertian) and [[Furongian]] (a.k.a. Late/Upper Cambrian, Merioneth or Croixan). Each of the epochs are divided into two [[faunal stage]]s. Only one, [[Paibian]] has been recognized by the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]]. Others are still unnamed. However, the Cambrian is divided into several regional faunal stages: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; | ! ! Chinese ! North American ! Russian-Kazakhian ! Australian ! Regional |- ! rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | [[Furongian]] | | [[Ibexian]] (part) | [[Ayusokkanian]] | [[Idamean]] | [[Dolgellian]] |- | | [[Sunwaptan]] | [[Sakian]] | [[Mindyallan]] | [[Festiniogian]] |- | | [[Steptoan]] | [[Aksayan]] | [[Payntonian]] | [[Maentwrogian]] |- | | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Marjuman]] | [[Batyrbayan]] | | |- ! rowspan=&quot;5&quot; | [[Middle Cambrian]] | [[Maozhangian]] | [[Mayan stage|Mayan]] | [[Boomerangian]] | |- | [[Zuzhuangian]] | [[Delamaran]] | [[Amgan]] | [[Undillian]] | |- | [[Zhungxian]] | | | [[Florian stage|Florian]] | |- | | | | [[Templetonian]] | |- | &amp;nbsp; | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Dyeran]] | | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Ordian]] | |- ! rowspan=&quot;5&quot; | [[Early Cambrian]] | [[Longwangmioan]] | [[Toyonian]] | [[Lenian]] |- | [[Changlangpuan]] | [[Montezuman]] | [[Botomian]] | | |- | [[Qungzusian]] | | [[Atdabanian]] | | |- | [[Meishuchuan]] | | [[Tommotian]] | | |- | | | [[Nemakit-Daldynian]] | | |} ===Cambrian dating=== The time range for the Cambrian has classically been thought to have been from about [[1 E16 s|500 Ma]] to about [[1 E16 s|570 Ma]]. The lower boundary of the Cambrian was traditionally set at the earliest appearance of early [[arthropod]]s known as [[trilobite]]s and of primitive [[reef]]-forming animals known as [[archeocyatha|archeocyathids]]. The end of the period was eventually set at a fairly definite faunal change now identified as an [[extinction event]]. [[Fossil]] discoveries and [[radioactive dating]] in the last quarter of the [[20th century]] have called these dates into question. Date inconsistencies as large as 20 million years are common between authors. Framing dates of ''ca.'' (approximately) 545 to 490 Ma were proposed by the International Subcommission on Global Stratigraphy as recently as 2002. A radiometric date from [[New Brunswick]] puts the end of the first stage of the Cambrian around [[1 E16 s|511 Ma]]. This leaves 21 million years for the other two stages of the Cambrian. A more precise date [[1 E16 s|542 Ma]] (plus or minus 300,000 years) for the extinction event at the beginning of th
ich corresponds today to the [[Asia]]n portion of [[Turkey]], as opposed to the [[Europe]]an portion, [[Rumelia]]. It means &quot;rising of the sun&quot; or &quot;East&quot;. The Turkish word '''Anadolu''' derives from the original Greek version. It also often called by the [[Latin]] name of '''Asia Minor'''. Because of its strategic location at the intersection of Asia and [[Europe]], Anatolia has been a cradle for several [[civilization]]s since [[prehistoric]] ages, with [[Neolithic]] settlements such as [[Çatalhöyük]] (Pottery Neolithic), [[Çayönü]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] to pottery Neolithic), [[Nevali Cori]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]]), [[Hacilar]] (Pottery Neolithic), [[Göbekli Tepe]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]]) and [[Mersin]]. The settlement of [[Troy]] starts in the Neolithic and continues forward into the Iron Age. Major civilizations and peoples that have settled in or conquered Anatolia include the [[Colchians]], [[Hattians]], [[Luwian]]s, [[Hittites]], [[Phrygia]]ns, [[Cimmerian]]s, [[Lydia]]ns, [[Persians]], [[Celt]]s, [[Tabal]]s, [[Meshech]]s, [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], [[Pelasgians]], [[Armenians]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Goths]], [[Kurds]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Seljuk Turks]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. These peoples belonged to many varied [[ethnic]] and [[linguistic]] traditions. Through recorded history, Anatolians have spoken both [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] languages, as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European [[Hittite language|Hittite]] and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo-European languages have radiated. Other authors have proposed an Anatolian origin for the [[Etruscans]] of ancient [[Italy]]. &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Asia Minor Ancient Map.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Asia Minor in Antiquity]] --&gt; Today the inhabitants of Anatolia are mostly native speakers of the [[Turkish language]], which was introduced with the conquest of Anatolia by [[Turkic peoples]] and the rise of the [[Seljuk Empire]] in the [[11th century]]. However, Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early [[20th century]] (see [[Rise of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]]). The Turks in [[Thrace]] were forced to leave their homes and settle in Anatolia during the [[Balkan Wars]]. The last population exchange, as result of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]], between Turkey and Greece eliminated the majority of Turks in Greece and Greeks in Turkey. A significant [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] ethnic and linguistic minority exists in the south eastern regions, while [[Armenian people|Armenians]] have a waning presence in the northeast and in cities. == States of Anatolia == Anatolia has been the center of many great states throughout history. The first known state was built by Hittites. {{Template:History_of_Anatolia}} {|style=&quot;border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:2px; font-size:85%;&quot; align=center | colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; | States that existed over the Anatolia |- |[[History of Hattians and Hittites|Old Kingdom]] |[[Ionia]] |[[Byzantine Empire]] |- |[[History of the New Kingdom|New Kingdom]] |[[Hellenistic Greece]] |[[Nicaean Empire]] |- |[[History of the Neo-Hittite Kingdoms|Neo-Hittite]] |[[Pergamon]] |[[Ottoman Empire]] |- |[[Urartu]] |[[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]] |[[Roman Greece]] |[[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] |} == Ottoman Rule of Asia Minor after 1885== After 1885, with the governing reforms of [[Tanzimat]], the control of the Ottoman land in Asia Minor divided into 15 [[vilayet]]s, one [[sanjak]] and one mutersaflik of the vilayet of [[Constantinople]] (both being on the asiatic side of the [[Bosporus]]). Every vilayet was further divided in a number of sanjaks. More specifically the political division of Asia Minor in 1915 was as follows; * Vilayet of [[Izmir]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Manisa]], Izmir, [[Aydin]], [[Denizli]], [[Mentese]] * Independent vilayet of the [[Dardanelles]] * Vilayet of [[Bursa Province|Bursa]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Balikesir]], Bursa, Erdogrul, [[Kutahya]], [[Afyon]] * Vilayet of [[Konya]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Burdur]], [[Hamid abad]], [[Atalya]], Konya, [[Nigde]] * Vilayet of [[Kastamonu]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Bolu]], [[Cankiri]], Kastamonu, [[Sinop]] * Vilayet of [[Ankara]] divided in the sanjaks of Ankara, [[Kirsehir]], [[Yozgat]], [[Kayseri]] * Vilayet of [[Adana]], divided in the sanjaks of Icel([[Mersin]]), Adana, Hozan, Jebel-i-Bereket * Vilayet of [[Sivas]] divided in the sanjaks of Sivas, [[Tokat]], [[Amasya]], Karahisar-Sarki * Vilayet of [[Trabzon]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Samsun]], Trabzon, Argiropolis, [[Lazistan]] * Vilayet of [[Erzurum]] * Vilayet of [[Bitlis]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Mus]], Ghen, [[Siirt]] * Vilayet of [[Van]] divided in the sanjaks of Van, [[Hakkari]] * Vilayet of Mosul divided in the sanjaks of Mosul, Sehrizan, Suleymanih * Vilayet of Mamure-ul-Azil divided in the sanjak of [[Diyarbakir]] and the mutersaflik of Zor * Vilayet of Halep divided in the sanjaks of Halep, [[Urfa]], [[Kahramanmaraş|Maras]] Also the * Independent mutersaflik of [[Izmit]] and * the sanjak of [[Uskudar]] == Ethnic distribution in Asia Minor in the early 20th century (before the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]) == Based on French [[census]] files of [[1915]] the total population of Asia Minor (not including [[Eastern Thrace]], the vilayets of the orient &amp; the city of Constantinople) was 10,372,411 persons of all nationalities and religions. More specifically the distribution of differerent [[ethnic group]]s as per [[Vilayet]] and [[Sanjak]] is as follows; {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- style=&quot;background-color:#C9C9C9&quot; |- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; ! Sanjak or Vilayet !! Greeks !! Turks !! Armenians !! Rest !! Total |- |'''Sanjak of Uskudar''' || 74,457 || 124,281 || 35,560 || 24,192 || 258,490 |- |'''Mutersaflik of Izmit''' || 73,134 || 116,949 || 48,635 || 3,615 || 242,333 |- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; | '''Vilayet of the Dardanelles''' || 32,830 || 138,902 || 2,336 || &amp;nbsp; || 177,894 |- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; |colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Izmir''': |- | Sanjak of Izmir || 449,044 || 219,494 || 11,395 || &amp;nbsp; || 754,046 |- | Sanjak of Manisa || 83,625 || 247,778 || 3,960 || &amp;nbsp; ||337,925 |- | Sanjak of Aydin || 54,633 || 162,554 || 634 || &amp;nbsp; ||219,959 |- | Sanjak of Mentese || 27,798 || 197,317 || 430 || &amp;nbsp; ||205,457 |- | Sanjak of Denizli || 7,710 || 113,700 || 0 || &amp;nbsp; ||142,142 |- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; |colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Bursa''': |- | Sanjak of Bursa || 82,503 || 215,492 || 50,809 || &amp;nbsp; ||353,976 |- | Sanjak of Balikesir || 150,946 || 194,391 || 17,882 || &amp;nbsp; ||239,236 |- | Sanjak of Kutahya || 16,800 || 244,698 || 5,040 || &amp;nbsp; ||250,938 |- | Sanjak of Afyon || 1,200 || 291,317 || 8,800 || &amp;nbsp; ||317,017 |- | Sanjak of Erdogrul (Bilecig) || 26,970 || 246,851 || 7,495 || &amp;nbsp; ||408,957 |- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; |colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Konya''': |- | Sanjak of Konya || 8,589 || 294,191 || 6,900 || &amp;nbsp; ||325,180 |- | Sanjak of Atalya || 10,253 || 196,087 || 489 || &amp;nbsp; ||207,258 |- | Sanjak of Burdur || 2,565 || 149,968 || 987 || &amp;nbsp; ||153,565 |- | Sanjak of Nigde || 55,518 || 174,140 || 753 || &amp;nbsp; ||230,490 |- | Sanjak of Hamid Abad (Isparta) || 10,096 || 174,337 || 600 || &amp;nbsp; ||185,056 |- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; |colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Ankara''': |- | Sanjak of Ankara || 3,154 || 265,283 || 14,019 || &amp;nbsp; ||283,043 |- | Sanjak of Kirsehir || 717 || 116,999 || 346 || &amp;nbsp; ||118,062 |- | Sanjak of Kayseri || 23,201 || 157,331 || 44,985 || &amp;nbsp; ||226,912 |- | Sanjak of Yozgat || 18,801 || 128,787 || 39,448 || &amp;nbsp; ||194,281 |- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; |colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Kastamonu''': |- | Sanjak of Kastamonu || 10,783 || 334,337 || 1,424 || &amp;nbsp; ||346,552 |- | Sanjak of Sinop || 7,986 || 319,224 || 507 || &amp;nbsp; ||324,738 |- | Sanjak of Kankiri || 1,143 || 165,407 || 960 || &amp;nbsp; ||167,510 |- | Sanjak of Bolu || 5,007 || 119,467 || 314 || &amp;nbsp; ||129,846 |- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; |colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Sivas''': |- | Sanjak of Sivas || 7,702 || 451,214 || 64,070 || &amp;nbsp; ||522,986 |- | Sanjak of Amasya || 36,739 || 198,000 || 50,600 || &amp;nbsp; ||285,339 |- | Sanjak of Karahisar-Sarki || 27,761 || 38,500 || 18,046 || &amp;nbsp; ||84,307 |- | Sanjak of Tokat || 27,174 || 151,800 || 37,919 || &amp;nbsp; ||216,893 |- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; |colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Trebzon''': |- | Sanjak of Trabzon || 154,774 || 404,656 || 26,321 || &amp;nbsp; ||583,751 |- | Sanjak of Samsun (Djanik) || 136,087 || 233,454 || 22,585 || &amp;nbsp; ||392,126 |- | Sanjak of Lazistan || 2,924 || 231,885 || 0 || &amp;nbsp; ||234,809 |- | Sanjak of Argiropolis (Gumus-Haneh) || 59,748 || 87,871 || 1,718 || &amp;nbsp; ||149,337 |} ==See also== *[[Hayastan]] (Greater Armenia) *[[Cilicia]] (Lesser Armenia) *[[Western Armenia]] (Ottoman Armenia) *[[Kurdistan]] *[[Lazistan]] *[[Pontus]] *[[Ajaria]] *[[List of ethnic groups]] *[[Levant]] *[[Ancient Near East]] *[[Middle East]] *[[History of Ottoman Armenia]] [[Category:Anatolia| ]] [[Category:Middle East]] [[Category:Near East]] {{Region}} [[ar:أناضول]] [[ast:Anatolia]] [[bg:Мала Азия]] [[ca:Anatòlia]] [[cs:Malá Asie]] [[da:Anatolien]] [[de:Kleinasien]] [[et:Anatoolia]] [[el:Μικρά Ασία]] [[es:Anatolia]] [[eo:
ritish policy included Sir [[Samuel Hoare]], a future British cabinet minister, who said that :''If what is now going on in the Austrian Empire, all England would be ringing with denunciation of the tyranny of the [[House of Hapsburg|Hapsburg]]s and of denying people the right to rule themselves.''{{ref|mac5}} Typical British reprisals included the burning of houses and businesses, often with no connection to the IRA. In addition, after August 1920, the British began executing IRA prisoners. The IRA responded by killing British prisoners. In addition, suspected spies were shot and publicly dumped on roadsides. It has also been alleged that many IRA men took the opportunity to murder people against whom they had local grudges - particularly if they were [[Protestants]]. Perhaps the worst - certainly the most high profile - atrocity of the war took place in Dublin in November 1920, [[Bloody Sunday (1920)]]. In the early hours of the morning, Collin's &quot;Squad&quot; assasinated 14 British agents, some in front of their wives and families. In reprisal, British forces opened fire on a football crowd at [[Croke Park]], killing 14 civilians. The IRA was also involved in the destruction of many stately homes in [[Munster]]. These belonged to prominent Loyalists{{ref|Loyalists}} who were aiding the Crown forces, and were burnt to discourage the British policy of destroying the homes of Republicans, suspected and actual. Many historic buildings in Ireland were destroyed during the war, most famously [[the Custom House]] in Dublin, which was disastrously attacked on de Valera's insistence, to the horror of the more militarily experienced Collins. As he feared, the destruction proved a pyrrhic victory for the Republic, with so many IRA men killed or captured that the IRA in Dublin suffered a severe blow. This was also a period of social upheaval in Ireland, with frequent strikes as well as other manifestations of class conflict. In this regard, the IRA acted to a large degree as an agent of social control and stability, driven by the need to preserve cross-class unity in the national struggle {{ref|Patterson}}, and on occasion being used to break strikes {{ref|Milotte}}. ==Truce and Treaty== {{main|Anglo-Irish Treaty}} [[David Lloyd George]], the British Prime Minister at the time, found himself under increasing pressure (both international and from within Britain) to try to salvage something from the situation. This was a complete reversal of his earlier position. He had consistently referred to the IRA as a &quot;murder gang&quot; up until then. An unexpected olive branch came from King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]], who, supported by [[South Africa]]n statesman General [[Jan Smuts]]{{ref|smuts}}, managed to get the British government to accept a radical re-draft of his proposed speech to the [[Northern Ireland]] parliament, meeting in [[Belfast]] City Hall in June 1921. The King had often protested about the methods employed by Crown forces to Lloyd George. [[Image:Anglo-Irish Treaty signatures.gif|thumb|The signed last page of the Anglo-Irish Treaty]] The speech, which called for reconciliation on all sides, changed the mood and enabled the British and Irish Republican governments to agree a truce. Negotiations on an [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] took place in late 1921 in London. The Irish delegation was led by [[Arthur Griffith]] and [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], as de Valera &amp;mdash; now 'President of the Republic' &amp;mdash; insisted that as head of state he could not attend, as King George was not leading the British delegation. Under the [[Government of Ireland Act 1920]], Ireland was partitioned, creating [[Northern Ireland]] and [[Southern Ireland]]. Under the terms of the Anglo-Irish agreement of [[6 December]] [[1921]], which ended the war (1919-1921), [[Northern Ireland]] was given the option of withdrawing from the new state, the [[Irish Free State]], and remaining part of the United Kingdom. The Northern Ireland parliament chose to do so. An [[Irish Boundary Commission]] was then set up to review the border. Irish leaders expected that it would so reduce Northern Ireland's size, by transferring nationalist areas to the [[Irish Free State]], as to make it economically unviable. Contrary to myth, [[partition]] was important but not the key breaking point between pro and anti-Treaty campaigners; both sides expected the Boundary Commission to emasculate Northern Ireland. ==The IRA and the Treaty== The IRA leadership was deeply divided over the decision by the Dáil to ratify the Treaty. Of the [[IRA General Headquarters|General Headquarters]] (GHQ) staff, nine members were in favour of the Treaty while four opposed it. *Pro-Treaty were [[Richard Mulcahy]] ([[List_of_IRA_Chiefs_of_Staff|Chief of Staff]]); [[Eoin O'Duffy]] (Deputy Chief of Staff); [[J.J. O'Connell]] (Assistant Chief of Staff); [[Gearóid O'Sullivan]] (Adjutant General); [[Sean McMahon]] ([[IRA_Quartermaster_General|Quartermaster General]]); [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] (Director of Intelligence); [[Diarmuid O'Hegarty]] (Director of Organisation); [[Emmet Dalton]] (Director of Training); [[Piaras Beaslai]] (Director of Publicity). *Anti- Treaty were [[Rory O'Connor (Irish republican)|Rory O'Connor]] (Director of Engineering); [[Liam Mellows]] (Director of Purchases); [[Seán Russell]] (Director of Munitions) and [[Seamus O'Donovan]] (Director of Chemicals). [[Austin Stack]], whose position on the GHQ staff was ambiguous after Brugha tried to foist him on GHQ, was also anti-Treaty. On [[10 January]], at least three anti-Treaty members of the IRA GHQ (one account claims four); six divisional commanders and the officers commanding of the two [[Dublin]] brigades meet to formulate their anti-Treaty strategy. They argued that the IRA's allegiance was to the Dáil of the [[Irish Republic]] and the decision of the Dáil to accept the Treaty meant that the IRA no longer owed that body its allegiance. They called for the IRA to withdraw from the authority of the Dáil and to entrust the [[IRA Executive]] with control over the army. The following day, this group issued Mulcahy with a letter requesting that an Army Convention be held on [[5 February]] to discuss these proposals. The letter is signed by GHQ staff Rory O’Connor, Liam Mellows, Seán Russell, and Seamus O’Donovan, as well as [[Oscar Traynor]], [[Liam Lynch]] and other IRA commandants. On [[13 January]], Mulcahy replied to the anti-Treaty IRA officers to state that he would not call a convention without the authority of Dáil Eireann as the Government of the Republic. On same day, Rory O’Connor wrote to Eoin O’Duffy stating that a convention would be called regardless. O'Connor added that O’Duffy’s orders would only be obeyed by the anti-Treaty section provided they were countersigned by himself. On [[16 January]], the first IRA division – the 2nd Southern Division – repudiated the authority of the GHQ. On [[18 January]], Richard Mulcahy chaired a meeting of the GHQ Staff, divisional commandants and some brigade commandants. It agreed to hold an Army Convention within two months and that, in a meantime, a 'watchdog' committee would be set up with representatives from both sides. This committee did not meet often, however. A month later, on [[18 February]], [[Liam Forde]], O/C of the [[IRA Mid-Limerick Brigade]], issued a proclamation stating that: &quot;We no longer recognise the authority of the present head of the army, and renew our allegiance to the existing Irish Republic&quot;. This was the first unit of the IRA to break with the pro-Treaty government. On [[24 February]], the 'watchdog' committee established a month earlier met. Rory O'Connor requested Mulcahy to secure Dáil approval to hold an army convention on [[26 March]]. Three days later on [[27 February]], the Dáil Cabinet sanctioned the Minister of Defence's request to hold an Army Convention. This decision was duly announced by IRA chief of staff, Eoin O’Duffy, who requested brigade conventions to assemble to elect delegates. On [[5 March]], a stand-off developed between pro- and anti-IRA forces in [[Limerick]] over who would take control of a military barracks vacated by the departing British troops. A compromise was reached around the 12/[[13 March]]. Clearly concerned at developments in Ireland, and in Limerick in particular, on [[14 March]] [[Winston Churchill]] wrote to [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], warning him that: &quot;An adverse decision by the convention of the Irish Republican Army (so called) would, however, be a very grave event at the present juncture. I presume you are quite sure there is no danger of this&quot;. The following day, [[15 March]], the Dáil cabinet decided to prohibit the holding of the Army Convention scheduled to take place on [[26 March]]. Amateur historian [[Dorothy Macardle]] claims that the banning of the convention arose because &quot;Mulcahy realised that 70 to 80 per cent of the IRA was against the Treaty and he feared that the Convention could have been used to establish a military dictatorship&quot;. However, issuing a summons under the title [[Republican Military Council]], 50 IRA senior officers including 4 GHQ staff, 5 divisional commanders and a number of brigade commandants, decided to go ahead with Convention. On [[22 March]], Rory O'Connor holds what was to become an infamous press conference at the headquarters of the republican party ([[Cumann na Poblachta]]) in Suffolk Street, Dublin. He declares that the army is &quot;in a dilemma, having the choice of supporting its oath to the Republic or still giving allegiance to the Dáil, which, it considers, has abandoned the Republic. The contention of the army&quot;, he says, &quot;is that the Dáil did a thing that it had no right to do.&quot; When asked if he would obey President [[Arthur Griffith]], he said he would not as he ha
]] and [[John Rogers (Fifth monarchy man)|John Rogers]]. Fifth Monarchists believed that the timing of the events of the Interregnum were significant because the calendar year of [[1666]] loomed large on the near horizon. The number [[Number of the Beast (numerology)|666]] had been identified in the [[Biblical]] [[Book of Revelation]] with the ultimate human [[despot]] to rule the world, but who would be replaced by the [[second coming#Christianity|second coming]] of Jesus as the [[Messiah]], it only added to the belief that the Fifth Monarchy was about to begin. ==The English Commonwealth== A number of ''Fifth Monarchists'' took a leading part in the events of the time. Thomas Harrison and John Carew were [[List of regicides of Charles I#Commissioners|Commissioners]] (Judges) at the trial of Charles I and signed the death warrant. Following Charles' death, Oliver Cromwell set up the Commonwealth as a more pure form of government and to replace the already existing monarchy. Cromwell had not intended it, but not too long after establishing the Commonwelth, he dismissed the Parliament, and in effect, became a military dictator. {{section-stub}} ==Nominated Assembly and Protectorate== After the forcible dissolution of the [[Rump Parliament]] by Oliver Cromwell, the [[Grandee]]s of the Army [[Council of Officers]] were reluctant to authorise free elections because they were aware that the members returned by the traditional constituency would return Presbyterians and Royalist as well as their own sympathisers. They were not at all sure that the majority would be any more compliant than the Rump. Major-General [[Thomas Harrison]], who had commanded the troop which aided Oliver Cromwell in dissolving the Rump, suggested that there be a ruling body based upon the Old Testament ''Sanhedrin'' of 70 selected &quot;Saints&quot;, which was based on his beliefs, as a Fifth Monarchist, that the rule of the Saints would usher in the reign of Christ on Earth. A modified version of this proposal was accepted by Cromwell and the Council of Officers and less than a month after the dissolution of the Rump, during May 1653, letters in the name of the Lord-General and the Army Council were sent to Congregational churches in every county in England to nominate those they considered fit to take part in the new government. The total number of nominees was one hundred and forty, one hundred and twenty nine from England, five from Scotland and six from Ireland. The arrest of Feake and Powell, two of the most violent of their number, was sufficient for a time to dampen their ardour, but many of the delegates to the [[Nominated Assembly|Nominated Assembly of Saints]], or as its detractors called the &quot;[[Barebones Parliament]]&quot; after one of the members [[Praise-God Barebones]], were from congregations with Fifth Monarchist sympathies. The assembly which met from July until December 1653, was the high water mark of Fifth Monarchist influence on national politics. Fearing their ultra-radical ideas, which crystallised in an attack on [[tithes]], the conservative faction led by Major-General [[John Lambert (General)|John Lambert]], supported by the use of troops to deny access to the radical factions, engineered a vote for the dissolution of the assembly, which was passed on [[December 12]], 1653. The collapse of the radical consensus which had spawned the Nominated Assembly led to the [[Grandee]]s passing the [[Instrument of Government]] in the [[English Council of State|Council of State]] which paved the way for Cromwell's [[The Protectorate|Protectorate]]. The Fifth Monarchist were horrified at the establishment of Cromwell's Protectorate and plotted to overthrow the regime. Two plots were uncovered and broken up in [[1657]] and [[1659]]. ==Restoration== After the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] on [[October 14]], [[1660]] Major-General [[Thomas Harrison]] was the first person to be found guilty of the [[regicide]] of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]. He had been [[List of regicides of Charles I#Commissioners|the seventeenth of fifty nine commissioners]] (judges) to sign the death warrant of the king in [[1649]]. He was the first regicide to be [[hanged, drawn and quartered]] because he was considered by the new government to still represent a real threat to the re-established order. This threat was realised when on [[January 6]], [[1661]], 50 Fifth Monarchists, headed by a wine-cooper named [[Thomas Venner]], made an effort to attain possession of London in the name of &quot;King Jesus.&quot; Most of the fifty were either killed or taken prisoner, and on [[January 19]] and [[January 21|21]], Venner and ten others were hanged, drawn and quartered for high [[treason]]. The failure of Venner's Rising led to repressive legislation to suppress non-conformist sects. Although some physical events such as the [[Great Plague]] and the [[Great Fire of London]] continued to encourage belief in &quot;the end of the world&quot; ruled by carnal human beings; the doctrine of the sect either died out, or became merged in a milder form of [[Millenarianism]]. ==See also== *[[Religion in the United Kingdom]] *[[English Dissenters]] *[[John Lilburne]] *[[Gerrard Winstanley]] ==External links== * [http://www.exlibris.org/nonconform/engdis/fifthmonarchists.html Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men] * [http://www.seventh-day-baptist.org.au/library/books/mumford.htm THE TIMES OF STEPHEN MUMFORD] See the sections on &quot;John James&quot;, &quot;Efforts at Conformity&quot; and &quot;Fifth Monarchy Views&quot;. ==Reference== *''Fifth Monarchy Men: Study in Seventeenth Century English Millenarianism'' by Bernard Capp ISBN 057109791X [[Category:Fifth Monarchists| ]] [[sv:Femte monarkins män]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fluid Dynamics</title> <id>11019</id> <revision> <id>27283018</id> <timestamp>2005-11-03T20:58:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.67.98.64</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fluid dynamics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>February 15</title> <id>11020</id> <revision> <id>41648496</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:00:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DropDeadGorgias</username> <id>8903</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Davesilvan|Davesilvan]] ([[User talk:Davesilvan|talk]]) to last version by Zimbabweed</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{FebruaryCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=15}} |} '''February 15''' is the 46th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 319 days remaining (320 in [[leap year]]s). ==Events== *[[399 BC]] - The philosopher [[Socrates]] is sentenced to death. *[[1637]] - [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]] becomes [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. *[[1764]] - The city of [[St. Louis, Missouri]] is established. *[[1805]] - [[Harmony Society]] is officially formed. *[[1852]] - [[Great_Ormond_Street_Hospital|Great Ormond St Hospital for Sick Children]], [[London]], admits its first patient. *[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[General]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]] attacks [[Fort Donelson]], [[Tennessee]]. *[[1879]] - [[Women's rights]]: [[United States|American]] [[President of the United States|President]] [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] signs a bill allowing female [[lawyer|attorney]]s to argue cases before the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. *[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[USS Maine|USS ''Maine'']] explodes and sinks in [[Havana]] harbor in [[Cuba]], killing more than 260. This event leads the [[United States]] to declare war on [[Spain]]. *[[1903]] - [[Morris Michtom]] and his wife [[Rose]] introduce the first [[teddy bear]] in [[America]]. *[[1906]] - The [[Labour Party (UK)|British Labour Party]] is organized. *[[1933]] - In [[Miami, Florida]], [[Giuseppe Zangara]] attempts to assassinate [[President of the United States|President]]-elect [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], but instead shoots [[Chicago, Illinois]] [[Mayor]] [[Anton J. Cermak]], who dies of his wounds on [[March 6]], [[1933]]. *[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Fall of Singapore]]. Following an assault by [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]ese forces, the [[British]] [[General]] [[Arthur Percival]] surrenders. About 80,000 [[British Indian Army|Indian]], [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]]n soldiers become [[prisoners of war]], the largest surrender of [[British]]-led military personnel in history. *[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: The assault on [[Monte Cassino]], [[Italy]] begins. *[[1950]] - The [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] sign a mutual defense treaty. *[[1952]] - [[King]] [[George VI]] is buried at [[St George's Chapel]] on his [[Windsor Castle]] estate. *[[1953]] - Seventeen-year-old [[Tenley Albright]] becomes the first [[United States|American]] to win the world [[figure skating]] championship. *[[1961]] - Sabena Flight 548 crashes in [[Belgium]], killing 73, including the entire [[United States]] [[figure skating]] team and several coaches. *[[1965]] - A new red-and-white [[maple]] leaf design is adopted as the [[flag of Canada]], replacing the old [[Canadian Red Ensign]] banner. *[[1970]] - A [[Dominican]] [[DC-9]] crashes into the sea during takeoff from [[Santo Domingo]], killing 102. *[[1971]] - [[Decimalisation]] of [[British coinage]] is completed on [[Decimal Day]]. *[[1971]] - [[Decimalisation]] of [[Irish coinage]] is completed on [[Decimal Day]]. *[[1980]] - [[Television One]] and [[Television Two]] (formerly [[South Pacific Television]]) under the newly formed [[Television New Zealand]] goes to air for the first time. *[[1982]] - The [[drilling rig]] ''[[Ocean Ranger]]'' sinks during a storm off the coast of [[Newfoundland]], killing 84 rig workers. *[[1989]] - [[Soviet Union i
series to increase gain. Each stage of these designs is often a different type of amp to suit the needs of each stage. For instance, the first stage might be a Class A stage, feeding a class AB push-pull second stage, which then drives a class G final output stage, taking advantage for the strengths of each type, while minimizing the weaknesses. There also exist special “stacked” transistors, called [[Darlington pair]]s, which have two specially matched transistors in a single case. Transistors or other active devices are also often hooked in parallel, or “strapped”, in order to multiply the amount of current that the final output stage can deliver to the load. ===Interstage coupling method=== Audio amplifiers are sometimes classified by the coupling method of the signal at the input, output, or between stages. Different types of these include '''[[capacitance|capacitive]]''', '''[[inductance|inductive]] ([[transformer]]),''' and '''direct coupled''' amps. Each method has its advantages and compromises. ==Angle of flow== The letter system of amplifier classification assigns a letter to different designs of electronic amplifiers. These designs are classified according to the relationship between the input wave form and the output wave form, as well as the amount of time that the active components used to amplify a signal are conducting electricity. This time is measured in degrees of duration of sine wave test signal applied to the input of an amplifier, with 360 degrees representing one full cycle. ==Implementation== Amplifiers can be implemented using [[Transistor|transistors]] of various types, or [[vacuum tube]]s (valves). Other more exotic forms of amplifier are also possible using different types of devices. Such exotic amplifiers are often used for [[Microwave|microwave]] or other [[extremely high frequency]] signals. ==Amplifier classes== Amplifier circuits are classified as A, B, AB and C for [[analog circuit|analog]] designs, and class D and E for switching designs. For the analog classes, each class defines what proportion of the input signal cycle (called the [[angle of flow]]) is used to actually switch on the amplifying device: ; Class A : 100% of the input signal is used (conduction angle a = 360° or 2&amp;pi;) ; Class AB : more than 50% but less than 100% is used. (181° to 359°, &amp;pi; &lt; a &lt; 2&amp;pi;) * ''Class AB1'' applies to tube or transistor amplifiers in class AB where the grid or base is more negatively biased than it is in class A. * ''Class AB2'' applies to tube or transistor amplifiers in class AB where the grid or base is often more negatively biased than in AB1, and the input signal is often larger. When the drive is high enough to make the grid or the base more positive, the grid or base current will increase. It is possible depending on the level of the signal input for the amplifier to move from class AB1 to AB2. ; Class B : 50% of the input signal is used (a = 180° or &amp;pi;) ; Class C : less than 50% is used (0° to 179°, a &lt; &amp;pi;) This can be most easily understood using the diagrams in each section below. For the sake of illustration, a [[bipolar junction transistor]] is shown as the amplifying device, but in practice this could be a [[MOSFET]] or vacuum tube device. In an analog amplifier, the signal is applied to the input terminal of the device (base, gate or grid), and this causes a proportional output drive [[electric current|current]] to flow out of the output terminal. The output drive current is obtained from the power supply. The voltage signal shown is thus a larger version of the input, but has been changed in sign (inverted) by the amplification. Other arrangements of amplifying device are possible, but that given ([[common emitter]], [[common source]] or [[common cathode]]) is the easiest to understand and employ in practice. If the amplifying element is linear, then the output will be faithful copy of the input, only larger and inverted. In practice, transistors are not linear, and the output will only approximate the input. [[Non-linearity]] is the origin of distortion within an amplifier. Which class of amplifier (A, B, AB or C) depends on how the amplifying device is [[voltage bias|bias]]ed&amp;mdash;in the diagrams the bias circuits are omitted for clarity. Any real amplifier is an imperfect realization of an ideal amplifier. One important limitation of a real amplifier is that the output it can generate is ultimately limited by the power available from the power supply. An amplifier can saturate and clip the output if the input signal becomes too large for the amplifier to reproduce. ===Class A=== Class A amplifiers amplify over the whole of the input cycle such that the output signal is an exact scaled-up replica of the input with no clipping. Class A amplifiers are the usual means of implementing small-signal amplifiers. They are not very efficient&amp;mdash;a theoretical maximum of 25% is obtainable, but for small signals, this waste of power is still extremely small, and can be easily tolerated. It is only when we need to create output powers with appreciable levels of voltage and current does Class A become problematic. In a Class A circuit, the amplifying element is biased such that the device is always conducting to some extent, and is operated over the most linear portion of its characteristic curve (known as its [[transfer function]] or [[transconductance]] curve). Because the device is always conducting, even if there is no input at all, power is wasted. This is the reason for its inefficiency. &lt;center&gt;[[image:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_A.png]]&lt;/center&gt; If we wish to produce large output powers from a Class A circuit, the power wastage will become significant. For every [[watt]] delivered to the [[load]], the amplifier itself will, at best, waste another watt. For large powers this will call for a large power supply and large heat sink to carry away the waste heat. Class A designs have largely been superseded for [[Sound|audio]] power amplifiers, though some [[audiophile]]s believe that Class A gives the best sound quality, due to it being operated in as linear a manner as possible. In addition, some aficionados prefer vacuum tube (or &quot;valve&quot;) designs over transistors, for a number of reasons. One is that the characteristic curve of a valve means that distortion tends to be in the form of even [[harmonic]]s, which, they claim, sound more &quot;musical&quot; than odd harmonics. Another is that valves use many more [[electron]]s at once than a transistor, and so statistical effects lead to a &quot;smoother&quot; approximation of the true waveform&amp;mdash;see [[shot noise]] for more on this. Field-effect transistors have similar characteristics to valves, so these are found more often in high quality amplifiers than bipolar transistors. Historically, valve amplifiers often used a Class A power amplifier simply because valves are large and expensive; Many Class A design uses only a single device. Transistors are much cheaper, and so more elaborate designs that give greater efficiency but use more parts are still cost effective. A classic application for a pair of class A devices is the [[long-tailed pair]], which is exceptionally linear, and forms the basis of many more complex circuits, including many audio amplifiers and almost all [[operational amplifier|op-amps]]. ===Class B and AB=== Class B amplifiers only amplify half of the input wave cycle. As such they create a large amount of distortion, but their efficiency is greatly improved. This is because the amplifying element is switched off altogether half of the time, and so cannot dissipate power. A single Class B element is rarely found in practice, though it can be used in RF power amplifiers where the distortion is unimportant. However Class C is more commonly used for this. &lt;center&gt;[[Image:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_B.png]]&lt;/center&gt; A practical circuit using Class B elements is the complementary pair or &quot;push-pull&quot; arrangement. Here, complementary devices are used to each amplify the opposite halves of the input signal, which is then recombined at the output. This arrangement gives excellent efficiency, but can suffer from the drawback that there is a small glitch at the &quot;joins&quot; between the two halves of the signal. This is called [[crossover distortion]]. A solution to this is to bias the devices just on, rather than off altogether when they are not in use. This is called Class AB operation. Each device is operated in a non-linear region which is only linear over half the waveform, but still conducts a small amount on the other half. Such a circuit behaves as a class A amplifier in the region where both devices are in the linear region, however the circuit cannot strictly be called class A if the signal passes outside this region, since beyond that point only one device will remain in its linear region and the transients typical of class B operation will occur. The result is that when the two halves are combined, the crossover is greatly minimised or eliminated altogether. &lt;center&gt;[[Image:Electronic_Amplifier_Push-pull.png]]&lt;/center&gt; Class B or AB push-pull circuits are the most common form of design found in audio power amplifiers. Class AB is widely considered a good compromise for audio amplifiers, since much of the time the music is quiet enough that the signal stays in the &quot;class A&quot; region, where it is reproduced with good fidelity, and by definition if passing out of this region, is large enough that the distortion products typical of class B are relatively small. Class B and AB amplifiers are sometimes used for RF linear amplifiers as well. ===Negative feedback=== Feedback feeds the difference of the input and part of the output back to the input in a way that cancels out part of the input. The main effect is to reduce the overall gain of the system. However the unwant
rmitted [[Slavery in Colonial America|slavery]]; gray, Confederate states; green, Territories.]] After the surrender of [[Fort Sumter]], [[April 13]], [[1861]], Lincoln called for troops from all states to put down the insurrection, resulting in the secession of four more states: *[[Virginia]] ([[April 17]] [[1861]]), *[[Arkansas]] ([[May 6]] [[1861]]), *[[North Carolina]] ([[May 20]] [[1861]]), and *[[Tennessee]] ([[June 8]] [[1861]]). ===Border states=== ''Main article: [[Border states (Civil War)]]'' Along with the northwestern portion of Virginia (whose residents did not wish to secede and eventually entered the Union in 1863 as [[West Virginia]]), four of the five northernmost &quot;[[slave state]]s&quot; ([[Maryland]], [[Delaware]], [[Missouri]], and [[Kentucky]]) did not secede, and became known as the [[Border States (Civil War)|Border States]]. There was considerable anti-war or &quot;[[Copperhead]]&quot; sentiment in the southern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and some men volunteered for Confederate service; however much larger numbers, led by [[John A. Logan]], joined the Union army. [[Maryland]] had numerous pro-Confederate officials, but after [[Baltimore riot of 1861|rioting in Baltimore]] and other events had prompted a Federal declaration of [[martial law]], Union troops moved in, and arrested the pro-Confederates. Both [[Missouri]] and [[Kentucky]] remained in the Union, but factions within each state organized governments in exile that were recognized by the CSA. In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. However, pro-Southern Governor [[Claiborne F. Jackson]] called out the state militia, which was attacked in St. Louis by federal forces under General [[Nathaniel Lyon]], who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (''See also: [[Missouri secession]]''). [[Image:Map of CSA 3.png|thumb|300px|Map of territory claimed by the Confederacy]] Although Kentucky did not secede, for a time it declared itself [[neutral]]. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Southern sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a Confederate Governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. However, the military occupation of [[Columbus, Kentucky | Columbus]] by Confederate General [[Leonidas Polk]] in September 1861 turned general popular opinion in Kentucky against the Confederacy, and the state subsequently reaffirmed its loyal status and expelled the Confederate government. Residents of the northwestern counties of Virginia organized a secession from Virginia and entered the Union in 1863 as [[West Virginia]]. Similar secessions were supported in some other areas of the Confederacy (such as eastern [[Tennessee]]), but were suppressed by declarations of martial law by the Confederacy. &lt;!-- California not unique in having split sentiments [[History of California#California and the Civil War|California]] was a [[free state]] and a part of the Union. Lincoln had won a [[plurality]] there, but there were a number of Southern sympathizers. 2% of its votes went to the Southern Democrat candidate, [[John C. Breckinridge]]. California's soldiers were kept under state control and were used to keep the land routes between the Mississippi and the state open. California gold helped finance the Union war effort.[http://www.militarymuseum.org/HistoryCW.html] --&gt; ==Narrative summary: 1861 to Fort Sumter== [[Image:American Civil War Battles by Theater, Year.png|thumb|right|350px|Battles of the American Civil War by Theater, Year]] Lincoln's victory in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|presidential election of 1860]] triggered South Carolina's secession from the Union. By [[February 1]], [[1861]], six more Southern states had seceded. On [[February 7]], the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their capital at [[Montgomery, Alabama]]. The pre-war February [[peace conference of 1861]] met in Washington, as one last attempt to avoid war; it failed. The remaining southern states as yet remained in the Union. Confederate forces seized all but three federal forts within their boundaries (they did not take Fort Sumter); President Buchanan made no military response, but governors in Massachusetts, New York and Pennsylvania began secretly buying weapons and training militia units to ready them for immediate action. On [[March 4]], [[1861]], Abraham Lincoln was sworn in. In his [[Inauguration|inaugural address]], he argued that the Constitution was a ''more perfect union'' than the earlier [[Articles of Confederation|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]], that it was a binding contract, and called the secession &quot;legally void&quot;. He stated he had no intent to invade southern states, but would use force to maintain possession of federal property. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union. The South did send delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties, but they were turned down. Lincoln refused to negotiate with any Confederate agents because he insisted the Confederacy was not a legitimate government. On [[April 12]], Confederate soldiers fired upon the Federal troops stationed at [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]], until the troops surrendered. Lincoln called for all of the states in the Union to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the Union. Most Northerners hoped that a quick victory for the Union would crush the nascent rebellion, and so Lincoln only called for volunteers for 90 days. Four states, Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina, and&amp;mdash;most importantly, Virginia&amp;mdash;which had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures now decided that they could not send forces against the seceding states. They seceded and to reward Virginia the Confederate capital was moved to [[Richmond, Virginia]], a highly vulnerable location at the end of the supply line. Even though the Southern states had seceded, there was considerable anti-secessionist sentiment within several of the seceding states. Eastern Tennessee, in particular, was a hotbed for pro-Unionism. [[Winston County, Alabama]] issued a resolution of secession from the state of Alabama. The ''[[Red Strings (American politics)|Red Strings]]'' were a prominent Southern anti-secession group. [[Winfield Scott]] created the [[Anaconda Plan]] to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. His idea was that a [[Union blockade]] would strangle the rebel economy, then capture of the Mississippi would split the South. Lincoln adopted the plan but overruled Scott's warnings against an immediate attack on Richmond. ===Naval war and blockade=== {{see details|Naval Battles of the American Civil War}}[[Union blockade]] and [[Confederate States Navy]] In May 1861 Lincoln proclaimed the [[Union blockade]] of all southern ports, which shut down nearly all international traffic and most local port-to-port traffic. Although few naval battles were fought and few men were killed, the blockade shut down [[King Cotton]] and ruined the southern economy. British investors built small, very fast &quot;blockade runners&quot; that brought in military supplies (and civilian luxuries) from Cuba and the Bahamas and took out some cotton and tobacco. When the blockade captured one the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the Union sailors. The crews were British, so when they were captured they were released and not held as prisoners of war. The most famous naval battle was the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]] (often called &quot;the Battle of the ''Monitor'' and the ''Merrimac''&quot;) in March 1862, in which Confederate efforts to break the blockade were frustrated. Other naval battles included [[Battle of Island Number Ten | Island No. 10]], [[Battle of Memphis | Memphis]], [[Battle of Drewry's Bluff | Drewry's Bluff]], [[Battle of Fort Hindman | Arkansas Post]], and [[Battle of Mobile Bay | Mobile Bay]]. ===Eastern Theater 1861&amp;ndash;1863=== {{see details|Eastern Theater of the American Civil War}} Because of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at [[Manassas, Virginia]], in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. [[Irvin McDowell]] on the Confederate forces there was halted in the [[First Battle of Bull Run]], or ''First Manassas'', whereupon they were forced back to [[Washington, D.C.]], by Confederate troops under the command of Generals [[Joseph E. Johnston]] and P.G.T. Beauregard. It was in this battle that Confederate General [[Stonewall Jackson|Thomas Jackson]] received the name of &quot;Stonewall&quot; because he stood like a stone wall against Union troops. Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union, the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Crittenden-Johnson Resolution]] on [[July 25]] of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end [[slavery]]. Major General [[George B. McClellan]] took command of the Union [[Army of the Potomac]] on [[July 26]] (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. [[Henry W. Halleck]]), and the war began in earnest in [[1862]]. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan invaded Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the [[Virginia Peninsula|peninsula]] between the [[York River (Virginia)|York River]] and [[James River (Virginia)|James River]], southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the [[Peninsula Campaign]], [[Joseph E. Johnston]] halted his advance at the [[Battle of Seven Pines]], then [[Robert E. Lee]] defeated him in the [[Seven Days Battles]] and forced his retreat. McClellan was stripped of m
nter a talent competition and won. Sweden was [[Dagen H|changing over]] from driving on the left side of the road to the right and a series of spectacular shows was being aired to encourage people to stay off the roads on the night of the switchover. Invited to appear on TV that evening with her winning song, Frida's musical career took off. She met Benny Andersson on the wonted folkpark tour. They became lovers and Benny invited Anni-Frid to sing backing vocals with Agnetha on the ''Lycka'' album. The two women were uncredited for this work. ===Early years=== [[Image:People_Need_Love_small.jpg|frame|right|The cover of &quot;People Need Love,&quot; the first single released by the group.]] By the early 1970s, although Björn and Agnetha were married, they pursued their own separate musical careers. However Stig was ambitious and determined to break into the mainstream international market, not something that Swedish acts were usually known for, though previously achieved by Swedish instrumental guitar group [[The Spotnicks]] (their best known hit was &quot;Orange Blossom Special&quot;). As a result he encouraged Björn and Benny to write a song for the [[1972]] [[Eurovision Song Contest]] and it was performed by Lena Anderson. &quot;Say It With a Song&quot; won third in the contest selection rounds but was a huge hit in several countries, convincing Stig he was on the right track. Björn and Benny persevered with their songwriting and experimented with new sounds and vocal arrangements which brought some success in [[Japan]]. One of the songs they came up with was &quot;[[People Need Love]],&quot; featuring guest vocals by the girls who were now given much greater prominence than previously. Everyone involved felt enthusiastic about the new sound and Stig released it as a single, credited to ''Björn &amp; Benny, Agnetha &amp; Anni-Frid''. The record reached number 17 in the Swedish charts, enough to convince them they were on to something. [[Image:Ringring1973sleeve.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The cover of the [[1973]] version of the album ''[[Ring Ring (album)|Ring Ring]]''.]] The following year they decided to have another crack at Eurovision, this time with the song &quot;[[Ring Ring (English version)|Ring Ring]].&quot; The studio work was handled by [[Michael B. Tretow]] who experimented with a [[Phil Spector]]-like &quot;[[wall of sound]]&quot; production technique that became the wholly new ABBA sound. Stig arranged an English translation of the lyrics by [[Neil Sedaka]] and [[Phil Cody]] and they thought this would be a sure-fire winner. Yet again, it came in third. Nevertheless the proto-group put out an album called ''[[Ring Ring (album)|Ring Ring]]'', still carrying the awkward naming of ''Björn, Benny, Agnetha &amp; Frida''. The album did well and the &quot;Ring Ring&quot; single was a hit in many parts of Europe but Stig felt the true breakthrough could only come with a UK or US hit. Around this time Stig, having tired of the unwieldy names, started to refer to the group privately and publicly as ''ABBA''. This was done as a joke at first, since Abba was also the name of a well-known fish-canning company in Sweden. However, since the fish canners were more or less unknown outside Sweden, Stig came to believe the name would work in international markets and so it stuck. Later the group negotiated with the canners for the right to use the name. ===Eurovision and after=== [[Image:Waterloo Watch Out.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&quot;[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]&quot; ([[1974]])]] [[Image:Mammamiasingle.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&quot;[[Mamma Mia]]&quot; ([[1975]])]] They tried [[Eurovision Song Contest|Eurovision]] again in [[1974]], now inspired by the growing [[glam rock]] scene in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and tracks like [[Wizzard]]'s &quot;See My Baby Jive&quot;. &quot;Waterloo&quot; was an unashamedly glam-style pop track produced with Michael B. Tretow's wall of sound approach. Now far more experienced, they were better prepared for the contest and had an album's worth of material released when the show was held in [[Brighton, England]]. The song won hands down and catapulted them into British consciousness for the first time. Now they had a catchy name, ABBA, and people could buy the whole album (''Waterloo'') straightaway. &quot;[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]&quot; was ABBA's first UK No. 1. It was also released in the [[United States|US]], reaching No. 6. But momentum proved hard to maintain, and their follow-up singles &quot;So Long&quot; and &quot;Honey Honey&quot; did not do nearly as well. The group was overstretched and unable to promote the songs convincingly in any one country. Moreover, much of their material was still heavily derivative. It wasn't until the release of their second proper album ''[[ABBA (album)|ABBA]]'' and their single &quot;[[SOS (song)|SOS]]&quot; that ABBA began to show the first signs they were destined for bigger things. &quot;SOS&quot; consolidated ABBA's presence in the UK where it was a Top 10 hit and they were no longer regarded as a [[one-hit wonder]]. Much wider success came in [[1975]] with every release charting solidly and &quot;[[Mamma Mia (song)|Mamma Mia]]&quot; reaching the UK No. 1 spot in January [[1976]]. At this time the band released the somewhat hubristically titled ''[[Greatest Hits (ABBA album)|Greatest Hits]]'' album despite having had only five Top 40 hits in the UK and the US. This album included &quot;[[Fernando (single)|Fernando]]&quot; (an earlier version had been a Swedish-language hit single for Anni-Frid and included on her 1975 Benny-produced solo LP ''[[Frida Ensam]]''). Becoming one of ABBA's best-known tracks, &quot;Fernando&quot; did not appear on the Swedish or Australian releases of ''Greatest Hits''. In Sweden the song would wait until 1982's ''The Singles-The First Ten Years'' to appear in an English-language version credited to ABBA; the track was later included in the Australian release of their [[1976]] album, ''[[Arrival (ABBA_album)|Arrival]]''. The next album, ''Arrival'', represented a new level of accomplishment in both songwriting and studio work for ABBA. Hit after hit flowed from it: &quot;[[Money, Money, Money]]&quot;, &quot;[[Knowing Me, Knowing You (single)|Knowing Me, Knowing You]]&quot; and &quot;[[Dancing Queen (single)|Dancing Queen]]&quot;, their most enduring and definitive hit. By this time ABBA were widely popular in the UK, most of Western Europe and [[Australia]] (who in a way almost &quot;adopted&quot; ABBA as their own) but still had only moderate recognition and airplay in the US, and &quot;Dancing Queen&quot; remains the only No. 1 ABBA ever achieved there. [[Image:abbamovieposter.jpg|thumb|right|Movie poster for ''[[ABBA: The Movie]]'' and ''[[The Album]]'' carried the same artwork.]] By this time the ABBA sound was synonymous with European pop and was widely copied by groups like [[Brotherhood of Man]] and later, [[Bucks Fizz (band)|Bucks Fizz]]. Some felt it was necessary to copy ABBA's sound and two girl/two boy approach to win Eurovision, and the notion seemed validated when Brotherhood of Man won in 1976 and Bucks Fizz took the prize in [[1981]]. Meanwhile in [[1977]] ABBA followed up ''Arrival'' with the more complex ''[[The Album]]'' which was released to coincide with ''[[ABBA: The Movie]]'', a feature film of their Australian tour. This album was less well-received by the critics but spawned several hits, &quot;[[The Name of the Game]]&quot; and &quot;[[Take A Chance On Me|Take a Chance on Me]]&quot;, both of which topped the UK charts. This album also carried the well-known &quot;Thank You for the Music&quot; that later was released in the UK as a single ([[1983]]) and had been a B-side of &quot;Eagle&quot; in territories where that song was released as a single. ===Later years=== By [[1978]] ABBA was a megagroup. They converted a disused cinema into the Polar Music Studio, a new state-of-the-art studio in [[Stockholm]] which was used by several other successful bands ([[Led Zeppelin]]'s ''[[In Through the Out Door]]'' was recorded there, for example). Their standalone single &quot;[[Summer Night City]]&quot;, their last Swedish number one, stopped just short of topping the UK charts but set the stage for ABBA's foray into [[disco]] with the album ''[[Voulez-Vous]]'', which was released in Spring [[1979]]. This release marked a slight decline in ABBA's popularity in the UK and Europe but gained them more attention in the US. The hits still came: &quot;[[Chiquitita]]&quot;, &quot;[[Does Your Mother Know]]&quot;, &quot;[[Voulez-Vous (song)|Voulez-Vous]]&quot; and &quot;[[I Have A Dream (ABBA song)|I Have A Dream]]&quot; all charted. In January 1979, the group performed at the [[Music for UNICEF Concert]] at the [[United Nations General Assembly]], performing &quot;[[Chiquitita]]&quot;; the [[royalties]] from the song were donated to [[UNICEF]]. Later that year, the group released their second greatest hits album, Greatest Hits Vol 2, which featured a brand new track &quot;[[Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)]]&quot;, their best known [[disco]] hit. In [[1979]] ABBA toured the US and Canada, playing to huge audiences, but the breakthrough there was perhaps too little, too late. [[1980]]'s ''[[Super Trouper]]'' reflected a change in ABBA's style with more prominent [[synthesiser]]s and more personal lyrics. It set a record for the most preorders ever received for a UK album after 1 million copies were ordered before release. Anticipation for the release had been built up by &quot;[[The Winner Takes It All]]&quot;, the group's eighth UK chart topper (their first since [[1978]]). This song was allegedly written about Bjorn and Agnetha's marriage, which was breaking down at the time. The next single from the album, &quot;[[Super Trouper (song)|Super Trouper]]&quot; also hit number 1. &quot;[[Lay All Your Love On Me]]&quot; was an album track that was release
of Finance]], [[Rudolf Hommes]], was that the country should import agricultural products in which it was not competitive, like [[maize]], [[wheat]], [[cotton]] and [[soybeans]] and export the ones in which it had an advantage, like [[fruits]] and [[flowers]]. In ten years, the sector lost 7,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; to imports, represented mostly in heavily [[agricultural subsidies|subsidized agricultural products]] from the [[United States]], as a result of this [[policy]], with a critical impact on employment in rural areas. [http://www.usip.org/library/pa/colombia/adddoc/plan_colombia_101999.html#approach] Until 1997, Colombia had enjoyed a fairly stable economy. The first 5 years of liberalization were characterized by high economic growth rates of between 4% and 5%. The [[Ernesto Samper|Samper]] administration (1994-98) emphasized social welfare policies which targeted Colombia's lower income population. However, these reforms led to higher government spending which increased the fiscal deficit and public sector debt, the financing of which required higher interest rates. An over-valued peso inherited from the previous administration was maintained. The economy slowed, and by 1998 GDP growth was only 0.6%. In 1999, the country fell into its first recession since the [[Great Depression]]. The economy shrank by 4.5% with unemployment at over 20%. While unemployment remained at 20% in 2000, GDP growth recovered to 3.1%. The administration of President [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]], when it took office on [[August 7]], [[1998]], faced an economy in crisis, with the difficult internal security situation and global economic turbulence additionally inhibiting confidence. As evidence of a serious recession became clear in 1999, the government took a number of steps. It engaged in a series of controlled devaluations of the peso, followed by a decision to let it float. Colombia also entered into an agreement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] which provided a $2.7 billion guarantee (extended funds facility), while committing the government to budget discipline and structural reforms. By early 2000 there had been the beginning of an economic recovery, with the export sector leading the way, as it enjoyed the benefit of the more competitive exchange rate, as well as strong prices for [[petroleum]], Colombia's leading export product. Prices of [[coffee]], the other principal export product, have been more variable. Economic growth reached 3.1 % during 2000 and inflation was 9.0% although unemployment has yet to significantly improve. Colombia's international reserves have remained stable at around $8.35 billion, and Colombia has successfully remained in international capital markets. Colombia's total foreign debt at the end of 1999 was $34.5 billion with $14.7 billion in private sector and $19.8 billion in public sector debt. Major international credit rating organizations have dropped Colombian sovereign debt below investment grade, primarily as a result of large fiscal deficits, which current policies are seeking to close. Several international financial institutions have praised the economic reforms introduced by current president [[Alvaro Uribe]] (elected [[August 7]], [[2002]]), which include measures designed to reduce the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of GDP in 2004. The government's economic policy and [[democratic security]] strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, particularly within the business sector, and GDP growth in 2003 was among the highest in [[Latin America]], at over 4%. ==Mining and Energy== Colombia is well-endowed with [[mineral]]s and energy resources. It has the largest [[coal]] reserves in Latin America and is second to [[Brazil]] in [[hydroelectric]] potential. Estimates of [[petroleum]] reserves in 1995 were 3.1 billion barrels (493,000 m&amp;sup3;). It also possesses significant amounts of [[nickel]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[platinum]], and [[emeralds]]. The discovery of two billion barrels (0.3 km&amp;sup3;) of high-quality oil at the Cusiana and Cupiagua fields, about 200 km (125 miles) east of [[Bogotá]], has enabled Colombia to become a net oil exporter since 1986. Total crude oil production averages 620,000 barrel/day (99,000 m&amp;sup3;/day); about 184,000 barrel/day (29,000 m&amp;sup3;/day) is exported. The [[Andrés Pastrana|Pastrana]] government has significantly liberalized its petroleum investment policies, leading to an increase in exploration activity. Refining capacity cannot satisfy domestic demand, so some refined products, especially [[gasoline]], must be imported. Plans for the construction of a new refinery are under development. '''Human Rights Abuse in Mining Zones''' The oil pipelines are a frequent target of extortion and bombing campaigns by the [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|ELN]] and, more recently, the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]]. The bombings, which have occured on average once every 5 days, have caused substantial environmental damage, often in fragile [[rainforests]] and jungles, as well as causing significant loss of life. In April 1999 in Cartagena de Indias, Clinton's Secretary of Energy BillRichardson spoke before investors from the United States, Canada and other countries. He expressed his government's willingness to use military aid to support the investment that they and their allies were going to make in Colombia, especially in strategically important sectors like mining and energy. In 2002 there were 170 attacks on the 2nd largest pipeline, which travels 780 km from the [[Caño Limón]] to the Atlantic port of Coveñas. The pipeline was out of operation for 266 days of that year. The government estimates that these bombings reduced the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] of Colombia by 0.5%. The government of the [[United States]] increased military aid, in 2003, to Colombia to assist in the effort to defend the pipeline. [[Occidental Petroleum]] privately contracted mercenaries who flew [[Skymaster]] planes, from [[AirScan]] International Inc., to patrol the Cano Limon-Covenas pipeline. Many of these operations used helicopters, equipment and weapons provided by the U.S. military and antinarcotics aid programs. On the morning of [[December 13]] [[1998]], after two days of fierce combat between the army protecting [[Occidental Petroleum]] and the FARC in the region, a Colombian Air Force helicopter carried out an air attack against guerrillas, near the village of Santo Domingo, including the use of cluster-bombs. After the bombing was over, the bodies of seventeen civilians were found in Santo Domingo, including seven children. When questioned about the matter by civilian prosecutors in Colombia, the helicopter crew argued that an AirScan [[Skymaster]] surveillance plane had provided them with incorrect coordinates for a planned bombing attack on guerrilla positions. The case was subsequently handed over to a Colombian military court, as the crime occured during official military duty. In September 2000, a non-binding informal tribunal was organized at Northwestern University in Chicago regarding this case. In December of the same year, the tribunal concluded that [[Occidental Petroleum]], AirScan, the Colombian State, and Generals Fabio Velasco of the Air Force and Hernando Barbosa of the Army were mutually responsible for the attacks. The decision also called for the case to be judged in civil court, for comprehensive reparations to the victims, special aid for the children and the suspension of U.S. military support for the military unit involved, in accordance with U.S. law, and a suspension of the [[human rights certification]] required for the approval of U.S. aid through [[Plan Colombia]]. The case was later brought before a Federal Court in California in April 2003. Recent conflict in areas of wealth, such as Magdalena Medio, have seen the current neo-liberal economic process (supported internationally by the [[World Bank]]) be accompanied with violentence. Many actors are involved in the internal conflict. 68% of forced displacement in the country occurs in mining zones (mostly in mining ''municipios'' of Rio Blanco-Ataco in Tolima, La Gabarra and surrounding areas in Norte de Santander, the ''municipios'' of the South of Bolivar, and Barrancabermeja in Santander). In 1996 and 2001, after new mining codes were written, huge increases in human rights violations in the zones affected by the legislation were reported. In Bolivar there was a 1000% increase in homicides, [[forced disappearences]], injuries, [[torture]], and [[arbitrary detentions]]. Between 1997 and 1998, forced displacements in the south of Bolivar grew by 1500%, as the paramilitary operation was implemented. The departements that showed the highest increase in human rights violations were also those that with the greatest concentration of mining operations: Antioquia, Bolivar, Norte de Santander, and Cesar. Others with high levels of oil and gas production, like Arauca and Putumayo, show the same rates. Over the past fifteen years in Colombia, a union leader has been assassinated every other day. During the government of Alvaro Uribe Velez the number has fallen slightly, to one every five days. The national union of mine workers [[Sintraminercol]] has been facing dissolution. Since Alvaro Uribe Velez's government has come into office, an indigenous person has been assassinated every five days, most of these in areas of natural resource exploitation. Mining and Natural Exploitaton has had environmental consequences. The region of Guajira is undergoing an accelerated desertification with the disappearences of forests, land, and water sources, due to the increase in coal production. Social Consequences or lack of development in resource rich areas is common. Eleven million Colombians survive on less than one dollar a day. Over 65% of these live in mining zones. There are 3.5 million children out of
[molecular Hamiltonian]] corresponding to the electronic [[ground state]] can be approximated by a [[quantum harmonic oscillator | harmonic oscillator]] in the neighborhood of the equilibrium [[molecular geometry]], the resonant frequencies are determined by the [[normal modes]] corresponding to the molecular electronic ground state potential energy surface. Nevertheless, the resonant frequencies can be in a first approach related to the length of the bond, and the [[atomic mass|mass of the atoms]] at either end of it. Thus, the frequency of the vibrations can be associated with a particular bond type. Bonds can vibrate in six different ways, '''symmetrical and asymmetrical stretching''', '''scissoring''', '''rocking''', '''wagging''' and '''twisting'''; as shown below: &lt;center&gt; {| |[[Image:Symmetrical stretching.gif|frame|symmetrical stretching]] |[[Image:Asymmetrical_stretching.gif|frame|asymmetrical stretching]] |- |[[Image:Scissoring.gif|frame|scissoring]] |[[Image:Twisting.gif|frame|twisting]] |- |[[Image:Wagging.gif|frame|wagging]] |[[Image:Rocking.gif|frame|rocking]] |} &lt;/center&gt; In order to measure a sample, a beam of [[monochromatic]] infrared light is passed through the sample, and the amount of energy absorbed is recorded. By repeating this operation across a range of interest (usually no more than 4000-5000 [[wavenumber|cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;]] or 0.5-0.6[[eV]], a chart can be built up. When looking at a chart for a substance, an experienced user can identify the substance from the information on the chart. This technique works almost exclusively on [[Covalent bond|covalent bonds]], and as such is of most use in [[organic chemistry]]. Clear charts (or spectra) will be produced by samples with high levels of purity of one substance. The technique has been used for the characterization of very complex mixtures however. == Sample preparation == Liquid samples can be sandwiched between two plates of high purity salt (as in [[sodium chloride]], or common salt). The plates are transparent to the infrared light and will not introduce any lines onto the spectra. The plates are obviously highly soluble in water, and so the sample and washing reagents and the like must be [[anhydrous]] (without water). Solid samples can be prepared in two major ways. The first is to crush the sample with a [[mulling agent]] (usually [[nujol]]) in a [[marble]] pestle and mortar. If the solid can be induced to dissolve, or at least be crushed into a very fine powder, then the results will be good. The second method is to mix a quantity of the sample with a specially purified salt (usually [[potassium bromide]]). This powder mixture is then crushed in a pellet press in order to form a pellet through which the beam of the spectrometer can pass. This pellet must be crushed to high pressures in order to ensure that the pellet is translucent, but this can be achieved without powered machinery. As with the sodium chloride plates, potassium bromide does not absorb infrared light, so spectral lines will only appear from the analyte. == Typical method == [[Image:IR_spectroscopy_apparatus.jpeg|thumbnail|right|400px|Typical apparatus]] A beam of infra-red light is produced and split into two separate beams. One is passed through the sample, the other passed through a reference which is often the substance the sample is dissolved in. The beams are both reflected back towards a detector, however first they pass through a splitter which quickly alternates which of the two beams enters the detector. The two signals are then compared and a printout is obtained. A reference is used for two reasons: *This prevents fluctuations in the output of the source affecting the data *This allows the effects of the solvent to be cancelled out (the reference is usually a pure form of the solvent the sample is in) == Summary of absorptions of bonds in organic molecules == Absorptions listed in [[wavenumber]]s. [[Image:IR_summary_version_2.gif|centre|frame]] == Detailed absorptions table of bonds in organic molecules == {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; !Bond !Type of bond !Specific type of bond !Absorption range and intensity |- |'''C-H''' |alkyl |methyl |1380 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weak), 1460 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) and 2870, 2960 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (both strong to medium) |- | | |[[methylene]] |1470 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) and 2850, 2925 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (both strong to medium) |- | | |methyne |2890 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weak) |- | |vinyl |C=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; |900 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) and 2975, 3080 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium) |- | | |C=CH |3020 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium) |- | | |monosubstituted [[alkene]]s |900, 990 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (both strong) |- | | |cis-disubstituted alkenes |670-700 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) |- | | |trans-disubstituted alkenes |965 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) |- | | |trisubstituted alkenes |800-840 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong to medium) |- | |[[aromatic]] |[[benzene]]/sub. benzene |3070 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weak) |- | | |monosubstituted benzene |700-750 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) and 700±10 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) |- | | |ortho-disub. benzene |750 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) |- | | |meta-disub. benzene |750-800 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) and 860-900 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) |- | | |para-disub. benzene |800-860 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) |- | |[[alkynes]] | |3300 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium) |- | |[[aldehydes]] | |2720, 2820 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium) |- |'''C-C''' |acyclic C-C |monosub. alkenes |1645 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium) |- | | |1,1-disub. alkenes |1655 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium) |- | | |cis-1,2-disub. alkenes |1660 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium) |- | | |trans-1,2-disub. alkenes |1675 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium) |- | | |trisub., tetrasub. alkenes |1670 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weak) |- | |conjugated C-C |dienes |1600, 1650 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) |- | | |with benzene ring |1625 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) |- | | |with C=O |1600 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) |- | |aromatic C=C | |1450, 1500, 1580, 1600 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong to weak) - always ALL 4! |- | |triple C-C |terminal alkines |2100-2140 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weak) |- | | |disubst. alkines |2190-2260 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (very weak, sometimes not visible) |- |'''C=O''' |aldehyde/ketone |saturated aliph./cyclic 6-membered |1720 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | | |α,β-unsaturated |1685 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (goes for aromatic ketones as well) |- | | |cyclic 5-membered |1750 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | | |cyclic 4-membered |1775 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | | |aldehydes |1725 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (influence of conjugation like with ketones) |- | |[[carboxylic acid]]s/derivates |saturated carboxylic acids |1710 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | | |unsat./aromatic carb. acids |1680-1690 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | | |esters and [[lactones]] |1735 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (influence of conjugation and ring size like with ketones) |- | | |anhydrides |1760 and 1820 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (both!) |- | | |[[halogenides]] |1800 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | | |[[amides]] |1650 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (associated amides) |- | | |[[carboxylates]] (salts) |1550-1610 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (goes for aminoacid zwitterions as well) |- |'''O-H''' |alcohols, phenols | |3610-3670 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (concentrating samples broadens the band and moves it to 3200-3400 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) |- | |carboxylic acids | |3500-3560 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (concentrating samples broadens the band and moves it to 3000 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) |- |'''N-H''' |primary [[amines]] | |doublet between 3400-3500 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; and 1560-1640 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) |- | |secondary amines | |above 3000 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium to weak) |- | |ammonium ions | |broad bands with multiple peaks between 2400-3200 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- |'''C-O''' |alcohols |primary |1050±10 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | | |secondary |around 1100 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | | |tertiary |1150-1200 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | |phenoles | |1200 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | |ethers |aliphatic |1120 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | | |aromatic |1220-1260 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | |carboxylic acids | |1250-1300 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | |esters | |1100-1300 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (two bands - distinction to ketones, which do not possess C-O!) |- |'''C-N''' |aliphatic amines | |1020-1220 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (often overlapped) |- | |C=N | |1615-1700 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (similar conjugation effects to C=O) |- | |[[nitriles]] (triple C-N bond) | |2210-2260 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (unconjugated 2250, conjugated 2230 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) |- | |[[isonitriles]] (R-N-C bond) | |2165-2110 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (2140 - 1990 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; for R-N=C=S) |- |'''C-X (X=F, Cl, Br, I)''' |[[fluoroalkane]]s |ordinary |1000-1100 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | | |trifluromethyl |two strong, broad bands between 1100-1200 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | |[[chloroalkanes]] | |540-760 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium to weak) |- | |[[bromoalkanes]] | |below 600 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- | |[[iodoalkanes]] | |below 600 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; |- |'''N-O''' |nitro compounds |aliphatic |1550 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (stronger band) and 1380 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weaker band) - ALWAYS BOTH! |- | | |aromatic |1520, 1350 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (conjugation usually lowers the wave number) |} The absorptions in this range do not apply ''only'' to bonds in organic molecules. IR s
e group of families is now placed into a single order. The [[Petrosaviaceae]] have been placed in this order, but their actual affinity is not so clear. The alismatids have been considered the sister group of the [[Arales]] and the latter are now included here. As a result of this merger, the Araceae became the most important family in the order, accounting alone for over 2000 species in about 100 genera. The rest of families contain together just about 500 species. == See also == *[[Seagrass]] == References == * [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|B. C. J. du Mortier]] (1829). ''Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent'', 54. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay. * W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 242-247 (Alismatales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0878934030. * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&amp;id=16360&amp;lvl=3&amp;lin=f&amp;keep=1&amp;srchmode=1&amp;unlock Alismatales on NCBI] [[Category:Alismatales|*]] [[da:Skeblad-ordenen]] [[de:Froschlöffelartige]] [[es:Alismatales]] [[fr:Alismatales]] [[it:Alismatales]] [[he:כף צפרדע (סדרה)]] [[nl:Alismatales]] [[no:Alismatales]] [[pl:Żabieńcowce]] [[pt:Alismatales]] [[fi:Alismatales]] [[sv:Alismatales]] [[zh:澤瀉目]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apiales</title> <id>788</id> <revision> <id>37287677</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T00:56:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Apiales | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = '''Apiales''' | ordo_authority = Nakai | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = * [[Apiaceae]] ([[carrot]] family) * [[Araliaceae]] ([[ginseng]] family) * [[Pittosporaceae]] * [[Griselinia]]ceae * [[Torriceliaceae]] }} The '''Apiales''' are an order of [[flowering plant]]s. The families given at right are typical of newer classifications, though there is some slight variation, and in particular the Torriceliaceae may be divided. These families are placed within the asterid group of [[dicotyledon]]s. Under the older [[Cronquist system]], only the Apiaceae and Araliaceae were included here, and the restricted order was placed among the rosids rather than the asterids. The Pittosporaceae were placed within the [[Rosales]], and the other forms within the family [[Cornaceae]]. [[Category:Apiales]] [[da:Skærmplante-ordenen]] [[de:Doldenblütlerartige]] [[es:Araliales]] [[fr:Apiales]] [[la:Apiales]] [[nl:Apiales]] [[ja:セリ目]] [[no:Apiales]] [[pl:Selerowce]] [[fi:Apiales]] [[zh:伞形目]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Asterales</title> <id>789</id> <revision> <id>40973981</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T05:25:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FlaBot</username> <id>228773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: fi</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Asterales | image = A_sunflower.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = ''Helianthus annuus'' | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = '''Asterales''' &lt;small&gt;[[John Lindley|Lindl.]] ([[1833]])&lt;/small&gt; | subdivision_ranks = [[Family (biology)|Families]] | subdivision = *[[Alseuosmiaceae]] *[[Argophyllaceae]] *[[Asteraceae]] - [[Daisy|Daisies]] *[[Calyceraceae]] *[[Campanulaceae]] (incl. [[Lobeliaceae]]) - [[Bellflower]]s *[[Goodeniaceae]] *[[Menyanthaceae]] *[[Pentaphragmaceae]] *[[Phellinaceae]] *[[Rousseaceae]] (incl. [[Carpodetaceae]]) *[[Stylidiaceae]] (also [[Donatiaceae]]) }} The '''Asterales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[dicotyledon]]ous [[flowering plant]]s which include the composite family [[Asteraceae]] ([[sunflower]]s and [[Bellis|daisies]]) and its related families. The order is cosmopolitic, and includes mostly herbaceous species, although a small number of trees (''Lobelia'') and shrubs is also present. The Asterales can be characterized on the morphological and molecular level. Synapomorphies include the [[oligosaccharide]] [[inulin]] as the nutrients storage, and the stamens are usually aggregated densely around the style or even are fused into a tube around it. The last property is probably associated with the plunger (or secondary) [[pollination]], which is common among the families of the order. == Families == The '''Asterales''' include about eleven families, the largest of which is [[Asteraceae]] with about 25,000 species, and [[Campanulaceae]] with about 2,000 species. The remaining families count together for less than 500 species. The two large families are cosmopolitic with center of mass in the northern hemisphere, and the smaller ones are usually confined to Australia and the adjacent areas, or sometimes the South America. Under the [[Cronquist system]], [[Asteraceae]] was the only family in the group, but newer systems (e. g. [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|APG]] II) have expanded it. ==Evolution and biogeography== The Asterales order probably originated in [[Cretaceous]] on the supercontinent [[Gondwana]], in the area which is now Australia and Asia. Although most extant species are herbaceous, the examination of the basal families in the order suggests that the common ancestor of the order was an arborescent plant. Fossil evidence of the Asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epoques, so the precise estimation of the order's age is quite difficult. An [[Oligocene]] pollen is known for Asteraceae and Goodeniaceae, and seeds from Oligocene and [[Miocene]] are known for Menyanthaceae and Campanulaceae respectively. (Bremer and Gustafsson, 1997) ==Economical importance== The Asteraceae include some species grown for food, e. g. [[sunflower]] (''Helianthus annuus'') or [[chicory]] (''Cichorium''). Many spices and medicinal herbs are also present. Of horticultural importance are the Asteraceae (e. g. [[chrysanthemum]]) and Campanulaceae. ==References== {{commonscat|Asterales}} * K. Bremer, M. H. G. Gustafsson (1997). East Gondwana ancestry of the sunflower alliance of families. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.'' '''94''', 9188-9190. (Available online: [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/94/17/9188 Abstract] | [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/17/9188 Full text (HTML)] | [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/94/17/9188.pdf Full text (PDF)]) * W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 476-486 (Asterales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0878934030. * [[John Lindley|J. Lindley]] (1833). ''Nixus Plantarum'', 20. Londini. * Smissen, R. D. (December 2002). Asterales (Sunflower). In: ''Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences''. Nature Publishing Group, London. (Available online: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npg.els.0003736 DOI] | [http://www.els.net/ ELS site]) [[Category:Asterales| ]] [[da:Kurvblomst-ordenen]] [[de:Asternartige]] [[es:Asterales]] [[fr:Asterales]] [[he:אסטראים]] [[la:Asterales]] [[nl:Asterales]] [[ja:キク目]] [[no:Asterales]] [[pl:Astrowce]] [[pt:Asterales]] [[fi:Asterales]] [[sv:Asterales]] [[zh:菊目]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Asteroid</title> <id>791</id> <revision> <id>42043436</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:04:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>65.31.89.248</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Asteroid exploration */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the astronomical body ''Asteroid''. For the arcade game, see [[Asteroids]]''. An '''asteroid''' is a small, solid object in our [[Solar System]], orbiting the [[Sun]]. An asteroid is an example of a [[minor planet]] (or '''planetoid'''), which are much smaller than [[planet]]s. Most asteroids are believed to be remnants of the [[protoplanetary disc]] which were not incorporated into planets during the system's formation due to excessive gravitational perturbations by [[Jupiter]]. Some asteroids have [[Asteroid moon|moon]]s. The vast majority of the asteroids are within the main [[asteroid belt]], with [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits between those of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and [[Jupiter]]. [[image:433eros.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This picture of [[433 Eros]] shows the view looking from one end of the asteroid across the gouge on its underside and toward the opposite end. Features as small as 35 m across can be seen.]] ==Asteroids in the solar system== [[Image:4 Vesta 1 Ceres Moon at 20 km per px.png|thumb|right|Left to right: [[4 Vesta]], [[1 Ceres]], Earth's [[Moon]].]] Hundreds of thousands of asteroids have been discovered within the solar system, and the present rate of discovery is about 5000 per month. As of [[February 23]], [[2006]], from a total of 325,627 &lt;!--- astorb.dat record count ---&gt; registered minor planets, 120,437 have orbits known well enough to be given [[asteroid naming conventions|permanent official numbers]]. Of these, 12890&lt;!--- using http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPNames.html ---&gt; have official names (trivia: at least 610 of these names require [[diacritic]]s). The lowest-numbered but unnamed minor planet is [[(3360) 1981 VA]]; the highest-numbered named minor planet is [[117506 Wildberg]] [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/NumberedMPs115001.html]. Current estimates put the total number of asteroids in the solar system at several million. The largest asteroid in the inner solar system is [[1 Ceres]], with a
r &quot;Crotty and Bartlett&quot;). At the time, Crotty and Bartlett were the attorneys for the International Speedway Corporation (i.e., owners of NASCAR and the Daytona International Speedway). Once the [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010222_01_(S)_EARN-COMPLAINT_FOR_DECLAR_AND_INJUNCT_RELIEF_(05P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief] was filed, the Medical Examiner was barred from releasing the public records pertaining to Dale Earnhardt, to include autopsy photographs, until a formal hearing on the merits of Teresa Earnhardt's [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010222_01_(S)_EARN-COMPLAINT_FOR_DECLAR_AND_INJUNCT_RELIEF_(05P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief] could be heard. On February 28, March 13, and March 16, 2001, the Orlando Sentinel (&quot;Sentinel&quot;), Michael Uribe, Founder of [http://www.websitecity.com WebsiteCity.com] (&quot;Uribe&quot;), and Campus Communications, Inc., publisher of The Independent Florida Alligator (&quot;CCI&quot;), filed motions to intervene into the Earnhardt v. Volusia litigation in order to uphold their rights to inspect and copy public records held by the Volusia County Medical Examiner to include the photographs and videotape of Dale Earnhardt's autopsy examination. (See, copies of these pleadings filed by the Sentinel, Uribe and CCI at [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010228_01_(S)_SENTINEL-MOT_TO_INTERV_(03P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf Sentinel Motion to Intervene], [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010313_01_(F)_URIBE-MOT_TO_INTERV_(03P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf Uribe Motion to Intervene], and [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010316_04_CCI-MOT_TO_INTERV_DISM_SUM_JUDG_(03P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf CCI Motion to Intervene] respectively). On June 12-13, 2001, a trial would then be conducted before the Honorable Judge Joseph Will. Judge Will eventually ruled against Uribe and CCI's original public records requests and constitutional arguments to inspect and copy the medical examiner files pertaining to Dale Earnhardt, to include autopsy photographs. Judge Will's ruling set forth in motion an extensive legal battle later fought in the appellate courts by both Uribe and CCI seeking to deam the denial of their public record's request unconstitutional under Florida State and Federal laws. Then on December 1, 2003, the United States Supreme Court denied to hear Uribe and CCI's appeal to their court (See original [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/courts/CCI_v_EARN_US03-0484/pleadings/docs/20030929_01-CCI-PETITION-FOR-WRIT-OF-CERTIORARI_(93P)(CCIvEARN)(US03-0484).pdf Petition for Writ of Certiorari]. Thus, Florida Governor Jeb Bush's March 29, 2001 law preventing release of Dale Earnhardt's public record autopsy photographs would remain in effect. Governor Jeb Bush's March 29, 2001 law, also known as the Earnhardt Family Protection Act, changed Florida's previously long standing and historically open public records laws from that day onward. The law deemed Florida's medical examination autopsy photographs, video and audio recordings exempt from public inspection without the expressed permission from applicable next of kin. ==Legacy== Dale Earnhardt in NASCAR was a very polarizing figure. People either loved him or hated him, but he was one of the most popular drivers in the sport. Earnhardt's death drew a considerable reaction from the nation, NASCAR, and of course grief-stricken fans. It is remarkable, and almost symbolic, that his son, [[Dale Earnhardt, Jr.|Dale Jr.]], is still officially marked as &quot;Earnhardt Jr.&quot; on the ticker, even though there is no longer a need to distinguish between father and son on the racetrack. Earnhardt kept his private life generally private. He enjoyed the company of his family, being in the outdoors, hunting and fishing, and actively working his farm in Kannapolis, riding a tractor instead of a racecar. In contrast with his image as a hardnosed competitor on the track, off the track he was known to his friends as someone who was charitable and generous, but kept that side of himself private from the rest of the world. Earnhardt has a street in his hometown of Kannapolis named after him. Dale Earnhardt Boulevard (originally Earnhardt Road) is marked as Exit 60 off of [[Interstate 85]], northeast of [[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]]. A road between Kannapolis and [[Mooresville, North Carolina|Mooresville]], along which is the headquarters of DEI, has been given the designation [[North Carolina State Road 3|State Road 3]] by the North Carolina Department of Transportation. In addition, Exit 73 off of [[Interstate 35W]], one of the entrances to [[Texas Motor Speedway]], is named &quot;Dale Earnhardt Way&quot;. Earnhardt appeared in a [[cameo]] role in the [[1998 in film|1998]] comedy spoof ''[[BASEketball]]'' as a taxi driver, who reveals himself only after [[Yasmine Bleeth]]'s character asks the driver if he &quot;can go any faster,&quot; complete with the famous forward-slanted 3 painted on the side. In 2000, the [[Piedmont Boll Weevils]] [[minor league baseball]] team was renamed to the [[Kannapolis Intimidators]] after Earnhardt purchased a share in the team's ownership. In [[2004]], Dale Earnhardt's life story was made into a [[television movie]] by [[ESPN]] titled, ''[[3: The Dale Earnhardt Story]]''. Since Earnhardt's death, NASCAR has worked hard to improve driver safety. The HANS device, Safer Barriers and other devices have been inacted on the track. Dale Earnhardt will be inducted into the [[International Motorsports Hall of Fame]] on April 27, 2006. In 2004 Keith Bryant released the album &quot;Riding with the Legend,&quot; with the title track being a tribute to Dale Earnhardt based on [[David Allan Coe]]'s &quot;The Ride(The Ghost of [[Hank Williams]])&quot; ==External links== *[http://www.daleearnhardtinc.com Dale Earnhardt Inc.] *[http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com Autopsy Photographs Controversy and Legal Documents by Michael Uribe] *[http://www.racing-reference.com/driver?id=earnhda01 Career statistics at Racing-Reference.com] *[http://www.orlandosentinel.com/orl-daleresults041001,0,571123.story?coll=orl-home-headlines Orlando Sentinel article on the inquiries into the cause of death] *[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/motorsports/nascar_plus/news/2001/08/21/simpson_report/ Sports Illustrated article on the controversy over Earnhardt's seat belt] * [http://www.theinsidegroove.com/pics/12242003/highres/image_html/nascar-racing-history-photo-picture-3-01.html The Inside Groove.com - Image Gallery Dale Earnhart in the early years] [[Category:1951 births|Earnhardt, Dale]] [[Category:2001 deaths|Earnhardt, Dale]] [[Category:Charlotte, North Carolina|Earnhardt, Dale]] [[Category:Fatally crashed racecar drivers|Earnhardt, Dale]] [[Category:German-Americans|Earnhardt, Dale]] [[Category:Lutherans|Earnhardt, Dale]] [[Category:NASCAR drivers|Earnhardt, Dale]] [[Category:NASCAR Rookie of the Year|Earnhardt, Dale]] [[Category:North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame|Earnhardt, Dale]] [[Category:People from North Carolina|Earnhardt, Dale, Sr.]] [[de:Dale Earnhardt]] [[tl:Dale Earnhardt]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dune/Films</title> <id>7895</id> <revision> <id>24815398</id> <timestamp>2005-10-05T14:59:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kbdank71</username> <id>197953</id> </contributor> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dune (film)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dune (games)</title> <id>7896</id> <revision> <id>34547522</id> <timestamp>2006-01-09T23:45:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>137.224.224.143</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">A number of [[game]]s have been based on [[Frank Herbert]]'s [[science fiction]] novel [[Dune (novel)|Dune]]: * [[Card game]] ** [[1997]] Dune: Eye of the Storm, Five Rings Publishing Group - [http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Rampart/1937/ fanpage] * [[Board game]] ** [[1979]] Avalon Hill's Dune, [[Avalon Hill Games]] - [http://www.duneworld.org/games/ah.html fanpage] ** [[1984]] Parker Brothers Dune, [[Parker Brothers]] - [http://www.duneworld.org/games/pb.html fanpage] * [[Video games]] (''See also :'' [[Dune (computer game)]]) ** [[1992]] ''[[Dune (Cryo)|Dune]]'', [[Cryo Interactive]] (Mixture between adventure and strategy game) ** [[1992]] ''[[Dune 2]]'', [[Westwood Studios]] (popularized the [[real-time strategy]] genre) ** [[1998]] ''[[Dune 2000]], Westwood Studios'' ([[enhanced remake]] of Dune 2) ** [[2001]] ''Emperor: Battle for Dune'', Westwood Studios ** [[2001]] ''Frank Herbert's Dune'', Cryo Interactive * [[Online-game]] ** Regent of Dune ** Dune [[MUD]] ** Kaitain [[MUSH]] [[Category:Science fiction board games]] [[Category:Dune universe media]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dune/Videogames</title> <id>7897</id> <revision> <id>15905936</id> <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:34:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dune (computer game)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dune (computer game)</title> <id>7898</id> <revision> <id>41727535</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:11:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>202.156.6.54</i
who was the lord of the &quot;above&quot; or the heavens. The cult of Ea extended throughout Babylonia and [[Assyria]]. We find temples and shrines erected in his honour, e.g. at Nippur, Girsu, [[Ur]], Babylon, Sippar and [[Nineveh]], and the numerous epithets given to him, as well as the various forms under which the god appears, alike bear witness to the popularity which he enjoyed from the earliest to the latest period of Babylonian-Assyrian history. The consort of Ea, known as Ninhursag, Ki, Uriash [[Damkina]], &quot;lady of that which is below,&quot; or [[Damgalnunna]], &quot;great lady of the waters,&quot; originally was fully equal with Ea but in more [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] [[Assyrian]] and [[Neo-Babylonian]] times plays a part merely in association with her lord. Generally, however, Enki seems to be a reflection of pre-patriarchal times, in which relations between the sexes were characterised by a situation of greater [[gender equality]]. In his character, he prefers pursuasion to conflict, which he seeks to avoid if possible. ==Enki, Ea and Yahweh== In [[Ebla]], the city in [[Syria]] conquered in about 2250 BCE by [[Sargon]] of [[Akkad]] and his grandson [[Naram-Sin]], Dr [[Giovanni Pettinato]], who translated the archive found that at the time of the greatest Southern [[Mesopotamian]] influence, during the reign of [[Ebrum]], there was a tendency to replace the name of [[El]], king of the Gods of the [[Canaanite]] [[Pantheon]], (as for example Michael = MIKA'''EL''') with ''Yah'', as in MIK'''IAH'''. Jean Bottero and many others, have suggested that ''Yah'' in this case is a West Semite or Canaanite way of saying '''Ea''', Enki's Akkadian name. '''[[Yah]]''', '''[[Yahu]]''', or '''[[Yaw]]''' becomes the God of the Waters, of ''[[Yamm]]'' (the Sea) and ''[[Nahar]]'' (the Rivers) in Levantine Mythology, contesting with Baal Hadad, the storm God (the Canaanite divinity equivalent to Enlil), for supreme power. It has been suggested that this God - Canaanite ''Yah'' (Ea/Enki), unified with the Aramaic &quot;Mother of all Living&quot; - the Goddess ''[[Hawwah]]'' (Akkadian Ninhursag), into a single androgenous creator divinity, may be the origin of the [[Tetragrammaton]] [[YHWH]] ([[Yahweh]], from Yah and Hawwah) [[http://www.bibleorigins.net/YahwehYawUgarit.html]]. This would explain Yahweh's role as Creator, the God who made Humankind, and the God who saved Noah from the Flood, all attributes of Enki. Thus it may be that behind [[Jehovah]] himself, lies the nature and character of the earlier Sumerian God. ''Some of this article was originally from the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]].'' == Enki in popular culture == * In the [[science fiction]] [[book]] ''[[Snow Crash]]'', by [[Neal Stephenson]], Enki is portrayed as a proto-[[hacker]] or as Stephenson puts it &quot;a [[Neurolinguistics|neurolinguistic]] hacker&quot;; his ability to manipulate people through language culminated in him introducing [[sentience]] to mankind. * According to [[Zecharia Sitchin]] (q.v.), Enki was an alien genetic engineer responsible for the creation of mankind. His theories are not accepted by the majority of historians, mythologists and scientists. * Norwegian [[black metal]] band [[Burzum]] wrote a song called &quot;Ea, Lord Of The Deeps&quot;. * In the [[Outlanders]] series novel ''Dragoneye'' by [[Mark Ellis]] aka [[James Axler]], Enki appears as a crippled reptilian, the last of the [[Anunnaki]]. ==References== * Jacobsen, Thorkild (1976) &quot;Treasures of Darkness; A History of Mesopotamian Religion&quot;, (Yale University Press, London, New Heaven) ISBN 0300022913 * Bottero, Jean (2004) &quot;Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia&quot; (University Of Chicago Press) ISBN 0226067181 * Kramer, Samuel Noah (1998) &quot;Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C.&quot; (University of Pennsylvania Press; Revised edition) ISBN 0812210476 == See also == * [[Sumerian mythology]] * [[Mesopotamia]] * [[Ancient Near East]] * [[Capricorn]] [[Category:Sumerian gods]] [[Category:Sumerian mythology]] [[Category:Akkadian gods]] [[Category:Wisdom gods]] [[bg:Енки]] [[ca:Enki]] [[cs:Enki]] [[da:Ea (gud)]] [[de:Enki]] [[es:Enki]] [[fr:Enki]] [[it:Enki]] [[nl:Enki]] [[pl:Enki]] [[pt:Enki]] [[sl:Enki]] [[sv:Enki]] [[tr:Enki]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eli Wallach</title> <id>10482</id> <revision> <id>39087358</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T17:04:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NekoDaemon</username> <id>239574</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on Law &amp; Order]] → [[Category:Law &amp; Order actors]]. Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eli Wallach''' (born [[December 7]], [[1915]]) is an [[United States|American]] film, TV and stage actor. He served in the [[United States Army]] in [[World War II]]. Wallach was born in [[Brooklyn, New York]] to a [[Jewish]] family. He graduated from [[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]] but gained his first [[method acting|method]] experience at the [[Neighborhood Playhouse]]. Wallach made his [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] debut in [[1945]] and won a [[Tony Award]] in [[1951]]. His film debut was instantly accomplished in [[Elia Kazan]]'s controversial ''[[Baby Doll]]'' and he went on to become a prolific player, although rarely in a starring role he was memorable in many of his early films, especially ''[[The Misfits (film)|The Misfits]]'', ''[[The Magnificent Seven]]'' and as Tuco (the 'Ugly') in [[Sergio Leone]]'s ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]''. He also continued to work on the stage as well as doing made-for-TV films. He has been married to acclaimed stage actress [[Anne Jackson]] (born 1926) since [[March 5]], [[1948]], and they have three children: Peter, Katherine and Roberta. ==Filmography== [[Image:EliWallach.JPG|thumb|280px|right|Eli Wallach in ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'']] *''[[Baby Doll]]'' ([[1956]]) *''[[The Lineup (film)|The Lineup]]'' ([[1958]]) *''[[Seven Thieves]]'' ([[1960]]) *''[[The Magnificent Seven]]'' ([[1960]]) *''[[The Misfits (movie)|The Misfits]]'' ([[1961]]) *''[[Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man]]'' ([[1962]]) *''[[How the West Was Won (movie)|How the West Was Won]]'' ([[1962]]) *''[[The Victors]]'' ([[1963]]) *''[[Act One]]'' ([[1963]]) *''[[The Moon-Spinners]]'' ([[1964]]) *''[[Kisses for My President]]'' ([[1964]]) *''[[Lord Jim]]'' ([[1965]]) *''[[Genghis Khan (film)|Genghis Khan]]'' ([[1965]]) *''[[The Poppy Is Also a Flower]]'' ([[1966]]) *''[[How to Steal a Million]]'' ([[1966]]) *''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'' ([[1966]]) *''[[The Tiger Makes Out]]'' ([[1967]]) (also producer) *''[[Ace High]]'' ([[1968]]) *''[[How to Save a Marriage (and Ruin Your Life)]]'' ([[1968]]) *''[[A Lovely Way to Die]]'' ([[1968]]) *''[[The Brain (1969 movie)|The Brain]]'' ([[1969]]) *''[[Mackenna's Gold]]'' ([[1969]]) *''[[The Adventures of Gerard]]'' ([[1970]]) *''[[The Angel Levine]]'' ([[1970]]) *''[[The People Next Door]]'' ([[1970]]) *''[[Zizag]]'' ([[1970]]) *''[[Romance of a Horsethief]]'' ([[1971]]) *''[[Long Live Your Death]]'' ([[1971]]) *''[[Cinderella Liberty]]'' ([[1973]]) *''[[Crazy Joe]]'' ([[1974]]) *''[[The Dream Factory]]'' ([[1975]]) (documentary) (narrator) *''[[Stateline Motel]]'' ([[1975]]) *''[[Shoot First... Ask Questions Later]]'' ([[1975]]) *''[[L'chaim: To Life]]'' ([[1975]]) (documentary) (narrator) *''[[Plot of Fear]]'' ([[1976]]) *''[[Eye of the Cat]]'' ([[1976]]) *''[[Independence]]'' ([[1976]]) *''[[The Sentinel]]'' ([[1977]]) *''[[The Deep]]'' ([[1977]]) *''[[The Domino Principle]]'' ([[1977]]) *''[[Nasty Habits]]'' ([[1977]]) *''[[Little Italy]]'' ([[1978]]) *''[[Girlfriends]]'' ([[1978]]) *''[[Movie Movie]]'' ([[1978]]) *''[[Circle of Iron]]'' ([[1978]]) *''[[Firepower]]'' ([[1979]]) *''[[Winter Kills]]'' ([[1979]]) *''[[The Hunter]]'' ([[1980]]) *''[[The Salamander]]'' ([[1981]]) *''[[Sam's Son]]'' ([[1984]]) *''[[Sanford Meisner: The American Theatre's Best Kept Secret]]'' ([[1985]]) (documentary) *''[[Tough Guys]]'' ([[1986]]) *''[[Hollywood Uncensored]]'' ([[1987]]) (documentary) *''[[Nuts (film)|Nuts]]'' ([[1987]]) *''[[Funny]]'' ([[1989]]) (documentary) *''[[The Two Jakes]]'' ([[1990]]) *''[[The Godfather: Part III]]'' ([[1990]]) *''[[Article 99]]'' ([[1992]]) *''[[Mistress]]'' ([[1992]]) *''[[Night and the City (1992 film)|Night and the City]]'' ([[1992]]) *''[[Honey Sweet Love]]'' ([[1994]]) *''[[Elia Kazan: A Director's Journey]]'' ([[1995]]) (documentary) (narrator) *''[[Two Much]]'' ([[1995]]) *''[[The Associate]]'' ([[1996]]) *''[[Uninvited (1999 movie)|Uninvited]]'' ([[1999]]) *''[[Keeping the Faith]]'' ([[2000]]) *''[[Cinerama Adventure]]'' ([[2002]]) (documentary) *''[[Advice and Dissent]]'' ([[2002]]) (short subject) *''[[The Root]]'' ([[2003]]) *''[[Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There]]'' ([[2003]]) (documentary) *''[[Mystic River (film)|Mystic River]]'' ([[2003]]) (Cameo) *''[[King of the Corner]]'' ([[2004]]) *''[[The Moon and the Son]]'' ([[2005]]) (short subject) (voice) *''[[The Easter Egg Adventure]]'' ([[2005]]) (narrator) ==Trivia== *Although his ''[[The Magnificent Seven]]'' character (Calvera) and the rest of his bandits are eventually defeated in that film, he has ironically outlived all of the seven stars, except for [[Robert Vaughn]] who is still alive as of [[2006]], despite being older than all of them besides [[Yul Brynner]]. *In [[2005]], Wallach released his autobiography ''The Good, the Bad and Me: In My Anecdotage''. In this tome, Wallach talked about his most famous role as Tuco in ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]''. He mentioned that he didn't realize he was going to be &quot;blessed&quo
'''[[fluctuation-dissipation ratio]]''' * '''[[False discovery rate]]''' - A statistical method for dealing with the [[multiple comparisons]] problem * '''[[Flight data recorder]]''' - device used to record aircraft and pilot behavior in order to analyze accidents (usually called &quot;[[black box]]es&quot; by the news media). * '''FDR resp. FDR2''' - A software to check formal models expressed in [[Communicating_sequential_processes]], developed by Formal Systems (Europe) Ltd.. * '''[[FDR Drive]]''' (full name: Franklin D. Roosevelt Drive) - a highway named for the U.S. president that runs along the [[East River]] in [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]]. * '''[[People's Democratic Front (Indonesia)|Front Democrasi Rakjat]]''' * '''[[Fuerza de Despliegue Rápido (Argentina)|Rapid Deployment Force]]''' (''Fuerza de Despliege Rápido'') of the [[Military of Argentina|Argentine Armed Forces]]. {{TLAdisambig}} [[nl:FDR]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fresco</title> <id>11144</id> <revision> <id>41957948</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:55:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sparkit</username> <id>194762</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{globalize}} [[Image:Ferapontov.jpg|300px|thumb|Fresco by [[Dionisius]] representing [[Saint Nicholas]].]] [[Image:Indischer Maler des 6. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Fresco from [[Ajanta]], c 200 BCE - 600 CE]] A '''fresco''' (plural '''''frescoes''''') is a term for several related [[painting]] types. The word comes from the [[Italian language|Italian]] phrase ''buon fresco'' (&quot;really fresh&quot;) a technical term in opposition to ''[[fresco-secco|in secco]]'' (&quot;on dry surface&quot;). True fresco (''buon fresco'') technique consists of painting in [[pigment]] in a [[water]] [[medium]] on wet or fresh [[Mortar (masonry)#Lime mortar|lime mortar]] or [[plaster]]. ''In secco'' painting is done on dry plaster and with the pigments in a binding medium, like [[egg (food)|egg]]. The difference between the two techniques is that as it dries the wet plaster absorbs the pigment and the painting becomes part of the wall surface rather than resting on top of it. This makes a durable work of art; if the wall is destroyed the painting can often be reassembled because of the size of the plaster parts. Because of the need to work on freshly-laid plaster, careful study of the wall surface can reveal the area worked on in one day. In [[Italian Renaissance|Renaissance Italy]] this was commonly called a ''giornata'' (&quot;daily amount&quot;). These divisions are perceptible with some [[magnification]] and even the naked eye if the plastering technique was not good. Painters in fresco often add details later ''in secco''. These details are not part of the wall and so they are much less durable. [[Egypt]]ian wall paintings in [[tomb]]s are usually ''in secco'', while the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] wall paintings at [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] are in fresco. [[Andrea Palladio]], the famous Italian [[architect]] of the [[16th century]], built many [[mansion]]s with plain exteriors and stunning interiors filled with frescoes. ==Selected examples of Italian frescoes== '''Italian Late Medieval-Quattrocento''' * Panels (including Giotto, Lorenzetti, Martini and others) in upper and lower [[Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi]] * [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]], [[Cappella degli Scrovegni]] (Arena Chapel), [[Padua]] * Camposanto, Pisa * [[Tommaso Masaccio|Masaccio]], [[Brancacci Chapel]], Santa Maria del Carmine di Firenze, Florence * [[Ambrogio Lorenzetti]], Palazzo Publico, [[Siena]] * [[Piero della Francesca]], Chiesa de San Francesco, [[Arezzo]] * [[Domenico Ghirlandaio|Ghirlandaio]], Capella Tornabuoni, Santa Maria Novella, Florence * ''[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|The Last Supper]]'', [[Leonardo Da Vinci]], Milan * [[Sistine Chapel]] Wall series: [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]], [[Pietro Perugino|Perugino]], Rosellini, [[Luca Signorelli|Signorelli]], and [[Domenico Ghirlandaio|Ghirlandaio]] * Luca Signorelli, Chapel of San Brizio, Duomo, Orvieto '''Italian High Renaissance''' * [[Michelangelo]]'s Sistine Chapel ceiling * [[Raphael]]'s Vatican Stanza * [[Raphael]]'s [[Villa Farnesina]] * [[Giulio Romano]]'s [[Palazzo del Te]], Mantua * [[Andrea Mantegna|Mantegna]], [[Camera degli Sposi]], Palazzo Ducale, [[Mantua]] * The dome of Cathedral [[Santa Maria del Fiore]] in Florence * Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel altar wall '''Italian Baroque''' * [[The Loves of the Gods (Carracci)|The Loves of the Gods]], [[Annibale Carracci]], [[Palazzo Farenese]] * [[Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power (Cortona)|Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power]], [[Pietro Da Cortona]], Palazzo Barberini * Ceilings, [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], (New Residenz) Wurzburg, (Royal Palace) Madrid, (Villa Pisani) Stra, and others; Wall scenes (Villa Valmarana and Palazzo Labia) * Nave ceiling, [[Andrea Pozzo]], San Ignazio, Rome ==See also== *[[Mural]] *[[Gambier Parry process]] ==External links== {{commonscat|Fresco}} * [http://www.muralist.org/fresco/ The Art and Nature of Fresco by Lucia Wiley] * [http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/hsc16b.htm Museum of Ancient Inventions: Roman-Style Fresco, Italy, 50 CE] * [http://www.storytellersmediagroup.com/High%20Fresco/High%20Fresco.htm High Fresco - The Art of Ben Long] * [http://www.truefresco.com/ Contemporary Fresco Painting Resource Center] * [http://www.fresco-techniques.com/ Fresco Techniques] * [http://www.frescoschool.org/ Fresco School] [[Category:Fresco painting|*Fresco]] [[Category:Painting materials]] [[cs:Freska]] [[de:Fresko]] [[fr:Fresque]] [[ko:프레스코]] [[hr:Freska]] [[id:Fresko]] [[it:Affresco]] [[he:פרסקו]] [[lv:Freska]] [[lb:Freskemolerei]] [[hu:Freskó]] [[nl:Fresco]] [[ja:フレスコ]] [[pl:Fresk]] [[pt:Afresco]] [[ro:Frescă]] [[ru:Фреска]] [[sl:Freska]] [[fi:Fresko]] [[sv:Fresk]] [[tr:Fresk]] [[uk:Фреска]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fire</title> <id>11145</id> <revision> <id>42034796</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:03:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.198.250.10</ip> </contributor> <comment>Image cleanup. Way too many and some unclear images in this article.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergedisputed|flame}} {{mergefrom|Firetending}} {{otheruses|fire (disambiguation)}} &lt;!-- [[Image:Fire02.jpg|thumb|225px|Fire]] --&gt; &lt;!-- [[Image:Big flame.JPG|thumb|225px|Coleman Lantern Fuel burning between two [[bricks]]]] --&gt; [[Image:Large bonfire.jpg|thumb|225px|A large [[bonfire]].]] '''Fire''', a form of [[combustion]] is a [[chemical reaction]] involving two or more chemicals where the molecules will readily react with each other to form additional chemicals. Linguistically, the word ''fire'' refers to the combination of the brilliant glow and large amount of [[heat]] released during a rapid, self-sustaining burning of combustible [[fuel]]. Fire is not a state of matter: rather, it is an [[exothermic]] [[oxidation]] process by which heat and light energy are given out. Fire starts when a fuel with adequate supply of [[oxygen]] or other [[oxidizer]] is subjected to enough heat, and it is sustained by the further release of heat [[energy]] in the process, as well as a continuous supply of oxygen and combustible fuel. A [[match]] or [[lighter]] is usually used to start a fire, which can then propagate to other combustibles) because matches and lighters are designed with materials of low burning point. Fire is extinguished when one or more elements of heat, oxidizer, or fuel is removed; this concept is used in the [[fire triangle]]. The unburnable solid remains of a fire are termed ash. [[Flame]]s can conduct [[electricity]], as a small portion of any fire is [[ion|ionized]]. This has been demonstrated in the laboratory and also in large [[wildfire]]s that occur in the vicinity of [[power line]]s. ==Controlling fire== [[Image:Log in fireplace.jpg|thumb|left|225px|A log burning in a [[fireplace]].]] Controlling fire for the purposes of providing heat and light was one of [[human]]kind's first great achievements. The ability of fire to generate heat and light made possible migration to colder climates and enabled people to [[cooking|cook]] food — a decisive step in the perennial fight against [[disease]]. [[Smoke signals]] were an early use of fire for communication, and fire soon enabled advancements in [[metallurgy]] such as [[smelting]] and [[forging]]. [[Archaeology]] indicates that ancestors of modern humans such as ''[[Homo erectus]]'' seem to have been using controlled fire as early as some 790,000 years ago. The [[Cradle of Humankind]] site has evidence for controlled fire 1 million years ago. By the time of the [[Neolithic Revolution]], during the introduction of grain based agriculture, people the world over used fire as a tool in landscape management. These fires were typically [[controlled burn]]s or &quot;cool fires&quot;, as opposed to uncontrolled &quot;hot fires&quot; that damage the soil. Such hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities. This is especially problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and fall. They clear undergrowth, burning up [[biomass]] that could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable. [[Image:Gas burner on stove.JPG|thumb|right|225px|A lit gas burner on a stove.]] The modern applications of fire are numerous. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day. Owners of [[internal combustion]] vehicles use fire every t
air, wears dark sunglasses, and somewhat physically resembles actor Peter Sellers. **There is a modification available for [[Unreal Tournament]] called [[Strangelove (video_game)|Strangelove]] which allows the player to ride &quot;The Redeemer,&quot; a small nuclear weapon, around the game, much like Major Kong. **In [[Starcraft]], the race of aliens known as the [[Zerg]] are described as having a &quot;purity of essence&quot;. This could be a reference to the &quot;purity&quot; and &quot;essence&quot; of &quot;bodily fluids&quot; that General Ripper describes. *An abandoned [[Lunar base]] in [[Shane Johnson]]'s Christian science fiction novel ''[[Ice (novel)|Ice]]'' is described as containing one with a War Room quite similar to the room depicted in ''Dr. Strangelove'', causing one character in that novel to remark specifically on the similarity. *The video for [[Muse (band)|Muse]]'s [[Time Is Running Out]] features military men and women sitting in a war room planning the destruction of the world around a table identical to the one in [[Dr Strangelove]] as the band sings in the centre of the table. ==See also== *[[Slim Pickens]] for listing of the survival pack *[[Films that have been considered the greatest ever]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * {{imdb title|id=0057012|title=Dr. Strangelove}} * {{filmsite|id=drst|title=Dr. Strangelove}} * [http://www.dvdjournal.com/reviews/d/drstrangelove_40ae.shtml &quot;Dr. Strangelove&quot; at DVD Journal] * [http://trace.ntu.ac.uk/frame2/articles/borg/kahn.html Herman Kahn's doomsday machine] * [http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0055.html Continuity transcript] * [http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0017.html A Commentary on Dr. Strangelove] * [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19990711%2FREVIEWS08%2F907110301%2F1023 Great Movies: Dr. Strangelove] By Roger Ebert {{Stanley Kubrick Films}} &lt;!-- Peter Sellers --&gt; [[Category:1964 films]] [[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee (film)]] [[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]] [[Category:Cold War films]] [[Category:Comedy films]] [[Category:Cult films]] [[Category:Films based on fiction books]] [[Category:Films directed by Stanley Kubrick]] [[Category:Satirical films]] [[Category:United States National Film Registry]] [[da:Dr. Strangelove eller: Hvordan jeg lærte at holde op med at bekymre mig og at elske bomben]] [[de:Dr. Seltsam oder: Wie ich lernte, die Bombe zu lieben]] [[es:Dr. Strangelove]] [[fi:Tohtori Outolempi]] [[fr:Docteur Folamour]] [[he:דוקטור סטריינג'לב]] [[it:Il dottor Stranamore, ovvero: come imparai a non preoccuparmi e ad amare la bomba]] [[ja:博士の異常な愛情、又は私は如何にして心配するのを止めて水爆を愛するようになったか]] [[nl:Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb]] [[pt:Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb]] [[ru:Доктор Стрейнджлав, или Как я перестал бояться и полюбил бомбу (фильм)]] [[simple:Dr. Strangelove]] [[sv:Dr. Strangelove eller: Hur jag slutade ängslas och lärde mig älska bomben]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Durian</title> <id>8696</id> <revision> <id>42157825</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:04:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BorgQueen</username> <id>382591</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* In popular culture */ link for Mawas</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Durian | image = Durian.png | image_width = 250px | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Malvales]] | familia = [[Malvaceae]] ([[Bombacaceae]]) | genus = '''''Durio''''' | genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = About 27 species, including:&lt;br/&gt; ''Durio dulcis''&lt;br/&gt; ''Durio grandiflorus''&lt;br/&gt; ''Durio graveolens''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Durio kutejensis]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''Durio oxleyanus''&lt;br/&gt; ''Durio wyattsmithii''&lt;br/&gt; ''Durio zibethinus'' }} The '''durian''' is the [[fruit]] of several [[species]] of trees in the [[genus]] ''Durio'', especially ''Durio&amp;nbsp;zibethinus''. There are 25 to 30 ''Durio'' species in total, all native to south-eastern [[Asia]]. Only six species produce edible fruit,&lt;ref&gt;Morton. [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/durian_ars.html#Related%20Species]&lt;/ref&gt; and ''Durio zibethinus'' is the only species widely available in the market, though other species can be found in local markets in their native region. The durian fruit is distinctive for its large size, unique odour, and its formidible thorn-covered [[husk]]. Its name comes from the [[Malay_language|Malay]] word ''duri'', meaning &quot;thorn&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Via ''durion'', the Malay name for the plant. Oxford English Dictionary 1897; Huxley 1992.&lt;/ref&gt; The fruit can grow up to 40&amp;nbsp;cm long and 30&amp;nbsp;cm in diameter, and typically weighs one to five kg. The colour of the fruit ranges from green to brown, the shape oblong to round. Its hard outer [[husk]] is covered with sharp, prickly [[Spine (biology)|thorns]], and a strong, distinctive [[odor|odour]] emits from the flesh within. Some regard this odour as fragrant, while the uninitiated often find it overpowering or offensive. The edible portions of the fruit are the yellowish, [[custard]]-like flesh and the the [[seed]] which it surrounds. ==Tree== [[Image:Durio Zibethinus Van Nooten.jpg|thumb|left|''Durio Zibethinus''. [[Chromolithograph]] by Hoola Van Nooten, circa 1863.]] Durians are large [[tree]]s, growing up to 40&amp;nbsp;metres in height. The leaves are [[evergreen]], opposite, elliptic to oblong and 10&amp;ndash;18&amp;nbsp;cm long. The flowers are produced in clusters of 3&amp;ndash;30 together on large branches and the trunk, each flower having a calyx ([[sepals]]) and 5 (rarely 4 or 6) [[petal]]s. A typical durian tree can bear fruit after four or five years. The durian fruit, which can hang from any branch, matures in about three months after [[pollination]]. Durian trees usually have two flowering and fruiting periods each year, although the timing of these varies depending on localities. Durian flowers are large and feathery with copious [[nectar (plant)|nectar]], and give off a heavy, sour and buttery odour. These features are typical of flowers which are pollinated hy certain species of [[bat]]s while they eat nectar and [[pollen]].&lt;ref&gt;Whitten, p. 329.&lt;/ref&gt; According to a research conducted in Malaysia, durians are pollinated almost exclusively by cave fruit bats.&lt;ref&gt;Soepadmo and Eow, 1977.&lt;/ref&gt; There are many [[cultivar]]s of the durian, each having a name and also a code number starting with &quot;D&quot;. For example, some popular clones are D24, D99, D158 and D159 (or 'Mon Thong'). Since the durian is the topic of study in certain [[agriculture|agricultural]] institutions, certain commercial strains are given a D number to distinguish them from &quot;standard&quot; wild species. Each cultivar has its distinct taste. ==Availability== [[Image:Durian_stall.JPG|thumb|250px|right|A durian stall in Singapore]] The durian is native to [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Brunei]], although it can grow in any similar climate. The center of [[ecology|ecological]] diversity for durians is the island of [[Borneo]], where it is prized by the local people, a passion shared by the [[orangutan]] population. [[Thailand]] is a major exporter of durians. Other places where durians are grown include [[Mindanao]] in the [[Philippines]], [[Queensland]] in [[Australia]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], and parts of [[Hawaii]]. In the Philippines, the center of durian production is the [[Davao Region]] in [[Mindanao]]. The Kadayawan festival is an annual celebration featuring the durian in [[Davao City]]. In season they can be found in mainstream [[Japan]]ese supermarkets; in the West they are sold mainly by stores catering to Asian communities. ==History== The earliest known European reference on the durian is the record of Nicolo Conti who travelled to south-eastern Asia in 15th century.&lt;ref&gt;Brown.&lt;/ref&gt; In 16th century, [[Garcia de Orta]] mentioned durians in his several works. In 1741, Rumphius published ''Herbarium Amboinense'', providing the most detailed and accurate account of durians for over a century. During the early stages of its taxonomical study, there was some confusion between durian and the [[soursop]] (''Annona muricata''), for both of these species had thorny green fruit.&lt;ref&gt;Brown.&lt;/ref&gt; It is also interesting to note the Malay name for the soursop is ''durian Belanda'', meaning &quot;Dutch durian&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Davidson, p. 737.&lt;/ref&gt; In 18th century, Weinmann considered the durian to belong to Castaneae as its fruit was similar to the [[horse chestnut]]. {{sect-stub}} ==Flavour and odour== [[Image:Singapore MRT Fines.jpg|thumb|160px|left|Sign forbidding durians on [[Singapore MRT]]]] &lt;!--[[Image:Durian-verbot.jpg|thumb|Durians forbidden sign in [[Malaysia]]]] (We really don't need two pictures in this small section)--&gt; Writing in 1856, the British naturalist [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] provides a much-quoted description of the flavour of the Durian: &lt;blockquote&gt; ''A rich custard highly flavoured with almonds gives the best general idea of it, but there are occasional wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, sherry-wine, and other incongruous dishes. Then there is a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing else possesses, but which adds to its delicacy''&lt;ref&gt;Printed in volume 8 of [[William Jackson Hooker]]'s ''Journal of Botany'', 1856. [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S027.htm Text online] from the Alfred Russel Wallace page.&lt;/ref&gt;. &lt;/blockquote&gt; Wallace cautions that &quot;the smell of the ripe fruit is certainly at
eral amnesty was declared, and two years later, the government had released nearly all political prisoners. The authorities continued, however, to harass dissidents and Solidarity activists. Solidarity remained proscribed and its publications banned. Independent publications were censored. &lt;!-- Merge? At the [[Yalta Conference]] the Allies broadly agreed to the Soviet proposals for Poland's future borders and to reconstitution of the Polish government, which initiated Poland's absorption into the Soviet sphere of influence. A Polish People's Republic (''Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa'') was created under communist party rule after a brief period of coalition government. With the approaching collapse of the [[USSR]], power passed in 1989 to the opposition led by the [[Solidarity]] trade union movement. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of an independent trade union &quot;[[Solidarity]]&quot; (''Solidarność'') that over time became a political force and in 1989–1990 swept elections to both parliament and the presidency, displacing the communist party from government. --&gt; ==The Third Republic (1989-present)== {{mainarticle|[[History of Poland (1989-present)]] and [[Third Polish Republic]]}} A ''[[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]]'' program during the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most robust in [[Central Europe]]. Poland joined [[NATO]] on [[May 27]], [[1999]] and the [[European Union]] on [[May 1]], [[2004]]. ==See also== * [[Ancient Polish units of measurement]] * [[Myths from Polish history]] * [[History of Europe]] * [[History of present-day nations and states]] ==External links== * [http://www.badley.info/history/Poland.country.year.index.html Poland Chronology World History Database] * [http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&amp;bookid=1 A History of East Central Europe by Oscar Halecki] ===Maps=== * [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/1.htm Poland and West-Slavs 800-950] * [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/2.htm Poland 990-1040] * [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/3.htm Poland 1040-1090] * [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/4.htm Poland 1090-1140] * [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/10.htm Poland 1140-1250] * [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/12.htm Poland 1250-1290] * [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/13.htm Poland 1290-1333] * [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/17.htm Poland 1333-1350] * [http://piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/kwmapa.htm Poland 1350-1370] * [http://www.kresy.co.uk/Images/map.jpg Poland 1550] * [http://www.forumnobilium.net/Poland%201677.jpg Poland 1677] * [http://ornatowski.com/maps/rzeczpospolita1773.jpg Poland 1773] * [http://www.iirzeczpospolita.px.pl/images/mapapolski.jpg Poland 1939] * [http://www.michalowo.ug.gov.pl/bip/image/wojewodztwa.jpg Poland 2004] * [http://rw46.webpark.pl/poczet/poczet.htm Poland (flash version)] [[Category:History of Poland| ]] [[Category:History of Europe|Poland]] [[cs:Dějiny Polska]] [[de:Geschichte Polens]] [[fr:Histoire de la Pologne]] [[ga:Stair na Polainne]] [[ko:폴란드의 역사]] [[it:Storia della Polonia]] [[he:היסטוריה של פולין]] [[lv:Polijas vēsture]] [[lt:Lenkijos istorija]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Polen]] [[ja:ポーランドの歴史]] [[pl:Historia Polski]] [[pt:História da Polónia]] [[ru:История Польши]] [[sv:Polens historia]] [[uk:Історія Польщі]] [[zh:波兰历史]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hradčany</title> <id>13773</id> <revision> <id>33825687</id> <timestamp>2006-01-04T09:06:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>YurikBot</username> <id>271058</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: de</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hradcany.JPG|thumb|Hradčany from the Petřín Tower]] '''Hradčany''' ({{Audio|Cs-Hradcany.ogg|listen}}), the '''Castle District''', is the [[Prague]] district surrounding the [[Prague Castle]]. The castle is said to be the biggest castle in the world at about 570 meters length and an average of about 130 meters wide. Its history stretches back to the [[8th century]]. The [[St Vitus Cathedral]] is located in the castle area. Hradčany was an independent borough until [[1784]], when the four independent boroughs that had formerly constituted [[Prague]] were proclaimed a single city. The other three were [[Lesser Quarter]], [[Old Town, Prague|Old Town]] and [[New Town, Prague|New Town]]. ==External links== * [http://www.prague-city.cz/ Official Website] {{Czechia-geo-stub}} {{Euro-struct-stub}} {{Template:Prague districts}} [[Category:Districts of Prague]] [[ar:هارادشاني]] [[cs:Hradčany]] [[de:Hradčany]] [[eo:Hradčany (Prago)]] [[nl:Hradčany]] [[pl:Hradczany]] [[sv:Hradčany]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Houston, Texas</title> <id>13774</id> <revision> <id>42069960</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:41:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Beeblebrox5000</username> <id>470441</id> </contributor> <comment>rv to version by Wv235</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Houston&quot; redirects here. For other uses, see [[Houston (disambiguation)]].'' {{Infobox City |official_name = Houston, Texas |nickname = Space City |website = [http://www.houstontx.gov www.houstontx.gov] |image_skyline = SUC30003.JPG |image_flag = Us-tx-hu.png |image_seal = CitySeal.PNG |image_map = HoustoninTexas.PNG |map_caption = Location in the state of [[Texas]] |subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] |subdivision_name = [[Harris County, Texas|Harris County]]&lt;br&gt;[[Fort Bend County, Texas|Fort Bend County]]&lt;br&gt;[[Montgomery County, Texas|Montgomery County]] |leader_title = [[Mayor]] |leader_name = [[Bill White (mayor)|Bill White]] |area_magnitude = 1 E8 |area_total = 601.7 mi² / 1,558.4 |area_land = 579.4 mi² / 1,500.7 |area_water = 22.3 mi² / 57.7 |population_as_of = 2004 |population_total = 2,012,626 |population_metro = 5,180,443 |population_density = 502.6 mi² / 1,301.8 |timezone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|CST]] |utc_offset = -6 |timezone_DST = [[Central Daylight Time|CDT]] |utc_offset_DST = -5 |latd = 29 |latm = 45 |lats = 25 |latNS = N |longd = 95 |longm = 22 |longs = 12 |longEW = W |elevation = 14 |footnotes = }} '''Houston''' is the largest city in the state of [[Texas]] and the fourth-largest in the [[United States|United&amp;nbsp;States]]. The city is also large in geographic area; it covers more than 600 square miles (1,558.4 km²) and is the [[county seat]] of [[Harris County, Texas|Harris&amp;nbsp;County]]&amp;mdash;the third most populous in the country. Houston is one of 11 U.S. [[global city|global cities]] as it is ranked &quot;Gamma&amp;nbsp;World&amp;nbsp;City&quot; by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group &amp; Network. As of the [[2000]] [[U.S. Census]], Houston had a total population of 1.9 million (though a [[July 1]], [[2004]] U.S. Census estimate placed the city's population at more than 2 million). The city is the heart of the [[Greater Houston|Houston-Sugar&amp;nbsp;Land-Baytown metropolitan area]], which is the largest cultural and economic center of the [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf&amp;nbsp;Coast]] region and is the seventh-largest [[United States metropolitan area|metropolitan area]] in the U.S. with a population of 5.2 million in ten counties. Houston is world renowned for its [[energy]] (particularly [[petroleum|oil]]) and [[aeronautics]] industries and for its ship channel. The [[Port of Houston]] is the sixth-largest port in the world. It is the busiest port in the United States in foreign tonnage and second in overall tonnage. Second only to [[New York City]] in [[Fortune 500]] headquarters, Houston is the seat of the internationally-renowned [[Texas Medical Center]], which contains the world's largest concentration of research and [[healthcare]] institutions. Known for the vibrancy of its [[visual arts|visual]] and [[performing arts]], Houston's Theater District is ranked second in the country in the number of [[theatre]] seats in a concentrated downtown area per capita and has world-class visual and performing arts organizations. The city is also close to sunny [[beach]]es as well as one of the United States' largest concentrations of pleasure boats and tourist attractions. Officially, Houston is [[nickname]]d the ''&quot;Space&amp;nbsp;City&quot;'' as it is home to [[NASA]]'s [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]], where [[Mission Control Center]] is located (because of this, &quot;Houston&quot; was the first word spoken on the [[moon]]). ==History== :''Main article: [[History of Houston]]'' ===Houston's founding=== In the mid-1800s, two brothers who were [[New York]] real estate promoters, [[John Kirby Allen]] and [[Augustus Chapman Allen]], sought a location where they could begin building &quot;a great center of government and commerce.&quot; In [[August]] [[1836]], they purchased 6,642 acres (27 km²) of land from T. F. L. Parrot, [[John Austin]]'s widow, for $9,428. The Allen brothers named their town after [[Sam Houston]] and eventually persuaded the [[Texas Legislature]] to designate the site as the temporary [[capital]] of the new [[Republic of Texas]]. Houston started out as a [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]]. Gail and Thomas H. Borden surveyed and mapped the town in typical grid fashion, with wide streets running parallel and perpendicular to the area's system of [[bayous]]. The city was granted [[incorporation (municipal government)|incorporation]] on [[June 5]], [[1837]], and James S. Holman became the first [[mayor]]. That same year, Houston also became the [[county seat]] of Harrisburg County, which was renamed [[Harris County]] in [[1839]]. Houston was then made temporary capital of the Republic of Texas. On [[January 14]], 1839, the capital was moved to [[Austin, Texas|Austin]], then known as [[Waterloo, Texas|Waterloo]]. ===Early settle
ot;Relax (from soft to hard)&quot; (4:21) *Reissued 12&quot; single &lt;small&gt;(12 ZTAS 1)&lt;/small&gt; *# &quot;Relax (U.S. mix)&quot; (7:20) *# &quot;Ferry 'Cross The Mersey&quot; (4:03) *# &quot;Relax (from soft to hard)&quot; (4:21) *Cassingle &lt;small&gt;(CTIS 102)&lt;/small&gt; *:&quot;From Soft To Hard - From Dry To Moist&quot; *# &quot;The Party Trick (acting dumb)&quot; *# &quot;The Special Act (adapted from the sex mix)&quot; *# &quot;The US Mix (come dancing)&quot; *# &quot;The Single (the act)&quot; *# &quot;Later On (from One September Monday)&quot; *# &quot;Ferry Across The Mersey (...and here I'll stay)&quot; ==Song in pop culture== *The song is featured prominently in the movie ''[[Body Double (film)|Body Double]]'', and also played in the first ''[[Police Academy]]'' movie. *Both the original version and a cover version by [[Powerman 5000]] played in the movie ''[[Zoolander]]''. *In ''[[The Wedding Singer]]'', the Russian-immigrant catering chef sports a &quot;RELAX&quot; t-shirt, which is perhaps a culture-shock joke, in that the shirts had become passé by 1985, when the movie is set. *In the long-form video, &quot;[[Jazzin' for Blue Jean]]&quot; (1984), directed by [[Julien Temple]] and featuring [[David Bowie]], Bowie's caracter, Vic, tries to impress a girl by taking her to a concert. When deciding what to wear he tries on a &quot;Frankie Say Relax&quot; T-shirt and then changes his mind, saying to himself &quot;I'm not advertising Frankie anymore until they tell us who he is&quot;. *In the &quot;[[Friends]]&quot; episode &quot;The One With The Tiny T-Shirt&quot;, Ross and Rachel argue over possession of a vintage &quot;Frankie Say Relax&quot; t-shirt. ==External links== * [http://www.fgth.nl/FGTH-NET/rare-unreleased2/relaxcassingle.ram Listen to CTIS 102] [[Category:Frankie Goes To Hollywood singles]] [[Category:1983 singles]] [[Category:UK number one singles]] [[Category:Gay anthems]] [[Category:Singles banned by the BBC]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Two Tribes</title> <id>11261</id> <revision> <id>40363522</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- BEGIN WikiProject Album infobox (scroll down to edit main article text) --&gt; {| align=right border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 width=225 !align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|''Two Tribes'' |- |align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:Two Tribes single.jpg|225 px|Two Tribes]] |- !align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Single (music)|Single]] by [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]] |- !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Released |colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[28 May]], [[1984]] |- !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Recorded |colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|May - June, [[1983]] |- !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Musical genre|Genre]] |colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Dance music|Dance]], [[New Wave music|New Wave]] |- !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Record label]] |colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[ZTT Records|ZTT]] |- !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Cat. # |colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|ZTAS 3 |- !align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Record producer|Producer]] |colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Trevor Horn]] |- !bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Frankie chronology |-align=&quot;center&quot; |valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''[[Relax (single)|Relax]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[1983]])&lt;/small&gt; |valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''[[Two Tribes]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[1984]])&lt;/small&gt; |valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''[[The Power Of Love (Frankie Goes to Hollywood)|The Power Of Love]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[1984]])&lt;/small&gt; |} &lt;!-- END WikiProject Album infobox --&gt; '''''Two Tribes''''' was the second single by [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]. Released in 1984, it is taken from the album ''[[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (album)|Welcome To The Pleasuredome]]''. The single's title comes from the quote &quot;When two great warrior tribes go to war&quot; from the film &quot;Mad Max 2: The Road Warrior&quot;, starring [[Mel Gibson]]. Playing on the global fears of nuclear annihilation, the single was released at the height of the cold war. The [[Godley &amp; Creme]]-directed video, called the &quot;Two Tribes Destructo Video&quot;, depicted a wrestling match between US president [[Ronald Reagan]] and Russian leader [[Konstantin Chernenko]]. A longer version of the video included an introduction by US President [[Richard Nixon]]. The single sleeve was peppered with nuclear war propaganda, including how many bombs each country had. The single itself featured actor [[Patrick Allen]] issuing warnings about what to do with family members if they should die whilst in the nuclear fallout shelters. The flipside to the single was a cover version of &quot;War&quot; which would feature two years later as the standout track on [[Bruce Springsteen]]'s triple live boxset '''''Live 1975-1985'''''. &quot;Two Tribes&quot; stayed at the [[List of Number 1 singles (UK)#1984|top of the singles chart]] for nine weeks, eventually pulling &quot;Relax&quot; back up to Number 2. ==Tracklisting== All discographical information pertains to UK releases only ===7&quot; single (ZTAS 3)=== # &quot;Two Tribes (cowboys and Indians)&quot; (3:57) # &quot;One February Friday (doctors and nurses)&quot; (4:55) ===7&quot; picture disc (P ZTAS 3)=== &quot;Different Mix&quot; # &quot;Two Tribes (we don't want to die)&quot; (4:10) # &quot;One February Friday (only bullets can stop them now)&quot; (4:55) ===12&quot; single (12 ZTAS 3)=== # &quot;Two Tribes (annihilation)&quot; (9:08) # &quot;War (hide yourself)&quot; (4:12) # &quot;One February Friday [abridged]&quot; (1:46) # &quot;Two Tribes (surrender)&quot; (3:46) # &quot;the last voice [unlisted]&quot; (1:14) ===Remix 12&quot; single (X ZTAS 3)=== # &quot;Two Tribes (carnage)&quot; (7:54) # &quot;War (hide yourself)&quot; (4:12) # &quot;One February Friday [abridged]&quot; (1:46) # &quot;Two Tribes (surrender)&quot; (3:46) # &quot;the last voice [unlisted]&quot; (1:14) ===3rd 12&quot; (WARTZ 3)=== # &quot;War (hidden)&quot; (8:33) # &quot;Two Tribes (carnage)&quot; (7:54) # &quot;One February Friday [abridged]&quot; (1:46) ===4th 12&quot; (X ZIP 1)=== # &quot;Two Tribes (hibakusha)&quot; (6:38) # &quot;War (hide yourself)&quot; (4:12) # &quot;One February Friday [abridged]&quot; (1:46) # &quot;Two Tribes (surrender)&quot; (3:46) # &quot;the last voice - edited [unlisted] (0:35) * Limited to 5000 copies * &quot;[[Hibakusha]]&quot; means witness/survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings. ===Cassingle (CTIS 103)=== &quot;Keep The Peace&quot; # &quot;have sex with as many objects as possible [unlisted]&quot; (1:04) # &quot;Two Tribes At Madison Square Garden&quot; (3:11) # &quot;The Carnage / The Annihilation&quot; (12:05) # &quot;One February Friday&quot; (1:08) # &quot;War (somewhere between hiding and hidden)&quot; (4:12) # &quot;war is peace&quot; (0:28) ==Song in pop culture== *Was played in the video game [[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]]. ==External links== * [http://www.fgth.nl/FGTH-NET/rare-unreleased2/TwoTribes-cassingle.ram Listen to CTIS 103] [[Category:Frankie Goes To Hollywood singles]] [[Category:1984 singles]] [[Category:Number one singles]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>The Power of Love</title> <id>11262</id> <revision> <id>41327714</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:44:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GregorB</username> <id>179697</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Everly Brothers */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''&quot;The Power of Love&quot;''' is the name of three different songs originally released in [[1984]] and [[1985]]. All three were [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart hits in 1985 &amp;ndash; the only year in which three different songs of the same name have been in the charts. The Everly Brothers 1966 release on Warner Brothers is the fourth song with this title. ==Frankie Goes to Hollywood== ''Main article: [[The Power of Love (Frankie Goes to Hollywood song)]]'' &quot;The Power of Love&quot; was the third single from [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]. Because it was released shortly before [[Christmas]], 1984, the band decided to depict the [[Nativity]] in the song's [[music video|video]]. ==Huey Lewis and the News== &quot;The Power of Love&quot; is the title of a [[1985]] single by [[Huey Lewis and the News]] written for and featured in the film ''[[Back to the Future]]''. It gave the band their first #1 hit and later appeared on UK editions of the band's 4th studio album, [[Fore!]]. The song was nominated for an [[Academy Award]] at the [[1986]] Oscars. ==Jennifer Rush== &quot;The Power of Love&quot; is the name of a [[power ballad]] co-written and originally recorded by [[Jennifer Rush]]. Jennifer Rush's version was the first single by a female soloist to sell a million copies in the UK, and is among the [[List of best-selling singles (UK)|UK's best-selling singles]] of all-time. In the [[United States|US]] Rush's original was eclipsed by a cover version by Anglo-Australian duo [[Air Supply]]. The song has subsequently been covered by several other artists, notably by [[Laura Branigan]] in 1987 and later by [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]]; the latter's version was nominated for a 1995 [[Grammy Award]]. ==Everly Brothers== (You Got) The Power Of Love, written by Bonnie Bramlett and Joey Cooper, this is a powerful rocker, recorded in Hollywo
| company_name = H. J. Heinz Company | company_logo = [[Image:Heinz.png|200px|Heinz logo]] | company_type = Public ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=HNZ HNZ]) | foundation = [[1869]] | location = Box 57 &lt;br&gt;[[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] [[United States]] | key_people = [[William R. Johnson]]; Chairman, President &amp; CEO&lt;br \&gt;[[Arthur Winkleblack]]; COO &amp; Exec. VP| industry = [[Food processing]] | revenue = [[Image:green up.png]]$8.415 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]]) | num_employees = 37,500 ([[2005]]) | products = [[Ketchup]], [[condiments]], frozen food, [[soup]]s, beans and pasta meals, [[tuna]] and other seafood products, infant food and other processed food products | homepage = [http://www.heinz.com/ www.heinz.com] }} '''H. J. Heinz Company''' {{nyse|HNZ}}, commonly known as just '''Heinz''', famous for both its &quot;57 Varieties&quot; slogan and its commercial jingle &quot;Beanz Meanz Heinz&quot;, was founded in [[1869]] by [[Henry J. Heinz|Henry John Heinz]] in [[Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania|Sharpsburg]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States]]. Heinz, then 25 years old, began by delivering processed condiments to local grocers by horse-drawn wagon. The company's first product was [[horseradish]], followed by [[pickle]]s, [[sauerkraut]], and [[vinegar]]. The company was initially named the Anchor Pickle and Vinegar Works, and was run by Heinz and partner [[L. C. Noble]]. The name changed to Heinz, Noble &amp; Company in [[1872]] when [[E. J. Noble]] joined on and the company relocated to nearby [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]]. After a banking panic forced him into [[bankruptcy]] in [[1875]], Heinz restarted his business with the help of his brother John and his cousin [[Frederick Heinz|Frederick]], and in and the following year they introduced what would become its most well-known product: [[tomato]] [[ketchup]]. The new company was known as F. &amp; J. Heinz until [[1888]], when Henry bought controlling interest from his brother and gave the business its current name. [[Image:Curry_Beanz.jpg|thumb|left|New and old versions of the brand]] The company's famous slogan, &quot;57 Varieties&quot;, was chosen by Henry Heinz in [[1892]] after he saw an advertisement for &quot;21 varieties of shoes&quot; in an [[Metro|elevated train]] car in [[New York, New York|New York]]. In actuality, the company was producing over sixty different products at the time, but Heinz chose the number 57 for what his biographer called &quot;[[occult]]&quot; reasons. Another famous slogan is &quot;Beanz Meanz Heinz&quot;, used in the [[1960s]] to advertise their [[baked beans]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. In [[2004]] they started spelling &quot;Baked Beanz&quot; with a &quot;z&quot; on their beanz, which is seen as a reminder of the slogan. In [[1919]] Henry Heinz died, and control of the company passed to his son, [[Howard Heinz]], who was then succeeded by H. J. Heinz II in [[1941]]. By [[1972]], sales had reached the [[billion]] [[United States dollar|dollar]] mark. Today, Heinz sells more than 1,300 products worldwide ranging from ketchup to baby food and canned seafood. Henry J. Heinz II's son was [[United States]] [[United States Senate|Senator]] from Pennsylvania [[John Heinz]], who died in a plane crash on [[April 4]], [[1991]]. His widow, [[Teresa Heinz Kerry|Teresa]] married U.S. Senator from [[Massachusetts]] [[John Kerry]] in [[1995]]. Kerry ran unsuccessfully for President in [[2004]]. Thanks to Teresa Heinz Kerry, the 2004 presidential campaign gave the Heinz Company considerable publicity. In [[2001]] the [[Food Standards Agency]] of the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] found contamination of Heinz canned baked beans products with the [[hormone disruptor]] [[bisphenol]] &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/press_releases/20010508144446.html]&lt;/sup&gt;. Heinz paid $57 million for [[naming rights]] to [[Heinz Field]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] where it has its headquarters. ==Trivia== In 2004, Argentinian Soccer player Gabriel Ivan Heinze, upon signing for Manchester United, chose 57 as his squad number for the season, but was later convinced to change it to the more conventional 4. ==Corporate governance== Current members of the [[board of directors]] of the [[corporation]] are: [[Charles Bunch]], [[Mary Choksi]], [[Leonard Coleman]], [[Pete Coors|Peter Coors]], [[Edith Holiday]], [[William R. Johnson]], [[Candace Kendle]], [[Dean O'Hare]], [[Lynn Swann]], and [[Thomas Usher]]. ==Subsidiaries of HJHC== * [[Appetizers And Inc]] * [[Bagel Bites]] frozen snacks * [[Boston Market]] frozen meals and side dishes * Deli-Mex * [[HAK|Hak BV]] * [[Honig merkartikelen]] * [[Koninklijke De Ruijter BV]] * [[Jack Daniels]] grilling sauce * [[Ore-Ida]] frozen potatoes * [[Pagnier|Pagnier BV]] * [[Smart Ones]] low-fat frozen meals (under the [[Weight Watchers]] name) * [[TGI Fridays]]{{citeneeded}} * [[Venianco|Venianco NV]] * [[Watties]] * [[Wylers]] {{listdev}} ==Internationally== ===Australia=== In Australia, Heinz is best known for tinned Baked Beans in Tomato Sauce, and Spaghetti in a similar suace. Heinz' soups lines are not widely recognised in Australia. Their most iconic product is Heinz BIG RED Tomato Sauce. ==See also== *[[Heinz 57]] ==External links== *[http://www.heinz.com/jsp/history.jsp Heinz History] *[http://www.snopes.com/business/hidden/heinz57.asp The story of &quot;57 Varieties&quot;] *[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_195 Cecil Adams' The Straight Dope] [http://www.heinz.com.au/html/products/products.asp?ID=85&amp;categoryID=14 Heinz BIG RED Tomato Sauce] (Australian flagship product) {{Pittsburgh Corporations}} [[Category:Companies based in Pennsylvania]] [[Category:Food companies of the United States]] [[Category:Multinational food companies]] [[de:H. J. Heinz Company]] [[es:Heinz (Compañía)]] [[nl:H.J. Heinz Company]] [[sv:H. J. Heinz Company]] [[zh:亨氏]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Huffman coding</title> <id>13883</id> <revision> <id>41119795</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:20:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hayk</username> <id>134446</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+ru:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], '''Huffman coding''' is an [[entropy encoding]] [[algorithm]] used for [[lossless data compression]]. The term refers to the use of a variable-length code table for encoding a source symbol (such as a character in a file) where the variable-length code table has been derived in a particular way based on the estimated probability of occurrence for each possible value of the source symbol. It was developed by [[David A. Huffman]] as a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] student at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in [[1952]], and published in ''A Method for the Construction of Minimum-Redundancy Codes''. Huffman coding uses a specific method for choosing the representation for each symbol, resulting in a [[prefix-free code]] (that is, the bit string representing some particular symbol is never a prefix of the bit string representing any other symbol) that expresses the most common characters using shorter strings of bits than are used for less common source symbols. Huffman was able to design the most efficient compression method of this type: no other mapping of individual source symbols to unique strings of bits will produce a smaller average output size when the actual symbol frequencies agree with those used to create the code. (Huffman coding is such a widespread method for creating prefix-free codes that the term &quot;Huffman code&quot; is widely used as a synonym for &quot;prefix-free code&quot; even when such a code was not produced by Huffman's algorithm.) For a set of symbols with a uniform probability distribution and a number of members which is a [[power of two]], Huffman coding is equivalent to simple binary block encoding. Assertions of the optimality of Huffman coding should be phrased carefully, because its optimality can sometimes accidentally be over-stated. For example, [[arithmetic coding]] ordinarily has better compression capability, because it does not require the use of an integer number of bits for encoding each source symbol. [[LZW]] coding can also often be more efficient, particularly when the input symbols are not independently-distributed, because it does not depend on encoding each input symbol one at a time (instead, it batches up a variable number of input symbols into each encoded syntax element). The efficiency of Huffman coding also depends heavily on having a good estimate of the true probability of the value of each input symbol. == History == In 1951, David Huffman and his MIT information theory classmates were given the choice of a term paper or a final exam. The professor, [[Robert M. Fano]], assigned a term paper on the problem of finding the most efficient binary code. Huffman, unable to prove any codes were the most efficient, was about to give up and start studying for the final when he hit upon the idea of using a frequency-sorted binary tree, and quickly proved this method the most efficient. In doing so, the student outdid his professor, who had worked with [[information theory]] inventor [[Claude Shannon]] to develop a similar code. Huffman avoided the major flaw of [[Shannon-Fano coding]] by building the tree from the bottom up instead of from the top down. == Problem definition == ==== Informal description ==== '''Given'''. A set of symbols and their costs.&lt;br&gt; '''Find'''. A prefix free binary character code (a sets of codewords) with minimum weighted path length.&lt;br&gt; '''Note-1'''. A code wherein each character is represented by a unique binary string (codeword) is called a binary character code.&lt;br&gt; '''Note-2'''. A
ce the effect of '''atmospheric''' haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground. ===Artistry=== The [[Composition (visual arts)|composition]] of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of [[artistic merit]]. The artist plans the placement of elements in the art in order to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating. The [[illumination]] of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features. When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed. A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine the appearance of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art onto itself, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study. ==History== [[person|People]] have made drawings since [[prehistoric]] times. This [[art]] form first gained widespread popularity among [[European]] [[artists]] during the 1400's, when [[paper]] became generally available. Since that time, each century has produced [[artists]] who have created great drawings. Masters of drawing in the 1400's and 1500's included [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Albrecht Dürer]], [[Michelangelo]], and [[Raphael]]. During the 1600's, [[Claude]], [[Nicolas Poussin]], [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], and [[Peter Paul Rubens]] created important drawings. In the 1700's, great drawings were produced by [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]], [[Francisco Goya]], [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], and [[Antoine Watteau]]. The masters of drawing during the 1800's included [[Paul Cézanne]], [[Jacques Louis David]], [[Edgar Degas]], [[Theodore Gericault]], [[Jean Ingres]], [[Odilon Redon]], [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]], and [[Vincent Van Gogh]]. Great drawings in the 1900's have been created by [[Max Beckmann]], [[Willem De Kooning]], [[Jean Dubuffet]], [[Arshile Gorky]], [[Paul Klee]], [[Oscar Kokoschka]], [[Jules Pascin]], [[Pablo Picasso]], and [[Jackson Pollock]]. ==Computer software== Drawing may also be done on a [[computer]]. [[Digital art]] is fast becoming one of the most popular means of illustration. See, for example, the computer illustrations of [[Peter Welleman]]. Here are some common [[software]] programs used for [[computer illustration]]: * [[Adobe Photoshop]] * [[Adobe Illustrator]] * [[Paint Shop Pro]] * [[Corel Painter]] * [[Pixia]] * [[Microsoft Paint]] * [[GIMP|The GIMP]] * [[Open Canvas]] ==Notable Draftsmen== * [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]] * [[Maurits Cornelis Escher]] * [[Albrecht Dürer]] * [[Andrew Loomis]] * [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]] * [[Eugeen Van Mieghem]] * [[Leonardo da Vinci]] ==References== * J. D. Hillberry, ''Drawing Realistic Textures in Pencil'', North Light Books, [[1999]], ISBN 0-89134-868-9. * Frank Lohan, ''Pen &amp; Ink Techniques'', Contemporary Books, [[1978]], ISBN 0-8092-7438-8. * World Book, Inc. ''The World Book Encyclopedia Volume 5'', [[1988]], ISBN 0-7166-0089-7. ==See also== * [[:Category:Cartoonists]] * [[Color theory]] * [[Composition (visual arts)|Composition]] * [[Diagramming]] * [[Engineering drawing]] * [[Figure drawing]] * [[Multi-Sketch]] * [[Traditional animation]] * [[Technical drawing]] ==External links== ===Famous works=== *[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp01777&amp;role=art James Gillray] at The [[National Portrait Gallery (United Kingdom)]]. *[http://www.napoleonguide.com/goyaind.htm Goya's Disasters of War at ''Napoleon Guide''] *[http://www.artoftheprint.com/artistpages/hogarth_william_arakesprogresscompletesetofeight.htm ''Hogarth's The Rake's Progress'' and other of his works] **Note: Commercial site. ===Other=== * [http://drawsketch.about.com Drawing Lessons and Resources at About.com] * [http://home.att.net/~rjnorton/Lincoln79.html Contemporary Sketches of President Abraham Lincoln.] * [http://www.drawingcenter.org/ Drawing Center] * [http://www.c4rd.org.uk] [[Centre for Recent Drawing]] * [http://www.kanaan.org.uk London Drawing Classes] [[Category:Drawing| ]] &lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt; [[cs:Kresba]] [[da:Tegning]] [[de:Zeichnung (Kunst)]] [[es:Dibujo]] [[eo:Desegnaĵo]] [[fr:Dessin]] [[it:Disegno]] [[ka:გრაფიკა]] [[he:איור]] [[nl:Tekenkunst]] [[ja:イラストレーション]] [[pl:Rysunek]] [[pt:Desenho]] [[zh:素描]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dedham, Massachusetts</title> <id>8545</id> <revision> <id>42000396</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:29:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Davidb0229</username> <id>1000822</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>added link to article on Mother Brook</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dedham,_MA_Seal.jpg|thumb|right|150px|''Seal of Dedham, MA'']] '''Dedham''' is the county seat of [[Norfolk County, Massachusetts]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the town had a total population of 23,464. It is located on [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]'s southwest border. ==History== It was settled in [[1635]] by people from Roxbury and Watertown and incorporated in [[1636]] (making it quite old by American standards), and is the [[county seat]] of [[Norfolk County, Massachusetts|Norfolk County]]. Its motto (and at one time the name of the town) is &quot;Contentment&quot;. Dedham is home to the [[Fairbanks House, Dedham|Fairbanks House]], the oldest surviving timber frame house in the United States, scientifically dated to 1637. On January 2, 1643, by unanimous vote, Dedham &lt;!--freeman (freemen, surely?)--&gt; authorized the first U.S. taxpayer-funded [[public school]]; &quot;the seed of American education.&quot; Its first teacher, Rev. Ralph Wheelock, was paid 20 pounds annually to instruct the youth of the community. From these students, their descendants would become presidents of Dartmouth, Yale and Harvard Colleges. Other Dedham firsts include the first man-made canal in North America, the [[Mother Brook]], which linked the [[Charles River]] to local mills. In [[1818]], though citizens were still at this time taxed for the support of ministers and other &quot;public teachers of religion&quot;, Dedham set an important precedent towards the [[Separation of church and state in the United States|separation of church and state]] by selecting a different minister than that chosen by the church, a right of selection that was confirmed by the [[Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court|Supreme Judicial Court]]. The historic [[Sacco and Vanzetti]] trial in the 1920s was held in the Dedham Courthouse. [[Dedham pottery]] is a cherished class of antiques, characterized by a distinctive crackle glaze, blue-and-white color scheme, and a frequent motif of rabbits and other animals. == Geography == [[Image:Dedham_ma_highlight.png|300px|right]] Dedham is located at 42&amp;deg;14'40&quot; North, 71&amp;deg;9'55&quot; West (42.244609, -71.165531){{GR|1}}. It contains a marker for the U.S. Coast &amp; Geodetic Survey, now the [[U.S. National Geodetic Survey]], showing an elevation of 112.288 feet. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 27.6 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (10.6 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]). 27.1 km&amp;sup2; (10.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.5 km&amp;sup2; (0.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.79% water. == Demographics == As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 23,464 people, 8,654 households, and 6,144 families residing in the town. The [[population density]] is 866.9/km&amp;sup2; (2,244.6/mi&amp;sup2;). There are 8,908 housing units at an average density of 329.1/km&amp;sup2; (852.2/mi&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the town is 94.51% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.54% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.16% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.87% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.80% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.08% from two or more races. 2.42% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. There are 8,654 households out of which 30.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.3% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% are non-families. 23.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.61 and the average family size is 3.14. In the town the population is spread out with 22.2% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 31.1% from 25 to 44, 24.2% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 40 years. For every 100 females there are 93.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 92.0 males. The median income for a household in the town is $61,699, and the median income for a family is $72,330. Ma
mones to find their way back home. * Some ants are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws. This snap-jaw mechanism, or catapult mechanism, is possible because energy is stored in the large closing muscles. The blow is incredibly fast, about 0.5 ms in the genus Mystrium. Before the strike, the mandibles opens wide and are locked in the open position by the labrum, which functions as a latch. The attack is triggered by stimulation of sensory hairs at the side of the mandibles. The mandibles are also able to function as a tool for more finely adjusted tasks. Other groups other than Mystrium are Odontomachus and Dacetini, examples on convergent evolution. * Australian green ants are eaten by the aboriginals.Their abdomen tastes like lemon sherbet, are high in vitamin C and have antibiotic properties. Squashed green ants mashed in water makes up an excellent lemon-lime flavored drink. The Amazon is also said to have lemon ants.[http://www.sptimes.com/2002/03/03/Travel/Tracking_the_lemon_an.shtml] * The Australian [[bulldog ant]] Myrmecia pilosula has only a single pair of chromosomes. Males have just one chromosome since they, like all male [[Hymenoptera]]ns, are haploid. ==Relationships between ants and other species== * [[Aphid]]s secrete a sweet liquid called [[honeydew]]. Normally this is allowed to fall to the ground, but around ants it is kept for them to collect. The ants in turn keep predators away and will move the aphids around to better feeding locations. * [[Myrmecophile|Myrmecophilous]] or ant-loving [[caterpillar]]s (blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime and brought inside the ants nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew if the ants massage them. * Some myrmecophagous (ant-eating) caterpillars secrete a pheromone which makes the ants think the larva is one of their own. The caterpillars will then be taken into the ants' nest where they can feed on the ant larvae. * [[Allomerus decemarticulatus]] has developed a tripartite association with their host plant and a fungus in order to ambush their prey. * [[Fungus-growing ants]] that make up the tribe [[attini]], including [[Leafcutter ant]]s, actively cultivate certain species of fungus in the ''[[Leucoagaricus]]'' or ''[[Leucocoprinus]]'' genera of the [[Agaricaceae]] family. In this [[ant-fungus mutualism]], both species depend on each other for survival. *[[Myrmelachista schumanni|Lemon Ant]]s make [[Devil's garden]]s by killing all surrounding plants besides lemon ant trees. *Many trees have extra floral nectaries that provide food for ants and the ants in turn protect the plant from herbivorous insects. Some species like the bullhorn acacia (''[[Acacia cornigera]]'') in Central America have hollow thorns that serve to house colonies of stinging ants (''[[Pseudomyrmex ferruginea]]'') that defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals and epiphytic vines. In return the ants obtain food from protein-lipid Beltian bodies. ==Humans and ants== Ants are useful for clearing out insect pests and aerating the soil. On the other hand, they can become annoyances when they invade homes, yards, gardens and fields. [[Carpenter ant]]s damage [[wood]] by hollowing it out for nesting. Nests may be destroyed by tracing the ants' trails back to the nest, then pouring boiling water into it to kill the queen. (Killing individual ants is less than effective due to the secretion of pheromones mentioned above). Ordinary [[chalk]] can be used to keep ants at bay; drawing a line or circle around the protected area may prevent them from entering. Some species, called ''[[killer ant]]s'', have a tendency to attack much larger animals during foraging or in defending their nests. Human attacks are rare, but the stings and bites can be quite painful and in large enough numbers can be disabling. ==Trivia== &lt;!-- This image is missing &lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:300px;padding-left:15px&quot;&gt; [[Image:SEM ant head 300px.jpg|SEM ant head 300px.jpg]] &lt;center&gt;''[[Scanning Electron Microscope|SEM]] image of an ant head'' ([[Media:SEM ant head 750px.jpg|larger version]])&lt;/center&gt; &lt;/div&gt; --&gt; Ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort, as well as aggressiveness and vindictiveness. In parts of Africa, ants are the messengers of the gods. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. Some [[Native American mythology|Native American religions]], such as [[Hopi mythology]], recognize ants as the very first animals. Others use ant bites in [[initiation]] ceremonies as a test of endurance. [[Termite]]s, sometimes called &quot;white ants,&quot; are in fact not closely related to ants, though they have a somewhat similar social structure. They comprise the order [[Isoptera]]. &lt;gallery&gt; Image:WeaverAntsNest.JPG|Weaver ants nest image:leaf.ants.600pix.jpg|Leaf-cutting ants (Atta sp. or Acromyrmex sp.) on the journey back to the nest. image:ant_SEM.jpg|Electron microscope image of an ant's head Image:Ant cultivating aphids.jpg|Ant cultivating aphids Image:Ant_hill.jpg|Ants on ant hill Image:Ants cleaning dead snake.jpg|Ants cleaning out a dead snake Image:Ant trail.jpg|An ant trail Image:Ant on mosshill02.jpg|Ant on mosshill &lt;/gallery&gt; ==See also== * [[Ant-hill]] * [[Anting (bird activity)]] * [[Ants: Standard Methods for Measuring and Monitoring Biodiversity]] * [[British ants]] * ''[[Journey to the Ants]]'' * [[Langton's ant]] for articles concerned with subjects that use the word &quot;ant&quot; * [[List of ant genera (alphabetical)]] * [[List of notable myrmecologists]] * [[List of the common names of British ant species]] * [[Myrmecology]]: the study of ants * [[Rare ants of the British Isles]] * [[Red imported fire ant|Red Imported Fire Ant]] * [[SimAnt]] * [[Stigmergy]] * ''[[The Ants]]'' * [[Antz]] ==References== *[http://antbase.org/databases/publications_20330.htm Agosti, D., Majer, J.D., Alonso, L.E., Schultz, T.R. (eds.) (2000). &lt;i&gt;Ants: Standard methods for measuring and monitoring biodiversity&lt;/i&gt;. Smithsonian Institution Press. 280 pp.] *[http://antbase.org/databases/publications_20239.htm Fernández F. (ed.). 2003. Introducción a las Hormigas de la Región Neotropical. Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt, Bogotá, Colombia. XXVI + 398 p.] *{{cite journal | last = Franks | first = Nigel R. | coauthors = Tom Richardson | journal = Nature | title = Teaching in tandem-running ants | volume = 439 | month = January | year = 2006 | pages = 153 | id = {{doi|10.1038/439153a}} | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7073/full/439153a.html }} *[http://antbase.org/ants/publications/8419/8419.pdf Grimaldi, D., Agosti, D., Carpenter, J.M. (1997). New and rediscovered primitive ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Cretaceous amber from New Jersey, and their phylogenetic relationships. &lt;i&gt;American Museum Novitates&lt;/i&gt; &lt;b&gt;3208&lt;/b&gt;: 43pp, 24 figs., 1 tab.] * Jackson DE, Holcombe M, Ratnieks FLW (2004). Trail geometry gives polarity to ant foraging networks. &lt;i&gt;Nature&lt;/i&gt; &lt;b&gt;432&lt;/b&gt;: 907-909. ==External links== *[http://www.antbase.org Antbase, The complete catalogue of all ants of the world linked to all available full text systematics publications (&gt;4,000), links, pictures, etc.] *[http://www.antweb.org AntWeb, Images of more than 4,000 specimens including all ant genera, specific coverages for California (complete), Florida and Madagascar.] *[http://www.bwars.com/ Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society] (UK) *[http://www.myrmecology.info/portal/news.php Myrmecology Portal: Everything about ants] *[http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/tsa.sppcount?the_taxon=Formicidae Number of Known Ant Species (Ohio State University)] *[http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/nomenclator.home_page Hymenoptera Name Server] ([[Ohio State University|Ohio State University, College of Biological Sciences]]) *[http://www.lasius.narod.ru/ www.lasius.narod.ru: Russian Ant Site and Photo Gallery] ([[Russian language]]) *[http://www.bluesquaregroup.de/ameisen/en/ Project: How strong are woodants in reality?] *[http://www.myrmecos.net/ants.html Myrmecos.net - an extensive image gallery of ants in the wild] *[http://www.tightloop.com/ants Ants of Arizona - Many photographs of ants] *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4889451 h2g2 article on Ants] *[http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9007736 Encyclopedia Brittanica Article (pay site)] *[http://antlinks.blogspot.com/ Ant Visions - latest on ant research, along with an image gallery of ants] [[Category:Insects]] [[Category:Superorganisms]] &lt;!-- The categories below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[ar:نمل]] [[an:Formiga]] [[ast:Formiga]] [[bg:Мравки]] [[ca:Formiga]] [[cs:Mravencovití]] [[cy:Morgrugyn]] [[da:Myre]] [[de:Ameisen]] [[es:Hormiga]] [[eo:Formiko]] [[fr:Fourmi]] [[gl:Formiga]] [[ko:개미]] [[io:Formiko]] [[it:Formicidae]] [[he:נמלים]] [[lv:Skudra]] [[lt:Skruzdėlės]] [[mg:Vitsika]] [[nah:Azcatl]] [[nl:Mieren]] [[ja:アリ]] [[no:Maur]] [[pl:Mrówkowate]] [[pt:Formiga]] [[qu:Sisi]] [[ru:Муравьи]] [[simple:Ant]] [[sr:Мрав]] [[fi:Muurahaiset]] [[sv:Myror]] [[tr:Karınca]] [[zh:蚂蚁]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Atlas computer</title> <id>2595</id> <revision> <id>15900993</id> <timestamp>2004-10-23T01:47:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wernher</username> <id>19431</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#redirect update</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Atlas Computer (Manchester)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arbitration</title> <id>2597</id> <revision> <id>39806974</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T00:14:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>212.76.240.73</ip>
t day, so he spent the day outside. (This prank was also featured in the film [[Toy Soldiers (1991)|Toy Soldiers]].) * Another prank involved removing everything from a student's room, lining the walls with plastic, filling it two feet deep with water, and adding about 200 goldfish. *In the opening of the fall semester in 2002, Harvey Mudd Seniors removed all of the furniture from all of the Freshmen's rooms, and proceeded to set up a giant chess board on the campus grounds. ==The HMC honor code== HMC students developed, live by and self-enforce an [[honor code|Honor Code]]. The Honor Code states: :''&quot;Each member of ASHMC [Associated Students of Harvey Mudd College] is responsible for maintaining his or her integrity and the integrity of the college community in all academic matters and in all affairs concerning the community.&quot;'' The Honor Code is so well followed that the college entrusts the students to 24-hour per day access to all buildings including labs and timed take-home closed-book exams. (See external links below for more information.) ==Notable alumni== &lt;!-- most entries on this list come from http://www.hmc.edu/highlights/ --&gt; * [[Gael Squibb]], 1961, former director of [[NASA]]/[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL's]] Telecommunications and Mission Operations Directorate, and veteran leader of numerous unmanned NASA missions. * [[Michael G. Wilson]], 1963, producer of the [[James Bond]] series of films. * [[Rick Sontag]], 1964, founder and former owner of [[Unison Industries]], a leading manufacturer of airplane parts. * [[Don Chamberlin]], 1966, co-inventor of [[SQL]] (database query language) and [[International Business Machines|IBM]] representative to the [[working group]] developing the [[XML]] [[XML query language|query language]]. * [[Robert Kelley]], 1967, Nuclear physicist and one of 2,200 members of the Secretariat of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], which was recognized with the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in October 2005. * [[Donald Murphy]], 1968, head of the Applied Materials Research Department at [[Bell Laboratories]], [[Lucent Technologies]], and was elected to the [[National Academy of Engineering]] for his research on a variety of electronic materials. * [[Walt Foley]], 1969, founder of [[Accel Technologies, Inc]]. * [[Richard Jones (diplomat)|Richard Jones]], 1972, former US [[Ambassador]] to [[Lebanon]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kuwait]], and Chief Policy Officer and Deputy Administrator of the [[Coalition Provisional Authority]] in [[Iraq]]. * [[George Nelson (astronaut)| George &quot;Pinky&quot; Nelson]], 1972, astronaut, flew on three [[space shuttle]] missions, and was the first American to walk in space without a tether to a spacecraft. * [[Joseph Costello]], 1974, chairman and CEO of [[think3]], and former president and CEO of [[Cadence Design Systems]]. * [[Bruce Jay Nelson|Bruce Nelson]], 1974, inventor of the [[remote procedure call]] for computer communications. * [[Susan Lewallen]], 1976, a member of the British Columbia Centre for Epidemiologic and International Ophthalmology and ophthalmologist for Third-World countries. * [[Ned Freed]], 1982, co-author of the [[MIME]] email standard (RFCs 2045-2049). * [[Jonathan Gay]], 1989, creator of [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]] software. * [[Stan Love]], 1989, astronaut, currently a &quot;capcom&quot; or communications officer with the [[International Space Station]]. * [[Scott Stokdyk]], 1991, winner of the 2005 [[Academy Award]] for [[visual effects]] for [[Spider-Man 2]], and nominee for [[Hollow Man]] and [[Spider-Man]]. * [[Michael Elkins]], 1993, computer scientist, creator of the [[Mutt (e-mail client)|Mutt e-mail client]]. * [[Sage Weil]], 2000, inventor of the [[webring]] concept. * [[Karl Mahlburg]], 2001, a mathematician who proved [[Freeman Dyson]]'s &quot;[[crank conjecture]]&quot; about certain congruences involving [[Partition_function_(number_theory)|partition functions]]. {{seealso|:Category:Harvey Mudd College alumni}} ==Trivia== * Harvey Mudd College leads the nation in percentage of graduates who go on to earn a [[Ph.D.]] - well over 40% in recent years. Over 65% go on to earn at least a [[Master's degree]]. * In 1997, Harvey Mudd College became the sole American undergraduate-only institution ever to win 1st place in the [[ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest]]. [http://icpc.baylor.edu/past/icpc97/Report.html] No American school has won the world competition since then. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2005/04/09/BUG9EC5LBI1.DTL] ==External links== * [http://www.hmc.edu/ '''Harvey Mudd College''' - Official site] * [http://www.hmc.edu/org/gonzo/ Gonzo Unicycle Madness] * [http://www.hmc.edu/org/ashmc/policies/jb-db.html The HMC Honor Code - ASHMC home page] * {{placeopedia|id=1412|title=Harvey Mudd College}} {{SCIAC}} {{Association of Independent Technological Universities}} [[Category:Claremont Colleges]] [[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1950s]] [[Category:Independent Colleges of Southern California]] [[Category:Universities and colleges in California]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heaven</title> <id>13811</id> <revision> <id>41832546</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:04:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joturner</username> <id>153365</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>corrected to Qur'an using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Heaven&quot; is also a poetic synonym for [[sky]].'' For other uses, see [[Heaven (disambiguation)]]. [[Image:Michangello-lastJudgment-B.jpg|thumb|right|Michelangelo's interpretation of Heaven]] '''Heaven''' is an [[afterlife]] concept found in many [[religion]]s or [[spirituality|spiritual]] [[philosophy|philosophies]]. Those who believe in heaven generally hold that it (or [[Hell]]) is the final [[afterlife]] destination of many or all humans. In unusual instances, humans have had, according to many testimonies and traditions, personal knowledge of Heaven. They presume this is for the purpose of teaching the rest of humanity about life, Heaven, and [[God]]. ==Conceptions== [[Image:Dore-empyrean.jpg|thumb|[[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] and [[Beatrice Portinari|Beatrice]] gaze upon the highest Heaven; from [[Gustave Doré]]'s illustrations to the ''[[Divine Comedy]]''.]] While there are abundant and varied sources for conceptions of Heaven, the typical believer's view appears to depend largely on his particular religious tradition. Various religions have described Heaven as being populated by [[angel]]s, [[demon]]s, [[deity|gods and goddesses]], and/or [[hero]]es (especially in [[Greek mythology]]). Heaven is generally construed as a place of [[eternity|eternal]] [[happiness]]. The relationship between this concept and the [[celestial sphere]] is generally believed to have been first proposed by the [[ancient history|ancient]] [[astronomer]]-[[priest]]s (see also: [[astrologer]]). The belief in heaven appears to have supplanted the earlier concept of [[Sheol]] (mentioned in Isaiah 38:18, Psalms 6:5 and Job 7:7-10). Jewish converts to this concept of heaven and hell included the group known as the [[Pharisees]]. The larger, dogmatically conservative [[Sadducees]] maintained their belief in Sheol. While it was the Sadducees that represented the Jewish religious majority it was the Pharisees who best weathered Roman occupation, and their belief in Zoroaster's heaven and hell was passed on to both Christianity and Islam (in which heaven is referred to as [[Jannah]]). In [[Christianity]], heaven is a return to the pre-fallen state of humanity, a second and new [[Garden of Eden]], in which humanity is reunited with God in a perfect and natural state of eternal existence. Christians believe this reunion is accomplished through the redemptive work of Jesus Christ in having died for the sins of humanity on the cross. In Eastern religions (and some Western traditions), with their emphasis on [[reincarnation]] and [[moksha]] or [[nirvana]] (ultimate salvation), the concept of Heaven is not as prominent, but it still is present. In [[Hinduism]] or [[Buddhism]], for example, there are several heavens, and those who accumulate good [[karma]] will go to a heaven; however their stay in the heaven is not eternal &amp;mdash; eventually they will use up their good [[karma]] and be reincarnated in another realm, as [[human]], [[animal]], or other beings. While heaven is temporary, the permanent state that members of these religions aspire to are [[Moksha]] or [[Nirvana]]. In the native [[China|Chinese]] [[Taoist]] traditions Heaven is an important concept, where the ancestors reside and from which emperors drew their mandate to rule in their dynastic propaganda, for example. In [[Hindu]] belief, likewise, heaven&amp;mdash;called [[Swarga loka]]&amp;mdash;is seen as transitory place for souls who did good deeds but whose actions are not enough for [[moksha]] or absolute bliss with God. The popular belief of most faiths (especially in the West) is that one enters heaven at the moment of death. This, however, is ''not'' part of the doctrine of most of Christianity (see [[Swedenborgianism]] for a Christian religion that ''does'' have this doctrine). It along with other major religions maintains that entry into Heaven awaits such time as, &quot;When the form of this world has passed away.&quot; Two related and often confused concepts of heaven in Christianity are better described as the &quot;resurrection of the body&quot;, which is exclusively of Biblical origin, as contrasted with &quot;the immortality of the soul&quot;, which is also evident in the Greek tradition. In the first concept, the soul does not enter heaven until the last judgement or the &quot;end of time&quot; when it (along with the body) is resurrected and judged. In the second concept, the soul goes to a heaven on another p
thers had gone, he too goes, but in secret for not all to see ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%207:8-10;&amp;version=31; 7:8-10]) *According to the ''New American Bible'', Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, 1970, the [[Pericope Adulteræ|story of the adultress]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%208:1-11;&amp;version=31; 8:1-11]) is missing from the best early Greek manuscripts. When it does appear it is at different places: here, after ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%207:36;&amp;version=31; 7:36]) or at the end of this gospel. It can also be found at Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2021:38;&amp;version=31; 21:38]. *Jesus washes the disciples' feet ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2013:3-16;&amp;version=31; 13:3-16]) *No other women are mentioned going to the tomb with [[Mary Magdalene]]. She seems to be alone. ([[John 20:1|John]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020:1;&amp;version=31; 20:1]) *Mary Magdalene visits the empty tomb twice. She believes Jesus' body has been stolen. The second time she sees two angels. They do not tell her Jesus is risen. They only ask why she is crying. Mary mistakes Jesus for the gardener. He tells Mary ''not to'' cling to him. ([[John 20|John]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020;&amp;version=31; 20]: [[John 20:1|1]]-[[John 20:18|18]]). That very evening, in the same chapter ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020:28;&amp;version=31; 20:28]), Jesus asks Thomas to touch him and to place his fingers and hand in Jesus' still open wounds. At the sight of Jesus, Thomas gives an exclamation of faith but if he follows Jesus' direction, it is not in the text. *Some of the brethren thought the &quot;disciple whom Jesus loved&quot; would not die, and an explanation is given for his death. ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2021:23;&amp;version=31; 21:23]) *The &quot;disciple whom Jesus loved&quot; wrote down things he had witnessed, and his testimony is asserted by a third party to be true ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2021:24;&amp;version=31; 21:24]) *The beloved disciple (traditionally believed to be the Apostle John) is never named. ==See also== * [[John 3:16]] * [[Pericope Adulteræ]] * [[Gospel of Mark]] * [[The Gospel of John (movie)|The Gospel of John]] (movie) * [[Ancient History]] ==References== * Raymond E. Brown, ''The Gospel According to John'' Anchor Bible, 1966, 1970 * Raymond E. Brown, ''The Community of the Beloved Disciple'' Paulist Press, 1979 * Robin M. Jensen, ''The Two Faces of Jesus'', Bible Review Oct 2002, p42 * J.H. Bernard &amp; A.H. McNeile, ''A Critical and Exegetical Commentary On The Gospel According To St. John''. Edinburgh, T. &amp; T. Clark, 1953. ==External links== {{wikibooks}} Online translations of the [[Gospel of John]]: * {{biblegateway||John}} *[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/egerton.html The Egerton Gospel:] text. Compare it with ''Gospel of John'' Related articles: *[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-John.pdf A textual commentary on the Gospel of John] Detailed textcritical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 376 pages) *[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/signs.html &quot;Signs Gospel&quot;]. a hypothetical written source for miracles in the ''Gospel of John'': discussion *[http://rylibweb.man.ac.uk/data1/dg/text/fragment.htm Papyrus fragment of ''John'' at the John Rylands Library;] illustrated. *[http://www.kchanson.com/ANCDOCS/greek/johnpap.html John Rylands papyrus:] text, translation, illustration and a bibliography of the discussion &lt;center&gt; &lt;br&gt; {| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot; |colspan=3|&lt;Center&gt;'''Books of the Bible''' |- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot; |Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] |'''[[Gospels]]''' |Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] |} &lt;/center&gt; [[Category:New Testament books|John]] [[Category:New Testament narrative|John]] [[bs:Jevanđelje po Jovanu]] [[cs:Evangelium podle Jana]] [[da:Johannesevangeliet]] [[de:Evangelium nach Johannes]] [[et:Johannese evangeelium]] [[es:Evangelio de Juan]] [[eo:La Evangelio laŭ Sankta Johano]] [[fr:Évangile selon Jean]] [[ko:요한 복음서]] [[id:Injil Yohanes]] [[ia:Evangelio secundo Johannes]] [[la:Evangelium secundum Ioannem]] [[nl:Evangelie naar Johannes]] [[ja:ヨハネによる福音書]] [[pl:Ewangelia Jana]] [[pt:Evangelho segundo João]] [[ru:Евангелие от Иоанна]] [[scn:Vancelu di Giuvanni]] [[fi:Evankeliumi Johanneksen mukaan]] [[sv:Johannesevangeliet]] [[zh:若望福音]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gtk</title> <id>12494</id> <revision> <id>35338368</id> <timestamp>2006-01-16T01:09:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kesla</username> <id>192627</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[GIMP Toolkit]] to [[GTK+]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GTK+|GIMP Toolkit]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Grover Cleveland</title> <id>12495</id> <revision> <id>42074600</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:24:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hansnesse</username> <id>247414</id> </contributor> <comment>rv/v to last edit by 68.40.103.180</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=President Stephen Grover Cleveland | nationality=american | image=President Grover Cleveland.jpg | order=22nd President,&lt;br&gt;24th President | term_start=[[March 4]], [[1885]] | term_end=[[March 4]], [[1889]]&lt;br&gt;[[March 4]], [[1893]] &amp;ndash; [[March 4]], [[1897]]&lt;!--This is an unsourced invention: Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt; | predecessor=[[Chester A. Arthur]] (1885)&lt;br&gt;[[Benjamin Harrison]] (1893) | successor=[[Benjamin Harrison]] (1889)&lt;br&gt;[[William McKinley]] (1897) | birth_date=March 18, 1837 | birth_place=[[Caldwell, New Jersey|Caldwell]], [[New Jersey]] | death_date=June 24, 1908 | death_place=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]] | spouse=[[Frances Cleveland|Frances Folsom Cleveland]] | party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] | vicepresident=[[Thomas A. Hendricks]] (1885, [[List of leaders who died in office|died in office]])&lt;br&gt;[[Adlai E. Stevenson]] (1893&amp;ndash;1897) | signature=GroverCleveland_Signature.png |}} '''Stephen Grover Cleveland''' (March 18, 1837 &amp;ndash; June 24, 1908) was the 22nd (1885&amp;ndash;1889) and 24th (1893&amp;ndash;1897) [[President of the United States]], and the only President to serve two non-consecutive terms. He was the only [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] elected to the presidency in the era of [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] political domination between 1860 and 1912. Cleveland was a hard worker and was scrupulously honest at a time when many politicians were neither. Critics complained that he had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic problems in his second term. He lost control of his Democratic party to the agrarians and silverites in 1896. ==Youth and early political career== Cleveland was born in [[Caldwell, New Jersey]] to the Rev. Richard Cleveland and Anne Neal. He was one of nine children. His father was a [[Presbyterian]] minister, and as the church frequently transferred its ministers, the family moved many times, mainly around central and western [[New York]] State. As a lawyer in [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], he became notable for his single-minded concentration upon whatever task faced him. He was elected [[sheriff]] of [[Erie County, New York]] in 1870 and, while in that post, carried out at least two hangings of condemned criminals. Political opponents would later hold this against him, calling him the &quot;Buffalo Hangman&quot;. Cleveland stated that he wished to take the responsibility for the executions himself, and not pass it along to subordinates. At 44, he emerged into a political prominence that carried him to the [[White House]] in three years. Running as a reformer, he was elected [[mayor of Buffalo]] in 1881, with the slogan &quot;Public Office is a Public Trust&quot; as his trademark of office. In 1882 he was elected [[Governor of New York]]. ==First term as President, 1885-1889== ===Campaign=== Cleveland won the Presidency with the combined support of Democrats and reform Republicans called &quot;[[Mugwumps]]&quot;, who denounced his opponent, Senator [[James G. Blaine]] of Maine as corrupt. The campaign was relatively negative. To counter Cleveland's image of purity his opponents reported that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer in Buffalo. Republican crowds chanted, &quot;Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?&quot; Although Cleveland never publicly admitted or denied the rumor, he did admit to paying child support to [[Maria Crofts Halpin]], the woman who claimed he fathered her child, who was named Oscar Folsom Cleveland, in 1874. Halpin was involved with several men at the time, including Cleveland's law partner and mentor, Oscar Folsom, for whom the child was named. (Cleveland is believed to have assumed responsibility because he was the only bachelor among them). After Cleveland's election as President, Democratic newspapers added a line to the sound-bite used against Cleveland and made it: &quot;Ma, Ma, where's my Pa? Gone to the White House! Ha Ha Ha!&quot; ===Personal life=== [[Image:President_cleveland_wedding.png|left|thumb|Grover Cleveland was the second president married in office, and the only president married in the White House itself]] In June 1886, Clev
d notions. The optimal solution is an appropriate combination of text, figures, animation and sound. The following definition is presented to provide an example of a definition: “Figure”: (n) an arrangement of points made within two-dimensional space to present a visual static impression (a perception) of something (e.g., a figure printed on a book page, showing the front view of a home). [http://proceedings.informingscience.org/InSITE2004/090spuzi.pdf Spuzic S and Nouwens F (2004) &quot;A Contribution to Defining the Term ‘Definition’&quot;, Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology Education, Volume 1 (2004) pp 645 - 662] ==Quotation== ''&quot;Nothing is more usual than for philosophers to encroach on the province of grammarians, and to engage in disputes of words, while they imagine they are handling controversies of the deepest importance and concern.&quot;'' &amp;mdash; [[David Hume]] ==See also== {{wiktionarypar|definition}} *[[Analytic proposition]] *[[Definitions]] *[[Fallacies of definition]] *[[Ramsey-Lewis method]] *[[Synthetic proposition]] ==External links== *[http://samvak.tripod.com/define.html The structure and internal logic of definitions] [[Category:Definition]] [[Category:Philosophy of language]] [[Category:Semantics]] {{Link FA|pl}} [[da:Definition]] [[de:Definition]] [[es:Definición]] [[eo:Difino]] [[fr:Définition]] [[gl:Definición]] [[hr:Definicija]] [[id:Definisi]] [[it:Definizione]] [[he:הגדרה]] [[hu:Definíció]] [[mk:Дефиниција]] [[nl:Definitie]] [[ja:定義]] [[pl:Definicja]] [[ru:Определение]] [[simple:Definition]] [[sl:Definicija]] [[sr:Дефиниција]] [[sv:Definition]] [[uk:Означення]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Disruption</title> <id>7965</id> <revision> <id>31332063</id> <timestamp>2005-12-14T15:13:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.45.148.131</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Disruption''' generally refers to the normal workings of something being interrupted. *In [[Scotland]], the '''[[Disruption of 1843]]''' refers to the divergence from the [[Church of Scotland]] of the [[Free Church of Scotland]] *'''[[Dismemberment|Disruption]]''' as a method of [[execution (legal)|execution]] consists of tying each leg of the victim to [[horse]]s or other animals, to two [[winch]]es or other pulling machines, such as the [[rack]], or to two small trees that have been bent down to the ground and then releasing the trees to spring up or pulling simultaneously with the animals or machines so that the body of the execution victim is pulled apart. One celebrated victim of such an execution was Queen [[Brunhilda of Austrasia]], who, on her nephew's orders, was subjected to horrific extension on the rack for three days, before suffering final dismemberment between four horses. *In [[Korea]], during the periods of 12th and 18th century, there was a form of punishment that was called &quot;Neung Ji Cheo Cham&quot; that would involve four hooved animals (ox, horse), and a criminal. The victim's legs and arms would each be tied to the four animals separately, and on one instance, all animals would be commanded or whipped to run in opposite directions, thereby literally 'tearing' the victims body in 5 pieces (two legs, two arms and the torso) *[[Information security]] specialists also may refer to a disaster as a '''disruption''' when an event interrupts normal business or technical processes. *[[Disruption (of adoption)|Disruption]] is also the term for the cancellation of an [[adoption]] of a child before it is legally completed. In common usage, though, it refers also to the legal procedure for ending an adoption already completed, which is technically known as [[dissolution]]. *Disruption is a method of disabling an explosive device by shooting it with water at high velocity. *See also [[Disruption (of schema)]] in evolutionary computing {{disambig}} [[fr:Écartèlement]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Disco</title> <id>7966</id> <revision> <id>42135150</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:27:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Underwater</username> <id>481581</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Rock versus disco That last paragraph soo doesn't fit. Nice, but utterly unessisary.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{disco}} '''Disco''' is a genre of music that originated in [[discothèque]]s. Generally the term refers to a specific style of music and [[dance]]. ==Origins== [[Image:Discofeverstamp.jpg|right|200px]] As with all such musical genres, defining a single point of disco's development is difficult, as many elements of disco music appear on earlier records (such as the [[1971]] theme from the film ''[[Shaft (1971 film)|Shaft]]'' by [[Isaac Hayes]]) (Jones and Kantonen, 1999). In general it can be said that first true disco songs were released in [[1973]], however, many consider [[Manu Dibango]]'s 1972 ''Soul Makossa'' the first disco record (Jones and Kantonen, 1999). Initially, most disco songs catered to a nightclub/[[dancing]] audience only, rather than general audiences such as [[radio]] listeners, but there are many aspects proving opposite tendencies as well; popular radio-hits were being played in discothèques, as long as they had an easy to follow rhythmic base-pattern close to 120 BPM (beats per minute). Musical influences include [[funk]], [[soul music]], and [[salsa (music)|salsa]] and the Latin or Hispanic musics which influenced salsa. Soul and funk records that influenced disco include: *[[Sly and the Family Stone]] - &quot;[[Dance to the Music (song)|Dance to the Music]]&quot; (1968), &quot;[[Everyday People]]&quot; (1968) (Jones and Kantonen, 1999), &quot;Family Affair&quot; (1971) *[[Hugh Masekela]] - &quot;Grazing in the Grass&quot; (1968) *[[Honey Cone]] - &quot;Want Ads&quot; (1971), &quot;Stick Up&quot; (1971) *[[Isaac Hayes]] - &quot;Shaft&quot; (1971) *[[Incredible Bongo Band]] - &quot;Bongo Rock&quot; (1973) (ibid) *[[Eumir Deodato]] - &quot;Also Sprach Zarathustra&quot; (1973) *[[Average White Band]] - &quot;Pick Up the Pieces&quot; (1974), &quot;Cut the Cake&quot; (1975) (ibid) *[[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] - &quot;Get Up (I Feel Like Being A) Sex Machine&quot; (1970), &quot;Get Up, Get Into It, Get Involved&quot; (1971), &quot;Get Up Off of That Thing&quot; (1975) (ibid) The [[Motown Sound]] also featured many elements that would be associated with the disco sound: *[[Martha &amp; The Vandellas]] &quot;Dancing In The Street&quot; (1963) *[[The Supremes]] - &quot;[[You Keep Me Hangin' On]]&quot; (1966), &quot;Reflections&quot; (1967) *[[Jackson 5]] - &quot;[[I Want You Back]]&quot;, &quot;[[ABC (song)|ABC]]&quot;, &quot;[[The Love You Save]]&quot;, &quot;[[Mama's Pearl]]&quot; (1969-71) *[[Stevie Wonder]] - &quot;Yester-Me, Yester-You, Yesterday&quot; (1969), &quot;Signed, Sealed, Delivered, I'm Yours&quot; (1970), &quot;Superstition&quot; (1972), &quot;Higher Ground&quot; (1973) (ibid) *[[Diana Ross]] - &quot;[[Ain't No Mountain High Enough]]&quot; (1970) [[Philadelphia International Records]] defined [[Philly soul]] and helped define disco (ibid) with records such as: *[[The Three Degrees]] - &quot;When Will I See You Again&quot; (1973) (ibid) *[[The Intruders]] - &quot;I'll Always Love My Mama&quot; (1973) (ibid) *[[The O'Jays]] - &quot;Love Train&quot; (1972), &quot;For the Love of Money&quot; (1974), &quot;I Love Music&quot; (1975) (ibid) *[[MFSB]] - &quot;[[TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)]]&quot; (1973), &quot;Love is the Message&quot; (1973) (ibid) Pre-/Early-disco [[TK Records]] tracks: *[[Betty Wright]] - &quot;Clean Up Woman&quot; (1972) (ibid) *[[George McCrae]]- &quot;Rock Your Baby&quot; (1974) (ibid) *[[KC and the Sunshine Band]] - &quot;Get Down Tonight&quot; (1975), &quot;That's the Way (I Like It)&quot; (1975), &quot;(Shake Shake Shake) Shake Your Booty&quot; (1976) (ibid) Early-disco hits include: *[[Nelson James]] - &quot;I Have An Afro&quot; (1972) (ibid) *[[Harold Melvin &amp; the Blue Notes]] - &quot;The Love I Lost&quot; (1973) (ibid) *[[Love Unlimited Orchestra]] - &quot;Love's Theme&quot; (1973) (ibid) *[[The Jackson 5]]- &quot;Dancing Machine&quot; (1974) (ibid) *[[Barry White]] - &quot;I'm Gonna Love You Just a Little More, Baby&quot; (1973), &quot;Can't Get Enough of Your Love, Babe&quot; (1974), &quot;You're the First, the Last, My Everything&quot; (1975) (ibid) *[[Shirley and Co.]] - &quot;Shame, Shame, Shame&quot; (1975) (ibid) *[[Hues Corporation]] - &quot;Rock the Boat&quot; (1974) (ibid) *[[The Commodores]] - &quot;Machine Gun&quot; (1974) (ibid) *[[Frankie Valli]] - &quot;Swearin' To God (1974) *[[Dalida]]- &quot;J'Attendrai&quot; (the first French disco song and first hit in Europe) (1975) (ibid) *[[LaBelle]] - &quot;Lady Marmalade&quot; (1975) (ibid) *[[The Four Seasons]] - &quot;Who Loves You&quot; and &quot;December '63 (Oh What A Night!)&quot; (1975) (ibid) *[[Silver Convention]] - &quot;Fly Robin Fly&quot; (1975), &quot;Get Up and Boogie&quot; (1976) (ibid) *[[Andrea True Connection]]- &quot;More More More&quot; (1976) (ibid) ==Popularity== [[1975]] was the year when disco really took off, with hit songs like [[Van McCoy]]'s &quot;[[The Hustle]]&quot; and [[Donna Summer]]'s &quot;Love To Love You Baby&quot; reaching the mainstream. 1975 also marked the release of the first [[disco mix]] on album, the A side of [[Gloria Gaynor]]'s ''Never Can Say Goodbye'' (Jones and Kantonen, 1999). Disco's popularity peaked in the so-called Disco era of [[1977]] - [[1980]], driven in part by the [[1977]] classic film ''[[Saturday Night Fever]]''. Disco also gave rise to an increased popularity of [[Line dance|line dancing]] and other partly pre-choreographed dances; many line dances can be seen in films such as ''Saturday Night Fever'', which also features the [[Hustle (dance)|Hustle]]. In [[1975]], the pop star [[Dalida]] was the f
rom the point of view of a situation in which the instance participates in the association. For example, a &quot;subscriber&quot; role describes instances of the class &quot;Person&quot; when it participates in a &quot;subscribes-to&quot; relationship with the class &quot;Magazine&quot;. Also, a &quot;Magazine&quot; has the &quot;subscribed magazine&quot; role when the subscribers subscribe-to it. Association role multiplicity describes how many instances correspond to each instance of the other class(es) of the association. Common multiplicities are &quot;0..1&quot;, &quot;1..1&quot;, &quot;1..*&quot; and &quot;0..*&quot;, where the &quot;*&quot; specifies any number of instances. == Local classes == When a class is declared inside a function it is called a local class. It has some unique properties like it can use global as well as static variables of the function declared before the class but can't access automatic variables. Global variables should be used with scope(::) operator. There are some restriction on it's use they can't have static data members and member functions must be defined inside the class only enclosing fuction cant access private members of the class but they can be made to do so by declaring them Friend to that local class. ==Partial classes== Partial Classes are classes that can be split over multiple files, making it easier to deal with large quanities of code. At [[Compiler|compile]] time the partial classes are grouped together, thus logically make no difference to the output. An example of the use of partial classes may be the seperation of user interface logic and processing logic. A primary benefit of partial classes is allowing different programmers to work on different parts of the same class at the same time. They also make automatically generated code easier to interpret, as it is separated from other code into a partial class. Partial classes have been around in [[SmallTalk]] un der the name of ''Class Extensions'' for considerable time. In pre-beta versions of Visual Studio 2005 the partial keyword was known as &quot;expands&quot; in Visual Basic. With the arrival of the [[.NET Framework|.NET framework 2]] [[Microsoft]] introduced partial classes, supported in both [[C Sharp|c# 2.0]] and [[Visual Basic .NET|Visual Basic 2005]]. ==Subclasses and superclasses== Classes are often related in some way. The most popular of these relations is [[inheritance (object-oriented programming)|inheritance]], which involves '''subclasses''' and '''superclasses''', also known respectively as '''child classes''' (or '''derived classes''') and '''parent classes''' (or '''base classes'''). If [car] was a class, then [Jaguar] and [Porsche] might be two sub-classes. If [Button] is a subclass of [Control], then all buttons are controls. Subclasses usually consists of several kinds of modifications to the base class: addition of new instance variables, addition of new methods and [[overriding]] of existing methods to support the new instance variables. Conceptually, a superclass should be considered as a common part of its subclasses. This factoring of commonality is one mechanism for providing [[reuse]]. Thus, extending a superclass by modifying the existing class is also likely to narrow its applicability in various situations. In [[Object-oriented design]], careful balance between applicability and functionality of superclasses should be considered. Subclassing is different from [[subtyping]] in that subtyping deals with common behaviour whereas subclassing is concerned with common structure. Some [[programming language|programming languages]] (for example [[C++]]) allow [[multiple inheritance]] -- they allow a child class to have more than one parent class. This technique has been criticized by some for its unnecessary complexity and being difficult to implement efficiently, though some projects have certainly benefited from its use. [[Java programming language|Java]], for example has no multiple inheritance, its designers feeling that it would add unnecessary complexity. Sub- and superclasses are considered to exist within a [[hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|hierarchy]] defined by the inheritance relationship. If multiple inheritance is allowed, this hierarchy is a [[directed acyclic graph]] (or DAG for short), otherwise it is a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]]. The hierarchy has classes as nodes and inheritance relationships as links. The levels of this hierarchy are called [[layer]]s or [[level of abstraction|levels of abstraction]]. Classes in the same level are more likely to be [[association (object-oriented_programming)|associated]] than classes in different levels. There are two slightly different points of view as to whether subclasses of the same class are required to be disjoint. Sometimes, subclasses of a particular class are considered to be completely disjoint. That is, every instance of a class has exactly one ''most-derived class'', which is a subclass of every class that the instance has. This view does not allow dynamic change of object's class, as objects are assumed to be created with a fixed most-derived class. The basis for not allowing changes to object's class is that the class is a compile-time type, which does not usually change at runtime, and polymorphism is utilised for any dynamic change to the object's behaviour, so this ability is not necessary. And design that does not need to perform changes to object's type will be more robust and easy-to-use from the point of view of the users of the class. From another point of view, subclasses are not required to be disjoint. Then there is no concept of a most-derived class, and all types in the inheritance hierarchy that are types of the instance are considered to be equally types of the instance. This view is based on a dynamic classification of objects, such that an object may change its class at runtime. Then object's class is considered to be its ''current'' structure, but changes to it are allowed. The basis for allowing object's class to change is performance. It's more efficient to allow changes to object's type, since references to the existing instances do not need to be replaced with references to new instances when the class of the object changes. However, this ability is not readily available in all programming languages. ==Reasons for implementing classes== Classes, when used properly, can accelerate development by reducing redundant code entry, testing and bug fixing. If a class has been thoroughly tested and is known to be a solid work, it stands to reason that implementing that class or extending it will reduce if not eliminate the possibility of bugs propagating into the code. In the case of extension new code is being added so it also requires the same level of testing before it can be considered solid. Another reason for using classes is to simplify the relationships of interrelated data. Rather than writing code to repeatedly draw a GUI window on the terminal screen, it is simpler to represent the window as an object and tell it to draw itself as necessary. With classes, GUI items that are similar to windows (such as dialog boxes) can simply inherit most of their functionality and data structures from the window class. The programmer then need only add code to the dialog class that is unique to its operation. Indeed, GUIs are a very common and useful application of classes, and GUI programming is generally much easier with a good class framework. ==Categories of classes== ===Abstract and concrete classes=== An '''abstract class''', or ''abstract base class'' (ABC), is one that is designed ''only'' as a [[class (object-oriented programming)|parent class]] and from which [[class (object-oriented programming)|child classes]] may be derived, and which is not itself suitable for [[instance|instantiation]]. Abstract classes are often used to represent [[Abstraction|abstract]] concepts or entities. The incomplete features of the abstract class are then shared by a group of sibling sub-classes which add different variations of the missing pieces. In C++, an abstract class is defined as a class having at least one pure virtual method, i.e., an [[abstract method]], which may or may not possess an implementation. Abstract classes are superclasses which contain [[abstract method]]s and are defined such that concrete subclasses are to extend them by implementing the [[method (computer science)|method]]s. The [[behavior]]s defined by such a class are ''&quot;generic&quot;'' and much of the class will be [[definition|undefined]] and unimplemented. Before a class derived from an abstract class can be instantiated, it must implement particular methods for all the abstract methods of its parent classes. In [[computing]], when specifying an '''abstract class''', the programmer is referring to a [[Class (computer science)|class]] which has elements that are meant to be implemented by inheritance. The [[Abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]] of the class [[Method (computer science)|methods]] to be implemented by the sub-classes is meant to simplify [[software development]]. A '''concrete class''', however, is a [[Class (computer science)|class]] for which entities (instances) may be created. This contrasts with abstract classes which can not be [[instance|instantiated]] because it defeats its purpose of being an 'abstract'. Most [[Object-oriented programming language|object oriented programming languages]] allow the [[programmer]] to specify which classes are considered abstract and will not allow these to be instantiated (in [[Java programming language|Java]], for example, the keyword ''abstract'' is used). This also enables the programmer to focus on planning and design. The actual implementation of course is to be done in the derived classes. In [[C++]], an abstract class is a class having at least one pure virtual function. They can not be instantiated and will generate an error if
nd web-site serving greatly increasing in the last decade, the computer industry has re-emphasized capacity and throughput issues. One technique of how this parallelism is achieved is through [[multiprocessing]] systems, computer systems with multiple CPUs. Once reserved for high-end [[mainframe]]s and [[supercomputer]]s, small scale (2-8) multiprocessors servers have become commonplace for the small business market. For large corporations, large scale (16-256) multiprocessors are common. Even [[personal computer]]s with multiple CPUs have appeared since the 1990s. With further transistor size reductions made available with semiconductor technology advances, [[Chip-level multiprocessing]] have appeared where multiple CPUs are implemented on the same silicon chip. Initially used in chips targeting embedded markets, where simpler and smaller CPUs would allow multiple instantiations to fit on one piece of silicon. By 2005, semiconductor technology allowed dual high-end desktop CPUs ''CMP'' chips to be manufactured in volume. Some designs, such as [[Sun Microsystems]]' [[UltraSPARC T1]] have reverted back to simpler (scalar, in-order) designs in order to fit more processors on one piece of silicon. Another technique that has become more popular recently is [[multithreading]]. In multithreading, when the processor has to fetch data from slow system memory, instead of stalling for the data to arrive, the processor switches to another program or program thread which is ready to execute. Though this doesn't speed up a particular program/thread, it increases the overall system throughput by reducing the time the CPU is idle. Conceptually, multithreading is equivalent to a [[context switch]] at the operating system level. The difference is that a multithreaded CPU can do a thread switch in one CPU cycle instead of the hundreds or thousands of CPU cycles a context switch normally requires. This is achieved by replicating the state hardware (such as the [[register file]] and [[program counter]]) for each active thread. A further enhancement is [[Simultaneous multithreading]]. This technique allows superscalar CPUs to execute instructions from different programs/threads simultaneously in the same cycle. == See also == * [[Microprocessor]] * [[Moore's Law]] * [[Amdahl's law]] * [[Simultaneous multithreading]] * [[RISC]] * [[CISC]] * [[Misc|MISC]] [[Category:Computer architecture]] [[Category:Computer hardware]] [[nl:Processorarchitectuur]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Carinatae</title> <id>7598</id> <revision> <id>15905659</id> <timestamp>2005-06-07T05:34:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Algirdas</username> <id>127359</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+ lt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In phylogenetic taxonomy, the '''Carinatae''' are considered the last common ancestor of Neornithes (living [[bird]]s) and [[Ichthyornis]] (an extinct seabird of the [[Cretaceous]]). Defined in this way, the group includes all living [[bird]]s, including [[ratite]]s ([[ostrich]], [[emu]], etc.), as well as neognathous birds and a few [[Mesozoic]] forms. Traditionally, Carinatae were defined as all birds having a [[keel (bird)|keeled]] [[sternum]]. The carina or &quot;keel&quot; referred to a strong median ridge running down the length of the sternum, or breast bone. This is an important area for the attachment of flight muscles. Thus, all flying birds have a pronounced carina. Ratites, all of whom are flightless, lack a strong carina. Thus, living birds were divided into carinates and ratites. The difficulty with this scheme was that there have been (and still are) any number of flightless birds, without strong carinae, but which are descended directly from ordinary flying birds with carinae. Examples include the [[turkey (bird)|turkey]], a galliform (chicken-like) bird, and the [[dodo]], a columbiform (the [[pigeon]] family). None of these birds are ratites. Thus, this supposedly distinctive feature was easy to use, but had nothing to do with actual phylogenic relationship. Unfortunately, the use of this term to describe the Ichthyornis-Neornithine group turned out to be equally inapt. Various dinosaurs -- apparently, remote ancestors and cousins of the Carinatae -- '''do''' possess a keeled sternum. So, evidently the presence of this structure does not necessarily imply its use in [[flight]]. This sort of definitional problem is one reason why the use of physical characteristics to define or name taxonomic groups is now discouraged. The characteristics that actually are unique to the Carinatae have little to do with the sternum. Rather, carinates are unique in having, for example, a globe-shaped, convex head on the [[humerus]] and fully fused bones in the lower leg and outer arm. [[lt:Keteruo&amp;#269;iai]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cocktail</title> <id>7599</id> <revision> <id>42072196</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:03:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.189.108.164</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 1988 film starring Tom Cruise, see [[Cocktail (film)]].'' :''For the crude [[incendiary weapon]], see [[Molotov cocktail]].'' :''In [[scuba diving]], &quot;cocktail&quot; can mean a hazard with diving with some [[rebreather]]s: a caustic solution resulting from water reaching and dissolving the [[absorbent]].'' [[Image:Cocktail1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A cocktail.]] In general, a '''cocktail''' is a mix of several substances, usually liquids. This article describes the '''cocktail''' as a mixed [[drink]], usually containing one or more [[distillation|distilled]] [[alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]] and perhaps non-alcoholic drinks, [[ice]] and sometimes [[liqueur]], [[fruit]], sauce, [[honey]], milk or cream, [[spice|spices]], etc. The cocktail became popular during [[Prohibition]] in the [[United States]]; to mask the taste of [[bootlegging|bootlegged]] alcohol, the bartenders at a [[speakeasy]] would mix it with other liquors and non-alcoholic drinks. Until the [[1970s]], cocktails were made predominantly with [[gin]], [[whiskey]], or [[rum]], and rarely [[vodka]]. From the 1970s on, the popularity of vodka increased dramatically. By the [[1980s]] it was the predominant base for mixed drinks. Many cocktails traditionally made with gin, such as the [[gimlet (cocktail)|gimlet]], may now be served by default with vodka. Non-alcoholic carbonated beverages that are used nearly exclusively in cocktails (or in non-alcoholic soda fountain drinks, such as the [[egg cream]]) include [[soda water]], [[tonic water]] and [[seltzer]]. [[Liqueurs]] are also common cocktail ingredients. ==History== [[Image:Flaming cocktails.jpg|thumb|left|250px|&quot;Flaming&quot; cocktails contain a small amount of flammable [[alcoholic proof|high-proof alcohol]] which is ignited prior to consumption.]] The earliest known printed use of the word &quot;cocktail&quot; was in the [[May 13]], [[1806]] edition of the ''Balance and Columbian Repository'' (A [[Hudson, New York]] publication), where the paper provided the following answer to what a cocktail was: :''&quot;Cocktail is a stimulating liquor composed of spirits of any kind, sugar, water, and bitters--it is vulgarly called a bittered sling and is supposed to be an excellent electioneering potion, inasmuch as it renders the heart stout and bold, at the same time that it fuddles the head. It is said, also to be of great use to a [[United_States_Democratic-Republican_Party|Democratic]] candidate: because a person, having swallowed a glass of it, is ready to swallow anything else.&quot;'' The first publication of a [[bartender]]s' guide which included cocktail recipes was in [[1862]]: ''How to Mix Drinks; or, The Bon Vivant's Companion'', by Professor Jerry Thomas. In addition to listings of recipes for Punches, Sours, Slings, Cobblers, Shrubs, Toddies, Flips, and a variety of other types of mixed drinks were 10 recipes for drinks referred to as &quot;Cocktails&quot;. A key ingredient which differentiated &quot;cocktails&quot; from other drinks in this compendium, was the use of [[bitters]] as an ingredient, although it is not to be seen in very many modern cocktail recipes. During Prohibition in the United States ([[1919]]-[[1933]]), when alcohol consumption was illegal, cocktails were still consumed in establishments known as speakeasies. Not only was the quality of the alcohol available far lower than was previously used, but the skill and knowledge of the bartenders would also decline significantly during this time. ==Etymology== There are several plausible theories as to the origin of the term &quot;cocktail&quot;. Among them are: *Some say that it was customary to put a feather (presumably from a cock's tail) in the drink to serve both as decoration and to signal to [[teetotaler]]s that the drink contained [[ethanol|alcohol]]. *Another etymology is that the term is derived from ''coquetier'', a French [[egg-cup]] which was used to serve the beverage in [[New Orleans]] in the early 19th century. *The word could also be a distortion of Latin ''[aqua] decocta'', meaning &quot;distilled water&quot;. ==See also== {{wikibookspar|Bartending|Cocktails}} *[[List of cocktails]] *[[Wikibooks:Bartending]] for many [[recipe|recipes]] *[[Cocktail stick]] *[[History of alcohol]] ==Derivative uses== The word &quot;cocktail&quot; is sometimes figuratively been used for a mixture of (not necessarily drinkable) liquids or other substances, for example: &quot;''120 years of industry have dosed the area's soil with a noxious cocktail of heavy metals and chemical contaminants''&quot;. ==External links== *[http://www.drinksite.com/ Drinksite Social Drink Network] [[Category:Cocktails|*]] [[de:Cocktail]] [[eo:Koktelo]] [[fr:Cocktail]] [[ko:칵테일]]
http://www.cs.uiowa.edu/~jones/bcd/bcd.html Douglas Jones' Tutorial]. ==Background== The binary-coded decimal scheme described in this article is the most common encoding, but there are many others. The method here can be referred to as ''Simple Binary-Coded Decimal'' (''SBCD'') or ''BCD 8421''. &lt;!-- It is also sometimes named ''NBCD'' (''Naturally Binary-Coded Decimal''). (where?) --&gt; The '8421' indicates the four bit weights. The following table represents [[decimal]] digits from 0 to 9 in various BCD systems: {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; |- ! Digit ! &lt;br&gt;BCD&lt;br&gt;8421 ! [[Excess-3]] ! &lt;br&gt;BCD&lt;br&gt;2421 ! &lt;br&gt;BCD&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;84&amp;minus;2&amp;minus;1 ! [[IBM 702]] [[IBM 705]]&lt;br&gt;[[IBM 7080]] [[IBM 1401]]&lt;br&gt;8421 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! 0 | 0000 | 0011 | 0000 | 0000 | 1010 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! 1 | 0001 | 0100 | 0001 | 0111 | 0001 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! 2 | 0010 | 0101 | 0010 | 0110 | 0010 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! 3 | 0011 | 0110 | 0011 | 0101 | 0011 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! 4 | 0100 | 0111 | 0100 | 0100 | 0100 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! 5 | 0101 | 1000 | 1011 | 1011 | 0101 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! 6 | 0110 | 1001 | 1100 | 1010 | 0110 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! 7 | 0111 | 1010 | 1101 | 1001 | 0111 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! 8 | 1000 | 1011 | 1110 | 1000 | 1000 |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! 9 | 1001 | 1100 | 1111 | 1111 | 1001 |- |} &lt;br clear=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; ==Legal history== In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned a lower court decision which had allowed a patent for converting BCD encoded numbers to binary on a computer (see [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/printer_friendly.pl?page=us/409/63.html Gottschalk v Benson]). This was an important case in determining the patentability of software and algorithms. ==Comparison with pure binary== &lt;!-- not at all clear why this needs to be here at all, shouldn't the article just describe BCD? (mfc)--&gt; &lt;!--as an alternative number system for computing and electronics imo a comparison to the standard one is justified (plugwash)--&gt; ===Advantages=== * Scaling by a factor of 10 (or a power of 10) is simple, this is useful when a decimal scaling factor is needed to represent a non-integer quantity (e.g., in financial calculations where it is required that a computer gets the same result that a human would). * Rounding at a decimal digit boundary is easier. * Conversion to a character form or for display (e.g., to a character encoding such as XML, or to drive signals for a 7 segment display) is a simple per-digit mapping (conversion from pure binary involves relatively complex logic that spans digits, and gets geometrically worse as the length of the number increases). ===Disadvantages=== * Some arithmetic operations are more complex to implement. [[Adder (electronics)|Adder]]s require extra logic to cause them to wrap and generate a carry early; however, carries take place one tenth as often. Multiplication can be done by a simple shift-mask-add process in base ten. 15%-20% more circuitry is needed for BCD add compared to pure binary. * BCD in raw form requires four bits per digit. When packed so that three digits are encoded in ten bits, the extra storage requirement over pure binary is insignificant for most applications. &lt;!-- commenting this out as it's a disadvantage of the processors, not of BCD :-). * Most standard processors are designed around pure binary meaning BCD operations are likely to have to be done at least partially in software. --&gt; ==See also== *[[Gray code]] ==External links== *[http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/chen-ho.html IBM: Chen-Ho encoding] *[http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/DPDecimal.html IBM: Densely Packed Decimal]. ==References== *Schmid, Hermann, ''Decimal computation.'' New York, Wiley, 1974 *See also the [http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/decbibindex.html Decimal Arithmetic Bibliography] [[Category:Computer arithmetic]] [[Category:Numeration]] [[cs:BCD]] [[da:BCD (tal)]] [[de:BCD-Code]] [[es:Código binario decimal]] [[fr:Binary coded decimal]] [[he:עשרוני בקידוד בינארי]] [[it:BCD]] [[ja:&amp;#20108;&amp;#36914;&amp;#21270;&amp;#21313;&amp;#36914;&amp;#34920;&amp;#29694;]] [[nl:BCD-code]] [[pl:Kod BCD]] [[sv:BCD]] [[zh:二進碼十進數]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BCD</title> <id>3822</id> <revision> <id>42154366</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:26:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jef-Infojef</username> <id>156187</id> </contributor> <comment>+da</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''BCD''' is an [[Acronym and initialism|acronym]] with multiple meanings, including: * [[Barrels per calendar day]], a unit for measuring output of [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] * [[Binary-coded decimal]] numbering * [[List of credentials in psychology|Board-certified diplomate]], a professional credential * [[Buoyancy compensator|Buoyancy control device]] used in [[SCUBA]] diving * The [[Brainchild Design]] website * [[The British Columbia Dragoons]], a [[Canadian Forces]] [[armored warfare|armoured]] [[regiment]] based in [[Kelowna, British Columbia|Kelowna]] and [[Vernon, British Columbia]] * [[Boot Configuration Data]], a computing term for the [[boot loader]] for [[Windows Vista]] and later operating systems. {{TLAdisambig}} [[da:BCD]] [[fr:BCD]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Binary</title> <id>3823</id> <revision> <id>41203616</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:38:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.18.172.50</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|binary}} '''Binary''' basically means ''composed of two parts''. It may refer specifically to: * [[Binary numeral system]], a representation for numbers using only two digits. * [[Binary file]], a computer file that comprises a sequence of encoded numerical values rather than human-readable text, including an ** [[Executable file]], a computer file containing machine code that can be executed by the operating system. * [[Binary (chemical weapon)]], one that contains two capsules, each of which contains a chemical, that when combined with the contents of the other, will react to make a toxic agent. * [[Binary (astronomy)]], a star system with two stars. * [[Binary (novel)]], a 1972 novel by Michael Crichton (writing as John Lange). * [[Binary (comics)]], a superheroine in the Marvel Universe. {{disambig}} [[de:Binär]] [[he:&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;]] [[gl:Binario]] [[ja:&amp;#12496;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12490;&amp;#12522;]] [[sv:Binär]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Babelfish</title> <id>3824</id> <revision> <id>42084148</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:47:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>88.130.81.233</ip> </contributor> <comment>Fachpraktikum bei Emerson Process Management in der Abteilung</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Babel fish]] Fachpraktikum bei Emerson Process Management in der Abteilung Engineering / System integration</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brave new world</title> <id>3825</id> <revision> <id>15902139</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.253.39.xxx</ip> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brave New World]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bumin Khan</title> <id>3826</id> <revision> <id>39302036</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T05:08:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BinaryTed</username> <id>709141</id> </contributor> <comment>Removed another user's self-inserted credit.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bumin Khan''' (death: [[552]] AD) was the founder of the [[Gokturks|Kokturk]] state. He is mentioned as &quot;Tumen&quot; (土門)in the ancient Chinese sources. His name means &quot;smoke cloud.&quot; Little is known about his life, and most of the information comes from legends in which he gathers a group of Turkic people living in a legendary place called Ergenikon located in the inaccessible valleys of the [[Altay Mountains]]. In 542 he put down a revolt of the Tieli tribes against their overlords the Avars(Ruan-Ruan). In return he asked and was refused the hand of a Avar princess. His next move was to successfully establish contact with the [[Wei]] state in China. Records show in 545 a diplomatic mission lead by the Sogdian envoy [[An Nopantuo]] made an alliance sealed by Bumen's marriage to the princess [[Wei Chang'le]] (長樂公主). The beginning of formal diplomatic relations with China gave him the credibility to unite the turkic tribes behind him and crush the [[Caucasian Avars|Avars]]. With their defeat he proclaimed the Turkic Empire([[Gökturk Khanate]])under his new title Il-Khağan(great-king, 伊利可汗) at the sacred [[Mt. Ötüuken]]. This empire expanded, in less than one century, to wide territories in [[Central Asia]]. He died in the same year he founded his state. [[Category:552 deaths|Bumin Khan]] [[Category:Gokturks]] [[de:Bumin Ilkhan]] [[tr:Bumin Kağan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bilge Khan</title> <id>3827</id> <revision> <id>33043581</id> <timestamp>2005-12-28T21:57:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Briangotts</username> <id>169027</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bilge Khan''' (''Arslan Bilgä Kha&amp;#287;an Bengü Ta&amp;#351;&amp;#305;''; [[683]] or [[684]] - [[734]]) was one of the most influential emperors of the [[
, commissioned to create a ''Monument to Victor Hugo'' in the 1890s, dealt extensively with the subject of ''artist and muse'', reflecting the various aspects of his stormy and complex relationship with Claudel in ''The Poet and Love'', ''The Genius and Pity'', ''The Sculptor and his Muse''. Like many of Rodin's public commissions, the ''Mounument to Victor Hugo'' met resistance because it did not fit conventional expectations. The 1897 plaster model was finally cast in bronze in 1964. His ''Monument to Balzac'', exhibited at the 1898 salon at the Champ des Mars showing the writer in his morning frock, was repudiated as well. After the frustrating experience, Rodin did not finish any public commissions. Instead, after 1903 he had his most successful works enlarged to monumental dimensions. As France's best known artist, he had a large staff of pupils, craftsmen, and stone cutters working for him. He created a number of society portrait busts, especially for wealthy American collectors, and began presenting fragmentary sculptures, which in his opinion contained the essence of his artistic statement, like ''Meditation without Arms'', ''Iris, Messenger of the Gods'' or ''The Walking Man''. During his last creative years, Rodin concentrated on small dance studies (ca. 1915), and produced numerous erotic drawings, sketched in a loose way, without taking his pencil from the paper or his eyes from the model. An exhibition of these drawings in Weimar in 1906 caused the so-called Kessler scandal, and [[Harry Count Kessler]] was dismissed as curator of the Weimar Museum. On [[January 29]], [[1917]], Rodin finally married Rose Beuret, who died two weeks later. Auguste Rodin died on [[November 17]], [[1917]]. A cast of ''The Thinker'' was placed next to his tomb in [[Meudon, France|Meudon]], [[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France]]. ==Legacy== [[Image:Balzac Bust Rodin1892.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Rodin's bust of [[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]], bronze, ([[1891]]-[[1892]]), which he gave to the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] in [[1914]].]] The [[Musée Rodin]] in [[Paris]] was founded to administer and exhibit the huge body of work (over 5,000 plaster items, over 1,000 bronze sculptures, ca. 8,000 drawings, and as many photographs) Rodin left to the French government by several deeds of donation, shortly before his death. A part of this collection is shown at Hôtel Biron, much of it displayed in an outdoor garden. The most of plaster collection is kept at Villa des Brillants in Meudon, a suburb of Paris, where Rodin lived and worked during the last decades of his life. With his works, Rodin also transferred the rights of reproduction to the Musée Rodin. According to French Law (Decree Nr. 81.255 of [[3 March]] [[1981]]), only 12 copies of each work can be issued as an ''original'' edition. Although the copyrights to Rodin's work expired in 1981 (50 years after the artist's death considering that every year during the 2 WW periods counts double), according to French law the Musée Rodin still exerts the ''droit moral'' (moral right), to prevent damage to the artist's good name by copies of inferior quality. One of Rodin's 1889 sculptures was used by the rock band [[Black Sabbath]] as the cover art for their 1987 album of the same name, ''[[The Eternal Idol]]''. ==Locations of Rodin sculpture== * [[Musée Rodin]], [[Paris]] * [[Rodin Museum]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], United States * [[National Gallery of Art]], [[Washington, D.C. ]], United States * [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York City]], United States * A bust of [[Joseph Pulitzer]] by the artist is in the World Room of Journalism Hall at [[Columbia University]], United States * [[Iris &amp; B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts#Rodin sculpture garden|Sculpture Garden]], [[Stanford University]], [[Palo Alto, California]], United States - ''Largest collection of Rodin bronzes outside of Paris'' * [[California Palace of the Legion of Honor]], [[San Francisco]], [[California]], United States * [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]], United States * [[National Gallery of Australia]], [[Canberra]], [[Australia]] * Public displays: **Statue of [[Honoré de Balzac]], Boulevard Raspail, near Boulevard Montparnasse, in the [[6ème arrondissement, Paris|6th arrondissement]] of Paris **Statue of ''[[The Burghers of Calais]]'' on [[Calais]]' main square by the town hall. ==External links== * [http://www.musee-rodin.fr/ Musee Rodin, Paris] * [http://www.rodinmuseum.org/ Rodin Museum, Philadelphia] * [http://www.insecula.com/contact/A005837.html/ Auguste Rodin works presented by Insecula ] * [http://www.insecula.com/salle/theme_40001_M0123.html/ Views of the Musée Rodin] * [http://www.rodin-web.org/ Rodin-Web.org - independent academic platform] * [http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria_estero/Rodin%20Auguste/index.html Auguste Rodin: Virtual Gallery] * [http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/eurptg/highlight_item?acc=1987.217&amp;page=28/ The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.] * [http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/exhibitions/2003/rodin/ The Brooklyn Museum] {{Commons|Auguste Rodin}} [[Category:1840 births|Rodin, Auguste]] [[Category:1917 deaths|Rodin, Auguste]] [[Category:French sculptors|Rodin, Auguste]] [[ca:August Rodin]] [[de:Auguste Rodin]] [[es:Auguste Rodin]] [[eo:Auguste RODIN]] [[fr:Auguste Rodin]] [[id:Auguste Rodin]] [[it:Auguste Rodin]] [[he:אוגוסט רודן]] [[li:Auguste Rodin]] [[nl:Auguste Rodin]] [[ja:オーギュスト・ロダン]] [[no:Auguste Rodin]] [[pl:Auguste Rodin]] [[pt:Auguste Rodin]] [[sk:Auguste Rodin]] [[fi:Auguste Rodin]] [[sv:Auguste Rodin]] [[th:ออกุสต์ โรแดง]] [[zh:奥古斯特·罗丹]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ann Arbor, Michigan</title> <id>2067</id> <revision> <id>42119614</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:18:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Psy guy</username> <id>340905</id> </contributor> <comment>remove spam</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}} :''For the railroad company, see [[Ann Arbor Railroad]].'' {{Infobox City |official_name = Ann Arbor, Michigan |nickname= A-squared, Tree Town, Ace Deuce, A-2 |image_flag = Ann-Arbor-City-Flag.png |image_seal = Ann-Arbor-City-Seal.png |image_map = AnnArbor_Washtenaw.png |map_caption = Location of Ann Arbor within [[Washtenaw County, Michigan]]. |subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt; [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt; [[List of counties in Michigan|County]] |subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michigan]]&lt;br&gt;[[Washtenaw County, Michigan|Washtenaw]] |leader_title = [[Mayor]] |leader_name = [[John Hieftje]] |area_magnitude = 1 E8 |area_total = 27.7 sq. miles / 71.7 |area_land = 27.0 sq. miles / 70.0 |area_water = 0.7 sq. miles / 1.7 |population_as_of = 2000 |population_note = |population_total = 114,024 (city proper) |population_density = 1,629.9 |timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |utc_offset = -5 |timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]] |utc_offset_DST = -4 |latd=42 |latm=16 |lats=31.26 |latNS=N |longd=83 |longm=43 |longs=51.02 |longEW=W |website = http://www.ci.ann-arbor.mi.us |footnotes = }} '''Ann Arbor''' is a city in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Michigan]] and the [[county seat]] of [[Washtenaw County, Michigan|Washtenaw County]]. As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 114,024, not including approximately 42,000 college students with permanent residences elsewhere.{{ref|population}} Supposedly named for the spouses of the city's founders and for the stands of trees in the area, Ann Arbor is best known as the location of the main campus of the [[University of Michigan]], which moved there from [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] in 1837. The city's economy, which once centered on the production of agricultural implements, carriages, furniture, pianos and organs, pottery and flour, is now dominated by education, [[high tech]], and [[biotechnology]]. Average home prices and property taxes are well above the state and national medians. The city is also well known locally as a destination for dining out and entertainment, as it contains a wide and eclectic variety of restaurants and performance venues. ==History== {{main|History of Ann Arbor, Michigan}} Ann Arbor was founded in January 1824 by [[John Allen (founder)|John Allen]] and [[Elisha Rumsey]], both of whom were land speculators. There are various accounts concerning the origin of the settlement's name, but one states that Allen and Rumsey decided to name it &quot;Annarbour,&quot; for their spouses, whose names were both Ann, and for the stands of burr [[oak]] in the 640 [[acre]]s (260 [[hectare]]s) of land they had purchased for [[United States dollar|$]]800 from the federal government. The [[Native Americans (U.S.)|Native Americans]] of the region knew the settlement as ''Kaw-goosh-kaw-nick'', after the sound of Allen's grist mill. [[Image:Ann Arbor at Liberty Street.jpg|200px|left|thumb|A view of Ann Arbor toward Liberty and State Streets, showing the [[Michigan Theater (Ann Arbor)|Michigan Theater]], the [[Borders Group|Borders]] bookstore #1, and several buildings of the University of Michigan]] Ann Arbor later became the seat of Washtenaw County in 1827, and was incorporated as a village in 1833. The town set aside 40 acres (16 hectares) of undeveloped land and offered it to the State of Michigan as the site of the state capitol, but it lost the bid to [[Lansing, Michigan|Lansing]] in 1836. In 1837 the unused land was sold to the [[University of Michigan]], forever linking Ann Arbor and its history with the university. The town became a regional transportation hub in 1839 with the arrival of the [[Michigan Central Railroad]]. Ann Arbor was chartered as a city in 1851. During [[World War II]], [[Ford Motor Company]]'s nearby [[Willow Run]] plant turned out [
se complying with the orders of the charterers; and the contract is made subject to exceptions similar to those in bills of lading and voyage charter-parties. This is the general outline of the ordinary form of a time charter-party, but the forms and their clauses vary, of course, very much, according to the circumstances of each case. It is apparent that under a time charter-party the shipowner to a large extent parts with the control of his ship, which is employed within certain limits according to the wish and directions, and for the purposes and profit of, the charterers. But, as we have already explained at the beginning of this article, the shipowner continues in possession of his vessel by his servant the master, who remains responsible to his owner for the safety and proper navigation of the ship. The result of this, as has been already pointed out, is that the holder of a bill of lading signed by the master, if he has taken the bill of lading without knowledge of the terms of the time charter-party, may hold the owner responsible for the due performance of the contract signed by the master in the ordinary course of his duties, and within his ostensible authority as servant of the shipowner, although in fact in signing the bill of lading the master was acting as agent for and at the direction of the time charterer, and not the shipowner. In the language of the ordinary time charter-party the ship is let to the charterers; but there is no true demise, because, as we have pointed out, the vessel remains in the possession of the shipowner, the charterer enjoying the advantages and control of its employment. Where the possession of a ship is given up to a hirer, who appoints his own master and crew, different considerations apply; but though the instrument by which the ship is let may be called a charter-party, it is not truly a contract of affreightment. === Customary rights. === There are certain rights and obligations arising out of the relationship of shipowner and cargo-owner in circumstances of extraordinary peril or urgency in the course of a voyage, which, though not strictly contractual, are well established by the customs of merchants and recognized by the law. It is obvious that, when a ship carrying a cargo is in the course of a voyage, the master to some extent represents the owners of both ship and cargo. In cases of emergency it may be necessary that the master should, without waiting for authority or instructions, incur expense or make sacrifices as agent not only of his employer, the shipowner, but also of the cargo-owner. Ship and cargo may be in peril, and it may be necessary for the safety of both to put into a port of refuge. There it may be necessary to repair the ship, and to land and warehouse, and afterwards re-ship the cargo. For these purposes the master will be obliged to incur expense, of which some part, such as the cost of repairing the ship, will be for the benefit of the shipowner; part, such as the warehousing expenses, will be for the benefit of the cargo-owner; and part, such as the port charges incurred in order to enter the port of refuge, are for the common benefit and safety of ship and cargo. Again, in a storm at sea, it may be necessary for the safety of ship and cargo to cut away a mast or to jettison, that is to say, throw overboard part of the cargo. In such a case the master, acting for the shipowner or cargo-owner, as the case may be, makes a sacrifice of part of the ship or part of the cargo, in either case for the purpose of saving ship and cargo from a danger common to both. Voluntary sacrifices so made and extraordinary expenses incurred for the common safety are called general average (see [[Average]]) sacrifices and expenses, and are made good to the person who has made the sacrifice or incurred the expense by a general average contribution, which is recoverable from the owners of the property saved in proportion to its value, or, in other words, each contributes rateably according to the benefit received. The law regulating the rights of the parties with regard to such contribution is called the law of General Average. It must, however, be remembered that the owner of the cargo is entitled under the contract of affreightment to the ordinary service of the ship and crew for the safe carriage of the cargo to its destination, and the shipowner is bound to pay all ordinary expenses incurred for the purpose of the voyage. He must also bear all losses arising from damage to the ship by accidents. But when extraordinary expense has been incurred by the shipowner for the safety of the cargo, he can recover such expense from the owner of the cargo as a special charge on cargo; or when an extraordinary expense has been incurred or a voluntary sacrifice made by the shipowner to save the ship and cargo from a peril common to both, he may require the owner of cargo to contribute in general average to make good the loss. See Carver, Carriage by Sea ([[London]], [[1905]]); Scrutton, Charter-parties and Bills of Lading (London, [[1904]]). (W.) ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Commercial item transport and distribution]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afghan Turkestan</title> <id>2667</id> <revision> <id>31363073</id> <timestamp>2005-12-14T19:40:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TimBentley</username> <id>531594</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Afghan Turkestan''' is the northern part of [[Afghanistan]], on the border with the former [[Soviet republic]]s of [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Tajikistan]]. Afghan Turkestan is also the name of a former province in this area, which was centred on [[Mazar-e Sharif]] and included territory in the modern provinces of [[Kunduz province|Kunduz]], [[Balkh province|Balkh]], [[Jowzjan province|Jowzjan]] and [[Sar-e Pol province|Sar-e Pol]]. The whole territory, from the junction of the [[Kokcha]] river with the [[Amu Darya]] on the north-east to the province of [[Herat province|Herat]] on the south-west, was some 500 miles in length, with an average width from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of 114 miles (183 km). It thus comprised about 57,000 square miles (148,000 km&amp;sup2;) or roughly two-ninths of the former kingdom of Afghanistan. ==Geography== The area is agriculturally poor except in the river valleys, being rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards the [[Turkman Desert]]. ==Population== Ethnically and historically Afghan Turkestan is more connected with [[Bukhara]] than with [[Kabul]], of which government it has been a dependency only since the time of [[Dost Mahommed Khan|Dost Mahommed]]. The bulk of the people of the cities are of [[Persians|Persian]] ([[Tajiks]]) and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ([[Uzbek]]) stock, but interspersed with them are Mongol [[Hazara]]s and [[Hinduism|Hindus]] with [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] tribes in the Amu Darya plains. ==History== Ancient Balkh or Bactriana was a province of the Achaemenian empire, and probably was occupied in great measure by a race of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] blood. About [[250 BC]] [[Diodotus of Bactria|Diodotus (Theodotus)]], governor of [[Bactria]] under the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucidae]], declared his independence, and commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to [[Parthia]]n and nomadic movements about [[126 BC]]. After this came a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The district was devastated by [[Genghis Khan]], and has never since fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged to the [[Delhi]] empire, and then fell into Uzbeg hands. In the [[18th century]] it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Khan Durani, and so remained under his son Timur. But under the fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of various Uzbek chiefs. At the beginning of the [[19th century]] they belonged to Bukhara; but under the [[emir]] Dost Mahommed the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in [[1850]], Akcha and the four western khanates in [[1855]], and Kunduz in [[1859]]. The sovereignty over Andkhui, Shibarghan, Saripul and Maimana was in dispute between Bukhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the strong rule of [[Abdur Rahman Khan|Abdur Rahman]] these outlying territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed. [[Category:Geography of Afghanistan]] [[Category:Subdivisions of Afghanistan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afyonkarahisar</title> <id>2668</id> <revision> <id>40638072</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T00:04:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Khoikhoi</username> <id>657950</id> </contributor> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Afyonkarahisar''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]] for the ''black [[opium]] castle'') is a city in western [[Turkey]], also known simply as '''Afyon''' (i.e. opium) or as '''Karahisar-i Sahip'''. Older spellings include '''Afium-Kara-hissar''' and '''Afyon Karahisar'''. It is the capital of [[Afyonkarahisar Province|Afyon]] [[Provinces of Turkey|province]]. It is located 250 km south-west of [[Ankara]] along the [[Akar River]] at an elevation of 1 034 meters. It has a population of 128 516 and is an important railroad junction between [[Izmir]], [[Konya]], Ankara and [[Istanbul]]. The region is traditionally the main producer of opium in Turkey, thereby its name. Afyon was known as [[Acroënus]] until the reign of the [[L
ly&amp;nbsp;naturalistic || &amp;nbsp; ||''Io have nascit, o dea con le ocules azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuos Cimmerios '' |- valign=top | &amp;nbsp; || Model&amp;nbsp;C || &amp;nbsp; || slightly&amp;nbsp;schematic || &amp;nbsp; ||''Yo ha nascet, o deessa con le ocules azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuose Cimerios '' |- valign=top | &amp;nbsp; || Model&amp;nbsp;K || &amp;nbsp; || moderately&amp;nbsp;schematic || &amp;nbsp; ||''Yo naskeba, o dea kon le okuli azure, de parenti barbare, inter le bone e virtuose Kimerii '' |- valign=top | &amp;nbsp; || colspan=3 | (English) || &amp;nbsp; ||'I was born, O goddess with the blue eyes, of barbarian relations, among the good and virtuous Cimmerians' |- valign=top | &amp;nbsp; || colspan=3 | (modern Interlingua) || &amp;nbsp; ||''Io ha nascite, o dea con le oculos azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuose Cimmerios'' |} Model P was unchanged from 1945; Model K was slightly modified in the direction of [[Ido]]. The survey results were surprising. The two more schematic models, C and K, were rejected (K overwhelmingly). Of the two naturalistic models, M attracted somewhat more support than P. Taking national biases into account (for example, the French who were polled disproportionately favored Model M), IALA decided on a compromise between models M and P, with certain elements of C. ===Finalization=== Upon Martinet's resignation in 1948 to take up a position at [[Columbia University]], Gode took on the last phase of Interlingua's development. His task was to combine elements of Model M and Model P, while taking the flaws seen in both by the polled community and repairing them with elements of Model C as necessary, while simultaneously developing a vocabulary. The vocabulary and verb conjugations of Interlingua were initially published in [[1951]]. In 1951, the IALA published the finalized grammar, a 27,000-word dictionary (Interlingua to English only), and an introductory book entitled ''Interlingua a Prime Vista'' (&quot;Interlingua at First Sight&quot;). An early practical application of Interlingua was the scientific newsletter ''Spectroscopia Molecular'' (published 1952–1980). In 1954 Interlingua was employed at the Second World Cardiological Congress, in Washington DC, for both written summaries and oral interpretation. Within a few years it found similar use at nine further medical congresses. Between the mid-1950s and the late 1970s, some thirty scientific and especially medical journals provided article summaries in Interlingua. Science News Service, the publisher at the time of ''Science Newsletter'', published a monthly column in Interlingua from the early nineteen-fifties until Gode's death in 1970. ===Interlingua today=== Today, Interlingua is promoted primarily by the [[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]] (president: Barbara Rubinstein, Sweden; secretary-general: Petyo Angelov, Bulgaria). Periodicals and books are produced by various national organizations, including the [[Societate American pro Interlingua]] (president: Dr. Stanley Mulaik) and the Svenska Sällskapet för Interlingua (secretary: Ingvar Stenström). Currently, [[Panorama In Interlingua]] is the most prominent Interlingua periodical. It is a 28-page newsletter published bimonthly that covers news, science, and editorials. Interlingua has seen a resurgence over the last decade thanks to the Internet, with the number of speakers jumping tenfold by some estimates. == Vocabulary == The IALA set up a control group of five widely-known languages with much shared vocabulary, grouped into four units: [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]]/[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (treated as one unit), and [[English language|English]]. A word is eligible for Interlingua if it occurs with similar meanings in three of these four units. Secondary controls are originally [[German language|German]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. Self-explanatory compounds can be included with support from at least one source language. Grammatical words, required to operate the language, are taken from [[Latin]] if this procedure fails. The forms of Interlingua words are based on the historical or hypothetical forms from which the national forms evolved. Derivational series are also considered. Though French ''oeil'', Italian ''occhio'', Spanish ''ojo'' and Portuguese ''olho'' (&quot;eye&quot;) are quite different, they descend from a historical form ''oculus''. This, and international derivatives like ''ocular'' and ''oculista'', determine the form ''oculo'' to be used in Interlingua. New words can be created internally, through derivational affixes, or extracted from the control languages in the manner of the original vocabulary. Internal word-building, though freer than in the control languages, is more restricted than in schematic IALs such as [[Esperanto]] and [[Ido]]. Most Interlingua dictionaries include only words with support in the control languages. Interlingua as now used tends to have less [[Classical Latin]] vocabulary than the IALA's original version, replaced in part by southern Romance vocabulary. For example ''emer'' (&quot;to buy&quot;) has been mostly replaced by ''comprar''; ''sed'' (&quot;but&quot;) with ''ma'' or ''mais''; and ''nimis'' (&quot;too&quot;) with ''troppo''. However, other classical Latin words, such as &quot;pro&quot; (&quot;for&quot;), &quot;contra&quot; (&quot;against&quot;), &quot;post&quot; (&quot;after&quot;) and &quot;ergo&quot; (&quot;therefore&quot;) are retained because they are seen as more internationally understandable than their Romance counterparts. == Phonology and spelling == The pronunciation is similar to ecclesiastical Latin. For the most part, the consonants are like English, while the vowels are like Spanish or Italian, {{IPA|[a, ɛ~e, i, ɔ~o, u]}}. Four vowel pairs (AI, AU, EU, OI) are pronounced as falling diphthongs ({{IPA|[aj, aw, ew, oj]}}). Notable exceptions are as follows: *C is &quot;soft&quot; ({{IPA|[ts]}}) before ''e'', ''i'', or ''y''; otherwise &quot;hard&quot; {{IPA|[k]}}. *CH is most often {{IPA|[k]}} and is used before ''e'', ''i'', or ''y'' or in words of Greek origin. In many words, especially of French origin, it has the sound of English ''sh'' (''choc, chenille, chef, chimpanze, chocolate, cheque''). {{IPA|[ʃ]}}. In a few loanwords it takes the English or Spanish ''ch'' sound {{IPA|[tʃ]}} (''microchip''). *G is &quot;hard&quot; ({{IPA|[g]}}), except in the sequences ''-age'' and ''-agi-'' (preceding a vowel), where it has the sound of French ''j''. *H is silent in the combinations ''rh'' and ''th'' ({{IPA|[r]}} and ({{IPA|[t]}}). *I is like English ''y'' {{IPA|[j]}} before another vowel, unless stressed (''union'' {{IPA|[u'njon]}}, ''via'' {{IPA|['via]}}). *J is French ''j'' {{IPA|[ʒ]}}. *Q is {{IPA|[k]}} and occurs almost exclusively in the combination ''qu'' {{IPA|[kw]}}. * PH is {{IPA|[f]}} in words of Greek origin. * R is lightly rolled or trilled {{IPA|[ɾ], [r]}}, as in Italian or Spanish. * TI becomes {{IPA|[tsj]}} before a vowel, except if the 'i'' is stressed or in the combination ''-sti-'' (''nation'' {{IPA|[na'tsjon]}}; but ''politia'' {{IPA|[poli'tia]}}, ''question'' {{IPA|[kwe'stjon]}}. *U is {{IPA|[w]}} before another vowel, unless stressed (''continuar'' {{IPA|[konti'nwar]}}, ''duo'' {{IPA|['duo]}}. *Y has the same value as I. Double consonants are pronounced as single (''fila'' {{IPA|['fila]}}, ''illa'' {{IPA|['ila]}}). === Alternative pronunciations === Alternative pronunciations are permitted for some letters and combinations: * Some speakers pronounce &quot;soft&quot; C as {{IPA|[s]}} rather than {{IPA|[ts]}}. * Many speakers pronounce EU like English ''oy'' ({{IPA|[oj]}}). * H is optionally silent in all positions. * Many speakers pronounce J and &quot;soft&quot; G like English ''j'' {{IPA|[dʒ]}}. *P is optionally silent in initial ''pn-, ps-,'' and ''pt-''. * QU is pronounced ''qu'' as {{IPA|[k]}} before ''e'' or ''i'' by some speakers . Almost all speakers pronounce the particles ''que'' and ''qui'' as {{IPA|[ke, ki]}}. * S may be pronounced {{IPA|[z]}} between two vowels. SS is always {{IPA|[s]}}. * Some speakers pronounce the &quot;soft&quot; TI as {{IPA|[sj]}} rather than {{IPA|[tsj]}}. A few keep it &quot;hard&quot; ({{IPA|[tj]}}). * X may be pronounced {{IPA|[gz]}} between two vowels. === Stress === The stress falls on one of the last three syllables of a word. It most often falls on the vowel before the last consonant of a word (e.g., '''''lin'''gua, es'''ser''', requiri'''men'''to''). The following rules account for most of exceptions: * Verbs in the future tense are stressed on the final ''-a'' (''io scribe'''ra''''' 'I shall write'). * Verbs in the conditional tense are stressed on the final ''-ea'' (e.g. ''il esse'''re'''a sage'' 'it would be wise'). * Words (except verbs) ending in ''-le, -ne,'' or ''-re'' are stressed on the third-last syllable ('''''fra'''gile, '''mar'''gine, '''al'''tere;'' but ''illa im'''po'''ne'' 'she imposes'). *Words ending in ''-ica/-ico, -ide/-ido'' and ''-ula/-ulo,'' are stressed on the third-last syllable (''po'''li'''tica, scien'''ti'''fico, '''ra'''pide, '''stu'''pido, ca'''pi'''tula, '''se'''culo''). *Words ending in ''-ic'' are stressed on the second-last syllable ('''''cu'''bic''). Users may depart from the preferred stress for a word, provided this does not interfere with communication. For example, ''ki'''lo'''metro'' and ''kilo'''me'''tro'' are both acceptable, although ''ki'''lo'''metro'' is preferred for etymological reasons. === Alternative spellings === The original specifications for Interlingua (1951) provided for an alternative, simplified orthography. This differed from the &quot;classic&quot; orthography primarily by * dropping double consonants(''application'' &amp;rarr; ''aplication''), and * simplifying the spelling of words derived from Greek: ** CH ({{
nt>Fixed page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Pacific ocean temperature anomalies; for the golfer known as ''El Niño'', see ''[[Sergio García]]. [[image:el-nino.gif|right|thumb|400px|Chart of ocean surface temperature anomaly [°C] during the last strong El Niño in December 1997]] '''ENSO''' ('''El Niño-Southern Oscillation''') is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. The Pacific ocean signatures, '''El Niño''' and '''La Niña''' (also written in [[English language|English]] as '''''El Nino''''' and '''''La Nina''''') are major temperature fluctuations in surface waters of the tropical [[Pacific Ocean|Eastern Pacific Ocean]]. The names, from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] for &quot;the little boy&quot; and &quot;the little girl&quot;, refer to the [[Christ]] child, because the phenomenon is usually noticed around [[Christmas]] time in the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of [[South America]]. Their effect on climate in the southern hemisphere is profound. These effects were first described in 1923 by [[Gilbert_Walker|Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker]] from whom the [[Walker circulation]], an important aspect of the Pacific ENSO phenomenon, takes its name. The atmospheric signature, the '''Southern Oscillation''' ('''SO''') reflects the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the air pressure difference between [[Tahiti]] and [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]]. ENSO is a set of interacting parts of a single global system of coupled ocean-atmosphere climate fluctuations that come about as a consequence of oceanic and [[atmospheric circulation]]. ENSO is the most prominent known source of inter-annual variability in weather and climate around the world (~3 to 8 years),though not all areas are affected. ENSO has signatures in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. In the Pacific, during major warm events El Niño warming extends over much of the tropical Pacific and becomes clearly linked to the SOI intensity. While ENSO events are basically in phase between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, ENSO events in the Atlantic Ocean lag those in the Pacific by 12-to-18 months. Many of the countries most affected by ENSO events are developing countries within main continents (South America, Africa...), with economies that are largely dependent upon their agricultural and fishery sectors as a major source of food supply, employment, and foreign exchange. New capabilities to predict the onset of ENSO events in the three oceans can have global socio-economical impacts. While ENSO is a global and natural part of the Earth's climate, whether its intensity or frequency may change as a result of global warming is an important concern. Low-frequency variability has been evidenced. Inter-decadal modulation of ENSO might exist. ==El Niño and La Niña== [[Image:Enso elnino.png|right|thumb|256px|El Niño Conditions. Warm water pool approaches South American coast. Absence of cold upwelling increases warming. ([[NOAA]] / PMEL / TAO)]] [[Image:Enso normal.png|left|thumb|256px|Normal Pacific pattern. Equatorial winds gather warm water pool toward west. Cold water upwells along South American coast.]] [[Image:Enso lanina.png|right|thumb|256px|La Niña Conditions. Warm water is further west than usual.]] El Niño and La Niña are officially defined as sustained sea [[surface temperature]] anomalies of magnitude greater than 0.5&amp;deg;C across the central tropical Pacific Ocean. When the +0.5&amp;deg;C (or -0.5&amp;deg;C) condition is met for a period of less than five months, it is classified as El Niño (or La Niña) conditions. If the anomaly persists for five months or longer, it is classified as an El Niño (or La Niña) episode. The name comes from the [[Spanish language|Spanish name]] for the [[Child Jesus|Christ child]]; the name was given to the phenomenon by fishermen working off the coast of [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]], who noticed it often occurs around [[Christmas]]. In historical times it has occurred at irregular intervals of 2-7 years and has usually lasted one or two years. El Niño's warm current of nutrient-poor tropical water, heated by its eastward passage in the Equatorial Current, replaces the cold, nutrient-rich surface water of the [[Humboldt Current]] which support great populations of food fish. In most years the warming lasts only a few weeks or a month, after which the weather patterns return to normal and fishing improves. However, when El Niño conditions last for many months, more extensive ocean warming occurs and its economic impact to local fishing for an international market can be serious. Recent El Niños have occurred in 1986-1987, 1991-1992, 1993, 1994, 1997-1998, and 2002-2003. A rather weak El Niño began in September 2004 and ended in the spring of 2005. Weak La Niña conditions have developed during the past few months, and have been classified as a weak La Niña episode. [http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/enso_advisory/index.html] The El Niño of 1997-1998 was particularly strong and brought the phenomenon to worldwide attention, while the period from 1990-1994 was unusual in that El Niños have rarely occurred in such rapid succession (but were generally weak). [[Image:Enso jma.png|thumb|left|ENSO index]] The [[Walker circulation]] is seen at the surface as easterly trade winds which move water and air warmed by the sun towards the west. This also creates ocean [[upwelling]] off the coasts of [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]] and brings nutrient-rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks. The western side of the equatorial [[Pacific]] is characterized by warm, wet low pressure weather as the collected moisture is dumped in the form of typhoons and thunderstorms. The ocean is some 60 cm higher in the eastern Pacific as the result of this motion. In the Pacific, La Niña is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific, compared to El Niño, which is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperatures in the same area. Atlantic [[tropical cyclone]] activity is generally enhanced during La Niña. The La Niña condition often follows the El Niño, especially when the latter is strong. Strong La Niñas occurred in 1988-1989 and 1998-2001, and weakly in 1995-1996. [[Image:El Nino regional impacts.gif|thumb|256px|Regional impacts of warm ENSO episodes (El Niño).]] [[Image:La Nina regional impacts.gif|thumb|256px|Regional impacts of cold ENSO episodes. (La Niña)]] ==Wider effects of El Niño conditions== Because El Niño's warm pool feeds thunderstorms above, it creates increased rainfall across the east-central and eastern Pacific Ocean. In South America, the effects of El Niño are direct and stronger than in North America. An El Niño is associated with warm and very wet summers (December-February) along the coasts of northern [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]], causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme. The effects during the months of February, March and April may become critical. Southern [[Brazil]] and northern [[Argentina]] also experience wetter than normal conditions but mainly during the spring and early summer. Central [[Chile]] receives a mild winter with large rainfall, and the [[Peru|Peruvian]]-[[Bolivia|Bolivian]] [[Altiplano]] is sometimes exposed to unusual winter snowfall events. Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the [[Amazon River]] Basin, [[Colombia]] and [[Central America]]. Direct effects of El Niño resulting in drier conditions occur in [[Indonesia]], increasing [[forest fire]]s, in the [[Philippines]], and northern [[Australia]]. Drier than normal conditions are also generally observed in [[Queensland]], inland [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], inland [[New South Wales]] and eastern [[Tasmania]] during [[June]]-[[August]]. West of the [[Antarctic Peninsula]], the [[Ross Sea|Ross]], [[Bellingshausen Sea|Bellingshausen]], and [[Amundsen Sea]] sectors have more sea ice during El Niño. The latter two and the [[Weddell Sea]] also become warmer and have higher atmospheric pressure. In [[North America]], typically, winters are warmer than normal in the upper Midwest states and [[Canada]], while central and southern [[California]], northwest [[Mexico]] and the southeastern U.S., are wetter than normal. Summer is wetter in the intermountain regions of the U.S. The Pacific Northwest states, on the other hand, tend to be drier during an El Niño. During a La Niña, by contrast, the Midwestern U.S. tends to be drier than normal. El Niño is also associated with decreased [[hurricane]] activity in the Atlantic. Finally, [[East Africa]], including [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]] and the [[White Nile]] basin, experiences in the long rains from March to May wetter than normal conditions. There also are drier than normal conditions from December to February in south-central Africa, mainly in [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Botswana]]. ==Non-climate effects== [[Image:East pacific fishing.jpg|thumb|left|350px|East Pacific fishing]] Along the west coast of [[South America]], El Niño reduces the [[upwelling]] of cold, nutrient-rich water that sustains large [[fish]] populations, which in turn sustain abundant sea birds, whose droppings support the [[fertilizer]] industry. The local fishing industry along the affected coastline can suffer during long-lasting El Niño events. The world's largest fishery collapsed due to overfishing during the 1972 El Niño [[Peruvian anchoveta]] reduction. During the 1982-83 event, [[mackerel|jack mackerel]] and anchoveta populations were reduced, [[scallop]]s increased in warmer water, but [[hake]] followed cooler water down the continental slope, while [[shrimp]] and [[sardines]] moved southward so some catches decreased while others increased. [[mackerel|Horse mackerel]] have increased in the region during warm events. [[Image:El nino fishing.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Fishing in warm water for cold-loving fish.]] Shifting locations a
asic step of lindy) is danced in a position often described as someone about to sit on a stool, thereby bringing their center point of balance closer to the ground. This piked position is the classic look of Hollywood with a straight back straight and slight forward tilt. The Hollywood style is also a &quot;slotted&quot; dance, meaning the follow travels in a straight line instead of the more elliptical or circular Savoy style [[Lindy Hop]]. Proponents of the Hollywood Style Lindy Hop often say they're able to dance faster because of the use of counterbalance techniques, and people watching often remark at the smooth nature of the style. Much of this impression comes about because of the two dimensional nature of film. All the motion had to be captured in the two available dimensions whereas the Savoy Style is more of a three dimensional dance making it more difficult to present effectively on film. The film [[Hellzapoppin']] has examples of [[Dean Collins]] doing the Hollywood Style, and [[Frankie Manning]] as part of [[Whitey's Lindy Hoppers]] doing the Savoy Style. Other names for Hollywood Style often used by instructors other than Erik Robison and Sylvia Skylar: Smooth Style, LA Style, Dean Style, Collins Style, and often incorrectly as West Coast Swing. It's also common to simply drop the word &quot;style&quot; and say, &quot;I dance Hollywood&quot; or &quot;I dance Dean&quot; instead of the full moniker of &quot;Hollywood Style&quot; or &quot;Dean Style&quot;. One variation is [[LA style Lindy]]. [[Category:Lindy Hop]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harrison Narcotics Tax Act</title> <id>14210</id> <revision> <id>38009880</id> <timestamp>2006-02-03T15:56:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dforest</username> <id>308431</id> </contributor> <comment>/* History */ clarify</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Harrison Narcotics Tax Act''' was an American law that regulated and taxed the production, importation, distribution and use of [[opiates]]. The act was proposed by [[Francis Burton Harrison]] of [[New York]] and was approved on [[December 17]], [[1914]]. &quot;An Act To provide for the registration of, with collectors of internal revenue, and to impose a special tax on all persons who produce, import, manufacture, compound, deal in, dispense, sell, distribute, or give away [[opium]] or [[coca]] leaves, their salts, derivatives, or preparations, and for other purposes.&quot; ==History== Following the [[Spanish-American War]] the U.S. took over government of the [[Philippines]]. Confronted with a licensing system for opium addicts, a Commission of Inquiry was appointed to examine alternatives to this system. The Brent Commission recommended that narcotics should be subject to international control. This proposal was supported by the [[United States Department of State]] and in [[1906]] President [[Theodore Roosevelt|Theodore Roosevelt]] called for an international opium conference, which was held in [[Shanghai]] in [[1909]]. A second conference was held at [[The Hague]] in [[1911]], and out of it came the first international opium agreement, [[The Hague Convention]] of [[1912]], aimed primarily at solving the [[United Kingdom|British]]-caused opium problems of [[China]]. In [[1914]] the [[United States Senate|Senate]] considered the Harrison bill. The act was supported by the [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[William Jennings Bryan]] who urged that the law be passed to fulfill the obligation of the new international treaty. The debate was about international obligations rather than morality. The act appears to be concerned about the marketing of opiates. However a clause applying to doctors allowed distribution &quot;in the course of his professional practice only.&quot; This clause was interpreted after [[1917]] to mean that a doctor could not prescribe opiates to an addict, since addiction was not considered a disease. A number of doctors were arrested and some were imprisoned. The medical profession quickly learned not to supply opiates to addicts. The impact of diminished supply was obvious by mid-1915. A 1918 commission called for sterner law enforcement. Congress responded by tightening up the Harrison Act - the importation of [[heroin]] for any purpose was banned in [[1924]]. The use of the term '[[narcotic]]s' in the title of the act to describe not just opiates but also cocaine&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; which is a central nervous system stimulant, not a narcotic&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; initiated a precedent of frequent legislative and judicial misclassification of various substances as 'narcotics'. Today, law enforcement agencies, popular media, the [[United Nations]], and even some medical practitioners can be observed applying the term very broadly and often pejoratively in reference to a wide range of illicit substances, regardless of the more precise definition existing in medical contexts. [[Category:Legal history of the United States]] [[Category:1914 in law]] [[Category:Taxation in the United States]] [[Category:United States controlled substances law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heisenbug</title> <id>14211</id> <revision> <id>33522271</id> <timestamp>2006-01-01T22:47:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Keenan Pepper</username> <id>124371</id> </contributor> <comment>merge into [[Unusual software bug]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[unusual software bug]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Horse tack</title> <id>14215</id> <revision> <id>41862695</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:26:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.127.26.212</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tack''' is any of the various accessories worn by [[horse]]s in the course of their use as [[domestication of the horse|domesticated]] [[animal]]s. Saddles, stirrups, bridles, halters, reins, bits, harnesses, martingales, and breastplates are all forms of horse tack. == Saddles == :{{seealso|Sidesaddle}} [[image:mounted-police.jpg|250px|thumb|A horse equipped with a saddle for mounted police.]] '''Saddles''' are seats for the [[horseback riding|rider]], fastened to the horse's back by means of a ''girth'' or ''[[cinch]]'', a wide [[strap]] that goes around the horse at a point about four inches behind the forelegs. Some saddles will also have a second strap known as a ''flank cinch'' that fastens at the rear of the saddle and goes around the widest part of the horse's belly. It is important that the saddle is comfortable for both the rider and the horse&amp;mdash;an improperly fitting saddle may rub and cause the horse pain and can lead to the horse, rider, or both getting injured. There are many types of saddles, each specially designed for its given task. Saddles are usually divided into two major categories, &quot;English saddles&quot; and &quot;Western Saddles&quot; according to riding discipline they are used in. Other types of saddles, such as racing saddles, Australian saddles, and endurance saddles do not fit in either category. [[Image:saddle without tree.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A ''treeless saddle'']] A new class of saddles have no tree inside (''treeless saddles''); they are mainly used for pleasure and trail riding and endurance. *[[English Saddle]]s **Jumping Saddle **Dressage Saddle **Polo Saddle **Park Saddle **Racing Saddle **Show Saddle (gaited) **A/P or All Purpose (G/P General Purpose) *[[Western Saddle]] **Roping Saddle **Barrel Racing Saddle **Endurance Saddle **Trail Saddle **Pleasure Saddle *[[Sidesaddle]] **English Sidesaddle **Western Sidesaddle *Military Saddle *Australian stock saddle *Treeless saddle For the parts of the English Saddle, see [http://www.ultimatehorsesite.com/info/esaddle.html Parts of the English Saddle] For the parts of the Western Saddle, see [http://www.ultimatehorsesite.com/info/wsaddle.html Parts of the Western Saddle] == Stirrups == {{main|Stirrup}} [[Stirrup]]s are supports for the rider's [[foot|feet]] that hang down on either side of the ''saddle''. The invention of stirrups was of great significance in [[war horse|mounted combat]], giving the rider a secure footing while on horseback. At the same time the stirrups are problematic due to the tendency for feet to get stuck in them in dire moments, causing the rider to be dragged. Because of this danger saddlers have developed both ''safety stirrups'' or peacock stirrups &amp;mdash;which are either shaped to allow the rider's foot to slip out easily or are closed with a [[rubber]] band&amp;mdash;and ''safety stirrup bars'' that are hangers for the stirrup [[leather]] that allow it to detach from the saddle in an emergency. == Bridles and halters == :{{seealso|Halter}} [[image:horse in field.jpg|thumb|A horse wearing a halter.]] [[Image:Saddlewithbridle.jpg|thumb|[[Western Saddle]] with a bridle hanging from the horn]] '''[[Bridle]]s''' and '''[[halter]]s''' are an arrangement of straps around the horse's head used for [[animal communication|communicating]] with the animal. Bridles contain a ''bit'' attached to ''reins'' and are used for riding and driving horses. On the other hand, halters have no bit, are more general-purpose, and most often equipped for leading (particularly [[horse|pack horse]]s) or tethering a horse with a lead rope. A ''hackamore'' is a type of bitless bridle usually used to train young horses, or to go easy on an older horses mouth. Hackamores or Bosal's are usually seen in western riding. '''[[Raised bridle]]s''' have a raised noseband and are seen in English riding, as western bridles rarely have nosebands. '''[[Double bridle]]s''' use two bits in the mouth at once. The two bits allow the rider to have very precise control of the horse;
he body of Christ (''[[corpus]]'') nailed to it, in which case it is typically called a [[crucifix]]. [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] depictions of the cross are often crucifixes, in order to emphasize Christ's sacrifice; but many [[Protestant]] traditions depict the cross without the corpus, in order to emphasize the resurrection. Crosses are a prominent feature of Christian [[cemetery|cemeteries]], either carved on [[gravestone]]s or as sculpted [[stela]]e. Because of this death meaning, planting small crosses is sometimes used in countries of Christian culture to mark the site of fatal traffic accidents, or to [[protest]] alleged deaths. Crosses have been erected or carved on pagan sites of worship like [[mountain]] tops or [[menhir]]s to counter their influences. In Catholic countries, crosses are often erected on the peaks of prominent mountains, such as the [[Zugspitze]] or [[Mount Royal]], so as to be visible over the entire surrounding area. Perhaps the best-known form of the Christian cross is that depicted here, called the Latin cross, an equal-armed cross with a longer foot. It may be so called because it is the type of cross used in the Latin (Roman Catholic) church, as opposed to the Eastern Orthodox cross. Other forms of the Christian cross include: *[[Altar cross]]. Cross on a flat base to rest upon the [[altar]]. Earliest known example is a picture in a manuscript from the 9th century; by the 10th century they were commonly used, but the earliest extant altar cross is from the 12th century located at [[Great Lavra]] on [[Mt. Athos]]. *[[Saint Andrew's Cross|Andrew cross]]. Shaped like the letter '''X''', the form of cross [[Saint Andrew]] was martyred on. A national symbol of Scotland. Also known as St. Andrew's Cross. *[[Ankh]]. Shaped like the letter '''T''' surmounted by an oval or circle. It is the Egyptian symbol for &quot;life&quot;, it was adopted from the 2500 year-old pagan cross symbol by the [[Copts]] (Egyptian Christians), also called a ''crux ansata''. *[[Anthony's cross]]. Shaped like the letter '''T'''. Also called the [[Anthony the Great|Saint Anthony]]'s cross or '''Tau cross'''. This is the actual historical form used by Romans for [[crucifixion]], not the Latin cross. Also known as a ''crux commissa''. *[[Archiepiscopal cross]]. Special cross carried by an [[archbishop]]. *[[Basque cross]]. The lauburu. *[[Calvary cross]]. A [[Gothic art|Gothic]] style, the cross is mounted on a base shaped to resemble [[Golgotha|Mt. Golgatha]] (where Christ was crucified), with the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] and [[John the Evangelist|Saint John]] on either the base or crossarms. *[[Celtic Cross]]. Essentially a Latin cross, with a circle enclosing the intersection of the upright and crossbar, as in the standing [[High cross]]es; *[[Consecration cross]]. One of 12 crosses painted on the walls of a church to mark where it had been anointed during its [[consecration]]. *&quot;Cross of ''name''&quot;. See entry for &quot;''name'' cross&quot;. *[[Crux fourchette]]. A cross with flared or forked ends (see illustration at [[Cross#in Heraldry|Crosses in Heraldry]]). *[[Crux Gemmata|Crux gemmata]]. A cross inlaid with gems. Denotes a glorification of the cross, this form was inspired by the cult of the cross that arose after [[Saint Helena]]'s discovery of the [[true cross]] in [[Jerusalem]] in [[327]]. *[[Crux hasta]]. A cross with a long descending arm; a cross-staff. *[[Cross pattée|Crux pattée]]. A Greek cross with flared ends. *[[Double cross (cross)|Double cross]]. A cross with two crossbars. The upper one is shorter, representing the plaque nailed to Christ's cross, which said [[INRI|&quot;Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews&quot;]]. Also known as a ''crux gemina''. Also called the [[Cross of Lorraine]]. *[[Gammadion]]. A hooked cross or [[swastika]], also known as a ''crux gammata''. *[[Globus cruciger]]. Globe cross. An orb surmounted by a cross; used in royal regalia. *[[Greek cross]]. With arms of equal length. One of the most common Christian forms, in common use by the 4th century. *[[Sun cross|Gnostic cross]]. Cross used by the early [[Gnostic]] sects. *[[Latin cross]]. With a longer descending arm. Along with the Greek cross, it is the most common form, it represents the cross of Christ's crucifixion. *[[Living cross]]. One of two possibilities: Either a natural cross made of living vines and brances. Or, a man-made cross with vines or plants planted at its base. In the all-natural version, it refers to the legend that Christ's cross was made from the [[Tree of Life]]. In the man-made cross with plants planted at the base, it contrasts the &quot;new&quot; Tree of Life (the cross) with the Old Testament Tree of Life. In both cases it shows Christ's death (the cross) as a redemption for original sin (Tree of Life). *[[Cross of Lorraine|Lorraine cross]]. See entry for &quot;Double cross&quot;. *[[Maltese Cross (symbol)|Maltese cross]]. A Greek cross with arms that taper into the center. The outer ends may be forked. *[[Languedoc|Occitan cross]] *[[Patriarchal cross]]. Like the Double cross, but with a third additional crossbar, each one shorter than the one below. A triple cross. Also called Eastern Orthodox cross or Papal cross. *[[Pectoral cross]]. A large cross worn around the neck by some [[clergy]]. *[[Peter cross]]. An upside down cross. So-called because Peter was crucified upside down. Also called [[Cross of St. Peter]]. Also a symbol of [[Satanism]]; *[[Saltire]]. Associated with St Andrew, patron of Scotland. *[[Stepped cross]]. A cross resting on a base with several steps, in imitation of a monument built by Constantine in [[Constantinople]]. *[[Suppedaneum cross]]. A Russian and Byzantium form with an additional short crossbar, either horizontal or slanted near the base to represent Christ's footrest (''suppedaneum''). *'''Tau cross'''. See entry for [[Anthony's cross]]. In [[heraldry]], while the overwhelming majority of forms of crosses are symbolic of Christianity, it should be noted that a very few, such as the cross moline, are not. See [[Cross#in Heraldry|Crosses in Heraldry]]. ''See also: [[Christian symbolism]], [[sign of the cross|Sign of the Cross]]'' Compare the crossed circle of the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] god [[Odin]]. 'Cross' itself is a word taken from [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]], which supplanted the former word 'rood' in Old English. ''See [[Roodmas]], [[Rood screen]], [[Rood loft]]''. ==Alternative theological views of the cross== A number of Christian [[Anabaptist]] theologians including [[John H. Yoder]] and [[Walter Wink]] suggest an alternative reading of the cross in Jesus's teaching. Instead of seeing Jesus instructions to &quot;take up the cross&quot; as simply a spiritual call to endure suffering, they interpret the phrase as a call to a life of radical Christian [[discipleship]] that may end in death at the hands of the state. For these theologians, accepting the possibility of crucifixion (often the penalty for political prisoners in Roman times) means rejecting the use of [[violence]] as well. This view would be most prevalent among [[Mennonite]]s and other [[Peace churches]] with a history of [[martyrdom]]. This view is for the most part shared by Roman Catholic and Orthodox theologians, with the exception that they do not completely reject the use of violence. Since the 1930s [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] have taught that Christ died suspended not on a cross, but on a torture stake. The New Testament word for ''cross'' is ''stauros'', which can refer either to a cross or to a single upright position stake without a crossbeam; Jehovah's Witnesses accept the latter meaning to be the only one at the time of the crucifixion, the former one being assumed by the word at later times. They also point to the use of the Greek ''xy'lon'' to refer to the instrument of execution in the Greek Scriptures, as well as in Ezra 6:11 (''[[Septuagint]]''). Meaning ''wood'' or ''timber'' in general, ''xy'lon'' is also used to describe the weapons held by the mob arresting Jesus. They hold the use of the cross in worship to be a [[Paganism|pagan]] activity and the veneration of the ''stauros'' inappropriate. Cruciform symbols do antedate Christianity; see '''[[cross]]''' for more information. For Muslims, and Jews the symbol of the [[Cross]] or Religious [[Icons]] are [[sacrilegious]] as God cannot be depicted in any physical form. For more on Jesus see [[Non-Christian perspectives on Jesus]] According to Vine &quot;...Both the noun [stauros] and the verb stauroo, &quot;to fasten to a stake or pale,&quot; are originally to be distinguish form the ecclesiastical form of a two-beamed 'cross.' The shape of the latter had its origin in ancient Chaldea, and was used as the symbol of the god Tammuz (being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the initial of his name) in that country and in adjacent lands, including Egypt. By the middle of the 3rd cent. A.D. the churches had either departed from, or had travestied, certain doctrines of the Christian faith. In order to increase the prestige of the apostate ecclesiastical system pagans were received into the churches apart from regeneration by faith, and were permitted largely to retain their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the Tau or T, in its most frequent form with the cross-piece lowered, was adopted to stand for the 'cross' of Christ&quot; p. 138. ==Gallery== Here are some examples of crosses: &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Rock of Cashel-cross.jpg Image:Muiredach s Cross.jpg Image:Ireland-High-Cross.jpg Image:Rookwood cross.jpg Image:Coventry Cathedral burnt cross.jpg Image:Cross of Sacrifice.jpg Image:Tomb of francisco franco.jpg Image:Mount-royal-cross.jpg Image:Sterzing-Vipiteno and Elzenbaumer Wetterkreuz.JPG Image:Normandy cemetery.jpg Image:Papal Cross.JPG &lt;/gallery&gt; ==See also== *[[Cross burning]] *[[Crucifix]] *[[Intending cross]] *[[Market cross]] ==External links== * [http://ww
ome manufacturers successfully diversified to produce [[synthetic fiber|synthetic fibres]] and [[linoleum]] for a short time. Many mills were destroyed, but others have been redeveloped for residential use. An award-winning museum, based in the old [[Verdant Works]], commemorates the city's manufacturing heritage and operates a small jute-processing facility. ====Jam==== The second &quot;J&quot; should really be an &quot;M&quot;: Dundee's link with [[jam]] stems from [[Janet Keiller]]'s [[1797]] 'invention' of [[marmalade]]. Mrs. Keiller is said to have devised the [[recipe]] in order to make use of a cargo-load of bitter [[Seville]] [[Orange (fruit)|orange]]s acquired from a [[Spain|Spanish]] ship by her 'husband', James. This account is fiction, but nevertheless marmalade became a famed Dundee export after [[James Keiller]] (in reality Janet's son) industrialised the production process during the 19th century. Traditional marmalade production has fallen victim to corporate takeovers, but distinctive white jars of [[Keiller's marmalade]] can still be bought. ====Journalism==== [[Journalism]] is the only &quot;J&quot; which continues to thrive in Dundee &amp;mdash; the publisher [[D. C. Thomson &amp; Co. Ltd|DC Thomson &amp; Co.]] celebrated its centenary in [[2005]]. The firm publishes a [[List of DC Thomson Publications|wide spectrum]] of newspapers, children's comics and magazines, including [[The Sunday Post]], [[The Courier]] and children's favourites, [[The Beano]] and [[The Dandy]]. ===Maritime heritage=== As a [[whaling]] port, Dundee developed a prosperous maritime industry. In [[1857]] the whaling ship ''Tay'' was fitted with steam engines, the first in the world. By [[1872]] Dundee had become the premier whaling port of the [[British Isles]]. Over 2,000 ships were built in the city between [[1871]] and [[1881]]. The last whaling ship to be built at Dundee was the ''[[Terra Nova (ship)|Terra Nova]]'', in [[1884]]. [[Shipbuilding]] came to a halt altogether in [[1961]]. The [[Dundee Perth and London Shipping Company]] (DPLC) ran [[steamship]]s down the Tay from [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] and on to [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]] and [[London]]. The firm still exists, but is essentially now a travel agency. ''[[RRS Discovery]]'', the ship taken to the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] by [[Robert Falcon Scott]], was built in Dundee in [[1901]]. It returned to its birthplace in the [[1980s]] and is moored next to a purpose-built [[RRS Discovery| visitors' centre]]. An older ship, the frigate ''[[HMS Unicorn]]'', is moored in the docks. It was not actually built at Dundee, but as the oldest wooden British warship still afloat it is a prestigious addition to a city with a rich maritime heritage. &lt;div style=&quot;float:left; margin:0 1em 1em 0;font-style:italic;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Tay Bridge and North Fife.jpg|Alt text]]&lt;br /&gt;The Tay Bridge &amp; Fife&lt;br&gt;from the summit of Dundee Law&lt;/div&gt; ===The Tay Bridge Disaster=== In [[1879]] a [[Tay Rail Bridge|railway bridge over the Tay]] was opened. Its completion was commemorated in 'verse' by [[William McGonagall]]. Less than a year after its construction, however, the bridge collapsed under the weight of a train full of passengers during a fierce storm. McGonagall's classic ''[[The Tay Bridge Disaster]]'' vividly recounts the tragedy. The bridge was replaced in [[1887]]. Today the Tay Railway Bridge is the longest in [[Europe]] at just over 2 miles long. It connects the rail network at Dundee to [[Fife]] and [[Edinburgh]]. ===Winston Churchill=== Between [[1908]] and [[1922]], the city's MP was none other than [[Winston Churchill]], at that time a member of the (Coalition) [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]]. Churchill's conspicuous noble background and his frequent absence from Dundee on [[cabinet]] business alienated him from his constituents. The last years of his tenure in Dundee were marked by vitriol from local newspapers. He once described the constituency as &quot;a life seat, and cheap and easy beyond all experience&quot;. Prevented from campaigning in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1922|1922 general election]] by [[appendicitis]], his wife [[Clementine Churchill|Clementine]] spoke for him instead, but was spat on for wearing [[pearls]]. Churchill was ousted by [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] candidate [[E. D. Morel]] and the [[Scottish Prohibition Party|Scottish Prohibitionist]] [[Edwin Scrymgeour]] - in Scrymgeour's case, at the sixth attempt. Churchill left Dundee &amp;mdash; &quot;short of an appendix, seat and party&quot; &amp;mdash; never to return. In [[1943]] he was offered [[Freedom of the City]] &amp;mdash; by 16 votes to 15 &amp;mdash; but refused to accept. On being asked by the Council to expand on his reasons, his said simply: &quot;I have nothing to add to the reply which has already been sent&quot;. == Modern Dundee == [[Image:City Square, Dundee, Scotland.jpg|thumb|500px|Dundee City Square]] ===Employment=== Dundee has never regained its status as a major manufacturing centre. In the [[1960]]s and [[1970s|70s]] the arrival in the city of three major companies &amp;mdash; [[Michelin]], [[NCR Corporation|NCR]] (the NCR plant being nicknamed &quot;The Cash&quot; among Dundonians), and [[Timex Corporation|Timex]] &amp;mdash; went some way to alleviating unemployment. Timex closed their Dundee plant in early [[1990s|90s]], reflecting the industrial mood of the time. The development of a number of 'enterprise zones' and 'technology parks', and in particular the arrival of a number of [[call centre]]s led to a period of economic optimism. ===Universities and Colleges=== In [[1967]], the ancient [[University of Dundee]] was independently established, following 70 years as a college of the [[University of Saint Andrews]]. It is currently at the forefront of [[biomedical]] research and [[oncology]], and incorporates the [[Duncan of Jordanstone School of Art and Design]] which is currently one of the top art schools in the UK. The University's [[Rector]] is television presenter [[Lorraine Kelly]]. Recently (October 2005) it has been announced that the University also became the first [[UNESCO]] centre in the UK. The centre will be involved in managing the world's water resources on behalf of the [[United Nations]]. The [[University of Abertay Dundee]] is a [[New University|'new university']]. It was created in [[1994]], under government [[Further and Higher Education Act, 1992|legislation]] granting the title 'University' to Dundee Institute of Technology (which was itself founded in [[1888]] and gained independent degree-giving authority in the [[1970s]]). Today, the University of Abertay is a world leader in [[computer games]] technology and design and is also home to the [[Dundee Business School]]. The University of Abertay is currently ranked number one in the United Kingdom for its investment in IT Facilities. David Jones - the creator of [[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]] and [[Lemmings]] computer game series attended The University of Abertay. [[Dare to Be Digital]] a world wide recognised computer game production competition is run by the university each year. [http://www.dundeecoll.ac.uk/ Dundee College] was established in 1985 and provides courses for higher education and vocational training in the local area. A new Media Centre was recently opened at the college which allows students access to the latest technology for working in the new media industries such as web design and for developing graphic and animation software. The college is also the site of 'The Space' which is a purpose built venue for performance and training and is the site for the [[Scottish School of Contemporary Dance]]. The college also works closely with the city's universities and schools. Dundee has a student population of approximately 22,000. ===Immigration &amp; multiculturalism=== Dundee's most significant influx occurred in the mid-[[1800s]]: [[Ireland|Irish]] workers, driven from their native country by [[potato blight]] made no small contribution to the city's industrial success. The city also attracted immigrants from [[Italy]] and [[Poland]] in the 19th and 20th centuries. However, Dundee did not experience [[post-war]] [[immigration]] on the same scale as some other cities. Its status as a declining industrial centre meant that it was not a major destination for the waves of immigrants who were to have such an important impact on the colour and culture of the [[British Isles]] in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s|60s]]. Nevertheless, the city does now have a sizable ethnic minority population. Dundee also continues to attract a particularly large number of Irish students; the reasons for this are unclear. The historic City Churches &amp;mdash; home to two separate congregations ([[Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's)]] and The [[Steeple Church]]) &amp;mdash; is the most prominent [[Church of Scotland]] building in Dundee. The Church of Scotland has a [[Presbytery]] of Dundee currently consisting of 45 congregations, though many now share a [[Minister (religion)|minister]]. [[Robert Murray M'Cheyne]] was the minister of St Peter's Church from [[1838]] until his death in [[1843]]. During his ministry, there was something of a religious revival in Dundee. There are two [[cathedral]]s in the city &amp;mdash; St. Paul's ([[Scottish Episcopal Church|Scottish Episcopal]]) and St. Andrew's ([[Roman Catholic]]). A [[Jewish]] community has existed in the city for more than a century. The present [[synagogue]] was built in the [[1970s]]. [[Muslim]]s are served by a large [[mosque]] (opened in [[2000]]). Dundee is also home to a [[school]] for Muslim girls &amp;mdash; one of only two such schools in Scotland. The city also has a [[Hindu]] [[mandir]] and [[Sikh]] [[gurdwara]]. ===Theatre &amp; The Arts=== Dundee is home to Scotland's only full-time [[repertory]] ensemble, established in the [[1930s]]. [[Hollyw
; except in professional legal education (see below). Far and away, the most commonly awarded research doctorate is the [[Doctor of Philosophy|Philosophiae Doctor or Doctor of Philosophy]], abbreviated Ph.D. or D.Phil. In the United States, the [[Doctor of Science]] (abbreviated Sc.D.) is similar to and on par with the Ph.D., but with focus on research in the scientific disciplines. Most research doctorates are graduate degrees, open only to those who already posses an undergraduate degree or advanced degree such as a master's degree. Professional doctorates are many and varied, including the [[Doctor of Medicine|Medicis Doctor or Doctor of Medicine]], [[Juris Doctor|Juris Doctor or Doctor of Jurisprudence]], [[Doctor of Chiropractic]], [[Doctor of Education|Educationis Doctor or Doctor of Education]], [[Doctor of Business Administration]], [[Doctor of Pharmacy]], [[Doctor of Psychology]], [[Doctor of Veterinary Medicine]], [[Doctor of Musical Arts|Doctor of Musical Arts or Artes Musicalis Doctor]], [[Doctor of Fine Arts]], and so on. Many professional doctorates have some research and other requirements similar to the Ph.D., however, those doctorates have limited academic standing in most American academic institutions (unless they are teaching the profession). Other professional doctorates are purely &quot;taught doctorates.&quot; ==Use of &quot;Doctor&quot; as a Title of Address== All persons who possess a doctoral degree are entitled to call themselves &quot;Doctor&quot;. (However, the use of &quot;doctor&quot; as a noun is almost exclusively limited to medical doctors.) Physicians invariably use the title &quot;Doctor&quot; as a prefix. Dentists, podiatrists, chiropractors, osteopaths, optometrists and veterinarians are also called Doctor whether or not they possess a doctoral degree. (In the United States, however, they invariably do.) In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and other areas whose culture was more recently linked to the [[United Kingdom]], within medical circles the title ''Doctor'' generally applies to medically qualified individuals (&quot;[[Registered medical practitioner|registered medical practitioners]]&quot;) even if their degree is not a doctorate. However, those who are Members or Fellows of the [[Royal College of Surgeons]] for historic reasons prefer to be addressed as ''[[Mister|Mr]], [[Mrs.|Mrs]], [[Ms.|Ms]] or [[Miss]]'', even if they do hold a doctorate. Psychologists or doctoral level psychotherapists use Dr. or their terminal degree after their last name. Terminal degrees include Ph.D., Ed.D., or Psy.D. In the United States when addressing formal correspondence those holding academic doctorates generally use the post-nominal, &quot;Ph.D.&quot;or the prefix &quot;Dr.&quot; The prefix &quot;Dr.&quot; is sometimes used, however, especially in the South. In addition, within the biomedical science research arena, it is common to address Ph.D.s as &quot;Doctor&quot; even when such person holds a professorship in research/academic institutions. In Britain and other Commonwealth countries, holders of non-medical doctorates also sometimes use Dr as a form of address outside of academic settings. In formal correspondence the prefix Dr is used without a post-nominal. (In Commonwealth usage, Ph.D. is not commonly used as a post-nominal except when listing all qualifications and honours.) A large proportion do not bother with the prefix in daily life, though. ==Legal Doctors== Academically, Law is only a doctoral subject in a some countries, the United States and all [[Europe|European]] countries among them. Lawyers were called &quot;civil doctors,&quot; as distinct from the medical doctor and other types centuries ago, although that use has disappeared over the last several centuries. Worldwide within the legal profession, practising lawyers are typically called &quot;Mr.&quot; or &quot;Ms./Mrs./Ms./Miss,&quot; regardless of whether they possess a doctoral degree or not. Exceptions include the [[Channel Islands]], where they bear the title of [[Advocate]]). This is a convention of the courts, of litigation and of the legal profession generally. The title Counselor is often used in courtrooms in the United States. A Judge or Justice in the United States, is addressed as Judge followed by his or her surname, while in the court, he or she is addressed as Your Honor. No practising lawyer is ever called &quot;Doctor.&quot; The only exception is when a laywer with a doctoral degree is a witness in a case, in which case that person may be addressed &quot;Doctor&quot; in the witness box. Historically, American legal education followed the British model. Law was an undergraduate subject and a degree in law was an undergraduate degree, typically the Legum Baccalaureas (LL.B.) or Bachelor of Laws. This was the basic qualifying degree. People who wanted to teach in law school, or who wished to add to their knowledge after a few years of practice, would go on from the LL.B. to take the LL.M. or Master of Laws. The terminal degree in the sequence was, of course, the LL.D. or Doctor of Laws. This is the top law degree in The United Kingdom, Ireland, and throughout the Commonwealth. In the United States however, a course of events led to the LL.D. becoming a merely honourary degree, while law became considered a graduate subject and it's degrees graduate-level degrees. An undergraduate degree in the United States is considered a basic foundation in academia, not a professional education. Education which requires an undergraduate degree as a prerequisite, such as a medical or legal training, is considered a graduate degree. The LL.B. degree, as a Bachelor's degree, implies that it is an undergraduate degree equal to a [[Bachelor of Arts]] or a [[Bachelor of Science]]. The Juris Doctor degree became the standard legal degree, to reflect both the graduate nature of the training, and a professional standing equivalent to a Medical Doctor. By World War I, students had to complete two years or 60 credits of undergraduate coursework before admission to law school, this is still the rule enshrined in law in the [[State Bar of California|State of California]], though ABA-accredited law schools in the state exceed this minimum standard. All ABA-accredited law schools require completion of a bachelor's degree for admission to law school. The J.D./D.Jur. is a doctoral degree in professional law. By the year 2000, it had completely replaced the LL.B. in the American law school. Except for California, you must have a bachelor's degree to be eligible for admission to a J.D. or D.Jur. programme. Issuing nondoctoral graduate degrees in law degrees have begun at some schools for programs not meant to train lawyers. Loyola University of Chicago, for example, offers a Juris Magister or Master of Jurisprudence degree in health law, for health law professionals who require a working knowledge of law (e.g., to communicate intelligently with attorneys) but do not need to become practising attorneys. The LL.M. Degree also exists as a special case in American legal tradition, as a conversion or adapatation of foreign legal training into qualifications to practice in the United States. Many states, for example, will accept a foreign law degree as a qualification for admission to practice if it is supplemented by a LL.M. degree from an American law school. A few American law schools already restrict enrolment in their LL.M. programmes to foreign-trained students. A small number of law schools have created explicitly post-doctoral law programmes has begun with the creation of the Scientiae Juris Doctor or S.J.D. degree (Doctor of the Science of Law). In Germany, a Doctor of Law was accorded the same privileges as a baron, for example, being allowed to use the same [[falconry|hawk]] as a baron. ==Other uses of &quot;Doctor&quot;== * In some regions such as the American South, &quot;Doctor&quot; is traditionally added to the first name of people (especially men) holding doctorates, where it is used in either direct or indirect familiar address, eg. &quot;Dr. Bill&quot; instead of &quot;Dr. Smith.&quot; * &quot;Doc&quot; is a common nickname or for someone with a doctorate, or for a physician, in real life and in fiction &amp;mdash; for example, the character &quot;Doc&quot; in [[Gunsmoke]]. Also, [[Doc Savage]], 'Man of Bronze', a series of young adult pulp fiction paperback books popular among US high school students during the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. Another example is [[Doc Brass]], a similar pulp fiction character. * In [[Roman Catholicism]], a [[Doctor of the Church]] is an eminent [[theology|theologian]] (e.g. [[Thomas Aquinas]]) from whose teachings the whole [[Christian Church]] is held to have derived great advantage. This is not an academic title but reflects the most ancient sense of the word as &quot;teacher&quot;. * &quot;[[Doctor (children's game)|Doctor]]&quot; is a game played by children. Typically, one child pretends to be a physician while other children undress so that they can be examined by the &quot;doctor&quot;. Conventional wisdom is that parents only need to worry about this game if their children are still &quot;playing doctor&quot; after they go through puberty, when the examinations are apt to get more &quot;thorough&quot; than they were before. * A '''doctor blade''' is a [[knife]] blade pressed to a moving surface to smooth the surface or remove an unwanted substance from it. Doctor blades are often used in industrial processes, such as [[offset printing]]. * ''Doctors'' is a UK daytime soap opera. * ''The Flying Doctors'' was an Australian soap opera about physicians in the outback. * The main character of the British television series ''[[Doctor Who]]'' is &quot;[[Doctor (Doctor Who)|The Doctor]]&quot;. * [[Doctor (Mozilla)|Doctor]] is a web-based interface to [[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]] allowing
mpatible schools of philosophy. Reading Hegel directly would be the best way to learn about Hegel, but this task has historically proved to be beyond the average reader of philosophy. This difficulty may be the most urgent problem with respect to the legacy of Hegel. One especially difficult aspect of Hegel's work is his innovation in logic. In response to Immanuel Kant's challenge to the limits of [[Critique of Pure Reason|Pure Reason]], Hegel developed a radically new form of logic, which he called ''speculation'', and which is today popularly called [[dialectic]]s. The difficulty in reading Hegel was perceived in Hegel's own day, and persists into the 21st century. To understand Hegel fully requires paying attention to his critique of standard logic, such as the [[law of contradiction]] and the [[law of the excluded middle]], and, whether one accepts or rejects it, at least taking it seriously. Many philosophers who came after Hegel and were influenced by him, whether adopting or rejecting his ideas, did so without fully absorbing his new speculative or dialectical logic. ===Left and right Hegelianism=== Another confusing aspect about the interpretation of Hegel's work is the fact that past historians have spoken of Hegel's influence as represented by two opposing camps. The [[Right Hegelians]], the allegedly direct disciples of Hegel at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (now known as the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin]]), advocated a Protestant orthodoxy and the political conservatism of the post-[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] Restoration period. The [[Left Hegelians]], also known as the [[Young Hegelians]], interpreted Hegel in a revolutionary sense, leading to an advocation of [[atheism]] in religion and [[liberal democracy]] in politics. In more recent studies, however, this old paradigm has been questioned. For one thing, no Hegelians of the period ever referred to themselves as Right Hegelians. That was a term of insult that [[David Strauss]] (a self-styled Left Hegelian) hurled at [[Bruno Bauer]] (who has most often been classified by historians as a Left Hegelian, but who rejected both titles for himself). For another thing, no self-styled &quot;Left Hegelian&quot; described himself as a follower of Hegel. This includes Karl Marx. Several &quot;Left Hegelians&quot; openly repudiated or insulted the legacy of Hegel's philosophy. Even Marx stated that to make Hegel's philosophy useful for his purposes, he had to &quot;turn Hegel upside down.&quot; Perhaps it is more accurate to say that the so-called &quot;Left Hegelian&quot; movement was actually an anti-Hegelian movement. Nevertheless, this historical category continues to persist in modern literature. The critiques of Hegel offered from the &quot;Left Hegelians&quot; led the line of Hegel's thinking into radically new directions&amp;mdash;and form a disproportionately large part of the literature on and about Hegel. 20th century interpretations of Hegel have been shaped by several schools of thought: [[British idealism|British Idealism]], [[logical positivism]], [[Marxism]], [[Fascism]] and [[postmodernism]]. Since the fall of the [[USSR]], a new wave of Hegel scholarship has arisen in the West, without the preconceptions of these particular schools of thought. [[Walter Jaeschke]] and [[Otto Poeggler]] in Germany, as well as [[Peter Hodgson]] and [[Howard Kainz]] in America, are notable in this regard. ===Triads=== In previous modern accounts of Hegelianism (to undergraduate classes, for example), Hegel's dialectic was most often characterized as a three-step process of &quot;[[Thesis, antithesis, synthesis]]&quot;, namely, that a &quot;thesis&quot; (e.g. the French Revolution) would cause the creation of its &quot;antithesis&quot; (e.g. the Reign of Terror that followed), and would eventually result in a &quot;synthesis&quot; (e.g. the Constitutional state of free citizens). However, Hegel used this classification only once, and he attributed the terminology to Immanuel Kant. The terminology was largely developed earlier by Fichte the neo-Kantian. It was spread by Friedrich Moritz Chalybäus in a popular account of Hegelian philosophy, and since then the misfit terms have stuck. Believing that the traditional description of Hegel's philosophy in terms of thesis-antithesis-synthesis was mistaken, a few scholars, like [[Raya Dunayevskaya]] have attempted to discard the triadic approach altogether. According to their argument, although Hegel refers to ''&quot;the two elemental considerations: first, the idea of freedom as the absolute and final aim; secondly, the means for realising it, i.e. the subjective side of knowledge and will, with its life, movement, and activity&quot;'' (thesis and antithesis) he doesn't use &quot;synthesis&quot; but instead speaks of the ''&quot;Whole&quot;'': ''&quot;We then recognised the State as the moral Whole and the Reality of Freedom, and consequently as the objective unity of these two elements.&quot;'' Furthermore, in Hegel's language, the &quot;dialectical&quot; aspect or &quot;moment&quot; of thought and reality, by which things or thoughts turn into their opposites or have their inner contradictions brought to the surface, is only preliminary to the &quot;speculative&quot; (and not &quot;synthesizing&quot;) aspect or &quot;moment&quot;, which grasps the unity of these opposites or contradiction. Thus for Hegel, reason is ultimately &quot;speculative&quot;, not &quot;dialectical&quot;. To the contrary, scholars like [[Howard Kainz]] explain that Hegel's philosophy contains thousands of triads. However, instead of &quot;thesis-antithesis-synthesis,&quot; Hegel used different terms to speak about triads, for example, &quot;immediate-mediate-concrete,&quot; as well as, &quot;abstract-negative-concrete.&quot; Hegel's works speak of synthetic logic. Nevertheless, it is widely admitted today that the old-fashioned description of Hegel's philosophy in terms of &quot;thesis-antithesis-synthesis&quot; was always inaccurate. At the same time, however, those same terms survive in scholarly works, such is the persistence of this misnomer. ===Detractors=== Hegel used his system of dialectics to explain the whole of the history of [[philosophy]], [[science]], [[art]], [[politics]] and [[religion]], but he has had many critics over the centuries. Some critics suggested that Hegel seems to gloss over the realities of history in order to fit it into his dialectical mold. [[Karl Popper]], a critic of Hegel in ''[[The Open Society and Its Enemies]]'', suggests that Hegel's system forms a thinly veiled justification for the rule of [[Frederick William III of Prussia| Frederick William III]], and that Hegel's idea of the ultimate goal of history is to reach a state approximating that of 1830s [[Prussia]]. This view of Hegel as an apologist of state power and precursor of 20th century [[totalitarianism]] was criticized by [[Herbert Marcuse]] in his ''Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory'', on the grounds that Hegel was not an apologist for any state or form of authority simply because it existed: for Hegel the state must always be rational. Other scholars, e.g. [[Walter Kaufmann]], have also criticized Popper's theories about Hegel[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/us/kaufmann.htm]. An analysis against Popper's arguments can also be found in Joachim Ritter's influential work, ''Hegel and the French Revolution''. [[Søren Kierkegaard]], one of Hegel's earliest critics, criticized Hegel's &quot;absolute knowledge&quot; unity, not only because it was arrogant for a mere human to claim such a unity, but also because such a system negates the importance of the individual in favour of the whole unity. In ''[[Concluding Unscientific Postscript]]'', one of Kierkegaard's main attacks of Hegel, Johannes Climacus, Kierkegaard's pseudonymous author, writes: ''&quot;So-called systems have often been characterized and challenged in the assertion that they abrogate the distinction between good and evil, and destroy freedom. Perhaps one would express oneself quite as definitely, if one said that every such system fantastically dissipates the concept existence. ... Being an individual man is a thing that has been abolished, and every speculative philosopher confuses himself with humanity at large; whereby he becomes something infinitely great, and at the same time nothing at all.&quot;'' [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] despised Hegel on account of the latter's alleged [[historicism]] (among other reasons), and decried Hegel's work as [[Obscurantism|obscurantist]] &quot;[[pseudo-philosophy]]&quot;. [[Schopenhauer]], once a colleague of Hegel's at the University of Berlin said: &quot;''The height of audacity in serving up pure nonsense, in stringing together senseless and extravagant mazes of words, such as had been only previously known in madhouses, was finally reached in Hegel, and became the instrument of the most barefaced, general mystification that has ever taken place, with a result which will appear fabulous to posterity, as a monument to German stupidity.&quot;'' Some newer philosophers who prefer to follow the tradition of [[analytic philosophy|British Philosophy]] have made similar statements. In Britain, Hegel exercised an influence on the philosophical school called &quot;[[British idealism|British Idealism]],&quot; which included [[Francis Herbert Bradley]] and [[Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher)|Bernard Bosanquet]], in England, and [[Josiah Royce]] at Harvard. [[Analytic philosophy]], which dominated philosophy departments in the United States and the United Kingdom, was virtually founded when [[G. E. Moore]] and [[Bertrand Russell]] rejected British Idealism and their colleagues' admiration for Hegel. Hegel remained largely out of fashion in these departments for much of the twentieth century. [[Eric Voegelin]], [[p
</revision> </page> <page> <title>Gilbert and Sullivan</title> <id>13021</id> <revision> <id>41266245</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:18:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.45.138.147</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">Playwright/lyricist '''Sir [[W. S. Gilbert]]''' ([[1836]]-[[1911]]) and composer '''[[Arthur Sullivan|Sir Arthur Sullivan]]''' ([[1842]]-[[1900]]) defined [[operetta]]s or [[comic opera]]s in [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[England]] with a series of their internationally successful and timeless works known as the [[Savoy Opera]]s. ==History== [[Image:Gilbert-GS.JPG|right|frame|[[W. S. Gilbert]]]] [[Image:Sullivan-GS.JPG|right|frame|[[Arthur Sullivan|Sir Arthur Sullivan]]]] Their first collaboration was ''[[Thespis (operetta)|Thespis]]'' ([[1871]]). At the time, W. S. Gilbert was widely known for the ''Bab Ballads'', a popular series of doggerel verse that explored the farthest reaches of topsy-turvydom, such as the ballad of Captain Reece, whose &quot;sisters, cousins, aunts and niece&quot; sailed on the H.M.S. Mantelpiece. He was a successful man of the London theatrical scene, with a string of sketches, comedies, pantomimes, burlesques and musicals which were accounted successful by the standards of the day. Arthur Sullivan was the most popular musician in [[Britain]] and regarded as the bright young hope of serious British music. He was much in demand as a conductor and composer of oratorios, anthems and hymns. He was also earning a considerable income by churning out popular ballads, the Victorian equivalent of Top Forty hits. ''Thespis'' was an extravaganza in which the gods of the classical world, now become elderly, were temporarily replaced by a troupe of [[Nineteenth Century]] actors and actresses. In concept, the piece was consistent with the [[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbachian]] ''Orpheus in the Underworld'' and ''The Beautiful Helen'' which (in translation) then dominated the English musical stage. Thespis had a run estimated at between 64 and 80 performances at the small and not especially attractive [[Opera Comique]] Theatre. It was successful as such things were then measured, even moderately profitable, but perceived by no one at the time as the beginning of a great collaboration. The musical score was never published and, except for one song and one chorus, has entirely perished. However, some of the music was recycled by the collaborators into later works. Composers since then have attempted to fill in the gaps by supplying &quot;Sullivan-like&quot; music for the play. [http://math.boisestate.edu/gas/thespis/html/thespis_home.html] Gilbert and Sullivan's first major hit was ''[[Trial by Jury]]'' ([[1875]]). Impresario [[Richard D'Oyly Carte]] had hit on the idea of creating an English national opera. He asked W. S. Gilbert for a one-act work to serve as an afterpiece for Offenbach's popular but short ''La Perichole''. Gilbert had already written just such a short piece on commission from another producer, whose unexpected death had left Gilbert's work an orphan. He extracted the libretto of ''Trial by Jury'' from his pocket and handed it to Carte. Carte was delighted with it. He suggested that it be set to music by Sullivan and he brought the two men together. Sullivan was equally delighted. ''Trial by Jury'', with Sullivan's brother, Fred, as the Learned Judge, was added to the bill with ''La Perichole'' and proved itself to be even more popular than Offenbach's work. ''Trial by Jury'' ran for 135 performances, a new record for an English musical, far outdistancing the former record holder, ''[[The Beggar's Opera]]'' ([[1728]]). ''[[The Sorcerer]]'' ([[1877]]) is the first full-length example of what came to be known as the Savoy operas (although the Savoy Theatre had yet to be built.) D'Oyly Carte asked Gilbert for a comic operetta that would serve as the centerpiece for an evening's entertainment. Gilbert rummaged around in his published comic verse and hit on the tale of a respectable [[Cockney]] businessman who happened to be a sorcerer, a purveyor of blessings (not much called for) and curses (very popular). With ''The Sorcerer'', the D'Oyly Carte repertory and production system came into being. Until this time, Gilbert had been forced to contend with casts built around one or two established stars, as had been the case with'' Thespis'', a casually collected group of supporting players and a pick-up band of musicians. From The Sorcerer onwards, Gilbert would no longer hire stars, he would create them. Gilbert hired the performers, subject to veto from Sullivan on purely musical grounds. He oversaw the designs of sets and costumes. He directed the performers on stage. Sullivan oversaw musical preparation. The result of all this was a wholly new crispness and polish in English musical theater. A side-effect was that all subsequent Gilbert and Sullivan comic operettas with the exception of ''The Gondoliers'', would have interchangeable casts. ''The Sorcerer'' established character types associated with vocal range, some of which were familiar from European opera: the heroic protagonist (tenor) and his love-interest (soprano); the patter baritone, usually the leading comic role of the operetta; the villainous bass; the elderly woman with designs on the protagonist (alto); and a supporting bass-baritone. The two other important stock types were the heads of the male and female choruses (e.g. the Boatswain in ''HMS Pinafore'') who sometimes had solo numbers of their own. The repertory system ensured that the comic patter man who would perform the role of the sorcerous John Wellington Wells, would go from his desk to be ruler of the Queen's navy as Sir Joseph Porter, then join the army as Major General Stanley and so on. Lady Sangazure would transform into Little Buttercup, then Ruth, the piratical maid-of-all-work . . . Two relative unknowns hired by Gilbert for ''The Sorcerer'' would stay with his opera company for many years to become great stars of the Victorian stage: [[George Grossmith]], a comic patter man, and [[Rutland Barrington]], bass-baritone and character actor. Gilbert was a tireless taskmaster, seeing to it that ''The Sorcerer'' opened as a fully polished show--in marked contrast to the under-rehearsed ''Thespis''. Their first world-wide success was with ''[[HMS Pinafore]]'' ([[1878]]), satirizing the Royal Navy and the British obsession with social status. ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'' ([[1879]]), written in a fit of pique at [[United States|American]] [[copyright]] pirates, also poked fun at romantic melodrama, sense of duty, family obligation, and the relevance of a liberal education. ''[[Patience (operetta)|Patience]]'' ([[1881]]) satirized the [[aesthetic movement]] in general and the poet and aesthete [[Algernon Swinburne]] in particular. ''[[Iolanthe]]'' ([[1882]]) pokes fun at English law and at the [[House of Lords]]. ''[[Ruddigore]]'' ([[1887]]) is a topsy-turvy take on the Victorian [[Melodrama]], and viciously satirizes that entire genre. ''[[The Yeomen of the Guard]]'' ([[1888]]), their only joint work with a tragic ending, concerns a strolling jester who finds himself embroiled in a risky intrigue at the [[Tower of London]]. ''[[The Gondoliers]]'' ([[1889]]) pokes fun at the plot devices of opera in the setting of a kingdom ruled by a pair of gondoliers who try to run it in a spirit of &quot;republican equality&quot;. ''[[Trial By Jury]]'' is rather self-evident, but is unique because it was the only operetta with no spoken dialogue. Their most popular work was ''[[The Mikado]]'' ([[1885]]), where English bureaucracy was made fun of in a [[Japan]]ese setting. Gilbert's plots remain perfect examples of &quot;topsy-turvydom,&quot; in which primeval fairies rub elbows with English lords, gondoliers ascend to the monarchy and pirates are reconciled with major-generals. Gilbert's lyrics employ double (and triple) rhyming and punning, and served as the very model for such [[20th century]] Broadway lyricists as [[Cole Porter]], [[Ira Gershwin]], and [[Lorenz Hart]]. Sullivan, a classically trained musician who devoted much of his career to religious [[hymn]]s and grand [[opera]], contributed catchy melodies which were also emotionally moving. As seamless as their onstage collaboration was, Gilbert and Sullivan were temperamentally incompatible, and their partnership was frequently ruptured. Their last joint work, ''The Grand Duke,'' opened in [[1896]], and the sickly Sullivan died four years later. Their works were originally produced by British [[impresario]] [[Richard D'Oyly Carte]], considered by some to be the third member of this partnership, who built the [[Savoy Theatre]] in London to present their operettas, and formed the [[D'Oyly Carte Opera Company]], which would perform the Savoy Operettas with exacting detail until [[1982]]. The Gilbert and Sullivan operettas were also popular abroad, and many American cities saw amateur and professional Gilbert and Sullivan performing groups. This trend has continued to the present day, and it can be argued that these operettas and ''The Mikado'' in particular were instrumental in shaping the American musical of the 20th century. ==Cultural influence== Many cultural movements saw the influence of Gilbert and Sullivan. For instance, [[aestheticism]], the cultural movement characterized by [[Oscar Wilde]] and satirized in ''Patience'', was actually introduced to the United States by Richard D'Oyly Carte in order that Americans could understand the operetta. In terms of humor, the idea of extending a joke throughout a piece of literature and/or comedy work is prevalent in the Savoy Operas. In [[1999]] [[Mike Leigh]]'s film ''[[Topsy-Turvy]]'' presented an acclaimed film depiction of the team and the creation of their most popular operetta, ''The Mikado''. The works of Gilbert and Sullivan, filled a
bserved rate of extinction rising dramatically in the last 50 years. Most biologists believe &lt;ref&gt;The American Museum of Natural History [http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis] (URL accessed on [[February 23]], [[2006]])&lt;/ref&gt; that we are at this moment at the beginning of a tremendously accelerated anthropogenic mass extinction. [[E.O. Wilson]] of Harvard, in ''The Future of Life'' (2002), estimates that at current rates of human destruction of the biosphere, one-half of all species of life will be extinct in 100 years. |} ==See also== *[[Extinction events]] *[[Fossils and the geological timescale]] *[[Geologic time scale]] *[[List of archaeological periods]] *[[List of prehistoric mammals]] *[[Prehistoric life]] *[[Period (geology)]] - a list of geological periods *[[Timeline of human evolution]] ==References== &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 95%;&quot;&gt; &lt;references/&gt; &lt;/div&gt; ==External links== *[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu Berkeley Evolution] *[http://tolweb.org/tree Tolweb - Tree of Life] *[http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/geo_timeline.html A more compact timeline] *[http://www.palaeos.com Palaeos - The Trace of Life on Earth] *[http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/plantEvolution.shtml University of Waikato - Sequence of Plant Evolution] *[http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/AnimalEvolution.shtml University of Waikato - Sequence of Animal Evolution] {{evolution}} &lt;!-- Categorization --&gt; [[Category:Timelines]] [[Category:Evolutionary biology]] [[Category:Evolution]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Edmund Burke</title> <id>10030</id> <revision> <id>42036227</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:23:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.15.128.103</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burke-Edmund-LOC.jpg|thumb|Edmund Burke]] '''[[The Right Honourable]] Edmund Burke''' ([[January 12]], [[1729]] &amp;ndash; [[July 9]], [[1797]]) was an [[Anglo-Irish]] statesman, author, orator and political [[philosophy|philosopher]], who served for many years in the [[British House of Commons]] as a member of the [[Whig]] party. He is chiefly remembered for his support of the [[United States of America|American]] colonies in the struggle against King [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] that led to the [[American Revolution]], as well as for his strong opposition to the [[French Revolution]]. The latter made Burke one of the leading figures within the conservative faction of the Whig party (which he dubbed the &quot;Old Whigs&quot;), in opposition to the pro-revolutionary &quot;New Whigs,&quot; led by [[Charles James Fox]]. Burke also published philosophical work on [[aesthetics]] and founded the ''[[Annual Register]]'', a political review. In his day he was considered one of the finest parliamentary orators in Britain. ==Life== Born in [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], Burke was the son of a [[Church of Ireland|Protestant]] [[solicitor]] and a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] mother, whose maiden name was Nagle. Burke was raised in his father's faith and would remain throughout his life a practicing [[Anglican]]. He received his early education at a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] school in Ballitore and in [[1744]] he proceeded to [[Trinity College, Dublin]]. In [[1747]], he set up a Debating Club, known as Edmund Burke's Club, which in 1770 merged with the Historical Club to form the [[College Historical Society (Trinity College, Dublin)|College Historical Society]]. The minutes of the meetings of Burke's club remain in the collection of the Historical Society. He graduated in [[1748]]. Burke's father wished him to study for the [[law]], and with this object he went to [[London]] in [[1750]] and entered the [[Middle Temple]], but soon thereafter he gave up his legal studies in order to travel in Continental [[Europe]]. Burke's first published work, ''[[A Vindication of Natural Society: A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind]]'', appeared in [[1756]]. It is unclear to historians whether this was a satire on the views of [[Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke|Bolingbroke]], or a serious foray into philosophical [[anarchism]]. Later, after Burke had become a politician, he disavowed this essay. In [[1757]] he published a treatise on aesthetics, ''[[A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful]]'', which attracted the attention of prominent Continental thinkers such as [[Denis Diderot]] and [[Immanuel Kant]]. The following year, with [[Robert Dodsley]], he created the influential ''Annual Register'', a publication in which various authors evaluated the international political events of the previous year. In London, Burke became closely connected with many of the leading intellectuals and artists, including [[Samuel Johnson]], [[David Garrick]], [[Oliver Goldsmith]], and [[Joshua Reynolds]]. At about this same time, Burke was introduced to [[William Gerard Hamilton]] (known as &quot;Single-speech Hamilton&quot;). When Hamilton was appointed [[Chief Secretary for Ireland]], Burke accompanied him to Dublin as his private secretary, a position he maintained for three years. In [[1765]] Burke became private secretary to liberal [[Whig]] statesman [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Charles Watson-Wentworth]], the [[Marquess of Rockingham]], at the time [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]], who remained Burke's close friend and associate until his death from stomach cancer in 1797. ===Political career=== In [[1765]] Burke entered the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] as a member of the House of Commons for [[Wendover]], a [[pocket borough]] in the control of Lord [[Verney]], later 2nd Earl Verney, a close political ally of Rockingham. Burke took a leading role in the debate over the constitutional limits to the executive authority of the King. He argued strongly against unrestrained royal power and for the role of [[political party|political parties]] in maintaining a principled opposition capable of preventing abuses by the monarch or by specific factions within the government. His most important publication in this regard was his ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Burke0061/SelectWorks/HTMLs/0005-01_Pt02_Thoughts.html Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents]'' of [[1770]]. Burke expressed his support for the grievances of the American colonies under the government of King George III and his appointed representatives. He also campaigned against the persecution of [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]] in [[Ireland]] and denounced the abuses and corruption of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]. In [[1769]] Burke published, in reply to [[George Grenville]], his pamphlet on ''The Present State of the Nation''. In the same year he purchased the small estate of Gregories near [[Beaconsfield]]. The 600-acre estate was purchased with mostly borrowed money, and though it contained an art collection that included works by [[Titian]], Gregories nevertheless would prove to be a heavy financial burden on the MP in the following decades. His speeches and writings had now made him famous, and among other effects had brought about the suggestion that he was the author of the ''Letters of Junius''. In [[1774]] he was elected member for [[Bristol]], at the time &quot;England's second city&quot; and a large constituency with a genuine electoral contest. His address to the electors of Bristol was noted for its defense of the principles of [[representative democracy]] against the notion that elected officials should act narrowly as advocates for the interests of their constituents. Burke's arguments in this matter helped to formulate the [[Delegate model of representation|delegate]] and [[Trustee model of representation|trustee]] models of political representation. His support for [[free trade]] with Ireland and his advocacy of Catholic emancipation were unpopular with his constituents and caused him to lose his seat in [[1780]]. For the remainder of his parliamentary career, Burke sat for [[Malton, North Yorkshire|Malton]], another pocket borough controlled by Rockingham. Under the [[Tory]] administration of [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]] ([[1770]]-[[1782]]) the American war went on from bad to worse, and it was in part owing to the splendid oratorical efforts of Burke that it was at last brought to an end. To this period belong two of his most brilliant performances, his speech on ''Conciliation with America'' ([[1775]]), and his ''Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol'' ([[1777]]). The fall of North led to Rockingham being recalled to power. Burke became [[Paymaster of the Forces]] and [[Privy Councillor]], but Rockingham's unexpected death in July of [[1782]] put an end to his administration after only a few months. Burke then supported fellow Whig [[Charles James Fox]] in his coalition with Lord North, a decision that many came to regard later as his greatest political error. Under that short-lived coalition he continued to hold the office of Paymaster and he distinguished himself in connection with Fox's India Bill. The coalition fell in [[1783]], and was succeeded by the long Tory administration of [[William Pitt the Younger]], which lasted until [[1801]]. Burke was accordingly in opposition for the remainder of his political life. In [[1785]] he made his great speech on ''The Nabob of Arcot's Debts'', and in the next year ([[1786]]) he moved for papers in regard to the [[India]]n government of [[Warren Hastings]], the consequence of which was the [[impeachment]] trial of that statesman. The trial, of which Burke was the leading promoter, lasted from [[1787]] until Hastings's eventual acquittal in [[1794]]. ===Response to the French Revolution=== Given his record as a strong supporter of Americ
will spend up to $6 million per year to fund HIV/AIDS treatment for Africans who work within the company's bottling system which employs 58,000 people in Africa; Coca Cola Africa has a $50 million budget to support HIV/AIDS programmes. * Charitable Giving: The Coca-Cola Company and its bottling partners shipped more than 30 million donated 8-oz. servings to Hurricane Katrina Evacuees, donated $10 million to tsunami relief efforts in Asia and after the September 11 terrorist attacks committed to a $12 million financial contribution to disaster relief efforts. ==International appeal== Coca-Cola is the best-selling soft drink in most countries. Nevertheless, there are some places like New York state in the United States of America, where Pepsi leads the market; [[Texas]], in the USA, where [[Dr. Pepper]] is the number one soft drink; and [[Quebec]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], and [[Prince Edward Island]] in [[Canada]], where [[Pepsi]] is the market leader.{{fact}} In Peru,[[Inca Kola]], the &quot;national beverage&quot; (independently produced until 1999, when Coca-Cola acquired Corporación Inca Kola del Perú S.A., the Peruvian company that formerly produced it) is more popular.[http://www.allbusiness.com/periodicals/article/158163-1.html] In [[Sweden]], despite Coca-Cola's strong holiday-oriented marketing efforts, [[Julmust]] outsells Coca-Cola during the [[Christmas]] season.[http://kristallbeverage.com/KBJulmust.html] Note that in [[Scotland]], where the locally produced [[Irn-Bru]] was once more popular, 2005 figures show that both Coca-Cola and Diet Coke now outsell Irn-Bru.[http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/business.cfm?id=112872005] It is often repeated as an urban legend that the Coca-Cola company mistranslated its product's name into a string of characters meaning &quot;Bite the wax tadpole&quot; while attempting to market the product in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. In reality, some local Chinese shopkeepers did create their own signs in an effort to approximate the sound of the product's name, resulting in kǒukē-kǒulà (口蝌口蜡), which might more literally be translated as &quot;mouth tadpole, mouth wax&quot;. However, the Coca-Cola company itself never adopted such a translation. After reviewing all of the possible soundalikes, the company officially adopted kěkǒu-kělè (可口可乐), meaning roughly &quot;tasty and fun&quot;. ==Notes== &lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote: NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details. 1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote. 3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body. 4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3. 5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely-named footnotes. NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list. --&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt; #{{note|rielly}} {{cite book | author=Rielly, Edward J | title=Baseball and American Culture: Across the Diamond | publisher=Haworth Press | year=2003 | pages=133 | id = ISBN 0789014858}} #{{note|Pendergrast}} {{cite book | author=Mark Pendergrast | title=For God, Country and Coca-Cola | publisher=Basic Books | year=2000 | pages=41–45 | id=ISBN 0465054684 }} #{{note|Pendergrast2}} Pages 45–47: (Pendergrast, 2000) #{{note|sun}} [http://www.southsideweb.com/n2hoops/suntrust.htm Sun Trust]. #{{note|Coca}} Luis A. Gómez, &quot;[http://www.narconews.com/Issue35/article1159.html Peruvian Drug Control Agency: Coca Cola Buys Coca Leaves],&quot; ''Narco News Bulletin'', January 28, 2005 (accessed June 10, 2005). #{{note|Claus}} Barbara Mikkelson and David P. Mikkelson, &quot;[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/santa.asp The Claus That Refreshes],&quot; snopes.com, February 27, 2001 (accessed June 10, 2005). #{{note|Seeley}} Seeley, Bill. &quot;''[http://www.artmetal.com/project/TOC/finishes/anodize.html Anodizing]''&quot;. May 1, 1997 (accessed January 15, 2006). #{{note|myths}} Mikkelson and Mikkelson, &quot;[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/acid.asp Acid Slip],&quot; March 29, 2004 (accessed June 10, 2005); Mikkelson and Mikkelson, &quot;[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/tooth.asp Tooth in Advertising],&quot; February 27, 2001 (accessed June 10, 2005); Mikkelson and Mikkelson, &quot;[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/deadly.asp CO2 Fast, 2 Furious],&quot; April 2, 2004 (accessed June 10, 2005). #{{note|grow}} John Vidal, &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/india/story/0,12559,1341454,00.html Things grow better with Coke],&quot; ''Guardian Unlimited'', November 2, 2004 (accessed June 10, 2005). #{{note|candy}} Michael F. Jacobson, &quot;[http://www.cspinet.org/sodapop/liquid_candy.htm Liquid Candy: How Soft Drinks are Harming Americans' Health],&quot; Center for Science in the Public Interest (accessed June 10, 2005). #{{note|Calcium}} Ibid; Russell Robertson, &quot;[http://healthlink.mcw.edu/article/958143265.html Soda, Calcium, and Osteoporosis],&quot; Healthlink—Medical College of Wisconsin (accessed June 10, 2005). #{{note|Bone}} &quot;[http://www.asbmr.org/news/press_releases/2003/newsrel06.cfm Cola Soft Drinks may Contribite to Lower Bone Mineral Density in Women],&quot; American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, September 19, 2003 (accessed June 10, 2005). #{{note|Caffeine}} &quot;[http://www.cspinet.org/new/caffeine.htm Label Caffeine Content of Foods, Scientists Tell FDA],&quot; Center for Science in the Public Interest, July 31, 1997 (accessed June 10, 2005). #{{note|Rumors}} [http://www2.coca-cola.com/contactus/myths_rumors/index.html Coca-Cola Myths and Rumors] The Coca-Cola Company (accessed June 10, 2005); &quot;[http://www.ific.org/foodinsight/2002/ja/caffdehydnbfi402.cfm Caffeine and Dehydration: Myth or Fact?],&quot; ''Food Insight'', July–August 2002 (accessed June 10, 2005). #{{note|Video}} [http://www.documentary-film.net/search/video-listings.php?e=10 Mark Thomas Comedy Featuring Coke] Online Video about Coke and violations of good practice (accessed June 10, 2005). &lt;!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. --&gt; &lt;/div&gt; ==See also== *[[The Coca-Cola Company]] *[[World of Coca-Cola|The World of Coca-Cola]] *[[Soft drink]] *[[Pepsi-Cola]] (competitor) *[[Jolt Cola]] *[[OpenCola]] *[[Mecca Cola]] *[[Julmust]] ===Types of Coke=== *[[Coca-Cola]] *[[New Coke]] *[[Diet Coke]] *[[Coca-Cola C2]] *[[Coca-Cola Zero]] *[[Cherry Coke]] *[[Diet Cherry Coke]] *[[Vanilla Coke]] *[[Diet Vanilla Coke]] *[[Coca-Cola with Lime]] *[[Diet Coke with Lime]] *[[Coca-Cola with Lemon]] *[[Diet Coke with Lemon]] *[[Raspberry Coke]] *[[Diet Raspberry Coke]] *[[Coca-Cola Light]] *[[Coca-Cola Light with Citra]] *[[Coca-Cola Light with Lemon]] (retired 2005) *[[Coca-Cola Light with Orange]] *[[Diet Coke sweetened with Splenda]] *[[Black Cherry Vanilla Coca-Cola]] *[[Diet Black Cherry Vanilla Coke]] *[[Coca-Cola Blāk]] (coming 2006) *[[Coke Sakto]] *[[Coca-Cola M5]] *[[Coca-Cola Citra]] *[[Diet Coke Citra]] ===Brands owned by Coca-Cola=== {{main|Coca-Cola brands}} ==External links== {{Commons|Coca-Cola}} *[http://www.cocacola.com/ Coca-Cola website] *[http://www.knowmore.org/index.php/Coca-cola Coca-cola] company entry at Knowmore.org, contains an in-depth look at criticisms against [http://www.knowmore.org/index.php/Coca-cola Coke]. *[http://www.CokeCans.com Ronen Liwski's Coca-Cola Cans Collection] *[http://www.softdrinkguide.com/ SoftDrinkGuide.com] *[http://xenon.stanford.edu/~liao/cokewww.html Bobby's Coca-Cola on the Web] *[http://csmweb2.emcweb.com/durable/1998/10/08/p9s3.htm A page about New Coke] *[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_033.html The Straight Dope: Is it true Coca-Cola once contained cocaine?] *[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/ Coca-Cola urban legends (or not)] *[http://www2.coca-cola.com/contactus/myths_rumors/index.html Coca-Cola Myths &amp; Rumors] *[http://www.aldaver.com/index.html#world20]: FIFA U-21 World Youth Championships Emblems and Trophy Image *[http://www.therisenrealm.com/cocacola_recipe.html Coca Cola Recipe] *[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7257920/ Coke to launch new no-calorie soda] MSNBC story on Coca-Cola Zero, which clarifies that it is ''not'' the same as the Splenda-sweetened product *[http://www.killercoke.org Killer Coke, the boycott coke foundation] *[http://www.inminds.co.uk/boycott-coca-cola.html] Boycott Israel Campaign's Coca-Cola Page] {{colas}} {{Cc brands}} [[Category:Boycotts]] [[Category:Cola]] [[Category:Coca-Cola]] [[Category:Coca-Cola brands]] [[Category:Cuisine of the Southern United States]] [[Category:Soft drinks]] [[ar:كوكاكولا]] [[bg:Кока Кола]] [[ca:Coca-Cola]] [[cy:Coca-Cola]] [[da:Coca-Cola]] [[de:Coca-Cola]] [[es:Coca-Cola]] [[eo:Koka-kolao]] [[fa:کوکاکولا]] [[fr:Coca-Cola]] [[ko:코카콜라]] [[id:Coca-Cola]] [[it:Coca-Cola]] [[he:קוקה קולה]] [[hu:Coca-Cola]] [[nl:Coca-Cola]] [[ja:コカ・コーラ]] [[no:Coca-Cola]] [[pl:Coca-Cola]] [[pt:Coca-Cola]] [[ro:Coca-Cola]] [[ru:Кока-кола]] [[sr:Кока-кола]] [[sq:Coca-Cola]] [[simple:Coca-Cola]] [[sl:Coca-Cola]] [[fi:Coca-Cola]] [[sv:Coca-Cola]] [[th:โค้ก]] [[zh:可口可乐]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cofinality</title> <id>6693</id> <revision> <id>40582792</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T16:43:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Paul August</username> <id>87355</id> </contributor> <comment>move def of regular to lead, and move &quot;Examples&quot; section to follow lead, create a &quot;Properties&quot; section for the remainder of the content</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], especially in [[order theory]], a [[subset]] ''B'' of a [[partially ordered set]] ''A'' is '''
> <contributor> <username>W.marsh</username> <id>319357</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* History */ link [[Celt]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''England'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;padding-top: 0.5em;&quot; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;170px&quot; | {{border|[[Image:Flag of England.svg|English Flag|170px]]}} | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;110px&quot; | [[Image:Armsofengland.png|English Coat of Arms]] |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;170px&quot; | &lt;small&gt;([[Flag of England|Flag]])&lt;/small&gt; | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;110px&quot; | &lt;small&gt;([[Coat of arms of England|Coat of Arms]])&lt;/small&gt; |} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[Motto|Royal motto]] ([[French language|French]]): [[Dieu et mon droit]]&lt;br /&gt;(Translated: &quot;God and my right&quot;)''&lt;/small&gt; |- | align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #ffffff;&quot; | [[Image:LocationEngland.PNG|England's location within Europe]] |- | align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #ffffff;&quot; | [[Image:UK england.png|180px|England's location within the British Isles]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;England's location within the British Isles&lt;/small&gt; |- | '''[[Official language]]''' | [[English English|English]] ''[[de facto]]'' |- | '''Capital''' | [[London]] ''de facto'' |- | '''Largest city''' | [[London]] |- | '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt; &amp;ndash; Total | [[List of United Kingdom nations by area|Ranked 1st UK]]&lt;br&gt; [[1 E11 m²|130,395]] [[square kilometre|km²]] |- | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br&gt; &amp;ndash; Total (mid-[[2004]])&lt;br&gt; &amp;ndash; Total (2001 Census)&lt;br&gt; &amp;ndash; [[Population density|Density]] | [[List of United Kingdom nations by population|Ranked 1st UK]]&lt;br&gt;50.1 million&lt;br&gt;49,138,831&lt;br&gt;377/km² |- | '''Unification''' | [[927]] by&lt;br /&gt;[[Athelstan]] |- | '''[[Currency]]''' | [[Pound sterling]] (£) (GBP) |- | '''[[Time zone]]''' | [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] / [[Greenwich Mean Time|(GMT)]]&lt;br /&gt;[[British Summer Time|Summer: UTC +1 (BST)]] |- | '''[[National anthem]]s ''' | None officially&lt;br&gt;''[[#National anthems|see below]]'' |- | '''[[National flower]] ''' | ''the [[Tudor rose|Tudor]] [[rose]] (red, white)'' |- | '''[[Patron saint]] ''' | ''[[St. George|St George]]'' |} '''England''' is the most populous [[home nation]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. It accounts for more than 83% of the total UK population, occupies most of the southern two-thirds of the island of [[Great Britain]] and shares land borders with [[Scotland]], to the north, and [[Wales]], to the west. Elsewhere, it is bordered by the [[North Sea]], [[Irish Sea]], [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[English Channel]]. England is named after the [[Angles]], one of a number of [[Germanic tribes]] believed to have originated in [[Angeln]] in Northern [[Germany]], who settled in England in the [[5th century|5th]] and [[6th century|6th]] centuries. This is also the origin of its [[Latin (language)|Latin]] name ''Anglia''. It has not had a distinct political identity since [[1707]], when [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] was established as a unified political entity; however, it has a legal identity separate from those of [[Scotland]] and [[Northern Ireland]], as part of the entity &quot;[[England and Wales]]&quot;. England's largest city, [[London]], is also the capital of the [[United Kingdom]]. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of England]]'' England has been inhabited for at least 50,000 years, although the repeated [[Ice Ages]] made much of Britain uninhabitable for extended periods until as recently as 20,000 years ago. [[Stone Age]] hunter-gatherers eventually gave way to farmers and permanent settlements, with an advanced [[megalithic]] civilization arising in western England some 4,000 years ago. It was replaced around 1,500 years later by [[Celt]]ic tribes migrating from Western and continental Europe, mainly from France. These tribes were known collectively as &quot;Britons&quot;, a name bestowed by [[Phoenicia]]n [[trade]]rs &amp;mdash; an indication of how, even at this early date, the island was part of a Europe-wide trading network. The Britons were significant players in continental affairs and supported their allies in [[Gaul]] militarily during the [[Gallic Wars]] with the [[Roman Republic]]. This prompted the Romans to invade and subdue the island, first with [[Julius Caesar]]'s raid in [[55 BC]], and then the Emperor [[Claudius]]' conquest in the following century. The whole southern part of the island &amp;mdash; roughly corresponding to modern day England and [[Wales]] &amp;mdash; became a prosperous part of the [[Roman Empire]]. It was finally abandoned early in the 5th century when a weakening Empire pulled back its legions to defend borders on the Continent. Unaided by the Roman army, Roman Britannia could not long resist the Germanic tribes who arrived in the [[5th century|5th]] and [[6th century|6th]] centuries, enveloping the majority of modern day England in a new culture and language and pushing Romano-British rule back into modern-day [[Wales]] and western extremities of England, notably [[Cornwall]] and [[Cumbria]]. Others emigrated across the channel to modern-day [[Brittany]], thus giving it its name and language ([[Breton language|Breton]]). But many of the Romano-British remained in and were assimilated into the newly English areas. The invaders fell into three main groups: the [[Jutes]], the [[Saxons]], and the [[Angles]]. As they became more civilised, recognisable states formed and began to merge with one another. (The most well-known state of affairs being the Anglo-Saxon [[heptarchy]].) From time to time throughout this period, one Anglo-Saxon king, recognised as the &quot;[[Bretwalda]]&quot; by other rulers, had effective control of all or most of the English; so it is impossible to identify the precise moment when the [[Kingdom of England]] was unified. In some sense, real unity came as a response to the Danish [[Viking]] incursions which occupied the eastern half of &quot;England&quot; in the 8th century. [[Egbert of Wessex|Egbert]], King of [[Wessex]] (d. [[839]]) is often regarded as the first king of all the English, although the title &quot;King of England&quot; was first adopted, two generations later, by [[Alfred the Great]] (ruled [[871]]&amp;ndash;[[899]]). The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the languages of the Britons were displaced is that of toponyms. Many of the place-names in England and to a lesser extent Scotland are derived from Celtic British names, including London, Dumbarton, York, Dorchester, Dover and Colchester. Several place-name elements are thought to be wholly or partly Brythonic in origin, particularly bre-, bal-, and -dun for hills, carr for a high rocky place, coomb for a small deep valley. From this age, where the majority culture and language came to be that of a Germanic origin - Old English. We can piece together how England came to be created and have the Welsh legacy of their meaning for England &quot;Lloegr&quot; translated as &quot;lost lands&quot;. Until recently it has been believed that those areas settled by the Anglo-Saxons were uninhabited at the time or the Britons had fled before them. However, genetic studies show that the British may not have been pushed out to the Celtic fringes &amp;ndash; many tribes remained in what was to become England (see C. Capelli et al. ''A Y chromosome census of the British Isles''. Current Biology 13, 979–984, (2003)). Capelli's findings strengthen the research of Steven Bassett of the [[University of Birmingham]]; his work during the 1990s suggests that much of the West Midlands was only lightly colonised with Anglian and Saxon settlements. &lt;div class=&quot;thumb tright&quot;&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;width:252px; background-color: red&quot;&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;width:240px;&quot; style=&quot;font-family: times, serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; background-color: #ffffff&quot;&gt; This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,&lt;br&gt; This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,&lt;br&gt; This other Eden, demi-paradise,&lt;br&gt; This fortress built by Nature for herself&lt;br&gt; Against infection and the hand of war,&lt;br&gt; This happy breed of men, this little world,&lt;br&gt; This precious stone set in the silver sea,&lt;br&gt; Which serves it in the office of a wall&lt;br&gt; Or as a moat defensive to a house,&lt;br&gt; Against the envy of less happier lands,&amp;mdash;&lt;br&gt; This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.&lt;br&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;font-weight: bold; width: 95%;&quot;&gt;[[William Shakespeare]]&lt;br&gt; ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'' (Act 2, Scene 1)&lt;/div&gt; &lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;div class=&quot;thumb tright&quot;&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;width:252px; background-color: red&quot;&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;width:240px;&quot; style=&quot;font-family: times, serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; background-color: #ffffff&quot;&gt; The English are great lovers of themselves, and of everything belonging to them; they think that there are no other men than themselves, and no other world but England; and whenever they see a handsome foreigner, they say that 'he looks like an Englishman', and that 'it is a great pity that he should not be an Englishmen'.&lt;br&gt; &lt;div style=&quot;font-weight: bold; w
== In a hydrolysis reaction that involves breaking an [[ester]] link, one hydrolysis product contains a [[hydroxyl]] [[functional group]], while the other contains a [[carboxylic acid]] functional group. The fragment of the parent molecule that was originally a [[carboxylate]] gains a [[hydrogen]] [[ion]] from the additional [[water]] molecule. The fragment that was originally an [[alkyl]] group collects the remaining [[hydroxyl]] group from the water molecule. This effectively reverses the esterification reaction, yielding the original [[alcohol]] and [[carboxylic acid]] again. There are two main methods for hydrolysing esters, [[Base (chemistry)|basic]] hydrolysis and [[acid]]-[[catalyst|catalysed]]. With acid-catalysed hydrolysis a dilute acid is used to protonate the [[carbonyl]] group in order to activate it towards nucleophilic attack by a water molecule. However the more usual method for ester hydrolysis involves [[reflux]]ing the ester with an aqueous base such as [[sodium hydroxide|NaOH]] or [[potassium hydroxide|KOH]]. Once the reaction is complete, the [[carboxylate]] salt is acidified to release the free carboxylic acid. [[Image:Ester hydrolysis.PNG|350px|Basic hydrolysis of an ester]] An important example of this reaction is the release of [[fatty acid]]s from [[glycerin|glycerol]] in [[triglyceride]] hydrolysis, as occurs during [[saponification]]. === Hydrolysing the peptide link of amino acids === In other hydrolysis reactions, such as hydrolysing the [[peptide link]]s of [[amino acid]]s, only the carboxylic acid product has a hydroxyl group derived from the water. The amine product gains the remaining hydrogen ion. == Irreversibility of hydrolysis under physiological conditions == Under physiological conditions (i.e. in dilute aqueous solution), a hydrolytic cleavage reaction, where the concentration of a metabolic precursor is low (on the order of 10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;-6&lt;/sup&gt; molar), is essentially thermodynamically [[thermodynamics|irreversible]]. To give an example: :A + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &amp;rarr; X + Y :&lt;math&gt;K_d = \frac{\left[X\right] \left[Y\right]} {\left[H_2O\right] \left[A\right]}&lt;/math&gt; Assuming that ''x'' is the final concentration of products, and that ''C'' is the initial concentration of A, and W = [H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O] = 55.5 molar, then ''x'' can be calculated with the equation: :&lt;math&gt;\frac{x \times x}{W\left(C - x\right)} = K_d&lt;/math&gt; let K&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;times;W = k: then &lt;math&gt; x = \frac {-k + \sqrt {k^2 + 4kC} } {2} &lt;/math&gt; For a value of C = 0.001 molar, and k = 1 molar, ''x''/C &amp;gt; 0.999. Less than 0.1% of the original reactant would be present once the reaction is complete. This theme of physiological irreversibility of hydrolysis is used consistently in metabolic pathways, since many biological processes are driven by the cleavage of [[anhydride|anhydrous]] [[pyrophosphate]] bonds. == See also == *[[Adenosine triphosphate]] *[[Biopolymer]] *[[Condensation polymer]] *[[Oleochemical]] [[Category:Chemical processes]] [[Category:Organic reactions]] [[cs:Hydrolýza]] [[da:Hydrolyse]] [[de:Hydrolyse]] [[es:Hidrólisis]] [[eo:Hidrolizo]] [[fr:Hydrolyse]] [[ko:가수분해]] [[nl:Hydrolyse]] [[ja:加水分解]] [[pl:Hydroliza]] [[pt:Hidrólise]] [[ru:Гидролиз]] [[sr:Хидролиза]] [[su:Hidrolisis]] [[zh:水解]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hydroxyl</title> <id>14386</id> <revision> <id>37270222</id> <timestamp>2006-01-29T22:41:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.189.5.220</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Hydroxyl radical */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hydroxyl.png|Hydroxyl|right]] ==Hydroxyl group== The term '''hydroxyl group''' is used to describe the [[functional group]] -OH when it is a [[substituent]] in an [[organic compound]]. Organic molecules containing a hydroxyl group are known as [[alcohol]]s (the simplest of which have the formula [[Alkyl|C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n+1&lt;/sub&gt;]]-'''OH'''). == Hydroxyl radical == The [[hydroxyl radical]], ·OH, is the neutral form of the '''hydroxide''' ion. '''Hydroxyl radicals''' are highly reactive and consequently short lived, however they form an important part of [[Radical_(chemistry)|radical chemistry]]. Most notably '''hydroxyl radicals''' are produced from the decomposition of hydro-[[peroxide]]s (ROOH) or, in [[atmospheric chemistry]], by the reaction of excited atomic oxygen with water. ===Atmospheric importance=== The Hydroxyl radical is often referred to as the &quot;detergent&quot; of the [[troposphere]] because it reacts with many pollutants, often acting as the first step to their removal. The first reaction with many [[volatile organic compounds]] (VOCs) is the removal of a hydrogen atom forming water and an [[alkyl]] radical (R·). :OH + RH &amp;rarr; H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + R· The alkly radical will typically react rapidly with oxygen forming a [[peroxy]] radical. :R· + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; RO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; The fate of this radical in the troposphere is dependent on factors such as the amount of sunlight (light from the sun), pollution in the atmosphere and the nature of the alkyl radical which form it. ===Biological significance=== The hydroxyl radical has a very short ''[[in vivo]]'' [[half-life]] of approx. 10&lt;sup&gt;-9&lt;/sup&gt; s and a high reactivity. This makes it a very dangerous compound to the organism. Unlike [[superoxide]], which can be detoxified by [[superoxide dismutase]], the hydroxyl radical cannot be eliminated by an [[enzyme|enzymatic]] reaction, as this would require its diffusion to the enzyme's active site. As diffusion is slower than the half-life of the molecule, it will react with any oxidizable compound in vicinity. The only means to protect important [[Cell_(biology)|cellular]] structures is the use of [[antioxidants]] such as [[glutathione]] and of effective repair systems. {{chem-stub}} [[ca:Grup hidroxil]] [[de:Hydroxylgruppe]] [[es:Grupo hidroxilo]] [[eo:Hidroksila grupo]] [[fr:Groupement hydroxyle]] [[is:Hýdroxýl]] [[nl:Hydroxylgroep]] [[pl:Grupa hydroksylowa]] [[pt:Hidroxila]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Warm-blooded</title> <id>14387</id> <revision> <id>41689003</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:56:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.100.118.87</ip> </contributor> <comment>Corrected error - first line read &quot;cold-blooded is an archaic term&quot;, yet we are discussing warm-bloodedness. This was only change made.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Warm-blooded''''' is an archaic term used to describe an [[animal]] that keeps its [[core temperature|core body temperature]] at a nearly constant level regardless of the temperature of the surrounding environment (that is, to maintain thermal [[homeostasis]]). This can involve not only the ability to generate [[heat]], but also the ability to cool down. Warm-blooded animals control their [[body temperature]] by regulating their [[metabolism|metabolic rates]] (e.g. increasing their metabolic rate as the surrounding temperature begins to decrease). Thanks to more thorough research in the field of animal physiology, scientists have come to realize that body temperature types do not easily fit a simple either/or scenario. Body temperature maintenance incorporates a wide range of different techniques that result in a body temperature spectrum, with the traditional ideals of warm blooded and [[cold-blooded]] being at opposite extremes. Because of the generalness of the terms, as well as an increased understanding in this field, both warm blooded and [[cold-blooded]] have mostly fallen out of favour. They have since been replaced with one, or more, of their variants (see: [[#Breaking down Warm Bloodedness|Breaking down Warm Bloodedness]]). ==Breaking down warm-bloodedness== ''Warm-bloodedness'' generally refers to three separate aspects of [[thermoregulation]]. #Endothermy #Homeothermy #Tachymetabolism *'''Endothermy''' is the ability of some creatures to control their body temperatures through internal means such as muscle shivering, fat burning, and panting (Greek: ''endo'' = &quot;within,&quot; ''therm'' = &quot;heat&quot;). *'''Homeothermy''' is the kind of thermoregulation used by those creatures that maintain a stable internal body temperature regardless of external influence. This temperature is often higher than the immediate environment (Greek: ''homoios'' = &quot;same, identical,&quot; ''therm'' = &quot;heat&quot;). *'''Tachymetabolism''' is the kind of thermoregulation used by creatures that maintain a high ''resting'' [[metabolism]] (Greek: ''tachy'' = &quot;fast, swift,&quot; ''metabol'' = &quot;to change&quot;). Tachymetabolic creatures are, essentially, &quot;on&quot; all the time. Though their resting metabolism is still many times slower than their active metabolism, the difference is often not as large as that seen in [[bradymetabolic]] creatures. Tachymetabolic creatures have a harder time dealing with a scarcity of food. A large proportion of the creatures traditionally called &quot;Warm Blooded&quot; (namely [[mammals]] and [[birds]]) fit all three of these categories. Over the past 30 years, studies in the field of animal thermophysiology has shown that there are still quite a few members of these two groups that don't fit all this criteria (e.g. many bats and small birds are [[poikilothermic]] and [[bradymetabolic]] when they sleep for the night, or day). For creatures such as these, another term was coined: [[heterothermy]]. Further studies on animals that were traditionally assumed to be [[cold-blooded]] have shown that most creatures incorporate different variations of the three terms defined above, along with their counterparts ([[ectothermic|ectothermy]], [[poikilothe
hese hominids developed the use of tools and language. The development of agriculture, and then civilization allowed humans to affect the Earth in a short timespan like no other life form had before, affecting both the nature and quantity of other life forms as well as global climate. ==Physical characteristics== {{main|Structure of the Earth}} {{seealso|Geology}} [[Image:Earth-crust-cutaway-english.png|thumb|left|Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Partially to scale]] &lt;!-- This section has been moved to the article '''[[Structure of the Earth]]'''. A new 30-line summary section must be written from this main article to this &quot;Physical characteristics&quot; section. Help is welcome. --&gt; The Earth consists of several [[atmospheric]], [[hydrologic]], and mainly [[geologic]] layers. Its components are the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[hydrosphere]], the [[Crust_%28geology%29|crust]], the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], and its [[core]]. The [[biosphere]] is a tiny layer in this composition and is usually not considered part of the physical layers of the Earth. The geologic component layers of the Earth are located at the following depths below surface: * 0 to 60 km - [[Lithosphere]] (locally varies between 5 and 200 km) ** 0 to 35 km - [[Crust (geology)|Crust]] (locally varies between 5 and 70 km) ** 35 to 60 km - Uppermost part of mantle * 35 to 2890 km - [[Mantle (geology)|Mantle]] ** 100 to 700 km - [[Asthenosphere]] * 2890 to 5100 km - [[Outer core]] * 5100 to 6378 km - [[Inner core]] &lt;!-- God damn it, stop editing this out. --&gt; ==Earth in the solar system== It takes the Earth 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.091 seconds ([[sidereal day|1 sidereal day]]) to rotate around the [[axis]] connecting the [[north pole]] and the [[south pole]]. From Earth the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in the sky (except [[meteor]]s which are within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites) is the movement to the west at a rate of 15 &amp;deg;/h = 15'/min, i.e., a Sun or Moon diameter every two minutes. Earth orbits the Sun every 365.2564 mean solar days ([[sidereal year|1 sidereal year]]). From Earth, this gives an apparent movement of the Sun with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1 &amp;deg;/day, i.e., a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours, eastward. The orbital speed of the Earth averages about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h), which is enough to cover one Earth diameter (~12,700 km) in 7 minutes, and one distance to the Moon (384,000 km) in 4 hours. Earth has one [[natural satellite]], the [[Moon]], which revolves with the Earth around a common [[barycenter]], from fixed star to fixed star, every 27.32 days. When combined with the Earth-Moon system's common revolution around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from Earth's north pole, the motion of Earth, its moon and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.5 degrees against the Earth-Sun plane (which causes the [[season]]s); and the Earth-Moon plane is tilted about 5 degrees against the Earth-Sun plane (otherwise there would be an eclipse every month). The [[Hill sphere]] (sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1.5 Gm (930,000 miles) in radius, within which one natural satellite (the [[Moon]]) comfortably orbits. In an inertial reference frame, the Earth's axis undergoes a slow [[precession]]al motion with a period of some 25,800 years, as well as a [[nutation]] with a main period of 18.6 years. These motions are caused by the differential attraction of Sun and Moon on the Earth's equatorial bulge, due to its oblateness. In a reference frame attached to the solid body of the Earth, its rotation is also slightly irregular due to [[polar motion]]. The polar motion is quasi-periodic, containing an annual component and a component with a 14-month period called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Also, the rotational velocity varies, a phenomenon known as [[Day|length of day]] variation. In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] is always about [[January 3]], and [[aphelion]] is about [[July 4]] (near the winter and summer [[solstice]]s, which are on about [[December 21]] and [[June 21]], respectively). For other eras, see [[precession]] and [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The Earth is sometimes referred to as the '''Third Planet from the Sun''' because, of the nine planets of our solar system, Earth is the third closest planet to the sun. ===The Moon=== [[Image:Earth-moon.jpg|thumb|left|''Earthrise'' as seen from the Moon on ''[[Apollo 8]]'', [[24 December]] [[1968]]. Due to [[tidal locking]], from any point on the Moon's surface, the Earth does not rise or set, but is always located in the same position in the sky.]] {{main|Moon}} &lt;center&gt; {| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; !style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Name !style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Diameter (km) !style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Mass (kg) !style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|[[Semi-major axis]] (km) !style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Orbital period |- |[[Moon]] |align=&quot;center&quot;|3,474.8 |7.349{{e|22}} |align=&quot;center&quot;|384,400 |27&amp;nbsp;Days, 7&amp;nbsp;hours, 43.7&amp;nbsp;minutes |} &lt;/center&gt; The Moon, sometimes called 'Luna', is a relatively large terrestrial planet-like satellite, whose diameter is about one-quarter of the Earth's. With the exception of [[Pluto|Pluto's]] [[Charon (moon)|Charon]], it is the largest moon in the Solar system relative to the size of its planet. The [[natural satellite]]s orbiting other planets are called &quot;moons&quot;, after Earth's Moon. The gravitational attraction between the Earth and Moon cause the [[tides]] on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: Its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit the Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s: The dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]]. The Moon may dramatically affect the development of life by taming the weather. Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's [[axial tilt]] is stabilised by tidal interactions with the Moon. Some theorists believe that, without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to the Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, as it appears to be with [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. If Earth's axis of rotation were to approach the [[ecliptic|plane of the ecliptic]], extremely severe [[weather]] could result, as this would make seasonal differences extreme. One pole would be pointed directly toward the Sun during ''summer'' and directly away during ''winter''. [[Planetary science|Planetary scientists]] who have studied the effect claim that this might kill all large animal and higher plant life. This remains a controversial subject, however, and further studies of Mars&amp;mdash;which shares Earth's [[sidereal day|rotation period]] and [[axial tilt]], but not its large moon or liquid core&amp;mdash;may provide additional insight. The Moon is just far enough away to have, when seen from Earth, very nearly the same apparent angular size as the Sun (the Sun is 400 times larger, but the Moon is 400 times closer). This allows total [[eclipse]]s and annular eclipses to occur on Earth. &lt;div style=&quot;clear: both&quot; /&gt; [[Image:Earth-Moon.jpg|thumb|center|700px|Earth and Moon to scale.]] The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant impact theory]], states that it was formed from the collision of a Mars-size [[protoplanet]] with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements, and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of the Earth's crust. Earth also has at least one co-orbital [[asteroid]], [[3753 Cruithne]]. ==Geography== {{main|Geography}} [[Image:Physical_world.jpg|thumb|333px|right|Physical map of the Earth ([[:Image:Physical_world.jpg|Medium]]) ([[:Image:World-map-2004-cia-factbook-large-2m.jpg|Large 2 MB)]]]] '''Map references:''' [[Time Zone]]s, [[Coordinate]]s. '''Biggest geographic subdivision''' [[Continent]]s, [[Ocean]]s '''Area:''' * ''Total:'' [[1 E14 m²|510.073 million]] [[square kilometre|km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] * ''[[Landform|land]]:'' 148.94 million km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * ''[[Water]]:'' 361.132 million km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * ''Note:'' 70.8 % of the world's surface is covered by water, 29.2 % is exposed land '''Land boundaries:''' the land boundaries in the world total 251,480 km (not counting shared boundaries twice) '''Coastline:''' 356,000 km '''Maritime claims:''' see [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] * ''Contiguous zone:'' 24 [[nautical mile|nautical miles]] (44 km) claimed by most, but can vary * ''[[Continental shelf]]:'' 200 m depth claimed by most or to depth of exploitation; others claim 200 nautical miles (370 km) or to the edge of the continental margin * ''Exclusive fishing zone:'' 200 nautical miles (370 km) claimed by most, but can vary * ''Exclusive economic zone:'' 200 nautical miles (370 km) claimed by most, but can vary * ''Territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km) claimed by most, but can vary * ''Note:'' boundary situations with neighboring states prevent many countries from extending their fishing or economic zones to a full 200 nautical miles (370 km) * 42 nations and other areas are completely landlocked (see list of [[landlocked|landlocked countries]]) ==Environment and
in the Caribbean region, with low poverty and unemployment rates. About half of the Aruban [[Gross National Product]] is earned with [[tourism]] or related activities. Most of the tourists are from [[Canada]], the [[European Union]] and other places notably the [[United States]], which is the country's largest trading partner. Oil processing is the dominant industry in Aruba, despite expansion of the tourism sector. The size of the agriculture and manufacturing industries remains minimal. Deficit spending has been a staple in Aruba's history, and modestly high inflation has been present as well, although recent efforts at tightening monetary policy may correct this. Aruba receives some [[development aid]] from the Dutch government each year. The Aruban guilder has a fixed exchange rate with the [[United States dollar]] of 1.79:1. ==Demographics== [[Image:Aruba-demography.png|thumb|300px|left|Population of Aruba, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] Having poor [[soil]] and aridity, Aruba was saved from plantation economics and the [[slave trade]]. In 1515, the Spanish transported the entire population to [[Hispaniola]] to work in the [[copper]] [[mining|mines]]; most were allowed to return when the mines were tapped out. The Dutch, who took control a century later, left the [[Arawaks]] to graze livestock, using the island as a source of meat for other Dutch possessions in the Caribbean. The Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands. No full-blooded [[Native American (Americas)|Indians]] remain, but the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic heritage. The majority of the population is descended from Arawak, Dutch and Spanish ancestors. Recently there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighboring Latin American and Caribbean nations, attracted by the lure of well-paying jobs. The two official languages are the Dutch language and the predominant, national language [[Papiamento]], which is classified as a Creole language. This [[creole language]] is formed primarily from 16th century [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and several other languages. Spanish and English are also spoken. Islanders can often speak four or more languages and are mostly [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]. '''Population:''' 103,000( April 2004 est.) '''Age structure:''' * 0-14 years: 20.7% (male 7,540; female 7,121) * 15-64 years: 68.3% (male 23,427; female 24,955) * 65 years and over: 11% (male 3,215; female 4,586) (2003 est.) '''Median age:''' * total: 37.1 years * male: 35.3 years * female: 38.5 years (2002) '''Population growth rate:''' 0.55% (2003 est.) '''Birth rate:''' 11.86 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) '''Death rate:''' 6.38 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) '''Net migration rate:''' 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.) '''Sex ratio:'''&lt;br /&gt; at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female&lt;br /&gt; under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female&lt;br /&gt; 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female&lt;br /&gt; 65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female&lt;br /&gt; total population: 0.93 male(s)/female (2003 est.) '''Infant mortality rate:''' * total: 6.14 deaths/1,000 live births * female: 5.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) * male: 6.99 deaths/1,000 live births '''Life expectancy at birth:''' * total population: 78.83 years * male: 75.48 years * female: 82.34 years (2003 est.) '''Total fertility rate:''' 1.79 children born/woman (2003 est.) '''Nationality:'''&lt;br /&gt; ''noun:'' Aruban(s)&lt;br /&gt; ''adjective:'' Aruban; Dutch '''Religions:''' [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] 82%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 8%, [[Hindu]], [[Muslim]], [[Confucian]], [[Jew]]ish '''Languages:''' [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (official), [[Papiamento]] (national language), [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[English language|English]]. ==Culture== :''Main article: [[Culture of Aruba]]'' The origins of the population and location of the island give Aruba a mixed culture. Dutch influence can still be seen, even though not much of the population is of Dutch origin. Tourism from the United States has recently also increased the visibility of American culture on the island. [[Queen Beatrix International Airport]], located near [[Oranjestad, Aruba]], currently serves the whole island of Aruba. This airport has access to various cities across the eastern U.S., from Miami, Orlando, Houston, Atlanta to New York. It also connects Aruba with Europe through the [[Schiphol Airport]] in the Netherlands. The holiday of [[Carnival]] is an important one in Aruba, as it is in many Caribbean and Latin American countries. Carnival is usually held from the beginning of January until the end of February, with a large parade on the final Sunday of the festivities. ''See also: [[Music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles]]'' ==Language== {{main|Languages of Aruba}} Language can be seen as an important part of island culture in Aruba. The cultural mixture has given way to a linguistic mixture known as &quot;[[Papiamento]]&quot;. However, islanders are known to speak many languages. Islanders often speak Papiamento, English, Dutch and Spanish. In recent years the government of Aruba has shown an increased interest in acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of its native language. ==Places of interest== * Alto Vista Chapel * [[Arikok National Park]] * Ayo and Casibari Rock Formations * [http://www.thejanskys.org/lighthouse/Other/calif.html California Lighthouse] * Frenchman's Pass * [[Hooiberg]] * Lourdes Grotto * [http://www.thespecks.com/Aruba/Aruba2000/natbridge.html Natural Bridge] (Collapsed on September 2, 2005 [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-09-02-aruba-bridge_x.htm?csp=36]) * Natural Pool * Palm and Eagle Beaches ==Miscellaneous topics== *[[Communications in Aruba]] *[[Foreign relations of Aruba]] *[[Transportation in Aruba]] *[[Military of Aruba]] ==External links== {{Spoken Wikipedia|En-aruba.ogg|2005-08-15}} {{Commons|Aruba}} {{Wiktionarypar|Aruba}} *[http://www.aruba.com/ Aruba.com] - Official governmental portal *[http://www.arubatravelinfo.com/ Aruba Hotels and Travel Info] *[http://www.arubatourism.com/ ArubaTourism.com] - The original website for Aruba Visitors, established in 1996. *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/aruba/aruba.html Library of Congress Portals on the World - Aruba] *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aa.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Aruba] - [[CIA World Factbook]] on Aruba * An [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ar/armap.shtml island map of Aruba] and a [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ar/ormap.shtml detailed map of Oranjestad] are available at Caribbean-On-Line.com *[http://www.aruba-bb.com/ Aruba Travel Forums] - Aruba Message Board *[http://bb.visitaruba.com/index.php Visit Aruba Travel Forums] - Aruba Message Board *[http://www.zerokarma.com/modules.php?name=Photo_Album&amp;file=thumbnails&amp;album=4 Photos &amp; Pictures of Aruba] *[http://www.airportaruba.com/ Aruba Airport Authority] *[http://www.aruba-ecards.com/ Free Aruba Ecards] *[http://www.cbaruba.org/ CBAruba.org] - The official Central Bank of Aruba. *[http://www.arubaaloe.com/ Aruba Aloe] *[http://www.arubabound.com/ Aruba Bound!] *[http://www.elmar.aw/info/content/default.jsp N.V. Elmar] - Aruba's electric utility *[http://aruba-guide.info/ Aruba Guide] - The Definitive Aruba Vacation Guide {{West_Indies}} {{Caricom}} [[Category:Aruba]] [[Category:Caribbean islands]] [[Category:Special territories of the European Union]] [[ar:أروبا]] [[zh-min-nan:Aruba]] [[ca:Aruba]] [[de:Aruba]] [[et:Aruba]] [[es:Aruba]] [[eo:Arubo]] [[eu:Aruba]] [[fr:Aruba]] [[gl:Aruba]] [[ko:아루바]] [[hr:Aruba]] [[id:Aruba]] [[ia:Aruba]] [[is:Arúba]] [[it:Aruba]] [[he:ארובה (טריטוריה)]] [[lv:Aruba]] [[lt:Aruba]] [[li:Aruba]] [[hu:Aruba]] [[mk:Аруба]] [[nl:Aruba]] [[nds:Aruba]] [[ja:アルバ]] [[no:Aruba]] [[nn:Aruba]] [[pl:Aruba]] [[pt:Aruba]] [[ro:Aruba]] [[ru:Аруба]] [[sh:Aruba]] [[simple:Aruba]] [[sl:Aruba]] [[fi:Aruba]] [[sv:Aruba]] [[tl:Aruba]] [[tr:Aruba]] [[zh:阿魯巴]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Articles of Confederation</title> <id>691</id> <revision> <id>41819362</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:20:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.12.116.204</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Ratification */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Articles page1.jpg|thumb|right|The Articles of Confederation]] The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''', commonly known as the '''Articles of Confederation''' was the first governing document of the [[United States|United States of America]]. The articles, which combined the [[13 colonies]] of the [[American Revolutionary War]] into a loose [[confederation]], were adopted by the [[Second Continental Congress]] on [[November 15]], [[1777]], after 16 months of debate. The articles were ratified three years later on March 1, 1781. The articles were eventually replaced by the [[United States Constitution]] on June 21, 1788, when the ninth state, [[New Hampshire]], ratified the Constitution. According to their own terms for modification, however, the articles were still in effect until 1790, when every one of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. == Ratification == The Articles of Confederation were submitted to the states for ratification on [[November 17]] [[1777]], accompanied by a letter from Congress urging that the document :''be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one general system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties .&amp;nbsp;.&amp;nbsp;. '' {{ref|ratificationletter}} The document only became effe
pective distortion (caused by camera to subject distance)|Perspective distortion]] *[[Shallow focus]] ==External links== *[http://www.dofmaster.com/dofjs.html Depth of field calculator] *[http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/dof2.shtml Demonstration that all focal lengths have identical depth of field] *[http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/depth-of-field.htm Depth of Field]: illustrations and terminology for photographers *[http://www.dofmaster.com/dof_imagesize.html Explanation of why &quot;... all focal lengths have identical depth of field&quot;] is true only in some circumstances. *[http://www.kevinwilley.com/l3_topic02.htm Depth of Field explanation and comparison photographs] [[Category:Optics]] [[Category:Photographic terms]] [[de:Schärfentiefe]] [[es:Profundidad de campo]] [[eo:Profundo de akre bildata spaco]] [[fr:Profondeur de champ]] [[io:Feld-profundeso]] [[nl:Scherptediepte]] [[ja:被写界深度]] [[pl:Głębia ostrości]] [[ru:ГРИП]] [[sv:Skärpedjup]] [[tr:Netlik derinliği]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dumnonii</title> <id>8368</id> <revision> <id>41019043</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:56:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ian Pitchford</username> <id>230605</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dumnonii''' were a [[Celt]]ic tribe which inhabited part of the [[West Country]], specifically the South-Western Peninsula of [[England]], during the [[British Iron Age|Iron Age]] and the early [[Roman Britain|Roman]] period. They would give their name to the English county of [[Devon]], and their name is represented in Britain's two modern [[Brythonic]] languages as ''Dewnans'' in [[Cornish]] and ''Dyfnaint'' in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]. ==History== The Dumnonii are thought to have occupied territory in [[Somerset]], [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] and possibly part of [[Dorset]]. They do not seem to have been politically centralised: the structure, distribution and construction of Bronze Age &amp; Iron Age hillforts in the Peninsula point to a number of smaller tribal groups living alongside each other. [[Ptolemy]]'s [[2nd century]] ''Geography'', places the Dumnonii to the west of the [[Durotriges]], and names four of their towns: [[Isca Dumnoniorum]] (later Caeresk, now [[Exeter, England|Exeter]]), Tamara (presumably on the [[River Tamar]]), Uxella (perhaps on the [[River Axe, Somerset|River Axe]]) and Voliba (unidentified). The [[Ravenna Cosmography]] adds two more settlements: Nemetostatio, a name relating to Nemio, or Druid ~Sacred Grove (Prob. North Tawton, Devon) and Durocornavium (unidentified). The name ''Durocornavium'' implies the existence of a tribe called the [[Cornavii]], perhaps the ancestors of the [[Cornish people]] {although some trace the Cornish to a hypothetical migration of the [[Cornovii]] of the West Midlands). In the [[Sub-Roman Britain|sub-Roman]] period a Brythonic kingdom called [[Dumnonia]] emerged, covering the entire peninsula, although it is believed by some to be effectively a collection of sub-kingdoms. It is claimed by some that the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus|Battle of Mount Badon]] in which Brythonic Dumnonians fought off Anglo-Saxons took place in Devon but most historians believe this battle was fought near [[Bath]]. Dumnonia's territory was gradually reduced to little more than Cornwall by the expansion of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] kingdom of [[Wessex]]. As the eastern boundary of Brythonic Dumnonia receded to the west, many believe that the tribe's history eventually became indistinguishable from that of the [[Kingdom of Cornwall]]. The medieval [[Brittany|Breton]] kingdoms of [[Domnonia]] and [[Cornouaille]] were probably founded by emigrants from Devon and Cornwall during this period. Brythonic Celtic peoples are reported by [[William of Malmesbury]] to have been living in the area of Devon alongside Saxon peoples during the [[10th century]]. A part of Exeter retained the title 'Little Britain' until the eighteenth century. The Dumnonii would have spoken a [[Brythonic]] dialect ancestral to modern [[Cornish language|Cornish]], this language developed into Cornish and there is evidence some form survived east of the Tamar. The [[Stannary Courts and Parliaments]] which were established after the grant of a charter to the tin miners of the region by [[John of England]] in [[1201]] had recognised the distinctive legal rights and status of Devon and Cornwall. However, [[Edward I of England]] split this legal union into separate Stannaries for the two &quot;Counties&quot; of Devon and Cornwall in [[1305]]. Victorian historians often referred to this tribe as the [[Damnonii]], which is also the name of another Celtic people from lowland Scotland, although there are no known links between the two populations. Another tribe with a similar name (but with no known links between the two) appear to have had a presence also in Ireland, as shown by the presence of a people called the [[Fir Domnann]] in the province of [[Connacht]]. ==External links== *[http://www.roman-britain.org/tribes/dumnonii.htm Dumnonii] at [http://www.roman-britain.org/ Roman-Britain.org] *[http://www.earlybritishkingdoms.com/kingdoms/west.html Kingdoms of the West Country] at [http://www.earlybritishkingdoms.com/index.html Early British Kingdoms] [[Category:Ancient Britons]] [[Category:Roman Britain]] [[Category:Sub-Roman Britain]] [[de:Dumnonia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Declaration of Independence</title> <id>8371</id> <revision> <id>15906374</id> <timestamp>2004-06-08T18:09:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jorge Stolfi</username> <id>48742</id> </contributor> <comment>redirected to the general term (&quot;''The'' Declaration of Independence&quot; is context-dependent)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[declaration of independence]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Declaration of independence</title> <id>8372</id> <revision> <id>42123654</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:51:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JW1805</username> <id>104381</id> </contributor> <comment>/* List of UDIs */ Not a UDI</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''declaration of independence''' is a proclamation of the [[independence]] of an aspiring [[state]] or states. Such states are usually formed from part or all of the territory of another nation or failed nation, or are breakaway territories from within the parent state. Declarations of independence are typically made without the consent of the parent state, and hence are sometimes called '''unilateral declarations of independence''' (UDI), particularly by those who question the validity of the declarations. When used without qualification, &quot;''The'' Declaration of Independence&quot; usually refers to the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|The Declaration of Independence of the Thirteen Colonies]]. It was ratified by the [[Continental Congress]] on [[July 4]], [[1776]], and was a key event in the [[American Revolution]]. ==Overview== In [[international politics]], unilateral declarations of independence are generally frowned upon, since preservation of territory is one of the few things that most countries of the world agree upon. In [[international law]], there are multiple schools of thought regarding the creation of statehood. One of these, the [[declarative theory of statehood]] holds that a self-declared state that meets certain criteria is indeed a state, even if not recognized by any other nation. Conversely, the [[constitutive theory of statehood]] requires that a self-declared state receive at least a minimal level of acknowledgement (but not formal recognition) by existing states. Declaring independence or supporting such a declaration is seen as a hostile act that may easily lead to [[war]]. Money is often an important factor when one state attempts to succeed another, with control of important resources such as ports, oil fields or strategic towns or geographic features leading to dispute. If a government has extremely large debts to other organizations, there may be international pressure for these debts to be taken over by successor governments, even if the original governmental organization is disbanded. Many states have come into being through a UDI. The legality of a UDI is often the subject of debate and unsurprisingly the previous government typically asserts that a UDI is illegal. Often, international bodies and other countries decline at first to accept the legitimacy of the declared state and its government. If the declared state becomes a functioning entity, it may gain diplomatic recognition over time and a form of retrospective recognition. Not all declarations of independence result in actual states and those governments that do result from UDIs do not always survive and are often rivaled by the previous government. A significant number of unilaterally declared governments collapse or otherwise give way, with control returning to the previous government or shifting to a further, successor government. Many declarations of independence, including those of [[Texas]] (now part of the [[United States]]), [[Rhodesia]], and [[Vietnam]] have been modeled on the United States declaration. ==List of UDIs== *'''[[Declaration of Arbroath]]''' ([[Scotland]], [[1320]]) - The first known formal declaration of independence in which Scottish leaders declared Scotland's independence from [[England]] on behalf of the Scottish people. *'''[[Oath of Abjuration]]''' ([[Low Countries]], [[1581]]) - The ''Plakkaat van Verlatinghe'' was the formal declaration of independence on [[July 26]], [[1581]] of the independence of the northern [[Low Countries]] from [[Philip II of Spain|King Philip II]]
nd his forces. After discovering that Magneto was in fact not responsible, Layla restored his memories. When Magneto discovered what had gone on, he became enraged that Quicksilver had done all of this in his name and killed him. Wanda used her magicks to revive him and blamed Magneto for choosing the mutants over them, [his children]. Using her powers, she changed the reality back and caused ninety-eight percent of the mutant population to lose their powers, leaving the mutant race on the brink of extinction. With reality restored, Xavier was still missing and the X-Men were unable to detect him with Cerebra. Xavier's fate will be revealed in the six issue miniseries, ''[[Deadly Genesis]]''. ==Education== '''Undergraduate studies''' *Charles Xavier graduated with [[Latin honors|honors]] at the age of 16 from [[Harvard University]]. '''Graduate studies''' *[[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]]s in [[Genetics]], [[Biophysics]], and [[Psychology]]; two year residence at [[Oxford University]] ==Ultimate Charles Xavier== In the [[Ultimate Marvel]] continuity, Charles Xavier is the world's most powerful telepath, the founder and patron of the [[Ultimate X-Men|X-Men]] and a world-famous lecturer for [[pacifism]] and mutant [[emancipation]]. In contrast to his mainstream version, he also has limited [[telekinetic]] abilities and most importantly, he is not as saintly and morally inscrutable. He ruthlessly left his wife [[Moira MacTaggert]] with her sick son David to pursue [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto's]] dream of a mutant society, but unfortunately Magneto turned on him because of his belief that humans were the inferior race. This falling out between the two led to Magneto disabling him with a spear. Xavier has also more than once tampered with other people's minds to reach his goals, yet he has recognized his flaws. He generally believes that reading minds without permission is unacceptable. ==Appearances in other media== [[Image:Profx3.JPG|thumb|150px|Patrick Stewart as Professor X]] *Xavier appears in the two major animated television adaptations of the comic book, ''[[X-Men (animated series)|X-Men]]'' (voiced by [[Cedric Smith (actor)|Cedric Smith]]) and ''[[X-Men: Evolution]]'' (voiced by [[David Kaye]]). He also appeared in the X-Men pilot cartoon ''[[Pryde of the X-Men]]'' in the 1980s and was frequently a guest star on the animated series ''[[Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends]]''. *In the animated series of ''X-Men: Evolution'', Xavier continues to teach and train mutant students. Instead of being stepbrothers, he is the half-brother of Juggernaut. He was captured by Mystique to replace him so she could exact revenge on Magneto. Xavier was placed in the same prison containment and was found by the X-Men. *He also appeared in the three live action feature film adaptations ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'', ''[[X2 (film)|X2: X-Men United]]'' and the upcoming [[X-Men 3 (film)|X-Men 3]]. He is played by [[Patrick Stewart]]. *Professor X has appeared in most of the X-Men video game spinoffs. He is almost always an [[non-player character|NPC]] and advises the X-Men on various missions in the role playing games. In the case of the fighting games, he appears in some of the characters' endings. The most notable game for Professor X fans would be the [[X-Men: Mutant Academy 2]] game for the Sony Playstation in which he is an unlockable playable character. Also of interest is the [[X-Men Legends]] game, in which Professor X is the only character to be voiced by the same actor from the movies ([[Patrick Stewart]]). In the first ''Legends'' game, he is a playable character for one level, in ''[[X-Men Legends II]]'', he appears as an NPC but can be unlocked as a playable character once all the Danger Room missions are played. ==External links== *[[MarvelDatabase:Professor X|MDP: Professor X]] - Marvel Database Project *[http://www.freewebs.com/xpeoplescerebro2/professorx.htm ProfessorX at X-Peoples Central] *[http://www.uncannyxmen.net/db/spotlight/showquestion.asp?faq=10&amp;fldAuto=105 '''UncannyXmen.net''' Spotlight on Professor Xavier] [[Category:Brotherhood of Evil Mutants members|X]] [[Category:Defenders members|X]] [[Category:Fictional disabled|X]] [[Category:Fictional orphans|X]] [[Category:Fictional scientists|X]] [[Category:Fictional teachers|Xavier]] [[Category:Fictional principals|X, Professor]] [[Category:Fictional telepaths|X]] [[Category:Marvel Comics mutants|X]] [[Category:New Mutants and X-Force members|X]] [[Category:Superheroes without costumes|X]] [[Category:X-Men members|X]] [[Category:Illuminati|X]] [[Category: Fictional Americans]] [[de:Professor X]] [[fr:Professeur Xavier]] [[it:Professor X]] [[pt:Professor Xavier]] [[sv:Professor X]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Central Pacific Railroad</title> <id>7734</id> <revision> <id>40765077</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:49:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Slambo</username> <id>107930</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>link to article about the locomotive</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox SG rail| railroad_name=Central Pacific Railroad| logo_filename=No image.png| logo_size=| old_gauge=| marks=| locale=[[Sacramento, CA]]-[[Ogden, Utah]]| start_year=[[1863]]| end_year=[[April 1]] [[1885]] but continued as SP Subsidiary| hq_city=[[San Francisco, CA]] }} [[Image:Uploco.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The ''[[Gov. Stanford]]'' locomotive]] The '''Central Pacific Railroad''', (later to become the [[Southern Pacific Railroad]]), was planned by [[Theodore Judah]] and financed mostly through the efforts of &quot;[[The Big Four]]&quot; (''who also called themselves &quot;The Associates&quot;''), who were [[Sacramento, California]] businessmen [[Leland Stanford]], [[Collis Huntington]], [[Charles Crocker]], and [[Mark Hopkins]]. It was created to build the [[First transcontinental railroad (North America)|First Transcontinental Railroad]] in [[North America]]. [[Alfred A. Hart]] was the official photographer of the CPRR construction. A replica of the [[Sacramento, California]] Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the [[California State Railroad Museum]], located in the [[Old Sacramento State Historic Park]]. The company's first two locomotives, the ''[[Gov. Stanford]]'', and ''[[C. P. Huntington]]'', are also both housed at the same museum. Nearly all of the company's early correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University as part of the Huntington papers collection, released on microfilm (133 reels). The following libraries have this microfilm: University of Arizona at Tucson; Virginia Commonwealth University at Richmond. Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariner's Museum at Newport News, Virginia. The railroad originally terminated with a connection to the Union Pacific at Promontory Point, Utah. Shortly after completion of the line the Central Pacific purchased the track from Promontory to Ogden from the Union Pacific so that the railroads could have a terminal in a city. ===Timeline=== * [[June 21]][[1861]]: &quot;Central Pacific Rail Road of California&quot; incorporated; name changed to &quot;Central Pacific Railroad of California&quot; October 8, 1864, after the Pacific Railway Act amendment passes that summer. * [[July 1]][[1862]]: President [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] signs the [[Pacific Railway Act]], which authorized the Central Pacific and the [[Union Pacific]] to build a railroad to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. * [[January 8]] [[1863]]: Ground breaking ceremonies take place at [[Sacramento, California]], at the foot of &quot;K&quot; Street at the waterfront of the [[Sacramento River]]. * [[October 26]] [[1863]]: First rail laid, at [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]. * [[April 26]] [[1864]]: Central Pacific opened to Roseville, 18 miles, where it makes a junction with the California Central Rail Road, operating from Folsom north to Lincoln. * [[June 3]] [[1864]]: The first [[revenue]] [[train]] on the Central Pacific operates between [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] and [[Newcastle, California]] * [[October 8]] [[1864]]: Following passage of the amendment to the Pacific Railroad Act, the company's name is changed to &quot;Central Pacific Railroad of California,&quot; a new [[corporation]]. * [[May 13]] [[1865]]: Central Pacific opened 36 miles to [[Auburn, California]]. * [[September 1]] [[1865]]: Central Pacific opened 54 miles to [[Colfax, California]] (formerly known as &quot;Illinoistown.&quot;) * [[December 3]] [[1866]]: Central Pacific opened 92 miles to [[Cisco, California]]. * [[December 1]] [[1868]]: Central Pacific opened to Summit of [[Sierra Nevadas]], 105 miles. * [[April 28]] [[1869]]: Track crews on the Central Pacific lay 10 miles of track in one day. This is the longest stretch of track that has been built in one day to date. * [[May 10]] [[1869]]: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific tracks meet in [[Promontory, Utah]]. * [[May 15]] [[1869]]: The first [[transcontinental]] trains are run over the new line to [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]. * [[November 8]] [[1869]]: The Central Pacific completes the final leg of the route, connecting [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] to [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. * [[June 23]] [[1870]]: Central Pacific is consolidated with the [[Western Pacific and San Francisco Bay Railroad Co]]. to form the &quot;Central Pacific Railroad Co.&quot; (of June, 1870). * [[August 22]] [[1870]]: Central Pacific Railroad Co. is consolidated with the [[California &amp; Oregon; San Francisco, Oakland &amp; Alameda; and San Joaquin Valley Railroad]]; to form the &quot;Central Pacific Railroad Co.&quot;, a new [[corporation]]. * [[April 30]] [[1876]]: Operates the [[California Pacific Railroad]] between South [[Vallejo, California|Vallejo]] and Sacramento, [[Calistoga, California|Calistoga]] and [[Marysville, Calif
onally lineal descendants. However, although many see the more well known Anabaptist groups ([[Amish]], [[Hutterites]] and [[Mennonites]]) as ethnic groups, the Anabaptist bodies of today are largely no longer ethnically descended from the Continental Anabaptists. Total membership in Mennonite, [[Brethren in Christ]] and related churches totals 1,297,716 as of 2003 with about 60 percent in Africa, Asia and Latin America.{{ref|mwc}} One of the historical Anabaptist doctrines &amp;mdash; that people must personally, volitionally, and consciously relate to God &amp;mdash; is a doctrine found among much of Evangelical Protestantism, even though these churches may not be historically linked to the Anabaptists. Today in response to post-modernism, what some theologians are calling 'the end of Christendom' and the global ecological crisis, some churches and theologians are drawing upon the Anabaptist traditions as a paradigm for Christian spirituality in the 21st century. This movement, sometimes referred to as 'neo-anabaptism', includes theologians and communities from wide diversity of Christian denominations which are not part of the Historic [[Peace Churches]], yet who see in the witness of the 16th century radical reformers an authentic witness to early Christianity and to the life and teachings of Christ. Scholars who are sometimes identified with this line of thinking include [[Stanley Hauerwas]], Nancey Murphy, Lee Camp, Richard Hays, Craig A. Carter, James McClendon, and Michael Cartwright. ''[[Sojourners]]'' magazine editor [[Jim Wallis]] has said that Mennonite Theologian [[John H. Yoder]] &quot;inspired a whole generation of Christians to follow the way of Jesus into social action and peacemaking.&quot; The neo-anabaptist communities and theologians are also a direct result of this legacy. Neo-Anabaptist communities are often identifiable by their desire to live as a prophetic alternative to larger society through their commitment to Christ’s [[Sermon on the Mount]] as normative for the Christian life when empowered by the [[Holy Spirit]]. Outworkings of this spirituality include simple yet joyful lifestyle, peace and justice making, the practice of [[nonviolence]], communal living and the voluntary sharing of goods, particularly with those in need. ==The Anabaptist heritage== *Freedom of religion *[[Priesthood of all believers]] *Bible as the sole rule of faith and practice *Pacifism *Ordinances, not sacraments All those who hold the idea of a free church and freedom of religion (sometimes called separation of church and state) are greatly indebted to the Anabaptists. When it was introduced by the Anabaptists in the 15th and 16th centuries, religious freedom independent of the state was a radical idea, and unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Religious liberty was equated with anarchy and Peter Kropotkin traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities. (&quot;Anarchism&quot; from The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910 By Peter Kropotkin) According to Estep, &quot;Where men believe in the freedom of religion, supported by a guarantee of separation of church and state, they have entered into that heritage. Where men have caught the Anabaptist vision of discipleship, they have become worthy of that heritage. Where corporate discipleship submits itself to the New Testament pattern of the church, the heir has then entered full possession of his legacy.&quot; [[genealogy|Genealogists]] are also indebted to the Anabaptists, because Anabaptism was part of the cause for Protestant churches adopting the confirmation service, and baptismal registers came into being. ==See also== * [[Peace churches]] * [[Christian anarchism]] * [[Radical Reformation]] * [[Protestant Reformation]] * [[Shunning]] * [[Simple living]] * [[Abecedarians]] * [[Ambrosians]] * [[Christian Peacemaker Teams]] ==Footnotes== #{{note|traditor}}''Traditors'' were those who, under persecution, handed over the Scriptures to pagan authorities or recanted their faith. #{{note|catab}}''Catabaptist'' is defined as &quot;drowners&quot; or &quot;immersers&quot;, but also as &quot;opponents of baptism&quot; (infant baptism). #{{note|true}}A &quot;''true church''&quot; movement is one in which the participants of a movement believe their movement represents the true faith and order of New Testament Christianity. Most only assert this in relation to their church doctrines, polity, and practice (e.g., the ordinances), while a few hold they are the only true Christians. Some examples of ''Anabaptistic'' true church movements are the [[Landmark Baptist Church|Landmark Baptists]] and the [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]]. The [[Church of God (Charleston, Tennessee)]], the Stone-Campbell [[Restoration Movement|restoration movement]], and others represent a variation in which the &quot;true church&quot; apostasized and was restored, in distinction to this idea of apostolic or church succession. #{{note|mwc}}[[Mennonite World Conference]] [http://www.mwc-cmm.org/Directory/mbictotal.html 2003 Mennonite &amp; Brethren in Christ World Membership] ==References== *''A History of Anti-Pedobaptism, From the Rise of Pedobaptism to A. D. 1609'', by Albert H. Newman ISBN 1579785360 *''Anabaptists and the Sword'', by [[James M. Stayer]] ISBN 0872910814 *''An Introduction to Mennonite History'', by Cornelius J. Dyck ISBN 0836136209 *''Covenant and Community: the Life and Writing of Pilgram Marpeck'', by William Klassen *''German Peasants' War &amp; Anabaptist Community of Goods'', by [[James M. Stayer]] ISBN 0773508422 *''Hutterite Beginnings: Communitarian Experiments During the Reformation'', by Werner O. Packull ISBN 0801850487 *''Mennonite Encyclopedia'', Harold S. Bender, Cornelius J. Dyck, Dennis D. Martin, Henry C. Smith, et al., editors ISBN 0836110188 *''Revelation &amp; Revolution: Basic Writings of Thomas Muntzer'', by Michael G. Baylor ISBN 0934223165 *''The Anabaptist Story'', by William R. Estep; ISBN 0802815944 *''The Anabaptist Vision'', by Harold S. Bender; ISBN 0836113055 *''The Bloody Theater or Martyrs Mirror'', by Thieleman J. van Braght; ISBN 083611390X *''The Pursuit of the Millennium'', by Norman Cohn; ISBN 0195004566 *''The Reformers and their Stepchildren'', by Leonard Verduin; ISBN 0801092841 *''The Tailor King: The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptist Kingdom of Munster'', by Anthony Arthur ISBN 0312205155 ==External links== * {{cite web | title=Anabaptism | work=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online | url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/a533me.html | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=Anabaptist Network.com | url=http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/ | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} - UK-based network focused on historical Anabaptism and its relevance for contemporary Christianity. Includes a [http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/anabaptists What is Anabaptism?] FAQ * {{cite web | title=Anabaptist.org | url=http://www.anabaptist.org | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=AnabaptistChurch.org | url=http://www.anabaptistchurch.org | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=Mennonite Origins and the Mennonites of Europe | work=Bible Views | url=http://www.bibleviews.com/menno-heritage.html | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=The Dordrecht Confession of Faith | work=Bible Views | url=http://www.bibleviews.com/Dordrecht.html | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=The Story of the Church: The Protestant Reformation: The Anabaptists and Other Radical Reformers | work=Ritchie Family Page | url=http://www.ritchies.net/p4wk4.htm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=The Anabaptist Story | work=The Reformed Reader | url=http://www.reformedreader.org/history/anabaptiststory.htm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=Introduction to the Martyr's Mirror | work=Martyr's Mirror Online | url=http://www.homecomers.org/mirror/intro.htm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=The Radical Reformation: Resources | work=Eldrbarry.net | url=http://www.eldrbarry.net/heidel/anabrsc.htm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=The Schleitheim Confession | work=Anabaptist Network | url=http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/schleitheimconfession | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=Third Way Cafe | url=http://www.thirdway.com/ | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=Menno on the Net | url=http://www.tekstlink.com/menno.htm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} - A directory of web pages about church reformer Menno Simons * {{cite web | title=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online | url=http://www.gameo.org/ | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web | title=Cascadia Publishing House | url=http://www.CascadiaPublishingHouse.com | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} - Publisher of Anabaptist-related resources * {{cite web | title=DreamSeeker Magazine | url=http://www.CascadiaPublishingHouse.com/dsm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} - Featuring Anabaptist-related writers and articles * {{cite web | title=Holdeman Mennonites | url=http://www.holdeman.org | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} [[Category:Anabaptism]] [[Category:Mennonitism]] [[Category:Baptism]] [[ca:Anabaptisme]] [[cs:Novokřtěnci]] [[da:Gendøber]] [[de:Täufer (Reformation)]] [[es:Anabaptismo]] [[eo:Anabaptismo]] [[fr:Anabaptisme]] [[it:Anabattisti]] [[hu:Anabaptizmus]] [[nl:Anabaptisme]] [[ja:再洗礼派]] [[pl:Anabaptyzm]] [[pt:Anabaptista]] [[sv:Anabaptism]] [[uk:Анабаптисти]] [[zh:再洗礼派]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ANS</title> <id>2935</id> <revision> <id>40537202</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T07:16:00Z</timestamp> <contributor>
ctions from the nucleus). Their rough appearance under electron microscopy led to their being called rough ER (RER), other parts are free of ribosomes and are called smooth ER (SER). The ribosomes on the surface of the rough ER insert the freshly produced proteins directly into the ER, which processes them and then passes them on to the [[Golgi apparatus]] (Fig. 1). The rough and smooth ER differ in both appearance and function. === Rough ER === The rough ER (also known as granular ER or GER) manufactures and transports proteins destined for membranes and secretion. It is called &quot;rough&quot; because [[ribosomes]] present on the [[cytosol]]ic side of the membrane give it a rough appearance. Minutes after proteins are synthesized, most of them leave the ER and travel to the [[Golgi apparatus]] in [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s. The rough ER also modifies, folds, and controls the shape and quality of proteins. === Smooth ER === The smooth ER (also known as agranular ER or AER) has functions in several metabolic processes. It takes part in the synthesis of various [[lipid]]s (e.g., for building membranes such as [[phospholipid]]s), [[fatty acid]]s and [[steroid]]s (e.g., [[hormone]]s), and also plays an important role in [[carbohydrate metabolism]], detoxification of the cell (enzymes in the smooth ER detoxify chemicals), and [[calcium]] storage. It is well developed in cells that produce steroid hormones and in liver cells. It also is a large transporter of nutrient found in each cell. === Sarcoplasmic Reticulum === The sarcoplasmic reticulum is present in [[muscle]] cells and is specially adapted for calcium ion storage and release. This process is mediated by voltage gated calcium channels, and the calcium ATPase that pumps calcium ions into the SR. In [[striated muscle]] it is specially adapted to surround the [[myofibril]]s, forming triads with invaginations of the [[plasma membrane]] called [[T-tubule]]s. ==Functions== The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the facilitation of protein folding and the transport of proteins. Correct folding of newly-made proteins is made possible by several ER proteins including: [[PDI]], [[Hsc70 family]], [[calnexin]], [[calreticulin]], and the [[peptidylpropyl isomerase family]]. Only properly-folded proteins are transported from the RER to the [[Golgi complex]]. ===Transport of proteins=== Secretory proteins are moved across the ER membrane. Proteins that are transported by the ER and from there throughout the cell are marked with an address tag called a [[protein targeting|signal sequence]]. The N-terminus (one end) of a [[polypeptide]] chain (e.g., a protein) contains a few [[amino acid]]s that work as an address tag, which are removed when the polypeptide reaches its destination. Proteins that are destined for places outside the ER are packed into transport [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s and moved along the [[cytoskeleton]] toward their destination. The ER is also part of a protein sorting pathway. It is, in essence, the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell. ===Other functions=== *'''Insertion of proteins into the ER membrane''': [[Integral protein]]s must be inserted into the ER membrane after they are synthesized. Insertion into the ER membrane requires the correct [[topogenic sequence]]s. *'''Glycosylation''': [[Glycosylation]] involves the attachment of [[oligosaccharide]]s. *'''Disulfide bond formation and rearrangement''': Disulfide bonds stabilize the tertiary and quaternary structure of many proteins. {{organelles}} [[Category:Organelles]] [[bg:Eндоплазмен ретикулум]] [[cs:Endoplazmatické retikulum]] [[da:Endoplasmatisk reticulum]] [[de:Endoplasmatisches Retikulum]] [[es:Retículo endoplasmático]] [[fr:Réticulum endoplasmique]] [[ko:소포체]] [[it:Reticolo endoplasmatico]] [[he:רטיקולום אנדופלסמי]] [[lt:Endoplazminis tinklas]] [[lb:Endoplasmatescht Reticulum]] [[nl:Endoplasmatisch reticulum]] [[ja:小胞体]] [[pl:Retikulum endoplazmatyczne]] [[pt:Retículo endoplasmático]] [[ru:Эндоплазматический ретикулум]] [[sk:Endoplazmatické retikulum]] [[sl:Endoplazemski retikulum]] [[sr:Храпави ендоплазматични ретикулум]] [[sv:Endoplasmatiska nätverket]] [[vi:Mạng lưới nội chất]] [[tr:Endoplazmik retikulum]] [[zh:内质网]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Enemy</title> <id>9776</id> <revision> <id>37621751</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T03:03:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mikkalai</username> <id>28438</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>categ</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}} An '''enemy''' or '''foe''' is a [[relativism|relativist]] term for an entity that is seen as forcefully adverse or threatening. The term is usually used within the greater context of [[war]], to denote an opposing group and the individuals within as threats to one's own national, ethic, or political group. To ''individuals'' within the threatened group, the &quot;enemy&quot; concept is an amorphous personification of both a threat to one's collective social group, as well as a personal threat to oneself. The term &quot;enemy&quot; serves the social function of designating a particular entity as a threat, and the &quot;most feared enemy&quot; status reserved for those who pose the greatest [[mortal]] threat. The general ideological mechanism by which particular threats are determined is called [[marginalization]]. Mechanisms which assert a unilateral amnesty for particular individuals and groups as being &quot;enemies&quot; is [[protectionism]]. The characterization of an individual or group as an enemy is called [[demonization]]. The propagation of demonization is called [[propaganda]]. An &quot;enemy&quot; may also be conceptual; used to describe impersonal phenomena such [[disease]], and a host of other things. Throughout [[religion|religious]] [[theology]], &quot;the Enemy&quot; is typically reserved to represent the human tendency to do [[evil]], often personified as a malicious [[deity]], such as the [[devil]] or a [[demon]]. == Terms == &quot;Enemy&quot; is a strong word, evoking associations of [[hate]], [[violence]], [[battle]] and [[war]]. The opposite of an enemy is a [[friend]] or [[ally]]. The state of being or having an enemy is '''enmity'''. Because the term &quot;the enemy&quot; is a bit bellicose and [[militaristic]] to use in polite society, informal substitutes are more often used. Often the substituted terms become [[pejorative|pejoratives]] in the context that they are used. In any case, the designation of an &quot;enemy&quot; exists solely to denote the status of a particular group of people as a threat, and to propagate this designation within the local context. Substituted terms for an enemy often go further to meaningfully identify a known group as an enemy, and to pejoratively frame that identification. &quot;The enemy,&quot; as the object of social anger or repulsion, has throughout history been used as the prototypical [[propaganda]] tool to focus the fear and anxiety within a society toward a particular target. The target is often ''general,'' as with a [[ethnic group]] or [[race]] of people, or it can also be a conceptual target, as with an ideology which characterises a particular group. In some cases the concept of the enemy have morphed; whereas once ''racial and ethnic'' claims to support a call to [[war]] may later have changed to ideological and conceptual based claims. In the [[United States]], the current &quot;[[War on Terrorism]]&quot; is widely understood to be the replacement for the [[Cold War]] against &quot;[[Communism]].&quot; Thus the enemy term &quot;communist&quot; has largely given way to the newer &quot;terrorist,&quot; and the threats of ''[[nuclear war|nuclear annihilation]]'' and &quot;[[communist expansion]]&quot; have given way (within political parlance) to &quot;acts of [[terrorism]]&quot; and [[religious|religious]] (almost always ''[[Islamic]]'') [[fundamentalism]]. During the [[Cold War]], the terms &quot;Communists&quot; or &quot;Reds&quot; were broadly understood in American society to mean &quot;the enemy,&quot; and the meaning of the two terms could extremely pejorative, depending on the political context, mood, or state of fear and agitation within the society at the time. === Theory === The concept of the enemy is well covered in the field of [[Peace studies]], which is available as a major at many major universities (including a somewhat well-known program of study at American University in Washington, D.C.). In Peace studies, enemies are those entities who are perceived as frustrating or preventing achievement of a goal. The enemy may not even know they are being regarded as such, since the concept is one-sided. Thus, in order to achieve peace, one must eliminate the enemy. This can be achieved by either by: * changing one's perception of an entity as enemy, or * by achieving the goal the enemy is frustrating. Personal conflicts are frequently either unexamined (one's goals are not well defined) or examined only from one point of view. This means it is often possible to resolve conflict (to 'eliminate' the enemy) by redefining goals such that the frustration (not the person) is either eliminated, obvious, negotiated away, or decided upon. '''Quotes:''' :''The enemy of my enemy is my friend.'' -[[Arab]] [[proverb]] [[Category:International relations]] [[Category:Interpersonal relationships]] [[de:Feindschaft]] [[simple:Enemy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Executive Order 9066</title> <id>9778</id> <revision> <id>40363243</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:49:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:instructions to jap
s. Bongos eat an [[herbivorous]] diet including bamboo and shrubs. [[Leopard|Leopards]], [[hyena|spotted hyenas]], [[lion|lions]], and humans prey on them; [[Pythonidae|pythons]] sometimes eat bongo calves. Bongos are mainly [[nocturnal]] and easily startled. Bongo populations have been greatly reduced by hunting and snares, although some bongo refuges exist. ==External links== Animal diversity - [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Tragelaphus_eurycerus.html] {{Commons|Tragelaphus eurycerus}} [[Category:Bovines]] [[Category:Wildlife of Africa]] [[de:Bongo (Antilope)]] [[fr:Tragelaphus eurycerus]] [[lt:Bonga]] [[nl:Bongo (antilope)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bunyip</title> <id>4507</id> <revision> <id>41749635</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:47:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a mythical creature. There is also a town called [[Bunyip, Victoria]]'' The '''bunyip''' (&quot;devil&quot; or &quot;spirit&quot;) is a [[Mythology|myth]]ical [[animal|creature]] from [[Australia]]n [[Aboriginal mythology]]. ==Characteristics== Descriptions of bunyips vary wildly. Common features in Aboriginal drawings include a [[horse]]-like tail, flippers, and [[walrus]]-like tusks. According to legend, they are said to lurk in [[swamp]]s, [[billabong]]s, [[Creek (stream)|creek]]s, [[river]]beds, and [[waterhole]]s. At night their blood-curdling cries can be heard as they devour any animal or [[human]] that ventures near their abodes. Their favourite prey is human [[woman|women]]. They also bring [[disease]]s. [[Image:Bigteeth-1-.jpg|thumb|230px|The Bunyip by C. Douglas Richardson, illustrator Reproduced from Joshua Lake (ed.) Childhood in Bud and Blossom (Melbourne: Atlas Press, 1900) National Library of Australia ]] ==Reality or myth?== During the early settlement of Australia, the notion that the bunyip was an actual unknown animal that awaited discovery became common. Early European settlers, unfamiliar with the sights and sounds of the island continent's peculiar fauna, regarded the bunyip as one more strange Australian animal, and sometimes attributed unfamiliar calls or cries to it. At one point, the discovery of a strange skull in an isolated area associated with these 'bunyip calls' seemed to provide physical evidence of the bunyip's existence. In 1846 a peculiar skull was taken from the banks of [[Murrumbidgee River]] in New South Wales. In the first flush of excitement, several experts concluded that it was the skull of something unknown to science. In 1847 the so-called bunyip skull was put on exhibitin in the Australian Museum (Sydney) for two days. Visitors flocked to see it and the [[Sydney Morning Herald]] said that it prompted many people to speak out about their 'bunyip sightings' &quot;Almost everyone became immediately aware that he had heard 'strange sounds' from the lagoons at night, or had seen 'something black' in the water.&quot; It was eventually concluded that it was a 'freak of nature' and not a new species. However, a final mystery remains- What happened to the 'bunyip skull'? It disappeared from the museum and has never been sighted since. [http://www.nla.gov.au/exhibitions/bunyips/html-site/evidence/skull.html] As European exploration of Australia proceeded, the bunyip increasingly began to be regarded as a mythical animal. The mysterious skull was later identified as that of a disfigured horse or calf. The expression 'why search for the bunyip?' emerged from repeated attempts by Australian adventurers to capture or sight the bunyip, the phrase indicating that a proposed course of action is fruitless or impossible. ==Explanations== Although no documented physical evidence of bunyips has been found, it has been suggested that tales of bunyips could be Aboriginal memories of the [[diprotodon]], or other extinct [[Australian megafauna]] which became extinct some 50,000 years ago. The cries of the [[possum]] or [[koala]] could likely be mistaken for the bunyip, as most people are surprised to find koalas or possums are capable of such loud roars. The Barking Owl, a nocturnal bird that lives around swamps and billabongs in the Australian bush is sometimes credited for making the sounds of the bunyip. It has been proven that the Barking Owl screams like a woman injured or in trouble and many Aboriginal stories relate this to the noise the bunyip makes. The Barking owl's call can vary to a child's scream also. ==Bunyips in popular culture== *&quot;Dot and the Kangaroo&quot; animated musical feature from Australia (1977) showed an aboriginal painting representation of the feared bunyip during the song about the bunyip. *During the [[1980s]], Australian children's television and literature featured a more friendly version of the bunyip - &quot;Alexander Bunyip&quot; created by [[Michael Salmon]]. *During the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], &quot;[[Bertie the Bunyip]]&quot; was a children's show in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], created by [[Lee Dexter]], an Australian. [http://www.tvparty.com/lostbertie.html] *A popular [[New Zealand]] [[reggae]] band was named after the Bunyip, with a career that spanned from 1998 to 2003. *In the [[PlayStation]] game ''[[Chrono Cross]]'', a Bunyip is a boss monster in Fort Dragonia. It starts as a red innate monster, but transforms into a hulking black cyclops halfway through the battle. *In the videogame ''[[Ty The Tasmanian Tiger]]'', Bunyips are important characters along with a cast of other Australian creatures. A bunyip is also an armored creature in the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series. ==Alternate meanings== The word ''bunyip'' is also used as a nickname for rabbits due to the obvious similarity to the word 'bunny'. ==See also== * [[Bunyip aristocracy]] * [[Greta Bunyip]] * [[Yowie (cryptid)|Yowie]] * [[Drop bear|Drop Bear]] ==External links== *[http://www.cryptozoology.com/cryptids/bunyip.php The Bunyip: Mythical Beast, Modern-day Monster] *[http://www.nla.gov.au/exhibitions/bunyips/ Bunyips ... enter the lair of the bunyip if you dare] - interactive for kids / National Library of Australia [[Category:Cryptids]] [[Category:Folklore of Australia]] [[de:Bunyip]] [[fr:Bunyip]] [[nl:Bunyip]] [[pl:Bunyip]] [[fi:Bunyip]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brabant</title> <id>4508</id> <revision> <id>40934498</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T23:47:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hede2000</username> <id>284384</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+da:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Historically, '''Brabant''' has been the name of several administrative entities in the [[Low Countries]] with quite different geographical extent: * as Carolingian [[shire]] (pagus Bracbatensis), located between the rivers [[Scheldt]] and [[Dijle]] (between 9th-11th century); * as [[landgraf|landgraviat]]: the part of the shire between the rivers [[Dender]] and Dijle (from 1085/1086 up to 1183/1184); * as [[duchy]]: territory covering approximately the present [[Netherlands|Dutch]] province [[North Brabant]], the three Belgian provinces [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]], [[Walloon Brabant]] and [[Flemish Brabant]], and the [[Brussels-Capital Region]]. * as a [[province]] of [[Belgium]]. ==Duchy of Brabant== [[Image:brabant_map.gif|thumb|Map of the Duchy of Brabant; territory covering approximately the present province of [[North Brabant]], the three Belgian provinces [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]], [[Walloon Brabant]] and [[Flemish Brabant]], and the [[Brussels-Capital Region]].]] The Duchy of Brabant was formally erected in 1183/1184. The title &quot;[[Duke of Brabant]]&quot; was created by the German Emperor [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick]] Barbarossa in favour of [[Henry I, Duke of Brabant|Henry I of Brabant]], son of [[Godfrey III of Leuven, Duke of Lower Lotharingia]]. The Duchy of Brabant was a feudal elevation of the already existing title of [[Landgrave]] of Brabant. This imperial fief was assigned to Count [[Henry III of Leuven]] about 1085/1086, more exactly after the death of the preceding Count of Brabant, Count Palatine Herman II of Lotharingia (+ [[September 20]], [[1085]]). Although the corresponding county was quite small (limited to the territory between the rivers Dender en Zenne, situated to the west of Brussels) its name was applied to the entire country under control of the Dukes from the 13th century on. In 1190, after the death of Godfrey III, [[Henry I, Duke of Brabant|Henry I of Brabant]] also became Duke of Lower Lotharingia, a title practically without territorial authority. According to protocol, all his successors where therefore called Dukes of Brabant and Lower Lotharingia (lateron [[Duke of Lothier|Lothier]]). After the [[Battle of Worringen]] in [[1288]], the dukes of Brabant also acquired the [[Duchy of Limburg]]. In [[1354]] the [[Blijde Inkomst]], or charter of liberty was granted to the citizens of Brabant by [[John III, Duke of Brabant]]. In [[1430]], the Duchies of Lotharingia, Brabant and Limburg were inherited by [[Philip the Good]] of [[Burgundy]]. In [[1477]] the titles fell to the [[Habsburg]]s by dowry of [[Mary of Burgundy]]. The subsequent history of Brabant is part of the history of the Low Countries ([[Seventeen Provinces]]). The [[Eighty Years' War]] ([[1568]] - [[1648]]) brought independence from the Habsburgs for the northern provinces. After the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] in [[1648]], the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands|United Provinces]]' ''de jure'' independence was confirmed and the northern part of Brabant, which was already under Dutch milita
l Abstract]. [[Category:Hydrocarbons]] [[Category:Alkenes]] [[Category:functional groups]] [[ar:ألكين]] [[ca:Alquè]] [[da:Alken]] [[de:Alkene]] [[et:Alkeenid]] [[es:Alqueno]] [[eo:Alkeno]] [[fr:Alcène]] [[io:Alkeno]] [[it:Alcheni]] [[he:אלקן]] [[lv:Alkēni]] [[nl:Alkeen]] [[ja:アルケン]] [[pl:Alken]] [[pt:Alceno]] [[ru:Алкены]] [[sr:Алкен]] [[su:Alkéna]] [[fi:Alkeeni]] [[sv:Alken]] [[uk:Алкени]] [[zh:烯烃]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Allene</title> <id>2762</id> <revision> <id>37061082</id> <timestamp>2006-01-28T08:52:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: ja</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:propyl_allene.png|right|thumb|[[Propyl allene]] is the simplest allene.]] An '''allene''' is a [[hydrocarbon]] in which one atom of [[carbon]] is connected by [[covalent bond|double bonds]] with two other atoms of carbon. Allene also is the common name for the parent compound of this series, 1,2-propadiene. Such pair of bonds make allenes much more reactive than other [[alkene]]s. For example, their reactivity with gaseous [[chlorine]] is more like the reactivity of [[alkyne]]s. In the image at right, if groups &quot;a&quot; and &quot;b&quot; replace the hydrogens on the left and right side, the molecule will be [[chiral]] if &quot;a&quot; is not identical to &quot;b&quot;. This is due to the two sets of groups being perpendicular to each other, and thus the molecule has no mirror plane. ==External links== *[http://www.sparknotes.com/chemistry/organic3/stereochemistry/section2.rhtml Stereochemistry study guide] {{orgchem-stub}} [[Category:Dienes]] [[ar:ألين]] [[fr:Allène]] [[ja:不飽和結合]] [[pl:Allen]] [[sv:Allen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alkyne</title> <id>2763</id> <revision> <id>42138901</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:59:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>YanA</username> <id>40074</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alkyne.png|Alkyne|right]] '''Alkynes''' are [[hydrocarbon]]s that have at least one [[triple bond]] between two [[carbon]] atoms. The alkynes are traditionally known as '''acetylenes''', although the name acetylene is also used to refer specifically to the simplest member of the series, known officially as [[ethyne]]. == Structure== The carbon atoms in an alkyne bond are [[sp hybridized]]: they each have 2 [[p orbital]]s and 2 [[Orbital hybridisation|sp hybrid orbitals]]. Overlap of an sp orbital from each atom forms one sp-sp [[sigma bond]]. Each p orbital on one atom overlaps one on the other atom, forming two [[pi bond]]s, giving a total of three bonds. The remaining sp orbital on each atom can form a sigma bond to another atom, for example to hydrogen atoms in the parent compound [[acetylene]]. The two sp orbitals on an atom are on opposite sides of the atom: in acetylene, the H-C-C [[bond angle]]s are 180°. Because a total of 6 electrons take part in bonding this triple bond is very strong with a [[bond strength]] of 837 kJ/mol. The sigma bond contributes 369 kJ/mol, the first pi bond contributes 268 kJ/mol and the second pi bond is weak with 202 kJ/mol bond strength. The CC bond distance with 121 [[picometer]]s is also much less than that of the [[alkene]] bond which is 134 pm or the alkane bond with 153 pm. ==Chemical properties== Unlike [[alkane|alkanes]], [[alkyne|alkynes]] are unstable and very reactive. This gives rise to the intense heat of the acetylene flame used in welding. ==Examples== The simplest alkyne is [[ethyne]] ([[acetylene]]): [[image:ethyne.png]] ==Terminal and internal alkynes== Terminal alkynes have a hydrogen atom bonded to at least one of the sp hybridized carbons (those involved in the triple bond. An example would be [[methylacetylene]] (1-propyne under IUPAC nomenclature). Internal alkynes have something other than hydrogen attached to the sp hybridized carbons, usually another carbon atom, but could be a heteroatom. A good example is 2-pentyne, in which there is a methyl group on one side of the triple bond and an ethyl group on the other side. ==Metal acetylides== A terminal alkyne with a [[strong base]] such as [[sodium]], [[sodium amide]], [[n-butyllithium]] or a [[grignard reagent]] gives the [[anion]] of the terminal alkyne and a '''metal acetylide'''. Acetylenes are fairly acidic and have [[Acid dissociation constant|pK&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;]] values (25) between that of [[ammonia]] (35) or [[ethanol]] with 16. The explanation for this acidity is that the negative charge in acetylide is stabilized as a result of the high s character of the sp orbital in which the electron pair resides. [[Electron|Electrons]] in a s orbital benefit from closer proximity to the positively charged atom nucleus and therefore lower in energy. == Synthesis == Alkynes are generally prepared by [[dehydrohalogenation]] of [[Vicinal (chemistry)|vicinal]] alkyl [[dihalide]]s or the reaction of metal acetylides with primary [[alkyl halide]]s. In the [[Fritsch-Buttenberg-Wiechell rearrangement]] an alkyne is prepared starting from a [[vinyl|vinyl bromide]]. Alkynes can be prepared from [[aldehyde]]s using the [[Corey-Fuchs reaction]] or the [[Seyferth-Gilbert homologation]]. ==Reactions== Alkynes are involved in many [[organic reaction]]s. * [[electrophilic addition]] reactions ** addition of [[hydrogen]] to the [[alkene]] or the [[alkane]] ** addition of [[halogen]]s to the vinyl halides or alkyl halides ** addition of [[hydrogen halide]]s to the corresponding [[vinyl halide]]s or [[alkyl halide]]s ** addition of water to the [[carbonyl]] compound (through the [[enol]] intermediate) * [[Cycloaddition]]s ** [[Diels-Alder reaction]] with [[2-pyrone]] to an [[aromatic]] compound after elimination of [[carbon dioxide]] ** [[Azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition]] to [[triazole]]s ** [[Bergman cyclization]] of enediynes to an [[aromatic]] compound ** [[Alkyne trimerisation]] to [[aromatic]] compounds ** scrambling of alkynes in [[alkyne metathesis]] to new alkyne compounds ** [2+2+1]cycloaddition of an alkyne, [[alkene]] and [[carbon monoxide]] in the [[Pauson–Khand reaction]] * [[nucleophilic substitution]] reactions of metal acetylides ** new [[carbon-carbon bond]] formation with alkyl halides * [[nucleophilic addition]] reactions of metal acetylides ** reaction with [[carbonyl]] compounds to an intermediate [[alkoxide]] and then to the [[hydroxyalkyne]] after acidic workup. * [[hydroboration]] reaction of alkynes with [[organoborane]]s to vinylic boranes ** followed by reduction by [[hydrogen peroxide]] to the corresponding [[aldehyde]] or [[ketone]] * oxidative cleavage with [[potassium permanganate]] to the [[carboxylic acid]]s [[Category:Alkynes]] [[Category:Hydrocarbons]] [[Category:functional groups]] [[ar:ألكاين]] [[ca:Alquí]] [[da:Alkyn]] [[de:Alkine]] [[et:Alküünid]] [[es:Alquino]] [[eo:Alkino]] [[fr:Alcyne]] [[it:Alchini]] [[he:אלקין]] [[lv:Alkīni]] [[nl:Alkyn]] [[ja:アルキン]] [[pl:Alkin]] [[pt:Alcino]] [[sr:Алкин]] [[su:Alkuna]] [[fi:Alkyyni]] [[sv:Alkyn]] [[uk:Алкіни]] [[zh:炔]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AbiWord</title> <id>2764</id> <revision> <id>41189275</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:37:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Where</username> <id>722151</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[Category:Free word processors]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software| name = AbiWord |screenshot = [[Image:Abiword_2.2.jpg|250px]] |caption = AbiWord 2.2.1 for Windows |developer = The AbiWord Team |latest_release_version = 2.4.2 |latest_release_date = [[January 2]], [[2006]] |operating_system = [[Cross-platform]] |genre = [[Word processor]] |license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |website = [http://www.abisource.com/ www.abisource.com] }} '''AbiWord''' is a [[Free software|free]] [[Word processor|word processing]] program under the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] which runs on [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[ReactOS]], [[SkyOS]], [[BeOS]] and other [[operating system]]s. AbiWord was originally started by [[SourceGear]] Corporation as the first component of AbiSuite, as an ambitious plan to create a full Office Suite that would be [[free software]] / [[open source software]] . SourceGear gradually moved to other business interests and the project is currently run entirely by a team of volunteer developers. AbiWord is part of [[GNOME Office]], a collection of office applications with some degree of integration. AbiWord Version 1.0 was released on [[April 18]], [[2002]] and received praise for its speed and small size. However version 1.0 did not yet include support for table based layout, which many users considered an essential feature. Table support was finally included as planned for version 2.0, which was released on [[September 15]], [[2003]]. AbiWord has several import/export filters including [[Rich Text Format|RTF]], [[HTML]], [[OpenOffice.org]], [[Microsoft Word]] and [[LaTeX]]. The native [[file format]] uses [[XML]], so documents written with the program are perceived to be a safe investment from a digital archiving perspective. AbiWord has a very similar user interface to Microsoft Word to help make it easier for new users to migrate to Abiword. Although there are differences, the AbiWord developers aim to embrace and copy the design of Microsoft Word or extend it and produce a better improved design. The name AbiWord is derived from the root of the Spanish word &quot;Abierto&quot; meaning open. The English pronunciation sounds like &quot;Abbey&quot; Word. AbiWord contains a [[Wikipedia]] [[plugin]] to look up an encyclopedic reference for a selected word [http://www.abisource.com/mailinglists/abiword-dev/0
/id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T06:53:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kmorozov</username> <id>238736</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''George ''the Bearded'', Duke of Saxony''' ([[27 August]] [[1471]] - [[17 April]] [[1539]]), was [[duke of Saxony]] from [[1500]] to [[1539]]. On [[21 November]] [[1496]] at [[Leipzig]], he married Barbara (1478-1534), the daughter of [[Casimir IV of Poland|Casimir IV, King of Poland]] and Elisabeth, daughter of [[Albrecht II of Hungary]]. George and Barbara's daughter [[Magdalena of Saxony]] (1507-1534) married [[Joachim II]] Hector, Kürfurst von Brandenburg, who had a son named [[Johann Georg]], also later Kürfurst von Brandenburg (1571 - 1598). ==References== * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06457a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] [[Category:1471 births|Saxony, George, Duke of]] [[Category:1539 deaths|Saxony, George, Duke of]] [[Category:Dukes of Saxony]] [[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece|Saxony, George, Duke of]] [[de:Georg der Bärtige]] [[nl:Joris met de Baard]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gneiss</title> <id>13169</id> <revision> <id>40661966</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T03:28:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Antandrus</username> <id>57658</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.188.116.137|205.188.116.137]] ([[User talk:205.188.116.137|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gneiss.jpg|thumb|Gneiss]] '''Gneiss''' is a common and widely distributed type of [[Rock (geology)|rock]] formed by high grade regional [[metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] processes from preexisting formations that were originally either [[igneous rock|igneous]] or [[Sedimentary rock|sedimentary]] rocks. Gneissic rocks are coarsely [[Foliation (geology)|foliated]] and largely [[Recrystallization|recrystallized]] but do not carry large quantities of [[mica|micas]], [[Chlorite group|chlorite]] or other platy [[mineral]]s. Gneisses that are metamorphosed igneous rocks or their equivalent are termed [[granite]] gneisses, [[diorite]] gneisses, etc. However, depending on their composition, they may also be called [[garnet]] gneiss, [[biotite]] gneiss, [[albite]] gneiss, etc. ''Orthogneiss'' designates a gneiss derived from an igneous rock, and ''paragneiss'' is one from a sedimentary rock. ''Gneissose'' is used to describe rocks with properties similar to gneiss. The word &quot;gneiss&quot; is from an old [[Old English language|Saxon]] mining term that seems to have meant decayed, rotten, or possibly worthless material. The [[Acasta Gneiss]] is the oldest known crustal rock in the world. == See also == * [[List of rocks]] {{commons|:Category:Gneiss}} {{mineral-stub}} [[Category:Metamorphic rocks]] [[da:Gnejs]] [[de:Gneis]] [[et:Gneiss]] [[es:Gneis]] [[eo:Gnejso]] [[fr:Gneiss]] [[lt:Gneisas]] [[hu:Gneisz]] [[nl:Gneis]] [[ja:片麻岩]] [[pl:Gnejs]] [[pt:Gneisse]] [[fi:Gneissi]] [[sv:Gnejs]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GT40</title> <id>13170</id> <revision> <id>15910801</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ford GT40]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gro Harlem Brundtland</title> <id>13171</id> <revision> <id>37094799</id> <timestamp>2006-01-28T16:59:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gro Harlem Brundtland.jpg|thumb|Gro Harlem Brundtland]] '''Gro Harlem Brundtland''' (born [[April 20]], [[1939]]) is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] politician and [[physician]], and an international leader in [[sustainable development]] and [[public health]]. ==Domestic career== She was born in [[Bærum]], became a social democrat at the age of 7, and was educated Medical doctor (cand. med.) at the [[University of Oslo]] in [[1963]], and Master of Public Health at [[Harvard University]] in [[1965]]. She was Norwegian Minister for Environmental Affairs 1974-79, and became Norway's first female Prime Minister February - October [[1981]]; her cabinet was renowned internationally for having 8 female ministers out of 18. Brundtland became Norwegian Prime Minister for two subsequent terms - from May 9, [[1986]] until October 16, [[1989]] and from November 3, [[1990]] until October 25, [[1996]], when she was succeeded by [[Thorbjørn Jagland]]. She resigned as leader of the [[Det norske Arbeiderparti|Labour Party]] in [[1992]]. ==International career== Gro Harlem Brundtland was Chair of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), widely referred to as the [[Brundtland Commission]], developing the broad political concept of [[sustainable development]] in the course of extensive public hearings that were distinguished by their inclusiveness and published its report ''Our Common Future'' in April [[1987]]. The [[Brundtland Commission]] provided the momentum for the 1992 [[Earth Summit]] / [[UNCED]], that was headed by [[Maurice Strong]], who had been a prominent member of the Brundtland Commission - and for [[Agenda 21]]. Dr. Gro Harlem Brundtland was elected Director-General of the [[World Health Organization]] in May [[1998]]. In this capacity, Dr. Brundtland adopted a far-reaching approach to public health, establishing a [http://www.cmhealth.org Commission on Macroeconomics and Health] - chaired by [[Jeffrey Sachs]] - and addressing [[violence]] as a major public health issue. Brundtland was recognized in [[2003]] by [[Scientific American]] as their ''Policy Leader of the Year'' for coordinating a rapid worldwide response to stem outbreaks of [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]]. Gro Harlem Brundtland was succeeded, on [[July 21]], [[2003]], by [[Jong-Wook Lee|Jong-Wook Lee]]. In [[1994]] she was awarded the [[Karlspreis|Charlemagne Prize]] of the city of [[Aachen]]. In 2004 the British newspaper [[The Financial Times]] listed her the 4th most influental European for the last 25 years, behind [[Pope John Paul II]], [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and [[Margaret Thatcher]]. Her hallmark political activities have been chronicled by her husband, Arne Olav Brundtland in his two bestsellers, &quot;Married to Gro&quot; (ISBN 8251616476) and the sequel, &quot;Still married to Gro&quot; (ISBN 8205307261). She has been suggested as a candidate for the next [[Secretary General of the United Nations]], once [[Kofi Annan]]'s term ends. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Odvar Nordli]]| title=[[List of Norwegian Prime Ministers|Prime Minister of Norway]] | years=1981 | after=[[Kåre Willoch]]}} {{succession box | before=[[Kåre Willoch]]| title=[[List of Norwegian Prime Ministers|Prime Minister of Norway]] | years=1986&amp;ndash;1989 | after=[[Jan P. Syse]]}} {{succession box | before=[[Jan P. Syse]]| title=[[List of Norwegian Prime Ministers|Prime Minister of Norway]] | years=1990&amp;ndash;1996 | after=[[Thorbjørn Jagland]]}} {{succession box | before=[[Hiroshi Nakajima]]| title=[[Director General of the World Health Organization]] | years=1998&amp;ndash;2003 | after=[[Jong-Wook Lee]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:1939 births|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]] [[Category:Living people|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]] [[Category:Norwegian politicians|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]] [[Category:UN officials|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]] [[Category:Karlspreis laureates|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]] [[Category:Norwegian physicians|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]] [[Category:Female heads of government|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]] [[bs:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[ca:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[da:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[de:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[es:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[eo:Gro Harlem BRUNDTLAND]] [[fr:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[it:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[lt:Gru Harlem Brundtland]] [[nl:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[nds:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[ja:グロ・ハルレム・ブルントラント]] [[is:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[no:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[nn:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[pl:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[ru:Брундтланд, Гру Харлем]] [[sh:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[sr:Гро Харлем Брунтланд]] [[fi:Gro Harlem Brundtland]] [[sv:Gro Harlem Brundtland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gregory Nazianzus</title> <id>13172</id> <revision> <id>41886430</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:35:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Panairjdde</username> <id>2400</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GregoryNazianzen.jpg|thumb|An icon of Saint Gregory Nazianzen the theologian holding a Gospel Book]] Saint '''Gregory Nazianzen''' ([[329]] - [[January 25]], [[389]]), also known as Saint Gregory the Theologian, was a [[4th century]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[bishop]] of [[List of Constantinople patriarchs |Constantinople]]. He was the son of Gregory and Nonna. He is honored as a [[saint]] by the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] and as a [[Doctor of the Church]]. He is also a highly-regarded saint in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]. == Education == He first studied at home with his uncle Saint Amphylokhios. Later he studied in [[Nazianzos]] (where his father Gregory was bishop), [[Caesarea Mazaca|Caesarea]] [[Cappadocia]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Athens]]. While at Athens, he developed a close friendship with Saint [[Basil of Caesarea]], and also made the acquaintance of Julian, the future Emperor who would become known as [[Julian the Apostate]]. Upon finishing his education, he also taught rhetoric in Athens for a short time. == Service == In [[361]], Gregory returned to Nazianzos and was ordained
Turn Out The Lights&quot; ([[World Class Wreckin Cru]]) (1987) * &quot;Illegal&quot; ([[CIA]]/[[Dr. Dre]]) (1987) * &quot;Dope Man/Panic Zone&quot; ([[N.W.A|NWA]]) (1987) * &quot;Express Yourself&quot; ([[N.W.A|NWA]]) (1987) * &quot;[[Deep Cover (single)|Deep Cover]]&quot; (feat. Snoop Doggy Dogg) (1992) * &quot;[[Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang]]&quot; (1993) #2 US (Platinum), #31 UK (1994 release, and double A-Side with &quot;Let Me Ride&quot; in the UK) * &quot;[[Dre Day|Fuck Wit Dre Day (And Everybody's Celebratin')]]&quot; (1993) #8 US (Gold) * &quot;[[Let Me Ride]]&quot; (1993) #34 US * &quot;Natural Born Killaz&quot; (1994) * &quot;Keep Their Heads Ringin'&quot; (1995) #10 US (Gold), #25 UK * &quot;[[California Love]]&quot; ([[2Pac]] feat. Dr. Dre) (1996) (also featuring [[talk box]]-filtered lyrics by [[Roger Troutman]]) #1 US, #6 UK, #4 AUS * &quot;[[No Diggity]]&quot; ([[Blackstreet]] feat. Dr. Dre) (1996) #1 US; #9 UK, #21 AUS * &quot;Zoom&quot; (with [[LL Cool J]]) (1998) #15 UK * &quot;[[Guilty Conscience]]&quot; (Eminem feat. Dr. Dre) (1999) #5 UK * &quot;Still D.R.E.&quot; (feat. Snoop Dogg) (2000) #6 UK * &quot;Forgot About Dre&quot; (feat. Eminem) (2000) #25 US; #7 UK * &quot;The Next Episode&quot; (feat. Snoop Dogg) (2000) #23 US; #3 UK * &quot;Bad Intentions&quot; (feat. [[Knoc-Turn'al]]Produced by Mahogany) (2002) #4 UK * &quot;Knoc&quot; ([[Knoc-Turn'al]] with Dr. Dre &amp; [[Missy &quot;Misdemeanor&quot; Elliott]]) (2002) #98 US * &quot;Symphony In X Major&quot; ([[Xzibit]] feat. Dr. Dre) (2003) #43 AUS * &quot;Encore&quot; (Eminem feat. Dr. Dre &amp; 50 Cent) (2004) #25 US * &quot;Here We Go Again&quot; [[The Game (rapper)|The Game]] feat. Dr. Dre (2005) ==Producing discography== ==External links== * [http://www.dre2001.com/ Official Site] * [http://aftermath-entertainment.com/ Aftermath Records] * [http://aftermathmusic.com Aftermath Entertainment] * [http://www.dr-dre.com Dr. Dre News] * [http://www.dubcc.com/forum/index.php?topic=30148.0 Dr. Dre Productions C.V. on Dubcc.com] * [http://www.drdre.us Dr Dre] * [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0236564/ Dr. Dre] on IMDb * [http://www.the-breaks.com/search.php?term=Dr+Dre&amp;type=6 Rap Samples FAQ] &lt;!-- Categories --&gt; &lt;!-- Translations --&gt; [[Category:1965 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:African American musicians]] [[Category:Aftermath Entertainment]] [[Category:American music industry executives]] [[Category:American rappers]] [[Category:American_record_producers]] [[Category:California musicians]] [[Category:Grammy Award Winners]] [[Category:Hip hop producers]] [[Category:MTV Music Award Winners]] [[Category:Music video directors]] [[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts|Dr. Dre]] [[ar:دكتور دري]] [[cs:Dr. Dre]] [[da:Dr. Dre]] [[de:Dr. Dre]] [[es:Dr. Dre]] [[fi:Dr. Dre]] [[fr:Dr. Dre]] [[gd:Dr. Dre]] [[he:ד&quot;ר דרה]] [[it:Dr. Dre]] [[nl:Dr. Dre]] [[no:Dr. Dre]] [[pl:Dr. Dre]] [[pt:Dr. Dre]] [[sv:Dr. Dre]] [[tr:Dr. Dre]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Tech bubble</title> <id>8084</id> <revision> <id>15906107</id> <timestamp>2004-09-08T00:56:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Avsa</username> <id>48117</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Dot-com, merged with</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dot-com]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Delicate Arch</title> <id>8085</id> <revision> <id>41111206</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T02:57:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Blarbo</username> <id>987923</id> </contributor> <comment>Added own photo, didn't want to offend anyone and remove the redundant second photo. (though it looks better)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot; |- | [[Image:Delicatearch.jpg|thumb|300px|Delicate Arch]] |- | [[Image:Delicate Arch LaSalle.jpg|thumb|300px|Delicate Arch]] |- | [[Image:Delicatearchfromback.jpg|thumb|300px|Delicate Arch from the rear]] |} '''Delicate Arch''' is a remarkable freestanding [[natural arch]] located in [[Arches National Park]] near [[Moab, Utah|Moab]], [[Utah]]. It is the most widely-recognized [[landmark]] in Arches National Park and is depicted on both Utah [[license plate]]s and a [[postage stamp]] commemorating Utah's [[centennial]] anniversary of [[List of U.S. states by date of statehood|statehood]] in [[1996]]. The [[Olympic torch]] [[relay]] for the [[2002 Winter Olympics]] passed through the arch. The Delicate Arch is located at the end of a moderately strenuous, 1.5-mile (2.4 km) hiking trail from the parking area at [[Wolfe Ranch]]. Taking more than an hour each way, the round trip is slightly more than 3 miles long and the Arch is completely hidden from view on this trail. The first third of the hike gains only a slight elevation, but is through rugged, brushy terrain. On the middle third of the hike the trail is nearly invisible, along the face of an exposed [[entrada|slickrock]] outcrop. Slickrock is not slick at all, but has a surface much like [[sandpaper]]. The elevation gain on this section is strenuous, but offers some excellent pauses to see the [[geology]] in the salt valley more clearly. Cairns (piles of rocks) have been placed by visitors and park staff to roughly suggest the trail to the top. But visitors will enjoy the huge expanse of completely exposed [[sandstone]] and tend to wander all over the mountain. Aiming for the top of the slickrock, mostly to the right(south)side will bring you to the correct trail at the top. The latter third of the trail is the most rugged, as hikers have now nearly reached the &quot;top&quot; of the plateau. The Arch is still invisible, and the trail runs around outcrops, through washes and between stands of twisted brush and trees. The trail may be easier to follow, but will tend to wander as parts become muddy and difficult to walk through. During the 2004 fall season, the trail clearly followed the left (northern) side of the plateau, and brought visitors along a breathtakingly narrow shelf nearly 150 feet above a dry wash. The arch rises suddenly into view around a corner in the trail and spectacularly frames the [[Manti-La Sal National Forest|La Sal Mountains]] to the east. Plan on spending at least an hour at the Arch, due to the need to take a lot of pictures. Step carefully, the geology at the arch is unbelievable, and very rugged. Small children (4 years and up) can make this hike, with frequent stops and lots of water, but they will need to be closely monitored at the Arch as many of the unguarded cliffs plunge a hundred feet or more. The views of the southern expanse of the park are spellbinding. Visitors are strongly cautioned to be aware of weather conditions prior to the hike, as the entire trail is exposed to the elements. Because of its distinctive shape, the arch was known as &quot;the Chaps&quot; and &quot;the Schoolmarm's Bloomers&quot; by local cowboys. It was given its current name by Frank Beckwith, leader of the Arches National Monument Scientific Expedition, who explored the area in the winter of [[1933]]-[[1934]]. (The story that the names of Delicate Arch and [[Landscape Arch]] were inadvertently exchanged due to a signage mixup by the [[National Park Service]] is false.) The arch played no part in the original designation of the area as a [[U.S. National Monument]] in [[1929]], and was not included within the original boundaries; it was added when the monument was enlarged in [[1938]]. In the [[1950s]], the National Park Service investigated the possibility of applying a clear [[plastic]] coating to the arch to protect it from further [[erosion]] and eventual destruction. The idea was ultimately abandoned as impractical and contrary to NPS principles. ''See also'': [[Old Man of the Mountain]] [[Category:Geography of Utah]] [[Category:Natural arches]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Deed poll</title> <id>8086</id> <revision> <id>40784212</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:13:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Yoninah</username> <id>317119</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''deed poll''' is a [[Law|legal]] document binding only to a single person or several persons acting jointly to express an active intention. It is strictly speaking not a [[contract]] because it only binds one [[party (law)|party]] and expresses an intention instead of a promise. The most common use is a [[name change]] through a [[Deed of Change of Name]] (often simply referred to as a '''Deed Poll'''). Deeds poll are used for this purpose in countries including [[England]], [[Wales]], [[Northern Ireland]], [[New Zealand]], some [[States and territories of Australia]], the [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Hong Kong]] and [[Singapore]]. Another common use is to [[partition]] land into different sections. For example, a piece of land may be partitioned (or carved out), by a '''Deed Poll''', into Section A and the Remaining Portion thereof. This form of Deed Poll is commonly used in [[Hong Kong]], where the development and redevelopment of land is rapid and flourishing. It should be noted that citizens of [[Scotland]] whose births are [[civil registration|registered]] there are not required to undergo deed poll to change their name - they need only inform people of their new name. After two years the person can apply to the [[Registrar General for Scotland]] to have their [[birth certificate]] amended to show the new name. This is in addition to changes of [[surname]] by [[marriage]]. [[Scots law]] only requires that no one changes their name with the intent to [[fraud|defraud]]. ==Origin of the term== The name ''deed'', also known in this context as a &quot;specialty,&quot; is commo
/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ffffff; color:#FFFFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green+blue&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#ffffff; color:#000000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;zero light&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; Again, compare variations on gray backgrounds&amp;mdash;#7f7f7f, #5f5f5f &amp; #9f9f9f&amp;mdash;the eight RGB primaries are equidistant from #7f7f7f in a 3-d geometrical representation of RGB color space&amp;mdash;a reminder of the importance of [[background color]] for [[color perception]]. Background = #7f7f7f &lt;table style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#FF0000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#00FF00; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;green&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#0000FF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;blue&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#FFFF00; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#00FFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;green+blue&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#FF00FF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+blue&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#FFFFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green+blue&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#000000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;zero light&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; And let's look at black again, for completeness. (Note that your [[computer display|monitor]] background probably is not perfectly black, as you can see by switching off the monitor.) Background = #000000 &lt;table style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#FF0000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#00FF00; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;green&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#0000FF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;blue&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#FFFF00; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#00FFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;green+blue&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#FF00FF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+blue&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#FFFFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green+blue&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#000000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;zero light&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; == Measurement and reproduction of color == [[Image:Sunset02.jpg|thumb|250px|A color photo of a sunset]] Two different light spectra which have the same effect on the three color receptors in the human eye will be perceived as the same color. This is exemplified by the white light that is emitted by fluorescent lamps, which typically has a spectrum consisting of a few narrow bands, while daylight has a continuous spectrum. The human eye cannot tell the difference between such light spectra just by looking into the light source, although reflected colors from objects can look different. (This is often exploited e.g. to make [[fruit]] or [[tomato]]es look more brightly red in shops.) Similarly, most human color perceptions can be generated by a mixture of three colors called ''primaries''. This is used to reproduce color scenes in photography, printing, television, and other media. There are a number of methods or [[color space]]s for specifying a color in terms of three particular primary colors. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the particular application. No mixture of colors, though, can produce a fully pure color perceived as completely identical to a spectral color, although one can get very close for the longer wavelengths, where the [[CIE XYZ color space|chromaticity diagram]] above has a nearly straight edge. For example, mixing green light (530 nm) and blue light (460 nm) produces cyan light that is slightly desaturated, because response of the red color receptor would be greater to the green and blue light in the mixture than it would be to a pure cyan light at 485 nm that has the same intensity as the mixture of blue and green. Because of this, and because the ''primaries'' in [[color printing]] systems generally are not pure themselves, the colors reproduced are never perfectly saturated colors, and so spectral colors cannot be matched exactly. However, natural scenes rarely contain fully saturated colors, thus such scenes can usually be approximated well by these systems. The range of colors that can be reproduced with a given color reproduction system is called the [[gamut]]. The [[International Commission on Illumination|CIE]] chromaticity diagram can be used to describe the gamut. Another problem with color reproduction systems is connected with the acquisition devices, like cameras or scanners. The characteristics of the color sensors in the devices are often very far from the characteristics of the receptors in the human eye. In effect, acquisition of colors that have some special, often very &quot;jagged&quot;, spectra caused for example by unusual lighting of the photographed scene can be relatively poor. Species that have color receptors different from humans, e. g. [[bird]]s that may have four receptors, can differentiate some colors that look the same to a human. In such cases, a color reproduction system `tuned' to a human with normal color vision may give very inaccurate results for the other observers. The next problem is different color response of different devices. For color information stored and transferred in a digital form, [[color management]] technique based on [[color management|color profiles]] attached to color data and to devices with different color response helps to avoid deformations of the reproduced colors. The technique works only for colors in [[gamut]] of the particular devices, e.g. it can still happen that your monitor is not able to show you real color of your goldfish even if your camera can receive and store the color information properly and vice versa. === Pigments and reflective media === When producing a color print or painting a surface, the applied paint changes the surface; if the surface is then illuminated with [[white]] light (which consists of equal intensities of all visible wavelengths), the reflected light will have a spectrum corresponding to the desired color. If a dab of paint looks red in white light, that is because the reflection of all non-red wavelengths is interrupted by the pigment, such that only red light is reflected into one's eye. === Structural color === Structural color is a property of some surfaces that are scored with fine parallel lines, formed of many thin parallel layers, or otherwise composed of periodic microstructures on the scale of the color's [[wavelength]], to make a [[diffraction grating]]. The grating reflects some wavelengths more than others due to [[interference]] phenomena, causing white light to be reflected as colored light. Variations in the pattern's spacing often give rise to an iridescent effect, as seen in [[peacock]] feathers, films of oil, and [[mother of pearl]], because the reflected color depends upon the viewing angle. Structural color is studied in the field of [[thin-film optics]]. A layman's term that describes particularly the most ordered structural colors is [[iridescence]]. == Footnotes == # {{note|cwe}} The spelling '''''color''''' is predominant in [[American English]], while '''''colour''''' is used in [[Commonwealth English]]. See [[American and British English spelling_differences#-our_.2F_-or|-our/-or]]. == See also == * [[Metamerism (color)|Metamerism]] * [[Chromophore]] * [[List of colors]] * [[Qualia]] * [[Color blindness]] * [[Color temperature]] * [[Color theory]] **[[Color scheme]] * [[Political_party#Colors_and_emblems_for_parties|Colors and emblems for parties]] * [[Political color]] * [[Color psychology]] * [[Synaesthesia]] (the mental connection, almost always arbitrary, between senses, usually involving color) * Goethe's ''[[Theory of Colors]]'' * The [[International Commission on Illumination]] defines colors and color spaces * [[Thermochromics]] * [[Tincture (heraldry)]]. The colors in heraldry. ==External links and sources== * [http://mcsl.rit.edu Munsell Color Science Laboratory] * [http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-55/iss-7/p43.html Comparative Article examining Goethean and Newtonian Color] * [http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/waac/wn/wn21/wn21-3/wn21-308.html Kruithof curve citation] * [http://www.soluxtli.com/edu13.htm Article by technical lighting manufacturer on rod/cone vision, with cites to literature] * [http://www.angelfire.com/psy/reading/Colour.html The Psychology of Colour] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/color/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] * [http://webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/ Why are things colored?] * [http://www.research.ibm.com/people/l/lloydt/color/color.HTM Why Should Engineers and Scientists Be Worried About Color?] * [http://poynterextra.org/cp/colorproject/color.html Color, Contrast &amp; Dimension in News Design] * [http://forum.colourlovers.com/ Forum for Colour Lovers] * [http://members.cox.net/astro7/color.html Color Science] [[Category:Color]] [[Category:Image processing]] [[Category:Vision]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[af:Kleur]] [[ar:لون]] [[ast:Color]] [[ay:Sama]] [[bg:Цвят]] [[bn:বর্ণ (রঙ)]] [[ca:Color]] [[cs:Barva]] [[da:Farve]] [[de:Farbe]] [[es:Color]] [[eo:Koloro]] [[fa:رنگ]] [[fr:Couleur]] [[gl:Cor]] [[ko:색]] [[hr:Boja]] [[io:Koloro]] [[id:Warna]] [[it:Colore]] [[he:צבע]] [[lv:Krāsa]] [[lt:Spalva]] [[hu:Szín]] [[nah:Palli]] [[nl:Kleur]] [[nds:Klöör]] [[ja:色]] [[no:Farge]] [[nn:Farge]] [[pl:Barwa]] [[pt:Cor]] [[ro:Culoare]] [[ru:Цвет]] [[scn:Culuri]] [[simple:Color]] [[sk:Farba]] [[sl:Barva]] [[sr:Боја]] [[fi:Väri]] [[sv:Färg]] [[ta:நிறம்]] [[th:สี]] [[vi:Màu sắc]] [[tr:Renk]] [[wa:Coleur]] [[zh:颜色]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title
on the top of the title pages for ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''. ''Cirth'' is plural and is written with a capital ''C'' when referring to the writing system&amp;mdash;the runes themselves can be called ''cirth''. A single rune is a ''certh''. Many letters have shapes also found in the historical [[Futhark]] runes (used in ''[[The Hobbit]]''), but their sound values are only similar in a few of the vowels. Rather, the system of assignment of sound values is much more systematic in the Cirth than in the historical runes (e.g., voiced variants of a voiceless sound are expressed by an additional stroke). A similar system has been proposed for a few historical runes (e.g. ''p'' &amp;#5832; and ''w'' &amp;#5817; as variants of ''b'' &amp;#5842;), but is in any case much more obscure. The Cirth are not part of the [[Unicode]] Standard. However the [[ConScript Unicode Registry]] has defined the U+E080&amp;ndash;E0FF range of the Unicode &quot;Private Use Area&quot; for Cirth. == See also == * [[Tengwar]] * [[Sarati]] * [[Languages of Middle-earth]] == External links == * [http://www.cirth.de Cirth.de - Explore the appearances of runes in Tolkien's work] * [http://ring-lord.tripod.com/cirth/index.htm Dan Smith's Cirth article] Information and font to download * [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_Elven_writing_systems History of Elven writing systems] * [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n1642/n1642.htm Official proposal to encode Cirth in Unicode] * [http://www.evertype.com/standards/csur/cirth.html Cirth proposal for ConScript Unicode Registry] {{Middle-earth}} [[Category:Middle-earth languages]] [[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]] [[Category:Artificial scripts]] [[de:Cirth]] [[fr:Cirth]] [[ja:キアス]] [[sl:Kirt]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Connection between Poles and Vandals</title> <id>7690</id> <revision> <id>40918135</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T21:54:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Piotrus</username> <id>59002</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[Middle Ages]] and later there persisted a common false belief that the [[Vandals]] were ancestors of [[Poles]] or [[Slavic peoples]]. That belief originated probably because of two facts: first, confusion of the [[Venedes]] with Vandals and secondly, because both Venedes and Vandals in ancient times lived in areas later settled by Poles. In [[796]] in the ''Annales Alamanici'' one can find an excerpt saying ''Pipinus ... perrexit in regionem Wandalorum, et ipsi Wandali venerunt obvium'' (&quot;Pippen went to regions of Vandals and the Vandals came to meet him&quot;). In ''Annales Sangallenses'' the same raid (however put in [[795]] is summarised in one short message ''Wandali conquisiti sunt'' (&quot;Vandals were destroyed&quot;)). This means that early medieval writers gave the name of Vandals to [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]]. Very soon after that in chronicles the name &quot;Vandal&quot; started to mean &quot;Slavs&quot; (eg. in the same ''Annales Alamanici'' about a raid of [[Charlemagne]] in the country of the [[Polabian]] Slavs: ''perrexit in regionem Wandalorum''). In [[1056]] ''Annales Augustani'' mentioned defeat of Germans with Slavic [[Lucics]] (?) as ''exercitus Saxonum a Wandalis trucidatur'' (&quot;an army of Saxons is destroyed by Vandals&quot;). In the chronicle of [[Adam of Bremen]] there is a longer sentence: :''Sclavania igitur, amplissima Germaniae provintia, a Winulis incolitur, qui olim dicti sum Wandali; decies maior esse fertur nostra Saxonia, presertim si Boemiam et eos, qui trans Oddaram sunt, Polanos, quaia nec habitu nec lingua discrepant, in partem adiecreris Sclavaniae'' that is: &quot;Slavania (Slavic lands), the biggest from Germanic countries, is inhabited by Winnils, who were formerly called Vandals. It is supposed to be bigger than our Saxony, especially when it would include Bohemians and Polans across the Oder, since they are no different in customs and language&quot;. In 983-993 Gerhard of Augsburg in ''Miracula Sancti Oudalrici'' (about saint Udalric) called [[Mieszko I]] ''dux Wandalorum, Misico nomine''. Probably the first man who directly mentioned supposedly Vandalic roots of Poland was the Polish chronicler [[Wincenty Kadlubek]] in the [[12th century]], who wrote that Poles were once called Vandals, because they live next to the river Vandalus ([[Vistula]]), and that river received its name from the mythical queen [[Vanda]] who committed suicide by drowning in it. A similar story was told by the author of ''Wielkopolska chronicle'' from the [[14th century]], and then Dzierzwa from [[Krakow]] in the [[14th century]], who tried to give Slavic etymology to all known Vandalic names, like deriving ''Vanda'' from ''węda'', that is fishing-rod. In [[12th century]] also Gerwazy from Tilbury, English writer in ''Otia imperialia'' wrote that citizens of Poland are called and are calling themselves Vandals. Similar thoughts gave German historian Albert Krantz ([[1450]]-[[1517]]) in ''Wandalia sive historia de Wandalorum vera origine, variis gentibus, crebris a aptria migrationibus, regnis item, etc'' where who consequently connected history of ancient Vandals and Slavs. The same was repeated by Falvio Blondi from Italy, and then [[Maciej Miechowita]] in ''Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis...'' from [[1517]]. Other arguments that Vandals were Polish ancestors were supplied by Marcin Bielski in [[15th century]]. The first Polish historian to deny any connection to Vandals and to criticise that idea was Marcin [[Kromer]], bishop of [[Warmia]], author of ''De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum'' from [[1555]]. ==External links== *[http://www.pilot.pl/big_pilot.php3?Z_CITY_NAME=wan*&amp;form_t=1&amp;lang=pl List of toponyms in Poland beginning with Wand-, Want-, Wank, etc.] [[Category:Prehistory of Poland (until 966)]] [[Category:History of Europe]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clarence Johnson</title> <id>7691</id> <revision> <id>41243471</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:49:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AKGhetto</username> <id>103207</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up and re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the aeronautical engineer. For Atlanta Braves outfielder Kelly Johnson, go [[Kelly Johnson (baseball)|here]].'' [[Image:Kelly-Johnson Electra.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Kelly Johnson participated in the design of the [[Lockheed L-10 Electra]], testing a model of the design in the [[wind tunnel]] of the [[University of Michigan]].]] '''Clarence Leonard &quot;Kelly&quot; Johnson''' ([[February 27]], [[1910]] - [[December 21]], [[1990]]) was an [[aircraft]] [[engineer]] and [[aeronautics|aeronautical]] innovator&amp;mdash;with [[Burt Rutan]], widely considered one of the best (and certainly one of the most prolific). He worked for [[Lockheed]] for more than four decades, playing a leading role in the design of over forty aircraft. Johnson was born in the remote mining town of [[Ishpeming, Michigan]], to immigrant Swedish parents. He designed his first aircraft, for which he won a prize, before he was thirteen. He worked his way through school, first at Flint Junior College, and then at the [[University of Michigan]] at Ann Arbor. Johnson, with a master's degree under his belt, joined the Lockheed Company in 1933 as a tool designer at a salary of $83 a month. After assignments as flight test engineer, stress analyst, aerodynamicist, and weight engineer, he became chief research engineer in 1938. In 1952, Johnson was named chief engineer of Lockheed's [[Burbank, California]] plant which later became the Lockheed-California Company. In 1956 he was chosen for the post of Vice President of Research and Development. He became Vice President of Advanced Development Projects (ADP) in 1958. The first ADP offices were nearly uninhabitable; the stench from a nearby plastic factory was so vile one of the engineers began answering the phone &quot;skonk works!&quot; (Big Barnsmell's Skonk Works &amp;ndash; spelled with an &quot;o&quot; &amp;ndash; was where Kickapoo Joy Juice was brewed in the comic strip [[Lil Abner|&quot;L'il Abner&quot;]] by [[Al Capp]].) His famed 'down-to-brass-tacks' management style was summed up by his motto, &quot;Be quick, be quiet, and be on time.&quot; He joined Lockheed's board of directors in 1964 and became a senior vice president of the corporation in 1969. He officially retired from Lockheed in 1975 but continued as a consultant at the Skunk Works. He was succeeded by [[Ben Rich]]. He left the Board of Directors in 1980. In June of 1983, the Lockheed Rye Canyon Research facility was renamed Kelly Johnson Research and Development Center, Lockheed-California Company, in his honor for 50 years of service to Lockheed. Kelly Johnson was first married to Althea Louise Young in 1937, who died in December 1969. His second marriage was in May 1971, to MaryEllen Elberta Meade of New York, who died on [[October 13]], [[1980]], at 38 years old. Johnson then married Nancy Powers Horrigan in November, 1980. He wrote an [[autobiography]] titled ''Kelly: More Than My Share of it All'', ISBN 0874744911, first published in 1985. Johnson died at the age of 80 at St Joseph Medical Center; after an illness that lasted for several years. He is buried at Forest Lawn (Hollywood Hills), Los Angeles, California. ==Aircraft contributions== Kelly Johnson contributed to the design of the following Lockheed aircraft: [[Image:Kelly-Johnson U-2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Kelly Johnson with a variant of the U-2.]] * Orion 9D * [[Lockheed L-10 Electra|Model 10 and Model 12 Electra/XC-35/C-36/Y1C-37]] * Model 14 Super Electra * Model 18 Lodestar * [[PV-1 Ventura|PV-1 Ventura/B-37]] * [[P-38 Lightning]] * [[Lockheed Constellation|Constellation
he type and current. There is a substantial variation in forward current of LEDs, based on the manufacturing process. They are often binned, to lower the variation in sensitive applications. Referring to the I-V characteristics image, in the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the &amp;micro;A range) for all reverse voltages upto a point called the peak-inverse-voltage (PIV). Beyond this point a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes the device to be damaged along with a large increase in current. For special purpose diodes like the avalanche or zener diodes, the concept of PIV is not applicable since they have a deliberate breakdown beyond a known reverse current such that the reverse voltage is &quot;clamped&quot; to a known value (called zener voltage). The devices however have a maximum limit to the current and power in the zener or avalanche region. ===Shockley diode equation=== The ''Shockley ideal diode equation'' (named after [[William Shockley|William Bradford Shockley]]) can be used to approximate the p-n diode's I-V characteristic. :&lt;math&gt;I=I_\mathrm{S} \left( {e^{qV_\mathrm{D} \over nkT}-1} \right)\,&lt;/math&gt;, where ''I'' is the diode current, ''I''&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; is a scale factor called the ''saturation current'', ''q'' is the charge on an [[electron]] (the ''elementary charge''), ''k'' is [[Boltzmann's constant]], ''T'' is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction and ''V''&lt;sub&gt;D&lt;/sub&gt; is the voltage across the diode. The term ''kT''/''q'' is the ''thermal voltage'', sometimes written ''V''&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;, and is approximately 26 mV at room temperature. ''n'' (sometimes omitted) is the ''emission coefficient'', which varies from about 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material. It is possible to use shorter notation. Putting :&lt;math&gt;\frac{k T}{q} = V_\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;n=1&lt;/math&gt; the relationship of the diode becomes: :&lt;math&gt;I=I_\mathrm{S} \left( {e^{V_\mathrm{D} \over V_\mathrm{T}}-1} \right)\,&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;V_\mathrm{T} = 26 mV&lt;/math&gt; (at room temperature) is a known constant. == Types of semiconductor diode == {{float_begin|side=right}} |- align = &quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Small diode symbol.png]] |width = &quot;25&quot;| | [[Image:LED symbol.png]] |width = &quot;25&quot;| | [[Image:Zener diode symbol.png]] |width = &quot;25&quot;| | [[Image:Schottky diode symbol.png]] |- align = &quot;center&quot; | Diode | | Light-Emitting&lt;br/&gt; Diode | | Zener&lt;br/&gt; Diode | | Schottky&lt;br/&gt; Diode {{float_end|caption=Some diode symbols}} There are several types of semiconductor junction diodes: ; Normal (p-n) diodes : which operate as described above. Usually made of doped [[silicon]] or, more rarely, [[germanium]]. Before the development of modern silicon power rectifier diodes, [[cuprous oxide]] and later [[selenium]] was used; its low efficiency gave it a much higher forward voltage drop (typically 1.4 - 1.7 V per &quot;cell,&quot; with multiple cells stacked to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would require. ; '[[Gold]] doped' diodes : The gold causes 'minority carrier suppression.' This lowers the effective capacitance of the diode, allowing it to operate at signal frequencies. A typical example is the 1N914. [[Germanium]] and Schottky diodes are also fast like this, as are bipolar [[transistor]]s 'degenerated' to act as diodes. Power supply diodes are made with the expectation of working at a maximum of 2.5 x 400 Hz (sometimes called 'French power' by Americans), and so are not useful above a kilohertz. ; [[Zener diode]]s : ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ziːn&amp;#601;r/}}) Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see below). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or [[Transorb]], a registered trademark). They are named for Dr. [[Clarence Melvin Zener]] of Southern Illinois University, inventor of the device. ; [[Avalanche diode]]s : diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the ''avalanche effect''. This occurs when the reverse electric field across the p-n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the 'mean free path' of the electrons, so there are collisions between them on the way out. The only practical difference is that the two types have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities. ;; [[Transient]] voltage suppression (TVS) diodes ;: These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from [[electrostatic discharge]]s. Their p-n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage. ; [[Photodiode]]s : Semiconductors are subject to optical [[charge carrier]] generation and therefore most are packaged in light blocking material. If they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, their photosensitivity can be utilized. Photodiodes can be used as [[solar cell]]s, and in photometry. ; [[Light-emitting diode]]s ([[LED]]s) : In a diode formed from a [[Direct_bandgap|direct band-gap]] semiconductor, such as [[gallium arsenide]], carriers that cross the junction emit [[photons]] when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, [[wavelength]]s (or colors) from the [[infrared]] to the near [[ultraviolet]] may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the [[wavelength]] of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 to violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs are monochromatic; 'white' LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow [[scintillator]] coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an [[opto-isolator]]. ; [[Laser diode]]s : When an LED-like structure is contained in a [[optical cavity|resonant cavity]] formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a [[laser]] can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in [[optical storage]] devices and for high speed [[optical communication]]. ; [[Schottky diode]]s : have a lower forward voltage drop than a normal PN junction, because they are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage [[Clamper|clamping applications]] and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss [[rectifiers]] although their reverse leakage current is generally much higher than non Schottky rectifiers. Schottky diodes are [[majority carrier]] devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down most normal diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than PN diodes and this contributes towards their high switching speed and their suitability in high speed circuits and RF devices such as mixers and detectors. ; [[Snap-off]] or 'step recovery' diodes : The term 'step recovery' relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an [[SRD]] and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can therefore provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers. ; [[Esaki]] or [[tunnel diode]]s : these have a region of operation showing [[negative resistance]] caused by quantum tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. These diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation. ; [[Gunn diode]]s : these are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of [[negative resistance|negative differential resistance]]. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency [[microwave]] [[electronic oscillator|oscillators]] to be built. ; [[Peltier–Seebeck effect|Peltier diodes]] : are used as sensors, [[heat engines]] for [[thermoelectric cooling]]. Charge carriers absorb and emit their band gap energies as heat.&lt;br /&gt;There are other types of diodes, which all share the basic function of allowing electrical current to flow in only one direction, but with different methods of construction. ; Point-contact diode : This works the same as the junction semiconductor diodes described above, but its construction is simpler. A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a co
rea of 433 square kilometers. Grenada, known as the Spice Isle because of its production of nutmeg and mace, is the largest at 310 square kilometers, or about the size of Detroit. The island is oval in shape and framed by a jagged southern coastline; its maximum width is thirty-four kilometers, and its maximum length is nineteen kilometers. St. George's, the capital and the nation's most important harbor, is favorably situated near a lagoon on the southwestern coast. Of all the islands belonging to Grenada, only two are of consequence: Carriacou, with a population of a few thousand, and its neighbor Petit Martinique, roughly 40 kilometers northeast of Grenada and populated by some 700 inhabitants. Part of the volcanic chain in the Lesser Antilles arc, Grenada and its possessions generally vary in elevation from under 300 meters to over 600 meters above sea level. Grenada is more rugged and densely foliated than its outlying possessions, but other geographical conditions are more similar. Grenada's landmass rises from a narrow, coastal plain in a generally north-south trending axis of ridges and narrow valleys. Mount St. Catherine is the highest peak at 840 meters. Although many of the rocks and soils are of volcanic origin, the volcanic cones dotting Grenada are long dormant. Some of the drainage features on Grenada remain from its volcanic past. There are a few crater lakes, the largest of which is Grand Etang. The swift upper reaches of rivers, which occasionally overflow and cause flooding and landslides, generally cut deeply into the conic slopes. By contrast, many of the water courses in the lowlands tend to be sluggish and meandering. The abundance of water is primarily caused by the tropical, wet climate. Yearly precipitation, largely generated by the warm and moisture-laden northeasterly trade winds, varies from more than 350 centimeters on the windward mountainsides to less than 150 centimeters in the lowlands. The greatest monthly totals are recorded throughout Grenada from June through November, the months when tropical storms and hurricanes are most likely to occur. Rainfall is less pronounced from December through May, when the equatorial low-pressure system moves south. Similarly, the highest humidities, usually close to 80 percent, are recorded during the rainy months, and values from 68 to 78 percent are registered during the drier period. Temperatures averaging 29°C are constant throughout the year, however, with slightly higher readings in the lowlands. Nevertheless, diurnal ranges within a 24-hour period are appreciable: between 26°C and 32°C during the day and between 19°C and 24°C at night. ; Area: :* Total: 340 [[Square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] :* Land: 340 km&amp;sup2; ; Maritime claims: :* Exclusive economic zone: 200 [[Nautical mile|nm]] :* Territorial sea: 12 nm ; Land use: :* Arable land: 15% :* Permanent crops: 18% :* Permanent pastures: 3% :* Forests and woodland: 9% :* Other: 55% (1993 est.) ; Irrigated land: : NA km&amp;sup2; ; Natural hazards: : Lies on edge of hurricane belt; hurricane season lasts from June to November ; Environment - current issues: : NA ; Environment - international agreements: : Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, [[Law of the Sea]], Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling ; Geography - note: : The administration of the islands of the Grenadines group is divided between Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Grenada ==Sources== *[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies] *''[[CIA World Factbook]]'' [[Category:Geography by country]] [[es:Geografía de Granada]] [[pt:Geografia de Granada]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Grenada</title> <id>12131</id> <revision> <id>35871181</id> <timestamp>2006-01-19T22:46:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Darwinek</username> <id>107928</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Though most of [[Grenada]]'s [[population]] is of [[Africa]]n descent, there is some trace of the early [[Arawak]] and [[Carib]] Indians. A few East [[India]]ns and a small community of the descendants of early [[Europe]]an settlers reside in Grenada. About 50% of Grenada's population is under the age of 30. [[English language|English]] is the [[official language]]; only a few people still speak [[Antillean Creole|French patois]]. A more significant reminder of Grenada's historical link with France is the strength of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] to which about 60% of Grenadians belong. The [[Anglican Church]] is the largest Protestant denomination. '''Population:''' 89,018 (July 2000 est.) '''Age structure:''' &lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:'' 38% (male 17,106; female 16,634) &lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 58% (male 27,267; female 24,356) &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 4% (male 1,653; female 2,002) (2000 est.) '''Population growth rate:''' -0.36% (2000 est.) '''[[Birth rate]]:''' 20.96 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''[[Death]] rate:''' 8.02 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Net [[migration]] rate:''' -16.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Sex ratio:''' &lt;br&gt;''at birth:'' 1.02 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:'' 1.03 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 1.12 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 0.83 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.) '''[[Infant mortality]] rate:''' 14.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) '''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:''' &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 64.52 years &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 62.74 years &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 66.31 years (2000 est.) '''Total [[fertility]] rate:''' 2.42 children born/woman (2000 est.) '''[[Nationality]]:''' &lt;br&gt;''noun:'' Grenadian(s) &lt;br&gt;''adjective:'' Grenadian '''Ethnic groups:''' [[blacks]] 82% [[Mulatto]] 12% [[South Asia]]ns (East [[India]]ns)3% and [[Europe]]ans 2.9%, trace [[Arawak]]/[[Carib]] [[Amerindian]] '''Religions:''' [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 53%, [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] 13.8%, other [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 33.2% '''[[Language]]s:''' English (official), French patois '''[[Literacy]]:''' &lt;br&gt;''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 98% &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 98% &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 98% (1970 est.) [[Category:Demographics by country|Grenada]] [[Category:Grenadan society]] [[es:Demografía de Granada]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Grenada</title> <id>12132</id> <revision> <id>34547460</id> <timestamp>2006-01-09T23:45:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Electionworld</username> <id>201260</id> </contributor> <comment>De-CIA-zation, step 1</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Grenada}} '''Politics of Grenada''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[monarchy]], whereby the [[List of Prime Ministers of Grenada|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Grenada]] is an independent country and [[Commonwealth Realm]]. It is a parliamentary democracy whose political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association. Grenada is a member of the eastern Caribbean court system. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English common law. [[Grenada]] is governed under a parliamentary system based on the British model; it has a governor general, a prime minister and a cabinet, and a bicameral Parliament with an elected House of Representatives and an appointed Senate. Citizens enjoy a wide range of civil and political rights guaranteed by the constitution. Grenada's constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully. Citizens exercise this right through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Grenada has two significant political parties, both moderate: the [[New National Party of Grenada|New National Party]] (conservative) and the [[National_Democratic_Congress_(Grenada)|National Democratic Congress]] (liberal). Minor parties include the left-of-center Maurice Bishop Patriotic Movement (MBPM, organized by the pro-Bishop survivors of the October 1983 anti-Bishop coup) and the populist GULP of former Prime Minister Gairy. At the [[Grenada parliamentary election, 2003|November 2003]] election, the NNP government of Prime Minister [[Keith Mitchell]] was narrowly re-elected. Security in Grenada is maintained by the 650 members of the Royal Grenada Police Force (RGPF), which included an 80-member paramilitary special services unit (SSU) and a 30-member coast guard. The U.S. Army and the U.S. Coast Guard provide periodic training and material support for the SSU and the coast guard. ==Executive branch== [[Image:ac.thequeen.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of Grenada]] As head of state, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is represented in [[Grenada]] by a governor general who acts on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet. The leader of the majority party serves as Prime Minister and head of government. The cabinet consists members, including the [[Prime Minister]] and ministers of executive departments. They answer politically to the House of Assembly. The Governor General appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition. The Governor General appoints the other justices with the advice of a judic
stamp>2006-02-28T21:45:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>149.152.216.156</ip> </contributor> <comment>Added Madame Arno</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arno''' can refer to: * the [[Arno River]] in Italy * [[Arno Bay, South Australia]] * the singer [[Arno Hintjens]] * the American cartoonist [[Peter Arno]] * the German sculptor [[Arno Breker]] * [[Madame Arno]], Parisian artist and fighter. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arno River</title> <id>3240</id> <revision> <id>38705794</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T02:16:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: hu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Arno river. For the article about the singer, see [[Arno Hintjens]]''. [[Image:Arno_river.jpg|thumbnail||300px|Arno River in Florence, Italy]] The '''Arno''' is a [[river]] in the [[Tuscany]] region of [[Italy]], The river rises on [[Mount Falterona]] (1654 m) in the in the [[Casentino]] area) of the [[Apennines]], and takes a southward curve. The river turns to the west near [[Arezzo]] passing through [[Florence]], [[Empoli]] and [[Pisa, Italy|Pisa]], flowing into the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] at [[Marina di Pisa]]. With a length of 241 km, it is the largest river in the region. Its tributaries are : the Sieve (60 km), Bisenzio (49 km), Era, Elsa and Pesa. It crosses [[Florence, Italy|Florence]], where it passes below the [[Ponte Vecchio]] and the Santa Trinita bridge (built by [[Bartolomeo Ammannati]], but inspired by [[Michelangelo]]). The river [[flood]]ed this city regularly in historical times, the last occasion being the famous flood of [[1966]], with 4,500 [[cubic metre|m³]]/[[second|s]] after a rain of 437.2 [[millimetre|mm]] in Badia Agnano and 190 mm in Florence, in only 24 [[hour]]s. [[Image:Firenze.Arno.jpg|thumb|left|200px|&lt;small&gt;Banks of the Arno, seen from Santa Trinita bridge, Florence&lt;/small&gt;]] The flow rate of the Arno is irregular. It is sometimes described as having a torrent-like behaviour, because it can easily go from almost dry to near-flood in a few days. At the point where the Arno leaves the Appennines, flow measurements can vary between 0.56 m³/s and 3,540 m³/s. New [[dam]]s built upstream of Florence have greatly alleviated the problem in recent years. [[Category:Rivers of Italy]] [[da:Arno]] [[de:Arno (Fluss)]] [[es:Arno]] [[eo:Rivero Arno]] [[fr:Arno]] [[it:Arno]] [[hu:Arno]] [[nl:Arno (rivier)]] [[no:Arno]] [[pl:Arno (rzeka)]] [[ru:Арно (река)]] [[sv:Arno]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aveiro</title> <id>3244</id> <revision> <id>39998549</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T11:20:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.136.173.41</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AVR.png|thumb|Coat of Arms]] [[Image:Aveirobynight.jpg|thumb|align=right|Aveiro streets by night]] [[Image:Catedral_de_Aveiro.jpg|Sé Catedral de Aveiro|thumb|align=right|Sé Catedral de Aveiro]] [[image:Aveiro.jpg|thumb|right|Aveiro and one of its canals.]] '''Aveiro''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|a.'v&amp;#592;j.&amp;#638;u}}/) is a municipality in [[Portugal]] with a total area of 200.0 [[km²]] and a total population of 73,521 inhabitants. The municipality is composed of 14 parishes, and is located in the District of [[Aveiro_(district)|Aveiro]]. The present Mayor is Élio Maia ([[Social Democrat Party|Partido_Social_Democrata]]) and the President of the Municipal Assembly is Carlos Manuel da Costa Candal ([[Portuguese Socialist Party|Socialist]]). The municipal holiday is the second [[May 12]]. ==Parishes== * Aradas * Cacia * Eirol * Eixo * Esgueira * Glória * Nariz * Nossa Senhora de Fátima * Oliveirinha * Requeixo * Santa Joana * São Bernardo * São Jacinto * Vera Cruz ==City's Information== The seat of the municipality is the city of Aveiro, with about 50,000 inhabitants in the 5 urban parishes. Located on the shore of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], Aveiro is an industrial city with an important [[seaport]]. The city of Aveiro is also the Capital of the District of [[Aveiro_(district)|Aveiro]]. Aveiro is known in Portugal for its traditional sweets, the [[ovos-moles]] and the [[trouxas de ovos]], both made from eggs. It is sometimes called &quot;The Portuguese [[Venice]]&quot; because of its canals and boats that remind one of the Italian city of Venice. As the city faced similar problems when it tried to conquer the water. The city dates back at least to the 10th century when it was known by it's first Latin name of Aviarium, literally, &quot;a gathering place or preserve of birds&quot;. The Moors invaded and then held it until the 14th century, after which it became popular with Portuguese royalty. In the winter of 1575, a terrible storm closed the entrance to its port, ending a thriving trade in metals and tiles. The same storm also created a reef barrier at the Atlantic Ocean. The city is also famous for its production of salt and for its seaweed harvest which is used for fertilizer in the area. João Alfonso, one of the discoverers of the Newfoundland fisheries, was born there. The city is also famous for the Convento de Jesus (now known as the city museum), built in the 15th century, which contains the tomb of the daughter of Alfonso V, St. Joana, who died in 1490. The presence of this royal personage, beatified in 1673, proved to be of great benefit when she bequeathed her valuable estate to the convent. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the convent housed a school of embroidery, which produced many of the sumptuous pieces kept in the museum. Aveiro hosted 3 games of the [[2004 European Football Championship]]. The [[Universidade de Aveiro|University of Aveiro]] was created in 1973 and is considered one of the most dynamic and innovative universities of Portugal, attracting thousands of students to the city. The University has about 430 professors (with Ph.D. degree), 11,000 undergraduate students and 1,300 post-graduate students. ==See also== *[[Centro, Portugal]] *[[Duchy of Aveiro]] *[[Aveiro (district)|District of Aveiro]] *[[Mário Sacramento]] ==External links== [http://www.portalaveiro.com/ official Aveiro website] [http://www.cm-aveiro.pt/ Town Hall official website] [http://www.ua.pt/ University of Aveiro] [http://www.ovosmoles.net/ Portal Ovos Moles ] {{Municipalities of Aveiro}} [[Category:Cities in Portugal]] [[Category:Municipalities of Portugal]] [[ca:Aveiro]] [[de:Aveiro (Hauptstadt)]] [[is:Aveiro]] [[it:Aveiro]] [[nl:Aveiro (stad)]] [[pt:Aveiro]] [[ro:Aveiro]] [[ru:Авейру]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anthony the Great</title> <id>3246</id> <revision> <id>41455363</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T13:16:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>212.76.37.164</ip> </contributor> <comment>pl: correction</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Anthony of Padua]]''. [[Image:StAnthony.jpg|frame|Saint Anthony the Great, Father of all Monks]] '''Saint Anthony the Great''' (251 - 356), also known as '''Saint Anthony of [[Egypt]]''', '''Saint Anthony of the Desert''', '''Saint Anthony the [[Anchorite]]''', and '''The Father of All Monks''', was a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[saint]] and the outstanding leader among the [[Desert Fathers]], who were Christian [[monasticism|monks]] in the [[Egypt|Egyptian]] desert in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. His [[feast day]] is celebrated on [[January 17]]th in some churches, but celebrated on [[Month of Tobi|Tobi]] 22 ([[January 31]]) in the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Coptic Catholic Church]] which has the closest cultural and geographical ties to him. ==Saint Anthony by Athanasius== Most of what we know about the life of St Anthony is in the Greek ''[[vita]]'' by [[Athanasius]] (d. 373), which soon circulated in Latin. Several surviving homilies and epistles of varying authenticity provide scant autobiographical detail. Anthony was born near [[Heraclea]] in [[Upper Egypt]] in 251 to wealthy parents. When he was twenty years old, his parents died and left him with the care of his unmarried sister. In 285, he decided to follow the words of [[Christ]] who had said: &quot;If you want to be perfect, go, sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasures in heaven; and come, follow Me.&quot; ([[Matthew]] 19:21). Anthony gave his wealth to the poor and needy, and placed his sister with a group of Christian virgins, a sort of proto-nunnery at the time. Christian [[monasticism]] had not yet been established, so those who wanted to live an ascetical life retired separately to isolated locations on the outskirts of cities. The pagan ascetic hermits and loosely organized [[Cenobitic|cenobitic communities]] that the Hellenized Jewish philosopher [[Philo of Alexandria]] described as the ''[[Therapeutae]]'' in the first century, were long established in the harsh environments by the [[Lake Mareotis]] close to [[Alexandria]], and in other less-accessible regions, Philo understood: for &quot;this class of persons may be met with in many places, for both Greece and barbarian countries want to enjoy whatever is perfectly good.&quot; (Philo,''De vita contemplativa'' written ca. AD 10) By the 2nd century there were also famous Christian ascetics, such as [[Saint Thecla]]. Saint Anthony decided to follow this tradition and headed out into the alkaline desert region called the Nitra in Latin ([[Wadi al-Natrun]] today), about 60 miles west of Alexandria, some of the most rugged terrain of the [[Western Desert]]. According to Athanasius, the devil fought St Anthony by afflicting him with boredom, laziness, and the phantoms of women, which he overcame by the power of prayer, providing a theme for Ch
ent>Categorized</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sega Dreamcast]] {{R from misspelling}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dalek</title> <id>9140</id> <revision> <id>42163871</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:10:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sean Black</username> <id>294714</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Villains category is for characters, not races</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Dalek (disambiguation)]].'' {{Doctorwhorace| image=[[Image:Daleknew.jpg|200px]]&lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;A Dalek from the 2005 series| name=Daleks| type=Mutants in mechanical shells| affiliation=[[Dalek Empire]]| planet=[[Skaro]]| start=[[The Daleks]]| }} The '''Daleks''' (pronounced &quot;DAH-lecks&quot; or &quot;DAH-licks&quot;; [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|'d&amp;#593;&amp;#720;l&amp;#603;ks}}) are a [[fiction]]al [[extraterrestrial life in culture|extraterrestrial]] race of [[mutant]]s from the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction on television|science fiction television]] series ''[[Doctor Who]]''. The mutated descendants of the [[Kaled]] people (referred to in [[The Daleks|the first Dalek serial]] as &quot;Dals&quot;) of the planet [[Skaro]], they travel around in [[tank]]-like mechanical casings, a ruthless race bent on universal conquest and domination, utterly without pity, compassion or remorse. They are also, collectively, the greatest alien adversaries of the [[Time Lord]] known as the [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|Doctor]]. Their most infamous [[catchphrase]] is &quot;EX-TER-MIN-ATE!&quot;, with each syllable individually screeched in a frantic electronic voice ([[Media:Dalek_Exterminate_all_humans.ogg|download sample]]). The Daleks were created by writer [[Terry Nation]] and [[BBC]] designer [[Raymond Cusick]] and were first introduced in December 1963 in the second ''Doctor Who'' serial. They became an immediate hit with the viewing audience, featuring in many subsequent serials. They have become synonymous with ''Doctor Who'' and their behaviour and catchphrases are part of British [[popular culture]]. The word &quot;Dalek&quot; has entered the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' and other major dictionaries (the ''[[Collins Dictionary]]'' defines it rather broadly as &quot;any of a set of fictional robot-like creations that are aggressive, mobile, and produce rasping staccato speech&quot;). It is also a [[trademark]], having first been registered by the BBC in 1964 to protect its lucrative range of Dalek merchandise. The term is sometimes used in a [[metaphor]]ical sense to describe people, usually figures in authority, who act like robots unable to break their programming. [[John Birt]], the controversial ex-[[Director-General of the BBC]], was called a &quot;croak-voiced Dalek&quot; by playwright [[Dennis Potter]] in August 1993. The Daleks even appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by [[Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon|Lord Snowdon]]. ==Physical characteristics== [[Image:Dalekattack.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A Dalek mutant attacks a soldier (from ''[[Resurrection of the Daleks]]'').]] Externally, Daleks resemble man-sized salt or pepper shakers, with a single mechanical eyestalk in a rotating dome, a gunstalk containing a directed energy weapon (or &quot;[[death ray]]&quot;), and a telescoping [[robot]] arm. Usually, the arm is fitted with a device for manipulation that, to the amusement of generations of viewers, resembles a [[plunger]], but various episodes have shown Daleks whose arms end in a tray, a mechanical claw, or other specialised equipment like [[flamethrower]]s. In ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'', the manipulator arm, in addition to its technology interfacing abilities, was able to kill a man by crushing his skull. The casings are made of a material that has been called [[Fictional element|dalekanium]]. In the [[parallel universe|alternate future]] of ''[[Day of the Daleks]]'', dalekanium is an unstable explosive that can penetrate Dalek casings. The two may be the same, or the term may simply be a [[neologism]] to describe a product of the Daleks. The lower shell is covered with many hemispherical protrusions or &quot;Dalek bumps&quot;. These have been described as being a sensor array, but in the episode ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'' they are part of a self-destruct system. Dalek casings also tend to explode spectacularly if they are breached by gunfire, as was seen multiple times during the series. The creatures inside their &quot;travel machines&quot; are depicted as soft and repulsive in appearance, but still vicious even without their mechanical armour. The first glimpse of the mutant in ''[[The Daleks]]'' was merely a claw peeking out from under a coat. The actual appearance of the mutant has varied, but in most cases it is an [[octopus]]-like multi-tentacled creature. The Doctor described the Daleks as &quot;little green blobs in bonded polycarbide [[armour]]&quot; in ''[[Remembrance of the Daleks]]'', where a Dalek mutant was seen to have a [[bionics|bionically]] augmented claw. In ''[[Resurrection of the Daleks]]'' a Dalek creature, separated from its casing, attacks and kills a human soldier. However, as the creature inside is rarely seen on screen, the misconception that Daleks are wholly mechanical robots exists, a mistake the series itself has made on occasion. The interdependence of biological and mechanical components makes the Daleks a type of [[cyborg]]. The voice of a Dalek is electronic, the Dalek creature being apparently unable to make much more than squeaking sounds when out of its casing. Daleks also have a [[radio]] communicator built into their shells, and emit an alarm to summon other nearby Daleks if the casing is opened from outside. The Dalek's eyepiece is its most vulnerable spot, and impairing its vision often leads to a blind firing of its weapon. [[Image:remembranceofthedaleks.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A Dalek climbs stairs (from ''Remembrance of the Daleks'')]] Due to their gliding motion Daleks were notoriously unable to tackle [[stairs]], which made them easy to overcome under the right circumstances. An oft-copied cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' pictured a group of Daleks at the foot of a flight of stairs with the caption, &quot;This certainly buggers our plan to conquer the Universe&quot;. In a scene from the serial ''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]'', the Doctor and companions escape from Dalek pursuers by climbing into a ceiling duct. The Doctor ([[Tom Baker]]) calls down, &quot;If you're supposed to be the superior race of the universe, why don't you try climbing after us? Bye bye!&quot; The Daleks generally make up for their lack of mobility with overwhelming firepower. A joke around [[science fiction convention]]s went, &quot;Real Daleks don't climb stairs; they level the building.&quot; In ''[[The Dalek Invasion of Earth]]'' (1964) a Dalek emerges from the waters of the [[River Thames]], indicating that they are [[amphibious vehicle|amphibious]] to a degree. ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' (1988) showed that they can hover using a sort of limited [[antigravity]] — first implied in earlier serials such as ''[[The Chase (Doctor Who)|The Chase]]'' (1965) and ''[[Revelation of the Daleks]]'' (1985) — but their awkward forms still limit their mobility in tight quarters. Despite this, the Daleks' supposed inability to climb stairs is still frequently referred to for humorous effect by journalists covering the series. The 2005 series episodes ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'' and ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'' featured Daleks hovering and flying, the latter also showing them flying through the vacuum of space. In the ''Dalek'' episode, the Dalek said &quot;Elevate&quot; before hovering, in the same way it would say &quot;Exterminate&quot; before exterminating. ===Costume details=== [[Image:Dalek from BBC.jpg|thumb|200px|A Dalek, as seen in ''[[Day of the Daleks]]''.]] The Daleks were actually operated from inside by short operators who had to manipulate their eyestalks, domes and arms, as well as flashing the lights on their heads in sync with the actors supplying their voices. The Dalek cases were built in two pieces; once an operator stepped into the lower section the top would be lowered onto him. The operators looked out between the circular louvres just beneath the dome that were lined with mesh to conceal their faces. Unfortunately, as well as being hot and cramped, the Dalek casings also muffled external sounds, making it difficult for the operators to hear the director's commands or studio dialogue. The top sections were also too heavy to lift from the inside, which meant that the operators could be trapped in them if the stagehands forgot to let them out. John Scott Martin, a Dalek operator from the original series, commented in a documentary that it would have been easier to operate a Dalek if one was an [[octopus]], due to the many controls involved. Early versions of the Daleks were either rolled around on nylon castors or propelled by wheels connected to hand cranks by [[bicycle]] chains. While castors were adequate for the Daleks' debut serial, which was shot entirely at the BBC's [[Lime Grove Studios]], for ''[[The Dalek Invasion of Earth]]'', Terry Nation wanted the Daleks to take to the streets of [[London]] for location filming. As a result, the base of the costume had to be deepened to accommodate small pneumatic tyres. However, the bumpy flagstones of Central London caused the Daleks to rattle as they moved and it was not possible to remove this noise from the final shoot. Also added to the prop was a small radar dish at the rear of the casing, in an attempt to explain why these Daleks, unlike the ones in their first serial, were not dependent on [[static electricity]] drawn from
rance]]'' (1916). Unprecedented in scale, they also did much to fix the developing codes of editing and visual storytelling that remain the foundation of mainstream [[film grammar]]. The former film was also notable as perhaps the first to inspire widespread racial controversy. Along with a boom in high-toned literary adaptations, these trends began to make the movies a respectable diversion for the [[middle class]] and gain them recognition as a genuine art form with a secure place in the emerging culture of the twentieth century. ===Hollywood triumphant=== Until this point, the cinemas of [[Cinema of France|France]] and [[Cinema of Italy|Italy]] had been the most globally popular and powerful. But the [[Cinema of the United States|United States]] was already gaining quickly when [[World War I]] (1914-1918) caused a devastating interruption in the European film industries. The American industry, or &quot;[[Hollywood]],&quot; as it was becoming known after its new geographical center in [[California]], gained the position it has held, more or less, ever since: movie factory for the world, exporting its product to most countries on earth and controlling the market in many of them. By the [[1920]]s, the U.S. reached what still stands as its era of greatest-ever output, producing an average of 800 ''feature'' films annually [http://www.filmsite.org/20sintro.html], or 82% of the global total (Eyman, 1997). The comedies of [[Charlie Chaplin]] and [[Buster Keaton]], the [[swashbuckler|swashbuckling]] adventures of [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and the romances of [[Clara Bow]], to cite just a few examples, made these performers’ faces iconic on every continent. The Western visual norm that would become classical [[continuity editing]] was solidified and exported everywhere - although its adoption was slower in some non-Western countries without strong [[realism (arts)|realist]] traditions in art and drama, such as [[Cinema of Japan|Japan]]. This explosion was vitally intertwined with the growth of the [[studio system]] and its greatest publicity tool, the [[star system (film)|star system]], the engines of American film for decades to come and the models for many other movie industries. The studios’ efficient, top-down control over all stages of their product enabled a new and ever-growing level of lavish production and technical sophistication. At the same time, the system’s commercial regimentation and focus on glamorous escapism discouraged daring and ambition beyond a certain degree, a prime example being the brief directing career of [[Erich von Stroheim]] in the late teens and the ‘20s. ===World film at the peak of the silents=== But even now, the dominance of mainstream Hollywood entertainment wasn’t as strong as it would be, and alternatives were still widely seen and influential. [[Cinema of Germany|Germany]] was America’s strongest competitor. Its most distinctive contribution was the dark, hallucinatory worlds of [[German Expressionism]], which advanced the power of anti-realistic presentation to put internal states of mind onscreen, as well as strongly influenced the emerging [[horror film|horror]] and [[film noir|noir]] genres. The newborn [[Cinema of the Soviet Union|Soviet]] cinema was the most radically innovative. There, the craft of editing, especially, surged forward, going beyond its previous role in advancing a story. [[Sergei Eisenstein]] perfected the technique of so-called [[intellectual montage|dialectical or intellectual montage]], which strove to make non-linear, often violently clashing, images express ideas and provoke emotional and intellectual reactions in the viewer. The cultural [[avant garde|avant gardes]] of a number of countries worked with [[experimental film|experimental films]], mostly shorts, that completely abandoned linear narrative and embraced abstraction, pure aestheticism and the irrational subconscious, most famously in the work of Spanish [[surrealism|surrealist]] [[Luis Buñuel]]. In some ways, in fact, this decade marked the first serious split between mainstream, &quot;popular&quot; film and [[art film|&quot;art&quot; film]]. Meanwhile, the first feature-length silent film was made in India by Dadasaheb Phalke, considered to be the Father of Indian Cinema. The film was the [[Period piece|period piece]] ''Raja Harishchandra'' (1913), and it laid the foundation for a series of period films. By the next decade the output of [[Indian Cinema|Indian Cinema]] was an average of 27 films per year. But even within the mainstream, refinement was rapid, bringing silent film to what would turn out to be its aesthetic summit. The possibilities of [[cinematography]] kept expanding as cameras became more mobile (thanks to new booms and [[Camera Dolly|dollies]]) and [[film stock|film stocks]] more sensitive and versatile. Screen [[acting]] came into its own as a craft, leaving behind its earlier theatrical exaggeration and achieving greater subtlety and psychological realism. As visual eloquence increased, reliance on intertitles decreased; the occasional film, such as [[F.W. Murnau]]’s ''[[The Last Laugh]]'' (Germany, 1926) even eschewed them altogether. Paradoxically, at about this point, the silent cinema came abruptly to an end. ==The Sound Era== Experimentation with [[sound film]] technology, both for recording and playback, had been virtually constant throughout the silent era, but the twin problems of accurate synchronization and sufficient amplification had been daunting (Eyman, 1997). In 1926, Hollywood studio [[Warner Bros.]] introduced the &quot;[[Vitaphone]]&quot; system, producing short films of live entertainment acts and public figures and adding recorded sound effects and orchestral scores to some of its major features. The real turning point came in late 1927, when Warners released ''[[The Jazz Singer]]'', which was mostly silent but contained the first synchronized dialogue (and singing) in a feature film. It was a gargantuan success, as were follow-ups like Warners' ''The Lights of New York'' (1928), the first all-synchronized-sound feature. The trend convinced the reluctant industry that &quot;talking pictures&quot;, or &quot;talkies,&quot; were the future. ===Industry impact of sound=== The change was remarkably swift. By the end of 1929, Hollywood was almost all-talkie, with several competing sound systems (soon to be standardized). Total changeover was slightly slower in the rest of the world, principally for economic reasons. Cultural reasons were also a factor in countries like [[Cinema of China|China]] and [[Cinema of Japan|Japan]], where silents co-existed successfully with sound well into the 1930s, indeed producing what would be some of the most revered classics in those countries, like [[Wu Yonggang]]'s ''The Goddess'' (China, 1934) and [[Yasujiro Ozu]]'s ''I Was Born, But...'' (Japan, 1932). But even in Japan, a figure such as the ''benshi'', the live narrator who was a major part of Japanese silent cinema, found his days were numbered. Sound further tightened the grip of major studios in numerous countries: the vast expense of the transition overwhelmed smaller competitors, while the novelty of sound lured vastly larger audiences for those producers that remained. In the case of the U.S., some historians credit sound with saving the Hollywood studio system in the face of the [[Great Depression]] (Parkinson, 1995). Thus began what is now often called &quot;The Golden Age of Hollywood,&quot; which refers roughly to the period beginning with the advent of sound until the late 1940s. The American cinema reached its peak of efficiently manufactured glamour and global appeal during this period. The top actors of the era are now thought of as the classic movie stars, such as [[Clark Gable]], [[Katharine Hepburn]], [[Humphrey Bogart]] and the number one box office draw of the '30s, child performer [[Shirley Temple]]. Sadly, the impact of sound in films also ruined the careers of many stars of the Silent Era, especially if the stars in question have bad speaking (or heavily accented) voices or their voices do not match their onscreen persona. This list of casualties include [[John Gilbert]], [[Pola Negri]], [[Norma Talmadge]], [[Marie Prevost]], [[Charles Farrell]], [[Corinne Griffith]], among others. Some, like [[Greta Garbo]], became even bigger stars because of &quot;talkies&quot;. ===Creative impact of sound=== Creatively, however, the lightning-paced transition was a difficult one, and in some ways, film briefly reverted to the conditions of its earliest days. The late '20s were full of static, stagey talkies as artists in front of and behind the camera struggled with the stringent limitations of the early sound equipment and their own uncertainty as to how to utilize the new medium. Stage performers, directors and writers flooded the cinema as producers sought personnel experienced in dialogue-based storytelling. Many major silent filmmakers and actors were unable to adjust and found their careers severely curtailed or even suddenly over. This awkward period was fairly short-lived. 1929 was a watershed year: [[William Wellman]] with ''Chinatown Nights'' and ''The Man I Love'', [[Rouben Mamoulian]] with ''Applause'', [[Alfred Hitchcock]] with ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' (Britain's first sound feature), were among the directors to bring greater fluidity to talkies and experiment with the expressive use of sound (Eyman, 1997). In this, they both benefited from, and pushed further, technical advances in microphones and cameras, and capabilities for editing and post-synchronizing sound (rather than recording all sound directly at the time of filming). Sound films emphasized and benefited different [[genres]] than silents did. Most obviously, the [[musical film]] was born; the first classic-style Hollywood musical was ''The Broadway Melody'' (1929) and the form would find its first major creator in [[choreographer]]/d
ological importance, understanding these patterns will be relevant to maintaining the vitality of cells used for cell therapy. Abnormal apoptosis and clearance of apoptotic cells is a fundamental factor in the pathogenesis of numerous diseases including cancer, neuro-degenerative and ischemic diseases, AIDS, and autoimmunity. In systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), the antigen responsible for most anti-DNA antibodies, exclusively generated in this disease, are derived from nucleosomes. As nucleosomes are mainly generated during programmed cell death, excess of apoptotic material and altered clearance may induce autoreactive immune responses. On the other side of the spectrum, failure to die, as exemplified in MRL/1pr mice and human lymphoproliferative disorder, may allow persistence of autoreactive cells and prevent the resolution of inflammation. When combined, we may conclude that dying properly is essential for living properly. == Etymology == Kerr, Wyllie and Currie (see [[Apoptosis#Coining_of_the_term_apoptosis | Coining of the term apoptosis]], above) adopted the Greek word for the process of leaves falling from trees or petals falling from flowers ([[Apoptosis#References|Gilbert 2003, p. 164]]). ==See also== *[[Autolysis (biology)|Autolysis]] *[[Caspase]] *[[Bcl-2]] *[[Perforin]] *[[Granzyme]]s *[[Immunology]] ==Further reading== *Lawen, A. (2003). Apoptosis &amp;#8211; an introduction. ''BioEssays'' '''25''', 888-896.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12938178][http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/104552885/ABSTRACT] ==References== * Albert, M.L., ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' Online, [[21 December]] [[2001]] ([http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/pharmacia/2001/Albert.shl ScienceOnline]). * Alberts, Bruce, Dennis Bray, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts &amp; James D. Watson (1994). ''Molecular biology of the cell'', 3rd edition. Garland Publishing, Inc ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=cell.TOC EntrezBookshelf]). * Bast, Robert C. Jr., et al. (eds) (2000). ''Cancer Medicine'', 5th Edition. B.C. Decker Inc ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=cmed.TOC&amp;depth=2 EntrezBookshelf]). * Cerretti, D.P. ''et al.'', ''Science'' 256 p. 97, [[3 April]] [[1992]] (PMID 1373520). * Chiarugi, A. and Moskowitz M.A., ''Science'' 297 p. 200, [[12 July]] [[2002]] (PMID 12114611). * Chen, G. and Goeddel, D.V., ''Science'' 296 p. 1634, [[31 May]] [[2002]] (PMID 12040173). * Cheng, E.H. ''et al.'', ''Science'' 301 p. 513, [[25 July]] [[2003]] (PMID 12881569). * Damasio, Antonio (1999). ''The Feeling of What Happens'', Harcourt Brace &amp; Co., New York. * Ellis, Ron ''et al.'', ''Annual Review of Cell Biology'' 7 p. 663-698, Nov 1991 (PMID 1809356). * Fesik, S.W. and Shi, Y., ''Science'' 294 p. 1477, [[16 November]] [[2001]] (PMID 11711663). * Gilbert, S. F.: ''Developmental Biology'', 7th ed., Sinauer Associates, Stamford, Ct., 2003 (6th ed. available at [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=dbio EntrezBookshelf]). * Goeddel, D.V. ''et al.''(as authorities): Connection Map for Tumor Necrosis Factor Pathway, ''Science STKE'' ([http://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/cm/CMP_7107]). * Golstein, P.: ''Science'' 281 p. 1283, [[28 August]] [[1998]] (PMID 9735040). * Guerrero and Ruiz, ''Science'' 301 p. 774, [[8 August]] [[2003]] (PMID 12907783). * Horvitz, H.R., 2002 Nobel Lecture ([http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/2002/horvitz-lecture.html NobelPrize.org]). * Kerr, John F., Andrew H. Wyllie and A. R. Currie: &quot;Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics&quot;, ''British Journal of Cancer'' 26, pgs. 239&amp;ndash;57, 1972 (PMID 4561027). * Kihlmark, M.; Imreh, G.; Hallberg, E.; ''Journal of Cell Science'' 114 p. 3643, 2001 (PMID 11707516). * Li, M.O. ''et al.'', ''Science'' 302 p. 1560, [[28 November]] [[2003]] (PMID 14645847). * Murphy, K.M. ''et al.'', ''Cell Death and Differentiation'' 7 p. 112, Jan. 2000 (PMID 10713725). * Nagata, S., ''Experimental cell research'' 256 p. 12, [[10 April]] [[2000]] (PMID 10739646). * Saunders, J.W., ''Science'' 154 p. 604, [[4 November]] [[1966]] (PMID 5332319, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-8075%2819661104%293%3A154%3A3749%3C604%3ADIES%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I JSTOR]). * Savill, J. ''et al.'', ''Science'' 302 p. 1516, [[28 November]] [[2003]] (PMID 14645835). * Susin, S.A. ''et al.'', ''Journal of Experimental Medicine'' 192 p. 571, [[21 August]] [[2000]] (PMID 10952727). * Takaoka, Akinori, ''et al.'', ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' 424 p. 517, [[31 July]] [[2003]] (PMID 12872134). * Thayer ''et al.'', ''Nature'' 425, pgs. 851-856, [[23 October]] [[2003]] (PMID 14520413). * Thibert ''et al.'', ''Science'' 301 p. 843, [[8 August]] [[2003]] (PMID 12907805). * Thompson, C.B., ''Science'' 267 p. 1456, [[10 March]] [[1995]] (PMID 7878464). * Thornberry, Nancy A. ''et al.'', ''Nature'' 356 p. 768, [[30 April]] [[1992]] (PMID 1574116). * Vaux ''et al.'', ''Nature'' 335 p. 440, [[29 September]] [[1988]] (PMID 3262202). * Wang, X. ''et al.'', ''Science'' 302 p. 1563, [[28 November]] [[2003]] (PMID 14645848). * Wajant, H., ''Science'' 296 p. 1635, [[31 May]] [[2002]] (PMID 12040174). * Wajant, H. (as authority): Connection Map for Fas Signaling Pathway, ''Science STKE'' ([http://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/cm/CMP_7966]). * Werlen ''et al.'', ''Science'' 299 p. 1859, [[21 March]] [[2003]] (PMID 12649474). * Yu ''et al.'', ''Science'' 297 p. 259, [[12 July]] [[2002]] (PMID 12114629). * Zou ''et al.'', ''Cell'' 90(3) p. 405, [[8 August]] [[1997]] (PMID 9267021). == External links == *[http://www.biochemweb.org/apoptosis.shtml Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology] *[http://www.apoptosisworld.com Apoptosis World - Resources for apoptosis research] *[http://www.caspases.org Apoptosis &amp; Cell Death research] [[Category:Cell biology]] [[Category:Death]] [[Category:Immunology]] [[cs:Apoptóza]] [[da:Apoptosis]] [[de:Apoptose]] [[es:Apoptosis]] [[fr:Apoptose]] [[io:Apoptozo]] [[he:אפופטוזה]] [[lt:Apoptozė]] [[hu:Apoptózis]] [[nl:Apoptose]] [[ja:アポトーシス]] [[no:Apoptose]] [[pl:Apoptoza]] [[pt:Apoptose]] [[ru:Апоптоз]] [[sl:Apoptoza]] [[su:Apoptosis]] [[fi:Apoptoosi]] [[sv:Apoptos]] [[zh:细胞凋亡]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Appomattox</title> <id>2459</id> <revision> <id>15900868</id> <timestamp>2005-04-11T09:11:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Darwinek</username> <id>107928</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Appomattox''' may refer to: *[[Appomattox, Virginia|Appomattox]] -- town in Virginia *[[Appomattox County, Virginia|Appomattox County]] -- county in Virginia *[[Appomattox Basin]] -- region in Virginia *[[Appomattox Court House]] -- court house and National Historical Park in Virginia *[[Appomattox Manor]] -- manor in [[City Point, Virginia|City Point]] *[[Appomattox River]] -- river in Virginia *[[Battle of Appomattox Courthouse]] -- battle of American Civil War *[[Battle of Appomattox Station]] -- battle of American Civil War {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anal sex</title> <id>2460</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42159448</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:21:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The tooth</username> <id>652482</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>RV</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Romanmanandyouth.jpg|thumb|''Roman man and youth having anal sex.'', Cameo perfume bottle, ca. 30 CE; Found in [[Estepa]], [[Spain]].]] '''Anal sex''' or '''anal intercourse''' is a commonly practiced form of [[human sexual behaviour]] in some cultures. It involves the [[anus]] and possibly the [[rectum]], especially, but not limited to, the [[sexual penetration|insertion]] of the erect [[penis]] into the rectum through the anus. The use of [[sex toy]]s and other activities involving the anus and rectum may be considered anal sex as well. Anal sex can be pleasurable for both the insertive partner and the receptive partner, as the anus contains many of the same kinds of [[nerves]] as the penis or [[clitoris]]. For women, pleasure is derived from anal intercourse because the rectum shares a wall with the vagina and therefore shares some of the nerve endings associated with sexual pleasure. The anus itself also contains a number of nerves which can react pleasurably when excited. For males, the tightness of the anus is often said to be a source of pleasure for the &quot;active&quot; partner in penetrative anal sex, while the presence of the [[prostate]] gland near the rectal wall is a source of pleasure during receptive anal intercourse. A sexual climax for the recipient (referred to colloquially as an [[anal orgasm]]) can occur through anal sex. Many people view anal sex with disgust because of the relationship between the anus and feces. However, it is not uncommon for the rectum to be relatively vacant most of the time, the feces entering only just before defecation. Some fecal matter might still remain in the rectum between movements (albeit in minimal quantity); thus some couples use enemas - either [[enema|wet]] or [[dry enema|dry]], followed by shower or [[bidet]] use - for cleansing before engaging in any anal activity. ==Overview== The term [[sodomy]] is imprecise, but is often used as a synonym for anal sex, particularly in older works. However, it often also refers to various other sexual activities. For instance, depending upon the [[jurisdiction]], the legal definition of sodomy may include any non-[[sexual intercourse|coitus]] act, including [[oral sex]] and [[zoophilia]]. Anal sex has been [[taboo]] in many Western countries since the [[Mi
stamp> <contributor> <username>Peruvianllama</username> <id>43680</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ changing MacTutor link to template</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agner Krarup Erlang''' ([[January 1]], [[1878]]&amp;ndash;[[February 3]], [[1929]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[mathematician]], [[statistician]], and [[engineer]] who invented the fields of [[traffic engineering (telecommunications)|traffic engineering]] and [[queueing theory]]. Erlang was born at [[Lonborg]] (Lønborg), near [[Tarm]], in [[Jutland]]. He was the son of a schoolmaster and with his maternal mathematical ancestor [[Thomas Fincke]], he demonstrated his potential from an early age by being able to read books upside down. He passed the ''Preliminary Examination'' offered by the [[University of Copenhagen]], with distinction, at age 14, after receiving dispensation to sit because he was younger than the usual minimum age. For the next two years he taught alongside his father. With a distant relative providing free board and lodgings, he prepared for and sat the University of [[Copenhagen]] entrance examination in [[1896]], which he passed with distinction. He won a scholarship to the University of Copenhagen and majored in [[mathematics]], but also studied [[astronomy]], [[physics]] and [[chemistry]]. He graduated in [[1901]] with an MA and subsequently taught at several schools over the next 7 years. He maintained his interest in mathematics and received an award for one paper that he submitted to the University of Copenhagen. He was a member of the Danish Mathematicians' Association and through this met amateur mathematician [[Johan Jensen]], the Chief Engineer of the [[Copenhagen Telephone Company]], an offshoot of the [[Bell System|International Bell Telephone Company]]. Erlang subsequently obtained employment with the company in [[1908]]. He worked for the Copenhagen Telephone Company for almost 20 years, until his death in Copenhagen after an abdominal operation. It was while working for the Copenhagen Telephone Company that Erlang was presented with the classic problem of determining how many circuits were needed to provide an acceptable telephone service. However, his thinking went further in that he also realised that mathematics could be applied to assess how many operators were needed to handle a given volume of telephone calls. At that time most telephone exchanges used human operators and cord boards to switch telephone calls by means of jack plugs. Out of necessity, Erlang was a hands-on researcher. He would conduct his own measurements and was prepared to climb into street manholes to do so. Erlang was also an expert in both the history and calculation of the numerical tables of mathematical functions, particularly [[logarithm]]s. He devised new calculation methods for certain forms of mathematical tables. He developed his theory concerning telephone traffic over several years. His significant publications include: *In 1909 - &quot;The Theory of Probabilities and Telephone Conversations&quot; - which proves that the [[Poisson distribution]] applies to random telephone traffic. *In 1917 - &quot;Solution of some Problems in the Theory of Probabilities of Significance in Automatic Telephone Exchanges&quot; - which contains his classic formulae for loss and waiting time. These and other notable papers were translated into English, French and German. His papers were prepared in a very brief style and can be difficult to understand without a background in the field. So that his papers could be studied in the original Danish, one researcher from [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] learnt the language. The [[BT Group plc|British Post Office]] accepted his formula as the basis for calculating circuit facilities. He was an associate of the British [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]]. The unit, distribution and language listed below have all been named in his honour. ==See also== * [[Erlang unit|Erlang]] - a unit of communication activity * [[Erlang distribution]] - a statistical [[probability]] distribution * [[Erlang programming language]] - developed by [[Ericsson]] for large industrial real-time systems * [[Queueing theory]] * [[Telecommunications traffic engineering]] ==External links== * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Erlang}} * [http://pass.maths.org.uk/issue2/erlang/index.html Biography - from Millennium Mathematics Project] * [http://www.xycoon.com/erlang.htm Erlang Distribution] * [http://www.angustel.ca/reports/Erlang%20B%20&amp;%20C.PDF An Introduction to Erlang B and Erlang C by Ian Angus] (PDF Document - Has terms and formulae plus biography) * [http://runeberg.org/matetids/1920b/0029.html &quot;Telefon-Ventetider. Et Stykke Sandsynlighedsregning&quot;], in ''Matematisk Tidsskrift'', B, 1920 (a paper on telephone waiting times, in Danish, digitized by [[Project Runeberg]]) [[Category:1878 births|Erlang, Agner Krarup]] [[Category:1929 deaths|Erlang, Agner Krarup]] [[Category:Danish mathematicians|Erlang, Agner Krarup]] [[Category:20th century mathematicians|Erlang, Agner Krarup]] [[Category:Danish engineers|Erlang, Agner Krarup]] [[Category:Electrical engineers|Erlang, Agner Krarup]] [[Category:Statisticians|Erlang, Agner Krarup]] [[category:Business theorists|Erlang, Agner Krarup]] [[de:Agner Krarup Erlang]] [[fr:Agner Krarup Erlang]] [[it:Agner Krarup Erlang]] [[nl:Agner Erlang]] [[pl:Agner Krarup Erlang]] [[su:A. K. Erlang]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arab-Israeli conflict</title> <id>2949</id> <revision> <id>42129893</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:40:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg</username> <id>557364</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Comparative statistics */ see- http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/is.html#Econ</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Israel_and_arab_states_map.png|thumb|300px|right|[[Israel]] (in &lt;font color=blue&gt;blue&lt;/font&gt; color) and the [[Arab League]] states (in &lt;font color=green&gt;green&lt;/font&gt;, [[Comoros]] is not shown).]] The '''Arab-Israeli conflict''' is a long-running conflict in the [[Middle East]] concerning [[Zionism|Zionist]] and subsequent immigration of non-local [[Jew]]s, joining the existing Jewish population in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], their claim to [[self-determination]] in the [[Land of Israel]] and, after the establishment of the [[State of Israel]], the country's relations with the Arab states and the Palestinian population (see [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]). Some uses of the term ''Middle East conflict'' referring to this matter, but the region has been host to other disputes and wars not directly involving Israel (see [[List of conflicts in the Middle East]]). Despite involving a relatively small land area and number of casualties, the conflict has been the focus of worldwide media and diplomatic attention for decades. Some groups fear that the Arab-Israeli conflict is a part of (or precursor to) a wider [[clash of civilizations]] between the [[Western World]] and the Arab or [[Muslim]] world. Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of one side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world. The map shows the nation of Israel as well as the nations of the Middle East and Africa that are members of the [[Arab League]], including many that have never been directly involved in the conflict. Many more people in other countries feel involvement in the conflict, for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with [[Islam]] and/or [[Arab culture]], [[Christianity]], [[Judaism]], or for ideological or strategic reasons; these include countries such as [[Iran]] and the [[United States]]. ==History== The Arab-Israeli conflict is a modern phenomenon, which dates back to the end of the 19th century. The conflict became a major international issue after the collapse of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1917, and in various forms it continues to this day. The Arab-Israeli conflict has resulted in at least five major wars and a number of &quot;minor conflicts&quot;. It has also been the source of two major Palestinian [[intifada]]s (uprisings) and is cited by [[al-Qaeda]], a largely Arab organization, as one of the reasons for its conflict with the Western world. The periods of conflict include: ===Before 1947=== Tensions between the Jews and Arabs started to emerge after the 1880s, when European Jews began to immigrate and augment Palestinian Jewish communities by buying up land from Ottoman and individual Arab landholders, and establishing agricultural settlements in the historic lands of Judea and Israel, which were then part of the Ottoman empire [http://www.ismi.emory.edu/JournalArticles/MESapr84.html]. By the 1920s, tension had given way to violence, such as the [[Riots in Palestine of 1920]], [[Jaffa riots]] of 1921. To assuage the Arabs, and due to British inability to control Arab violence in the [[British Mandate]] any other way, the semi-autonomous Arab Emirate of Transjordan was created in all Palestinian territory east of the Jordan river (roughly 80% of the mandate). The violence continued to mount, however, throughout the 1930s and 40s, resulting in loss of life on all sides, including the [[Riots in Palestine of 1929]], [[Irgun| a series of Zionist attacks]], [[Great Uprising|the Great Arab Uprising of 1936-1939]], [[Lehi_%28group%29|the Assassination of British Mandate Officials]], and the 1946 [[King David Hotel bombing]]. ===War of 1948=== [[Image:1948 arab israeli war - May15-June10.jpg|right|thumb|[[May 15]] - [[June 10]]]] The [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], known as the &quot;Israeli War of Independence&quot; or [[Palestinian exodus|&quot;al-Nakba&quot; (The Disaster)]], 1948-1949, began
''See also:'' [[Convolution theorem]] In an analogous manner, it can be shown that if &lt;math&gt;z_n&lt;/math&gt; is the [[cross-correlation]] of &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y_n&lt;/math&gt;: :&lt;math&gt;z_n=(\mathbf{x\star y})_n = \sum_{m=0}^{N-1}x_m^*\,y_{m+n}&lt;/math&gt; where the sum is again cyclic in ''m'', then the discrete Fourier transform of &lt;math&gt;z_n&lt;/math&gt; is: :&lt;math&gt;Z_k = X_k^*\,Y_k&lt;/math&gt; where capital letters are again used to signify the discrete Fourier transform. ===Relationship to trigonometric interpolation polynomials=== The function :&lt;math&gt;p(t) = \frac{f_0}{N} + \frac{f_1}{N} e^{it} + \frac{f_2}{N} e^{2it} + \cdots + \frac{f_{N-1}}{N} e^{(N-1)it}&lt;/math&gt; whose coefficients ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; /''N'' are given by the DFT of ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, above, is called the [[trigonometric interpolation polynomial]] of degree ''N''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1. It is the unique function of this form that satisfies the property: ''p''(2&amp;pi;''n''/''N'') = ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; for ''n'' = 0, ..., ''N''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1. Because of aliasing, however, the ''form'' of the trigonometric interpolation polynomial is not unique, in that any of the frequencies can be shifted by any multiple of ''N'' while maintaining the property ''p''(2&amp;pi;''n''/''N'') = ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; . In particular, the following form is often preferred: :&lt;math&gt;p(t) = \frac{f_0}{N} + \frac{f_1}{N} e^{it} + \cdots + \frac{f_{N/2}}{N} \cos(Nt/2) + \frac{f_{N/2+1}}{N} e^{(-N/2+1)it} + \cdots + \frac{f_{N-1}}{N} e^{-it}&lt;/math&gt; for [[Even and odd numbers|even]] &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; (where the [[Nyquist frequency|Nyquist amplitude]] &lt;math&gt;f_{N/2}&lt;/math&gt; should be handled specially) or, for odd &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;: :&lt;math&gt;p(t) = \frac{f_0}{N} + \frac{f_1}{N} e^{it} + \cdots + \frac{f_{\lfloor N/2 \rfloor}}{N} e^{\lfloor N/2 \rfloor it} + \frac{f_{\lfloor N/2 \rfloor+1}}{N} e^{(-\lceil N/2 \rceil+1)it} + \cdots + \frac{f_{N-1}}{N} e^{-it}&lt;/math&gt; These latter two forms have the useful property that, if the &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; are all real numbers, then &lt;math&gt;p(t)&lt;/math&gt; will be real for all &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; as well. They also use the smallest possible frequencies of the interpolating sinusoids (a balance of positive and negative frequencies instead of all positive frequencies), and consequently minimize the mean-square [[slope]] &lt;math&gt;\int |p'(t)|^2 dt&lt;/math&gt; of the interpolated function. === The unitary DFT === Another way of looking at the DFT is to note that in the above discussion, the DFT can be expressed as a [[Vandermonde matrix]]: :&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} = \begin{bmatrix} \omega_N^{0 \cdot 0} &amp; \omega_N^{0 \cdot 1} &amp; \ldots &amp; \omega_N^{0 \cdot (N-1)} \\ \omega_N^{1 \cdot 0} &amp; \omega_N^{1 \cdot 1} &amp; \ldots &amp; \omega_N^{1 \cdot (N-1)} \\ \vdots &amp; \vdots &amp; \ddots &amp; \vdots \\ \omega_N^{(N-1) \cdot 0} &amp; \omega_N^{(N-1) \cdot 1} &amp; \ldots &amp; \omega_N^{(N-1) \cdot (N-1)} \\ \end{bmatrix} &lt;/math&gt; where :&lt;math&gt;\omega_N = e^{-2 \pi i/N}\,&lt;/math&gt; is a primitive [[roots of unity|Nth root of unity]]. The inverse transform is then given by the inverse of the above matrix: :&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}^{-1}=\frac{1}{N}\mathbf{F}^*&lt;/math&gt; With [[unitary operator|unitary]] normalization constants &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{N}&lt;/math&gt;, the DFT becomes a [[unitary transformation]], defined by a unitary matrix: :&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{U}=\mathbf{F}/\sqrt{N}&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{U}^{-1}=\mathbf{U}^*&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\det(\mathbf{U})=1&lt;/math&gt; where ''det()''&amp;nbsp; is the [[determinant]] function. In a real vector space, a unitary transformation can be thought of as simply a rigid rotation of the coordinate system, and all of the properties of a rigid rotation can be found in the unitary DFT. The orthogonality of the DFT is now expressed as an [[orthonormal]]ity condition (which arises in many areas of mathematics as described in [[root of unity]]): :&lt;math&gt;\sum_{m=0}^{N-1}U_{km}U_{mn}^*=\delta_{kn}&lt;/math&gt; If &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{X}&lt;/math&gt; is defined as the unitary DFT of the vector &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x}&lt;/math&gt; then :&lt;math&gt;X_k=\sum_{n=0}^{N-1} U_{kn}x_n&lt;/math&gt; and the [[Plancherel theorem]] is expressed as: :&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^{N-1}x_n y_n^* = \sum_{k=0}^{N-1}X_k Y_k^*&lt;/math&gt; If we view the DFT as just a coordinate transformation which simply specifies the components of a vector in a new coordinate system, then the above is just the statement that the dot product of two vectors is preserved under a unitary DFT transformation. For the special case &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x} = \mathbf{y}&lt;/math&gt;, this implies that the length of a vector is preserved as well&amp;mdash;this is just [[Parseval's theorem]]: :&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^{N-1}|x_n|^2 = \sum_{k=0}^{N-1}|X_k|^2&lt;/math&gt; === Expressing the inverse DFT in terms of the DFT === A useful property of the DFT is that the inverse DFT can be easily expressed in terms of the (forward) DFT, via several well-known &quot;tricks&quot;. (For example, in computations, it is often convenient to only implement a fast Fourier transform corresponding to one transform direction and then to get the other transform direction from the first.) First, we can compute the inverse DFT by reversing the inputs: :&lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}^{-1}(\{x_n\}) = \mathcal{F}(\{x_{N - n}\}) / N&lt;/math&gt; (As usual, the subscripts are interpreted [[modulo]] &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;; thus, for &lt;math&gt;n=0&lt;/math&gt;, we have &lt;math&gt;x_{N-0}=x_0&lt;/math&gt;.) Second, one can also conjugate the inputs and outputs: :&lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}^{-1}(\mathbf{x}) = \mathcal{F}(\mathbf{x}^*)^* / N&lt;/math&gt; Third, a variant of this conjugation trick, which is sometimes preferable because it requires no modification of the data values, involves swapping real and imaginary parts (which can be done on a computer simply by modifying [[pointer]]s). Define swap(&lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt;) as &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; with its real and imaginary parts swapped&amp;mdash;that is, if &lt;math&gt;x_n = a + b i&lt;/math&gt; then swap(&lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt;) is &lt;math&gt;b + a i&lt;/math&gt;. Equivalently, swap(&lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt;) equals &lt;math&gt;i x_n^*&lt;/math&gt;. Then :&lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}^{-1}(\mathbf{x}) = \textrm{swap}(\mathcal{F}(\textrm{swap}(\mathbf{x}))) / N&lt;/math&gt; That is, the inverse transform is the same as the forward transform with the real and imaginary parts swapped for both input and output, up to a normalization (Duhamel ''et al.'', 1988). The conjugation trick can also be used to define a new transform, closely related to the DFT, that is [[involutary]]&amp;mdash;that is, which is its own inverse. In particular, &lt;math&gt;T(\mathbf{x}) = \mathcal{F}(\mathbf{x}^*) / \sqrt{N}&lt;/math&gt; is clearly its own inverse: &lt;math&gt;T(T(\mathbf{x})) = \mathbf{x}&lt;/math&gt;. A closely related involutary transformation (by a factor of (1+''i'')/&amp;radic;2) is &lt;math&gt;H(\mathbf{x}) = \mathcal{F}((1+i) \mathbf{x}^*) / \sqrt{2N}&lt;/math&gt;, since the &lt;math&gt;(1+i)&lt;/math&gt; factors in &lt;math&gt;H(H(\mathbf{x}))&lt;/math&gt; cancel the 2. For real inputs &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x}&lt;/math&gt;, the real part of &lt;math&gt;H(\mathbf{x})&lt;/math&gt; is none other than the [[discrete Hartley transform]], which is also involutary. === The real DFT === If &lt;math&gt;x_0, \ldots, x_{N-1}&lt;/math&gt; are [[real number|real numbers]], as they often are in practical applications, then the DFT obeys the symmetry: :&lt;math&gt;X_k = X_{N-k}^* ,&lt;/math&gt; where the star denotes complex conjugation and the subscripts are interpreted modulo ''N''. Therefore, the DFT output for real inputs is half redundant, and one obtains the complete information by only looking at roughly half of the outputs &lt;math&gt;X_0, \ldots, X_{N-1}&lt;/math&gt;. In this case, the &quot;DC&quot; element &lt;math&gt;X_0&lt;/math&gt; is purely real, and for even ''N'' the &quot;Nyquist&quot; element &lt;math&gt;X_{N/2}&lt;/math&gt; is also real, so there are exactly ''N'' non-redundant real numbers in the first half + Nyquist element of the complex output ''X''. Using [[Euler's formula in complex analysis|Euler's formula]], the interpolating trigonometric polynomial can then be interpreted as a sum of sine and cosine functions. ==Generalized DFT== It is possible to shift the transform sampling in time and/or frequency domain by some real shifts ''a'' and ''b'', respectively. This is sometimes known as a '''generalized DFT''' (or '''GDFT''') and has analogous properties to the ordinary DFT: :&lt;math&gt;X_k = \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x_n e^{-\frac{2 \pi i}{N} (k+b) (n+a)} \quad \quad k = 0, \dots, N-1&lt;/math&gt; Most often, shifts of &lt;math&gt;1/2&lt;/math&gt; (half a sample) are used. While the ordinary DFT corresponds to a periodic signal in both time and frequency domains, &lt;math&gt;a=1/2&lt;/math&gt; produces a signal that is anti-periodic in frequency domain (&lt;math&gt;X_{k+N} = - X_k&lt;/math&gt;) and vice-versa for &lt;math&gt;b=1/2&lt;/math&gt;. Thus, the specific case of &lt;math&gt;a = b = 1/2&lt;/math&gt; is known as an ''odd-time odd-frequency'' discrete Fourier transform (or O&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; DFT). Such shifted transforms are most often used for symmetric data, to represent different boundary symmetries, and for real-symmetric data they correspond to different forms of the discrete [[discrete cosine transform|cosine]] and [[discrete sine transform|sine]] transforms. The discrete Fourier transform can
s - with unpaved runways:''' * total: 295 ** over 3,047 m: 2 ** 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6 ** 1,524 to 2,437 m: 6 ** 914 to 1,523 m: 55 ** under 914 m: 226 (1999 est.) '''Heliports:''' 59 (1999 est.) ==See also== * [[Germany]] * [[Rail transport in Germany]] * [[List of airports in Germany]] * [[License plates in Germany]] ==External links== * [[:de:Liste der Autobahnen in Deutschland]] * [[:de:Liste der deutschen Bundesstraßen]] [[Category:Transportation in Germany| ]] [[fr:Transport en Allemagne]] [[he:תחבורה בגרמניה]] [[ru:Транспорт в Германии]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Germany</title> <id>11933</id> <revision> <id>15909644</id> <timestamp>2003-11-23T18:08:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mic</username> <id>6273</id> </contributor> <comment>Moving to Bundeswehr and German Federal Coast Guard</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bundeswehr]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of the Federal Republic of Germany</title> <id>11934</id> <revision> <id>42157443</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:59:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.23.161.113</ip> </contributor> <comment>for embassies: check categories!</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Germany}} The [[Federal Republic of Germany]] is a [[Central Europe]]an country and member of the [[European Union]], [[Group of 8]] and [[NATO]] (among others). The Federal Republic is one of the world's leading industrialized countries and the biggest market economy in [[Europe]] with &quot;windows to the [[Eastern world|East]] and [[Western world|West]]&quot;. Since [[German reunification|reunification]] in [[1990]] Germany has further extended its central position in European and global affairs. == History since 1990 == ''for more information see article'' [[History of Germany since 1945]] Since [[1951]] Germany is at the heart of European Integration and after German reunification in [[1990]] further promotes the peaceful integration with its neighbors. Strong ties with the [[United States]] remain central to German foreign policy. Within the framework of [[NATO]] and an integrated European Defence Force, the Federal Republic also re-starts to deploy military and combat units to mediate in conflict regions, worldwide. Germany is one of the world's strongest supporters for ecological awarness in response to [[climate change]] and [[global warming]]. == Centerpieces of German Foreign Policy since 1945 == === Franco-German cooperation === ''see main article'' [[Franco-German cooperation]] Being the historic core of [[Europe]] and the &quot;twin engine for European integration&quot; the cooperation with [[France]] is one of the most central element of German foreign policy. The [[Elysée Treaty]] from [[1963]] set the foundation for a collaboration that - next to the European project - also repeatedly called for a &quot;Core Union&quot; with maximum integration{{citationneeded}}. === European Integration === [[Image:European flag.svg||left|120px]] European Integration has gone a long way since the [[ECSC]] and the [[Elysée Treaty]]. Peaceful collaborations with its neighbors remain one of Germany's biggest political objectives, and Germany has been on the forefront of most achievements made in European integration: * [[Maastricht Treaty]] Most of the social issues facing European countries in general: immigration, aging populations, straining social-welfare and pension systems - are all important in Germany. Germany seeks to maintain peace through the &quot;deepening&quot; of integration among current members of the [[European Union]] member states * [[European Defence Force]] * Introduction of the single currency € [[Euro]] Germany's has been the largest net contributor to EU budgets for decades (in absolute terms - given Germanys comparatively large population - not per capita) and seeks to limit the growth of these net payments in the enlarged union. * [[European Constitution]] ===Westbindung=== &quot;Bindung&quot; is the [[German language|German]] word for ''fixation'' or ''bond''; &quot;Westbindung&quot; is Germany's implant into [[Western Europe]] and the [[Western World]]. In particular during the [[Cold War]] - but continuous into the 21st century - German foreign policy pursues the country's integration into [[NATO]] and a strong co-operation and [[collective security]] with its Western partners. As a free democracy and market economy, the world's largest exporting nation and the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|third-richest economy]] (nominal GDP) (behind the [[USA]] and [[Japan]]), Germany shares the interest and institutions of a free and secure world trade. === Israel and the Near East === ''see main article'' [[Jews in Germany]] ''and'' [[Iran-Germany relations]] Following [[German history]] during the [[Holocaust]], one of Postwar Germany's aims were to establish and maintain relations of [[Wiedergutmachung]] with the [[State of Israel]]. Starting with the [[Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany|Reparations Agreement]] in [[1952]], support for the national security of the State of Israel is central to German foreign policy. Germany has been actively involved in the [[Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty]] in [[1979]], the [[Oslo Accords]] ([[1993]]) which led to the [[Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty]] in [[1994]] and the continuous [[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] which make Germany arguably (next to the [[United States]]) Israel's closest ally. Germany also holds a special relationship with [[Turkey]] and is active in maintaining diplomatic relationships with [[Iran]]. ===Ostpolitik=== ''see main article'' [[Ostpolitik]] During the postwar era, the FRG sought to improve relationship with the countries of [[Eastern Europe]], first establishing trade agreements and subsequently, diplomatic relations. === Development Aid === Germany is one of the largest net contributors of the [[UNO]] and has several development agencies working in Africa and the Middle East. == German reunification== [[Image:Helmut kohl.jpeg|thumb|right|120px|[[Helmut Kohl]] was German chancellor from 1982 until 1998]] ''see main article'' [[German reunification]] After the [[Fall of the Berlin Wall]] and the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany]], German reunification took effect on October 3rd [[1990]]. On [[November 14]], [[1990]], Germany and [[Poland]] signed a treaty confirming the [[Oder-Neisse line]]. They also concluded a cooperation treaty on [[June 17]], [[1991]]. Germany concluded four treaties with the [[Soviet Union]] covering the overall bilateral relationship, economic relations, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the territory of the former [[German Democratic Republic|GDR]], and German support for those troops. [[Russia]] accepted obligations under these treaties as successor to the Soviet Union. == Centerpieces of German Foreign Policy since 1990 == ===Central &amp; Eastern Europe=== [[Image:Euro map de.png|thumb|200px|[[EU]] Monitary Union and the single currency [[euro]] in [[2004]]]] * [[OSCE]] * [[NATO]] enlargement The German government was a strong supporter of the enlargement of [[NATO]]. * [[Yugoslav wars|Balkan Crisis]] German troops participate in the multinational efforts to bring peace and stability to the [[Balkans]]. * [[European Union]] enlargement [[Weimar triangle]]; Germany continues to be active economically in the states of central and eastern Europe, and to actively support the development of democratic institutions. In the [[2000]]s Germany has been arguably the centerpiece of the [[European Union]] (though the importance of [[France]] cannot be overlooked in this connection). (''see also'' [[Foreign relations of the European Union]]) === Russia === Germany tries to keep Russia engaged with the Western world. The future aim is to promote a stable market-economy liberal democrazy in Russia, which is part of the Western world. === China === Germany has traditionally good relationships with [[China]] (see [[Sino-German cooperation]]). In recent years trade between both countries has reached high volumes, both in import and exports. === Ecological Involvement === [[Image:UNFCC Logo.gif|left|120px]] ''see also'' [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] [[Kyoto protocol]] ===Initiative for a Permanent Seat in the UNSC === As member of the [[G4 nations]], the German Federal Government began an initiative to obtain a permanent seat in the [[Security Council]] of the [[United Nations]], as part of the [[Reform of the United Nations]]. This would require approval of a two-thirds majority of the member states and approval of all five Security Council veto powers. This aspiration could be successful due to Germany's good relations with the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation. Furthermore, Germany's long-term relation to [[France]] may support this. Germany is a stable and democratic republic and a [[G7]] country which are also favourable attributes. The [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] support German ascension to the supreme body. [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1618479,00.html] The [[USA]] are sending mixed signals. === War on terror === [[Image:Schröder and Bush.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Former Chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]] with U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] at the White House in [[2001]]]] In [[2001]] the discovery that the [[terrorism|terrorist]] cell which carried out the attacks against the [[United States]] on [[September 11, 2001]] was based in [[Hamburg]], sent shock waves through the country. America's [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]; many commentators credit the [[SPD]]'s Most of the public was strongly against the conflict, and any deployment of troops. The government of Chance
]s of [[Mashhad]] (''see [[Muslim Jew]]''), their numbers were increased by religious refugees. The Baghdadis came mostly from the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]], and [[Afghanistan]]. The population of the [[Cochin Jews|Kochi Jews]], always small, had decreased from 5,000 in 1951 to about fifty in the early 1990s. During the same period, the [[Bene Israel]] decreased from about 20,000 to 5,000, while the [[Baghdadi Jews]] declined from 5,000 to 250. Emigration to [[Australia]], [[Israel]], [[Britain]], and [[North America]] accounts for most of this decline. According to the 1981 Indian census, there were 5,618 Jews in India, down from 5,825 in 1971. The 1991 census showed a further decline to 5,271, most of whom lived in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Kerala]]. The [[Knanaya]] and [[Nasrani]] Christian groups also have strong historical ties to Judaism. ==Bahá'í Faith== :''Main article: [[Bahá'ís in India]]'' {{Asia in topic|Religion in}} [[Category:Religion in India| ]] [[fr:Religions de l'Inde]] [[pl:Religie w Indiach]] [[sv:Lista över religioner i Indien efter delstat och befolkningsandel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Infusion (disambiguation)</title> <id>14606</id> <revision> <id>41027661</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:08:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Oil]] to [[Vegetable oil]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">* An '''infusion''' is a [[beverage]] made by [[steeping]] a flavoring substance in hot or boiling [[water]]. Infusions include [[coffee]], [[tea]] and [[tisane|tisanes]]. Infusions can also be made in another substance, such as [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or [[vinegar]], instead of water. * In [[medicine]] an '''infusion''' is a treatment in which a patient is attached to a device (a [[drip]]) that constantly delivers a [[liquid]] into the [[bloodstream]]. See [[route of administration]] for some further details. * [[Infusion]] in the world of [[aromatherapy]] refers to two different types, or infusions, of [[herb]]s, [[flower]]s, [[berries]], etc. being &quot;infused&quot; or placed in [[Vegetable oil|oil]]. There are short-term infusions which are most popularly used and sold today. * In other contexts, an '''infusion''' can mean the introduction of a modifying quality or element. Thus it could be used to describe the addition of new subject matter into a [[curriculum]], or the addition of talented individuals into an [[organization]]. * [[Infusion (band)|Infusion]] is an [[Australia]]n dance-music act. * [[Infusion Development]] is a software consulting company and author of the [[CodeNotes]] book series. * A recognized form of Christian [[baptism]] (pouring over the head). {{disambig}} [[de:Aufgussgetränk]] [[fr:Infusion]] [[it:Infuso]] [[pt:Infusão]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Idaho</title> <id>14607</id> <revision> <id>41914767</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:13:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username> <id>603177</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/87.110.72.217|87.110.72.217]] to last version by 67.176.251.224</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{US state | Name = Idaho | Fullname = State of Idaho | Flag = Idaho state flag.png | Flaglink = [[Flag of Idaho]] | Seal = Idahostateseal.jpg | Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Idaho.png | Nickname = Gem State | Capital = [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]] | OfficialLang = English | LargestCity = [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]] | Governor = [[Dirk Kempthorne|Dirk Kempthorne]] (R)| Senators = [[Larry Craig]] (R) [[Mike Crapo]] (R) | PostalAbbreviation = ID | AreaRank = 14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | TotalArea = 216,632 | LandArea = 214,499 | WaterArea = 2,133 | PCWater = 0.98 | PopRank = 39&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | 2000Pop = 1,293,953 | DensityRank = 44&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | 2000Density = 6.04 | AdmittanceOrder = 43&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; | AdmittanceDate = [[July 3]], [[1890]] | TimeZone = [[Pacific Standard Time Zone|Pacific]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-8/[[Daylight saving time|-7]] (northern)&lt;br/&gt;[[Mountain Standard Time Zone|Mountain]]: UTC-7/[[Daylight saving time|-6]] (southern) | Latitude = 42° N to [[49th parallel north|49°&amp;nbsp;N]] | Longitude = 111° W to 117° W | Width = 491 | Length = 771 | HighestElev = 3,859 | MeanElev = 1,524 | LowestElev = 216 | ISOCode = US-ID | Website = www.idaho.gov }} '''Idaho''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[Pacific Northwest]] of the [[United States]]. The state's [[capital]] and largest city is [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]]. Residents are called &quot;Idahoans.&quot; Idaho was admitted to the Union on [[July 3]], [[1890]], as the 43rd state. According to the United States Census Bureau in [[2004]] Idaho had an estimated population of 1,393,262. The state's postal abbreviation is '''ID'''. Idaho is nicknamed the '''Gem State''' because of its abundance of natural resources. The state motto is '''Esto Perpetua''' ([[Latin]] for &quot;Let it be perpetual&quot;). ==Name== Idaho has a very unusual name. It is perhaps the only state to be named as the result of a [[hoax]]. When a name was being selected for new territory, eccentric lobbyist [[George M. Willing]] suggested &quot;Idaho,&quot; which he claimed was a Native American term meaning &quot;gem of the mountains&quot;. It was later revealed Willing had made up the name himself, and the original Idaho territory was re-named [[Colorado]] because of it. Eventually the controversy was forgotten, and modern-day Idaho was given the made-up name when the [[Idaho Territory]] was formally created in [[1863]]. == History == {{splitsection|History of Idaho}} Humans may have been present in the Idaho area as long as 14,500 years ago. Excavations at Wilson Butte Cave near [[Twin Falls, Idaho|Twin Falls]] in [[1959]] revealed evidence of human activity, including arrowheads, that rank among the oldest dated artifacts in [[North America]]. Later [[Native Americans in the United States|native American]] tribes predominant the area included the [[Nez Perce]] in the north and the Northern and Western [[Shoshone]] in the south. By contrast, Idaho was the last of the 50 states explored by people of European descent. The [[Lewis and Clark]] expedition entered present-day Idaho on [[August 12]], [[1805]], at the [[Lemhi Pass]]. The first expedition to enter southern Idaho is believed to be a group led by Wilson Price Hunt, which navigated the [[Snake River]] while attempting to blaze an all-water trail westward from [[St. Louis, Missouri]], to [[Astoria, Oregon]], in [[1811]] and [[1812]]. At that time, approximately 8,000 Native Americans lived in the region. [[Fur trading]] and [[missionary]] work attracting the first settlers to the region. In [[1809]], [[Kullyspell House]], the first white-owned establishment and first trading post in Idaho, was constructed. In [[1836]], [[Henry H. Spalding]] established a mission near [[Lapwai]], where he printed the Northwest's first book, established Idaho's first school, developed its first irrigation system, and grew the state's first potatoes. [[Narcissa Whitman]] and [[Eliza Hart Spalding]] were the first white women to cross the continental divide (South Pass). During this time the Idaho region was part of an unorganized territory known as [[Oregon Country]], claimed by both the United States and [[Great Britain]]. The United States gained undisputed jurisdiction over the region in the [[Oregon Treaty]] of [[1846]]. The original boundaries of [[Oregon Territory]] in [[1848]] included all three of the present-day Pacific Northwest states and extended eastward to the Continential Divide. In [[1853]] areas north of the 46th Parallel became [[Washington Territory]], splitting what is now Idaho in two. The future state was reunited in [[1859]] after [[Oregon]] became a state and the boundaries of Washington Territory were redrawn. While thousands passed through Idaho on the [[Oregon Trail]] and during the [[California gold rush]] of [[1849]], few people settled there. The first organized town in Idaho was [[Franklin, Idaho|Franklin]], settled in April [[1860]] by [[Mormon]] pioneers who believed they were in [[Utah Territory]] (a later survey determined they had in fact crossed the border) [http://franklinidaho.org/History2.htm]. Later that year, the first of several [[gold rush|gold rushes]] in Idaho began at [[Pierce, Idaho|Pierce]] in present-day [[Clearwater County, Idaho|Clearwater County]]. By [[1862]] settlements in both the north and south had formed around the mining boom. On March 4, [[1863]], President [[Abraham Lincoln]] signed an act creating [[Idaho Territory]] from portions of Washington Territory and [[Dakota Territory]] with its capital at [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]]. The original Idaho Territory included most of the areas that later became the states of Idaho, [[Montana]] and [[Wyoming]], but had a population of under 17,000. Idaho Territory assumed the boundaries of the modern state in [[1868]]. Although the 1863 [[Bear River Massacre]] in present-day [[Franklin County, Idaho|Franklin County]] is considered to be the westernmost battle of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], the upheaval caused by the Civil War and [[Reconstruction]] was a distant concern to those in the comparatively stable Idaho Territory, a situation which in turn encouraged settlement. Almost immediately after Idaho Territory was creat
irst prize by losing to [[Sämisch]]; immediately upon learning this, Nimzowitsch got up on a table and shouted, “Why must I lose to this idiot?” Although Nimzowitsch did not win a single game against Capablanca, he fared better against Alekhine. He even beat Alekhine with black pieces in [[St. Petersburg]] in [[1914]] (moves given in [[Algebraic chess notation]]):[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1011921] 1. e4 e6 2. d4 d5 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. exd5 Nxd5 5. Nf3 b6 6. Bb5+ c6 7. Bd3 Be7 8. O-O Nd7 9. Nxd5 cxd5 10. Qe2 O-O 11. Bf4 Bb7 12. c3 Bf6 13. Rfe1 Qe7 14. Ba6 Bxa6 15. Qxa6 Nb8 16. Qb5 Qb7 17. Re3 Nc6 18. Qd3 g6 19. Bh6 Bg7 20. Bxg7 Kxg7 21. Rae1 Qc7 22. h4 Rac8 23. h5 Qf4 24. Ne5 Nxe5 25. Rxe5 Rc7 26. g3 Qf6 27. Qe3 Rd8 28. Kg2 Rcc8 29. Rh1 Kf8 30. Rh4 Ke8 31. Qh6 Ke7 32. Rf4 Qh8 33. Re1 Rd7 34. Rh1 Qg8 35. Qg5+ Kd6 36. Qe5+ Kc6 37. a4 Kb7 38. Ra1 Qh8 39. Rf6 Qd8 40. Rf3 Qh8 41. Qe2 a6 42. Qe3 Qg7 43. h6 Qf8 44. Qe5 Qh8 45. Rf6 Qf8 46. Rf3 Qh8 47. Rf6 Qf8 48. Rh1 Qd8 49. Rf3 Qh8 50. Rf6 Qd8 51. Rf3 Qh8 52. Rf6 Qd8 53. Rf4 Rc4 54. Ra1 Rc6 55. Rf6 Qf8 56. Qe3 Re7 57. Qf3 Qe8 58. g4 Qd7 59. Re1 Rc7 60. b3 Ka7 61. g5 Qd6 62. Qd3 Qa3 63. Qc2 Qb4 64. Rc1 Qa3 65. Re1 Qb4 66. Rc1 Qa3 67. Re1 Qb4 68. Rc1 Qd6 69. Qd3 Qa3 70. Rb1 Qa2 71. Rf3 e5 72. Re3 e4 73. Qd1 f6 74. gxf6 Rf7 75. Ra1 Qb2 76. Rb1 Qa3 77. c4 Rxf6 78. cxd5 Rcf7 79. Re2 Qd6 80. Qc2 Qxd5 81. Kf1 e3 82. Rxe3 Qh1+ 83. Ke2 Rxf2+ 84. Kd3 Qd5 85. Qc8 Rd7 0-1 == Further reading == * ''Twelve Great Chess Players and Their Best Games'' by Irving Chernev; Dover; August 1995. ISBN 0486286746 *''Aron Nimzowitsch: Master of Planning'' by Raymond Keene; G. Bell and Sons. Ltd, 1974. == External links == *[http://www.muljadi.org/Nimzowitsch.htm Nimzowitsch's games at muljadi.org] *[http://www.xs4all.nl/~wimnij/bio.html Nimzowitch related articles] *[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=10249 Nimzowitsch page at Chessgames.com] *[http://www.wtharvey.com/nimz.html 20 Crucial Positions from His Games] *[[Hans Kmoch|Kmoch, Hans]] (2004). [http://www.chesscafe.com/text/kmoch02.pdf Grandmasters I Have Known: Aaron Nimzovich] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]). Chesscafe.com. [[Category:1886 births|Nimzowitsch, Aron]] [[Category:1935 deaths|Nimzowitsch, Aron]] [[Category:Chess grandmasters|Nimzowitsch, Aron]] [[Category:Jewish chess players|Nimzowitsch, Aron]] [[Category:Latvian chess players|Nimzowitsch, Aron]] [[da:Aaron Nimzowitsch]] [[de:Aaron Nimzowitsch]] [[el:Άρον Νίμζοβιτς]] [[es:Aaron Nimzowitsch]] [[fr:Aron Nimzowitsch]] [[it:Aaron Nimzowitsch]] [[hu:Aaron Nimzovics]] [[nl:Aaron Nimzowitsch]] [[pl:Aron Nimzowitsch]] [[ru:Нимцович, Арон Исаевич]] [[fi:Aron Nimzowitsch]] [[sv:Aaron Nimzowitsch]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aragonese language</title> <id>2813</id> <revision> <id>41710298</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:33:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andrew.kegg</username> <id>1009878</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language |name=Aragonese |nativename=aragonés |region=[[Aragon]] (an [[autonomous community]] of [[Spain]]) |speakers=10,000 (30,000 total) |familycolor=Indo-European |fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]] |fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]] |fam4=[[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] |fam5=Western |fam6=Pyrenean-Mozarabic |fam7=Pyrenean |iso1=an|iso2=arg|iso3=arg |map=[[Image:Aragon languages-en.png|thumb|280px|center|Languages distribution in Aragon (Aragonese in red). Spanish is spoken in the whole area, but in the green part it is endemic]]}} :''This article is about the Aragonese language. For the cartoonist and writer, see [[Sergio Aragonés]]'' '''Aragonese''' (''aragonés'') is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] now spoken by some 10,000 people over the valleys of the [[Aragón River]], [[Sobrarbe]] and [[Ribagorza]] in the [[province]] of [[Huesca (province)|Huesca]], [[Aragon]], [[Spain]]. It is also colloquially known as ''fabla''. Aragonese originated around the [[8th century]] as one of many [[Latin]] dialects developed in the Pyrenees on top of a strong [[Basque language|Basque]]-like substratum. The original [[kingdom of Aragon]] (formed by the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) was progressively expanded from the mountain ranges towards the South, pushing the [[Moors]] further South in the ''[[Reconquista]]'' and spreading the Aragonese language. The dynastic union of the [[Catalonia|Catalan Counties]] and the [[Kingdom of Aragon]]&amp;mdash;which formed the [[Aragonese Crown]] in the 12th century&amp;mdash;did not result in a merging of the language forms of the two territories into a single form; [[Catalan language|Catalan]] continued to be spoken in the east, and Aragonese in the west. Moreover, Catalan was the language that expanded into the new territories conquered to the [[Moors]]: the [[Balearic Islands]] and the new kingdom of [[Valencia]]. The ''Aragonese'' reconquista to the south ended in the kingdom of [[Murcia]], that was ceded by [[James I of Aragon]] to the Kingdom of [[Castile]] as a dowry for an Aragonese princess. The spread of Castilian, now known as [[Spanish language|Spanish]] too, together with the protective effect from it that Aragonese played for the Catalan language, the Castilian origin amb the Trastamara dynasty and a deep likeness between Castilian and Aragonese, meant that further recession was to follow. One of the key moments in the history of Aragonese was when a king of Castilian origin was appointed in the [[15th century]]: [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]], (a.k.a. Ferdinand of Antequera). The annexation of Aragon by Castile and the progressive suspension of all capacity of self-rule from the 16th century meant that Aragonese, while still widely spoken, was limited to a rural and colloquial use, as the nobility chose Spanish as their symbol of power. The suppression of Aragonese reached its most dramatic point during the rule of [[Francisco Franco]] in the [[20th century]]. Pupils were beaten in schools for using it, and [[language politics in Francoist Spain]] forbade the teaching of any language that was not Spanish. The constitutional democracy voted by the people in [[1978]] meant an increase in the literary works and studies conducted in and about the Aragonese language. However, it may be too late for this language. Nowadays, Aragonese is still spoken natively within its core area, the Aragonese mountain ranges of the Pyrenees, in the comarcas of Somontano, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza. These are the major cities and towns where Aragonese speakers can still be found: [[Huesca]], [[Graus]], [[Monzón]], [[Barbastro]], Fonz, Echo, Estadilla, [[Benasque]], [[Sabiñánigo]], [[Jaca]], Plan, Ansó, [[Ayerbe]], Broto, El Grado. Aragonese is also learnt as a second language by other inhabitants of the country in areas like [[Huesca|Uesca]], [[Saragossa|Zaragoza]], [[Ejea de los Caballeros|Exea]], and [[Teruel]]. According to recent polls, altogether they only make up around 30,000 speakers. Some historical traits of Aragonese language: *As in Spanish, open O,E from Romance result systematically into diphthongs {{IPA|[we]}}, {{IPA|[je]}}, e.g. VET'LA &gt; ''biella'' (old woman, Spa. ''vieja'', Cat. ''vella'') *Loss of final unstressed -E, e.g. GRANDE &gt; ''gran'' (big) *Unlike [[Spanish language|Spanish]] Romance initial F- is preserved, e.g. FILIU &gt; ''fillo'' (son, Spa. ''hijo'', Cat. ''fill'') *Romance yod (GE-,GI-,I-) results in voiceless palatal affricate ''ch'' {{IPA|[&amp;#679;]}}, e.g. IUVEN &gt; ''choben'' (young man), GELARE &gt; ''chelar'' (to freeze, Spa. ''helar'', Cat. ''gelar'') *Like in [[Occitan language|Occitan]] Romance groups -ULT-, -CT- result in {{IPA|[jt]}}, e.g. FACTU &gt; ''feito'' (done, Spa. ''hecho'', Cat. ''fet'') *Romance groups -X-, -PS-, SCj- result into voiceless palatal fricative ''ix'' {{IPA|[&amp;#643;]}}, e.g. COXU &gt; coixo (crippled, Spa. ''cojo'', Cat. ''coix'') *Unlike [[Spanish language|Spanish]], Romance groups -Lj-, -C'L-, -T'L- result into palatal lateral ''ll'' {{IPA|[&amp;#654;]}}, e.g. MULIERE &gt; ''muller'' (woman, Spa. ''mujer'', Cat. ''muller'')), ACUT'LA &gt; ''agulla'' (needdle, Spa. ''aguja'', Cat. ''agulla'') *Unlike [[Spanish language|Spanish]], Latin -B- is maintained in past imperfect endings of verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations: ''teniba'' (he had, Spa. ''tenía'', Cat. ''tenia'')) [[Ribagorçan]] dialect might be considered a transitional Romance variant which shares features with both Catalan and Aragonese. ==External links== {{Interwiki|code=an}} *[http://es.geocities.com/cursetaragones/engcur.htm Aragonese Course] *[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=arg Ethnologue report for Aragonese] * [http://www.consello.org/ Consello d'a Fabla Aragonesa] *[http://www.rosettaproject.org:8080/live/search/detailedlanguagerecord?ethnocode=AXX See language review page on the Rosetta Project website] * [http://www.language-museum.com/a/aragonese.php Aragonese Language Sample] [[Category:Romance languages]] [[Category:Languages of Spain]] [[an:Aragonés]] [[ast:Aragonés]] [[ca:Aragonès]] [[cs:Aragonština]] [[de:Aragonesische Sprache]] [[es:Idioma aragonés]] [[eu:Aragoiera]] [[eo:Aragona lingvo]] [[fr:Aragonais]] [[it:Lingua aragonese]] [[kw:Aragonek]] [[la:Lingua Aragonica]] [[li:Aragonees]] [[pl:Język aragoński]] [[pt:Aragonês]] [[sv:Aragonska]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Advanced Mobile Phone System</title> <id>2815</id> <revision> <id>41742057</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:18:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>210.200.105.232</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* The Future of AMPS */ - added 'in North America' to coverage description</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|'''&quot;AMPS&quot;''' redirects here. AMPS is also an [[initialism]] for the &quot;All Media and Products Survey&quot; published by the [[So
], [[1860]] - [[Humboldt County, California]] - upwards of 100 Wiyot men, women, and children are slaughtered by settlers. *[[August]]-[[September]], [[1862]] - As many as 800 settlers killed in [[Sioux Uprising|uprising of Santee Sioux]]. *[[October 24]], [[1862]] - [[Tonkawa Massacre]] - A detachment of American Indian [[Guerrilla warfare#Guerrillas in the American Civil War|irregular]] [[Union (American Civil War)|Union forces]] (mainly [[Kickapoo]], [[Lenape|Delaware]] and [[Shawnee]]), with their [[Caddo]] allies, attempted to destroy the [[Tonkawa]] tribe in [[Indian Territory]]. Of the 390 Tonkawas, only 150 survived. *[[January 29]], [[1863]] - [[Bear River Massacre]] - upwards of 200 men, women, and children are slaughtered by whites near [[Preston, Idaho]]. *[[April 19]], [[1863]] - Keyesville Massacre - in [[Kern County, California]] - 35 Tehachapi men are killed by whites [http://fp3.antelecom.net/vredenb/history/mclaughlin.htm] *[[November 29]], [[1864]] - [[Sand Creek Massacre]] - Sand Creek, [[Colorado]] - upwards of 160 [[Cheyenne]] men, women, and children are slaughtered by militiamen *[[December 21]], [[1866]] - The Fetterman Massacre- near [[Fort Phil Kearny]], [[Wyoming]] - Lt. Col. [[William J. Fetterman]] and a compliment of 79 US soldiers of [http://www.18inf.org/line.htm#top U.S. 18th Infantry Regiment] and 2 civilians-were sent to relieve a train under attack by [[Oglala]] Sioux led by [[Crazy Horse]] and they were wiped out by an ambush. (Evidence suggests that, like Custer's Last Stand [see below], this should be more fairly considered a battle than a massacre.) See [[Red Cloud's War]]. *[[July 2]], [[1867]]- Kidder Massacre-near [[Beaver Creek]] [[Sherman County]], [[Kansas]]. 2nd Lt Kidder; a Sgt; a Corporal; 8 privates of &quot;M&quot; Company 2nd US Cavalry {[[2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment]]} and a Indian Guide were killed by [[Cheyenne]] &amp; [[Sioux]] Indians. Called a &quot;massacre&quot;, it was a battle such as the ''Fetterman'' ambush was labeled a &quot;Massacre&quot;. [http://www.goodlandnet.com/history/kidder.htm]. *[[January 23]], [[1870]] - [[Marias Massacre]] - 173 Piegans, mainly elderly, women, and children, slaughtered by whites *[[June 25]], [[1876]] - [[Battle of the Little Big Horn]] - About two hundred fifty men of the [[US 7th Cavalry Regiment]], under Lt. Col. [[George A. Custer]], are wiped out in a battle against [[Sioux]] and [[Northern Cheyenne]] Indians. (Though widely considered a &quot;massacre&quot;, Custer's men died fighting and in any case initiated the battle by attacking a nearby Sioux village.) *[[January 8th]], [[1879]]-[[Fort Robinson]] Montana - [[Northern Cheyenne]] under [[Dull Knife]] escape from confinment-about 50 survive. *[[December 29]], [[1890]] - [[Wounded Knee Massacre]] - [[Wounded Knee, South Dakota]] - up to 300 Sioux men, women, and children are killed by US soldiers. ==See also== *[[Indian Wars]] *[[Population history of American indigenous peoples]] [[Category:Crimes]] [[Category:Military history of the United States]] [[Category:Murder]] [[Category:Native American history]] [[Category:Riots and civil unrest in the United States]] [[Category:Violent incidents in the United States]] [[Category:War crimes]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Inherence relation</title> <id>14807</id> <revision> <id>34980694</id> <timestamp>2006-01-13T04:19:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rodasmith</username> <id>291611</id> </contributor> <comment>No objections to merge request. Information from here was already at [[Substance theory]], so this redirects now.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Substance theory]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Interferometer</title> <id>14808</id> <revision> <id>15912341</id> <timestamp>2003-01-08T04:43:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stevertigo</username> <id>4099</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>mad redirect to interferometry</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect:[[Interferometry]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Isotope</title> <id>14809</id> <revision> <id>42026128</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:09:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jclerman</username> <id>442129</id> </contributor> <comment>rvv vandal warned</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Isotopes''' are forms of an [[chemical element|element]] whose [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] have the same [[atomic number]] - the number of [[proton]]s in the nucleus - but different [[mass number]]s because they contain different numbers of [[neutron]]s. The word ''isotope'', meaning ''at the same place'', comes from the fact that all isotopes of an element are located at the same place on the [[periodic table]]. Collectively, the isotopes of the elements form the set of ''nuclides''. A nuclide is a particular type of atomic nucleus, or more generally an agglomeration of protons and neutrons. Strictly speaking, it is more correct to say that an element such as [[fluorine]] consists of one stable nuclide rather than that it has one stable isotope. In scientific [[nomenclature]], isotopes (nuclides) are specified by the name of the particular element by a hyphen and the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus (e.g., [[helium-3]], [[carbon-12]], [[carbon-14]], [[iodine-131]], [[uranium-238]]). In symbolic form, the number of nucleons is denoted as a superscripted prefix to the [[chemical symbol]] (e.g., &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He, &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;C, &lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;C, &lt;sup&gt;131&lt;/sup&gt;I, &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U). {{TOCright}} == Variation in properties between isotopes == In a neutral atom, the number of [[electron]]s equals the number of protons. Thus, different isotopes of a given element also have the same number of electrons and the same electronic structure. Because the chemical behavior of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behavior. The primary exception is that, due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element. (This phenomenon is termed the [[kinetic isotope effect]]). This &quot;mass effect&quot; is most pronounced for [[protium]] (&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H) vis-à-vis [[deuterium]] (&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;H), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium. For heavier elements the relative mass difference between isotopes is much less, and the mass effect is usually negligible. Similarly, two [[molecules]] which differ only in the isotopic nature of their atoms (''[[isotopologue]]s'') will have nearly identical electronic structure, and therefore have similar physical and chemical properties. The [[molecular vibration|vibrational mode]]s of a molecule are determined by its shape and by the masses of its constituent atoms. Consequently, isotopologues will have different sets of vibrational modes. Since vibrational modes allow a molecule to absorb [[photon]]s of corresponding energies, isotopologues have different optical properties in the [[infrared]] range. Although isotopes exhibit nearly identical electronic and chemical behavior, their nuclear behavior varies dramatically. Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together by the [[strong nuclear force]]. Because protons are positively charged, they repel each other. Neutrons, which are electrically neutral, allow some separation between the positively charged protons, reducing the electrostatic repulsion and stabilizing the nucleus. For this reason neutrons are necessary for two or more protons to be bound into a nucleus. As the number of protons increases, additional neutrons are needed to form a stable nucleus; for example, although the neutron/proton ratio of &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He is 1/2, the neutron/proton ratio of &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U is greater than 3/2. If too many neutrons or too few neutrons are present, the nucleus becomes unstable and subject to [[nuclear decay]]. == Occurrence in nature == Several isotopes of each element can be found in nature. The [[relative abundance]] of an isotope is strongly correlated with its tendency toward [[nuclear decay]]; short-lived nuclides quickly decay away, while their long-lived counterparts endure. However, this does not mean that short-lived species disappear entirely; many are continually produced through the decay of longer-lived nuclides. The tabulated [[atomic mass]]es of elements are averages that account for the presence of multiple isotopes with different masses. According to generally accepted [[cosmology]], virtually all nuclides other than isotopes of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] were built in [[star]]s and [[supernova]]e. Their respective abundances here result from the quantities formed by these processes, their spread through the [[galaxy]], and their rates of decay. After the initial coalescence of the [[solar system]], isotopes were redistributed according to mass (see also [[Solar system#Origin and evolution of the Solar System|Origin of the solar system]]). The isotopic composition of elements is different on different planets, making it possible to determine the origin of [[meteorite]]s. &lt;!--Someone with some knowledge on the subject could also add more about creative processes in the universe'''--&gt; == Applications of isotopes == Several applications exist that capitalize on properties of the various isotopes of a given element. === Use of chemical properties === * One of the most common applications is [[isotopic labeling]], the use of unusual isotopes as tracers or markers in chemical reactions. Normally, atoms of a given element are indistinguishable from each other. However, by using
legant [[Intel 8085|8085]], and later by the assembly language compatible 16-bit [[Intel 8086|8086]] and then the 8/16-bit [[Intel 8088|8088]], which was selected by [[IBM]] for its new [[IBM PC|PC]] to be launched in 1981. The 8080, via its [[instruction set architecture|ISA]], thus made a lasting impact on computer history. The Soviet Union manufactured the complete 8080 analog KP580ИK80 (later marked as KP580BM80), where even pins were placed identically. This processor was the base of the Radio86RK, probably the most popular amateur single-board computer in the Soviet Union. In some other sources is written that the Soviet analog has two undocumented its own specific commands, but these were not widely known. ===Industry change=== The 8080 also changed how computers were created. When the 8080 was introduced, computer systems were usually created by computer manufacturers such as [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], [[Hewlett Packard]], or [[IBM]]. A manufacturer would produce the entire computer, including processor, terminals, and system software such as compilers and operating system. The 8080 was actually designed for just about any application ''except'' a complete computer system. Hewlett Packard developed a terminal, the [[HP 2647]] which was a terminal which ran [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] on the 8080. [[Microsoft]] would create the first popular programming language for the 8080, and would later acquire [[DOS]] for the [[IBM-PC]]. As the 8080 evolved into the largely compatible x86 family, and PC's evolved into workstations and servers of 32 and 64 bits, the basic architecture of the 8080 and its successors has replaced many propriety midrange and mainframe computers, and withstood challenges of technologies such as RISC. Most computer manufacturers have abandoned producing their own processors below the highest performance points. Though x86 may not be the most elegant, or theoretically most efficient design, the sheer market force of so many dollars going into refining a design has made the x86 family today, and will remain for some time, the dominant processor architecture, even bypassing Intel's attempts to replace it with incompatible architectures such as the [[Intel iAPX 432|iAPX 432]] and [[Itanium]]. {{FOLDOC}} {{Intel_processors}} [[Category:Microprocessors]] [[cs:Intel 8080]] [[de:Intel 8080]] [[es:Intel 8080]] [[fr:Intel 8080]] [[id:Intel 8080]] [[it:Intel 8080]] [[lt:Intel 8080]] [[nl:8080 (processor)]] [[ja:Intel 8080]] [[pl:Intel 8080]] [[sk:Intel 8080]] [[fi:Intel 8080]] [[ru:Intel 8080]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Intel 8086</title> <id>15063</id> <revision> <id>41258984</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T03:04:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Guy Harris</username> <id>122189</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Fix typo.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Intel 8086.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An Intel 8086 Microprocessor]] The '''8086''' is a 16-[[bit]] [[microprocessor]] chip designed by [[Intel]] in [[1978]], which gave rise to the [[x86]] architecture. Shortly after, the [[Intel 8088]] was introduced with an external 8-bit bus, allowing the use of cheap chipsets. It was based on the design of the [[Intel 8080|8080]] and [[Intel 8085|8085]] (it was [[assembly language]] [[source-compatibility|source-compatible]] with the 8080) with a similar register set, but was expanded to 16 bits. The Bus Interface Unit fed the instruction stream to the Execution Unit through a 6 byte prefetch queue, so fetch and execution were concurrent &amp;ndash; a primitive form of [[pipelining]] (8086 instructions varied from 1 to 4 bytes). Buses: * Address Bus - 20-bit address bus. Can access 2&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt; memory locations i.e 1 MB of memory. * Data Bus - 16 bit data bus. Can access 16 bit data in one operation. Hence called [[16-bit]] [[microprocessor]]. * Control buses - Carries the essential signals for various operations. It featured four 16-bit general [[processor register|registers]], which could also be accessed as eight 8-bit registers, and four 16-bit index registers (including the [[Stack-based memory allocation|stack pointer]]). The data registers were often used implicitly by instructions, complicating register allocation for temporary values. It featured 64K 8-bit I/O (or 32K 16 bit) ports and fixed vectored interrupts. Most instructions could only access one memory location, so one operand had to be a register. The result was stored in one of the operands. There were also four [[memory segment|segment]] registers that could be set from index registers. The segment registers allowed the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] to access one [[megabyte]] + 64 KB - 16 bytes of memory in an odd way. Rather than just supplying missing bytes, as in most segmented processors, the 8086 shifted the segment register left 4 bits and added it to the address. As a result segments overlapped, which most people consider to have been poor design. Although this was largely acceptable (and even useful) for [[assembly language]], where control of the segments was complete, it caused confusion in languages which make heavy use of pointers (such as [[C programming language|C]]). It made efficient representation of pointers difficult, and made it possible to have up to 4096 pointers with different values pointing to the same location. Worse, this scheme made expanding the address space to more than one megabyte + 64 KB - 16 bytes difficult. Effectively, it was expanded by changing the addressing scheme in the [[Intel 80286|80286]]. The processor runs at clock speeds between 4.77 (in the original IBM PC) and 10 MHz. Typical execution times in cycles (estimates): *addition: 3&amp;ndash;4 (register), 9+EA&amp;ndash;25+EA (memory access) *multiplication: 70&amp;ndash;118 (register), 76+EA&amp;ndash;143+EA (memory access) *move: 2 (register), 8+EA&amp;ndash;14+EA (memory access) *near jump: 11&amp;ndash;15, 18+EA (memory access) *far jump: 15, 24+EA (memory access) EA: time to compute effective address, ranging from 5 to 12 cycles The 8086 did not contain any [[floating point]] instructions, but could be connected to a mathematical coprocessors to add this capability. The [[Intel 8087]] was the standard version and used as a Math Co-processor operating on 80-bit numbers , but manufacturers like [[Weitek]] soon offered higher performance alternatives. The 8086 was cloned by the [[NEC V20]], V25 and V30 processors. [http://news.com.com/2061-10793_3-6025604.html] [http://techdirt.serverbox.net/articles/20060110/1818234_F.shtml] == Microcomputers using the 8086 == The first commercial microcomputer built on the basis of the 8086 was the [[Mycron]] 2000. The [[IBM Displaywriter]] word processing machine and Wang Professional Computer also used the 8086. The most influential microcomputer of all, the [[IBM PC]], used the [[Intel 8088]], a version of the 8086 with a narrower memory bus. ==External links== *[http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&amp;l0=cl&amp;l1=8086/88 Intel 8086/8088 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de] *[http://www.emu8086.com 8086 visual microprocessor emulator] {{Intel_processors}} ''Article based on [http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=Intel+8086 Intel 8086] at [http://www.foldoc.org FOLDOC], used with [[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|permission]].'' [[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 0861]] [[cs:Intel 8086]] [[de:Intel 8086]] [[es:Intel 8086 y 8088]] [[fr:Intel 8086]] [[ko:인텔 8086]] [[id:Intel 8086]] [[it:Intel 8086]] [[nl:8086 (processor)]] [[ja:Intel 8086]] [[pl:Intel 8086]] [[pt:Intel 8086]] [[ru:Intel 8086]] [[fi:Intel 8086]] [[zh:Intel 8086]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Intel 8088</title> <id>15064</id> <revision> <id>37974330</id> <timestamp>2006-02-03T08:25:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dmit</username> <id>739080</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:I8088.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An Intel 8088 microprocessor]] The '''Intel 8088''' is an [[Intel]] [[microprocessor]] based on the [[Intel 8086|8086]], with 16-[[bit]] registers and an 8-bit external [[data bus]]. The processor was used in the original [[IBM PC]]. The 8088 was targeted at economical systems by allowing the use of 8-bit designs. Large bus width circuit boards were still fairly expensive when it was released. The prefetch queue of the 8088 is 4 bytes, as opposed to the 8086's 6 bytes. The descendants of the 8088 include the [[80188]], [[80288]] (obsolete), and [[80388]] [[microcontroller]]s which are still in use today. The most influential microcomputer to use the 8088 was, by far, the [[IBM PC]]. The original PC processor ran at a [[clock frequency]] of 4.77 MHz. Apparently IBM's own engineers wanted to use the [[Motorola 68000]], and it was used later in the forgotten IBM Instruments [[9000 Laboratory Computer]], but IBM already had rights to manufacture the 8086 family, in exchange for giving Intel the rights to its [[bubble memory]] designs. A factor for using the 8-bit Intel 8088 version was that it could use existing [[Intel 8085]]-type components, and allowed the computer to be based on a modified 8085 design. 68000 components were not widely available at the time, though it could use [[Motorola 6800]] components to an extent. Intel bubble memory was on the market for a while, but Intel left the market due to fierce competition from Japanese corporations who could undercut by cost, and left the memory market to focus on processors. A compatible replacement chip, the [[NEC V20|V20]], was produced by [[Nippon Electric Corporation|NEC]] for an approximate 20 percent improvement in computing power. {{Intel_processors}} [[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 088]] [[de:Intel 8088]] [[es:Intel 8088]] [[fr:Intel 8088]] [[it:Intel 8088]] [[nl:8088 (processo
1996. &quot;Later Han Military Administration: An Outline of the Military Administration of the Later Han Empire.&quot; Rafe de Crespigny. Based on the Introduction to Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling being the Chronicle of Later Han for the years 189 to 220 AD as recorded in Chapters 59 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang, translated and annotated by Rafe de Crespigny and originally published in the Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 21, Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 1996. [http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/mil_org.html] *Dubs, Homer H. 1938. ''The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. One''. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc. *Dubs, Homer H. 1944. ''The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Two''. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc. *Dubs, Homer H. 1955. ''The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Three''. Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc. * Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.'' Draft annotated English translation.[http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html] * Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' ?? ''by Yu Huan'' ??'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation. [http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html] *Hirth, Friedrich. 1875. ''China and the Roman Orient''. Shanghai and Hong Kong. Unchanged reprint. Chicago, Ares Publishers, 1975. *Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N. 1979. ''China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty''. Leiden: E. J. Brill. *Twitchett, Denis and Loewe, Michael, eds. 1986. ''The Cambridge History of China. Volume I. The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220''. Cambridge University Press. ===Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties=== *de Crespigny, Rafe. 1991. &quot;The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD.&quot; ''East Asian History'', no. 1 [June 1991], pp. 1-36, &amp; no. 2 [December 1991], pp. 143-164. Australian National University, Canberra. [http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/3KWJin.html] *Miller, Andrew. 1959. ''Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou'' Dynasty. University of California Press. ===Sui Dynasty=== *Wright, Arthur F. 1978. ''The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China. A.D. 581-617''. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-394-49187-4 ; 0-394-32332-7 (pbk). ===Tang Dynasty=== *Benn, Charles. 2002. ''China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517665-0. *Pelliot, Paul. 1904. &quot;Deux itin&amp;eacute;raires de Chine en Inde &amp;agrave; la fin du VIII&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; si&amp;egrave;cle.&quot; ''BEFEO'' 4 (1904), pp. 131-413. *Schafer, Edward H. 1963. ''The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics''. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1st paperback edition. 1985. ISBN 0520054628. *Schafer, Edward H. 1967. ''The Vermilion Bird: T’ang Images of the South''. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Reprint 1985. ISBN 0520054628. *Shaffer, Lynda Norene. 1996. ''Maritime Southeast Asia to 1500''. Armonk, New York, M.E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 1563241447. *Wang, Zhenping. 1991. &quot;T’ang Maritime Trade Administration.&quot; Wang Zhenping. ''Asia Major'', Third Series, Vol. IV, 1991, pp. 7-38. ===Song Dynasty, the Liao and the Jin=== *Shiba, Yoshinobu. 1970. ''Commerce and Society in Sung China''. Originally published in Japanese as ''So-dai sho-gyo--shi kenkyu-''. Tokyo, Kazama shobo-, 1968. Yoshinobu Shiba. Translation by Mark Elvin, Centre for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan. ===Ming Dynasty=== *Duyvendak, J.J.L. ''China’s Discovery of Africa'' (London: Probsthain, 1949) *Sung, Ying-hsing. 1637. ''T’ien kung k’ai wu''. Published as ''Chinese Technology in the seventeenth century''. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. 1996. Mineola. New York. Dover Publications. == Further reading == *Laufer, Berthold. 1912. ''JADE: A Study in Chinese Archaeology &amp; Religion''. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1974. == External links == *[http://www.badley.info/history/China.country.year.index.html China Chronology World History Database] *[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/history.htm A universal guide for China studies] *[http://www.history-forum.com History Forum] - Discuss Chinese history at [http://www.history-forum.com History Forum's] [http://www.history-forum.com/index.php/board,4.0.html Asian History] section *[http://authors.history-forum.com/liang_jieming/chinesesiegewarfare/ Chinese Siege Warfare] - Mechanical Artillery and Siege Weapons of Antiquity - An Illustrated History bought to you by [http://www.history-forum.com History Forum] *[http://www.chinahistoryforum.com/ China History Forum - online Chinese history discussion] - online community for learning and discussing all aspects of Chinese history, including Chinese art of war, Chinese culture etc. *[http://www.benbest.com/history/China.html A Simplified History of China] *[http://www.projectshum.org/Ancient/china.html Ancient Civilizations - Ancient China] Great research site for kids [[Category:History of China| ]] {{Link FA|zh}} [[be:Гісторыя Кітая]] [[ca:Història de la Xina]] [[de:Geschichte Chinas]] [[eo:Historio de Ĉinio]] [[es:Historia de China]] [[et:Hiina ajalugu]] [[fi:Kiinan kansantasavallan historia]] [[fr:Histoire de la Chine]] [[he:ההיסטוריה הסינית]] [[ja:中国の歴史]] [[ka:ჩინეთის ისტორია]] [[ko:중국의 역사]] [[lt:Kinijos istorija]] [[nb:Kinas historie]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van China]] [[pl:Historia Chin]] [[pt:História da China]] [[ru:История Китая]] [[sv:Kinas historia]] [[th:ประวัติศาสตร์จีน]] [[zh:中国历史]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Civil engineering</title> <id>5762</id> <revision> <id>41889412</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:23:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>87.49.114.61</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Education and Licensure */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FalkirkWheelSide 2004 SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Falkirk Wheel]] in [[Scotland]].]] In modern usage, '''civil engineering''' is a broad field of [[engineering]] that deals with the [[Urban planning|planning]], [[construction]], and [[maintenance]] of fixed [[structures]], or [[public works]], as they are related to [[earth]], [[water]], or [[civilization]] and their processes. Most civil engineering today deals with [[road]]s, [[structure]]s, [[water]] supply, [[sewer]], [[flood]] control and [[traffic]]. In essence civil engineering is the profession which makes the world a more habitable place to live. Engineering has developed from observations of the ways natural and constructed systems react and from the development of empirical equations that provide bases for design. Civil engineering is the broadest of the engineering fields. In fact, engineering was once divided into only two fields--military and civil. Civil engineering is still an umbrella field comprised of many related specialties. ==Sub-disciplines of civil engineering== ===General civil engineering=== General civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage (flood control), paving, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply and land (real property) divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community/neighborhood consensus, and preparing construction plans. ===Structural engineering=== ''Main article: [[Structural engineering]]'' Structural engineering is concerned with the design of [[bridge]]s, buildings, offshore [[oil platform]]s, [[dam]]s etc. [[Structural design]] and [[structural analysis]] are components of structural engineering and a key component in the structural design process. This involves computing the stresses and forces at work within a structure. There are some structural engineers who work in non-typical areas, such as designing aircraft, spacecraft and even biomedical devices. Major design concerns are building seismic resistant structures and [[seismic retrofit|seismically retrofitting]] existing structures. ===Geotechnical engineering=== ''Main article: [[Geotechnical engineering]]'' The main subject of the studies also known as [[soil mechanics]] is concerned with soil properties, mechanics of soil particles, compression and swelling of soils, seepage, slopes, retaining walls, foundations, footings, ground and rock anchors, use of synthetic tensile materials in soil structures, soil-structure interaction and soil dynamics. Geotechnical engineering covers this field of studies for application in engineering. The importance of geotechnical engineering can hardly be overstated: buildings must be supported by reliable foundations. Dam design and construction reducing flooding of lower drainage areas is an important subject of geotechnical engineering. ===Transportation engineering=== ''Main article: [[Transportation engineering]]'' Transportation engineering is primarily concerned with [[road transport|motorized road transportation]], especially in North America. This includes areas such as [[queueing theory]] and traffic flow planning, roadway geometric design and driver behavior patterns. Simulation of traffic operation is performed through use of trip generation, traffic assignment algorithms which can be highly complex computational problems. Other specialized areas of transportation engineering deal with the desi
th accompanying leaflets titled as a &quot;FAQ&quot;. There are thousands of FAQs available on many subjects. Several sites catalog them and provide search capabilities—for example, the Internet FAQ Consortium. In the [[WWW]], FAQs nowadays tend to be stored in content management systems ([[Content_management_system|CMS]]), or in simple text files. Since 1998, a high number of specialized software has emerged, mostly written in [[Perl]] or [[PHP]]. Some of them are integrated in more complex software applications, others, like [[phpMyFAQ]] can be both run as a stand-alone-FAQ and integrated into web applications. :''See also'': [[fact sheet]], [[FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions|''FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions'' (a movie)]] ==See also== *[[how-to]] *[[tutorial]] *[[knowledge_base]] == External links == *[http://www.answerwiki.com/ Answer Wiki] *[http://answers.wikicities.com/ Wikianswers] *[http://www.faqs.org The Internet FAQ Consortium] *[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/faqs/about-faqs/ FAQs about FAQs] *[http://answers.google.com Google Answers] *[http://www.FAQfarm.com FAQ Farm - wiki question and answer site] *[http://www.wikifaq.com WikiFAQ - A mediawiki based repository of FAQs] *[http://www.wisegeek.com wiseGEEK - Clear answers for a wide variety of common questions] *[http://ask.yahoo.com Ask Yahoo!] *[http://straightdope.com/ The Straight Dope] *[[Ursine:FAQ|FAQ]] in [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]] [[Category:Technical communication]] [[Category:Online encyclopedias]] [[Category:FAQ]] [[cs:FAQ]] [[de:FAQ]] [[es:FAQ]] [[fr:Foire aux questions]] [[ko:FAQ]] [[it:FAQ]] [[nl:FAQ-lijst]] [[ja:FAQ]] [[pl:FAQ]] [[pt:FAQ]] [[ru:FAQ]] [[simple:List of slang words]] [[sl:Pogosto zastavljena vprašanja]] [[fi:Usein kysytyt kysymykset]] [[sv:FAQ]] [[zh:FAQ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Four stroke cycle</title> <id>10917</id> <revision> <id>15908707</id> <timestamp>2003-01-17T04:24:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hotlorp</username> <id>3071</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[four-stroke cycle]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fibonacci number</title> <id>10918</id> <revision> <id>41689325</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:59:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>211.30.71.13</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Popular culture */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Fibonacci numbers''' form a [[sequence]] defined [[recursion|recursively]] by: :&lt;math&gt; F_n := F(n):= \begin{cases} 0 &amp; \mbox{if } n = 0; \\ 1 &amp; \mbox{if } n = 1; \\ F(n-1)+F(n-2) &amp; \mbox{if } n &gt; 1. \\ \end{cases} &lt;/math&gt; In other words, one starts with 0 and 1, and then produces the next Fibonacci number by adding the two previous Fibonacci numbers. The first Fibonacci numbers {{OEIS|id=A000045}} for ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0,&amp;nbsp;1, &amp;hellip; are : [[0 (number)|0]], [[1 (number)|1]], [[1 (number)|1]], [[2 (number)|2]], [[3 (number)|3]], [[5 (number)|5]], [[8 (number)|8]], [[13 (number)|13]], [[21 (number)|21]], [[34 (number)|34]], [[55 (number)|55]], [[89 (number)|89]], [[144 (number)|144]], [[233 (number)|233]], [[377 (number)|377]], [[610 (number)|610]], [[987 (number)|987]], [[1597 (number)|1597]], [[2584 (number)|2584]], [[4181 (number)|4181]], [[6765 (number)|6765]], [[10946 (number)|10946]], &amp;hellip; [[Image:FibonacciBlocks.png|frame|A tiling with Fibonacci number-sized squares]] ==Origins== The earliest known reference to Fibonacci numbers is contained in a book on meters by an [[Indian mathematicians|Indian mathematician]] named [[Pingala]] called ''Chhandah-shastra'' ([[500 BC]]). As documented by [[Donald Knuth]] in ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', this sequence was described by the Indian mathematicians [[Gopala]] and [[Hemachandra]] in [[1150]], who were investigating the possible ways of exactly [[bin packing]] items of length 1 and 2. In the West, it was first studied by [[Leonardo of Pisa]], who was also known as [[Fibonacci]] (c. [[1200]]), to describe the growth of an idealised (although biologically unrealistic) rabbit population. The numbers describe the number of pairs in the rabbit population after ''n'' months if it is assumed that: * in the first month there is just one newly-born pair, * new-born pairs become fertile from their second month on * each month every fertile pair begets a new pair, and * the rabbits never die Suppose that in month ''n'' we have a total of ''a'' pairs of rabbits and in month ''n'' + 1 we have ''b'' pairs. In month ''n'' + 2 we will necessarily have ''a'' + ''b'' pairs, because all ''a'' pairs of rabbits from month ''n'' will be fertile and produce ''a'' new pairs of offspring (since all ''a'' rabbits are at least two months old) -- plus ''b'', which are the existing pairs of rabbits at ''n'' + 1 (remember the assumption that no rabbit ever dies). ==The bee ancestry code== Fibonacci is also stated as having described the sequence &quot;encoded in the ancestry of a male bee.&quot; This turns out to be the Fibonacci sequence. One can derive this truth by taking the following facts: *If an egg is laid by a single female, it hatches a male. *If, however, the egg is fertilized by a male, it hatches a female. *Thus, a male bee will always have one parent, and a female bee will have two. If one traces the ancestry of this male bee (1 bee), he has 1 female parent (1 bee). This female had 2 parents, a male and a female (2 bees). The female had two parents, a male and a female, and the male had one female (3 bees). Those two females each had two parents, and the male had one (5 bees). If one continues this sequence, it gives a perfectly accurate depiction of the Fibonacci sequence. However, this statement is mostly theoretical. In reality, some ancestors of a particular bee will always be sisters or brothers, thus breaking the lineage of distinct parents. ==Relation to the golden ratio== As was pointed out by [[Johannes Kepler]], the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers, that is: :&lt;math&gt;\frac{F(n+1)}{F(n)}&lt;/math&gt;, converges to the [[golden ratio]] &amp;phi; ([[phi (letter)|phi]]) defined as the positive solution of the equation: :&lt;math&gt;\frac{x}{1}=\frac{1}{x-1}&lt;/math&gt; or equivalently &lt;math&gt;x=1+\frac{1}{x}&lt;/math&gt; :'''Proof''' (assuming that the ratio of successive terms converges to a limit): ::&lt;math&gt;x=\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{F(n+1)}{F(n)}&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt; =\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{F(n)+F(n-1)}{F(n)}&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt; =\lim_{n\to\infty}\left(\frac{F(n)}{F(n)}+\frac{F(n-1)}{F(n)}\right)&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt; =1+\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{F(n-1)}{F(n)}&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt; =1+\frac1{\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{F(n)}{F(n-1)}}&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt; =1+\frac1x&lt;/math&gt; Like every sequence defined by linear recursion, the Fibonacci numbers have a [[closed-form expression|closed-form solution]]. It has become known as '''[[Jacques Philippe Marie Binet|Binet]]'s formula''': :&lt;math&gt;F\left(n\right) = {{\varphi^n-(1-\varphi)^n} \over {\sqrt 5}}&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt; is the golden ratio. :'''Proof''' (by induction): ::Let &lt;math&gt;a=\phi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b=1-\phi&lt;/math&gt; be the roots of the quadratic equation &lt;math&gt;x^2-x-1=0&lt;/math&gt;. ::Then &lt;math&gt;F(0)=(1-1)/(a-b)=0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;F(1)=(a-b)/(a-b)=1&lt;/math&gt;. :: Suppose &lt;math&gt;F(k)=(a^k-b^k)/(a-b)&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;k&lt;=n&lt;/math&gt;. Then, ::&lt;math&gt;F(n+1)=F(n-1)+F(n)\,&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt;=\frac{a^{n-1}-b^{n-1}}{a-b}+\frac{a^n-b^n}{a-b}&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt;=\frac{a^{n-1}(1+a)-b^{n-1}(1+b)}{a-b}&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt;=\frac{a^{n-1}a^2-b^{n-1}b^2}{a-b}&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt;=\frac{a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}}{a-b}&lt;/math&gt; ==Matrix form== A 2-dimensional system of linear [[difference equations]] that describes the Fibonacci sequence is :&lt;math&gt;{F_{k+2} \choose F_{k+1}} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 &amp; 1 \\ 1 &amp; 0 \end{pmatrix} {F_{k+1} \choose F_{k}}&lt;/math&gt; or :&lt;math&gt;\vec F_{k+1} = A \vec F_{k}&lt;/math&gt; The [[eigenvalue]]s of the matrix A are &lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(1-\varphi)&lt;/math&gt;, and the elements of the [[eigenvector]]s of A, &lt;math&gt;{\varphi \choose 1}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{1 \choose -\varphi}&lt;/math&gt;, are in the ratios &lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(1-\varphi)&lt;/math&gt;. Note that this matrix has a determinant of &amp;minus;1, and thus it is a 2&amp;times;2 [[unimodular matrix]]. This property can be understood in terms of the [[continued fraction]] representation for the golden mean: &amp;phi;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;[1; 1, 1, 1, 1, …]. The Fibonacci numbers occur as the ratio of successive convergents of the continued fraction for &amp;phi;, and the matrix formed from successive convergents of any continued fraction has a determinant of +1 or &amp;minus;1. The matrix representation gives the following [[closed expression]] for the Fibonacci numbers: :&lt;math&gt;\begin{pmatrix} 1 &amp; 1 \\ 1 &amp; 0 \end{pmatrix}^n = \begin{pmatrix} F_{n+1} &amp; F_n \\ F_n &amp; F_{n-1} \end{pmatrix} &lt;/math&gt; Taking the determinant of both sides of this equation yields the identity: :&lt;math&gt; F_{n+1}F_{n-1} - F_n^2 = (-1)^n&lt;/math&gt; Additionally, since &lt;math&gt; A^n A^m=A^{m+n}&lt;/math&gt; for any matrix &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, the following identities can be derived: :&lt;math&gt;{F_n}^2 + {F_{n-1}}^2 = F_{2n-1}&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;F_{n+1}F_{m} + F_n F_{m-1} = F_{m+n}\, &lt;/math&gt; ==Computation== {{details|Fibonacci number program}} Computi
England and Wales]] and [[administrative county|administrative counties]] were replaced with new metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties. The boundaries underwent more major alterations between [[1995]] and [[1998]] to create [[Unitary Authority|unitary authorities]] and some of the [[traditional county|traditional counties]] and county towns were restored for administrative purposes. ===Former administrative counties of England=== * [[Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely]] - [[Cambridge]] * [[East Suffolk]] - [[Ipswich, England|Ipswich]] * [[Holland, Lincolnshire|Holland]] - [[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]] * [[Huntingdon and Peterborough]] - [[Huntingdon]] * [[Isle of Ely]] - [[March, Cambridgeshire|March]] * [[Kesteven]] - [[Sleaford]] * [[Lindsey (British subdivision)|Lindsey]] - [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire|Lincoln]] * [[County of London|London]] - [[London]] * [[Soke of Peterborough]] - [[Peterborough]] * [[West Suffolk]] - [[Bury St Edmunds|Bury]] ===Former non-metropolitan counties of England=== * [[County of Avon|Avon]] - [[Bristol]] * [[Cleveland, England|Cleveland]] - [[Middlesbrough]] * [[Hereford and Worcester]] - [[Worcester]] * [[Humberside]] - [[Beverley]] ===Former counties of Wales=== The eight administrative counties that existed in Wales between 1974 and 1996 were subsequently retained as [[Preserved counties of Wales|lieutenancy areas]]. Since these areas have no administrative or judicial functions they no longer have county towns. The county towns in Glamorgan were seldom referred to as such even when the administrative counties existed. * [[Clwyd]] - [[Mold, Wales|Mold]] * [[Dyfed]] - [[Carmarthen]] * [[Gwent]] - [[Cwmbran]] * [[Gwynedd]] - [[Caernarfon]] * [[Mid Glamorgan]] - [[Cardiff]] (extraterritorial) * [[Powys]] - [[Llandrindod Wells]] * [[South Glamorgan]] - [[Cardiff]] * [[West Glamorgan]] - [[Swansea]] [[Category:Capitals]] [[simple:County town]] [[sl:Glavno mesto grofije]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>City College of New York</title> <id>7409</id> <revision> <id>41102845</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T01:38:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.24.151.120</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* The arts */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University |image = [[Image:Ccnymedal.jpg|200px|CCNY seal]] |name = City College of New York |motto = Respice, Adspice, Prospice&lt;br /&gt;(''Look back, look at, and look ahead'') |established = [[1847]] |type = [[Public school|Public]] |president= [[Gregory Williams]] |city = [[New York City|New York]] |state = [[New York|NY]] |country = [[United States|USA]] |undergrad = 8,408 |postgrad = 2,116 |staff= 473 |campus = [[Urbanization|Urban]] |mascot = [[Beaver]] |free_label = Athletics |free = 10 sports teams |website= [http://www.ccny.cuny.edu/ www.ccny.cuny.edu] }}The '''City College of The City University of New York''' (known more commonly as City College of New York or simply City College, CCNY, or colloquially as &quot;City&quot;) is a senior college of the [[City University of New York]], in [[New York City]]. It is also the oldest of City University's twenty institutions of higher learning. City College's campus is on a hill overlooking [[Harlem, Manhattan|Harlem]]; its [[neo-Gothic]] campus was mostly designed by [[George Browne Post]], and many of its buildings are [[landmarks]]. CCNY is widely considered to be the flagship municipal college of New York City. == History == City College was originally founded as the '''Free Academy of the City of New York''' in [[1847]] by [[Townsend Harris]] to provide children of the poor and immigrants access to higher education. It was subsequently named the '''College of the City of New York''', but that name was later transferred to the complex of the municipally-owned colleges in New York City, which was the predecessor of the modern [[City University of New York]]. At that time, CCNY became officially '''City College of the College of the City of New York''', and later adopted its current name when CUNY was formally established as the umbrella institution for New York City's municipal-college system in [[1961]]. The name ''City College of New York'', however, is in general use. In the years when top-flight private schools were restricted to the children of the [[Protestant]] [[The Establishment|Establishment]], thousands of brilliant individuals attended City College because they had no other option. CCNY's academic excellence and status as a working-class school earned it the title &quot;[[Harvard University|Harvard]] of the [[Proletariat]].&quot; [[Image:Harlem ccny.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Looking down W 139 Street in [[Harlem]], towards Shepard Hall at the City College of New York.]] Even today, after three decades of relative mediocrity, no other public college has produced as many [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureates who have studied and graduated with an undergraduate degree from a particular public college {{rf|1|Nobel1}}. CCNY's official quote on this is &quot;Nine Nobel laureates claim CCNY as their Alma Mater, the most from any public college in the United States&quot;. [http://www1.ccny.cuny.edu/advancement/pr/presskit/] [http://www1.ccny.cuny.edu/advancement/pr/presskit/nobel/index.cfm] In its heyday of the [[1930s]] through the [[1950s]], CCNY became known for its [[politics|political]] [[radicalism]]. It was said that CCNY was the place for arguments between [[Trotskyism|Trotskyites]] and [[Stalinism|Stalinists]]. [[Alumn]]i who were at City College in the mid-[[20th century]] said that City College in those days made [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] in the [[1960s]] look like a school of conformity. CCNY may be best known as the only team in [[college basketball]] history to win both the [[National Invitation Tournament|NIT]] and the [[NCAA Tournament]] in the same year, [[1950]]. In the 1969, [[African American|black]] and [[Puerto Rican]] activists and their [[whites|white]] allies demanded that City College implement an aggressive [[affirmative action]] program. The administration of CCNY at first balked at the idea, but instead, came up with an open-admissions or open-access program under which any graduate of a NYC [[high school]] might be able to matriculate either at City College or somewhere in the CUNY college system. Beginning in 1970, the program opened doors to college to many who would not otherwise have been able to attend college, but came at the cost of City College's academic standing and New York City's fiscal health. City College began charging tuition in the [[1970s]], and by the 1990s stopped accepting and working with students who didn't meet its formal entrance requirements. In [[October]] [[2005]], Dr. [[Andrew Grove]], a [[1960]] graduate of the Engineering School in [[Chemical Engineering]], and co-founder of [[Intel]] Corporation, donated $26,000,000 to the Engineering School. It is the largest donation ever given to the City College of New York. The Engineering School has been renamed as the Grove School of Engineering. ==Campus history== City College was originally situated in downtown [[Manhattan]], as the Free Academy Building (1849-1927). This building was home for CCNY from 1849 to 1907. It was designed by [[James Renwick, Jr.]] and was located at Lexington Avenue and 23rd Street. It was likely the first Gothic Revival college building on the East Coast. [http://origin.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/library/exhibitions/lostworld/freeacademy.html] CCNY then moved to its current location in upper Manhattan village of Manhattanville in 1906, when the classical neo-Gothic campus was erected. It was designed by [[George Browne Post]]. A separate library building was not in the original plan for the 1906 campus, so in 1937, a free-standing library was built, called The Bowker/Alumni Library and stood on the present site of the Steinman Engineering building until 1957. [http://origin.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/library/exhibitions/lostworld/bowker.html] In 1953, CCNY bought the campus of the [[Manhattanville College| Manhattanville College of the Sacred Heart]] (which on a 1913 map was shown as The Convent of the Sacred Heart), which added a south section to the campus. It thereby assumed its current layout from 140th Street to 130th Street, from St. Nicholas Terrace, west to [[Amsterdam Avenue]]. In 1957, after the expansion of the campus, a new library building was erected in the middle of the campus, near 135th Street on the South Campus, and named Cohen Library. The library was moved some decades later to be inside the North Academic Center building on the North Campus. In 2006, for the first time ever in its history, CCNY built and opened a dormitory for students, located on its South Campus, and called &quot;The Towers&quot;. [http://www.ccnytowers.com/ccny/] == Notable alumni == ===Nobel laureates=== *[[Julius Axelrod]] [[1933]] - [[1970]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Medicine]] *[[Kenneth Arrow]] [[1940]] - [[1972]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Economics]] *[[Herbert Hauptman]] [[1937]] - [[1985]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Chemistry]] *[[Robert Hofstadter]] [[1935]] - [[1961]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Physics]] *[[Jerome Karle]] [[1937]] - [[1985]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Chemistry]] *[[Arthur Kornberg]] [[1937]] - [[1959]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Medicine]] *[[Leon M. Lederman]] [[1943]] - [[1988]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Physics]] *[[Arno Penzias]] [[1954]] - [[1978]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Physics]] *[[Robert J. Aumann]] [[1950]] - [[2005]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Economics]] ===Rhodes Scholars=== *[[James T. Molloy]] 1939 *[[Lev A. Sviridov]] 2005 ===Fulbright Scholars=== *[[Vera Grant]] 1995 ===Truman Scholars=== *[[Charle
2|-122.47778}} {{geolinks-US-colorphoto|37.81972|-122.47778|13}} {{geolinks-US-surrounds|37.81972|-122.47778|Golden+Gate+Bridge}} == References == * Tad Friend: ''Jumpers: The fatal grandeur of the Golden Gate Bridge'', [[The New Yorker]], Oct 13, 2003 v79 i30 page 48 {{SFBridges}} &lt;br&gt; [[Category:Art Deco]] [[Category:Bridges in California]] [[Category:Bridges completed in 1937]] [[Category:Buildings and structures in San Francisco]] [[Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks]] [[Category:Landmarks in San Francisco]] [[Category:Suspension bridges]] [[Category:Toll bridges in California]] [[Category:Transportation in San Francisco]] [[Category:Works Progress Administration]] [[bg:Голдън Гейт]] [[cs:Golden Gate Bridge]] [[da:Golden Gate-broen]] [[de:Golden Gate Bridge]] [[es:Golden Gate]] [[fr:Golden Gate Bridge]] [[id:Jembatan Golden Gate]] [[he:גשר שער הזהב]] [[nl:Golden Gate brug]] [[ja:ゴールデンゲートブリッジ]] [[pl:Most Golden Gate]] [[pt:Golden Gate Bridge]] [[ru:Золотые Ворота (мост)]] [[fi:Golden Gate Bridge]] [[sv:Golden Gate-bron]] [[uk:Золоті Ворота (міст)]] [[zh:金门大桥]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guglielmo Marconi</title> <id>12104</id> <revision> <id>41978586</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:31:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cymsdale</username> <id>101153</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 41476697 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Marconi.jpg|right|frame|Guglielmo Marconi]] '''Guglielmo Marchese Marconi''', [[Royal Victorian Order|GCVO]] ([[25 April]] [[1874]] &amp;ndash; [[20 July]] [[1937]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[electrical engineer]] and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel]] laureate, known for the development of a practical wireless telegraphy system commonly known as the &quot;[[radio]]&quot;. Marconi was President of the [[Accademia d'Italia]] and a member of the [[Grand Council of Fascism|Fascist Grand Council]] of Italy. ==Birth== Marconi was born near [[Bologna]], [[Italy]], the second son of Giuseppe Marconi, an Italian landowner, and his [[Ireland|Irish]] wife [http://www.techsoc.com/marconi.htm], Annie Jameson, granddaughter of the founder of the [[Jameson &amp; Sons Distillery]] on [[25 April]] [[1874]]. He was educated in [[Florence]] and, later, in [[Livorno]]. ==Wireless transmission== ===Morse code=== Marconi demonstrated the transmission and reception of [[Morse Code]] based radio signals over a distance of 2 or more kilometres (and up to 6 kilometres) on [[Salisbury Plain]] in England in 1896. Marconi was awarded a patent for Radio communications with [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Patent]] GB12039, &quot;''Improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and signals and in apparatus there-for''&quot; on [[2 July]] [[1897]] (sometimes recognised as the World's first patent in radio telecommunication). In July of 1897, Marconi formed the [[London]] based [[Wireless Telegraph Trading Signal Company]] (later renamed the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company), which opened the World's first &quot;wireless&quot; factory in Hall Street, [[Chelmsford, England]] in 1898, employing around 50 people. ===Across water=== [[Image:Cabot tower stamp.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Cabot Tower]] on Signal Hill, where Marconi received the first wireless trans-Atlantic message]] Marconi made the first wireless transmission across water [[13 May]] [[1897]] from [[Lavernock Point]], [[South Wales]] to [[Flat Holm]] island. He made a wireless transmission across the water from [[Ballycastle]] ([[Northern Ireland]]) to [[Rathlin Island]] in 1898. He received the first trans-[[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] radio signal on [[12 December]] [[1901]] at [[Signal Hill (Newfoundland and Labrador)|Signal Hill]] in [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St John's]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] (now in [[Canada]]) using a 400-foot [[kite flying|kite]]-supported antenna for reception. This was surprising at the time as it was thought by the [[mainstream]] that a radio signal could only be transmitted in the line of sight. The transmitting station in [[Poldhu]], [[Cornwall]] used a spark-gap transmitter to produce a signal with a frequency of approximately 500 kHz and a power of 100 times more than any radio signal previously produced (a maximum time-averaged power of 35 kilowatts, but with a peak pulse power of several tens of megawatts.[http://www.antiquewireless.org/otb/marconi1901a.htm]) The message received was three dots, the [[Morse code]] for the letter ''S''. To reach Newfoundland the signal would have to bounce off the [[ionosphere]] twice. Dr [[Jack Belrose]] has recently contested this, however, based on theoretical work as well as an actual reenactment of the experiment; he believes that Marconi heard only random atmospheric noise and mistook it for the signal. Many other engineers agree with Jack Belrose that the 1901 bridging of the Atlantic never took place. The frequency was not suitable and the time of day was wrong. It wouldn't even be possible today with modern equipment. However there is little doubt that by February 1902, Marconi's apparatus was reliably receiving complete messages at 2500 km (1550 miles) at night and 1100 km (700 miles) by day, and usually picked up a special test signal at 3400 km (2100 miles), the distance of Poldhu to Newfoundland. By 1903, the Marconi Company was carrying regular transatlantic news transmissions. ===Wellfleet=== In 1901, Marconi built a station near [[Wellfleet, Massachusetts]]. It was first called CC (Cape Cod), then MCC (Marconi Cape Cod) and finally WCC when the US government issued &quot;W&quot; call letters to stations east of the Mississippi. In 1903, from this station, Marconi sent the famous message from the [[President of the US]] to the [[King of England]]. This message was sent directly from Welfleet to England, without being relayed via the Marconi station at Glace Bay, [[Nova Scotia]]. During WWI, all radio stations went off the air. When the war was over, Marconi had planned to move this station to Chatham, mainly because the ocean had eroded the cliff where the Welfleet station stood. Reportedly, the U.S. Government was worried about foreign ownership of radio stations. ==First marriage== On [[16 March]] [[1905]] he married [[Beatrice O'Brien]], daughter of [[Edward Donough O'Brien, 14th Baron Inchiquin]], Ireland. They had three daughters, one of whom lived only a few weeks, and one son. They divorced later. ==Nobel Prize== Marconi achieved fully reliable transatlantic communication in 1907. He was the founder of the [[Marconi Corporation]] and the joint 1909 recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] along with [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]]. During [[World War I]], Marconi was in charge of the Italian wireless service. Marconi developed shortwave secret communication transmissions during this time. ==WCC== In 1914 Marconi built Chatham [[Radio WCC]] in Chatham Cape Cod, which would become the busiest ship to shore radio station for most of the twentieth century. The callsign WCC is still heard over the radio - from Globe Wireless's automated email by radio system from a new location in [[Maryland]]. It was sold during the breakup of RCA in the 1990s to MCI and was finally shut down in 1996. ==RCA== On [[November 20]], [[1919]] the [[American Marconi Company]] was merged with the [[Radio Corporation of America]]. ==Wireless sound transmission== In 1920 Marconi's [[Chelmsford, England|Chelmsford]] factory was the location of the first officially publicised sound [[Broadcasting|broadcast]]s in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], one of them featuring Dame [[Nellie Melba]]. In 1922 the World's first ''regular'' wireless broadcasts for entertainment commenced from the [[Marconi Research Centre]] at [[Writtle]] near Chelmsford. Marconi joined the [[Italy|Italian]] [[fascist]] party in 1923. [[Benito Mussolini]] made Marconi President of the [[Accademia d'Italia]], which also made him a member of the [[Grand Council of Fascism|Fascist Grand Council]]. He made fascist speeches on the radio in a number of countries.He has other allegations too against him.The works that he submitted as his own are ditto copies of the renowned but unfortunate scientist from India, [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]]. He prior to marconi first demonstrated the world how radio waves can be used to pass on sound and first used semiconductor junction for it. ==Second marriage and death== On [[15 June]] [[1927]] he married [[Maria Cristina Bezzi-Scali]]; [[Mussolini]] was [[best man]]. Their daughter was named [[Maria Elettra Elena Anna Marconi]]. Marconi died in [[Rome]] on [[20 July]], [[1937]]. As a tribute to Marconi, radio stations throughout the world observed two minutes of radio silence. ==Honours== *Marconi was ranked #38 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. *The town of [[Copiague]], NY was once named Marconiville, after Guglielmo Marconi. On Great Neck Road in Copiague there is an old gate standing which still reads &quot;Marconiville&quot;. ==Patents== * {{US patent|586193}} * {{US patent|624516}} * {{US patent|627650}} * {{US patent|647007}} * {{US patent|647008}} * {{US patent|647009}} * {{US patent|650109}} * {{US patent|650110}} * {{US patent|668315}} * {{US patent|676332}} * {{US patent|763772}} * {{US patent|1271190}} ==See also == * [[Invention of Radio]] * [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]] * [[Jagdish Chandra Bose]] ==External links== * [http://homepage.mac.com/mooncusser/iMovieTheater215.html Guglielmo Marconi documentary narrated by Walter Cronkite] * Nobel : [http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html Guglielmo Marconi] &amp;ndash; Biography * Marconi Corporation's [http://www.marconicalling.com/front.htm Marconi Calling] * [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/guglielmo_marconi.html Guglielmo Marco
was formerly known as ''Little Clam Lake'', while Lake Mitchell was ''Big Clam Lake''. Lake Mitchell was renamed for [[George A. Mitchell]], a railroad executive in the 1870s. The canal was featured on [[Ripley's Believe It or Not]] in the 1970s because in winter the canal freezes before the lakes and then after the lakes freeze, the canal thaws and remains unfrozen for the rest of the winter. Although it is illegal to attempt to use a snowmobile to cross the open water on the canal, some individuals occasionally try to do so. Since the decline of the logging industry, tourism become the main industry in Cadillac. However, manufacturing now rivals tourism as the main industry in the city. Cadillac has achieved recognition throughout Michigan as a leader in the growth of industrial development. Industries include the manufacture of pleasure boats, automotive parts, water well components, vacuum cleaners, and rubber products. But year-round tourism is still a mainstay of the local economy. In the summer tourists come for the boating, fishing, hiking, mountain biking and camping. In the fall they come for the hunting and color tours. The winter is possibly the busiest season of all as motels are packed with downhill skiers, cross-country skiers, ice-fishers, snow-shoers and most of all snowmobilers. The North American Snowmobile Festival (NASF) is held on frozen Lake Cadillac every winter. Cadillac sits on the eastern edge of the [[Manistee National Forest]] and the surrounding area is heavily wooded with mixed hardwood and conifer forests. The main agricultural industry in the area is [[Christmas tree]] [[tree farm|farming]]. In fact, Cadillac was chosen in 1988 to donate the Christmas tree to sit on the lawn of the [[U.S. Capitol building]] in [[Washington D.C.]] Thirsty's, a gas station on M-55 right outside of Cadillac's city limits, was the home of Samantha or &quot;Sam The Bear&quot; from the 1970s through the late 1990s when Sam died of old age. Sam was the only [[brown bear]] in captivity in the US, at the time, to hibernate naturally. Sam lived in a large cage in front of the gas station and was lovingly fed ice cream cones by tourists every summer. In 1974 the rock group KISS played a free concert for the town in honor of the high school football team who wore KISS makeup during games. Based on a single, limited study involving twenty people, some people have labelled Cadillac as one of three &quot;hot spots&quot; for [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis|Lou Gehrig's Disease]] in the US. However, the study made no attempt to ascertain the occurrence of the disease in other parts of the state, or elsewhere in the country. The study was designed to examine the possible occurence of the disease due to genetic influences. [http://www.cns.jrn.msu.edu/articles/2003_0314/DISEASE.html] The occurrence of the disease within the city limits of Cadillac is reportedly over 100 times the normal rate. The cause of the abnormally large occurrence of the disease in Cadillac is as of yet unknown. == Geography == [[Image:MIMap-doton-Cadillac.PNG|right|Location of Cadillac, Michigan]] According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 22.3 [[square kilometre|km²]] (8.6 [[square mile|mi²]]). 17.7 km² (6.8 mi²) of it is land and 4.6 km² (1.8 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 20.70% water. == Demographics == As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] of [[2000]], there are 10,000 people, 4,118 households, and 2,577 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 566.1/km² (1,466.0/mi²). There are 4,466 housing units at an average density of 252.8/km² (654.7/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 96.55% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.21% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.92% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.63% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.03% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.28% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.38% from two or more races. 1.18% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. There are 4,118 households out of which 32.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 14.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% are non-families. 31.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 14.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.37 and the average family size is 2.96. In the city the population is spread out with 26.2% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 27.9% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 16.7% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 36 years. For every 100 females there are 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 84.4 males. The median income for a household in the city is $29,899, and the median income for a family is $36,825. Males have a median income of $29,773 versus $21,283 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $16,801. 13.7% of the population and 10.9% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 15.4% of those under the age of 18 and 13.3% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. == Colleges == *[http://www.baker.edu/campusresources/Cadillac/cacinfo.cfm Baker College-Cadillac] == External links == *[http://www.cadillac-mi.net/ City of Cadillac] *[http://www.cadillacmichigan.com/ Cadillac Area Home Page] *[http://www.cadillacpostcards.com/ Antique photos and postcards of Cadillac] [[Category:Wexford County, Michigan]] [[Category:Cities in Michigan]] [[Category:County seats in Michigan]] [[fr:Cadillac (Michigan)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Childrens</title> <id>6588</id> <revision> <id>15904718</id> <timestamp>2003-10-30T13:41:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Andre Engels</username> <id>300</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>changed redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[child]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>COINTELPRO</title> <id>6589</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41833237</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:09:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Ced.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''COINTELPRO''' is an acronym ('''Counter Intelligence Program''') for a program of the [[United States]] [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] aimed at investigating and disrupting dissident political organizations within the United States. Although covert operations have been employed throughout FBI history, the formal COINTELPRO operations of [[1956]]-[[1971]] were broadly targeted against organizations that were (at the time) considered to have politically radical elements, ranging from those whose stated goal was the violent overthrow of the US government (such as the [[Weathermen]]) to non-violent civil rights groups such as [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]'s [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] to racist and segregationist groups like the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and the [[American Nazi Party]]. The founding document of COINTELPRO directed FBI agents to &quot;expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize&quot; the activities of these dissident movements and their leaders. ==History== COINTELPRO began in 1956 and was designed to &quot;increase factionalism, cause disruption and win defections&quot; inside the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party U.S.A.]] (CPUSA). However, the program was soon enlarged to include disruption of the [[Socialist Workers Party]] (1961), the [[Ku Klux Klan]] (1964), African-American nationalist groups (including the [[Black Panther Party]] and the [[Nation of Islam]] (1967), and the entire [[New Left]] socio-political movment, which included antiwar, community, and religious groups (1968). Opponents of COINTELPRO point out that many of these groups, such as the [[Ku Klux Klan]], had no links to communism or foreign powers.{{fact}} A later investigation by the Senate's [[Church Committee]] (see below) stated that &quot;COINTELPRO began in 1956, in part because of frustration with Supreme Court rulings limiting the Government's power to proceed overtly against dissident groups...&quot;{{ref|church}} Congress and several court cases{{fact}} later concluded that the COINTELPRO operations against communist and socialist groups exceeded statutory limits on FBI activity and violated Constitutional guarantees of freedom of speech and association. Supporters of the program argue that the project was rooted in the Bureau's knowledge that some domestic leftwing and radical organizations were manipulated by hostile foreign intelligence agencies. For example, the FBI had access to the [[Venona]] decrypts that showed the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[KGB]] manipulated and worked under the cover of the [[Communist Party USA|CPUSA]] for espionage purposes and to incite domestic unrest in the United States. Some of the largest COINTELPRO campaigns targeted the [[Socialist Workers Party (USA)|Socialist Worker's Party]], the &quot;[[New Left]]&quot; (including several anti-war groups such as the [[Students for a Democratic Society]] and the [[Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee]]), [[Black Liberation]] groups (such as the [[Black Panthers]] and the [[Republic of New Africa]]), [[Puerto Rican independence groups]], the [[American Indian Movement]] and the [[Weather Underground]]. The program was secret until [[1971]], when an FBI field office was burglarized by a group of left-wing radicals calling themselves the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI. Several
Weber/ligation.html Davidson College General Information on Ligase] [[Category:Ligases]] [[Category: molecular biology]] [[da:Ligase]] [[de:Ligasen]] [[es:ADNligasa]] [[fr:ADN ligase]] [[nl:DNA-ligase]] [[ja:DNAリガーゼ]] [[pl:Ligaza DNA]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dewey Decimal Classification</title> <id>8699</id> <revision> <id>40926177</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T22:49:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nicke L</username> <id>296642</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+sv:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{selfref|In Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System]].}} The '''Dewey Decimal Classification''' ('''DDC''', also called the '''Dewey Decimal System''') is a system of [[library classification]] developed by [[Melvil Dewey]] in [[1876]], and since greatly modified and expanded in the course of the twenty-two major revisions, the most recent in [[2004]]. == How it works == The DDC attempts to organize all knowledge into ten main classes that, excluding the first class (000 Computers, information and general reference), proceed from the divine (philosophy &amp; religion) to the mundane (history &amp; geography). DDC's cleverness is in choosing [[decimal]]s for its categories; this allows it to be both purely numerical and infinitely hierarchical. It also is a [[faceted classification]], combining elements from different parts of the structure to construct a number representing the subject content (often combining two subject elements with linking numbers and geographical and temporal elements) and form of an item rather than drawing upon a list containing each class and its meaning. Except for general works and [[fiction]], works are classified principally by subject, with extensions for subject relationships, place, time or type of material, producing classification numbers of not less than three digits but otherwise of indeterminate length with a decimal point before the fourth digit, where present (e.g. 330 for [[economics]] + 94 for [[Europe]] = 330.94 European economy; 973 for [[United States]] + 005 form division for [[periodical]]s = 973.005, periodicals concerning the United States generally); classmarks are to be read as numbers, in the order: 050, 220, 330.973, 331 etc. Any letter should be read as preceding any number that might have occupied the same character position, so &quot;330.94 A&quot; would come before 330.943. The system uses ten main classes, which are then further subdivided. Each main class has ten divisions and each division has ten sections. Hence the system can be neatly summarized in 10 main classes, 100 divisions and 1000 sections. It is a common misconception that all books in the DDC are non-fiction. However, the DDC has a number for all books, including those that generally become their own section of fiction. If DDC rules are strictly followed, American fiction is classified in 813. Some libraries create a separate fiction section because of the space that would be taken up in the 800s. == Cultural bias of the DDC == DDC is commonly used in [[public library|public]] and school libraries throughout the world, although some college and university libraries of all sizes also use Dewey, notably Duke University and Northwestern University. The schedule contains marked geographical biases derived from its [[19th century]] origins: [[Northern Africa]] for instance occupies all of 961&amp;ndash;965, the [[Sub-Saharan Africa|rest of the continent]] only 966&amp;ndash;969. It is still more biased towards [[Christianity]] against other [[religion]]s, the former covering all of 220&amp;ndash;289, while all others get only 292&amp;ndash;299 to share. Recent versions permit another religion to be placed in 220&amp;ndash;289, with Christianity relegated to 298, but this is mainly used by libraries operated by non-Christian religious groups, especially [[Jew]]ish ones. The DDC has also been criticized for its treatment of literature (800). Because primacy is given to language, national literatures get scattered. For example, Canadian literature in English is classed under English &amp; Old English (820) literatures while Canadian literature in French is classed under French literatures (840). The only exception is for American literature (810); a reflection of the Anglo-American bias inherent in the system. == DDC compared to other classification systems == DDC's numbers formed the basis of the more expressive but complex [[Universal Decimal Classification]], which combines the basic Dewey numbers with selected punctuation marks (comma, colon, parentheses etc.). Despite its frequent revision, DDC is widely considered theoretically inferior to other more modern systems which make freer use of alphabetical characters to produce shorter classmarks for concepts of equal complexity, though it continues to offer a more expressive format than the [[Library of Congress Classification]] developed shortly afterward. == Ownership == The [[Online Computer Library Center]] acquired the trademark and any copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal System when it bought Forest Press in [[1988]]. OCLC classifies new books and maintains the classification system. In [[September 2003]], the OCLC sued the [[Library Hotel]] for trademark infringement. The settlement was that the OCLC would allow the Library Hotel to use the system in its hotel and marketing. In exchange, the Hotel would acknowledge the Center's ownership of the trademark and make a donation to a nonprofit organization promoting reading and literacy among children. == Classes == The system is made up of ten main categories, each divided into 10 sub-categories, with each sub-category having 10 sub-divisions of its own. Only the first 2 levels are listed here. === Main classes=== * 000 Computers, information and general reference * 100 Philosophy and psychology * 200 Religion * 300 Social sciences * 400 Language * 500 Science and mathematics * 600 Technology * 700 Arts and recreation * 800 Literature * 900 History and geography === Secondary classes === * 000 Computer science, knowledge &amp; systems * 010 Bibliography * 020 Library &amp; information science * 030 Encyclopedias &amp; books of facts * 040 Not used * 050 General serial publications * 060 Organizations * 070 Journalism, publishing, media * 080 General collections * 090 Manuscripts &amp; rare books * 100 Philosophy &amp; Psychology * 110 Metaphysics * 120 Epistemology, causation, humankind * 130 Paranormal phenomenon * 140 Specific philosophical schools * 150 Psychology * 160 Logic * 170 Ethics * 180 Ancient, medieval, Oriental philosophy * 190 Modern western philosophy * 200 Religion * 210 Philosophy &amp; theory of religion * 220 Bible * 230 Christianity * 240 Christian moral &amp; devotional theology * 250 Christian orders &amp; local church * 260 Social &amp; ecclesiastical theology * 270 History of Christianity &amp; Christian sects * 280 Christian denominations * 290 Comparative religion &amp; other religions * 300 Social Sciences * 310 Statistics * 320 Political science * 330 Economics * 340 Law * 350 Public administration &amp; military science * 360 Social problems &amp; services * 370 Education * 380 Commerce, communications &amp; transportation * 390 Customs, etiquette, folklore * 400 Language * 410 Linguistics * 420 English &amp; Old English * 430 Germanic * 440 French * 450 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic * 460 Spanish &amp; Portuguese * 470 Latin * 480 Greek * 490 Other languages * 500 Science * 510 Maths * 520 Astronomy * 530 Physics * 540 Chemistry * 550 Earth sciences (Rocks and Minerals) * 560 Paleontology * 570 Life sciences * 580 Plants * 590 Animals * 600 Technology &amp; Applied Sciences * 610 Medicine &amp; health * 620 Engineering * 630 Agriculture * 640 Home &amp; family management * 650 Management &amp; public relations * 660 Chemical engineering * 670 Manufacturing * 680 Manufacture for specific uses * 690 Building * 700 Arts * 710 Civic &amp; landscape art * 720 Architecture * 730 Sculpture, ceramics &amp; metalwork * 740 Drawing &amp; decorative art * 750 Painting * 760 Graphic arts * 770 Photography &amp; computer art * 780 Music * 790 Sports, games &amp; entertainment * 800 Literature, rhetoric &amp; criticism * 810 American * 820 English &amp; Old English * 830 Germanic * 840 French * 850 Italian, Romanian * 860 Spanish, Portuguese * 870 Latin * 880 Greek * 890 Other literatures * 900 History * 910 Geography, travel * 920 Biography, genealogy, insignia * 930 Ancient world * 940 Europe * 950 Asia * 960 Africa * 970 North America * 980 South America * 990 Other areas ==See also== *[[Colon classification]] *[[Library of Congress Classification]] *[[Universal Decimal Classification]] == External links == * [http://www.oclc.org/dewey/resources/summaries/default.htm Complete list of Dewey Decimal Classes] * [http://www.oclc.org/dewey/ OCLC's Dewey Decimal website] * Full text of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12513 A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library (Dewey Decimal Classification)]'' (1876) from [[Project Gutenberg]] * [http://isbndb.com/c/Library_Shelves/Dewey_Decimal_Classification/ ISBNdb Database] Given an [[ISBN]] number, provides the corresponding Dewey Decimal number. * &quot;[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mdeweydecimal.html What's so great about the Dewey Decimal System?]&quot; at [[Straight Dope]], [[31 January]] [[2006]] [[Category:Library and information science]] [[Category:Knowledge representation]] [[Category:Classification systems]] [[ar:تصنيف ديوي العشري]] [[da:Dewey Decimal Classification]] [[de:Dewey Decimal Classification]] [[es:Sistema Dewey de clasificación]] [[fr:Classification décimale de Dewey]] [[io:De
coelacanth]], a &quot;[[living fossil]]&quot; — a representative of an order of fishes believed to have been extinct for 65 million years — was identified from a specimen found in a fishing net in [[1938]] off the coast of [[South Africa]]. (The coelacanth was well known to [[Comoros]] fishermen as the gombessa, but unknown to scientists.) * Of an even older lineage than the coelacanth are the [[Graptolite]]s. Living representatives were first found in [[1882]], although the group had previously been presumed to have been extinct for 300 million years. Cryptozoologists point these out to demonstrate that there are many unexplored regions of the world left, and that remote exotic locations or specialized [[ecosystem]]s relatively untouched by man may contain unexpected life. * Similarly cited is the [[1976]] discovery of the previously unknown [[megamouth shark]], discovered off [[Oahu]], [[Hawaii]], when it became entangled in a ship's anchor. Some have cautioned against applying the &quot;megamouth analogy&quot; too broadly to hypothetical creatures, noting that while &quot;the megamouth does show that the oceans have a lot of secrets left to reveal ... The megamouth is not a useful analogy to support the existence of marine cryptids&quot; in general. [http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~bz050/megalodon.html] * Also cited is the [[2003]] discovery of the remains of ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'', a descendent of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' which took the anthropological community completely by surprise. The fact that myths of a strikingly similar creature, called [[Ebu Gogo]] by the local people, have persisted until as late as the [[19th Century]] has given the field of study new credibility from the rest of the scientific community. * Cryptozoological supporters have noted that many unfamiliar animals, when first reported, were considered [[hoax]]es, delusions or misidentifications. The [[platypus]], [[giant squid]] (and [[colossal squid]]), [[mountain gorilla]], and [[komodo dragon]] are a few such creatures. Supporters note that unyielding [[skeptic]]ism may in fact inhibit discovery of unknown animals. Others have suggested a rigid [[world view]] disallows many [[academic]]s from accepting evidence contrary to the prevailing [[paradigm]]. Along similar lines, the emblem of the now-defunct International [[Society for Cryptozoology]] is the [[okapi]], a forest-dwelling relative of the [[giraffe]] that was unknown to Western scientists prior to [[1901]]. [[Georges Cuvier]]'s so-called &quot;Rash [[Dictum]]&quot; (a phrase coined by Heuvelmans) is sometimes cited as a reason that researchers should avoid unfounded, &quot;rash&quot; conclusions: In [[1821]], Cuvier remarked that it was unlikely for any large, unknown animal to be discovered, not because they aren't conspicuous, but because there aren't that many. Many such discoveries have been made since Cuvier's statement (though fewer than 50 in number). It's been argued that the chances of uncovering large, previously unknown [[vertebrate]]s are very slender when compared to uncovering unknown [[invertebrate]]s. It is the commitment to spectacular animals (mostly vertebrates) that makes cryptozoology's critics suspicious of sensationalism. ==Criticism of cryptozoology== While many cryptozoologists strive for legitimacy and some are respected scientists in other fields, and though discoveries of previously unknown animals are often subject to great attention, cryptozoology ''per se'' has never been fully embraced by the scientific community. A cryptozoologist may propose that an interest in reports of animals does not entail [[belief]], but a detractor might counter that accepting unsubstantiated sightings without [[skepticism]] is itself a belief. Many mainstream experts are likely put off by the more sensationalistic fringe elements in cryptozoology, and the occasional overlap with alleged [[paranormal]] phenomena. Another reason for the lukewarm reaction from mainstream science may be a lack of specialization. Unlike mainstream animal experts (who typically focus vary narrowly on a specific [[species]] for their study), many cryptozoologists study or research a broad range of alleged creatures from many different families. Most criticism&amp;mdash;and sometimes ridicule&amp;mdash;from the scientific mainstream is, however, directed at the proponents for the existence of the more &quot;famous&quot; cryptids (like [[Bigfoot]], [[Yeti]] or the [[Loch Ness Monster]]), whose existence is generally regarded as ''highly'' unlikely. [[Ben S. Roesch]] calls these alleged creatures &quot;mega-monsters&quot;, and furthermore notes that &quot;many lesser known mystery creatures&quot; are alleged to exist as well, and that &quot;some of these have more evidence going for them than the monster super-stars.&quot;[http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~bz050/HomePage.cryptoz.html] The larger cryptids, in fact, would not only have to often evade close contact (accidental or otherwise) with humans to remain undiscovered, they would also have to do so in great numbers. Another oft-cited problem is the fact that such alleged creatures could not survive unless there was a [[gene pool]] composed of many&amp;mdash;maybe hundreds&amp;mdash;of the creatures. ==Notable cryptids== (Creatures which are known to have existed and are presumed extinct are marked with (E).) ===Primates and hominids=== *[[Almas (cryptozoology)|Almas]] *[[Biabin-guli]] *[[Bigfoot]] (also known as Sasquatch) *[[Brenin Llwyd]] *[[Bili Ape]] *[[Fear liath]] *[[Fouke Monster]] *[[Gin-Sung]] *[[Hibagon]] *[[Humanzee]] *[[Kaptar]] *[[Kikombo]] *[[Ameranthropoides loysi|Loys's Ape]] *[[Mecheny]] *[[Menehune]] *[[Minnesota Iceman]] *[[Mirygdy]] *[[Moehau]] *[[Mono Grande]] *[[Napes]] (North American Apes) *[[Neo-Giant]] *[[Ngolko]] *[[Nguoi Rung]] *[[Old Yellow Top]] *[[Orang Pendek]] *[[Skunk Ape]] *[[Yeren]] *[[Yeti]] (also known as Abominable Snowman) *[[Yowie (cryptid)|Yowie]] ===Bipedal creatures=== *[[Canvey Island Monster]] *[[Chupacabra]] *[[Dover Demon]] *[[Goatman (cryptozoology)|Goatman]] or [[Ikal]] *[[Jersey Devil]] *[[Kappa (mythical creature)|Kappa]] *[[Lizard Man of Scape Ore Swamp]] *[[Loveland Frog]] *[[Orang-Bati]] *[[Pope Lick Monster]] *[[Reptilian humanoid|Lizard men]] *[[Wendigo]] *[[The Loveland Lizard]] *[[Wampus cat]] ===Carnivorous mammals=== *The [[Beast of Bodmin]] *The [[Beast of Exmoor]] *The [[Beast of Dean]] or ''Moose-Pig'' *[http://www.skepticreport.com/mystics/beastfunen.htm ''The Beast of Funen''] *The [[Beast of Gévaudan]] (mysterious &quot;giant wolf&quot; attacks in 18th century France) *Blue Tiger (see [[Maltese tiger]]) *[[Dobhar-chu]] *[[God Bear]] or [[Bergman's Bear]] *[[Japanese Wolf]] *[[Maltese tiger]] *[[Marozi]] *[[Mngwa]] *[[Nandi Bear]] *[[Ozark Howler]] *[[Queensland Tiger]] *[[Shunka Warakin]] *'''[[Thylacine]] or [[Thylacine|Tasmanian tiger]]''' (E) *[[Waheela]] *[[Waitoreke]] *[[Veo]] ===Herbivorous mammals=== *[[Giant beaver]] *[[Megatherium]] or &quot;[[Mapinguari]]&quot; (E) *[[Mammoth]](E) *[[Quagga]] (E) *[[Unicorn]] or [[Elasmotherium]] ===Sea and lake creatures=== *[[Altamaha-ha]] *[[Bessie (Lake Monster)|Bessie]] ([[Lake Erie]]) *[[Brosno|Brosno Monster]] *[[Cadborosaurus willsi]] 'Caddy' *[[Champ (legend)|Champ]] *[[Con Rit]] *[[Gambo]] *[[Gigliois Whale]] *[[Inkanyamba]] *[[Kraken|The Kraken]] *[[Lake Oymyakon Monster]] *[[Lake Van Monster]] *[[Loch Ness Monster]] *[[Manipogo]] *[[Megalodon]] (E) *[[Mermaids]] *[[Morag (lake monster)]] *[[Ogopogo]] *[[Sea monk]] *[[Sea monster]]s *[[Sea serpent]] *[[Steller's Sea Cow]] (E) *[[Storsjöodjuret]] *[[Trunko]] ===Reptiles=== *[[Buru (cryptozoology)|Buru]] *[[Emela-ntouka]] *Giant [[Anaconda]]s *[[Kasai Rex]] *[[Kingstie]] *[[Kongamato]] *[[Mbielu-Mbielu-Mbielu]] ([[Stegosaurus]]) *[[Megalania prisca]], the giant Australian [[monitor lizard]] *[[Mokele mbembe]] ([[Sauropod]]) *[[Ngoubou]] ([[Triceratops]]) *[[Oscar, Beast of Busco|Oscar]] ('Beast of Busco') *[[Olitiau]] *[[Ropen]] *[[Sirrush]] *[[Tatzelwurm]] *[[Tsuchinoko]] ===Birds=== *[[Carolina Parakeet]] (E) *[[Devil Bird]] *[[Dodo]] (E) *[[Elephant bird]] (E) *[[Great Auk]] (E) *[[Harpagornis]] *[[Moa]] (E) *[[Owlman|Giant Owls]] *[[Passenger Pigeon]] (E) *[[Thunderbird (cryptozoology)|Thunderbird]] ===Marsupials=== *[[Diprotodont]] ===Amphibians=== *[[Trinity Alps Giant Salamander]] *[[Lamprey (cryptozoology)|Lamprey salamander]] ===Debated classification=== *[[Ahool]] *[[Bunyip]] *[[Mongolian Death Worm]] ===Former cryptids=== These are creatures that once had cryptid status, but have been identified. * [[King Cheetah]] *[[Lord Howe's Stick Insect]] *[[Onza]] *[[Purple Kangaroo]] * [[Pygmy Elephant]] ===Previously thought extinct=== These are living creatures that, although not necessarily considered cryptids, were thought to be extinct and are often discussed in cryptozoological forums. *[[Coelocanth]] *[[Ivory-billed woodpecker]] ===Discredited=== *[[Giant Penguin]] *[[Rod (cryptozoology)|Rod]] *[[Man-eating tree]] ===General terms for cryptids=== *UMA: Unidentified Mysterious Animal. *[[Globster]]: Huge shapeless fleshy carcass on a beach, from an unidentified sea creature. There are also some areas of cryptozoology that deal with &quot;mysterious&quot; animals, though in some cases this could also be considered [[forteana]] or [[parapsychology]]: *[[Hellhound]]s *[[Mothman]] *[[Phantom cat]]s *[[Phantom kangaroos]] ==Bodies of water in which water cryptids are said to live== *[[Bear Lake (Idaho/Utah)|Bear Lake]] (Idaho&amp;Utah/USA) *[[Chesapeake Bay]] (Maryland/USA) * [[Gryttjen]] (Sweden) *[[False Creek]] (Vancouver/Canada) *[[Faymouth Ency]] (Cornwall/England) *[[Flathead Lake]] (Montana/USA) *[[Kleifarvatn]] (Iceland) *[[Lake Champlain]] (USA/Canada) *[[Lake Erie]] (USA/Canada) *[[Mjøsa]] (Norway) *[[Lagarfljót]] (Iceland) *[[Lake Okanagan]] (Canada) *[[Lake Simcoe]] (Toronto/Canada) *[[Lake Tahoe]] (USA) *[[Lake Thunderbird]] (Oklah
e, but anything less was up for debate. [[UUCP|UUCPNet]] and the [[X.25]] IPSS had no such restrictions, which would eventually see the official barring of UUCPNet use of ARPANET and NSFNet connections. Some UUCP links still remained connecting to these networks however, as administrators cast a blind eye to their operation. [[Image:Number of internet hosts.svg|right|300px]] During the late 1980s the first [[Internet Service Provider]] (ISP) companies were formed. Companies like [[PSINet]], [[UUNET]], [[Netcom (USA)|Netcom]], and [[Portal]] were formed to provide service to the regional research networks and provide alternate network access, UUCP-based email and Usenet News to the public. The first dial-up ISP, world.std.com, opened in 1989. This caused controversy amongst university users, who were outraged at the idea of noneducational use of their networks. Eventually it was the commercial Internet service providers who brought prices low enough that junior colleges and other schools could afford to participate in the new arenas of education and research. By 1990, [[ARPANET]] had been overtaken and replaced by newer networking technologies, and the project came to a close. Following the close of [[ARPANET]], in 1994, the [[NSFNet]], now renamed to ANSNET (Advanced Networks and Services) and allowing Non-Profit Corporations access, lost its standing as the backbone of the Internet. Both government institutions and competing commercial providers created their own backbones and interconnections. Regional NAPs ([[network access point]]s) became the primary interconnections between the many networks and the final commercial restrictions ended. ==Maintaining the infrastructure== ===The IETF and a standard for standards=== {{main|IETF}} The Internet has developed a significant subculture dedicated to the idea that the Internet is not owned or controlled by any one person, company, group, or organization. Nevertheless, some standardization and control is necessary for anything to function. The liberal [[RFC]] publication procedure engendered confusion about the Internet standardization process, and led to more formalization of official accepted standards. The [[IETF]] started in January of 1986 as a quarterly meeting of U.S. government funded researchers. Representatives from non-government vendors were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting in October of that year. Acceptance of an RFC by the RFC Editor for publication does not automatically make the RFC into a standard. It may be recognized as such by the IETF only after experimentation, use, and acceptance have proved it to be worthy of that designation. Official standards are numbered with a prefix &quot;STD&quot; and a number, similar to the RFC naming style. However, even after becoming a standard, most are still commonly referred to by their RFC number. In 1992, the [[Internet Society]], a professional membership society was formed, and the IETF was transferred to operation under it as an independent international standards body. ===NIC, InterNIC IANA and ICANN=== :''See main articles at [[InterNIC]], [[IANA]] and [[ICANN]].'' The first central authority to coordinate the operation of the network was the NIC (Network Information Centre) at SRI ([[Stanford Research Institute]] in [[Menlo Park, California|Menlo Park]], [[California]]). In 1972, management of these issues was given to the newly created [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA). In addition to his role as the RFC Editor, [[Jon Postel]] worked as the manager of IANA until his death in 1998. As the early ARPANet grew, hosts were referred to by names, and a HOSTS.TXT file would be distributed from [[SRI International]] to each host on the network. As the network grew, this became cumbersome. A technical solution came in the form of the [[Domain Name System]], created by [[Paul Mockapetris]]. The Defense Data Network - Network Information Center (DDN-NIC) at SRI handled all registration services, including the [[Top Level Domain]]s of [[.mil]], [[.gov]], [[.edu]], [[.org]], [[.net]], [[.com]] and [[.us]], [[root nameserver]] administration and Internet number assignments under a [[United States Department of Defense]] contract. {{ref|DDN-NIC}} In 1991, the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) awarded the administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up until this point) to Government Systems, Inc., who subcontracted it to the small private-sector [[Network Solutions|Network Solutions, Inc.]]{{ref|SRI-GSI}} Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was coming from non-Military sources, it was decided that the Department of Defense would no longer fund registration services outside of the .mil TLD. In 1993 the U.S. [[National Science Foundation]], after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created the [[InterNIC]] to manage the allocations of addresses and management of the address databases, and awarded the contract to three organizations. Registration Services would be provided by [[Network Solutions]]; Directory and Database Services would be provided by [[AT&amp;T]]; and Information Services would be provided by [[General Atomics]]. {{ref|InterNICcontract}} In 1998 both IANA and InterNIC would be reorganized under the control of [[ICANN]], a [[California]] [[non-profit corporation]] contracted by the [[US Department of Commerce]] to manage a number of Internet-related tasks. The role of operating the DNS system was privatized, and opened up to competition, while the central management of name allocations would be awarded on a contract tender basis. ==Use and culture== ===Email and Usenet—The growth of the text forum=== :''See main articles at [[e-mail]] and [[Usenet]].'' E-mail is often called the [[Killer application]] of the Internet; however [[e-mail]] actually predates the Internet. Existing e-mail systems were a crucial tool in creating the Internet. E-mail started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a [[time-sharing]] [[mainframe computer]] to communicate. Although the history is unclear, among the first systems to have such a facility were [[System Development Corporation|SDC]]'s [[Q32]] and [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[CTSS]]. In 1969 US Air Force users were sending text messages by making [[punched cards]] and transmitting them as card decks from one computer to another. The [[ARPANET]] [[computer network]] made a large contribution to the evolution of e-mail. There is one report {{ref|MailHistory}} indicating experimental inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly after its creation. [[Ray Tomlinson]] initiated the use of the [[@|@ sign]] to separate the names of the user and their machine in 1971. {{ref|FirstMail}} A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as [[UUCP]] and [[IBM]]'s [[VNET]] e-mail system. E-mail could be passed this way between a number of networks, including the [[ARPANET]], [[Bitnet|BITNET]] and [[NSFNET]], as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP. In adition, UUCPnet carried a way of publishing text files that could be read by many others. The News software developed by [[Steve Daniel]] and [[Tom Truscott]] in 1979 would be used to distribute news and bulletin board-like messages. This would quickly grow into discussion groups on a wide range of topics. On ARPAnet and NSFNET similar discussion groups would form via [[Electronic mailing lists|mailing lists]], discussing both technical issues, and the more frivolous items such as [[science fiction]] on the [http://www.sflovers.org/ sflovers] mailing list. ===A world library—From gopher to the WWW=== :''See main articles at [[History of the World Wide Web]] and [[World Wide Web]].'' [[Image:First_Web_Server.jpg|right|thumb|280px|The first [[World Wide Web]] Server currently in the [[CERN]] museum]] As the Internet grew through the 1980s and early 1990s, many people realized the growing need to be able to find and organize files and information. Projects such as [[gopher protocol|Gopher]], [[Wide area information server|WAIS]], and the FTP Archive list attempted to create ways to organize distributed data. Unfortunately, these projects fell short in being able to accommodate all the existing data types, and in being able to grow without bottlenecks. One of the most promising [[user interface]] [[paradigm]]s during this period was [[hypertext]]. The technology had been inspired by [[Vannevar Bush]]'s &quot;memex&quot;{{ref|AsWeMayThink}} and developed through [[Ted Nelson]]'s research on [[Project Xanadu]] and [[Douglas Engelbart]]'s research on [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]]. {{ref|AugmentingHumanIntellect}} Many small self-contained hypertext systems had been created before, such as Apple Computer's [[HyperCard]]. [[Tim Berners-Lee]] in 1989 was the first to develop a network based implementation of the concept, after he kept raising his idea at conferences and no one in the Internet or hypertext communities would implement it for him. Working at [[CERN]], he wanted a way to share information about their research. By releasing his implementation to public use, he ensured the technology would become widespread. {{ref|TheEarlyWorldWideWeb}} [[Mosaic web browser|Mosaic]], a graphical browser for the WWW, was developed by a team at the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] (NCSA-UIUC), led by [[Marc Andreessen]]. Funding for Mosaic, came from the ''High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative'', a funding program initiated by then-Senator [[Al Gore]]'s ''High Performance Computing Act of 1991''. The World Wide Web has led to a widespread culture of individual self publishing and co-operative publishing. The moment to moment recounts of a [[Blog]], and the information store of [[Wikipedia]] are both a result of the ope
<ip>60.225.175.170</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[image:Island.jpg|right|thumb|400px|A small island in the [[Adriatic Sea]]]] An '''island''' or '''isle''' is any piece of land (below an unspecified size) that is completely surrounded by water. Very small islands are called '''[[islet]]s'''. It is also proper to call an emergent land feature on an [[atoll]] an '''islet''', since an atoll is a type of island, although this convention is seldom adhered to. A '''key''' or '''cay''' is another name for a relatively small island or islet. The word ''island'' derives ultimately from the [[Old English]] word ''igland''. It was originally spelled phonetically: ''iland''. The letter &quot;s&quot; was added out of a mistaken belief that the word derived from ''isle'' (&amp;lt; [[Old French]] &amp;lt; [[Latin]] ''insula'') + ''land'', although no such etymological relationship existed. There are three main types of islands: '''continental''' islands, '''river''' islands, and '''volcanic''' islands. There are also man-made or [[artificial island]]s. A grouping of related islands is called an [[archipelago]]. == Continental islands == Continental islands are bodies of land that lie upon the [[continental shelf]] of a continent. Examples include [[Greenland]] and [[Sable Island]] off [[North America]], [[Barbados]] and [[Trinidad]] off [[South America]], [[Sicily]] off [[Europe]], [[Sumatra]] and [[Java (island)|Java]] off [[Asia]], [[New Guinea]] and [[Tasmania]] off [[Australia]]. A special type of continental island is the '''microcontinental island''', which results when a continent is [[rift (geology)|rift]]ed. The best example is [[Madagascar]] off of Africa. The [[Kerguelen Islands]] and some of the [[Seychelles]] are also examples. Another subtype is the '''[[barrier island]]''': an accumulation of [[sand]] on the continental shelf. == River islands == River islands occur in [[river delta]]s and in large [[river]]s. They are caused by deposition of sediment at points in the flow where the current loses some of its carrying capacity. In essence, they are river [[bar (landform)|bars]], isolated in the stream. While some are ephemeral, and may disappear if the river's water volume or speed changes, others are stable and long-lived. == Volcanic islands == Volcanic islands are built by [[volcano]]es. Mid-ocean examples are not part of any continent. One type of volcanic island is found in a '''volcanic island arc'''. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring. Examples include the [[Mariana Islands]], the [[Aleutian Islands]], and most of [[Tonga]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Some of the [[Lesser Antilles]] and the [[South Sandwich Islands]] are the only [[Atlantic Ocean]] examples. Another type of volcanic island occurs where an [[oceanic rift]] reaches the surface. There are two examples: [[Iceland]], which is the world's largest volcanic island, and [[Jan Mayen]]&amp;mdash;both are in the Atlantic. A third type of volcanic island are those formed over volcanic [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]]s. A hot spot is more or less stationary relative to the moving [[tectonic plate]] above it, so a chain of islands results as the plate drifts. Over long periods of time, this type of island is eventually eroded down and &quot;drowned&quot; by [[isostasy|isostatic adjustment]], becoming a [[seamount]]. Plate movement across a hot-spot produces a line of islands oriented in the direction of the plate movement. An example is the [[Hawaiian Islands]], from [[Hawaii]] to [[Kure Atoll|Kure]], which then extends beneath the sea surface in a more northerly direction as the [[Emperor Seamounts]]. Another chain with similar orientation is the [[Tuamotu Archipelago]]; its older, northerly trend is the [[Line Islands]]. The southernmost chain is the [[Austral Islands]], with its northerly trending part the atolls in the nation of [[Tuvalu]]. [[Tristan da Cunha]] is an example of a hotspot volcano in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. An [[atoll]] is an island formed from a [[coral reef]] that has grown on an eroded and submerged volcanic island. The reef rises to the surface of the water and forms a new island. Atolls are typically ring-shaped with a central [[lagoon]]. Examples include the [[Maldives]] in the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[Line Islands]] in the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]. == See also == {{commons|Island}} *[[List of islands]] *[[List of islands by area]] *[[List of islands by population]] *[[Island nation]] *[[Reef]] *[[Desert island]] *[[Tidal island]] *[[List of artificial islands]] *[[List of divided islands]] *[[Skerry]] *[[Ait]] *[[List of fictional islands]] ==External links== *[http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part8.htm Definition of island] from [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] *[http://islands.unep.ch/isldir.htm Listing of islands] from [[United Nations]] Island Directory. Very comprehensive listing of all islands in the world with lots of information related to environmental issues. [[Category:Islands]] [[Category:Landforms]] [[af:Eiland]] [[ar:جزيرة]] [[bg:Остров]] [[zh-min-nan:Tó-sū]] [[bs:Ostrvo]] [[ca:Illa]] [[cs:Ostrov]] [[da:Ø]] [[de:Insel]] [[et:Saar]] [[es:Isla]] [[eo:Insulo]] [[fr:Île]] [[gl:Illa]] [[ko:섬]] [[ku:Girav]] [[hr:Otok]] [[io:Insulo]] [[id:Pulau]] [[is:Eyja]] [[it:Isola]] [[he:אי]] [[mk:Остров]] [[ms:Pulau]] [[nl:Eiland]] [[nds:Insel]] [[ja:島]] [[no:Øy]] [[nn:Øy]] [[os:Сакъадах]] [[pl:Wyspa]] [[pt:Ilha]] [[ro:Insulă]] [[rm:Insla]] [[ru:Остров]] [[simple:Island]] [[sl:Otok]] [[fi:Saari]] [[sv:Ö (land)]] [[tl:Pulo]] [[th:เกาะ]] [[to:Motu]] [[tpi:Ailan]] [[tr:Ada]] [[uk:Острів]] [[zh:岛屿]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ikhthus</title> <id>14588</id> <revision> <id>15912130</id> <timestamp>2004-08-05T14:47:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdr</username> <id>55814</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Ichthys]] and merge</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ichthys]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Iowa</title> <id>14589</id> <revision> <id>41978045</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:27:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Naconkantari</username> <id>676502</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.203.121.10|216.203.121.10]] ([[User talk:216.203.121.10|talk]]) to last version by 209.152.92.186</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}} {{US state | Name = Iowa | Fullname = State of Iowa | Flag = Iowa state flag.png | Flaglink = [[Flag of Iowa]] | Seal = Iowastateseal.jpg | Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Iowa.png | Nickname = The Hawkeye State | Capital = [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]] | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | LargestCity = [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]] | PostalAbbreviation = IA | Governor = [[Thomas Vilsack]] (D)| Senators = [[Chuck Grassley]] (R) [[Tom Harkin]] (D) | AreaRank = 26&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | TotalArea = 145,743 | LandArea = 144,701 | WaterArea = 1,042 | PCWater = 0.71 | PopRank = 30&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | 2000Pop = 2,926,324 | DensityRank = 33&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; | 2000Density = 20.22 | AdmittanceOrder = 29&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; | AdmittanceDate = [[December 28]], [[1846]] | TimeZone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 | Latitude = 40°36'N to 43°30'N | Longitude = 89°5'W to 96°31'W | Width = 320 | Length = 500 | HighestElev = 509 | MeanElev = 335 | LowestElev = 146 | ISOCode = US-IA | Website = www.iowa.gov }} '''Iowa''' is the 29th [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States]], having joined the Union on [[December 28]], [[1846]]. The official name of the state is the &quot;State of Iowa&quot;, and the [[U.S. Post Office]] abbreviation for the state is '''IA'''. The state is named for the [[Native American]] [[Iowa tribe|Iowa]] people. == History == :''Main article: [[History of Iowa]].'' Highlights: *French explorers [[Louis Joliet]] and [[Jacques Marquette]] are believed to be the first Europeans to visit Iowa. They described Iowa as lush, [[green]], and fertile. *Iowa has been home to approximately 17 different tribes. Today, only the [[Meskwaki]] tribe remains. *The first American settlers officially moved to Iowa in June [[1833]]. Primarily, they were families from Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri. *Iowa became the 29&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; state in the union on [[December 28]], [[1846]]. *The [[Chicago and North Western Railway]] reached [[Council Bluffs, Iowa|Council Bluffs]] in [[1867]]. Council Bluffs was designated the eastern terminus for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]]. The completion of five major railroads across Iowa brought major economic changes as well as travel opportunities. *During the [[American Civil War]], more than 75,000 Iowans participated in the war, 13,001 of whom died (mostly by disease). Iowa had a higher percentage of soldiers serve in the Civil War, per capita, than any other state in the Union, with nearly 60% of eligible males serving. *Iowa saw a large increase in farming of beef, corn, and pork during [[World War I]], but farmers saw economic hardships after the war. These hardships were the result of the removal of war-time farm subsidies. Total recovery did not happen until the [[1940s]]. *The Farm Crisis of the 1980's saw a major decline of family farms in Iowa and around the Midwest, and it was marke
ti]] An age old practice, graffiti holds special significanceas one of the elements of hip hop culture. Graffiti as an urban art form has existed since at least the [[1950s]], but began developing in earnest in the late [[1960s]], and flourished during the [[1970s]]. Graffiti in hip hop began as a way of &quot;tagging&quot; for one's crew/gang, and developed during the 1970s on the subways of [[New York]], and later expanded to the city walls themselves. This movement from trains to walls was encouraged by the efforts of New York's [[Metropolitan Transportation Authority (New York)|Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] to eradicate graffiti on their property (the M.T.A. officially declared the transit graffiti-free in 1989). The first forms of subway graffiti were quick spray-painted or marker signatures (&quot;tags&quot;), which quickly evolved into large elaborate calligraphy, complete with color effects, shading, and more. As time went by, graffiti artistically developed and began to greatly define the aesthetic of urban areas. Many hip hop crews have made a name for themselves through their graffiti such as [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s [[Black Spades]]. By [[1976]], graffiti artists like [[Lee Quinones]] began panting entire murals using advanced techniques. The book ''Subway Art'' (New York: Henry Holt &amp; Co, [[1984]]) and the TV program ''[[Style Wars]]'' (first shown on the [[PBS]] channel in 1984) were among the first ways the mainstream public were introduced to graffiti. Quickly, the rest of the globe imitated and adapted hip hop graffiti. Today, there are also strong scenes in [[Europe]], [[South America]], [[Australia]] and [[Japan]]. Graffiti has long been villianized by those in authority and allegedly associated with gangs, violence, drug culture and street crime. In most jurisdictions, creating graffiti art on public property without permission is a criminal offense punishable by fines and incarceration. ==Breakdancing== :''Main article: [[Breakdancing]] Breakdancing, also known as B-boying or B-girling by its practitioners and followers, is a dynamic style of dance. The term &quot;breakdancer&quot; originates from the dancers at DJ Kool Herc's parties, who saved their best dance moves for the [[break (music)|break]] section of the song. Breaking is one of the major elements of hip hop culture, commonly associated with, but distinct from, &quot;popping,&quot; &quot;locking,&quot; &quot;hitting,&quot; &quot;ticking,&quot; &quot;boogaloo,&quot; and other funk styles that evolved independently during the late 20th century. It was common during the [[1980]]s to see a group of people with a radio on a [[playground]], [[basketball]] court, or sidewalk performing a breakdancing show for a large audience. While breaking in its current form began in the South Bronx alongside the other elements of hip hop, it is similar in style to (and may possibly derive from) the [[Capoeira]] form of [[dancing]]/[[martial arts]], which was developed by [[slaves]] in [[Brazil]]. &quot;Hip-Hop&quot; as a form of dance is becoming more popular. Hip hop dance comes from breakdancing, but does not consist wholly of breakdancing moves. Unlike most other forms of dance, which are often at least moderately structured, hip hop dance has few (if any) limitations on positions or steps. ==Other elements== During the early years of hip hop, [[double dutching]] existed as a minor element that had a following mostly made up of teenage girls. Double dutch is a [[rope skipping]] game that involves two ropes, two persons to turn the ropes, and two more persons in the middle jumping the ropes. While the game is played, the persons turning the ropes would recite urban rhymes, giving the game some correlation to the art of MCing. Double dutching fell out of favor as an part of hip hop as the culture became more male-centric during the late 1970s and early 1980s, although the game is still a popular activity on its own in many American communities. As it grew and developed into a multi million dollar industry, the scope of hip hop culture grew beyond the boundaries of its traditional four elements. [[KRS-ONE]], a rapper from the golden age of hip hop, names nine elements of hip hop culture: the traditional four and beatboxing, plus [[hip hop fashion|street fashion]], [[hip hop slang|street language]], street knowledge, and street entreprenualism. ==See also== *[[Hip hop theatre]] *[[Hip hop music]] *[[History of hip hop]] *[[Hip hop references]] *[[Hip hop rivalries]] ==References== *(1999) Light, Alan, ed. ''The VIBE History of Hip-Hop''. New York: Three Rivers Press. ==External links== *[http://www.rap.about.com Rap.about.com] Hip hop culture resource *[http://www.daveyd.com/ Davey D's Hip-Hop Corner] *[http://www.xxlmag.com/ Homepage for XXL Magazine], the leading publication dedicated to hip hop music and culture *[http://www.templeofhiphop.org/ Homepage for KRS-ONE's Temple of HipHop] {{hiphop}} [[Category:Hip hop| ]] [[Category:Popular culture]] [[als:Hip Hop]] [[ca:Hip hop]] [[da:Hiphop]] [[de:Hip Hop (Subkultur)]] [[es:Hip hop]] [[eo:Hiphopo]] [[fr:Hip hop]] [[gl:Hip hop]] [[ko:힙합]] [[it:Hip hop]] [[he:היפ הופ]] [[lt:Hip-Hop'as]] [[hu:Hip-hop]] [[nl:Hiphop]] [[ja:ヒップホップ]] [[nn:Hip hop]] [[pl:Hip hop]] [[pt:Hip hop]] [[ru:Хип-хоп (субкультура)]] [[sl:Hip-hop]] [[fi:Hip hop]] [[sv:Hiphop]] [[zh:嬉蹦文化]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>H.M. Rouell</title> <id>13441</id> <revision> <id>15911050</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:32:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Hilaire_Rouelle]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hilaire_Rouelle]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HyperText Transfer Protocol</title> <id>13443</id> <revision> <id>41642646</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:13:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lee J Haywood</username> <id>42014</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}} &lt;!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --&gt; '''[[Hypertext|HyperText]] Transfer [[communications protocol|Protocol]]''' ('''HTTP''') is the method used to transfer or convey information on the [[World Wide Web]]. The original purpose was to provide a way to publish and receive [[HTML]] pages. Development of HTTP was coordinated by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] and working groups of the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]], culminating in the publication of a series of [[Request for Comments|RFC]]s, most notably RFC 2616, which defines HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use today. HTTP is a request/response protocol between clients and servers. An HTTP client, such as a [[web browser]], typically initiates a request by establishing a [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) connection to a particular [[port (computing)|port]] on a remote host ([[port 80]] by default; see [[List of well-known ports (computing)]]). An HTTP server listening on that port waits for the client to send a request string, such as &quot;&lt;tt&gt;GET / HTTP/1.1&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; (which would request the default page of that [[web server]]), followed by an email-like [[MIME]] message which has a number of informational header strings that describe aspects of the request, followed by an optional body of arbitrary data. Some headers are optional, while others (such as Host) are required by the HTTP/1.1 protocol. Upon receiving the request, the server sends back a response string, such as &quot;HTTP/1.1 200 OK&quot;, and a message of its own, the body of which is perhaps the requested file, an error message, or some other information. Resources to be accessed by HTTP are identified using [[Uniform Resource Identifier]]s (URIs) (or, more specifically, [[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]]s) using the &lt;tt&gt;http:&lt;/tt&gt; or [[https: URI scheme|https:]] [[URI scheme]]s. ==Request methods== HTTP defines eight methods indicating the desired action to be performed on the identified resource. * '''GET''' &amp;ndash; Requests a representation of the specified resource. By far the most common method used on the Web today. * '''HEAD''' &amp;ndash; Asks for the response identical to the one that would correspond to a GET request, but without the response body. This is useful for retrieving meta-information written in response headers, without having to transport the entire content. * '''POST''' &amp;ndash; Submits user data (e.g. from a HTML form) to the identified resource. The data is included in the body of the request. * '''PUT''' &amp;ndash; Uploads a representation of the specified resource. * '''DELETE''' &amp;ndash; Deletes the specified resource (rarely implemented). * '''TRACE''' &amp;ndash; Echoes back the received request, so that a client can see what intermediate servers are adding or changing in the request. * '''OPTIONS''' &amp;ndash; Returns the HTTP methods that the server supports. This can be used to check the functionality of a web server. * '''CONNECT''' &amp;ndash; For use with a proxy that can change to being an [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]] tunnel. Methods GET and HEAD are defined as ''safe'', i.e. intended only for information retrieval. Unsafe methods (such as POST, PUT and DELETE) should be displayed to the user in a special way (e.g. as buttons rather than links), making the user aware of possible side effect of their actions (e.g. financial transaction). Methods GET, HEAD, PUT and DELETE are defined to be [[Idempotence (computer science)|idempotent]], meaning that multiple identical requests should have the same effect as a single request. Also, the methods OPTIONS and TRACE should not have side effects, and so are inherently idempotent. Despite the specified idempotence of GET requests, in p
text]]) * Style conventions in the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style]] * An article with annotations pointing out common Wikipedia style and layout issues, at [[Wikipedia:Annotated article]] * General policies in [[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines]] * [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions]] for how to name articles themselves * Help on [[Wikipedia:Page_size#If_you_have_problems_editing_a_long_article|editing very large articles]] * If you are making an article about something that belongs to a group of objects (a city, an astronomical object, a Chinese character...) check if there is a [[Wikipedia:WikiProject|WikiProject]] on the group and try to follow its directions explicitly. *[[Help:Formula]] *[[m:Help:Editing|Mediawiki user's guide to editing]] *[[Wikipedia:MediaWiki]] * Finally, for a list of articles about editing Wikipedia consult [[Wikipedia:Style and How-to Directory]]. ==See also== * [[MediaWiki:Edit]] &lt;noinclude&gt; [[Category:Wikipedia how-to|How to edit a page]] [[Category:Wikipedia basic information|How to edit a page]] &lt;!-- Interlanguage links --&gt; [[am:Help:Editing]] [[ang:Wikipedia:How to edit a page]] [[ar:ويكيبيديا:مساعدة التحرير]] [[be:Вікіпэдыя:Як рэдагаваць існуючы артыкул]] [[bg:Уикипедия:Как се редактират страници]] [[bs:Wikipedia:Kako izmjeniti stranicu]] [[ca:Viquipèdia:Com s'edita una pàgina]] [[cs:Wikipedie:Jak editovat stránku]] [[da:Wikipedia:Hvordan redigerer jeg en side]] [[de:Wikipedia:Seite bearbeiten]] [[el:Wikipedia:Πώς να επεξεργαστείτε μια σελίδα]] [[eo:Vikipedio:Kiel redakti pagxon]] [[es:Wikipedia:Cómo se edita una página]] [[fi:Wikipedia:Kuinka sivuja muokataan]] [[fr:Wikipédia:Syntaxe wikipédia]] [[ga:Vicipéid:Conas alt a chur in eagar]] [[he:ויקיפדיה:איך לערוך דף]] [[hi:लेख को कैसे बदलें]] [[hu:Wikipédia:Hogyan szerkessz egy lapot]] [[id:Wikipedia:Menyunting sebuah halaman]] [[it:Wikipedia:Guida essenziale]] [[ja:Wikipedia:編集の仕方]] [[lt:Wikipedia: Kaip Redaguoti Puslapį]] [[nl:Help:Uitleg]] [[nn:Hjelp:Redigering]] [[no:Wikipedia:Hvordan man redigerer en side]] [[pl:Wikipedia:Formatowanie tekstu na Wikipedii]] [[pt:Wikipedia:Como editar uma página]] [[ro:Wikipedia:Cum să editezi o pagină]] [[ru:Как редактировать страницу]] [[simple:Wikipedia:How to edit]] [[sl:Wikipedija:Urejevanje slovenskih strani]] [[sr:Википедија:Како се мења страна]] [[sv:Wikipedia:Hur man redigerar en sida]] [[th:Wikipedia:การแก้ไขหน้า]] [[tr:Wikipedia:Sayfa nasıl değiştirilir]] [[ur:صفحہ کس طرح ترميم کريں]] [[vi:Help:Sửa đổi]] [[zh-min-nan:Help:Pian-chi̍p]] [[zh:Wikipedia:如何编辑页面]] &lt;/noinclude&gt;</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Germany</title> <id>13224</id> <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions> <revision> <id>42094529</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:10:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Klktrk</username> <id>609140</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>&quot;the Slavs between the [[Elbe]] and the [[Oder]] were submitted.&quot; changed submitted to subdued</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Germany}} This article gives an overview of the '''History of Germany'''. It begins with the birth of the nation from [[Roman Empire|Ancient Roman]] times to the 8th century, and then continues into the [[Holy Roman Empire]] dating from the 9th century until [[1806]]. At its largest extent, the territory of this empire included what today is [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Slovenia]], the [[Czech Republic]], western [[Poland]], the [[Low Countries]], eastern [[France]], [[Switzerland]] and all of northern [[Italy]]. After the mid 15th century, it was known as the &quot;Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation&quot;. This was followed by the [[German Confederation]] of [[1806]] - [[1870]], the [[German Empire]] of [[1871]] - [[1918]] and the [[Weimar Republic]] of [[1919]] - [[1933]], then by [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Germany]] (or &quot;[[Third Reich]]&quot;, his proclaimed successor of the large medieval Empire or &quot;Reich&quot;) of 1933 - 1945 and the devastations of [[World War II]]. The article concludes with the history of the [[Effects of World War II|post-war]] [[Federal Republic of Germany]] and the history of the [[GDR]] from 1945 to 1990. For further details on each period, please consult the ''main articles'' mentioned at the beginning of each section and subsection. ==The Germans and the Romans== ''See also: [[Germanic tribes]], [[Confederations of Germanic Tribes]], [[Germania]], [[Germania Inferior]], [[Germania Superior]]'' [[Image:Gaius Cornelius Tacitus.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus]], author of ''Germania'', a descriptive work about the Germanic tribes at the Roman frontier on the Rhine]] Between [[800 BC|800]] and [[70 BC]] the Germanic tribes in the north migrated into [[Celts|Celtic]] territory, advancing to the [[Oder]] and the [[Rhine]] and into southern Germany. Around [[58 BC]], in a succession of military campaigns the Romans made the [[Rhine]] the north-eastern frontier of the [[Roman Empire]], leading to the Romanisation of the left bank of the Rhine and the incorporation of the central European Celtic societies into their Empire. Roman forts were built at [[Cologne]], [[Trier]], [[Koblenz]], [[Mainz]] and elsewhere to secure the Rhine frontier, where Romans and Germanic people now faced each other directly. In [[AD 9]] a Roman army led by [[Publius Quinctilius Varus]] was defeated by the [[Cheruscan]] leader [[Arminius]] (Hermann) in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]]. Germany as far as the Rhine and the [[Danube]] remained outside the [[Roman Empire]]. From [[90 AD]] onwards, the Romans built the [[Germanic Limes|Limes]], a 550-km (340-mile) defensive line from the Rhine to the Danube designed to check Germanic advances over the frontier, as well as numerous forts (e.g. at [[Wiesbaden]], [[Augsburg]], [[Regensburg]], [[Passau]]). The 3rd century saw the emergence of a number of large West Germanic tribes &amp;mdash; [[Alamanni]], [[Franks]], [[Chatti]], [[Saxons]], [[Frisians]], [[Thuringians]]. Around 260, the Germans finally broke through the Limes and the Danube frontier. In the 4th century, the advance of the [[Huns]] into Europe gave the start to the period of the [[Migration Period|Great Migrations]], which changed the whole map of Europe. By unifying the Franks and conquering [[Gaul]], the [[Merovingians|Merovingian]] [[Clovis I|king Chlodwig]] became the founder of the [[Franks|Frankish kingdom]]. In 496 the Franks defeated the Alemanni, accepted the Catholic faith and so gained the support of the Church. The Roman provinces north of the Alps had been Christianised since the 4th century and Christian centres such as at [[Augsburg]] were maintained after the end of the Roman empire. However, from around 600 there was a renewed Christian mission of the barbarian tribes. Irish-Scottish monks founded monasteries at [[Würzburg]], [[Regensburg]], [[Reichenau]], and other places. The missionary activity in the Merovingian kingdom was continued by the Anglo-Saxon monk [[Saint Boniface|Boniface]], who established the first monastery east of the Rhine at [[Fritzlar]]. Bishoprics under Papal authority were established to spread the Christian faith in the German lands. In 751 [[Pippin III]], mayor (controller) of the palace under the Merovingian king, himself assumed the title of king and was anointed by the Church. The Frankish kings now set up as protectors of the [[Pope]], and the [[Carolingian]] [[Charlemagne|successors]] of Pippin launched a decades-long military camapign against their [[Heathen]] rivals, the [[Saxons]]. The Saxons were eventually overwhelmed and forcibly converted, and their lands were annexed by the Frankish empire. ==Holy Roman Empire== ''Main article: [[Holy Roman Empire]].'' ===Middle Ages=== [[Image:Electoral princes.png|thumb|250px|right|The [[prince-elector]]s of the Holy Roman Empire. From ''Bildatlas der Deutschen Geschichte'' by Dr Paul Knötel (1895)]] From 772 to 814 king [[Charlemagne]] extended the Carolingian empire into northern Italy and the territories of all west Germanic peoples, including the Saxons and the Bajuwari (Bavarians). In 800 Charlemagne's authority in Western Europe was confirmed by his coronation as emperor in [[Rome]]. The [[Holy Roman Empire]] was established. The Frankish empire was divided into counties, and its frontiers were protected by border Marches. Imperial strongholds (''Kaiserpfalzen'') became economic and cultural centres ([[Aachen]] being the most famous). Between 843 and 880, after fighting between Charlemagne's grandchildren, the Carolingian empire was partitioned into several parts in the [[Treaty of Verdun]]. The German empire developed out of the East Frankish kingdom, [[East Francia]]. From 919 to 936 the Germanic peoples ([[Franks]], [[Saxons]], [[Swabia]]ns and [[Bavarians]]) were united under [[Henry the Fowler|Duke Henry of Saxony]], who took the title of king. For the first time, the term Kingdom (Empire) of the Germans (&quot;Regnum Teutonicorum&quot;) was applied to the Frankish kingdom. In 936 [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I the Great]] was crowned at [[Aachen]]. He strengthened the royal authority by appointing bishops and abbots as princes of the Empire (''Reichsfürsten''), thereby establishing a national church (''Reichskirche''). In 951 Otto the Great married the widowed queen [[Adelaide of Italy|Adelheid]], thereby winning the Langobardic (Lombard) crown. Outside threats to the kingdom were contained when in 955 the [[Hungary|Hungarians]] were decisively defeated near [[Augsburg]] at the [[Battle of Lechfeld]] and the Slavs between the [[Elbe]] and the [[Oder]] were subdued. In 962 Otto I was crowned emperor in Rome, taking the succession of Charlemagne and establishing a strong German influence over the Papacy. In 1033 the kingdom of [[Burgundy]] was incorporated into the German empire during the reign of [[Conrad II, Holy Roman
nk Crowe]]. Construction began in 1931 and was completed in 1936, over two years ahead of schedule. The dam is operated by the [[Bureau of Reclamation]] of the [[U.S. Department of the Interior]]. Listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1981, Hoover Dam was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1985. [[Lake Mead]] is the reservoir created behind the dam, named after [[Elwood Mead]] who oversaw the construction of the dam. ==History== Before the construction of the dam, the Colorado River Basin periodically overflowed its banks when snow from the [[Rocky Mountains]] melted and drained into the river. These floods endangered downstream farming communities. In addition to essential flood control, a dam would make possible the expansion of irrigated farming in the parched region. It would also provide a dependable supply of water for [[Los Angeles]] and other [[Southern California]] communities. One of the major obstacles for the project was determining the equitable allocation of the waters of the [[Colorado River]]. Several of the Colorado River Basin states feared that [[California]], with its vast financial resources and great thirst for water, would be the first state to begin beneficial use of the waters of the Colorado River and therefore claim rights to the majority of the water. It was clear that without some sort of an agreement on the distribution of water, the project could not proceed. == Planning and agreements == A commission was formed in 1922 with a representative from each of the Basin states and one from the Federal Government. The Government's representative was [[Herbert Hoover]], then Secretary of Commerce under President [[Warren Harding]]. In January 1922, Hoover met with the state governors of Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming to work out an equitable arrangement for apportioning the waters of the Colorado River for their states' use. The resulting [[Colorado River Compact]], signed on [[November 24]], [[1922]], split the river basin into upper and lower halves with the states within each region deciding how the water would be divided. This agreement, known as the Hoover Compromise, paved the way for the Boulder Dam Project. The first attempt to gain Congressional approval for construction of Boulder Dam came in 1922 with the introduction of two bills in the House of Representatives and the Senate. The bills were introduced by Congressman [[Phil Swing|Phil D. Swing]] and Senator [[Hiram W. Johnson]] and were known as the Swing-Johnson bills. The bills failed to come up for a vote and were subsequently reintroduced several times. In December 1928, both the House and the Senate finally approved the bill and sent it to the President for approval. On [[December 21]], [[1928]], President [[Calvin Coolidge]] signed the bill approving the Boulder Canyon Project. The initial appropriation for construction was made in July 1930, by which time [[Herbert Hoover]] had become President. Early plans called for the dam to be built in Boulder Canyon, so the project was known as the Boulder Canyon Project. The dam was actually built in Black Canyon, but the project was still called the Boulder Canyon Project. === Contractors === The contract to construct the dam was awarded to [[Six Companies|Six Companies, Inc.]], a joint venture of Morrison-Knudsen Company of Boise, Idaho; Utah Construction Company of Ogden, Utah; Pacific Bridge Company of Portland, Oregon; Henry J. Kaiser &amp; W. A. Bechtel Company of Oakland, California; McDonald &amp; Kahn Ltd. of Los Angeles; and J. F. Shea Company of Portland, Oregon. During the concrete-pouring and curing portion of construction, it was necessary to pipe refrigerated water through tubes in the wet concrete. This was to remove the heat generated by the chemical reactions that solidify the concrete. [Otherwise, the setting and curing of the mass of concrete was calculated to take about 120 years!] Six Companies, Inc., did much of this work, but it discovered that such a large refrigeration project was beyond its expertise. Hence, the Union Carbide Corporation was contracted to come on board and assist with the refrigeration part of the dam project. Six Companies, Inc. was contracted to build a new town for construction workers, to be called [[Boulder City, Nevada|Boulder City]], but the construction schedule for the dam was accelerated in order to create more jobs in response to the onset of the Great Depression, and the town was not ready when the first dam workers arrived at the site in early 1931. During the first summer of construction, workers and their families were housed in temporary camps like [[Ragtown, Nevada|Ragtown]] while work on the town progressed. Discontent with Ragtown and dangerous working conditions at the damsite led to a strike on [[August 8]], [[1931]]. Six Companies responded by sending in strike-breakers with guns and clubs, and the strike was soon quashed. But the discontent prompted the authorities to speed up the construction of Boulder City, and by the spring of [[1932]] Ragtown had been deserted. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/hoover_dam_05.shtml]. While working in the tunnels, many workers suffered from the [[carbon monoxide]] generated by the machinery there, including trucks that were driven in. The contractors claimed that the sickness was pneumonia and was not their responsibility. Some of the workers sickened and died because of the so-called &quot;pneumonia&quot;. Most are uncounted on the official death list. In a court case, one of the claimants (Ed Kraus) said that the poisoning had resulted in his impotence. This was disproved after a prostitute in the pay of the contractors gave evidence. The jury failed to reach a verdict as a result and the claim was lost. ==Construction== === Groundworks === To isolate the construction site, and protect it from flooding, two [[Cofferdam#Cofferdams|cofferdams]] were constructed. Construction of the upper cofferdam began in September, 1932, even though the river had not yet been diverted. A temporary horseshoe-shaped dike protected the cofferdam on the Nevada side of the river. After the Arizona tunnels were completed, and the river diverted, the work was completed much faster. Once the coffer dams were in place and the construction site dewatered, excavation for the dam foundation began. In order for the dam to rest on solid rock, it was necessary to remove all loose material until solid rock was reached. Work on the foundation excavations was completed in June 1933. During excavations for the foundation, approximately 1,500,000 yd³ (1,150,000 m³) of material was removed, including material that was the result of canyon wall stripping operations. === River diversion === To divert the river's flow around the construction site, four tunnels were driven through the canyon walls, two on the Nevada side and two on the Arizona side. These tunnels were 56 feet (17 m) in diameter. Their combined length was nearly 16,000 feet (4880 m, more than three miles). Tunneling began at the lower portals of the Nevada tunnels in May 1931. Shortly after, work began on two similar tunnels in the Arizona canyon wall. In March 1932, work began on lining the tunnels with concrete. First the base or invert was poured. Gantry cranes, running on rails through the entire tunnels were used to place the concrete. The sidewalls were poured next. Moveable sections of steel form were used for the sidewalls. Finally, using pneumatic guns, the overheads were filled in. The concrete lining is 3 feet (914 mm) thick, reducing the finished tunnel diameter to 50 ft (15 m). === Rock clearance === Before construction could begin on the dam itself, loose rock had to be removed from the canyon walls. Special men were required for the job, men called &quot;high-scalers.&quot; Their job was to climb down the canyon walls on ropes, where they worked with jackhammers and dynamite to strip away the loose rock. === Concrete pouring === The first concrete was placed into the dam on [[June 6]], [[1933]]. Since no structure the magnitude of Boulder Dam had ever been constructed, many of the procedures used in construction of the dam were untried. One of the problems that faced the designers was cooling and contraction of the concrete in the dam. Rather than being a single block of concrete, the dam was built as a series of interlocking trapezoidal columns in order to allow the tremendous heat produced by the curing concrete to dissipate. Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam were built in a single continuous pour, the concrete would have gotten so hot that it would have taken 125 years for the concrete to cool to ambient temperatures. The resulting stresses would have caused the dam to crack and crumble away. It was not enough to place small quantities of concrete in individual columns. In order to speed up the concrete cooling so that the next layer could be poured, each form also contained cooling coils of 1 inch (25 mm) thin-walled steel pipe. When the concrete was first poured, river water was circulated through these pipes. Once the concrete had received a first initial cooling, chilled water from a refrigeration plant on the lower cofferdam was circulated through the coils to finish the cooling. As each block was cooled, the pipes of the cooling coils were cut off and pressure grouted by pneumatic grout guns. === Power plant === Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out in conjunction with excavations for the dam foundation and abutments. Excavations for the U-shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam were completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933. Generators at the Dam's ''Hoover Powerplant'' began to transmit [[electricity]] from the Colorado River a distance of 266 miles (364 km) to [[Los Angeles, California]] on [[October 26]], [[1936]]. Additi
s, the resulting charge, though only partial, nevertheless represents a large charge density. A hydrogen bond results when this strong positive charge density attracts a [[lone pair]] of electrons on another [[heteroatom]], which becomes the hydrogen-bond ''acceptor''. The hydrogen bond is not like a simple attraction between point charges, however. It possesses some degree of orientational preference, and can be shown to have some of the characteristics of a covalent bond. This covalency tends to be more extreme when acceptors bind hydrogens from more electronegative donors. Strong covalency in a hydrogen bond raises the questions: &quot;To which molecule or atom does the hydrogen [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] belong?&quot; and &quot;Which should be labelled 'donor' and which 'acceptor'?&quot; According to chemical convention, the donor generally is that atom to which, on separation of donor and acceptor, the retention of the hydrogen nucleus (or [[proton]]) would cause no increase in the atom's positive charge. The acceptor meanwhile is the atom or molecule that would become more positive by retaining the positively charged proton. Liquids that display hydrogen bonding are called '''associated liquids'''. Hydrogen bonds can vary in strength from very weak (1-2 kJ mol&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;) to so strong (40 kJ mol&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;) so as to be indistinguishable from a covalent bond, as in the ion HF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;. Typical values include: * O&amp;mdash;H&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;:N (7 kcal/mol) * O&amp;mdash;H&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;:O (5 kcal/mol) * N&amp;mdash;H&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;:N (3 kcal/mol) * N&amp;mdash;H&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;:O (2 kcal/mol) The length of hydrogen bonds depends on bond strength, temperature and pressure. The typical length of a hydrogen bond in water is 197 pm (1.97 Å). == Hydrogen bond in water == The most ubiquitous, and perhaps simplest, example of a hydrogen bond is found between [[water]] molecules. In a discrete water molecule, water has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them; the simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the [[water dimer]] and is often used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case in liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with hydrogens on two other water molecules. This can repeat so that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms.) [[Liquid]] water's high [[boiling point]] is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each molecule can have relative to its low [[molecular mass]]. Water is unique because its oxygen atom has two lone pairs and two hydrogen atoms, meaning that the total number of bonds of a water molecule is up to four. For example, hydrogen fluoride - which has three lone pairs on the F atom but only one H atom - can have a total of only two bonds ([[ammonia]] has the opposite problem: three hydrogen atoms but only one lone pair). :H-F&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;H-F&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;H-F The exact number of hydrogen bonds in which a molecule in liquid water participates fluctuates with time and depends on the temperature. From [[TIP4P]] liquid water simulations at 25 °C, it was estimated that each water molecule participates in an average of 3.59 hydrogen bonds. At 100 °C, this number decreases to 3.24 due to the increased molecular motion and decreased density, while at 0 °C, the average number of hydrogen bonds increases to 3.69 (''Mol. Phys.'' '''1985''', ''56'', 1381). Were the bond strengths more equivalent, one might instead find the atoms of two interacting water molecules partitioned into two [[polyatomic ion]]s of opposite charge, specifically [[hydroxide]] (OH&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;) and [[hydronium]] (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) (Hydronium ions are also known as 'hydroxonium' ions.) :H-O&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Indeed, in pure water under conditions of [[standard temperature and pressure]], this latter formulation is applicable only rarely; on average about one in every 5.5 × 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; molecules gives up a proton to another water molecule, in accordance with the value of the [[dissociation constant]] for water under such conditions. == Hydrogen bond in proteins and DNA== Hydrogen bonding also plays an important role in determining the three-dimensional structures adopted by proteins and nucleic bases. In these macromolecules, bonding between parts of the same macromolecule cause it to fold into a specific shape, which helps determine the molecule's physiological or biochemical role. The double helical structure of [[DNA]], for example, is due largely to hydrogen bonding between the [[base pair]]s, which link one complementary strand to the other and enable [[DNA replication|replication]]. In proteins, hydrogen bonds form between the backbone oxygens and amide hydrogens. When the spacing of the [[amino acid]] residues participating in a hydrogen bond occurs regularly between positions ''i'' and ''i''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;4, an [[alpha helix]] is formed. When the spacing is less, between positions ''i'' and ''i''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;3, then a 3&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; helix is formed. When two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds involving alternating residues on each participating strand, a [[beta sheet]] is formed. (See also [[protein folding]]). == Symmetric hydrogen bond== [[Symmetric hydrogen bonds]] have been observed recently spectroscopically in [[formic acid]] at high pressure (&gt;GPa). Each hydrogen atom forms a partial covalent bond with two atoms rather than one. Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been postulated in ice at high pressure (ice-X). See references below (Goncharov, et al.) == Dihydrogen bond == The hydrogen bond can be compared with the closely related [[dihydrogen bond]], which is also an [[Intermolecular force|intermolecular]] bonding interaction involving hydrogen atoms. These structures have been known for some time, and well characterized by [[X-ray crystallography|crystallography]]; however, an understanding of their relationship to the conventional hydrogen bond, [[ionic bond]], and [[covalent bond]] remains unclear. Generally, the hydrogen bond is characterized by a proton acceptor that is a lone pair of electrons in nonmetallic atoms (most notably in the [[nitrogen group|nitrogen]], and [[chalcogen]] groups). In some cases, these proton acceptors may be [[pi-bond]]s or [[metal complexes]]. In the dihydrogen bond, however, a metal hydride serves as a proton acceptor; thus forming a hydrogen-hydrogen interaction. [[Neutron diffraction]] has shown that the [[molecular geometry]] of these complexes are similar to hydrogen bonds, in that the bond length is very adaptable to the metal complex/hydrogen donor system. == Advanced theory of the hydrogen bond == The hydrogen bond remains a fairly mysterious object in the theoretical study of [[quantum field theory|quantum]] [[quantum chemistry|chemistry]] and [[physics]]. Most generally, the hydrogen bond can be viewed as a [[Metric (mathematics)|metric]] dependent [[electrostatic]] [[scalar field]] between two or more intermolecular bonds. This is slightly different than the [[intramolecular]] [[bound states]] of, for example, [[covalent bond|covalent]] or [[ionic bond]]s; however, hydrogen bonding is generally still a bound state phenomenon, since the [[interaction energy]] has a net negative sum. The question of the relationship between the covalent bond and the hydrogen bond remains largely unsettled, though the initial theory proposed by [[Linus Pauling]] suggests that the hydrogen bond has a partial covalent nature. While a lot of experimental data has been recovered for hydrogen bonds in [[water (molecule)|water]], for example, that provide good resolution on the scale of intermolecular distances and [[thermodynamics|molecular thermodynamics]], the [[kinetic theory|kinetic]] and [[nonlinear dynamics|dynamical]] properties of the hydrogen bond in [[dynamics (mechanics)|dynamic]] systems remains largely mysterious. == References == * George A. Jeffrey. ''An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding (Topics in Physical Chemistry)''. Oxford University Press, USA (March 13, 1997). ISBN 0195095499 *A New Intermolecular Interaction: Unconventional Hydrogen Bonds with Element-Hydride Bonds as Proton Acceptor Robert H. Crabtree, Per E. M. Siegbahn, Odile Eisenstein, Arnold L. Rheingold, and Thomas F. Koetzle ''Acc. Chem. Res.'' '''1996''', ''29(7)'', 348 - 354. * Polymerization of Formic Acid under High Pressure Alexander F. Goncharov, M. Riad Manaa, Joseph M. Zaug, Richard H. Gee, Laurence E. Fried, and Wren B. Montgomery ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''2005''', ''94'', 065505. [[Category:Chemical bonding]] [[Category:Hydrogen|Bond]] [[ca:Pont d'hidrogen]] [[cs:Vodíková vazba]] [[de:Wasserstoffbrückenbindung]] [[es:Enlace de hidrógeno]] [[fr:Liaison hydrogène]] [[gl:Enlace de hidróxeno]] [[it:Legame idrogeno]] [[he:קשרי מימן]] [[nl:Waterstofbrug]] [[ja:水素結合]] [[nn:Hydrogenbinding]] [[pl:Wiązanie wodorowe]] [[pt:Ponte de hidrogênio]] [[ru:Водородная связь]] [[sr:Водонична веза]] [[fi:Vetysidos]] [[sv:Vätebindning]] [[th:พันธะไฮโดรเจน]] [[zh:氢键]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heraldry</title> <id>13610</id> <revision> <id>41834902</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:23:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tamfang</username> <id>609725</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Continental */ diacritics</comment> <te
the [[United States]]) *count 31 (waging aggressive war against the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]]) *count 32 (waging aggressive war against the [[Netherlands]] ([[Indonesia]])) *count 33 (waging aggressive war against [[France]] ([[Indochina]])) *count 54 (ordering, authorizing, and permitting inhumane treatment of Prisoners of War ([[Prisoner of war|POW]]s) and others) He was [[sentenced to death]] on [[November 12]], [[1948]] and executed by [[hanging]]. He is the only [[head of government]] to date to be executed for war crimes. Because of the crimes committed under his authority, Tojo is often considered responsible for the murder of more than 10 million civilians in China, Korea, Philippines, Indochina, and in the other Pacific island nations, as well as the murder of tens of thousands of Allied POWs and for the approval of government-sanctioned biological [[human experimentation|experiments]] on POWs and Chinese civilians. There is some controversy over the extent of his responsibility, as he often claimed to be working on the orders of Emperor Hirohito, who was granted immunity from war crimes prosecution. As a result, some believe that Tojo and many other convicted war criminals ultimately became martyrs for the Emperor. Tojo's commemorating tomb is located in a shrine in [[Hazu, Aichi]]. He was survived by a number of his descendants, including his granddaughter, [[Yuko Tojo]], a right-wing activist, and his second son, [[Teruo Tojo]], who designed fighter and passenger aircraft during and after the war and eventually served as an executive at [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd.|Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]]. ==External links== * {{Japanese prime ministers-NDL|142}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Shigenori Togo]] | title=[[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Minister for Foreign Affairs]] of [[Japan]] | years=1942 | after=[[Masayuki Tani]]}} {{end box}} {{Japanese prime ministers}} [[Category:1884 births|Tojo, Hideki]] [[Category:1948 deaths|Tojo, Hideki]] [[Category:Executed politicians|Tojo, Hideki]] [[Category:Japanese military leaders|Tojo, Hideki]] [[Category:Prime Ministers of Japan|Tojo, Hideki]] [[Category:World War II political leaders|Tojo, Hideki]] [[de:Hideki Tōjō]] [[es:Hideki Tojo]] [[fr:Hideki Tōjō]] [[gl:Hideki Tojo - 東条 英機]] [[ko:도조 히데키]] [[id:Hideki Tojo]] [[he:הידקי טוג'ו]] [[ka:ტოძიო ჰიდეკი]] [[nl:Hideki Tojo]] [[ja:東條英機]] [[fi:Hideki Tojo]] [[sv:Hideki Tojo]] [[zh:东条英机]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hormone</title> <id>13311</id> <revision> <id>41823355</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:50:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: hu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|&quot;Hormone&quot; is also the [[NATO reporting name]] for the Soviet/Russian [[Kamov Ka-25]] military helicopter.}} A '''hormone''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''horman'' - &quot;to set in motion&quot;) is a [[chemical compound|chemical]] messenger from one [[cell (biology)|cell]] (or group of cells) to another. All [[multicellular organism]]s produce hormones (including [[Plant hormone|plants]] - ''see article [[phytohormone]]''). The best-known animal (and human) hormones are those produced by [[endocrine gland]]s of [[vertebrate]] animals, but hormones are produced by nearly every [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] system and [[Biological_tissue|tissue]] type in a human or animal body. Hormone [[molecule]]s are secreted (released) directly into the [[bloodstream]]; however, some hormones, called ectohormones, are secreted to the outside environment. They move by circulation or [[diffusion]] to their target cells, which may be nearby cells (paracrine action) in the same tissue or cells of a distant organ of the body. The function of hormones is to serve as a signal to the target cells; the action of hormones is determined by the pattern of secretion and the [[signal transduction]] of the receiving tissue. Hormone actions vary widely, but can include stimulation or inhibition of growth, induction or suppression of [[apoptosis]] (programmed cell death), activation or inhibition of the [[immune system]], regulating [[metabolism]] and preparation for a new activity (e.g., fighting, fleeing, mating) or phase of life (e.g., puberty, caring for offspring, menopause). In many cases, one hormone may regulate the production and release of other hormones. Many of the responses to hormone signals can be described as serving to [[homeostasis|regulate]] metabolic activity of an organ or tissue. Hormones also control the [[reproductive cycle]] of virtually all multicellular organisms. ==History== The concept of internal secretion developed in the [[19th century]]; [[Claude Bernard]] described it in [[1855]], but did not specifically address the possibility of secretions of one organ acting as messengers to others. Still, various endocrine conditions were recognised and even treated adequately (e.g., [[hypothyroidism]] with extract of thyroid glands). The major breakthrough was the identification of [[secretin]], the hormone secreted by the [[duodenum]] that stimulates [[pancreas|pancreatic]] secretions, by [[Ernest Starling]] and [[William Bayliss]] in [[1902]]. Previously, the process had been considered (e.g., by [[Ivan Pavlov]]) to be regulated by the nervous system. Starling and Bayliss demonstrated that injecting duodenal extract into dogs rapidly increased pancreatic secretions, raising the possibility of a chemical messenger. Starling is also credited with introducing the term ''hormone'', having coined it in a [[1905]] lecture. Later reports indicate it was suggested to him by the Cambridge physiologist [[William B. Hardy]] (Henderson 2005). The remainder of the [[20th century]] saw all the major hormones discovered, as well as the cloning of the relevant [[gene]]s and the identification of the many interlocking feedback mechanisms that characterise the endocrine system. ==Physiology of hormones== Most cells are capable of producing one or more, sometimes many, molecules which signal other cells to alter their growth, function, or metabolism. The classical [[endocrine gland]]s and their hormone products are specialized to serve regulation on the overall organism level, but can often be used in other ways or only on the tissue level. The rate of production of a hormone is often regulated by a [[Homeostasis|homeostatic]] control system, generally by [[negative feedback]]. Homeostatic regulation of hormones depends, apart from production, on the [[metabolism]] and [[excretion]] of hormones. Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by: *Other hormones (''stimulating''- or ''releasing''-hormones) *Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding [[globulin]]s *[[Neuron]]s and mental activity *Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature One special group of hormones is [[trophic hormone]]s that stimulate the hormone production of other [[endocrine system|endocrine glands]]. For example: [[thyroid-stimulating hormone]] (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland - the [[thyroid]] - hence increasing output of thyroid hormones. A recently-identified class of hormones is that of the &quot;Hunger Hormones&quot; - [[ghrelin]], [[orexin]] and [[PYY 3-36]] - and &quot;Satiety hormones&quot; - e.g., [[leptin]], obestatin. ==Types of hormones== Vertebrate hormones fall into four chemical classes: #[[Amine-derived hormone]]s are derivatives of the [[amino acid]]s [[tyrosine]] and [[tryptophan]]. Examples are [[catecholamine]]s and [[thyroxine]]. #[[Peptide hormone]]s consist of chains of amino acids. Examples of small peptide hormones are [[thyrotropin-releasing hormone|TRH]] and [[vasopressin]]. Peptides composed of scores or hundreds of amino acids are referred to as [[protein]]s. Examples of protein hormones include [[insulin]] and growth hormone. #[[Steroid hormone]]s are derived from [[cholesterol]]. The [[adrenal cortex]] and the [[gonad]]s are primary sources. Examples of steroid hormones are [[testosterone]] and [[cortisol]]. [[Sterol hormone]]s such as [[calcitriol]] are a [[homologous]] system. #[[Lipid]] and [[phospholipid]] hormones are derived from lipids such as [[linoleic acid]] and phospholipids such as [[arachidonic acid]]. The main class is the [[eicosanoid]]s, which includes the widely-studied [[prostaglandin]]s. ==Pharmacology== Many hormones are used as [[medication]]. The most commonly-prescribed hormones are [[estrogen]]s and [[progestagen]]s (in the [[contraceptive pill]] and as [[Hormone-replacement therapy|HRT]]), [[thyroxine]] (as [[levothyroxine]], for [[hypothyroidism]]) and [[steroid]]s (for [[autoimmune disease]]s and several [[pulmonology|respiratory disorders]]). [[Insulin]] is used by many [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]]. Local preparations for use in [[otolaryngology]] often contain [[pharmacology|pharmacologic]] equivalents of [[adrenaline]], while [[steroid]] and [[vitamin D]] creams are used extensively in [[dermatology|dermatological]] practice. A &quot;pharmacologic dose&quot; of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally-occurring amounts and may be therapeutically useful. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of [[glucocorticoid]] to suppress inflammation. ==Important human hormones== Spelling is not uniform for many hormones. Current North American and international usage is estrogen, gonadotropin, while British usage retains the Greek [[diphthong]] in oestrogen and the unvoiced aspirant h in gonadotrophin. ===Amine hormones=== [[Amine-derived hormone]]s: *[[catecholamine]]s **[[adrenaline]] (or epinephrine) **[[dopamine]] **[[nor
arties, averse to the EPP proper for its percieved [[eurofederalism]], would be willing to instead enter the ED subgroup, growing the overall alignment. The arrangement proved to do little to appease opposition. Hague's successor, [[Iain Duncan Smith]], made a concerted drive at one point to return to the EDG arrangement, but backed off when it became clear that Tory MEPs would not move voluntarily. The hope that multiple Central and European parties would join ED also proved to be dubious, as only the Czech [[Civic Democratic Party]] took up the offer, with the remainder joining EPP proper or other groups such as [[Union for Europe of the Nations]] or [[Independence and Democracy]]. Today, ED remains a more [[eurosceptic]] subgroup within the broader EPP-ED bloc that contributes slightly more than 10% of its total MEPs. It has thus far resisted the trend of incorporating as a [[European political party]]. ==ED's future== During the [[Conservative Party (UK) leadership election, 2005|2005 Conservative leadership contest]], eventual winner [[David Cameron]] pledged to end the EPP-ED coalition, while opponent [[David Davis]] argued in a letter to the editor of the [[Daily Telegraph]] that the current ED arrangement allowed the Conservatives to maintain suitable distance from EPP while still having influence in the largest parliamentary grouping. Conservative/EPP-ED MEP [[Martin Callanan]] responded in that paper the following day: :''SIR - David Davis (Letter, November 10) is sadly misinformed about our Conservative MEPs' relationship with the European People's Party (EPP) in the European Parliament. He claims that &quot;Conservatives are members of the European Democrat group, which forms an alliance with the EPP&quot;. In reality, though, the ED does not exist. It has no staff or money and is, in effect, a discussion group within the EPP. […] Far from being a symbolic step, as Mr Davis suggests, leaving the EPP is the one hard, bankable commitment to have come out of this leadership campaign.'' It is reported that the [[Czech Republic|Czech]] [[Civic Democratic Party]], the [[Poland|Polish]] [[Prawo i Sprawiedliwość|Law and Justice]] party and the [[France|French]] [[Rassemblement pour la France|Rally For France]] party are interested in joining a breakaway group. Its position would be that the [[European Union]] should exist; however, it should be a looser supranational organisation then the current structure. This would make it more eurosceptic than the EPP, and less eurosceptic than the [[Union for Europe of the Nations]] and the [[Independence and Democracy]] group. Some members from the above parties founded a new organization, the [[Alliance for an Open Europe]], in the midst of this debate, with broadly similar objectives. It remains to be seem if what relationship would be anticipated between this body and a new Parliamentary group. ==Member parties== {{CZE}} *[[Civic Democratic Party|Ob&amp;#269;anská Demokratická Strana]] (ODS) (Civic Democratic Party) (12 members out of 264 of the EPP-ED Group) {{ITA}} *[[Pensioners' Party (Italy)|Partito dei Pensionati]] (Pensioners' Party) (one member) {{POR}} *[[People's Party (Portugal)|Partido Popular]] (People's Party) (two members) {{UK}} *[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] (CP) (26 members) *[[Ulster Unionist Party]] (UUP) (one member) ==Historical results== *'''1979''': 63 MEPs (14.5% of Parl) *'''1984''': 67 MEPs (12.9% of Parl) *'''1989''': 34 MEPs (6.6% of Parl) *'''1994''': 24 MEPs (3.8% of Parl) *'''1999''': 38 MEPs (6.1% of Parl) *'''2004''': 29 MEPs (4.0% of Parl) [[:de:Bild:Ep1979-2004.GIF|Source]]. ''See also:'' [[Political parties of the world]]. ==External links== *[http://www.epp-ed.org/europeandemocrats/ European Democrats official website] {{EU_politics}} [[Category:European Parliament party groups]] [[fi:Euroopan demokraatit]] [[sv:European Democrats]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Epistle to the Ephesians</title> <id>9869</id> <revision> <id>37312999</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T04:26:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MEJ119</username> <id>695343</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External link */ link -&gt; links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}} The '''Epistle to the Ephesians''' is one of the [[books of the Bible]] in the [[New Testament]]. It is traditionally said to be written by [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] while he was in prison in [[Rome]] (around AD [[62]]). If this is the case, then it was written about the same time as the [[Epistle to the Colossians]] (which in many points it resembles) and the [[Epistle to Philemon]]. More recently, however, biblical scholars have questioned the authorship of the letter. It has been described by [[William Barclay (theologian)|William Barclay]] as the &quot;Queen of the Epistles&quot;. ==Purpose== Ephesians does not seem to have originated in any special circumstances, but is simply a letter springing from Paul's love to the church there. It is an indication of his desire that they should be fully instructed in Christian [[doctrine]]. However, unlike [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]], which is an exposition of Paul's [[gospel]] of [[salvation]], Ephesians unfolds the consequences of salvation, particularly in relation to the church. ==Outline== Ephesians contains: * '''1:1, 2.''' The greeting * '''1:3&amp;ndash;2:10.''' A general description of the blessings that the [[gospel]] reveals. This includes the source of these blessings ([[Christ]]), the means by which they are attained, the reason they are given and their final result. The first part of this section (Eph 1:3&amp;ndash;1:14) is one continuous sentence in the original Greek. It ends with a fervent [[prayer]] for the further spiritual enrichment of the Ephesians. * '''2:12&amp;ndash;3:21.''' A description of the change in the spiritual position of [[Gentiles]] as a result of the work of Christ. It ends with an account of how Paul was selected and qualified to be an [[Twelve Apostles#Other apostles|apostle]] to the Gentiles, in the hope that this will keep them from being dispirited and lead him to pray for them. * '''4:1&amp;ndash;16.''' A chapter on unity in the midst of the diversity of gifts among believers. * '''4:17&amp;ndash;6:10.''' Instructions about ordinary life * '''6:11&amp;ndash;24.''' The imagery of [[spiritual warfare]], the mission of [[Tychicus]], and valedictory blessings. ==Founding of the church at Ephesus== Paul's first and hurried visit for the space of three months to [[Ephesus]] is recorded in Acts 18:19&amp;ndash;21. The work he began on this occasion was carried forward by [[Apollos]] (24&amp;ndash;26) and [[Aquila (bible)|Aquila]] and [[Priscilla]]. On his second visit early in the following year, he remained at Ephesus &quot;three years,&quot; for he found it was the key to the western provinces of [[Asia Minor]]. Here &quot;a great door and effectual&quot; was opened to him (1 Cor 16:9), and the church was established and strengthened by his assiduous labours there (Acts 20:20, 31). From Ephesus the gospel spread abroad &quot;almost throughout all Asia&quot; (19:26). The word &quot;mightily grew and prevailed&quot; despite all the opposition and persecution he encountered. On his last journey to [[Jerusalem]], the apostle landed at [[Miletus]] and, summoning together the elders of the church from Ephesus, delivered to them his remarkable farewell charge (Acts 20:18&amp;ndash;35), expecting to see them no more. The following parallels between this epistle and the Milesian charge may be traced: # [[Acts]] 20:19 = Eph 4:2. The phrase &quot;lowliness of mind&quot; occurs nowhere else. # [[Acts]] 20:27 = Eph 1:11. The word &quot;counsel,&quot; as denoting the divine plan, occurs only here and Heb 6:17. # [[Acts]] 20:32 = Eph 3:20. The divine ability. # [[Acts]] 20:32 = Eph 2:20. The building upon the foundation. # [[Acts]] 20:32 = Eph 1:14, 18. &quot;The inheritance of the saints.&quot; ==Author and audience== The first verse in the letter is: &lt;blockquote&gt;Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, To the saints in Ephesus, the faithful in Christ Jesus. (Eph 1:1 NIV) &lt;/blockquote&gt; Hence the letter explicitly designates the Ephesian church as its recipient and Paul as its writer. However, there are a few problems with this: * The earliest known manuscripts omit the words &quot;in Ephesus&quot;, rendering the phrase simply as &quot;to the saints ... the faithful in Christ Jesus&quot; (NIV alternative translation). * The letter lacks any references to people in Ephesus, or any events Paul experienced there. * Phrases such as &quot;ever since I heard about your faith&quot; (1:15 NIV) seem to indicate that the writer has no firsthand knowledge of his audience. Yet the book of Acts records that Paul spent a significant amount of time with the church in Ephesus, and in fact was one of its founders. There are several theories which try to explain these problems. * '''Ephesians was not written by Paul'''. The letter was written by someone who used Paul's writings extensively, hailing him as the author in order to give him proper credit. However, this theory fails to explain the omission of the phrase &quot;in Ephesus.&quot; * '''Ephesians is a circular letter'''. Paul sent several copies of the letter to several churches in [[Asia Minor]], changing the greeting as was fit. For more details, see the article [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles#Ephesians|Authorship of the Pauline epistles]]. ==Place, date, and purpose of the writing of the letter== If we accept that Paul was the author, then it was probably written from [[Rome]] during Paul's first imprisonment (3:1; 4:1; 6:20), and probably soon after his arrival there. This was around the year AD 62, four years after he had parted with the Ephesian elders at Miletus. The
to meet the setup and hold criteria, because the flip-flop may be connected to a real-time signal that could change at any time, outside the control of the designer. In this case, the best the designer can do is to reduce the probability of error to a certain level, depending on the required reliability of the circuit. One technique for suppressing metastability is to connect two or more flip-flops in a chain, so that the output of each one feeds the data input of the next, and all devices share a common clock. With this method, the probability of a metastable event can be reduced to a negligible value, but never to zero. So-called metastable-hardened flip-flops are available, which work by reducing the setup and hold times as much as possible, but even these cannot eliminate the problem entirely. This is because metastability is more than simply a matter of circuit design. When the transitions in the clock and the data are close together in time, the flip-flop is forced to decide which event happened first. However fast we make the device, there is always the possibility that the input events will be so close together that it cannot detect which one happened first. It is therefore logically impossible to build a perfectly metastable-proof flip-flop. Another important timing value for a flip-flop is the clock-to-output delay (common symbol in data sheets: t&lt;sub&gt;CO&lt;/sub&gt;) or [[propagation delay]] (t&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;), which is the time the flip-flop takes to change its output after the clock edge. The time for a high-to-low transition (t&lt;sub&gt;PHL&lt;/sub&gt;) is sometimes different from the time for a low-to-high transition (t&lt;sub&gt;PLH&lt;/sub&gt;). When connecting flip-flops in a chain, it is important to ensure that the t&lt;sub&gt;CO&lt;/sub&gt; of the first flip-flop is longer than the [[hold time]] (t&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;) of the second flip-flop, otherwise the second flip-flop will not receive the data reliably. The relationship between t&lt;sub&gt;CO&lt;/sub&gt; and t&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt; is normally guaranteed if both flip-flops are of the same type. ==Flip-Flop Integrated Circuits== [[Integrated circuit]] (ICs) can be found with one or two Flip-flop circuits on board. For example the 7473 Dual J-K Master-Slave Flip-flop, in the [[7400]] series. ==External links== {{Commons|Flip-flops}} * [http://www.eelab.usyd.edu.au/digital_tutorial/part3/fl-types.htm Summary of flip-flop types] * [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/flipflop.html#c1 Another summary of flip-flop types] * [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/boolean3.htm Explanation of How Flip Flops Work with Logic Gate Diagrams] [[Category:Digital electronics]] [[Category:Computer memory]] &lt;!-- --&gt; [[ar:قلاب]] [[cs:Klopný obvod]] [[da:Flip-flop (digital elektronik)]] [[de:Flipflop]] [[es:Biestable]] [[fr:Bascule]] [[hr:Bistabil]] [[it:Flip-flop]] [[he:פליפ פלופ]] [[nl:Flip-flop]] [[ja:フリップフロップ]] [[pl:Przerzutnik]] [[pt:Flip-flop]] [[sl:Bistabilni multivibrator]] [[sv:Vippa]] [[zh:触发器]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederick Soddy</title> <id>11778</id> <revision> <id>41634269</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:58:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GwydionM</username> <id>510483</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Frederick Soddy (Nobel 1922).png|right|frame|Frederick Soddy in 1922.]] '''Frederick Soddy''' ([[September 2]], [[1877]] &amp;ndash; [[September 22]], [[1956]]) was an [[England|English]] [[radiochemistry|radiochemist]]. Soddy was born in Eastbourne, England. He went to school at Eastbourne College, before going on to study at [[University College of Wales]] at [[Aberystwyth]] and [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] ([[Merton College, Oxford|Merton College]]). He was a researcher at Oxford from [[1898]] to [[1900]]. In [[1900]] he became a demonstrator in [[chemistry]] at [[McGill University]] in [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]], where he worked with [[Ernest Rutherford]] on [[radioactivity]]. He and Rutherford realized that the anomalous behavior of radioactive elements was due to the fact that they [[radioactive decay|decayed]] into other elements. This decay also produced [[alpha ray|alpha]], [[beta ray|beta]], and [[gamma ray|gamma radiation]]. When radioactivity was first discovered, no one was sure what the cause was. It needed careful work by Soddy and Rutherford to prove that atomic [[transmutation]] was in fact occurring. His work and esseys popularising the new understanding of radioactivity was the main inspiration for [[H G Wells]]'s 1914 ''[[The World Set Free]]'', which features atomic bombs dropped from biplanes in a war set many years in the future. Wells's novel is also known as ''The Last War'' and imagines a peaceful world emerging from the chaos. In ''Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt'' Soddy praises Wells’s [[The World Set Free]]. He also says that radioactive processes probably power the stars. In [[1903]], with Sir [[William Ramsay]], Soddy verified that the decay of [[radium]] produced [[helium]]. From [[1904]] to [[1914]], he was a lecturer at the [[University of Glasgow]] and while there he showed that [[uranium]] decays to [[radium]]. It was here also that he showed that a radioactive element may have more than one [[atomic weight]] though the chemical properties are identical; this led to the concept of an [[isotope]]. Soddy later showed that non-radioactive elements also could have multiple isotopes. In addition he showed that an atom moves lower in [[atomic number]] by two places on alpha emission, higher by one place on beta emission. This was a fundamental step toward understanding the relationships among families of radioactive elements. Soddy published [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QD181xR1xS679/ ''The Interpretation of Radium''] (1909) and ''Atomic Transmutation'' (1953). In [[1914]] he was appointed to a chair at the [[University of Aberdeen]], where he worked on research related to [[World War I]]. In [[1919]] he moved to Oxford University, where, in the period up till [[1936]], he reorganized the laboratories and the syllabus in chemistry. He received the [[1921]] [[Nobel Prize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize in chemistry]] for his research in radioactive decay and particularly for his formulation of the theory of isotopes. Frederick was also interested in [[Technocratic movement|technocracy]] and the [[social credit]] movement, which is evidenced by his publications ''Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt'' (George Allen &amp; Unwin 1926) and ''Money versus Man'' (1933). He died in [[Brighton, England]]. ==Bibliography== * ''Radioactivity'' (1904) * ''[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QD181xR1xS679/ The Interpretation of Radium]'' (1909) ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QD181xR1xS679/1f/interpretation_of_radium.pdf layered PDF] format)'' * ''The Chemistry of the Radioactive Elements'' (1912-1914) * ''Matter and Energy'' (1912) * ''Science and Life'' (1920) * ''Wealth, virtual wealth and debt. The solution of the economic paradox'' (1926) * ''The Interpretation of the Atom'' (1932) * ''Money versus Man'' (1933) * ''The Story of Atomic Energy'' (1949) * ''Atomic Transmutation'' (1953) [[Category:1877 births|Soddy, Frederick]] [[Category:1956 deaths|Soddy, Frederick]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners|Soddy, Frederick]] [[Category:University of Wales, Aberystwyth Alumni|Soddy, Frederick]] [[de:Frederick Soddy]] [[es:Frederick Soddy]] [[fr:Frederick Soddy]] [[hu:Frederick Soddy]] [[ja:フレデリック・ソディ]] [[pt:Frederick Soddy]] [[sk:Frederick Soddy]] [[tr:Frederick Soddy]] tofeeeee</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Firepink</title> <id>11779</id> <revision> <id>37290224</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:15:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Firepink | image = Silene virginica.jpg | image_width = 200px | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Caryophyllales]] | familia = [[Caryophyllaceae]] | genus = ''[[Silene]]'' | species = '''''S. virginica''''' | binomial = ''Silene virginica'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] }} A '''firepink''' (''Silene virginica'') is a [[wildflower]] with five, small, double-toothed, brilliantly red [[petal]]s. This plant is found in open woods in [[North America]]. It is a member of the pink family [[Caryophyllaceae]]. [[Category:Caryophyllales]] {{plant-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fur seal</title> <id>11780</id> <revision> <id>37290397</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:16:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Fur seals | image = Southernfurseal.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = [[Australian Fur Seal]] | regnum = [[Animal|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal|Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Carnivora]] | subordo = [[Pinniped|Pinnipedia]] | familia = [[Otariidae]] | subfamilia = '''Arctocephalinae''' | subfamilia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1837 | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = ''[[Callorhinus]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Arctocephalus]]'' }} '''Fur seals''' make up one of the two distinct groups of [[mammal]]s called &quot;seals&quot;. Both the fur seals and the [[true seal]]s are members of the [[Pinnipedia]], which is usually regard
ve-month prison sentence and a year of supervised release, including five months of house arrest; in return, both will provide testimony against other Enron corporate officers. Ben Glisan Jr., a former Enron [[treasurer]], was the first man to be sent to [[prison]] in the Enron scandal. He pled guilty to one count of [[conspiracy]] to commit security and [[wire fraud]]. [[John Forney]], a former energy trader who invented various strategies such as the &quot;[[Death Star (Business)|Death Star]]&quot;, was indicted in December 2002, on 11 counts of conspiracy and [[wire fraud]]. His trial was scheduled for [[October 12]], [[2004]]. His supervisors, [[Timothy Belden]] and [[Jeffrey Richter]], have both pled guilty to conspiring to commit wire fraud and currently are aiding prosecutors in investigating this scandal. [[Jeffrey Skilling]] was arrested on [[February 11]], [[2004]], by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]. [[Kenneth Lay]] was indicted by a federal [[grand jury]] on [[July 7]], [[2004]] for his involvement in the scandal. He pled not guilty in court on [[July 9]]. Both men are scheduled for [[The trial of Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling|trial]] in January 2006. Enron's collapse also led to the creation of the [[Sarbanes-Oxley Act]], signed into law on [[July 30]], [[2002]]. It is considered the most significant change to federal [[securities law]]s since [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|FDR's]] [[New Deal]] in the [[1930s]]. The status of the [[pension]] plans that were promised to Enron's employees has been in question since the collapse of Enron. The [[Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation]] is attempting to cover some and possibly all of the promised benefits. ===Trials=== * [[Arthur Andersen LLP v. United States]] * [[Enron Broadband trial]] * [[The trial of Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling|Lay and Skilling trial]] ==Pensions== Thousands of Enron employees and investors lost their life savings, children's college funds, and [[pensions]] when Enron collapsed. A [[lawsuit]] on the behalf of a group of Enron's shareholders has been filed against Enron executives and directors. This lawsuit accuses twenty-nine of these executives and directors of insider trading and misleading the public. Because the 401(k) plan is a defined contribution plan, there was no [[PBGC]] insurance and employees lost their money that was invested in Enron stock. They could only sue anyone who is considered a [[fiduciary]] for breach of their duty of care based on [[ERISA]] Section 404. ==Restructuring== Following the 2001 bankruptcy filing, Enron has been attempting to restructure in order to compensate as many creditors as possible. Enron's innovative core energy trading business was sold early in the bankruptcy proceedings to Merrill Lynch and Company. A last-ditch survival attempt was made in 2001 through a planned merger with arch-rival Dynegy Corporation. Dynegy backed out during merger talks, acquiring control of Enron's original, predecessor company - Northern Natural Gas - in the process. Enron is currently pursuing legal action against Dynegy over the takeover of Northern Natural Gas, which has since been sold by Dynegy to MidAmerican Energy Holdings Company. Enron's final bankruptcy plan provides for the creation of three new businesses to be spun off from Enron as independent, debt-free companies. The reorganization process commenced in 2003, with the formation of two new Enron subsidiaries, CrossCountry Energy L.L.C., and [[Prisma Energy International Inc.]] CrossCountry Energy, formed from Enron's domestic gas pipeline assets, was immediately placed on the market for creditor compensation. On [[September 1]], [[2004]], Enron announced an agreement to sell CrossCountry Energy to CCE Holdings L.L.C. (a joint venture between Southern Union Company and a unit of General Electric) for $2.45 billion. The money will be used for debt repayment, and represents a substantial increase over the previous offer made by NuCoastal L.L.C. earlier in 2004. Prisma Energy International, formed out of Enron's remaining overseas assets, will emerge from bankruptcy as a main-line descendant of Enron through a stock offering to Enron creditors. Currently, many of Prisma's assets remain under direct Enron ownership with Prisma operating in a management capacity. The third company, [[Portland General Electric]] (PGE), was founded in 1889, and ranks as Oregon's largest utility. PGE was acquired by Enron during the 1990's, and will emerge from bankruptcy as an independent company through a private stock offering to Enron creditors. All remaining assets not related to CrossCountry, Prisma, or Portland General will be liquidated. [[As of 2006]], CrossCountry is now under CCE Holdings ownership, while the Portland General and Prisma deals remain to be consummated. Enron emerged from Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in November 2004 but will likely be wound down once the recovery plan is carried out. Enron's remaining assets are grouped under two main subsidiary companies- Prisma Energy International and Portland General Electric, both of which will likely be spun off. ==Various== The baseball stadium Enron Field in [[Houston, Texas]], named after the company, was renamed to ''[[Houston Astros|Astros]] Field'' to avoid negative publicity. The park's name was later changed to ''[[Minute Maid Park]]''. The [[Houston Astros]] had to pay Enron $5 million to get out of the deal. [[David Tonsall]], a former Enron employee, became a rapper under the name [[N Run]], which is a play on the name &quot;Enron&quot; and also stands for &quot;never run.&quot; He released his CD ''Corporate America'' on [[December 3]], [[2003]]. &quot;The Women of Enron&quot; were the subject of a pictorial in the August 2002 issue of ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine. A 2005 movie, ''[[Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room]]'', based on the 2003 bestseller of the same name by [[Bethany McLean]] and [[Peter Elkind]], documents the Enron story. [http://www.alternet.org/movies/21840/] [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0413845/] As a result of their investigation the [[FERC]] made a large portion of Enron's email database available to the public. This database comprises roughly 500,000 email messages and has become a standard dataset in email research.[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~enron/] == See also == * [[Timeline of the Enron scandal]] * [[Pension fund losses with Enron]] * [[The Enron Three]] * [[California electricity crisis]] * ''[[Conspiracy of Fools]]'' * [[Corporate abuse]] * [[Corporate crime]] * [[Corporate governance]] * [[Creative accounting]] * [[EnronOnline]] * [[Azurix]] * [[Dabhol Power Company]] * [[List of corporate executives charged with crimes]] * [[List of notable business failures]] * [[Arthur Andersen LLP v. United_States]] ==Bibliography== * [[Judith Haney]], ''Enron's Bust:Was it the result of Over-Confidence or a Confidence Game?'' (USNewsLink, 2001) http://www.usnewslink.com/enron.htm * [[Mimi Swartz]], [[Sherron Watkins]], ''Power Failure: The Inside Story of the Collapse of Enron'' (Doubleday, 2003) ISBN 0385507879 * [[Bethany McLean]], [[Peter Elkind]], ''[[Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room|Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron]]'' (Portfolio, 2003) ISBN 1591840082 * [[Robert Bryce (writer)|Robert Bryce]], ''Pipe Dreams: Greed, Ego, and the Death of Enron'' (PublicAffairs, 2002) ISBN 158648138X * [[Lynn Brewer]], [[Matthew Scott Hansen]], ''House of Cards, Confessions of An Enron Executive'' (Virtualbookworm.com Publishing, 2002) ISBN 1589392485 ISBN 1589392485 * [[Kurt Eichenwald]], ''[[Conspiracy of Fools|Conspiracy of Fools: A True Story]]'' (Broadway Books, 2005) ISBN 0767911784 * [[Peter C. Fusaro]], .[[Ross M. Miller]], ''What Went Wrong at Enron: Everyone's Guide to the Largest Bankruptcy in U.S. History'' (Wiley, 2002), ISBN 0471265748 * [[Loren Fox]], ''Enron: The Rise and Fall.'' (Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2003) ==External links== *[http://www.enron.com The Enron homepage] *[http://www.prismaenergy.com] - homepage of Prisma Energy International Inc. *[http://www.crosscountryenergy.com]- homepage of CrossCountry Energy L.L.C. *[http://www.portlandgeneral.com]- homepage of Portland General Electric Company *[http://www.northernnaturalgas.com]- homepage of Northern Natural Gas Company *[http://www.houstonarchitecture.info/ShowBuilding.php?ID=78 The former Enron Building from Houston Architecture Info.] *[http://www.smu.edu/enron Enron experts for comment] ===Accounting=== *[http://www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/2003/0403/features/f042403.htm CPA Journal - Enron and the Raptors] *[http://www.riskglossary.com/link/enron.htm Enron Debacle] is an informative account of events leading up to the fall of Enron. *[http://www.moodyskmv.com/research/UAL.html Moody's KMV Default Case Studies] ===General=== *[http://www.guardian.co.uk/enron/ Guardian Unlimited Special Report: Enron] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/business/2002/enron/default.stm BBC News In Depth: Enron] *[http://www.HavenWorks.com/business/research/enron Enron News, News Sources, News Searches, and Business Research:] *[http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=03/04/07/0254256&amp;mode=thread&amp;tid=29 Stunning Depths of Government Collaboration with Enron Revealed] - (''[[Democracy Now!]]'') *[http://www.seen.org/pages/press_releases/enronrelease0302.shtml Enron's Pawns: How Public Institutions Bankrolled Enron's Globalization Game] - Press release of report by the ''[[Institute for Policy Studies]]''. *[http://cbs5.com/news/local/2004/06/16/Federal_Officials_Want_California_to_Pay_Enron.html Feds order a quarter-billion refund to Enron] *[http://www.forbes.com/2002/01/14/0114topnews.html At Enron, ignorance was bliss] ===Tapes=== *[http://www.enrontapes.com/files.html The Enron Tapes] - Public/Redacted Audio Files and Public/Redacted Transcripts *[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/06/01/eveningnews/main620626.shtml Enron trade
on manufacturing, Indiana has been much less affected by declines in traditional [[Rust Belt]] manufactures than many of its neighbors. The explanation appears to be certain factors in the labor market. First, much of the heavy manufacturing, such as industrial machinery and steel, requires highly skilled labor, and firms are often willing to locate where hard-to-train skills already exist. Second, Indiana's labor force is located primarily in medium-sized and smaller cities rather than in very large and expensive metropolises. This makes it possible for firms to offer, and labor accept, somewhat lower wages for these skills than would normally be paid. In other words, firms often see in Indiana a chance to obtain higher than average skills at lower than average wages for those skills, which often makes location in the state desirable. (Source for basic manufacturing facts in the above two paragraphs is generally McCoy and McNamara, &quot;Manufacturers in Indiana,&quot; Purdue University Center for Rural Development, Research Paper 19, July 1998.) In mining Indiana is probably best known for its decorative [[limestone]] from the southern, hilly portion of the state, especially from around Bedford (the home area of Apollo I astronaut Gus Grissom). One of the many public buildings faced with this stone is [[The Pentagon]], and after the attack of [[September 11]], [[2001]], a special effort was made by the mining industry of Indiana to replace those damaged walls with as nearly identical type and cut of material as the original facing. There are also large [[coal]] mines in the southern portion of the state. Like most Great Lakes states, Indiana has small to medium operating [[petroleum]] fields; the principal location of these today is in the extreme southwest, though operational oil derricks can be seen on the outskirts of Terre Haute. Indiana's economy is considered to be one of the most business-friendly in the U.S. This is due in part to its conservative business climate, low business taxes, and many labor laws that have remained unchanged since the 1800s, emphasizing the supremacy of employer/management. The doctrine of [[at-will]] employment, whereby an employer can terminate an employee for any or no reason, is firmly ensconced in Indiana. Unions in Indiana are among the weakest in the U.S. and it is difficult for unions to organize. It has been said that Indiana is a post-industrial state with a pre-[[Industrial Revolution]] mindset regarding the rights of workers. With isolated exceptions in university areas such as [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]] and [[Lafayette]], technology has been slow to catch on in Indiana, in part due to Hoosiers' traditional resistance to change. Most political leaders at the state level continue to emphasize the state's past economic base of manufacturing and farming. == Military installations == Indiana was formerly home to two major military installations, [[Grissom Air Force Base]] near Peru (reduced to reservist operations in 1994) and [[Fort Benjamin Harrison]] near Indianapolis, now largely reduced to reservist operations, though the [[Department of Defense]] continues to operate a large financial operation there. Current active installations include [[Air National Guard]] fighter units at [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]] and [[Terre Haute]] airports (to be consolidated at Fort Wayne under the 2005 BRAC proposal, with the Terre Haute facility remaining open as a non-flying installation), the [[Crane Naval Weapons Center]] in the southwest of the state and the Army's [[Newport Chemical Depot]], which is currently heavily involved in neutralizing dangerous chemical weapons stored there. == Demographics == {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot; |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations |- ! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population |- | colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt; |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1800 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,632 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1810 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 24,520 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1820 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 147,178 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 343,031 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 685,866 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 988,416 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,350,428 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,680,637 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,978,301 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,192,404 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,516,462 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,700,876 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,930,390 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,238,503 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,427,796 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,934,224 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 4,662,498 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 5,193,669 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 5,490,224 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 5,544,159 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 6,080,485 |} As of 2005, Indiana has an estimated population of 6,271,973, which is an increase of 45,436, or 0.7%, from the prior year and an increase of 191,456, or 3.1%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 159,488 people (that is 451,681 births minus 292,193 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 38,656 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 55,656 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 17,000 people. As of 2004, the population included about 229,000 foreign-born (3.7%). Racially, the state is: *85.8% [[Whites|White]] *8.4% [[Blacks|Black]] *3.5% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]] *1% [[Asian American|Asian]] *0.3% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] *1.2% [[Mixed race]] The five largest ancestries in the state are: [[German-American|German]] (22.7%), American (12%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (10.8%), [[British-American|English]] (8.9%), [[African American]] (8.4%). German is the largest ancestry reported in Indiana, with almost one-in-four whites reporting German ancestry in the Census. Persons of American and British ancestry are also present throughout the state, especially in the southern and central parts of the state. [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]] and the surrounding Chicago suburbs, along with the city of Indianapolis, have large black populations. [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]] has a large [[Poland|Polish]] population and there are a sizeable number of people with [[Belgian]] ancestry in Mishawaka. [[Dyngus Day]], the Polish celebration of the end of Lent, takes place on the Monday after Easter and is widely celebrated in South Bend. A large Hispanic/Latino population has swelled in Elkhart County, particularly the north side of the city of [[Goshen]]. This formerly German- and Dutch-dominated area now has a high concentration of Hispanic (particularly Mexican)-oriented businesses and many official signs in the area are bilingual. Population growth since 1990 has been concentrated in the counties surrounding Indianapolis, with four of the top five fastest-growing counties in that area: [[Hamilton County, Indiana|Hamilton]], [[Hendricks County, Indiana|Hendricks]], [[Johnson County, Indiana|Johnson]], and [[Hancock County, Indiana|Hancock]]. The other county is [[Dearborn County, Indiana|Dearborn County]], which is near [[Cincinnati]]. Meanwhile, population decline has primarily been in a series of counties that geographically form a line between [[Logansport, Indiana|Logansport]] and [[Richmond, Indiana|Richmond]]. Most of these counties were at the heart of the [[Gas Belt]]. There were also three counties along the [[Wabash River]] and the [[Ohio River]] that experienced decline, these were [[Vigo County, Indiana|Vigo]], [[Knox County, Indiana|Knox]], and [[Perry County, Indiana|Perry]]. ===Religion=== Religiously, Indiana is predominantly [[Protestant]], although there is also a significant [[Roman Catholic]] population. The Catholic presence is perhaps better known than its size would imply due to the existence of the [[University of Notre Dame]]. Indiana is home to a sizeable and influential proportion of [[Mennonite]] and [[Amish]] Christians, particularly in Elkhart and LaGrange Counties in the north, and a smaller number in Parke County in the west. The state has the nation's largest population of members of the Protestant &quot;Churches of Christ&quot; denomination. [[Roman Catholic]] and [[mainline Protestant]] churches are strong in the cities, but in rural areas [[evangelical]] and [[fundamentalist]] churches, such as independent Baptist and Pentecostal churches, tend to dominate. Two conservative denominations, the [[Free Methodist Church]] and the [[Wesleyan Church]], have their headquarters in Indianapolis. The [[Islamic Society of North America]] is headquartered just off [[Interstate 70]] in [[Plainfield]], west of Indianapolis. There are significant numbers of [[Jews]] in urban areas, particularly Indianapolis, South Bend, Fort Wayne and Terre Haute. The current religious affiliations of the people of Indiana are shown below: *[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 82% **[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 15% **[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 62% ***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 10% **