text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
ry, photographs, and listing of techniques]
*[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=51 Photos of All-Japan Judo Championships at Budokan in 2005]
*[http://members.lycos.co.uk/fight/judo/judo.html Judo History Archive] (lots of background information including [[Kosen judo]] and [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]])
*Essay about [http://www.jiujitsu.org.au/kawaishi.html Mikonosuke Kawaishi]
=== British sites ===
{{commons}}
*[http://www.britishjudo.org.uk/ British Judo Association]
*[http://www.Zenjudo.co.uk/ Zen Judo Family]
*[http://www.ajajudo.org.uk/ Amateur Judo Association]
*[http://www.britishjudocouncil.org/ British Judo Council]
[[Category:Combat sports]]
[[Category:Gendai budo]]
[[Category:Individual sports]]
[[Category:Japanese terms]]
[[Category:Judo|*]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Japanese martial arts]]
{{Link FA|no}}
[[ar:جيدو]]
[[ast:Judo]]
[[bg:Джудо]]
[[bs:Judo]]
[[ca:Judo]]
[[da:Judo]]
[[de:Judo]]
[[et:Judo]]
[[es:Judo]]
[[eo:Ĵudo]]
[[fa:جودو]]
[[fr:Judo]]
[[gl:Judo]]
[[ko:유도]]
[[hr:Judo]]
[[id:Yudo]]
[[it:Judo]]
[[he:ג'ודו]]
[[la:Ziudo]]
[[ms:Judo]]
[[nl:Judo]]
[[ja:柔道]]
[[no:Judo]]
[[pl:Judo]]
[[pt:Judo]]
[[ro:Judo]]
[[ru:Дзюдо]]
[[sl:Judo]]
[[sr:Џудо]]
[[fi:Judo]]
[[sv:Judo]]
[[tr:Judo]]
[[zh:柔道]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>JapaneseLanguage</title>
<id>15603</id>
<revision>
<id>15913059</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Japanese language]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>James Bond</title>
<id>15604</id>
<revision>
<id>41984985</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:20:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>K1Bond007</username>
<id>18048</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add Nelson (often overlooked), rearranged by chronology..</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{redirect|007}}
[[Image:007.svg|300px|right|thumb|The James Bond 007 gun logo]]
'''James Bond''', also known as '''007''' (pronounced "double-oh seven"), is a [[fictional character|fictional]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[espionage|spy]] created by writer [[Ian Fleming]] in [[1953]]. Fleming wrote numerous novels and short stories based upon the character and, after his death in [[1964]], further literary adventures were written by [[Kingsley Amis]] (pseudonym "[[Robert Markham]]"), [[John Pearson (author)|John Pearson]], [[John Gardner (thriller writer)|John Gardner]], [[Raymond Benson]], and [[Charlie Higson]]; in addition, [[Christopher Wood (writer)|Christopher Wood]] wrote two screenplay novelisations and other authors have also written various unofficial permutations of the character.
Although initially made famous through the novels, James Bond is now probably best known from the [[EON Productions]] film series. Twenty films have been produced by EON featuring this character as well as two independently produced films and one [[United States|American]] television adaptation of Fleming's first novel under legal licence; however, it is generally considered that only the EON films are "official." [[Albert R. Broccoli]] and [[Harry Saltzman]] produced most of the official films up until [[1975]] when Broccoli became the sole producer. His daughter, [[Barbara Broccoli]], and his stepson, [[Michael G. Wilson]], carried on the production duties together beginning in [[1995]].
To date, five actors have portrayed Bond in the official series, and a sixth is soon to make his appearance. They are:
*[[Sean Connery]] (1962&ndash;1967; 1971)
*[[George Lazenby]] (1969)
*[[Roger Moore]] (1973&ndash;1985)
*[[Timothy Dalton]] (1987&ndash;1989)
*[[Pierce Brosnan]] (1995&ndash;2002)
*[[Daniel Craig]] (2006&ndash;present)
In addition, [[Barry Nelson]] played Bond in an [[Casino Royale|unofficial TV episode]] in 1954, [[David Niven]] played the role in an [[Casino Royale (1967 film)|unofficial film]] in 1967, and Connery played Bond again in an [[Never Say Never Again|unofficial film]] in 1983.
The twenty-first official film, ''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]'', with Daniel Craig as Bond, is in production and is scheduled for a [[November 17]], [[2006]] release.
Broccoli's family company, [[Danjaq, LLC]], has co-owned the James Bond film series with [[United Artists]] Corporation since the mid-1970s, when Saltzman sold UA his share of Danjaq. Currently, [[Columbia Pictures]] and [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]] (United Artists' parent) co-distribute the series.
In addition to novels and films, Bond is a prominent character in many [[James Bond games|computer and video games]], [[James Bond comic strips|comic strips]] and [[James Bond comic books|comic books]], and has been the subject of many [[James Bond parodies|parodies]].
==Overview==
[[Image:Fleming007impression.jpg|225px|thumb|Fleming's commissioned impression of 007 used as an example to aid the ''[[Daily Express]]'' comic strip artists.]]
===The character===
Commander James Bond, [[Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]], [[Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve|RNVR]] is an agent of the international arm of the British Secret Service headquartered in London in a tall, grey building overlooking [[Regent's Park]]. Under the cover name "Universal Exports" and later "Transworld Consortium", Bond's fictional British Secret Service starting in 1995 takes on the actual name of the UK's [[Secret Intelligence Service]], commonly known as MI6. As an agent of the Secret Service, Bond holds code number "007". The 'double-O' prefix indicates his discretionary [[Licence to kill (concept)|licence to kill]] in the performance of his duties.
Bond is the consummate [[womaniser]], drinker, and heavy [[cigarette]] smoker, at one point reaching 70 cigarettes a day. On average, however, Bond smokes 60 a day, although in certain novels Bond does attempt to cut back so that he can accomplish certain feats such as swimming underwater. He is also forced to cut back after being sent to a health farm per his superior's order. Regardless, the literary incarnation continues to smoke through many continuation novels. On film, Bond has been off and on. During the films starring Connery, Lazenby and Dalton Bond was a smoker, while during Moore's and Brosnan's tenure he doesn't smoke cigarettes, although he does occasionally smoke [[cigar]]s. The last time Bond smoked a cigarette on film was in 1989.
James Bond is famous for ordering his [[Martini cocktail|vodka martinis]] "[[shaken, not stirred]]", although the literary Bond also drinks [[gin]] martinis and [[bourbon]].
James Bond does have a quirk of being a "know-it-all," more so on film. In ''[[Goldfinger]]'', he is able to calculate in his head how many trucks it would take to transport all the gold in [[Fort Knox]], and how long the gold would be [[radioactive]] after [[Auric Goldfinger]]'s [[atomic bomb]] detonates inside the vault. Bond's "[[genius]]" became a running joke during Roger Moore's era. Afterwards, it was virtually eliminated.
===Ian Fleming's creation and inspiration===
James Bond was created in February 1952 by Ian Fleming while on vacation at his [[Jamaica]]n estate called Goldeneye. The hero of Fleming's tale, James Bond, was named after an [[United States|American]] [[James Bond (ornithologist)|ornithologist of the same name]] who was an expert on [[Caribbean]] birds and had written a definitive book on the subject: ''[[Birds of the West Indies]]''. Fleming, a keen [[Birdwatching|birdwatcher]], owned a copy of Bond's field guide at Goldeneye. Of the name, Fleming once said "I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, James Bond was much better than something more interesting like 'Peregrine Maltravers.' Exotic things would happen to and around him but he would be a neutral figure - an anonymous blunt instrument wielded by a Government Department." {{ref|Chancellor}}
After completing the manuscript for what would later be titled ''Casino Royale'', Fleming allowed his friend [[William Plomer]], a poet and later Fleming's editor, to read it. Plomer liked it enough that he gave the manuscript to [[Jonathan Cape]], who did not like it as much, but published it anyway due to the fact that Ian was the younger brother of [[Peter Fleming]], an established travel writer who also put in a good word for Ian.
Since the fictional James Bond's creation, hundreds of reports by various news outlets have suggested names for Ian Fleming's inspiration of Bond. Usually these people have a background of some kind in espionage or other covert operations. Although some names share similarities with Bond, none have ever been confirmed by Fleming, [[Ian Fleming Publications]] or any of Ian Fleming's biographers such as Fleming's assistant and friend, [[John Pearson (author)|John Pearson]]. Most researchers agree that James Bond is a highly romanticised version of Fleming himself; the author was known for his jetsetting lifestyle and reputation as a womaniser. Both, for the most part, went to the same schools, like the same foods (e.g., [[scrambled eggs]]), have the same habits (e.g., drinking and smoking), share the same view on women (e.g., how they should look and how they should dress), and have similar education and military careers both rising to the rank of Commander. Although the character of Bond is not known to be based on anyone but Fleming himself, the look of James Bond, famed for being "suave and sophisticated," is based on a young [[Hoagy Carmichael]]. In ''Casino Royale'' the character [[Bond girl|Vesper Lynd]] says of Bond, "He reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael, but there is something cold and ruthless." Other characteristics of Bond's look a |
silvery<br />white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(247)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[radon|Rn]]&#93; 5f<sup>9</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 27, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | (alpha) 14.78 }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | (beta) 13.25 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=(beta) 1259 | c=986 | f=1807 }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.3 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 601 }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 10 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-40-6 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=berkelium | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=245 | sym=Bk
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E5 s|4.94 d]]
| dm1=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de1=0.810 | pn1=245 | ps1=[[curium|Cm]]
| dm2=[[alpha emission|&alpha;]] | de2=6.455 | pn2=241 | ps2=[[americium|Am]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=246 | sym=Bk
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=1.8 [[day|d]]
| dm1=&alpha; | de1=6.070 | pn1=242 | ps1=[[americium|Am]]
| dm2=&epsilon; | de2=1.350 | pn2=246 | ps2=[[curium|Cm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=247 | sym=Bk
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E10 s|1380 y]]
| dm=&alpha; | de=5.889 | pn=243 | ps=[[americium|Am]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=248 | sym=Bk
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E8 s|>9 y]]
| dm=&alpha; | de=5.803 | pn=244 | ps=[[americium|Am]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=249 | sym=Bk
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|320 d]]
| dm1=&alpha; | de1=5.526 | pn1=245 | ps1=[[americium|Am]]
| dm2=[[spontaneous fission|SF]] | de2=- | pn2= | ps2=-
| dm3=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de3=0.125 | pn3=249 | ps3=[[californium|Cf]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
'''Berkelium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Bk and [[atomic number]] 97. A [[radioactive]] [[metal]]lic element in the [[actinide]] series, berkelium was first synthesized by bombarding [[americium]] with [[alpha particle]]s ([[helium]] [[ion]]s) and was named after [[Berkeley, California]]. Berkelium was the fifth [[transuranic element]] to be synthesized.
== Notable characteristics ==
Weighable amounts of berkelium-249 (half-life 314 days) make it possible to determine some of its properties using macroscopic quantities. [[As of 2004]] it had not been isolated in its elemental form, but it is predicted to be a silvery metal that would easily [[oxidation | oxidize]] in air at elevated temperatures and would be [[solubility | soluble]] in dilute [[mineral acid]]s.
[[X-ray diffraction]] techniques have been used to identify various berkelium [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]s such as berkelium dioxide (BkO<sub>2</sub>), berkelium fluoride (BkF<sub>3</sub>), berkelium oxychloride (BkOCl), and berkelium trioxide (BkO<sub>3</sub>). In [[1962]] visible amounts of berkelium [[chloride]] were isolated that weighed 3 billionths of a [[gram]]. This was the first time visible amounts of a pure berkelium compound were produced.
Like other actinides, berkelium [[bio-accumulate]]s in [[skeleton | skeletal]] tissue. This element has no known uses outside of basic research and plays no biological role.
==History ==
Berkelium was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] by [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[Albert Ghiorso]], Stanley G. Thompson, and Kenneth Street, Jr at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in December [[1949]]. The team used a [[cyclotron]] to bombard a [[milligram]]-sized target of [[americium]]-241 with [[alpha particle]]s to produce berkelium-243 ([[half-life]] 4.5 hours) and two [[free neutron]]s. One of the longest lived [[isotope]]s of the element, berkelium-249 (half-life 320 days), was later synthesized by subjecting a [[curium]]-244 target with an intense beam of [[neutron]]s.
== Isotopes ==
19 [[radioisotope]]s of berkelium have been characterized, with the most stable being Bk-247 with a [[half-life]] of 1380 years, Bk-248 with a half-life of >9 years, and Bk-249 with a half-life of 320 days. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 5 days, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 5 hours. This element also has 2 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Bk-248m (t<sub>½</sub> 23.7 hours). The isotopes of berkelium range in [[atomic weight]] from 235.057 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (Bk-235) to 254.091 amu (Bk-254).
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/97.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Berkelium]
*[http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele097.html It's Elemental - Berkelium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Berkelium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Bk/index.html WebElements.com - Berkelium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Actinides]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley]]
[[bs:Berkelium]]
[[ca:Berkeli]]
[[cs:Berkelium]]
[[de:Berkelium]]
[[et:Berkeelium]]
[[el:Μπερκέλιο]]
[[es:Berkelio]]
[[eo:Berkelio]]
[[fr:Berkélium]]
[[ko:버클륨]]
[[io:Berkelio]]
[[it:Berkelio]]
[[he:ברקליום]]
[[lt:Berklis]]
[[hu:Berkélium]]
[[nl:Berkelium]]
[[ja:バークリウム]]
[[nn:Berkelium]]
[[pl:Berkel]]
[[pt:Berkélio]]
[[ru:Берклий]]
[[sl:Berkelij]]
[[sr:Берклијум]]
[[fi:Berkelium]]
[[sv:Berkelium]]
[[th:เบอร์คีเลียม]]
[[uk:Берклій]]
[[zh:锫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bismuth</title>
<id>3759</id>
<revision>
<id>41760420</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:27:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eaolson</username>
<id>179734</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv suspected vandalism by [[w:Special:Contributions/24.91.126.238|24.91.126.238]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=83 | symbol=Bi | name=bismuth | left=[[lead]] | right=[[polonium]] | above=[[antimony|Sb]] | below=[[ununpentium|Uup]] | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[poor metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=15 | period=6 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Bi,83| lustrous reddish white }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|208.98040]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&#93; 4f<sup>14</sup> 5d<sup>10</sup> 6s<sup>2</sup> 6p<sup>3</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 9.78 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 10.05 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=544.7 | c=271.5 | f=520.7 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=1837 | c=1564 | f=2847 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 11.30 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 151 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.52 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 941 | 1041 | 1165 | 1325 | 1538 | 1835 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | rhombohedral }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | '''3''', 5<br />(mildly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.02 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 703 | 1610 | 2466 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|160]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|143]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|146]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[diamagnetism|diamagnetic]] }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 1.29 µ}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 7.97 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 13.4 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 1790 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 32 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 12 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 31 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.33 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 2.25 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 94.2 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-69-9 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=bismuth | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=207 | sym=Bi
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=31.55 [[year|y]]
| dm=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de=2.399 | pn=207 | ps=[[lead|Pb]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=208 | sym=Bi
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=3,368,000 [[year|y]]
| dm=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de=2.880 | pn=208 | ps=[[lead|Pb]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=209 | sym=Bi
| na=100% | hl=(1.9±0.2) &times;10<sup>19</sup>[[year|y]]
| dm=[[alpha emission|&alpha;]] | de=&nbsp; | pn=205 | ps=[[thallium|Tl]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
'''Bismuth''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Bi''' and [[atomic number]] 83. This heavy, brittle, white crystalline trivalent [[poor metal]] has a pink tinge and chemically resembles [[arsenic]] and [[antimony]]. Of all the metals, it is the most naturally [[diamagnetic]], and only [[mercury (element)|mercury]] has less [[thermal]] [[conductivity]]. [[Lead]]-free bismuth compounds are used in [[cosmetics]] and in medical procedures.
== Notable characteristics ==
It is a brittle [[metal]] with a pinkish hue and an iridescent tarnish. Among the [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal]]s, bismuth is unusual in that its toxicity is much lower than that of its neighbors in the periodic table such as [[lead]], [[thallium]] and [[antim |
es]]-[[Last Gasp]], [[Apex Novelties]])
==See also==
===[[Comics]] - the sequential art form in general===
*[[Comic strip]]
*[[Graphic novel]]
*[[Webcomic]]
**[[Sprite comic]]
*[[Storyboard]]
*[[Cartoon]]
**[[Political cartoon]]
===Comic book awards===
*[[Eisner Award]]s
*[[Harvey Award]]s
*[[Ignatz Award]]s
*[[Kirby Award]]s
*[[Prix de la critique]]
*[[Angoulême International Comics Festival|Angoulême International Comics Festival Prizes]] (aka Alph'arts) and the [[Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême]]
*[[Tezuka Award]]s
* [[Comics Buyer's Guide]] Fan Awards
* [[The Doug Wright Awards]]
===Miscellaneous===
*[[Cartoonist]]
*[[Comic book code of 1954]]
*[[Comic book creator]]
*[[Comic book collecting]]
*[[Comic-Con International]]
===Lists===
*[[List of comic creators]]
*[[List of comic books]]
*[[List of comic book publishing companies]]
*[[List of cartoon and comic pairs|List of comic and cartoon character pairs]]
*[[List of comic strips]]
*[[List of cartoonists]]
*[[cartoon characters named after people|List of comic and cartoon characters named after people]]
*[[Comic books in dialects]]
==References==
Inge, Thomas M., "Comics as culture" Journal of Popular Culture 12:631, 1979 (not online)
==External links==
*[http://www.cbgxtra.com/Default.aspx?tabid=695 Database of Comic Book Sales Figures]
*[http://www.crimeboss.com/history03-1.html The Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency]
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/index.htm Don Markstein's Toonopedia]
*[http://www.comics.org Grand Comic-Book Database]
[[Category:Comic books|*]]
[[Category:Comics]]
[[Category:Entertainment]]
[[Category:Magazines]]
[[da:Tegneserie]]
[[de:Comic]]
[[eo:Komikso]]
[[es:historieta]]
[[fr:Bande dessinée]]
[[hr:Strip]]
[[ja:漫画]]
[[la:Comicus]]
[[nl:Stripverhaal]]
[[pt:Banda desenhada]]
[[sv:Tecknad serie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crusade</title>
<id>6232</id>
<revision>
<id>42029271</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:48:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mpatel</username>
<id>172616</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Crusade}}
{{dablink|This article is about the [[medieval]] crusades. For other uses, see [[Crusade (disambiguation)]].}}
The '''Crusades''' were a series of several military campaigns&mdash;usually sanctioned by the [[Papacy]]&mdash;that took place during the [[11th century|11th]] through [[13th century|13th centuries]]. Originally, they were [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] Holy Wars to recapture [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Holy Land]] from the [[Islam|Muslims]], but some were directed against other Europeans, such as the [[Fourth Crusade]] against [[Constantinople]], the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the [[Cathars]] of southern France and the [[Northern Crusades]].
Beyond the medieval military events, the word "crusade" has evolved to have multiple meanings and connotations. For additional meanings see [[Crusade#Usage of the term "crusade"|usage of the term "crusade"]] below and/or the [[wiktionary:Crusade|dictionary definition]].
== Historical background ==
The origins of the crusades lie in developments in Western Europe earlier in the [[Middle Ages]], as well as the deteriorating situation of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the east. The breakdown of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in the later 9th century, combined with the relative stabilization of local European borders after the Christianization of the [[Vikings]], [[Slavs]], and [[Magyars]], meant that there was an entire class of warriors who now had very little to do but fight amongst themselves and terrorize the peasant population. The Church tried to stem this violence with the [[Peace and Truce of God]] movements, which was somewhat successful, but trained warriors always sought an outlet for their violence. One later outlet was the ''[[Reconquista]]'' in [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], which at times occupied Iberian [[knights]] and some [[mercenaries]] from elsewhere in Europe in the fight against the Islamic [[Moors]]. In [[1063]], [[Pope Alexander II]] had given papal blessing to Iberian [[Christianity|Christians]] in their wars against the Muslims, granting both a papal standard (the ''vexillum sancti Petri'') and an [[indulgence]] to those who were killed in battle. A plea for help from the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexius I Comnenus]] in opposing [[Muslim]] attacks thus fell on ready ears.
The Crusades were in part an outlet for an intense religious piety which rose up in the late 11th century among the lay public. This was due in part to the [[Investiture Controversy]], which had started around 1075 and was still on-going during the First Crusade. Christendom had been greatly affected by the Investiture Controversy; as both sides tried to marshal public opinion in their favor, people became personally engaged in a dramatic religious controversy. The result was an awakening of intense Christian piety and public interest in religious affairs, which would manifest in the overwhelming popular support for the First Crusade, and the religious vitality of the 12th century.
This background in the Christian West must be matched with that in the Muslim East. Muslim presence in the Holy Land goes back to the initial [[Arab]] conquest of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] in the [[7th century]]. This did not interfere much with [[pilgrimage]] to Christian holy sites or the security of monasteries and Christian communities in the Holy Land of Christendom, and western Europeans were not much concerned with the loss of far-away [[Jerusalem]] when, in the ensuing decades and centuries, they were themselves faced with invasions by Muslims and other hostile non-Christians such as the Vikings and Magyars. However, the Muslim armies' successes were putting strong pressure on the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Byzantine Empire.
A turning point in western attitudes towards the east came in the year [[1009]], when the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] [[caliph]] of [[Cairo]], [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], had the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem destroyed. His successor permitted the [[Byzantine Empire]] to rebuild it under stringent circumstances, and pilgrimage was again permitted, but many stories began to be circulated in the [[Western countries|West]] about the cruelty of Muslims toward Christian pilgrims; these stories then played an important role in the development of the crusades later in the century.
== Historical context ==
{{Christianity}}
:''It is necessary to look for the origin of a crusading ideal in the struggle between Christians and Muslims in Spain and consider how the idea of a holy war emerged from this background.'' &mdash; [[Norman F. Cantor]]
The immediate cause of the First Crusade was Alexius I's appeal to [[Pope Urban II]] for mercenaries to help him resist Muslim advances into territory of the Byzantine Empire. In 1071, at the [[Battle of Manzikert]], the Byzantine Empire had been defeated, and this defeat led to the loss of all but the coastlands of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Although the [[East-West Schism]] was brewing between the Catholic Western church and the Greek Orthodox Eastern church, Alexius I expected some help from a fellow Christian. However, the response was much larger, and less helpful, than Alexius I desired, as the Pope called for a large invasion force to not merely defend the Byzantine Empire but also retake Jerusalem.
When the First Crusade was preached in [[1095]], the Christian princes of northern Iberia had been fighting their way out of the mountains of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and [[Asturias]], the [[Basque Country]] and [[Navarre]], with increasing success, for about a hundred years. The fall of Moorish [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] to the [[Kingdom of León]] in [[1085]] was a major victory, but the turning points of the ''[[Reconquista]]'' still lay in the future. The disunity of the Muslim emirs was an essential factor, and the Christians, whose wives remained safely behind, were hard to beat: they knew nothing except fighting, they had no gardens or libraries to defend, and they worked their way forward through alien territory populated by [[infidel]]s, where the Christian fighters felt they could afford to wreak havoc. All these factors were soon to be replayed in the fighting grounds of the East. Spanish historians have traditionally seen the ''Reconquista'' as the molding force in the [[Castile|Castilian]] character, with its sense that the highest good was to die fighting for the Christian cause of one's country.
While the ''Reconquista'' was the most prominent example of Christian war against Muslim conquests, it is not the only such example. The [[Normans|Norman]] adventurer [[Robert Guiscard]] had conquered the "toe of Italy," Calabria, in [[1057]] and was holding what had traditionally been Byzantine territory against the Muslims of [[Sicily]]. The maritime states of [[Pisa]], [[Genoa]] and [[Catalonia]] were all actively fighting Islamic strongholds in [[Majorca]] and [[Sardinia]], freeing the coasts of Italy and Catalonia from Muslim raids. Much earlier, of course, the Christian homelands of [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Palestine (region) | Palestine]], [[Egypt]], and so on had been conquered by [[Muslim]] armies. This long history of losing territories to a religious enemy, as well as a powerful pincer movement on all of Western Europe, created a powerful motive to respond to Byzantine emperor Alexius I's call for holy war to defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands, starting at the most important one of all, Jerusalem itself.
The papacy of [[Pope Gregory VII]] had struggled with reservations about the doctrinal validity of a holy war and the shedding of blood for the Lord and had resolved the question in favour of justified violence. More importantly to the Pope, the Christians who made pilgrimages to the Holy |
]'''. So a 1 GHz processor performs 1,000,000,000 clock ticks per second, a 128 kbit/s<!--- Truly kbit for kilobit, no Kbit please ---> [[MP3]] stream consumes 128,000 bits (15.625 KiB) per second, and a 1&nbsp;Mbit/s Internet connection can transfer 1,000,000 bits (approx. 122 KiB) per second (assuming an 8-bit byte, and no overhead).
Measurements of most types of electronic '''memory''' such as [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] and [[Read-only memory|ROM]] and [[Flash memory|Flash]] (large scale disk-like flash is sometimes an exception) are given in binary units because they are made in power-of-two sizes as this means that all combinations of their address lines map to a valid address allowing easy aggregation into a larger contiguous block of memory.
'''Hard disk drive''' manufacturers state capacity in decimal units. Since most computer operating systems report drive usage and capacity in binary units, the difference causes an apparent loss between the advertised capacity and the formatted, usable capacity. This usage has a long engineering tradition, predating consumer complaints about the apparent discrepancy, which began to surface in the mid-1990s. The decimal-based capacity in hard disk drives follows the method used for serially accessed storage media which predated direct access storage media like hard disk drives. Paper punch cards could only be used in a serial fashion, like the magnetic tapes that followed. When a stream of data is stored, it's more logical to indicate how many thousands, millions, or billions of bytes have been stored versus how many multiples of 1024, 1,048,576, or 1,073,741,824 bytes have been. When the first hard disk drives were being developed, the decimal measurement was only natural since the hard disk drive served essentially the same function as punch cards and tapes. Thus, today, any device that is addressed or seen as "storage" uses the decimal system to identify capacity.
Disk media are accessed by the sector, not the individual byte. Sectors are intended for direct transfer to RAM, which comes in powers of two, so sector size itself is almost always a power of two (some early [[1960s]] sectors measured 100 bytes [http://members.iinet.net.au/~daveb/Sys-10.html]). Common sector sizes range from 512 bytes (e.g. on floppy disks) to 2048 bytes ([[DVD]]s). Because of this, a very confusing hybrid system is sometimes used, in which a "megabyte" means a thousand 1024-byte "kilobytes". Thus, [[as of 2005]], manufacturers universally use the designation "1.44 MB [[floppy disk|diskette]]" for a product which holds neither 1.44&times;2<sup>20</sup> bytes nor 1.44&times;10<sup>6</sup> bytes, but rather 1.44&times;1000&times;1024 bytes (approximately 1.406 MiB, or 1.475 MB). Some <!--most?-->manufacturers of disk-like flash memory seem to have adopted the somewhat dubious practice of selling drives measured in power of two multiples of decimal megabytes!
Modern-day PC users, of course, regard both RAM and disk as kinds of storage and expect their capacities to be measured in the same way. [[Operating system]]s usually report disk space using the binary version. To the purchaser of a "30 GB" hard drive, rather than reporting either "30 GB" or "28 GiB", Microsoft Windows reports "28 GB". This creates hard feelings that have even led to [[#legal disputes|legal disputes]], sometimes made worse by other technical issues such as failure to distinguish between unformatted and formatted capacities and to account for the overhead inherent in disk file systems.
'''[[compact disc|CD]]''' capacities are always given in binary units. A "700 MB" (or "80 minute") CD has a nominal capacity of about 700 [[MiB]]. But '''[[DVD]]''' capacities are given in decimal units. A "4.7 GB" DVD has a nominal capacity of about 4.38 [[GiB]].
'''[[Computer bus|Bus]]''' bandwidth is given in decimal units. This is not because hard drive capacities use the decimal versions, nor because bit rates do, but because clock speeds do. For example, "[[DDR SDRAM|PC3200]]" memory runs on a [[Double data rate|double pumped]] 200 MHz bus, transferring 8 bytes per cycle, and hence has a bandwidth of 200,000,000&times;2&times;8 = 3,200,000,000 byte/s.
=== Pronunciation ===
It is suggested that in English, the first syllable of the name of the binary-multiple prefix should be pronounced in the same way as the first syllable of the name of the corresponding SI prefix, and that the second syllable should be pronounced as &quot;bee.&quot; {{ref|2}}
== Legal disputes ==
As a result of the confusion over decimal and binary capacity measures, there have been several lawsuits against companies who sell hard drives, Flash memory devices, and computer systems that list the drive capacity. As consumers become less and less technical, the technical definitions of binary and decimal multiples have become meaningless and only the number reported by the operating system holds sway.
At least 2 significant lawsuits have been filed:
* On February 20, 2004, [http://www.hoovers.com/free/co/secdoc.xhtml?ID=100020&ipage=2779727&doc=1&num=45 Willem Vroegh filed a lawsuit] against Lexar Media, Dane–Elec Memory, [[Fujifilm|Fuji Photo Film USA]], [[Eastman Kodak]] Company, Kingston Technology Company, Inc., [[Memorex]] Products, Inc.; [[PNY Technologies]] Inc., [[SanDisk|SanDisk Corporation]], [[Verbatim Corporation]], and Viking InterWorks alleging that their descriptions of the capacity of their [[flash memory]] cards were false and misleading.
*:As of early 2005, at least one of these companies has settled out of court.
* In September of 2003, [http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-5078961.html Lanchau Dan, Adam Selkowitz, Tim Swan and John Zahabian filed a lawsuit] against [[Dell, Inc.]], [[Apple Computer]] Inc., [[Gateway, Inc.]], [[Hewlett-Packard]] Co., [[IBM]] Corp., [[Sharp Corporation]], [[Sony]] Corp. and [[Toshiba]] Corp claiming their advertising deceptively exaggerates the real capacity of their hard drives.
== References ==
*{{note|1}} Amendment 2 to IEC International Standard [[IEC 60027]]-2: Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology — Part 2: Telecommunications and electronics [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html]
*{{note|2}} The NIST Reference on Constants, Units and Uncertainty. ''Prefixes for Binary Multiples'' [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html]
== See also ==
* [[Integral data type]]
* [[Bit]]
* [[Nibble]]
* [[Byte]]
* [[Octet (computing)|Octet]]
* [[IEC 60027-2]]
* [[IEEE 1541]]
* [[SI prefix]]
=== Specific units of IEC 60027-2 A.2 ===
<table align="center" border="0"><tr><td>
{{Bit rates}}
</td><td width="70"> &nbsp; </td><td width="10" rowspan="3"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2">
{{Quantities of bytes}}
</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">
{{Quantities of bits}}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
</td></tr></table>
== External links ==
* [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/information-units.txt What is a Megabyte ...? Markus Kuhn's 1996–1999 paper on bits, bytes, prefixes and symbols]
* [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html Prefixes for binary multiples] — [[NIST]]
* [http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/techbeat/tb9903.htm#Information%20Technology Get Ready for the mebi, gibi and tebi] — [[NIST]]
* [http://www.iec.ch/zone/si/si_bytes.htm Description of binary prefixes] — [[IEC]]
* [http://www.quinion.com/words/turnsofphrase/tp-kib1.htm Another description of binary prefixes]
* [http://www.wiebetech.com/pressreleases/BillionEqualBillion.pdf White-paper on the controversy over drive capacities]
* [http://homepages.tesco.net/~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/1mb44-is-not-a-standard-floppy-disc-size.html There is no such thing as a 1.44 MB standard format floppy disc]
* [http://members.optus.net/alexey/prefBin.xhtml A summary of the organizations, software, and so on that have implemented the new binary prefixes]
* [http://www.xciv.org/~meta/2005/02/25/#2005-02-23-units A plea for sanity]
* [http://www.lyberty.com/encyc/articles/kb_kilobytes.html KiloBytes vs. kilobits vs. Kibibytes (Binary prefixes)]
* [http://www.iec.ch/news_centre/release/nr2005/nr2005.htm Here Come Zebi- and Yobi-] IEC press release announcing new prefixes
[[Category:Measurement]]
[[Category:Naming conventions]]
[[Category:Prefixes]]
[[Category:Units of information]]
[[bg:Двоична представка]]
[[cs:Binární předpona]]
[[da:Binært præfiks]]
[[de:Binärpräfixe]]
[[es:Prefijo binario]]
[[fr:Préfixe binaire]]
[[hu:Bináris prefixum]]
[[it:Prefissi per multipli binari]]
[[ja:2進接頭辞]]
[[nl:Veelvouden van bytes]]
[[no:Binærprefiks]]
[[pl:Przedrostek dwójkowy]]
[[pt:Prefixo binário]]
[[ro:Prefixe binare]]
[[ru:Двоичные приставки]]
[[sk:Binárny prefix]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baseball Hall of Fame</title>
<id>4078</id>
<revision>
<id>41508589</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:07:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MisfitToys</username>
<id>58947</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* First floor */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:NB HOF logo.gif|right|National Baseball Hall of Fame Logo]]
The '''National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum''', located at 25 Main Street in [[Cooperstown, New York]], [[United States]], is a semi-official [[museum]] operated by private interests that serves as the central point for the study of the history of [[baseball]] in the [[United States]] and beyond, the display of baseball-related artifacts and exhibits, and the honoring of persons who have excelled in playing, managing, and serving the sport. In articles and di |
ergy Agency|IAEA]], [[World Bank|IBRD]], [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IDB]], [[International Fund for Agricultural Development|IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[Organization of African Unity|OAU]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], [[WADB]], WADB (regional), [[WAEMU]], [[World Confederation of Labour|WCL]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[World Federation of Trade Unions|WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], [[World Tourism Organization|WToO]], [[World Trade Organization|WTrO]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Burkina Faso]]
[[fr:Politique du Burkina Faso]]
[[pt:Política do Burkina Faso]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Burkina Faso</title>
<id>3680</id>
<revision>
<id>40360277</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:25:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Burkina Faso table}}
[[Burkina Faso]] is one of the poorest countries in the world with an average income per capita of €250 (US$300). More than 80% of the population relies on [[subsistence agriculture]], with only a small fraction directly involved in [[industry]] and [[tertiary sector of industry|services]]. Low rainfall, poor [[soil]]s, lack of adequate communications and other [[infrastructure]], a low literacy rate, and a stagnant economy are all longstanding problems. The [[export]] economy also remains subject to fluctuations in world prices.
Although handicapped by an extremely resource-deprived domestic economy, Burkina remains committed to the [[structural adjustment program]] it launched in [[1991]]. It has largely recovered from the devaluation of the CFA in January [[1994]], with a [[1996]] growth rate of 5.9%.
Many Burkinabe migrate to neighbouring countries for work, and their remittances provide a substantial contribution to the balance of payments. Burkina is attempting to improve the economy by developing its [[mineral]] resources, improving its infrastructure, making its [[agriculture|agricultural and livestock sectors]] more productive and competitive, and stabilizing the supplies and prices of [[cereal]]s.
The agricultural economy remains highly vulnerable to fluctuations in rainfall. The [[Mossi Plateau]] in north central Burkina faces encroachment from the [[Sahara]]. The resultant southward migration means heightened competition for control of very limited [[water resources]] south of the Mossi Plateau. Most of the population ekes out a living as [[subsistence farming|subsistence farmers]], living with problems of climate, [[erosion|soil erosion]], and rudimentary technology. The staple crops are [[millet]], [[sorghum]], [[maize]], and [[rice]]. The cash crops are [[cotton]], [[peanut|groundnuts]], [[Shea nut|karite (shea nuts)]], and [[sesame]]. Livestock, once a major export, has declined.
Industry, still in an embryonic stage, is located primarily in [[Bobo-Dioulasso]], [[Ouagadougou]], [[Banfora]], and [[Koudougou]]. Manufacturing is limited to [[food]] processing, [[textile]]s, and other import substitution heavily protected by [[tariffs]]. Some [[factory|factories]] are privately owned, and others are set to be privatized. Burkina's exploitable natural resources are limited, although a [[manganese]] [[ore]] deposit is located in the remote northeast. [[Gold]] mining has increased greatly since the mid-1980s and, along with cotton, is a leading export moneyearner.
'''Summary:'''
One of the poorest countries in the world, landlocked Burkina Faso has a high population density, few [[natural resource]]s, and a fragile [[soil]]. Approximately 90% of the population is engaged in (mainly subsistence) agriculture which is highly vulnerable to variations in [[rain]]fall. Industry remains dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations. Following the African franc currency devaluation in January [[1994]] the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies, and exports and economic growth have increased. Maintenance of its [[macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] progress depends on continued low inflation, reduction in the trade deficit, and reforms designed to encourage private investment.
==External links==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uv.html CIA Factbook]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Burkina Faso|]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Burkina Faso]]
[[pt:Economia do Burkina Faso]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Burkina Faso</title>
<id>3681</id>
<revision>
<id>15901996</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-24T19:15:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[Category:Communications_by_country]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
30,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
0 (1995)
'''Telephone system:'''
all services only fair
<br>''domestic:''
microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communication stations
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 2, FM 17, shortwave 1 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
370,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
100,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)
'''[[Country code]]:''' BF
:''See also :'' [[Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Burkina Faso]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Burkina Faso</title>
<id>3682</id>
<revision>
<id>39718265</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T10:11:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tabletop</username>
<id>173687</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Railway links with adjacent countries */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
== Railways ==
<br>''total:''
622 km (517 km from Ouagadougou to the excellent deepwater port at Abidjan, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (on the border) and 105 km from Ouagadougou to Kaya)
<br>''narrow gauge:''
622 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transport in Mali|Mali]] - no - same gauge 1000mm
* [[Transport in Niger|Niger]] - no railways
* [[Transport in Benin|Benin]] - no - same gauge 1000mm
* [[Transport in Togo|Togo]] - no - same gauge 1000mm
* [[Transport in Ghana|Ghana]] - no [[break of gauge]] - 1000mm/1067mm
* [[Transport in Côte d'Ivoire|Côte d'Ivoire]] - yes - same gauge 1000mm
=== 2006 ===
An Indian proposal has surfaced to link the railways in Benin and Togo with landlocked Niger and Burkino Faso
== Highways ==
<br>''total:''
12,506 km
<br>''paved:''
2,001 km
<br>''unpaved:''
10,505 km (1996 est.)
== Ports and harbors ==
none
== Airports ==
33 (1999 est.)
Including [[Ouagadougou Airport]]
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
2
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
31
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
13
<br>''under 914 m:''
16 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Burkina Faso]]
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Burkina Faso| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Burkina Faso</title>
<id>3683</id>
<revision>
<id>15901998</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T01:34:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ingoolemo</username>
<id>71699</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>categorisation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, People's Militia
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
2,688,072 (2002 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
1,379,010 (2002 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$40.1 million (FY01)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.4% (FY01)
==References and Links==
*[[Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Militaries|Burkina Faso]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Burkina Faso</title>
<id>3684</id>
<revision>
<id>37154226</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T01:58:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wikiacc</username>
<id>84893</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Burkina Fa |
ording]
*[http://www.jamendo.com/ Jamendo] - Creative Commons music distributed using BitTorrent and eMule.
*[http://www.youngjung.com/ YJ] - Copyleft multimedia composer and artist Young Jung aka Marshall Rendina.
[[Category:Copyright law]]
[[Category:Copyleft licensing| ]]
[[af:Kopielinks]]
[[ca:Copyleft]]
[[cs:Copyleft]]
[[da:Copyleft]]
[[de:Copyleft]]
[[el:Copyleft]]
[[es:Copyleft]]
[[fa:کپیلفت]]
[[fr:Copyleft]]
[[gl:Copyleft]]
[[ko:카피레프트]]
[[ia:Copyleft]]
[[id:Copyleft]]
[[it:Copyleft]]
[[he:Copyleft]]
[[lt:Copyleft]]
[[mk:Копилефт]]
[[nl:Copyleft]]
[[ja:コピーレフト]]
[[no:Copyleft]]
[[pl:Copyleft]]
[[pt:Copyleft]]
[[ru:Копилефт]]
[[simple:Copyleft]]
[[sv:Copyleft]]
[[th:Copyleft]]
[[tr:Copyleft]]
[[uk:Copyleft]]
[[zh:Copyleft]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Countable set</title>
<id>6026</id>
<revision>
<id>39078463</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T15:49:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grokmoo</username>
<id>517688</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo in first line</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''countable set''' is a [[set]] with the same [[cardinality]] (i.e., [[cardinal number|number]] of elements) as some [[subset]] of the set of [[natural number]]s. The term was originated by [[Georg Cantor]]; it stems from the fact that the natural numbers are often called ''counting numbers''. A set that is not countable is called ''[[uncountable set|uncountable]]''.
Note that '''countable set''' is sometimes given a more specific definition: sometimes, it is defined as a set with the same cardinality as the set of natural numbers. The difference between the two definitions is that the former defines finite sets to be countable, while the latter does not.
==Definition==
A set ''S'' is called '''countable''' if there exists an [[injective function|injective]] [[function (mathematics)|function]]
:<math>f\colon S \to \mathbb{N} </math>
If ''f'' is also [[bijection|bijective]] then ''S'' is called '''countably infinite''' or '''denumerable'''.
As noted above, this terminology is not universal: some authors define ''denumerable'' to mean what we have called "countable"; some define ''countable'' to mean what we have called "countably infinite".
The next result offers an alternative definition of a countable set ''S'' in terms of a [[surjection|surjective]] function:
'''THEOREM''': Let ''S'' be a nonempty set. The following statements are equivalent:
# ''S'' is countable
# There exists an injective function <math>f\colon S \to \mathbb{N} </math>
# There exists a surjective function <math>g\colon \mathbb{N} \to S </math>
==Gentle introduction==
The elements of a finite set can be listed, say { ''a''<sub>1</sub>, ''a''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''a''<sub>''n''</sub> }.
However, insofar as a set is a logical description of the properties of its members, it need not be finite. To understand this, imagine that I ask you: how many words can you make out of Scrabble pieces ''if'' you are allowed to ask me for more pieces no matter how many you used up? The answer? As many as you like; you can go forever. But that doesn't mean they won't each of them be a word made out of scrabble blocks, rather than apple pies or racecars. Thus an infinite set is still a set, insofar as it is a tool for separating out things with different properties.
Now what is a countably infinite set?
Technically, a countably infinite set is any set which, in spite of its boundlessness, can be shown [[equivalent set|equivalent]] to the [[natural numbers]] — nothing more, nothing less. This makes it possible to set apart elements of a countably infinite set using natural numbers as indices, and in turn puts the logic associated with them in very close proximity to the logic associated with the natural numbers themselves; and this makes such sets easily logically tractable.
===A more formal introduction===
It might then seem natural to divide the sets into different classes: put all the sets containing one element together; all the sets containing two elements together; ...; finally, put together all infinite sets and consider them as having the same size.
This view is not tenable, however, under the natural definition of size.
To elaborate this we need the concept of a [[bijection]].
Do the sets { 1, 2, 3 } and { a, b, c } have the same size?
:"Obviously, yes."
:"How do you know?"
:"Well it's obvious. Look, they've both got 3 elements".
:"What's a 3?"
This may seem a strange situation but, although a "bijection" seems a more advanced concept than a "number", the usual development of mathematics in terms of set theory defines functions before numbers, as they are based on much simpler sets. This is where the concept of a bijection comes in: define the correspondence
:''a'' &harr; 1, ''b'' &harr; 2, ''c'' &harr; 3
Since every element of { ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' } is paired with ''precisely one'' element of { 1, 2, 3 } (and vice versa) this defines a bijection.
We now generalise this situation and ''define'' two sets to be of the same size precisely when there is a bijection between them. For all finite sets this gives us the usual definition of "the same size". What does it tell us about the size of infinite sets?
Consider the sets ''A'' = { 1, 2, 3, ... }, the set of positive [[integer]]s and ''B'' = {2,4,6,...}, the set of even positive integers. We claim that, under our definition, these sets have the same size, and that therefore ''B'' is countably infinite. Recall that to prove this we need to exhibit a bijection between them. But this is easy:
1 &harr; 2, 2 &harr; 4, 3 &harr; 6, 4 &harr; 8, ...
As in the earlier example, every element of A has been paired off with precisely one element of B, and vice versa. Hence they have the same size. This gives an example of a set which is of the same size as one of its proper subsets, a situation which is impossible for finite sets.
Likewise, the set of all [[ordered pair]]s of natural numbers is countably infinite, as can be seen by following a path like this one:
:<math>\begin{matrix}
(0,0) & \rightarrow & (0,1) & & (0,2) & \rightarrow & (0,3) & \\
& \swarrow & & \nearrow & & \swarrow & & \\
(1,0) & & (1,1) & & (1,2) & & \ddots & \\
\downarrow & \nearrow & & \swarrow & & & & \\
(2,0) & & (2,1) & & \ddots & & & \\
& \swarrow & & & & & & \\
(3,0) & & \ddots & & & & & \\
\downarrow & & & & & & & \\
\vdots & & & & & & &
\end{matrix}</math>
The resulting mapping is like this:
0 &harr; (0,0), 1 &harr; (0,1), 2 &harr; (1,0), 3 &harr; (2,0), 4 &harr; (1,1), 5 &harr; (0,2), …
It is evident that this mapping will cover all such ordered pairs.
Interestingly: if you treat each pair as being the [[numerator]] and [[denominator]] of a [[vulgar fraction]], then for every possible fraction, we can come up with a distinct number corresponding to it. Since every natural number is also a fraction ''N''/1, we can conclude that there are the same number of fractions as there are of whole numbers.
'''THEOREM:''' The [[Cartesian product]] of finitely many countable sets is countable.
This form of triangular [[mapping]] [[recursive]]ly generalizes to [[vector space|vector]]s of finitely many natural numbers by repeatedly mapping the first two elements to a natural number. For example, (2,0,3) maps to (5,3) which maps to 41.
Sometimes more than one mapping is useful. This is where you map the set which you want to show countably infinite, onto another set; and then map this other set to the natural numbers. For example, the positive [[rational number]]s can easily be mapped to (a subset of) the pairs of natural numbers because ''p''/''q ''maps to (''p'',&nbsp;''q'').
What about infinite subsets of countably infinite sets? Do these have fewer elements than '''N'''?
'''THEOREM:''' Every subset of a countable set is countable. In particular, every infinite subset of a countably infinite set is countably infinite.
For example, the set of [[prime number]]s is countable, by mapping the ''n''-th prime number to ''n'':
*2 maps to 1
*3 maps to 2
*5 maps to 3
*7 maps to 4
*11 maps to 5
*13 maps to 6
*17 maps to 7
*19 maps to 8
*23 maps to 9
*etc.
What about sets being "larger than" '''N'''? An obvious place to look would be '''Q''', the set of all [[rational number]]s, which is "clearly" much bigger than '''N'''. But looks can be deceiving, for we assert
'''THEOREM:''' '''Q''' (the set of all rational numbers) is countable.
'''Q''' can be defined as the set of all fractions ''a''/''b'' where ''a'' and ''b'' are integers and ''b'' > 0.
This can be mapped onto the subset of ordered triples of natural numbers (''a'', ''b'', ''c'') such that ''b'' > 0, ''a'' and ''b'' are [[coprime]], and ''c'' &isin; {0, 1} such that ''c'' = 0 if ''a''/''b'' &ge; 0 and ''c'' = 1 otherwise.
*0 maps to (0,1,0)
*1 maps to (1,1,0)
*&minus;1 maps to (1,1,1)
*1/2 maps to (1,2,0)
*&minus;1/2 maps to (1,2,1)
*2 maps |
Style'', the [[Canadian Press]] style guide, the [[Gage Canadian Dictionary]] and the [[Canadian Oxford Dictionary]], propose certain standards:
* the use of the "-our" ending in words such as ''neighbour'' and ''colour'';
* the use of the "-re" ending in words such as ''centre'' and ''theatre'';
* the use of the "-ce" ending for nouns and the "-se" ending for the equivalent verbs, such as ''a licence'' (noun), ''to license'' (verb) and ''practice'' (noun), ''to practise'' (verb);
* the use of double letters in words such as ''travelled'', ''leveller'', etc.
Certain American spellings remain common. The spelling ''program'' is more usual than ''programme'', ''airplane'' is universally favoured over ''aeroplane'', ''tire'' is used rather than ''tyre'', etc.
==Australian English==
Australian English also borrows from both British and American spellings. However, British English dominates most of the word spelling.
==Internal spelling differences==
Within British English and its Commonwealth variants there is disagreement as to proper spelling of words such as ''organise'' / ''organize''. Both "-ise" and "-ize" are generally accepted as correct. The "-ise" forms are very rarely used in Canada, but they are the choice of the majority in Britain (even though most British dictionaries prefer the "-ize" forms). See [[British English]] for more details. According to Pam Peters (1994: '''-ise/-ize'''), based on British National Corpus data, in Britain:
:... the '''-ise''' spellings outnumber those with '''-ize''' in the ratio of about 3:2. In Australian English, the difference is still greater (often 3:1, by frequencies in the ACE corpus), and the tendency has been reinforced by official endorsement of '''-ise''' by the Australian government ''Style Manual'' since 1966.
The English Academy of South Africa website uses "-ize" forms on some pages and "-ise" forms on other pages, recognising both. The ''Australian Journal of Linguistics'', the official journal of the Australian Linguistics Society, insists on the "-ize" forms against the Australian dictionaries and the majority in Australia.
==Independent standards within "Commonwealth English"==
The more extensive forms of Commonwealth English and even some of those less used have their own separate, recognised dictionaries. The ''Dictionary of Canadian English: The Senior Dictionary'' was first published by the Canadian textbook publisher Gage Learning in [[1967]] and updated versions have appeared regularly, the most recent being the ''Gage Canadian Dictionary'' in [[1997]]. For South Africa there was Charles Pettman's ''Africanderisms'', a glossary of South African colloquial words and phrases published in [[1913]]. Philip Branford's ''A Dictionary of South African English'' was published in [[1978]] and the most recent edition in [[1991]]. Australian English has had the [[Macquarie Dictionary]] since [[1981]]. In [[1996]] [[Oxford University Press]] published the ''Concise Ulster Dictionary''. In [[1998]] they went farther afield by releasing ''A Dictionary of South African English on Historical Principles'', ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', and ''The Dictionary of New Zealand English''. In [[2000]] they published ''The Australian Oxford Dictionary''. All these use previous Oxford English dictionaries as a base, but modify or replace text according to research on other varieties of English. Caribbean English has Frederic&nbsp;G. Cassidy and Robert&nbsp;B. Le&nbsp;Page's ''Dictionary of Jamaican English'' and John&nbsp;A. Holm and Alison&nbsp;W. Shlling's ''Dictionary of Bahamian English''.
==Limited use==
"Commonwealth English" is not a clear and distinctive dialect, although it becomes far closer to being one if Canadian English is not considered. [[Microsoft]] ''[[Encarta]]'' appears in four English versions, an American English version, a British English version, a Canadian English version, and an Australian English version, perhaps indicating that Microsoft did not feel that one Commonwealth English version would serve to balance the American English version, though there are likely to be few differences between the British English version and the Australian English version. A fifth version could be introduced as well: British English with ''Concise Oxford Dictionary'' spelling ([[IANA]] value '''en-GB-oed'''). Also, increasingly, spell checkers are supporting more finely grained systems of spelling, not attempting to make British English, renamed as Commonwealth English, do for all.
==Notes==
# There are a number of other Commonwealth nations which are not listed here but also have English as either the primary or an official, language. Examples include [[Malta]], [[Singapore]] and [[Mozambique]], which is a Commonwealth member but uses [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] as its main language of communication.
# Although Hiberno-English (Irish English) is listed as Commonwealth English, the [[Republic of Ireland]] is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, although [[Northern Ireland]] ''is'' a member, being part of the [[United Kingdom]].
# Although Hong Kong English is listed as Commonwealth English, since [[1997]] [[Hong Kong]] has not been a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, but a [[Special Administrative Region]] of [[People's Republic of China|China]].
==References ==
* Peters, Pam (2004).''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.
== External links ==
*[http://www.englishacademy.co.za English Academy of South Africa] (Website).
*[http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/authors/cajlauth.asp Taylor & Francies: Instructions for Authors for the ''Australian Journal of Linguistics''] ("The -ize suffix is used, for example, civilize, civilization rather than civilise, civilisation").
[[Category:Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:English dialects]]
[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles McCarry</title>
<id>6569</id>
<revision>
<id>39111974</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T20:16:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Bringing "External links" and "See also" sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles McCarry''' is an American writer whose works often concern [[secret history]], [[bank]]ers, the [[CIA]], post-war [[Germany]], and [[Richard Nixon]]. He worked for many years for the CIA. His novels are currently being reprinted by Overlook Press, starting with Tears of Autumn, republished in 2005.
McCarry was an editor-at-large for ''[[National Geographic]]'' and has contributed pieces to ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', ''[[The Washington Post]]'' and other national publications.
McCarry's novel ''The Better Angels'' was made into the film ''Wrong is Right'' (1982) starring [[Sean Connery]].
==Novels==
*''The Miernek Dossier'' - (1973)
*''The Tears of Autumn'' - (1974)
*''The Secret Lovers'' - (1977)
*''The Better Angels'' - (1979)
*''Last Supper'' - (1983)
*''The Bride of the Wilderness'' - (1989)
*''Second Sight'' - (1991)
*''Shelley's Heart'' - (1995)
*''Lucky Bastard'' - (1998)
*''Old Boys'' - (2004)
==Non-Fiction==
*''From the Field'' (editor)
*''Isles of the Caribbean'' (co-author)
*''The Great Southwest''
*''Double Eagle''
*''Citizen Nader'' - (1972)
*''Inner Circles: How America Changed the World'' (with [[Alexander Haig]]) - (1992)
==External links==
*[http://www.themorningnews.org/archives/personalities/birnbaum_v_charles_mccarry.php A 2004 interview with McCarry.]
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0565010/ IMDb page for Charles McCarry.]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cimbri</title>
<id>6571</id>
<revision>
<id>41465667</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:05:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>157.91.90.249</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Invading Gaul */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Cimbrian War}}
[[Image:Cimbrians and Teutons.png|thumb|300px|The migrations of the Teutons and the Cimbri]]
The '''Cimbri''' were a [[Proto-Germanic]] tribe who according to [[Pliny the Elder]] lived on [[Jutland]] (''Chersonesus Cimbrica''), and the Jutish region of ''[[Himmerland]]'' (where the contemporary [[Gundestrup cauldron]] was found) is thought to preserve their name (cf. [[Grimm's law]], K->H). The name has been analysed as the name ''kimme'' meaning "rim", i.e. the people of the coast[http://runeberg.org/nfbe/0183.html], but there is also the hypothesis that the name is related to that of the [[Cimmerians]]. Charles Kingsley links the name to the word "Champ(ion)" which gives us the modern Germanic word "Kampf" meaning "fight" (however, this word is normally derived from Latin ''campus'' "field (often for military activities)").
==Moving south-east==
Some time before [[100 BC]] many of the Cimbri, as well as the [[Teutons|Teutones]], left southern Scandinavia and migrated south-east. After several battles with the [[Boii]] and other [[Celtic tribes]], they appeared ca [[113 BC]] in [[Noricum]], where they invaded the lands of one of Rome's allies, the [[Taurisci]]. At this time, if not before, they had picked up substantial Celtic elements, as allies and the majority of the migrating Cimbri may have been Celtic, such as the [[Ambrones]].
On the request of the Roman [[consul]] [[Gnaeus Papirius Carbo]], sent to defend the Taurisci, they retreated only to find themselves deceived and attacked at [[Battle of Noreia|Noreia]]. In a bloody battle, they defeated the Romans |
thern Ireland peace process]] the term "[[Islands of the North Atlantic]]" (IONA) has been used as a neutral term to describe these islands, though that term has also been labelled ambiguous.
[[Category:British Isles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Broadway (New York City)</title>
<id>4626</id>
<revision>
<id>41147837</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T09:45:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Demicx</username>
<id>769154</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For Broadway in the theatrical sense, see [[Broadway theatre]]. For other streets and topics with the name Broadway, see [[Broadway]].''
{{main|Transportation in New York City}}
[[Image:Bway.jpg|200px|right|thumb|A view of Broadway in 1909]]
'''Broadway''', as the name implies, is a wide avenue in [[New York City]], and is the oldest north-south main thoroughfare in the city, dating to the first [[New Amsterdam]] settlement. The [[street name|name]] ''Broadway'' is an English [[translation]] of the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name, ''Breede weg''. The street is famous as the pinnacle of the [[Broadway theater|American theater industry]].
Broadway originated as an Indian trail called the [[Wickquasgeck Trail]], which was carved into the [[Manhattan]] brush land. This trail originally snaked through the swamps and rocks from southern to northern Manhattan. Upon the arrival of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], the trail soon became the main road through the island from [[New Amsterdam]] at the southern tip. The Dutch explorer and entrepreneur [[David de Vries]] gives the first mention of it in his journal for the year [[1642]] — "the Wickquasgeck Road over which the Indians passed daily".
Broadway runs the length of Manhattan, being the only street running from almost the southern tip of the island, where it starts at [[Bowling Green (New York City)|Bowling Green]], to the northern tip. South of [[Columbus Circle]], it is a one-way street, with all vehicle traffic traveling southbound. It crosses the [[Harlem River]] as the [[Broadway Bridge (Manhattan)|Broadway Bridge]] and continues through the [[Bronx]] and into [[Westchester County]]. (There are other streets called "Broadway" in the city, one each in the New York City Boroughs of [[Queens]], [[Brooklyn]], and [[Staten Island]]. Short isolated stretches of streets use its name, such as East Broadway, West Broadway, and Old Broadway.)
Broadway continues running through several [[Hudson River]] towns of [[Westchester County]] as [[U.S. Highway 9]], before becoming the "New York-[[Albany Post Road]]", and running through the state capital, [[Albany, New York|Albany]], terminating in [[Champlain, N.Y.]] at the Canadian border. Diagonally crossing the [[Commissioners' Plan of 1811]] of Manhattan streets, its intersections with avenues have been marked by "squares" (some merely triangular slivers of open space) and induced some interesting architecture, such as the famous [[Flatiron Building]].
[[Image:DSCN3602 upbroadway e.JPG|200px|left|thumb|A view up Broadway from Bowling Green, with the [[Chrysler Building]] visible in the background]]
The section of lower Broadway from its origin at Bowling Green to [[City Hall Park (Manhattan)|City Hall Park]] is the historical location for the city's [[ticker-tape parade]]s, and is sometimes called the "[[Canyon of Heroes]]" during such events. West of Broadway as far as Canal Street was the city's fashionable residential area until ''ca'' 1825; landfill has more than tripled the area and the Hudson shore now lies far to the west, beyond [[TriBeCa]] and [[Battery Park City]].
Broadway marks the east boundary of [[Greenwich Village]], passing [[Astor Place]] It is a short walk from there to [[New York University]] near [[Washington Square Park]], which is at the foot of [[Fifth Avenue]]. [[Greenwich Village]] is an interesting place well suited for tourism. If one walks east from [[Astor Place]] past Third Avenue/Bowery, one walks to the [[East Village]].
Broadway starts going diagonally at 10th street in the Village, which it does until about 78th street. Six blocks north of Astor Place, at [[Union Square (New York City)|Union Square]] - 14th Street, Broadway continues its diagonal course across the island of [[Manhattan]]. At Union Square, Fourth Avenue ends and Park Avenue begins. 14th Street is recognized as a boundary between [[Downtown Manhattan]] and 'Midtown' Manhattan.
At [[Madison Square]], Broadway crosses Fifth Avenue at 23rd Street.
At [[Herald Square]] Broadway crosses Sixth Avenue ([[Avenue of the Americas]]). The original [[Macy's]] Department Store is located on the western corner of Herald Square; it is one of the largest [[department store]]s in the world, if not the single largest.
One famous stretch near [[Times Square]], where Broadway crosses Seventh Avenue in midtown Manhattan, is the home of many [[Broadway theatre]]s, housing an ever-changing array of commercial, large-scale plays, particularly [[musical theater|musicals]]; this area of Manhattan is often called the [[Theater District]]. This part of Broadway, also known as the [[Great White Way]], draws millions of tourists from around the world. Starring in a successful Broadway musical is considered by most [[singer]]s, [[dancer]]s, and [[actor]]s as the ultimate success in their chosen profession, and many songs, stories, and musicals have themselves been based around the idea of such success. The annual [[Tony Award]]s recognize some of the most successful new shows and revivals each year. Since the late [[1980s]] Times Square has emerged as a family tourist center for the New York area. Times Square is the location of ''[[The New York Times]]'' newspaper, published at offices on West 43rd Street off Broadway.
At the southwest corner of [[Central Park]], Broadway crosses Eighth Avenue at [[West 59th Street]] to form [[Columbus Circle]], onetime home of a convention center and now home of a new shopping center at the foot of the new [[Time Warner Center]], home of [[Time Warner]].
At the intersection of Columbus Avenue and West 65th Street, Broadway passes by the [[Julliard School]] and [[Lincoln Center]], both well known performing arts landmarks, as well as one of just over one hundred temples of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]].
Further north, Broadway follows the old Bloomingdale Road as the main spine of the [[Upper West Side]], passing the campus of [[Columbia University]] on [[Morningside Heights]] as it continues northwards. The university has a large open campus between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue with entrances on 116th Street. [[The Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center]] lies on Broadway near 166th, 167th, and 168th Streets in northern Manhattan ([[Washington Heights]] neighborhood).
Broadway, in the [[Times Square]] area, is second only to [[Tokyo]] for its lighted advertising, but first as the most recognized street filmed in the world.
==Public transit==
From south to north, the [[IRT Lexington Avenue Line]] which carries the 4, 5, and 6 trains, [[BMT Broadway Line]] which carries the N, Q, R, and W trains, [[IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line]] which carries the 1, 2, and 3 trains and [[IND Eighth Avenue Line]] which carries the A, B, C, and D trains.
The IRT East Side runs under Broadway from Bowling Green to City Hall. The BMT Broadway Line runs under it from City Hall to [[Times Square]]. The IRT West Side Line runs under and over Broadway from Times Square to 242nd St, the last stop on the number 1. This is interrupted between 168th st and 207th st, where Broadway turns and follows the A train northwards.
On the surface, [[MTA New York City Transit]]'s '''M1''', '''M4''', '''M5''', '''M6''', '''M7''', '''M10''', '''M20''', '''M100''', '''M104''', '''Bx7''' and '''Bx20''' bus services all use Broadway. The [[Broadway and Seventh Avenue Railroad]] and [[Broadway Surface Railroad]] [[streetcar]] lines used to use Broadway.
{{sectstub}}
==See also==
* [[Grand Central Hotel]]
* [[Singer Building]]
* [[Trinity Church, New York]]
* [[Winter Garden Theatre]]
* [[Woolworth Building]]
==External links==
*[http://www.nnp.org/newvtour/regions/Manhattan/broadway.html History of Broadway] (and Manhattan)
{{New York City}}
[[Category:Streets in Manhattan]]
[[Category:Broadway]]
[[bs:Broadway]]
[[da:Broadway]]
[[de:Broadway (Manhattan)]]
[[es:Broadway]]
[[fr:Broadway]]
[[he:ברודוויי]]
[[ko:브로드웨이]]
[[it:Broadway]]
[[ka:ბროდვეი (ნიუ-იორკი)]]
[[nl:Broadway]]
[[no:Broadway]]
[[pl:Broadway]]
[[pt:Broadway]]
[[ja:ブロードウェイ]]
[[simple:Broadway]]
[[sk:Broadway]]
[[sv:Broadway]]
[[zh:百老匯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bay of Skiall</title>
<id>4627</id>
<revision>
<id>15902887</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-26T13:46:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deb</username>
<id>1219</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to correct spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bay of Skaill]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bilinear transform</title>
<id>4628</id>
<revision>
<id>30654334</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-09T00:22:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rbj</username>
<id>102727</id>
</contributor>
<comment>tried to fix bad wording. also removed a pile of <LF> that annoyed.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[digital signal processing]], the '''bilinear transform''' is a [[conformal map]]ping, often used to convert a [[transfer function]] <math> H_a(s) \ </math> of a [[linear]], [[time-invariant]] ([[LTI system theory|LTI]]) filter in the [[continuous function|continuous]]-time domain (often called an [[analog filter]]) to a transfer function <math> H_d(z) \ </math> of a linear, shift-invariant filter in t |
iagrammar'', CERN Yellow Report 1973, [http://preprints.cern.ch/cgi-bin/setlink?base=cernrep&categ=Yellow_Report&id=1973-009 online]
* David Kaiser, ''Drawing Theories Apart: The Dispersion of Feynman Diagrams in Postwar Physics'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. ISBN 0-226-42266-6
* Martinus Veltman, ''Diagrammatica: The Path to Feynman Diagrams'', Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics, ISBN 0521456924 (expanded, updated version of above)
== External links ==
* [http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/theory/feynman.html Feynman diagram page] at [[SLAC]]
* [http://www.ams.org/featurecolumn/archive/feynman1.html AMS article: "What's New in Mathematics: Finite-dimensional Feynman Diagrams"]
* [http://wikisophia.org/wiki/Wikitex_Feyn WikiTeX] supports editing Feynman diagrams directly in Wiki articles.
* [http://xml.web.cern.ch/XML/textproc/feynmf.html Drawing Feynman diagrams with LaTeX] and METAFONT, from a CERN site
*[http://newton.ph.unito.it/~masoero Feynman Rules.it] a kind and detailed introduction for italian students
[[Category:Scattering theory]]
[[Category:Quantum field theory]]
[[Category:Diagrams]]
[[de:Feynman-Diagramm]]
[[es:Diagrama de Feynman]]
[[fr:Diagramme de Feynman]]
[[hu:Feynman-gráf]]
[[pl:Diagram Feynmana]]
[[ru:Диаграммы Фейнмана]]
[[sl:Feynmanov diagram]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Food writing</title>
<id>11619</id>
<revision>
<id>39423972</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T01:21:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jpbowen</username>
<id>323196</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Changed category alphabetic ordering</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A list of some prominent writers on [[food]], [[cooking]], [[Eating|dining]], and cultural history related to food.
==Authors==
*[[Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin]]
*[[Jeffrey Steingarten]]
*[[James Beard]]
*[[Mrs Beeton]]
*[[Raymond Blanc]]
*[[Alton Brown]]
*[[Henri Charpentier]]
*[[Julia Child]]
*[[Craig Claiborne]]
*[[Shirley Corriher]]
*[[Fanny Cradock]]
*[[Curnonsky]]
*[[Tarla Dalal]]
*[[Elizabeth David]]
*[[Giada De Laurentiis]]
*[[Escoffier]]
*[[M. F. K. Fisher]]
*[[Marcella Hazan]]
*[[Amanda Hesser]]
*[[Alison Holst]]
*[[Madeleine Kamman]]
*[[Christopher Kimball]]
*[[Diana Kennedy]]
*[[Nigella Lawson]]
*[[Paul Levy]]
*[[A. J. Liebling]]
*[[David Leite]]
*[[Prosper Montagné]]
*[[Harold McGee]]
*[[Jamie Oliver]]
*[[Jacques Pepin]]
*[[Edouard de Pomaine]]
*[[Wolfgang Puck]]
*[[Gordon Ramsay]]
*[[Rachael Ray]]
*[[Ruth Reichl]]
*[[Gary Rhodes]]
*[[Marcel Rouff]]
*[[Nigel Slater]]
*[[Delia Smith]]
*[[Raymond Sokolov]]
*[[Anne Willan]]
*[[Martin Yan]]
==Books (not easily attributable to an author)==
* [[Larousse Gastronomique]]
* [[Forme of Cury]]
==See also==
* [[Cookbook]]
* [[List of cookbooks]]
[[Category:Food writers|*Food writing]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]
[[Category:Food and drink|Writing, food]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Four Pillars</title>
<id>11620</id>
<revision>
<id>15909356</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-22T03:12:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.253.39.226</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*#REDIRECT [[Four Pillars of the Green Party]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Four Pillars of the Green Party]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Futurama (New York World's Fair)</title>
<id>11621</id>
<revision>
<id>36522034</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T17:46:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Philip lawton</username>
<id>732741</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added link to Futurama video at The Internet Archive</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the animated cartoon series, see [[Futurama]].''
'''Futurama''' was an exhibit/ride at the [[1939 New York World's Fair|1939-40 New York World's Fair]] designed by [[Norman Bel Geddes]] that showed the world 20 years into the future, including automated highways and vast suburbs. The exhibit was sponsored by [[General Motors]].
An updated version, '''Futurama II''', appeared at the [[1964 New York World's Fair|1964/1965 New York World's Fair]]. The 1964 version depicted life in the "near future" with no specific date or decade defined. Scenes showed a lunar base of operation, an [[Antarctic]] "Weather Central" climate forecasting center, underseas exploration and "Hotel Atlantis" for underseas vacationing, desert irrigation and [[land reclamation]], building roads in the Jungle and a City of the Future. Visitors rode through the dioramas in 3-abreast chairs on a ride train. The Futurama exhibit was sponsored by General Motors and proved to be the most popular exhibit at the World's Fair with more than 26 million persons attending the show in the two 6-month seasons the Fair was open. Waiting lines were often two hours long and longer.
== External links ==
* [http://www.nywf64.com/ Website dedicated to the 1964/1965 New York World's Fair]
* [http://www.archive.org/details/ToNewHor1940 "To New Horizons" - a video document recording the display at the 1939/40 World's Fair (from the Prelinger archive)]
[[Category:New York City World's Fairs]]
[[es:Futurama]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Final Fantasy 3</title>
<id>11622</id>
<revision>
<id>41596669</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T11:20:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nothings</username>
<id>405626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert "three" to "two" since no explanation for "three" was ever given</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Final Fantasy 3''''' can refer to two [[computer and video games|video games]].
* ''[[Final Fantasy III|Final Fantasy 3]]'' for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Nintendo Family Computer]], often referred to as ''Final Fantasy 3j'', as it was never released in America, thus disrupting the number sequence. This game stars, at the beginning, the Onion Knights. This game was also where the trademark Final Fantasy job system originated. It has been [[Fan_translation|unofficially translated]] into English through emulation, and will soon be released for the [[Nintendo DS]].
* ''[[Final Fantasy VI|Final Fantasy 3]]'' is the American name for the original ''Final Fantasy 6'' which is the original Japanese name.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francesco I Sforza</title>
<id>11623</id>
<revision>
<id>41326264</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T16:29:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Romanc19s</username>
<id>301572</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[fr:Francesco Sforza]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FrancsescoSforza.jpg|thumb|''Portrait of Francesco Sforza,'' ''ca'' 1460, by Bonifazio Bembo: Sforza insisted on being shown in his worn dirty old campaigning hat. (Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan)]]
'''Francesco Sforza''' ([[1401]] - [[1466]]) was the founder of the [[Sforza]] dynasty in [[Milan]], [[Italy]].
The son of [[Muzio Sforza]], Francesco was originally a mercenary leader, most famous for being able to bend metal bars with his bare hands. He later proved himself to be an expert tactician and very skilled field commander. He saved the [[Visconti]] rulers of Milan from ruin on a number of occasions. As a reward, the then [[duke of Milan]], [[Filippo Maria Visconti]], allowed Francesco to marry his daughter [[Bianca Maria Visconti|Bianca]], but after the duke died without a male heir, [[Ambrosian Republic|fighting broke out]]. During this time, Franscesco turned against the Visconti, and seized control of Milan and its possessions.
Under his rule (which was moderate and skillful), Francesco modernized the city and [[Duchy of Milan]]. He created an efficient tax system that generated enormous revenues for the government, his court became a center of [[Renaissance]] learning and culture, and the people of Milan loved him.
During Sforza's reign over Milan, [[Florence, Italy|Florence]] was under the command of [[Cosimo de' Medici]] and the two enlightened rulers became close friends. This friendship eventually manifested in the [[Peace of Lodi]], an alliance between Florence and Milan that succeeded in stabilizing almost all of [[Italy]] for its duration.
Francesco is mentioned several times in [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]'s book [[The Prince]]; he is generally praised in that work for his ability to hold his country and as a warning to a prince not to use [[mercenary]] troops.
Regretably Francesco's successors were not nearly as competent, a number of them being dangerously unbalanced individuals.
[[Category:Dukes of Milan]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Sforza, Francesco]]
[[Category:1401 births|Sforza, Francesco]]
[[Category:1466 deaths|Sforza, Francesco]]
[[Category:Sforza]]
[[Category:Condottieri|Sforza, Francesco]]
[[de:Francesco I. Sforza]]
[[et:Francesco I Sforza]]
[[fr:Francesco Sforza]]
[[it:Francesco Sforza]]
[[nl:Francesco Sforza]]
[[pt:Francesco Sforza]]
[[fi:Francesco Sforza]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Folk dance</title>
<id>11624</id>
<revision>
<id>41812375</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:33:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tufkaa</username>
<id>1001668</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Folk dance''' is a term used to describe a large number of dances that tend to share the following attributes:
* They were originally danced in about the 19th century or earlier (or are, in any case, not currently [[copyrighted]]);
* Their performance is dominated by an inherited tradition rather than by innovation;
* They were danced by common people and not exclusively by [[ |
e poem, and [[Anglo-Saxon literature]], was seriously examined for its literary merits—not just scholarship about the origins of the English language as was popular in the 19th century. Perhaps no other single academic article has been so instrumental in converting a medieval piece of literature from obscurity to prominence.
==The Beowulf manuscript==
{{seesubarticle|Nowell Codex}}
The precise date of the manuscript is debated, but most estimates place it close to [[1000]]. There is no general agreement on when the poem was originally composed. Some scholars argue that archaic forms of words that appear in the text suggest that the poem comes from the early [[8th century]], while others place it as late as the [[10th century]], near the time of the manuscript's copying. The poem appears in what is today called the ''Beowulf'' manuscript or [[Nowell Codex]] (British Library MS Cotton Vitellius A.xv), along with other works. The manuscript is the product of two different [[scribe]]s of different ages, the second (older) scribe taking over roughly halfway through ''Beowulf''.
The poem is known only from a single manuscript. The spellings in the surviving copy of the poem mix the [[West Saxon]] and [[Anglian dialects]] of Old English, though they are predominantly West Saxon, as are other Old English poems copied at the time. The earliest known owner is the [[16th century]] scholar [[Laurence Nowell]], after whom the manuscript is known, though its official designation is ''Cotton Vitellius A.XV'' due to its inclusion in the catalog of [[Robert Bruce Cotton]]'s holdings in the middle of the [[17th century]]. It suffered irreparable damage in the [[Cotton Library]] fire at the ominously-named Ashburnham House in [[1731]].
[[Iceland]]ic scholar [[Thorkelin|Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin]] made the first transcription of the manuscript in [[1786]] and published it in [[1815]], working under a historical research commission of the [[Denmark|Danish]] government. Since that time, the manuscript has suffered additional decay, and the Thorkelin transcripts remain a prized secondary source for Beowulf scholars. Their accuracy has been called into question, however (e.g., by [[Chauncey Brewster Tinker]] in ''The Translations of Beowulf'', a comprehensive survey of 19th century translations and editions of Beowulf), and the extent to which the manuscript was actually more readable in Thorkelin's time is unclear.
== Beowulf the hero ==
{{seesubarticle|Beowulf (hero)}}
The great Beowulf [[scholar]] [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] noted that the name ''Beowulf'' almost certainly means ''bee-wolf'' in [[Old English]]. The name ''Beowulf'' is therefore a [[kenning]] for "[[bear]]" due to a bear's love of honey and to the similarity and not-so-distant kinship between [[bear|ursines]] and [[canines]].
Beowulf appears to correspond to [[Bödvar Bjarki]], the ''battle bear'', from [[Norse sagas]].
== Themes and story ==
The poem as we know it is a retelling of folktales from the [[Oral tradition]] for a Christian audience. It is often assumed that the work was written by a Christian monk, on the grounds that they were the only members of Anglo-Saxon society with access to writing materials. However, the example of King Alfred forces us to consider the possibility of lay authorship. In historical terms the poem's characters would have been [[paganism|pagan]]s, but the narrator places events in a Biblical context, casting [[Grendel]] and [[Grendel's Mother]] as the kin of [[Cain]], and placing monotheistic sentiments in his characters' mouths. There are no direct references to [[Jesus]] in the text of the poem, although the book of [[Genesis]] serves as a touchstone. [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=KjvGene.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=4&division=div1]. Scholars disagree as to whether ''Beowulf'''s main thematic thrust is pagan or Christian in nature. However, it can be debated that since the only calligraphers were priests, it is possible that the story was, in fact, changed by a Christian who sought to apply a Christian character to his source.
Thus reflecting the above historical context, ''Beowulf'' depicts a [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] warrior society, in which the relationship between the leader, or king, and his [[thegn|thane]]s is of paramount importance. This relationship is defined in terms of provision and service; the thanes defend the interest of the king in return for material provisions: weapons, armor, gold, silver, food, and drinks.
This society is strongly defined in terms of kinship; if a relative is killed it is the duty of surviving relatives to exact revenge upon his killer, either with his own life or with [[weregild]], a reparational payment. In fact, the hero's very existence owes itself to this fact, as his father [[Ecgtheow]] was banished for having killed [[Heatholaf]], a man from the prominent [[Wulfing]] [[Norse clans|clan]]. He sought refuge at the court of [[Hrothgar]] who graciously paid the weregild. Ecgtheow did not return home, but became one of the Geatish king [[Hrethel]]'s housecarls and married his daughter, by whom he had Beowulf. The duty of avenging killed kinsmen became the undoing of king Hrethel, himself, because when his oldest son [[Herebeald]] was killed by his own brother [[Hæthcyn]] in a hunting accident, it was a death that could not be avenged. Hrethel died from the sorrow.
Moreover, this is a world governed by fate and destiny. The belief that fate controls him is a central factor in all of Beowulf's actions.
The story of ''Beowulf'' tells how King Hrothgar built a great hall called Heorot for his people. In it he and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating, until [[Grendel]], angered by their singing, attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hrothgar's warriors. Hrothgar and his men, helpless against Grendel's attacks, have to abandon Heorot.
Beowulf, a young warrior, hears of Hrothgar's troubles and, with his king's permission, goes to help Hrothgar. Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. After they fall asleep, Grendel enters the hall and attacks them, eating up one of Beowulf's men. Beowulf, feigning sleep, leaps up and grabs Grendel's arm in a wrestling hold, and the two crash around in Heorot until it seems as though the hall will fall down with their fighting. Beowulf's men draw their swords and rush to his help, but there is magic around Grendel that makes it impossible for swords to hurt him. Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body, and Grendel runs home to die.
The next night, after celebrating Grendel's death, Hrothgar and his men sleep in Heorot. But [[Grendel's Mother]] attacks the hall, killing Hrothgar's most trusted warrior in revenge for Grendel's death. Hrothgar and Beowulf and their men track Grendel's Mother to her lair under an eerie lake. Beowulf prepares himself for battle; he is presented with a sword, Hrunting, by a warrior called [[Unferth]]. After stipulating a number of conditions upon his death to Hrothgar (including the taking in of his kinsmen, and the inheritance by Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf dives into the lake. There, he is swiftly detected and grasped by Grendel's mother. She, unable to harm Beowulf through his armour, drags him to the bottom. There, in a cavern containing her son's body and the remains of many men that the two have killed, Grendel's mother fights Beowulf. Grendel's mother at first prevails, after Beowulf, finding that the sword given him by Unferth cannot harm his foe, discards it in a fury. Again, he is saved from the effects of his opponent's attack by his armour and, grasping a mighty sword from Grendel's mother's armoury (which, the poem tells us, no other man could have hefted in battle) Beowulf beheads her. Travelling further into the lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse; he severs the head, and with it he returns to Heorot, where he is given many gifts by an even more grateful Hrothgar.
Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, late in Beowulf's life, a man steals a golden cup from a dragon's lair. When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning up everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but only one of the warriors, a brave young man named Wiglaf, stays to help Beowulf, because the rest are too afraid. Beowulf kills the dragon with Wiglaf's help, but dies from the wounds he has received. The dragon's treasure is taken from its lair and buried with Beowulf's ashes. And with that the poem ends.
As the ''[[W. W. Norton|Norton Anthology of English Literature]]'' indicates, most scholars believe that ''Beowulf'' was written by a Christian poet [http://www.wwnorton.com/nael/middleages/review/summary.htm#3]. Grendel and Grendel's Mother are described as descendants of Cain, and share similarities with antagonists in medieval Christian stories. Since the ''Beowulf'' poet was also very knowledgeable about pagan beliefs, the descriptions of Grendel and Grendel's mother, for example, could owe as much to pagan beliefs about trolls as they do to Christian beliefs about demons. In addition, Beowulf's cremation at the end of the poem also refers to a pagan practice. Even though Beowulf was a pagan, the poem's Christian audience could admire his heroic deeds. ''Beowulf'' may thus be a product of the poet's knowledge of both Christian beliefs and the ancient history of his people. In combining them as he did, the ''Beowulf'' poet created a wonderful story.
== Old English glossaries and modern English translations ==
Beowulf is the longest poem that has come down to us from Old English, the ancient form of modern English. The opening lines state:
: "Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum þeodcyninga þrym gefrunon hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon."
In modern English, |
ronmental Protection Agency]], and other U.S. and international agencies, require that licensees limit radiation exposure to individual members of the public to 100 m[[roentgen equivalent man|rem]] (1 [[sievert|mSv]]) per year, and limit occupational radiation exposure to adults working with radioactive material to 5 rem (50 mSv) per year, and 10 rem (100 mSv) in 5 years.
The exposure for an average person is about 360 millirems/year, 80 percent of which comes from natural sources of radiation. The remaining 20 percent results from exposure to man-made radiation sources, such as medical [[X-ray]]s and a small fraction from [[nuclear weapon]]s tests.
==Other usage==
In other contexts, '''background radiation''' may simply be any radiation that is pervasive. A particular example of this is the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]], a nearly uniform glow that fills the sky in the microwave part of the spectrum; stars, galaxies and other objects of interest in [[radio astronomy]] stand out against this background.
In a laboratory, '''background radiation''' refers to the measured value from any sources that affect an instrument when a radiation source sample is not being measured. This background rate, which must be established as a stable value by multiple measurements, usually before and after sample measurement, is subtracted from the rate measured when the sample is being measured.
'''Background radiation''' for occupational doses measured for workers is all radiation dose that is not measured by radiation dose measurement instruments in potential occupational exposure conditions. This includes both "natural background radiation" and any medical radiation doses. This value is not typically measured or known from surveys, such that variations in the total dose to individual workers is not known. This can be a significant confounding factor in assessing radiation exposure effects in a population of workers who may have significantly different natural background and medical radiation doses. This is most significant when the occupational doses are very low.
==References==
*[http://www.unscear.org/reports/2000_1.html United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation]
[[Category:Radioactivity]]
[[Category:Cosmic rays]]
[[nl:Achtergrondstraling]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balmoral</title>
<id>4884</id>
<revision>
<id>41955379</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:36:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gregwmay</username>
<id>696324</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>alpha</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Places==
There are several places named '''Balmoral'''.
===Australia===
*[[Balmoral, New South Wales (Lake Macquarie)]]
*[[Balmoral, New South Wales|Balmoral, New South Wales (Sydney)]]
*[[Balmoral, Queensland]]
*[[Balmoral, Victoria]]
===Ireland===
* The Balmoral Show takes place in the Kings Hall show-ground on the outskirts of [[Belfast]] in [[Northern Ireland]] and is a major agricultural show which takes place every year. The Balmoral area of Belfast incorporates the Lisburn Road, and the Malone Road. Balmoral Avenue is a large road which intersects the Lisburn Road and the Malone Road. Balmoral golf club is also situated nearby.
===New Zealand===
*[[Balmoral, New Zealand]], a [[suburb]] of [[Auckland, New Zealand|Auckland]].
===Scotland===
* An estate including a small village in the highlands of [[Scotland]], close to [[Balmoral Castle]].
* [[Balmoral Castle]] - one residence of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]
==Headgear==
A '''balmoral''', named for the Scottish village and castle, is also an unbrimmed [[cap]] consisting of a band, a loose crown, and a short length of exposed ribbon. It may or may not incorporate a toorie (the correct term for the "pompom" on top). It is occasionally seen in Commonwealth military and naval uniforms as well as Scottish military dress. Balmorals (and a similar hat called a Tam O'Shanter) are usually worn as field dress by Scottish and Commonwealth soldiers, though sometimes also with more formal uniform, though the glengarry is generally used for the latter purpose.
----
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bannock</title>
<id>4885</id>
<revision>
<id>39857638</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T09:30:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bannock''' has more than one meaning:
*[[Bannock (food)|Bannock]] is a kind of bread, usually prepared by pan-frying, traditional to [[Scotland|Scottish]] cuisine but also widespread in [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] culture in [[Canada]] and much of the [[United States]].
*The [[Bannock (tribe)|Bannock]] are a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of what is now southeastern [[Oregon]] and western [[Idaho]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Banquo</title>
<id>4886</id>
<revision>
<id>41437783</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T08:35:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elysdir</username>
<id>32801</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing the interesting but irrelevant/misplaced bit about the similarity between "banquet" and "Banquo"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Banquo''' is a character in the play ''[[Macbeth]]'', by [[William Shakespeare]].
Banquo is with [[Macbeth of Scotland]] during the encounter with the witches (the [[Weird Sisters]]) near the beginning of the play. After predicting that Macbeth will be king, the witches predict that Banquo will never himself be king, but will beget a line of kings (the [[House of Stuart|Stuart family]] of Scottish and English kings). Later, disturbed that Banquo's decedents and not his own will rule [[Scotland]], Macbeth sends murderers to kill Banquo and his son [[Fleance]]. However, Fleance escapes. The ghost of Banquo then returns to haunt Macbeth at the banquet in Act 3, Scene 4.
Although Macbeth was certainly a historical figure (a very different one from the character in the play), Banquo's actual historical existence is more questionable. He is mentioned by [[Holinshed]], and other chroniclers, as an accomplice of Macbeth in his usurpation, and as being the ancestor of the Fitzalan High Stewards of Scotland, from whom the new King, [[James I of England|James I]], descended. However, this descent was disproven in the 19th century, when it was discovered that the Fitzalans actually descended from a Breton family. Whether or not Banquo, Thane of the Scottish province of [[Lochaber]], actually existed remains in doubt.
[[Category:Shakespearean characters]]
[[de:Banquo]]
[[ja:バンクォウ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Army</title>
<id>4887</id>
<revision>
<id>42045716</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:34:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Current deployments */ dab. Catholic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{British Army}}
The '''British Army''' is the [[Army|land armed forces]] branch of the [[British Armed Forces]]. In contrast to the [[Royal Navy]], [[Royal Marines]] and [[Royal Air Force]], the British Army does not include "royal" in its title, because of its roots as a collection of disparate units, many of which themselves do bear the "royal" prefix. The British Army has taken part in campaigns throughout the world, and has a long and distinguished history in warfare. Today the Army is one of the most technologically advanced land forces in the world, and is deployed in many of the world's war zones as part of a fighting force, and in [[United Nations]] peacekeeping forces.
==History==
''See main article, [[History of the British Army]]''
===Foundation===
Prior to the [[English Civil War]] in [[1642]], there was no standing army in [[England]] or [[Scotland]]. Troops were raised by the [[British monarch|King]] when required, a development of the feudal concept of [[fief]] (in which a lord was obligated to raise a certain quota of [[knights]], men at arms and [[yeomanry]], under greater control of the King). After the Civil War, Parliament assumed control of the Army, and standing companies based on [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwell]]'s [[New Model Army]] formed the concept of the first [[regiment]]s. The [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] saw the Model Army kept as a standing force, and the King raised further regiments loyal to the Crown. On January 26th, [[1661]] Charles II issued the warrant that officially founded the British Army.
===Bill of Rights===
This period in British history saw the [[Act of Union 1707|Union of England and Scotland]] into the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. In an effort to control the powers of the monarch, Parliament passed the [[English Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]] [[1689]] to prevent a standing army in peacetime without the consent of Parliament. To this day, annual continuation notices are required for the British Army to remain legal in times of peace. However, Parliament still does not control the use of the army (only the monarch, and his/her government gives commands and declares war). The last ruling King to go into battle was [[George II of Great Britain|King George II]] at the [[Battle of Dettingen]] in [[1743]]. However the last king to go into battle was [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] but he was still the Duke of York at this time.
===British Empire===
From around [[1692]] until at least [[1914]], the United Kingdom was the dominant military and economic power in the world. The [[Bri |
f hydrogen by breaking up the crust, inducing a magnetosphere by tidal heating and stirring, and stabilizing the planet's axis of rotation. In addition while it appears that life developed soon after the formation of Earth, the [[Cambrian explosion]] in which a large variety of multicellular life forms came into being occurred considerable amounts of time after the formation of Earth, which suggests the possibility that special conditions were necessary for this to occur. In addition some scenarios such as the [[Snowball Earth]] or research into the [[extinction events]] have raised the possibility that life on Earth is relatively fragile. Again, the controversy over life on Mars is relevant since a discovery that life did form on Mars but ceased to exist would affect estimates of these terms.
The well-known astronomer [[Carl Sagan]] speculated that all of the terms, except for the lifetime of a civilization, are relatively high and the determining factor in whether there are large or small numbers of civilizations in the universe is the civilization lifetime, or in other words, the ability of technological civilizations to avoid self-destruction. In Sagan's case, the Drake equation was a strong motivating factor for his interest in environmental issues and his efforts to warn against the dangers of [[nuclear warfare]].
(Note, however, that in the year [[2001]] a value of 50 for L can be used with exactly the same degree of confidence that Drake had in using 10 in the year 1961.)
The remarkable thing about the Drake equation is that by plugging in apparently fairly plausible values for each of the parameters above, the resultant expectant value of N is generally often &gt;&gt;&nbsp;1. This has provided considerable motivation for the [[SETI]] movement. However, this conflicts with the currently observed value of N = 1 — one observed civilization in the entire galaxy. Other assumptions give values of N that are &lt;&lt;&nbsp;1, in accord with the observable evidence.
This conflict is often called the '''[[Fermi paradox]]''', after [[Enrico Fermi]] who first publicised the subject, and suggests that our understanding of what is a "conservative" value for some of the parameters may be overly optimistic or that some other factor is involved to suppress the development of intelligent space-faring life.
Other assumptions give values of N that are << 1, but some observers believe this is still compatible with observations due to the [[anthropic principle]]: no matter how low the probability that any given galaxy will have intelligent life in it, the galaxy that we are in ''must'' have at least one intelligent species by definition. There could be hundreds of galaxies in our galactic cluster with no intelligent life whatsoever, but of course we would not be present in those galaxies to observe this fact.
Some computations of the Drake equation, given different assumptions:
:R* = 10/year, f<sub>p</sub> = 0.5, n<sub>e</sub> = 2, f<sub>l</sub> = 1, f<sub>i</sub> = f<sub>c</sub> = 0.01, and L = 50 years
:N = 10 &times; 0.5 &times; 2 &times; 1 &times; 0.01 &times; 0.01 &times; 50 = 0.05
Alternatively, making some more optimistic assumptions, and assuming that 10% of civilizations become willing and able to communicate, and then spread through their local star systems for 100,000 years (a very short period in geologic time):
:R* = 20/year, f<sub>p</sub> = 0.1, n<sub>e</sub> = 0.5, f<sub>l</sub> = 1, f<sub>i</sub> = 0.5, f<sub>c</sub> = 0.1, and L = 100,000 years
:N = 20 &times; 0.1 &times; 0.5 &times; 1 &times; 0.5 &times; 0.1 &times; 100000 = 5000
== Current estimates of the Drake equation parameters ==
This section attempts to list best current estimates for the parameters of the Drake equation.
<!-- Please list new estimates for these values here, giving the rationale behind the estimate and a citation to their source. -->
''R*'' = the rate of star creation in our galaxy
:Estimated by Drake as 10/year. Latest calculations from NASA and the European Space Agency indicates that the current rate of star formation in our galaxy is about 6 per year. The Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany notes, however, that our galaxy is not the biggest producer of stars and supernovae in the universe. [http://news.yahoo.com/s/space/20060106/sc_space/halfadozenstarsborninmilkywayeveryyear]
''f<sub>p</sub>'' = the fraction of those stars which have planets
:Estimated by Drake as 0.5.
''n<sub>e</sub>'' = the average number of planets (or rather satelites; moons may perhaps sometimes be just as good candidates) which can potentially support life per star that has planets
:Estimated by Drake as 2.
''f<sub>l</sub>'' = the fraction of the above which actually go on to develop life
:Estimated by Drake as 1.
:In 2002, Charles H. Lineweaver and Tamara M. Davis (at the [[University of New South Wales]] and the Australian Centre for Astrobiology) estimated f<sub>l</sub> as &gt; 0.33 using a statistical argument based on the length of time life took to evolve on Earth. Lineweaver has also determined that about 10% of star systems in the Galaxy are hospitable to life, by having heavy elements, being far from supernovae and being stable themselves for sufficient time. [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994525]
''f<sub>i</sub>'' = the fraction of the above which actually go on to develop intelligent life
:Estimated by Drake as 0.01.
:Some estimate that solar systems in galactic orbits with radiation exposure as low as Earth's solar system may be more than 100,000 times rarer, however, giving a value of f<sub>i</sub> = 1&times;10<sup>-7</sup>.
''f<sub>c</sub>'' = the fraction of the above which are willing and able to communicate
:Estimated by Drake as 0.01.
''L'' = the expected lifetime of such a civilization
:Estimated by Drake as 10 years.
:The value of ''L'' can be estimated from the lifetime of our current civilization from the advent of [[radio astronomy]] in [[1938]] (dated from [[Grote Reber]]'s parabolic dish [[radio telescope]]) to the current date. In 2005, this gives an ''L'' of 67 years.
:In an article in ''[[Scientific American]]'', [[Michael Shermer]] estimated ''L'' as 420 years, based on compiling the durations of sixty historical civilizations. Using twenty-eight civilizations more recent than the Roman Empire he calculates a figure of 304 years for "modern" civilizations. Note, however, that the fall of most of these civilizations did not destroy their technology, and they were succeeded by later civilizations which carried on those technologies, so Shermer's estimates should be regarded as pessimistic.
The equation based on current lower estimates, therefore, is thus:
:R* = 6/year, f<sub>p</sub> = 0.5, n<sub>e</sub> = 2, f<sub>l</sub> = 0.33, f<sub>i</sub> = 1&times;10<sup>-7</sup>, f<sub>c</sub> = 0.01, and L = 420 years
:N = 6 &times; 0.5 &times; 2 &times; 0.33 &times; 1&times;10<sup>-7</sup> &times; 0.01 &times; 420 = 8.316&times;10<sup>-7</sup> = 0.0000008316
It is worth noting that the order of magnitude in the revised equation is determined primarily by the new estimate for f<sub>i</sub>. Going back to the number estimated by Drake (1&times;10<sup>-2</sup>) the result also changes to 8.316&times;10<sup>-2</sup> or .08316
==See also==
*[[Astrosociobiology]]
*[[Fermi Paradox]]
*[[Fermi problem]]
*[[Kardashev scale]]
*[[Sentience Quotient]]
*[[SETI]]
*[[This Morn' Omina]] - Electro-industrial band which has released an album called ''The Drake Equation''
*[[Tub Ring]] - Chicago avant-garde punk band who released an album called "[[Drake Equation (album)|Drake Equation]]" and followed it up with "[[Fermi Paradox (album)|Fermi Paradox]]" and "[[Zoo Hypothesis (album)|Zoo Hypothesis]]", completing a sort of alien trilogy of albums.
==External links==
* [http://wired.com/wired/archive/12.12/life.html The E.T. Equation, Recalculated] - [[Frank Drake]], [[December 2004]]
* http://www.skypub.com/news/special/9812seti_aliens.html
* [http://www.station1.net/DouglasJones/drake.htm Beyond the Drake Equation]
* [http://space.com/scienceastronomy/astronomy/jupiter_typical_020128.html January 2002 space.com article about estimated prevalence of extrasolar planets]
* [http://www.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0205014 Preprint by Lineweaver and Davis estimating f<sub>l</sub> as &gt; 0.33]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A45506-2002Jun13.html Discovery of first planetary system similar to the solar system][[29 January]] [[2006]] - page no longer available from this link
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/origins/drake.html Macromedia Flash page allowing the user to modify Drake's values] from [[PBS]] [[Nova (TV series)|Nova]]
==References==
* Charles H. Lineweaver and Tamara M. Davis, Does the Rapid Appearance of Life on Earth Suggest that Life is Common in the Universe?, arXiv:astro-ph/0205014 v1 [[2 May]] [[2002]]
* [[Michael Shermer]], Why ET Hasn't Called, ''Scientific American'', August 2002, page 21
* [[Gary Bates]], Alien Intrusion,Master books, [[2004]] ISBN:0-89051-435-6
[[Category:SETI]][[Category:Equations]]
[[bg:Уравнение на Дрейк]]
[[ca:Equació de Drake]]
[[da:Drakes ligning]]
[[de:Drake-Gleichung]]
[[es:Ecuación de Drake]]
[[fr:Équation de Drake]]
[[he:נוסחת דרייק]]
[[nl:Vergelijking van Drake]]
[[ja:ドレイクの方程式]]
[[pl:Równanie Drake'a]]
[[ru:Уравнение Дрейка]]
[[sl:Drakova enačba]]
[[fi:Draken kaava]]
[[uk:Рівняння Д |
ed in developed countries, such as the [[United States]], [[Japan]], and [[Western Europe]]. Also, a few studies have been conducted in Moscow, East Germany, and India, and those studies produce similar results. Any such investigation is limited to describing the genetic and environmental variation found within the populations studied. This is a caveat of any heritability study.
===Mental retardation===
About 75&ndash;80 percent of [[mental retardation]] is familial (runs in families), and 20&ndash;25 percent is due to organic problems, such as chromosomal abnormalities or brain damage.[http://www.isteve.com/2002_IQ_Supreme_Court_Death_Penalty.htm] Mild to severe mental retardation is a symptom of several hundred single-gene disorders and many chromosomal abnormalities, including small deletions. Based on twin studies, moderate to severe mental retardation does not appear to be familial, but mild mental retardation does. That is, the relatives of the moderate to severely mentally retarded have normal ranges of IQs, whereas the families of the mildly mentally retarded have IQs skewing lower.
IQ score ranges (from DSM-IV):
* mild mental retardation: IQ 50&ndash;55 to 70; children require mild support; formally called "Educable Mentally Retarded".
* moderate retardation: IQ 35&ndash;40 to 50&ndash;55; children require moderate supervision and assistance; formally called "Trainable Mentally Retarded".
* severe mental retardation: IQ 20&ndash;25 to 35&ndash;40; can be taught basic life skills and simple tasks with supervision.
* profound mental retardation: IQ below 20&ndash;25; usually caused by a neurological condition; require constant care.
The rate of mental retardation is higher among males than females, and higher among blacks than whites, according to a 1991 U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) study.[http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/00040928.htm]
By race, the overall rate was 16.6 per 1000 for blacks and 6.8 per 1000 for whites. Rates of mental retardation for black males, the group with the highest rates, were 1.7 times higher than black females, 2.4 times higher than white males, and 3.1 times higher than white females. <!--The following statement isn't clear or notable in its present form: Mild mental retardation is almost never diagnosed until a person enters elementary school, which critics claim lends strong support to the notion that IQ tests are racially biased.-->
Individuals with IQs below 70 have been exempted from the death penalty in the U.S. since 2002.[http://www.isteve.com/2002_IQ_Supreme_Court_Death_Penalty.htm]
===IQ, education, and income===
Tambs ''et al.'' (1989) found that occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ are individually heritable; and further found that "genetic variance influencing educational attainment &hellip; contributed approximately one-fourth of the genetic variance for occupational status and nearly half the genetic variance for IQ". In a sample of US siblings, Rowe ''et al.'' (1997) report that the inequality in education and income was predominantly due to genes, with shared environmental factors playing a subordinate role.
===Regression===
The heritability of IQ determines the extent to which the IQ of children will be similar to the IQ of parents. Because the heritability of IQ is less than 100%, the IQ of children tends to "regress" towards the mean IQ of the population. That is, high IQ parents tend to have children who are less bright than their parents, whereas low IQ parents tend to have children who are brighter than their parents. The effect can be quantified by the equation <math>\hat y = \bar x + h^2 \left ( \frac{\mbox{mom} + \mbox{dad}}{2} - \bar x \right)</math> where:
* <math>\hat y</math> is the predicted average IQ of Mom and Dad's children
* <math>\bar x</math> is the mean IQ of the population that Mom and Dad come from
* <math>h^2</math> is the heritability of IQ
Thus, if the heritability of IQ is 50%, a couple with an average IQ of 120 may have children that average around an IQ of 110, assuming that both parents come from a population with a median IQ of 100.
==IQ and the Brain==
{{main|Neuroscience and intelligence}}
===Brain size and IQ===
Modern studies using [[MRI]] imaging have shown that brain size correlates with IQ by a factor of approximately .40 among adults (McDaniel, 2005). The correlation between brain size and IQ seems to hold for comparisons between and within families (Gignac et al. 2003; Jensen 1994; Jensen & Johnson 1994). However, one study found no within family correlation (Schoenemann et al. 2000). A [[Twin study|study on twins]] (Thompson ''et al.'', 2001) showed that frontal [[gray matter]] volume was correlated with ''g'' and highly heritable. A related study has reported that the correlation between brain size (reported to have a [[heritability]] of 0.85) and ''g'' is 0.4, and that correlation is mediated entirely by genetic factors (Posthuma et al 2002).
===Brain areas associated with IQ===
Many different sources of information have converged on the view that the frontal lobes are critical for fluid intelligence. Patients with damage to the frontal lobe are impaired on fluid intelligence tests (Duncan et al 1995). The volume of frontal grey (Thompson et al 2001) and white matter (Schoenemann et al 2005) have also been associated with intelligence. In addition, recent neuroimaging studies have limited this association to the lateral prefrontal cortex. Duncan and colleagues (2000) showed using Positron Emission Tomography that problem-solving tasks that correlated more highly with IQ also activate the lateral prefrontal cortex. More recently, Gray and colleagues (2003) used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to show that those individuals that were more adept at resisting distraction on a demanding working memory task had both a higher IQ and increased prefrontal activity. For a review of this topic, see Gray and Thompson (2004).
==The Flynn effect==
{{main|Flynn effect}}
Worldwide, IQ scores appear to be slowly rising, a trend known as the Flynn effect. However, tests are only renormalized occasionally to obtain mean scores of 100, for example WISC-R (1974), WISC-III (1991) and WISC-IV (2003). Hence it is difficult to compare IQ scores measured years apart.
==IQ correlations==
===Race and IQ===
{{main|Race and intelligence}}
<!--Please read the race and intelligence article thoroughly before contributing to this section-->
While the distributions of IQ scores among different racial-ethnic groups overlap considerably, groups differ in where their members cluster along the IQ scale. Some groups (e.g. East Asians and Jews) tend to cluster higher than whites, while other groups (e.g. blacks and Hispanics) tend to cluster lower than whites. Similar clustering occurs with related variables, such as school achievement, reaction time, and brain size. Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain racial-ethnic group differences in IQ. Neither test bias nor simple differences in socioeconomic status explain the IQ differences. The primary focus of the scientific debate is whether group differences are entirely caused by environmental factors or whether they also reflect a genetic component. The findings of this field are often thought to conflict with fundamental social philosophies, and have thus engendered a large controversy.
===Religiousness and IQ===
{{main|Religiousness and intelligence}}
Several studies show an inverse correlation between IQ and degree of religious belief. While almost all research indicates a negative correlation between intelligence and religiosity [http://kspark.kaist.ac.kr/Jesus/Intelligence%20&%20religion.htm], this remains a controversial point.
===Health and IQ===
Persons with a higher IQ have generally lower adult morbidity and mortality. This may be because they better avoid injury and take better care of their own health. It also decreases the risk of [[Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder]], severe [[clinical depression|depression]], and [[schizophrenia]]. On the other hand, it increases the risk of [[Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]] [http://www.loni.ucla.edu/~thompson/PDF/GT_DM_5b.pdf].
Research in Scotland has shown that a 15-point lower IQ meant people had a fifth less chance of seeing their 76th birthday, while those with a 30-point disadvantage were 37% less likely than those with a higher IQ to live that long [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/health/newsid_1260000/1260794.stm].
===Economic development and IQ===
A controversial book ''[[IQ and the Wealth of Nations]]'', claims to show that the wealth of a nation can in large part be explained by the average IQ score. This claim has been both disputed and supported in peer-reviewed papers. The data used has also been questioned.
==Practical validity==
[[Image:Corr-example.png|thumb|Linear correlations between 1000 pairs of numbers. The data are graphed on the lower left and their correlation coefficients listed on the upper right. Each set of points correlates maximally with itself, as shown on the diagonal (all correlations = +1).]]
Evidence for the practical validity of IQ comes from examining the [[correlation]] between IQ scores and life outcomes.
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|- bgcolor=#ccccff
|+ '''Economic and social correlates of IQ'''
! Factors || Correlation
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| School grades and IQ || 0.5
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Total years of education and IQ || 0.55
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| IQ and parental socioeconomic status || 0.33
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Job performance and IQ || 0.54
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Negative social outcomes and IQ || &minus;0 |
troduced. These introduced a single engine (a detuned Judd V8 engine, re-engineered by and badged as a [[Zytek]]) and chassis ([[Lola]]), to go along with tyre standardization ([[Avon Tyres|Avon]]) introduced a number of years earlier. The following year the calendar was combined with that of Formula One, so the series became support races for the Grand Prix. These measures decreased costs and popularity grew. In [[2000]], the series was restricted to 15 teams of two cars each.
However, by [[2002]] expenses were once more very high and the number of entries rapidly dwindled. Formula 3000 was experiencing tough competition with cheaper formulae, such as [[European F3000]] (using ex-FIA 1999 and 2002 Lola chassis) and [[Formula Nissan]] (also known as Telefonica World Series or Superfund World Series), as well as the North American [[CART]] series. While drivers from these series such as [[Juan Pablo Montoya]] (CART), [[Cristiano da Matta]] (CART), and [[Felipe Massa]] (EF3000) found top rides in Formula One, the F3000 drivers seemed to have inordinate difficulty in moving onwards. By the end of [[2003]], car counts had fallen to new lows.
The [[2004]] season was the last F3000 campaign, due in part to dwindling field sizes. For [[2005]] it has been replaced with a new series known as [[GP2 Series|GP2]], with [[Renault]] backing.
=== Champions ===
Over the years, the following drivers have become champion:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Season
!Driver
!Team / Car
![[Pole position|Poles]]
!Wins
!Podiums
!Fastest<br>Laps
![[List of Formula Three Thousand Championship pointscoring systems|Points]]
!Clinched
!Margin (pnts)
|- align="center"
|[[1985 Formula 3000 season|1985]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|West Germany}} [[Christian Danner]]
|align="left"|BS Automotive<br>[[March Engineering|March]]-[[Cosworth]]
|2
|4
|7
|4
|52
|[[1985 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|7
|- align="center"
|[[1986 Formula 3000 season|1986]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Ivan Capelli]]
|align="left"|[[Genoa (racing team)|Genoa]]<br>[[March Engineering|March]]-[[Cosworth]]
|3
|2
|6
|1
|39
|[[1986 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|7
|- align="center"
|[[1987 Formula 3000 season|1987]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Stefano Modena]]
|align="left"|[[Onyx (racing team)|Onyx]]<br>[[March Engineering|March]]-[[Cosworth]]
|0
|3
|4
|1
|41
|[[1987 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|8
|- align="center"
|[[1988 Formula 3000 season|1988]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Roberto Moreno]]
|align="left"|Bromley Motorsport<br>[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|3
|4
|4
|1
|43
|[[1988 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|9
|- align="center"
|[[1989 Formula 3000 season|1989]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|France}} [[Jean Alesi]]
|align="left"|[[Jordan (racing team)|Eddie Jordan Racing]]<br>[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|2
|3
|4
|1
|39
|[[1990 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|0
|- align="center"
|[[1990 Formula 3000 season|1989]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|France}} [[Erik Comas]]
|align="left"|[[DAMS]]<br>[[Lola]]-[[Mugen Motorsports|Mugen]]
|3
|4
|6
|1
|51
|[[1990 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|21
|- align="center"
|[[1991 Formula 3000 season|1991]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Christian Fittipaldi]]
|align="left"|[[Pacific Racing]]<br>[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Mugen Motorsports|Mugen]]
|4
|2
|7
|1
|47
|[[1991 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|5
|- align="center"
|[[1992 Formula One season|1992]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luca Badoer]]
|align="left"|Crypton Engineering<br>[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|5
|4
|5
|3
|46
|[[1992 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|12
|- align="center"
|[[1993 Formula 3000 season|1993]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|France}} [[Olivier Panis]]
|align="left"|[[DAMS]]<br>[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|2
|3
|4
|2
|32
|[[1993 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|1
|- align="center"
|[[1994 Formula 3000 season|1994]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|France}} [[Jean-Christophe Boullion]]
|align="left"|[[DAMS]]<br>[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|0
|3
|4
|1
|36
|[[1994 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|2
|- align="center"
|[[1995 Formula 3000 season|1995]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Vincenzo Sospiri]]
|align="left"|[[Super Nova Racing]]<br>[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|0
|3
|5
|0
|42
|[[1995 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|13
|- align="center"
|[[1996 Formula 3000 season|1996]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Jörg Müller|Jörg Müller]]
|align="left"|RSM Marko<br>[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|2
|2
|8
|4
|52
|[[1996 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|26
|- align="center"
|[[1997 Formula 3000 season|1997]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ricardo Zonta]]
|align="left"|[[Super Nova Racing]]<br>[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|4
|3
|5
|4
|39
|[[1997 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|1.5
|- align="center"
|[[1998 Formula 3000 season|1998]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Colombia}} [[Juan Pablo Montoya]]
|align="left"|[[Super Nova Racing]]<br>[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|7
|4
|9
|5
|65
|[[1998 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|7
|- align="center"
|[[1999 Formula 3000 season|1999]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Nick Heidfeld]]
|align="left"|West Competition<br>[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|4
|4
|7
|6
|59
|[[1999 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|29
|- align="center"
|[[2000 Formula 3000 season|2000]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Bruno Junqueira]]
|align="left"|[[Petrobras]]<br>[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|2
|4
|5
|1
|48
|[[2000 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|3
|- align="center"
|[[2001 Formula 3000 season|2001]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Justin Wilson]]
|align="left"|[[Nordic Racing]]<br>[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|2
|3
|10
|1
|71
|[[2001 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|32
|- align="center"
|[[2002 Formula 3000 season|2002]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|France}} [[Sebastien Bourdais]]
|align="left"|[[Super Nova Racing]]<br>[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|6
|3
|8
|3
|56
|[[2002 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|2
|- align="center"
|[[2003 Formula 3000 season|2003]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Björn Wirdheim]]
|align="left"|[[Arden (racing team)|Arden International]]<br>[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|5
|3
|9
|7
|78
|[[2003 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|35
|- align="center"
|[[2004 Formula 3000 season|2004]]
|align="left"|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Vitantonio Liuzzi]]
|align="left"|[[Arden (racing team)|Arden International]]<br>[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|9
|7
|9
|3
|86
|[[2004 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|30
|}
Four past F3000 champions have never appeared in an F1 race: Bourdais, Junqueira and Wirdheim all race in [[CART|Champ Cars]]. Müller is now BMW pilot in [[WTCC]] [[touring car racing]] after having been a test driver for the BMW-[[WilliamsF1]] F1 project in 1999 as well as a racer of the [[BMW V12]] Le Mans winner. Sospiri has attempted to qualify for a race and failed to make it, having raced for a highly unprepared team with poor equipment. Wirdheim has been third driver in practice sessions for [[Jaguar Racing]], but has never participated in a race.
Three of them have won a F1 Grand Prix: Alesi, Panis and Montoya (who also won the [[Indianapolis 500|Indy 500]] once). No Formula Two or Formula 3000 champion has ever become World Champion ([[Alberto Ascari]] won the World Championship for two years running when all qualifying races apart from the [[Indianapolis 500]] were run to Formula Two, though).
[[Category:Racing formulas|3000]]
[[de:Formel 3000]]
[[fi:Formula 3000]]
[[fr:Formule 3000]]
[[it:Formula 3000]]
[[ja:&#12501;&#12457;&#12540;&#12511;&#12517;&#12521;3000]]
[[sv:Formel 3000]]
[[zh:F3000&#36093;&#36554;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flunitrazepam</title>
<id>11725</id>
<revision>
<id>41519485</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:27:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.215.124.212</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Use as a [[recreational drug]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Drugbox|
|IUPAC_name = ''6-(2-fluorophenyl)-2-methyl-9-nitro-<br>2,5-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undeca-5,8,10,12-tetraen-3-one''
| image={{PAGENAME}}.png
| width=120
| CAS_number=1622-62-4
| ATC_prefix=N05
| ATC_suffix=?
| ATC_supplemental=
| PubChem=3380
| DrugBank=?
| chemical_formula = C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>12</sub>FN<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub>
| molecular_weight = 313.3
| bioavailability= ?
| metabolism = [[Liver|Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life= 18-26 hours
| excretion = [[Kidney|Renal]]
| pregnancy_category = ?
| legal_status = [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule III]](US)
| routes_of_administration= Oral
}}
'''Flunitrazepam''' (formerly marketed under the trade name '''Rohypnol''' in the United States) is a drug which is a [[benzodiazepine]] derivative. It has powerful [[sedative]], [[anxiolytic]], and [[skeletal muscle relaxant]] properties.
==History==
Flunitrazepam was first synthesized in the early [[1970s]] by [[Hoffmann-La_Roche|Roche]] and was used in hospitals when deep sedation was needed. It first entered the commercial market in Europe in [[1975]], and in the [[1980s]] it began to be available in other countries.
It originally came in 1mg, 2mg, and 5mg sizes, but due to its potency and potential for |
only other European countries that lack a constitutional court are the [[Netherlands]] and the [[United Kingdom]] (which does not have a codified constitution).
== Subdivisions ==
''Main articles:[[Subdivisions of Finland]], [[Provinces of Finland]], [[Historical provinces of Finland]]''
[[Image:Map of Finland with provinces (numbered).png|right|Provinces of Finland]]
Today, Finland has [[Provinces of Finland|6 administrative provinces]] ''(lääni, [[plural|pl.]] läänit)'' The provinces are further divided in 90 [[State Local Districts of Finland|state local districts]].
The province authority is part of the executive branch of the national government; a system that had not changed drastically since its creation in 1634 to the new division to "greater provinces" in 1997. Since then, the six provinces are:
# [[Southern Finland]]
# [[Western Finland]]
# [[Eastern Finland]]
# [[Oulu Province|Oulu]]
# [[Lapland, Finland|Lapland]]
# [[Åland]]
The [[Åland|Åland Islands]] enjoy a degree of [[self-governance|autonomy]]. According to international treaties and Finnish laws, the regional government for Åland handles some matters which belong to the province authority in [[Mainland Finland]].
Another kind of provinces are those echoing the pattern of colonisation of Finland. [[Dialect]]s, [[folklore]], [[Convention (philosophy and social sciences)|customs]] and people's feeling of affiliation are associated with these [[historical provinces of Finland]], although the re-settlement of 420,000 [[Karelia]]ns during [[World War II]] and [[urbanization]] in the latter half of the 20th century have made differences less pronounced.
Local government is further organised in 432 (1.1.2005) [[municipalities of Finland]]. Since 1977, no legal or administrative distinction is made between [[List of towns in Finland|towns]], cities and other municipalities. The municipalities co-operate in 20 [[regions of Finland]]. There are also 74 [[Sub-regions of Finland|sub-regions]] with similar tasks as the regions.
== Geography ==
[[Image:P%C3%A4ij%C3%A4nne_and_p%C3%A4ij%C3%A4tsalo.jpg|thumb|right|[[Päijänne]], one the largest lakes.]]
[[Image:Nakyma_ukkokolilta.jpg|thumb|right|[[Koli]], one of the many national parks.]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Finland]]''
Finland is a country of thousands of lakes and islands; 187,888 lakes and 179,584 islands to be precise. One of these lakes, [[Saimaa]], is the 5th largest in Europe. The Finnish landscape is mostly flat with few hills and its highest point, the [[Haltitunturi]] at 1,328 metres (4,357 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), is found in the extreme north of [[Lapland]]. Beside the many lakes the landscape is dominated by extensive [[boreal]] forests (about 68 percent of land area) and little [[arable land]]. The greater part of the islands are found in southwest, part of the [[archipelago]] of the [[Åland|Åland Islands]], and along the southern coast in the [[Gulf of Finland]]. Finland is one of the few countries in the world that are still growing. Owing to the [[isostatic uplift]] that has been taking place since the last [[ice age]], the surface area of the country is growing by about 7 square kilometres (2.7 [[square mile|sq mi]]) a year.
The [[climate]] in Southern Finland is a northern [[temperate climate]]. In Northern Finland, particularly in the [[Lapland, Finland|Province of Lapland]], a [[subarctic climate]] dominates, characterised by cold, occasionally severe, winters and relatively warm summers. Finland is near enough to the Atlantic to be continuously warmed by the [[Gulf stream]], which explains the unusually warm climate considering the absolute latitude.
A quarter of Finland's territory lies above the [[Arctic Circle]], and as a consequence the [[midnight sun]] can be experienced &mdash; for more and more days, the further up north one comes. At Finland's northernmost point, the sun does not set for 73 days during summer, and does not rise at all for 51 days in winter.
See also: [[List of towns in Finland]], [[Population of Finland]], [[List of lakes in Finland]]
== Economy ==
[[Image:Fortumin_p%C3%A4%C3%A4konttori.jpg|thumb|right|Headquarters of [[Fortum]]. The economy used to be dominated by large industries.]]
''Main article: [[Economy of Finland]]''
Finland is, in terms of economy, a part of Western Europe and has a highly industrialised, largely free-market economy, with per capita output roughly equal to that of for example [[Sweden]],[[United Kingdom|UK]], [[France]] or [[Italy]]. Its key economic sector is [[manufacturing]] - principally the wood, metals, engineering, [[telecommunication]]s (especially [[Nokia]]), and electronics industries. Trade is important, with exports equalling almost one-third of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. Except for [[timber]] and several minerals, Finland depends on imports of raw materials, energy, and some components for manufactured goods.
Because of the climate, [[agriculture|agricultural]] development is limited to maintaining self-sufficiency in basic products. [[Forestry]], an important export earner, provides a secondary occupation for the rural population. Rapidly increasing integration with Western Europe - Finland was one of the 11 countries joining the [[euro]] monetary system ([[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]]) on [[January 1]], [[1999]] - will dominate the economic picture over the next several years.
According to [[Transparency International]], Finland has the second lowest level of [[political corruption|corruption]] in all the countries [[index_of_perception_of_corruption|studied in their survey]]. (Finland had topped the list of least corruption for several years, but [[Iceland]] took the best ranking in 2005.) Finland has been declared the most competitive country in the world for three consecutive years 2003-2005 (four times in the last five years) by the World Economic Forum. [http://www.weforum.org/]
See also: [[Finnish innovation system]]
== Globalization ==
[[Image:Helsinki-Vantaan_kiitotie_33.jpg|thumb|[[Helsinki-Vantaa airport]].]]
Finland's unique relationship with [[Imperial Russia|Czarist Russia]], the [[Soviet Union]], and now the [[Russia|Russian Federation]], has profoundly impacted Finland's foreign policies and ability to globalise. Finnish globalisation was tempered by their necessity to remain unprovoking to their neighbour. Even with these barriers, Finland eventually became one of the most globalised nations in the world.
After the [[history of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|collapse of the Soviet Union]] in the early 1990's, Finland took that opportunity to free itself from the restrictions imposed on it by the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947]]. Free from the fear of Soviet influence, Finland was able to begin pursuing goals that better fit Finnish ideology. The Finnish-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance (and the restrictions included therein) was declared null and void, but Finland recognised the Russian Federation as the successor to the USSR and was quick to draft bilateral treaties of goodwill between the two nations.
Finland began integrating into Western institutions, while not abandoning neutrality completely. Finland's policy of neutrality was moderated further from "active neutrality" to "military non-alignment," with an emphasis on maintaining a competent independent defence. Finland joined the [[European Union]] in 1995. [[Peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping]] is the only real extra-national military responsibility in which Finland participates.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Finland]]''
[[Image:Population concentrations in Finland.gif|thumb|right|population density]]
There are two [[official language]]s in Finland: [[Finnish (language)|Finnish]], spoken by 92% of the population, and [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]], [[mother tongue]] for 5.5% of the population. [[Ethnic Finn]]s and [[Finland Swedes]] are generally considered to comprise a common [[nation]]. The Finland-Swedes are concentrated in the coastal areas, and there is a slight cultural difference between the culture of the Ethnic Finns, focused on lakes and woods, and the more outward-oriented coastal culture of the Finland-Swedes. This difference may be considered as an [[ethnic]] division, but the difference is slight and not more pronounced than the difference between [[East Finnish culture|East Finnish]] and [[West Finnish culture]].
Other minority languages include [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]]. To the north, in [[Lapland]], are found the [[Sami people|Sami]], numbering less than 7,000, who like the Finns speak a [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] language. There are three [[Sami languages]] that are spoken in Finland: [[Northern Sami]], [[Inari Sami]] and [[Skolt Sami]]. The right of minority groups (in particular Sami and Roma people) to cherish their culture and language is protected by law, but usually only Sami is considered to be an official minority language.
Most Finns (83,1%) are members of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]], with a minority of 1% belonging to the [[Finnish Orthodox Church]] (see [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]). These two churches are the [[state church]]es of Finland. The remainder of the population consists of relatively small groups of other [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations, [[Roman Catholics]], [[Islam|Muslims]] and [[Judaism|Jews]] beside the growing population of unaffiliated (15%).
After the [[Winter War]] (1939) (and confirmed by the outcome of the [[Continuation War]]) 12% of Finland's population had to be re-settled. [[War reparations]], unemployment and uncertainty regarding Finland's chances to remain [[sovereignty|sovereign]] and [[independent (nation)|independent]] of the [[Soviet Union]] contributed to considerable [[emigration]], abating first in the 1970s. Until then, some 500,000 Finns had emigrated |
The United Kingdom, the birth place of modern boxing, has produced numerous boxing legends. Among British amateur boxers, only those who won Olympic gold medals tended to achieve recognition beyond the limits of boxing enthusiasts. They included Harry Mallin (Middleweight), 1920 and 1924), Terry Spinks (Flyweight, 1956), Dick McTaggart (Lightweight, 1956) and Chris Finnegan (Middleweight, 1968).
====London rules and pre-Queensberry era====
The bareknuckle era produced legends like John L. Sullivan, the first world heavyweight champion. Sullivan has been called the first great American sports hero.
In keeping with the Lineage of the World Heavyweight Title which began with the great John L., it should be noted that the "real" Title can only be passed on via a Title fight. Regardless of the politics or alphabet groups which santion Title bouts, following is the "real" lineage of the World Heavyweight Title:
[01]JOHN L. SULLIVAN [02]JAMES J. CORBETT [3]BOB FITZSIMMONS
[04]JAMES J. JEFFRIES - Retired as World Heavyweight Champion
[05]MARVIN HART(Hart Beat Jack Root for Title for after being named to fight for Title by Jeffries) [06]TOMMY BURNS [07]JACK JOHNSON (Beat a returning Jeffries and cemented his claim to Title)
[08]JESS WILLARD [09]JACK DEMPSEY [10]GENE TUNNEY - Retired as World Heavyweight Champion [11]MAX SCHMELING (Beat Jack Sharkey who won the NBA Championship) [12]JACK SHARKEY [13]PRIMO CARNERA
[14]MAX BAER [15]JAMES J. BRADDOCK [16]Joe Louis - Retired as World Heavyweight Champion [17]EZZARD CHARLES (Won NBA Title - Beat a returning Joe Louis and cemented his claim to Title) [18]JERSEY JOE WALCOTT [19]ROCKY MARCIANO - Retired as World Heavyweight Champion [20]FLOYD PATTERSON - (Beat Light-Heavyweight Champion Archie Moore) [21]INGEMAR JOHANSSON [22]FLOYD PATTERSON Became first man to regain World Heavyweight Title [23]SONNY LISTON [24]CASSIUS CLAY aka MUHAMMED ALI [25]JOE FRAZIER (Frazier had won recognition by NBA and WBC) - Beat a returning Ali win World Heavyweight Title) [26]GEORGE FOREMAN [27]MUHAMMED ALI (Became second man to regain World Heaveyweight Title) [28]LEON SPINKS [29]MUHAMMED ALI (Became first man to regain World Heavyweight Title a third time) - Retired as World Heavyweight Champion [30]LARRY HOLMES (Holmes had won recognition by WBC and IBF)- Beat a returning Ali and cemented his claim to Title) [31]MICHAEL SPINKS
[32]MIKE TYSON [33]BUSTER DOUGLAS [34]EVANDER HOLYFIELD
[35]RIDDICK BOWE [36]EVANDER HOLYFIELD (Became third man to regain World Heavyweight Title) [37]MICHAEL MOORE [38]GEORGE FOREMAN (Became fourth man to regain World Heavyweight Title [39]SHANNON BRIGGS [40]LENNOX LEWIS [41]OLIVER MCCALL [42]LENNOX LEWIS (Became fifth man to regain World Heavyweight Title) [43]HASSIM RAHMAN [44]LENNOX LEWIS - (Became second man to regain World Heavyweight Title a third time) - Retired as Heavyweight Champion [45]NO LINEAR CHAMPION AT THIS TIME.
====1900s to 1920s====
It is the post-Queensberry (or Modern) era that has the greatest number of legendary boxers, such as world heavyweight champions [[Jim Jeffries]] (the first [[Great White Hope]]) and [[Jack Johnson (boxer)|Jack Johnson]] (the first black world heavyweight champion).
Successful fighters have provoked fierce local pride. The best example was [[Jimmy Wilde]], a Welsh flyweight who won the world Flyweight Championship in 1916 and held it until 1923. He once had a sequence of eighty-eight fights without defeat. Between 1911 and 1923, he won seventy-five of his fights by a knockout. He was idolized in Wales, where they commonly believed him to be the best boxer, pound-for-pound, that ever lived. He was described as the "Mighty Atom" and "the ghost with a hammer in his hand".
====1920s to 1940s====
[[Image:Jack dempsey ring loc 50497v.jpg|thumb|250px|Jack Dempsey in the ring]]
[[Jack Dempsey]] was one of the most important athletes of the roaring twenties and became the World heavyweight champion after defeating [[Jess Willard]]. [[Joe Louis]] dominated the heavyweight scene for 12 years before retiring as world champion in 1949. Shortly before the beginning of [[World War II|WW2]], the battles between Louis and [[Max Schmeling]] were seen as battles between [[United States|America]] and [[Nazi Germany]]. Louis is considered by many as one of the best boxers of the Depression and possibly of all time. Another famous boxer, [[James Braddock]] (better known as the ''[[Cinderella Man]]'') inspired many with his rags to riches story. He eventually fought his way to the heavyweight title and won against [[Max Baer]] who had 10 to 1 odds in his favor. Braddock finally lost his title to [[Joe Louis]] but made financial arrangements with him to receive 10% of the profits from the rest of Louis's fights.
The United Kingdom has had other popular world champions. In the 1930s, Jackie Berg won the light welterweight title. In the 1940s, Freddie Mills won the light heavyweight title. In the 1950s and 1960s, Randy Turpin and Terry Downes won middleweight titles. and in the 1970s, John Conteh and John Stracey won the light heavyweight and welterweight titles respectively. With so many title-awarding bodies in the 1980s and 1990s, the public became unsure about who actually was the champion. Nevertheless, the successes of [[Nigel Benn]], [[Naseem Hamed]], [[Chris Eubank]], [[Joe Calzaghe]], and [[Ricky Hatton]] continued to bring extensive media coverage to boxing and sustained a considerable public following.
The Scots had a similar pride in Benny Lynch, a flyweight from Glasgow, who held the world flyweight title in 1935 and again in 1937. Over the years, Scots have had great success at this weight; Jackie Paterson won the title in 1943 and Walter McGowan in 1966. Scots have also had success in the lightweight division. Ken Buchanan won the title in 1971 and Jim Watt in 1980.
England, too, had its successes at the lighter weights. Among the flyweights, Jackie Brown won the title in 1932, Peter Kane in 1938 and Terry Allen.
====1940s to 1960s====
The [[1950s]] had a boxer who would go down in history as the only undefeated world heavyweight champion: [[Rocky Marciano]]. The title of the movie [[Rocky]] was inspired by this legend. This era also had [[Sugar Ray Robinson]], who most experts rate as the best pound-for-pound boxer of all time. Robinson held the world welterweight title from 1946 to 1951, and the world middleweight title a record five times from 1951 to 1960. Another great of this period was [[Archie Moore]], who held the world light heavyweight title for ten years and scored more knockout victories than any other boxer in history.
In Northern Ireland, Rinty Monahan held the flyweight title from 1947 to 1950, and Barry McGuigan won the W.B.A. featherweight title in 1985.
====1960s to 1980s====
The decades of the [[1960s]] & [[1970s]] are best remembered by the dominance of a boxer once named Cassius Clay, who said he would "shock the world." He joined the [[Nation of Islam]], changed his name to [[Muhammad Ali]], and declared himself against war. Many sociologists, observers, and critics now view Ali as a reflection of the changing society of that time. Ali had tough opponents like [[Sonny Liston]], [[Joe Frazier]], [[Ken Norton]], and [[George Foreman]], but proved himself to be the best heavyweight of his era, if not of all time. [[Larry Holmes]] (a former sparring partner of Ali) and the electric promoter [[Don King]] both gained prominence during this time.
After the retirement of Ali, [[Sugar Ray Leonard]] became the biggest star in the sport. In the late 1970s and the 1980s, Leonard won world titles in five different weight divisions, and was the first boxer to make 100 million dollars during his career.
====1980s to present====
If there was ever a bad boy of boxing, the title surely would go to a man who burst into professional boxing like a [[hurricane]]: [[Mike Tyson]]. Nicknamed "Iron Mike" because of his devastating punching power, Tyson took the world by storm. The most dominant figure on the heavyweight division in the mid-to-late 80s, he ran through his opponents like a wrecking ball, becoming the first undisputed champion in a decade. Both in and out of the ring, he was always in the news. He was jailed multiple times, barred from boxing for a year after biting a chunk out of [[Evander Holyfield]]'s ear, and going into [[bankruptcy]]. When he fought his last title fight, against [[Lennox Lewis]] in 2002, he was beaten thoroughly and knocked out. Lewis, a Canadian trained British-born heavyweight titleholder, retired as champion.
[[Roy Jones, Jr.]] was the most dominant fighter of the 1990s and early 2000s. He won world titles in four different weight divisions, from middleweight to heavyweight. When he defeated [[John Ruiz]] to win the [[World Boxing Association|WBA]] heavyweight title, he was the first former middleweight champion to win a heavyweight title since [[Bob Fitzsimmons]] accomplished the feat over one hundred years earlier.
[[Oscar De La Hoya]] was possibly the most popular American boxer of his era. He won titles from junior lightweight to middleweight. With good looks and charisma, along with plenty of boxing talent, he became the richest non-heavyweight in the history of boxing. But along with Oscar is the unrated great [[Bernard Hopkins]], who beaten many other popular fighters, such as: Oscar De La Hoya, Howard Eastman, Felix Trinadad, and, who many feel he won againist [[Jermain Taylor]].
Julio Cesar Chavez was the most dominant fighter of this era. He defeated many big name fighters like: Roger Mayweather, Melderick Taylor, and Hector Camacho. However, his illustrious streak was broken by Frankie Randall. After, the Randall fight the once invincible Chavez was see as vulnerable. Subsequently, he lost to De La Hoya and Kostya Tszyu.
The United Kingdom had to wait 100 |
ackground:silver;" | Infections caused by [[Gram-negative bacteria]], such as [[Escherichia coli]] and [[Klebsiella]] || rowspan="7" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Hearing loss<br />[[Vertigo (medical)|Vertigo]]<br />Kidney damage
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Gentamicin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Kanamycin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Neomycin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Netilmicin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Streptomycin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Tobramycin]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Carbacephem]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Loracarbef]] || || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Carbapenems]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ertapenem]] || || rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Imipenem]]/[[Cilastatin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Meropenem]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#First Generation Cephalosporins|First generation]])
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefadroxil]] || || rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea<br />Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)<br />Allergic reactions
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefazolin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cephalexin]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#Second Generation Cephems|Second generation]])
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefaclor]] || || rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea<br />Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)<br />Allergic reactions
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefamandole]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefoxitin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefprozil]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefuroxime]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#Third Generation Cephalosporins|Third generation]])
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefixime]] || || rowspan="10" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="10" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea<br />Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)<br />Allergic reactions
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefdinir]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefditoren]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefoperazone]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefotaxime]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefpodoxime]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ceftazidime]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ceftibuten]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ceftizoxime]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ceftriaxone]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#Fourth Generation Cephalosporins|Fourth generation]])
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefepime]] || || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea<br />Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)<br />Allergic reactions
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Glycopeptide antibiotics|Glycopeptides]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Teicoplanin]] || || rowspan="2" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="2" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Vancomycin]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Macrolides]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Azithromycin]] || [http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/do/medicines/mn_zithromax.jsp Zithromax&reg;]&nbsp;([[Pfizer]])<br />[http://www.sumamed.com.hr/disclaim.htm Sumamed&reg;]&nbsp;([[Pliva]]) || rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | [[Streptococcal infection]]s, [[syphilis]], [[respiratory infection]]s, [[mycoplasmal infection]]s, [[Lyme disease]] || rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea (especially at higher doses)<br />Jaundice
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Clarithromycin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Dirithromycin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Erythromycin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Troleandomycin]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Monobactam]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Aztreonam]] || || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" |
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Penicillins]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Amoxicillin]] || style="text-align:left" | [http://cipla.com/admin.php?mode=prod&action=disp&id=196 Novamox&trade;]&nbsp;([[Cipla]])|| rowspan="12" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | Wide range of infections; penicillin used for [[streptococcal infection]]s, [[syphilis]], and [[Lyme disease]] || rowspan="12" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea<br />Allergy with serious [[anaphylactic reaction]]s<br />Brain and kidney damage (rare)
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ampicillin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Azlocillin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Carbenicillin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cloxacillin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Dicloxacillin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Flucloxacillin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Mezlocillin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Nafcillin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Penicillin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Piperacillin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ticarcillin]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Polypeptide antibiotics|Polypeptides]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Bacitracin]] || || rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | Eye, ear or bladder infections; usually applied directly to the eye or inhaled into the lungs; rarely given by injection|| rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Kidney and nerve damage (when given by injection)
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Colistin]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Polymyxin B]]
|-
!colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Quinolones]]
|-
| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ciprofloxacin]] || style="text-align:left" | [http://cipla.com/admin.php?mode=prod&action=disp&id=161 Ciplox&trade;]&nbsp;([[Cipla]])|| rowspan="9" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | Urinary tract infections, [[bacterial postatitis]], [[bacterial diarrhoea]], [[gonorrhea]]|| rowspan="9" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Nausea (rare)
|-
| || st |
It has been largely used by academic and scientific communities for over a century now, and is not a completely unfamiliar dating system. [http://www.answers.com/topic/common-era]
*Dating years according to Christian theology has the potential to be culturally divisive in worldwide use. Naming months and days based on Roman and Norse gods, however, is of little concern because the Roman and Norse religions are virtually extinct and thus exclude everyone equally. No alternative naming system for days and months exists which has gained much currency. Furthermore, the names of the days of the week come from the names of the planets and other celestial objects, and four months are already named according to their numerical sequence. People in other cultures are free to name the months and days of the week as they wish in their own language (and they do), but years are just numbers and it is quite easy to make them less overtly culturally specific. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/brunel/A3176345]
*Going along with the naming of a day as [[Wednesday]] does not imply that one worships [[Odin]] as a god, anymore than going along with calling a planet [[Jupiter]] implies that one actually worships Jupiter as a god, or even considers him a god. However, the very meanings of AD and of BC are such that they imply the acceptance of Jesus as Christ and as Lord. Saying "Today is Wednesday" does not mean that one attributes divinity to Odin. Saying "This is AD 2006" does actually mean "This is the year of the Lord (Jesus), 2006".
*It promotes [[ecumenical]] standards and ''Christian Era'' is an interchangeable meaning for the acronym CE.
*It is simple to change BC/AD to BCE/CE terminology, since the years are exactly equal, regardless of which terminology is used. No conversion of the numbers is required. Documents with years that do not have AD designation do not need to be changed. (example: 1066 remains 1066 in AD and in CE systems)
*The label ''Anno Domini'' is almost certainly inaccurate &mdash; the birth of Jesus of Nazareth probably occurred no later than 4 BC, the year of [[Herod the Great]]'s death.
*It avoids confusion over whether "AD" should come before or after the year. (This is important for the in-house manuals of style of periodicals.)
*Stylistic rules which require that AD precede the year are justified by saying that "In the year of our Lord 2005" is correct syntax, and "2005 in the year of our Lord" is incorrect. Such statements belie the claim that AD has lost its religious meaning.
*The intensity with which some Christians protest any switch from BC/AD to BCE/CE indicates that, despite any claims to the contrary, BC/AD has not become "removed from its religious connotations".
* Common Era notation works well syntactically with centuries, whereas Anno Domini, because it is about years instead of eras, does not ("In the 18th Century, Common Era" vs "In the year of the Lord, 18th Century" vs "In the 19th century in the year of the Lord")
==Opposition==
Changing dates expressed in AD/BC terminology to CE/BCE has given rise to some opposition. Arguments against the common era designation include:
*The term "Common era" is viewed as a weak [[euphemism]] for ''[[Anno Domini]]''. ''[[MSN Encarta]]'' recognizes the era simply as "Christian (Common) Era: the period after the birth of Jesus Christ" [http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861688066/Common_Era.html] and uses the AD/BC notation in all articles [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565222/Jesus_Christ.html]. Also, ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' does not even have a listing for "Common era" [http://www.britannica.com/search?query=Common+Era&ct=&searchSubmit.x=7&searchSubmit.y=11], and [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9018523?query=Caesar%20Augustus&ct= uses the AD/BC notation] in all of its articles.
*BC and AD have been used for such a length of time as to have become somewhat removed from their religious connotations.
*The newer BCE/CE system has not been used widely enough so as to have become commonly understood.
*"BCE" and "CE" are so similar that they may confuse readers.
*Some believe that changing the notation merely confuses members of the public for only minor benefits.
*Some object to the common era's retention of the year 1 as its [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]] because it preserves a [[Christocentric]] worldview at the expense of a religiously neutral timekeeping system. These people hold that a more massive change in the calendar is needed, one that would change every date.
*Likewise, the imposition of a Christian calendar as a 'Common Era' is also seen by some to be self-defeating.
*BCE/CE fails to fix one of the primary problems with the Christian calendar, the lack of a year '0'. 1 BC should become the year 0, 2 BC should become 1 BC, etc. There is no point to changing the system, without fixing the system.
*As there is no equally forceful trend to remove other terms with origins in non-Christian religions (such as days of the week named after Norse gods, and months named after Roman gods), the movement to replace BC and AD is specifically anti-Christian.
Examples of opposition include:
*When BC was changed to BCE in one examination question in [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]] in early 2005, it prompted questions and protestations of offence in both chambers of the State Parliament, and the State Education Minister stated in Parliament that the change should not have been made.
*When the teaching of what BCE/CE meant was introduced into the English National Curriculum in 2002, it prompted confused letters to national newspapers.
*When the Royal Ontario Museum in Canada changed from using BC to using BCE, it was subjected to derision as well as complaints expressed in the national Canadian press.
==Other calendar eras==
{{main|Calendar era}}
Several major calendar systems exist in addition to the Western calendar:
*The [[Hindu calendar]] constitutes four [[Yuga|eras]] and the epoch of the present (fourth) era, the [[Kali Yuga]], is [[January 23]] [[4th millennium BC|3102 BCE]] on the [[proleptic Gregorian calendar]], making the current year (2006) 5108.
*The [[Hebrew calendar]] dates from the Creation (according to which the year beginning in the northern autumn of 2000 was 5761 [[Anno Mundi|AM]]);
*Most Chinese do not assign numbers to the years of the [[Chinese calendar]], but the few that do (expatriate Chinese and Westerners) date from the [[Yellow Emperor]] (three different systems are in use, which caused the Chinese years 4637, 4697, or 4698 to begin in early 2000).
*The [[Buddhist calendar]] dates from the birth of the [[Buddha]] (making 2000, 2543 under this calendar, but only in [[Thai solar calendar|Thailand]]);
*The [[Indian national calendar]] (also the ''Saka calendar'') is the official civil calendar in use in [[India]]. Years are counted in the [[Saka Era]], which starts its [[year 0]] in 78. The current year is 1927.
*The [[Islamic calendar]] dates from the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] in 622 using a lunar year of about 354 days (so the Western year 2000 contains parts of 1420 AH and 1421 AH);
*The [[Bahá'í calendar]] dates from the year of the declaration of the [[Báb]]. Years are counted in the Bahá'í Era (BE), which starts its year 1 from [[March 21]], [[1844]].
*The [[Japanese calendar]] dates from the succession of the current [[Emperor of Japan]]. The current emperor took the throne in 1989, which became Heisei 1, but which was until then Shōwa 63.
*The [[Jalaali calendar]], a form of the [[Zoroastrian calendar]], is used in Iran. This uses the [[Zoroastrian]] months, with the starting year taken from the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] in 622 - thus the year 1385 begins in March 2006. The spring equinox marks the beginning of the year for this calendar.
* The [[French Revolutionary Calendar]] was used in Revolutionary France from October 24, 1793 (on the Gregorian calendar) to January 1, 1806. Years were counted using the ''Republican era'' from [[September 22]] [[1792]] starting with year I.
==External links==
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/ce.htm The use of "CE" and "BCE" to identify dates] (Religious Tolerance.org)
*[http://www.ucc.org/ucnews/jan03/asiseeit.htm Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why?] (United Church of Christ)
*[http://spp.pinyin.info/abstracts/spp111_bc_ad.html Victor Mair: The need for a new era]
*[http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhelp/dates.html NASA: Year dating conventions]
*[http://washingtontimes.com/national/20050425-122707-1314r.htm Associated Press: P.C. scholars take Christ out of B.C.]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/68/20/120.html The Columbia Guide to Standard American English (1993): A.D., B.C., (A.)C.E., B.C.E.]
[[Category:Calendars]]
[[de:V. u. Z.]]
[[el:Κοινή Χρονολογία (Χρονολόγηση)]]
[[es:AdC]]
[[fr:Common Era]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Creationist</title>
<id>6089</id>
<revision>
<id>15904251</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Creationism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Robert Malden</title>
<id>6091</id>
<revision>
<id>40564985</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T13:41:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bastin8</username>
<id>154626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>United Kingdom</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Robert Malden''' ([[August 9]], [[1797]] &ndash; [[May 23]], [[1855]]), was a [[19th century]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Navy|naval]] officer, surveyor and educator. Discoverer of [[Malden Isla |
enhagen.
Copenhagen municipality will not be merged with other municipalities by [[January 1]], [[2007]] as the result of nationwide [[Municipalities of Denmark#Municipality Reform 2007|''Kommunalreformen'' ("The Municipality Reform" of 2007)]].
==History of Copenhagen==
:''Main article: [[History of Copenhagen]]''
Copenhagen was founded around year 1000 by [[Sweyn I of Denmark|Sweyn I Forkbeard]] (Svend Tveskæg) and his son [[Canute the Great]] ([http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knud_2._den_Store Knud den Store]). It was only a [[fishing]] [[village]] by the name of "Havn" (harbour) until the middle of the 12th century when it grew in importance after coming into the possession of the [[Bishop]] [[Absalon]], who fortified it in [[1167]]. The excellent [[harbour]] encouraged Copenhagen's growth until it became an important centre of commerce (hence its name). It was repeatedly attacked by the [[Hanseatic League]] as the Germans took notice. In 1254, it received its charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen.
[[Image:Copenhagen_1895.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Copenhagen circa [[1895]].]]
During [[1658]]-[[1659|59]] it withstood a severe siege by the [[Sweden|Swedes]] under [[Charles X of Sweden|Charles X]]. In [[1801]] a British fleet under Admiral Parker fought a major battle, the [[Battle of Copenhagen]], with the Danish navy in Copenhagen harbour. It was during this battle [[Horatio Nelson|Lord Nelson]] famously "put the telescope to the blind eye" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire. When a British expeditionary force bombarded Copenhagen in [[1807]], to prevent Denmark from surrendering its fleet to [[Napoleon]], the city suffered great damage and hundreds of people were killed.
The reason why the devastation was so great was that Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line rendered virtually useless by the increase in shooting range available to the British. But not until the 1850's were the ramparts of the city opened to allow new housing to be built around the lakes ("''Søerne''") which bordered the old defence system to the west. This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, not only because the old ramparts were out of date as a defence system, but also because of bad sanitation in the old city.
During [[World War II]] Copenhagen was [[Occupation of Denmark|occupied by German troops]] along with the rest of the country from 9th of April [[1940]] until 4th of May [[1945]]. In August 1943, when the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships where sunk in Copenhagen Harbour by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent them being used by the Germans.
The city has grown greatly since the war, in the seventies using the so-called five-finger-plan of communter trainlines to surrounding towns and suburbs.
[[Image:KgsNytorv.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Kongens Nytorv]] in the [[Winter]]time]]
Since the summer [[2000]], the cities of Copenhagen and [[Malmö]] have been connected by a toll [[bridge]]/tunnel ([[Oresund Bridge|Øresund Bridge]]), which allows both rail and road passengers to cross. It was inaugurated in July 2000 by [[Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden|King Carl XVI Gustaf]] of Sweden and [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Queen Margrethe II]] of Denmark. As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area which spans both nations. The construction of the bridge has led to a large number of changes to the public transportation system and the extensive redevelopment of Amager, south of the main city. The bridge has not yet been as widely used by motorists as was originally hoped, likely due to the high road tolls, allegedly slowing the planned integration of the region. Train passengers, however, are plentiful and increasing in numbers. The lack of a commonly acceptable currency throughout the area is another hindrance to the integration of the region, even though a growing number of shops, restaurants etc, if not usually encouraged, accept payment with either nation's currency in the other country.
[[Image:CopenhagenNyHavn2001.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Nyhavn]].]]
==Geography==
Copenhagen is located on the eastern shore of the island of [[Zealand|Zealand ''(Sjælland)'']] and partly on the island of [[Amager]]. Copenhagen faces to the east the [[Oresund|Øresund]], the strait of water that separates Denmark from [[Sweden]], and that connects the [[North Sea]] with the [[Baltic Sea]]. On the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen, lie the towns of [[Malmö]] and [[Landskrona]].
1,116,979 people live in [[Metropolitan Copenhagen|metropolitan Copenhagen (Storkøbenhavn)]]. Of these 502,204 live in the Municipality of Copenhagen, 91,721 in the Municipality of [[Frederiksberg]], 68,704 in the Municipality of [[Gentofte]] and another 454,350 in other nearby municipalities.
An even larger metropolitan region is known as the [[Danish Capital Region|Danish Capital Region (''Hovedstadsregionen'')]], which consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen and [[Frederiksberg]], and the counties of [[Copenhagen County|Copenhagen]], [[Frederiksborg County|Frederiksborg]] and [[Roskilde County|Roskilde]]. The population of ''Hovedstadsregionen'' is 1,823,109.
Copenhagen is also a part of the [[Øresund]] region, which consists of the eastern part of Zealand in Denmark and the western part of [[Skåne]] in [[Sweden]].
The city itself is divided into 15 administrative, statistical and tax districts (''bydele''):
* [[Indre By]] ("Copenhagen Center")
* [[Christianshavn]]
* [[Indre Østerbro]] ("Inner Østerbro")
* [[Ydre Østerbro]] ("Outer Østerbro")
* [[Indre Nørrebro]] ("Inner Nørrebro")
* [[Ydre Nørrebro]] ("Outer Nørrebro")
* [[Vesterbro]]
* [[Kongens Enghave]]
* [[Valby]]
* [[Vanløse]]
* [[Brønshøj-Husum]]
* [[Bispebjerg]]
* [[Sundbyøster]]
* [[Sundbyvester]]
* [[Vestamager]]
==Culture==
[[Image:The Little Mermaid 4.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The statue of [[The Little Mermaid]], a monument to [[Hans Christian Andersen]], in Copenhagen harbour.]]
Danish newspapers rank Copenhagen as one of the world's best cities in which to live, despite the high cost of living.
''[[Strøget]]'', a pedestrian shopping street in central Copenhagen was inaugurated in 1961. Copenhagen's extensive pedestrian network has been developed over the last 40 years through the work of architect and professor [[Jan Gehl]].
The [[Copenhagen Jazz Festival]] is a popular annual event that is the result of a significant [[jazz]] scene having existed for many years. It developed significantly when a number of [[United States|American]] [[jazz musician]]s such as [[Ben Webster]], [[Thad Jones]], [[Richard B. Boone|Richard Boone]], [[Ernie Wilkins]], [[Kenny Drew]], [[Ed Thigpen]], [[Bob Rockwell]] and others such as rock guitarist [[Link Wray]] came to Copenhagen beginning in the 1960s.
[[Sexual equality]] is a high priority in [[Denmark]]. Women should encounter little or no discrimination in Copenhagen, and [[sexual harassment]] is rare compared to other Western [[capital]] cities.
Copenhagen is a popular destination for [[gay]] and [[lesbian]] travellers. It has an active gay community and lots of nightlife options. The main gay and lesbian festival of the year is the [[Copenhagen Pride]] (formerly the Mermaid Pride Parade), a big [[Mardi Gras]]-like bash that occurs on a Saturday in early August. There's also the [[Copenhagen Film Festival]], held each year in October. [[Danes]] have a high degree of tolerance for "alternative" lifestyles of all sorts, and gays are as free as anyone to express themselves. The biggest gay club in Denmark is [[Pan Club Copenhagen]] .See [[Homosexuality in Denmark]] for more information.
Copenhagen is a 24-hour party city. For free [[entertainment]] simply stroll along [[Strøget]], especially between [[Nytorv]] and [[Højbro Plads]], which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring [[circus]] with [[musicians]], [[magicians]], [[jugglers]] and other [[street performers]].
==Sport==
Copenhagen has a wide variety of [[sport]] teams. Denmark's two leading [[football (soccer)|football]] teams, [[Brøndby IF]] and [[FC København]], are based in Copenhagen . In recent years, Brøndby IF has become the most successful team in Danish history, winning the [[Danish Superliga|Danish Championship]] 10 times and the [[Danish Cup]] 5 times since 1985. FC København has won the Danish Championship 4 times and the Danish Cup 3 times over the last 20 years. FC København's home ground is the Danish national stadium, [[Parken]].
Notable Copenhagen teams playing at the second highest level in Danish football (the [[Danish 1st Division]]) include [[Akademisk Boldklub|AB]], [[Hellerup IK|HIK]], [[Boldklubben Frem|Frem]], [[Brønshøj Boldklub|Brønshøj]] and [[Boldklubben Skjold|Skjold]].
Copenhagen also has three ice hockey teams [[Rødovre Mighty Bulls]], [[Herlev Hornets]] and [[Nordsjælland Cobras]].
There is both a men's and a women's handball team, and both teams play in the highest league.
The [[Danish Australian Football League]], based in Copenhagen is the largest [[Australian rules football]] competition outside of the [[Anglosphere|English speaking world]].
Copenhagen is also home to a number of Denmark's 40-odd cricket clubs. Although Denmark has been an associate member of the [[International Cricket Council]] since 1966, the sport is not taught much in schools, and [[Danish cricket team|Danish cricket]] competes unfavourably with the much more widely-followed sport of football for players, facilities, media attention and spectators.
==Cuisine==
Copenhagen offers a great variety of fine restaurants and modest eateries with open sandwiches (called "smørrebrød") as the most known dish. Also, Copenhagen is known for the hotdog stands found throughout the city.
Lately, immigration from the Middle East and North Africa |
ling surprising.
=See Also=
* [[Somatic|Somatic education]]
* [[Feldenkrais method]]
=External links=
===Professional Alexander Teaching Organizations===
* [http://www.ati-net.com Alexander Teachers International (ATI)]
* [http://www.alexandertech.org American Society for the Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.stat.org.uk Society for Teachers of the Alexander Technique, largest in the UK]
* [http://www.isatt.net Irish Society of Teachers of the Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.paat.org.uk Professional Association Of Alexander Teachers - UK website containing a variety of cogent articles]
===Specific Alexander teacher and educational sites===
* [http://www.franis.org/Alexander Franis Engel's site of the origin of this definition]
* [http://www.bodymap.org Andover Educators - A site with resources for learning AT through a complementary original idea known as Body Mapping]
* [http://ergonomics.org Ergonomics, Posture and the Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.barstowinstitute.org Annual summer training workshop in Nebraska in the tradition of Marjorie L. Barstow]
* [http://physicaltherapy.org Information about the Alexander Technique of special interest to physical therapists]
* [http://pilatesandalexander.com Exploration of the relationships between the Alexander Technique and the Pilates Method]
* [http://www.auspiciousdragon.net/thoughts/alexander.html An everyday guide to habit and backache - written by an Alexander student]
* [http://www.alexander-tech.com Articles on how the Alexander Technique can help actors, musicians, pregnant women and those suffering with stress]
*[http://www.stat.org.uk/pages/researchpage.htm Online documentation of scientific research at a UK largest professional Society of Teachers of the Alexander Technique (STAT)]
* [http://www.alexandertechnique.com Large and inclusive site with comprehensive information on locating an Alexander teacher worldwide]
* [http://www.performanceschool.org An Alexander teacher training school in Seattle, WA with a study guide of Alexander's books & online learning guides]
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Exercise]]
[[Category:Mind-body interventions]]
[[de:Alexander-Technik]]
[[fi:Alexander-tekniikka]]
[[ja:&#12450;&#12524;&#12463;&#12469;&#12531;&#12480;&#12540;&#12539;&#12486;&#12463;&#12491;&#12540;&#12463;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Automatic telephone exchange</title>
<id>1959</id>
<revision>
<id>33361889</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T09:25:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ricky81682</username>
<id>125787</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Central office]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andrea Alciato</title>
<id>1960</id>
<revision>
<id>34254860</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T16:59:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.2.130.148</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Emblema CLXXXIX.gif|right|160px|thumb|Emblema CLXXXIX stating ''Mentem, non formam, plus pollere'']]
'''Andrea Alciato''' (1492-1550), was a [[jurist]] born in [[Alzano]], near [[Milan]], [[Italy]] on the [[1492]]-[[January 12|01-12]]. Alciato settled in France in the early [[16th century]]. He displayed great literary skill in his exposition of the laws, and was one of the first to interpret the civil law by the history, languages and literature of antiquity, and to substitute original research for the servile interpretations of the glossators. He published many legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus. Alciato is most famous for his ''[[Emblemata]],'' published in dozens of editions from 1531 onward. This collection of short Latin verse texts and accompanying woodcuts created an entire European genre, the [[emblem book]], which attained enormous popularity in continental Europe and Britain.
Andrea Alicato died at [[Pavia]] in [[1550]].
Alciati's history of Milan, under the title ''Rerum Potriae, seu Historiae Mediolanensis, Libri IV''., was published posthumously at Milan in 1625.
==External links==
*[http://www.mun.ca/alciato/index.html Description, Reproduction and translation] Memorial University of Newfoundland
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Italian writers]]
[[Category:1492 births]]
[[Category:1550 deaths]]
[[it:Andrea Alciato]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arizona</title>
<id>1961</id>
<revision>
<id>41801305</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:11:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BaronLarf</username>
<id>137600</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Origin of the name */ cleanup</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{| align="right"
|-
| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" |
{{US state |
Name = Arizona |
Fullname = State of Arizona |
Flag = Flag of Arizona.svg |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Arizona]] |
Seal = Arizonastateseal.jpg |
Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Arizona.png |
Nickname = The [[Grand Canyon]] State, The Copper State |
Capital = [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] |
OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] |
Languages = [[English language|English]] 74.1%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 19.5%, [[Navajo]] 1.9% |
LargestCity = [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] |
Governor = [[Janet Napolitano]] (D)|
Senators = [[John McCain]] (R) <br> [[Jon Kyl]] (R) |
PostalAbbreviation = AZ |
AreaRank = 6th |
TotalArea = 295,254 |
LandArea = 294,312 |
WaterArea = 942 |
PCWater = 0.32 |
PopRank = 20th |
2000Pop = 5,939,292 |
DensityRank = 36th |
2000Density = 17.43 |
AdmittanceOrder = 48th |
AdmittanceDate = [[February 14]], [[1912]] |
TimeZone = [[Mountain Standard Time Zone|Mountain]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-7<br />|
Latitude = 31°20'N to 37°N |
Longitude = 109°3'W to 114°50'W |
Width = 500 |
Length = 645 |
HighestElev = 3,851 |
MeanElev = 1,250 |
LowestElev = 21 |
ISOCode = US-AZ |
Website = www.az.gov
}}
|-
|
{{US state symbols |
Name = Arizona |
Flag = Flag of Arizona.svg |
Seal = Arizonastateseal.png |
Nickname = Grand Canyon State |
Capital = [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] |
Bird = [[Cactus Wren]] |
Animal = [[Ringtail Cat]] |
Fish = [[Apache trout|Apache Trout]] |
Butterfly = [[Two-Tailed Swallowtail]] |
Insect = [[Two-Tailed Swallowtail]] |
Reptile = [[Rattlesnake|Arizona Ridgenose Rattlesnake]] |
Furbearer = [[Ringtail Cat]] |
Tree = [[Palo Verde]] |
Flower = [[Saguaro]] Blossom |
Grass = None |
Wildflower = None |
Gemstone = [[Turquoise]] |
Fossil = [[Petrified wood]] |
StateRock = [[Petrified wood]] |
Soil = Arizona Casa-Grande |
Mineral = [[Agate|Fire Agate]] |
Colors = [[Blue]], [[Red]] & Old Gold |
Dance = Unknown |
Neckwear = [[Bola Tie]] |
Motto = ''Ditat Deus'' (God Enriches) |
Nicknames = "The [[Grand Canyon]] State" and "The [[Copper]] State" |
Ships = U.S.S. Arizona (Destroyed 1941) |
Song = "Arizona March Song"<br />"Arizona" |
Waltz = None |
Beverage = None |
MusicalInstrument = None |
Game = Unknown |
Tartan = None |
}}
|}
'''Arizona''' {{IPA|/&#716;&#603;&#633;.&#618;&#712;zon.&#601;/}} is a large [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[Western_United_States|western]] [[United States]]. It is best known for its [[desert]] landscape, which includes [[cacti]]. Arizona is also known for its exceptionally hot summers and mild winters. Less well known is the pine-covered high country in the north-central portion of the state, which contrasts with the lower deserts of the state.
Arizona is one of the [[Four Corners (United States)|Four Corners]] states, situated south and east of the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]]. It borders [[New Mexico]], [[Utah]], [[Nevada]], [[California]], touches [[Colorado]], and has a 389-mile (626 km) [[international border]] with [[Mexico]]. Arizona is the sixth largest state in area, after [[New Mexico]] and before [[Nevada]]. Aside from the [[Grand Canyon National Park|Grand Canyon]], a number of other [[National Forest]]s, [[National parks (United States)|Parks]], [[National parks (United States)|Monuments]], and [[Indian reservation]]s are located in the state. Arizona was the 48th state admitted into the U.S. (1912), and the last of the [[Continental United States|contiguous states]] admitted.
Three ships named [[USS Arizona]] have been named in honor of the state, although only [[USS Arizona (BB-39)]] was so named after statehood was achieved.
==Origin of the name==
Historians disagree about the [[etymology|origin]] of the name "Arizona" and its attachment to the region. Two possible derivations are:
*[[O'odham language|O'odham]] words "al&#301; &#7779;on" ("small spring"), actually the name of a town which is called "Arizonac" in English. Arizonac is a small town about eight miles (12 km) south of the [[U.S.-Mexico border|United States&ndash;Mexican border]]. Historically, it may have been "al&#301; son" or even "al&#301; sona". The O'odham "l" is a [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative]], which might sound to a Spanish or English speaker like an "r" sound. Later in the mid [[18th century]] Spanish missionaries changed Father [[Eusebio Francisco Kino]]'s maps of the area; they renamed th |
mpositions). A form of figured bass is used in notation of [[accordion]] music. Today the most common use of figured bass notation is to indicate the [[inversion (music)|inversion]], however, often without the staff notation, using letter note names followed with the figure, for instance the bass note C in 64 figured bass would be written <math>C_4^6</math>. The symbols can also be used with Roman numerals in analyzing [[diatonic functionality|functional harmony]], a usage called ''figured Roman''; see [[chord symbol]].
==External links==
*[http://www.robertkelleyphd.com/figuredbass.htm Figured Bass Symbology] by Robert Kelley
*[http://www.robertkelleyphd.com/scaledegrharm.htm Chords that the (major) Scale Degrees (in the bass) Can Imply] by Robert Kelley
[[Category:Musical notation]]
[[Category:Accompaniment]]
<!-- Interwiki search http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ -->
<!-- Basso continuo-->
[[ca:Baix continu]]
[[de:Generalbass]]
[[es:Bajo continuo]]
[[eo:Figurita baso]]
[[fr:Basse continue]]
[[he:באסו קונטינואו]]
[[it:Basso continuo]]
[[nl:Basso continuo]]
[[pl:Basso continuo]]
[[sv:Basso continuo]]
[[fi:Basso continuo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fashion</title>
<id>11657</id>
<revision>
<id>41793984</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:16:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DJ Clayworth</username>
<id>16175</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.55.230.121|210.55.230.121]] ([[User talk:210.55.230.121|talk]]) to last version by 68.44.3.188</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{for|1980s New Wave band|Fashion (band)}}
The term '''fashion''' applies to a prevailing mode of expression. Inherent in the term is the idea that the mode will change more quickly than the [[culture]] as a whole. The terms "fashionable" and "unfashionable" are employed to describe whether someone or something fits in with the currently popular mode of expression.
The term "fashion" is often used in a negative sense, as a synonym for [[fads]] and [[trends]]. In this sense, fashions are essentially a relief from boredom, or a distraction from important matters, for the idle rich. The term is also frequently used in a positive sense, as a synonym for [[glamour]] and [[style]]. In this sense, fashions are a sort of communal [[art]], through which a culture examines its notions of [[beauty]] and [[goodness]].
Fashions are [[social psychology]] phenomena common to many fields of human activity and thinking. The rises and falls of fashions have been especially documented and examined in the following fields:
*[[Architecture]], [[interior design]], and [[landscape design]]
*Arts and [[crafts]]
*[[Body type]], [[clothing]] or [[costume]], [[cosmetics]], [[grooming]], and [[personal adornment]]
*[[Cuisine]]
*[[Dance]] and [[music]]
*[[Forms of address]], [[slang]], and other forms of speech
*[[Economics]] and spending choices, as studied in [[behavioral finance]]
*[[Entertainment]], [[games]], [[hobbies]], [[sports]], and other pastimes
*[[Etiquette]]
*[[Politics]] and [[media]], especially the topics of [[conversation]] encouraged by the media
*[[Philosophy]] and [[spirituality]] (One might argue that [[religion]] is prone to fashions, although official religions tend to change so slowly that the term [[cultural shift]] is perhaps more appropriate than "fashion")
*[[Technology]], such as the choice of [[programming]] techniques
Of these fields, [[costume]] especially has become so linked in the public eye with the term "fashion" that the more general term "costume" has been relegated by many to only mean [[fancy dress]] or [[Masquerade ball|masquerade]] wear, while the term "fashion" means [[clothing]] generally, and the study of it. This linguistic switch is due to the so-called [[fashion plates]] which were produced during the [[Industrial Revolution]], showing novel ways to use new textiles. For a broad cross-cultural look at clothing and its place in society, refer to the entries for Clothing and Costume. The remainder of this article deals with clothing fashions in the industrialized world.
== Fashion and variation ==
[[Image:ADurerNuremburgVenetianWomen.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Albrecht Dürer]]'s drawing contrasts a well-turned out ''bourgeoisie'' from [[Nuremberg]] (left) with her counterpart from [[Venice]], in 1496-97. The Venetian lady's high [[chopines]] make her taller.]]
The [[Europe]]an idea of fashion as a personal statement rather than a cultural expression begins in the [[16th century]]: ten portraits of German or Italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats. But the local culture still set the bounds, as [[Albrecht Dürer]] recorded in his actual or composite contrast of Nuremberg and Venetian fashions at the close of the [[15th century]] (''illustration, right''). Fashions among upper-class Europeans began to move in synchronicity in the [[18th century]]; though colors and patterns of textiles changed from year to year, (Thornton), the cut of a gentleman's coat and the length of his waistcoat, or the pattern to which a lady's dress was cut changed more slowly. Men's fashions derived from military models, and changes in a European male silhouette are galvanized in theatres of European war, where gentleman officers had opportunities to make notes of foreign styles: an example is the "Steinkirk" cravat (see [[Cravat]]).
The pace of change picked up in the [[1780s]] with the publication of French engravings that showed the latest Paris styles. By [[1800]], all Western Europeans were dressing alike: local variation became first a sign of provincial culture, and then a badge of the conservative [[peasant]] (James Laver; [[Fernand Braudel]]).
Fashion in clothes has allowed wearers to express [[emotion]] or solidarity with other people for millennia. Modern [[Western society | West]]erners have a wide choice available in the selection of their clothes. What a person chooses to wear can reflect that person's [[personality]] or likes. When people who have cultural [[status]] start to wear new or different clothes a fashion trend may start; people who like or respect them may start to wear clothes of a similar [[style]].
Fashions may vary significantly within a [[society]] according to [[ageing|age]], [[social class]], [[generation]], [[Profession|occupation]] and [[geography]] as well as over time. If, for example, an older person dresses according to the fashion of young people, he or she may look ridiculous in the eyes of both young and older people. The term "fashion victim" refers to someone who slavishly follows the current fashions (implementations of fashion)..
One can regard the system of sporting various fashions as a fashion [[language]] incorporating various [[fashion statement]]s using a [[grammar]] of fashion. (Compare some of the work of [[Roland Barthes]].)
*Thornton, Peter. ''Baroque and Rococo Silks.''
:''See also'' [[History of Western fashion]]
== Fashion and the process of change ==
[[Image:1913-Dictates-of-Fashion-Calvert-Life-cartoon.png|thumb|right|279px|1913 cartoon on the dictates of fashion, from the old "Life" magazine.]]
Fashion, by definition, changes constantly. The change may proceed more rapidly than in most other fields of human activity ([[language]], [[thought]], etc). For some, modern fast-paced change in fashion embodies many of the negative aspects of [[capitalism]]: it results in waste and encourages people ''qua'' [[consumer]]s to buy things unnecessarily. Others, especially young people, enjoy the diversity that changing fashion can apparently provide, seeing the constant change as a way to satisfy their desire to experience "new" and "interesting" things. Note too though that fashion can change to enforce uniformity, as in the case where so-called [[Mao suit]]s became the national uniform of Mainland [[China]].
Materially affluent societies can offer a variety of different fashions, in clothes or accessories, to choose from. At the same time there remains an equal or larger range designated (at least currently) 'out of fashion'. (These or similar fashions may cyclically come back 'into fashion' in due course, and remain 'in fashion' again for a while.)
Practically every aspect of appearance that can be changed has been changed at some time. In the past, new discoveries and lesser-known parts of the world could provide an impetus to change fashions based on the [[exoticism | exotic]]: Europe in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries, for example, might favor things Turkish at one time, things Chinese at another, and things Japanese at a third. The global village has reduced the options of exotic novelty in more recent times.
[[Fashion house]]s and their associated [[fashion designer]]s, as well as high-status consumers (including [[celebrity | celebrities]]), appear to have some role in determining the rates and directions of fashion change.
== Fashion and status ==
Fashion can suggest or signal [[status]] in a [[social group]]. Groups with high cultural status like to keep 'in fashion' to display their position; people who do not keep 'in fashion' within a so-called "style tribe" can risk shunning (see also [[peer pressure]]). Because keeping 'in fashion' often requires considerable amounts of money, fashion can be used to show off [[wealth]] (compare [[conspicuous consumption]]). Adherence to fashion trends can thus form an index of social affluence and an indicator of [[social mobility]].
Fashion can help attract a partner. Many people often use fashion as an indicator of what a person is like. As well as showing certain features of a person's personality that appeal to prospective mates, keeping up with fashion can advertise a person's status to such cand |
orm of the word "you" in Esperanto and English, respectively, are almost never used. Results on Google have shown that while ''tu'' is only slightly less common than ''vu'' in Ido, ''ci'' is used less than half of one percent of the amount ''vi'' is in Esperanto. Esperanto's inventor himself did not include the pronoun in the first book on Esperanto and only later reluctantly; later he recommended against using ''ci'' on the grounds that different cultures have conflicting traditions regarding the use of the familiar and formal forms of "you", and that a universal language should avoid the problem by simply using the formal form in all situations. Unlike some other languages that use a formal second person pronoun, ''vi'' is not capitalized. {{ref|eventoj}}</small>
<small>² ''tiu'', though not a pronoun, is usually used in this circumstance, because many people have a hard time applying "it" to humans.</small>
It should be noted that ''ol'', like English ''it'' and Esperanto ''ĝi'', is not limited to inanimate objects, but can be used "for entities whose sex is indeterminate: ''babies, children, humans, youths, elders, people, individuals, horses, cows, cats,'' etc."
''Lu'' is often mistakenly labeled an [[epicene]] pronoun, that is, one that refers to both masculine and feminine beings, but in fact ''lu'' is more properly a "pan-gender" pronoun, as it is also used for referring to inanimate objects. From ''Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza di la Linguo Internaciona Ido'' by Beaufront:
<small>''Lu'' (like ''li'') is used ''for all three genders.'' That ''lu'' does duty for the three genders at will in the singular is not in itself any more astonishing than seeing ''li'' serve the three genders at will in the plural ... By a decision (1558) the Idist Academy rejected every restriction concerning the use of ''lu.'' One may thus use that pronoun in exactly the same way for a thing and a person of obvious sex as for animals of unknown sex and a person that has a genderless name, like ''baby, child, human,'' etc., these being as truly masculine as feminine.</small>
<small>The motives for this decision were given in "Mondo", XI, 68: ''Lu'' for the singular is exactly the same as ''li'' for the plural. Logic, symmetry and ease demand this. Consequently, just as ''li'' may be used for people, animals, and things whenever nothing obliges one to express the gender, so ''lu'' may be used for people, animals, and things under the same condition. The proposed distinction would be a bothersome subtlety...</small>
===Vocabulary===
Vocabulary in Ido is based on words that give the greatest facility to the most number of speakers. During its inception the first 5000+ roots were analyzed compared to the vocabulary of English, French, Spanish, German, Russian and Italian, and the following result was found {{ref|dyer}}:
*2024 roots (38%) belong to 6 languages
*942 roots (17%) belong to 5 languages
*1111 roots (21%) belong to 4 languages
*585 roots (11%) belong to 3 languages
*454 roots (8%) belong to 2 languages
*255 roots (5%) belong to 1 language
**Total 5371 100%
In addition, a comparison of Ido vocabulary to the six shows the following for the similarities of Ido to the six languages above:
*French 4880: 91%
*Italian 4454: 83%
*Spanish 4237: 79%
*English 4219: 79%
*German 3302: 61%
*Russian 2821: 52%
This is consistent with the fact that Ido is sometimes mistaken for French, Italian or Spanish at first sight.
Comparison of vocabulary with the six languages:
{| class="wikitable"
!Ido!!English!!Italian!!French!!German!!Russian!!Spanish
|-
|'''bona'''||good ("bonus")||buono||bon||gut ("Bonus")||khoroshiy (dobriy)||bueno
|-
|'''donar'''||give ("donor")||dare ("donare")||donner||geben||darit||dar, donar
|-
|'''filtrar'''||filter||filtrare||filtrer||filtern||filtrovat||filtrar
|-
|'''gardeno'''||garden||giardino||jardin||Garten||ogorod||jardín
|-
|'''kavalo'''||horse ("cavalry")||cavallo||cheval||Pferd ("Kavallerie")||kon||caballo
|-
|'''maro'''||sea ("marine")||mare||mer||Meer||more||mar
|-
|'''naciono'''||nation||nazione||nation||Nation||natsia||nación
|-
|'''studiar'''||study||studiare||étudier||studieren||izuchat||estudiar
|-
|'''yuna'''||young||giovane ("junior")||jeune||jung||molodoy (yuniy)||joven
|-
|}
Vocabulary in Ido is often created through a number of official prefixes and suffixes that alter the meaning of the word. This allows a user to take existing words and modify them to create [[neologism|neologisms]] when necessary, and allows for a wide range of expression without the need to learn new vocabulary each time. Though their number is too large to be included in one article, some examples include:
*The diminutive suffix '''-et-'''. '''Domo''' (house) becomes '''dometo''' (cottage), and '''libro''' (book) becomes '''libreto''' (novelette or short story).
*The pejorative suffix '''-ach-'''. '''Domo''' becomes '''domacho''' (hovel), and '''libro''' becomes '''libracho''' (a shoddy piece of work, pulp fiction, etc.)
*The prefix '''retro-''', which implies a reversal. '''Irar''' (to go) becomes '''retroirar''' (to go back, backward) and '''venar''' becomes '''retrovenar''' (to return).
New vocabulary is generally created through an analysis of the word, its [[etymology]], and reference to the six source languages. If a word can be created through vocabulary already existing in the language then it will usually be adopted without need for a new radical (such as '''wikipedio''' for ''wikipedia'', which consists of '''wiki''' + '''enciklopedio''' for ''encyclopedia''), and if not an entirely new word will be created. The word '''alternatoro''' for example was adopted in [[1926]], likely because five of the six source languages used largely the same [[orthography]] for the word, and because it was long enough to avoid being mistaken for other words in the existing vocabulary. {{ref|neologismo}} Adoption of a word is done through consensus, after which the word will be made official by the [[Uniono por la Linguo Internaciona Ido|union]]. Care must also be taken to avoid [[homonym]]s if possible, and usually a new word undergoes some discussion before being adopted. Foreign words that have a restricted sense and are not likely to be used in everyday life (such as the word ''[[intifada]]'' to refer to the conflict between [[Israel]] and [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]]) are left untouched, and often written in italics.
==Ido-speaking community==
The vast majority of Ido speakers find out about the language after learning about Esperanto, and so the percentage of Idists who know Esperanto is much higher than vice versa. The largest number of Ido speakers are found in [[Germany]], [[France]], and [[Spain]].
As with all constructed languages, gauging the number of speakers of Ido is an extremely difficult task. Moreover, it is also necessary to distinguish between the number of Ido ''speakers'' and Ido ''supporters''. Ido resembles Esperanto, and many Esperantists have learned Ido out of curiosity while still not using it, preferring to support the more well-known Esperanto movement instead. On one Esperanto bulletin board was written the following which sums this up well:
<blockquote>Mi provis Idon antaŭ Esperanto, kaj alvenis konklude: la diferoj estas efike trivialaj, komparite al pli gravaj koncernaĵoj (kiujn mi ne detalos ĉi tie). Pro tio mi elektis subteni Esperanton, kaj ne subteni Idon, kvankam eble mi lernos Idon por hobio. Tamen via id-vortoj estas bone komprenebla al mi, kaj mi uzus Idon, se ne ekzistis tre pli subtenita lingvo<br>
<br>I tried Ido before Esperanto, and came to conclude that the differences are in fact trivial, compared to larger concerns (that I will not go into detail about here). For that <i>[the larger speaker community and volume of material]</i> I chose to support Esperanto and not to support Ido, though I will be able to learn Ido as a hobby. However, your writing in Ido <i>[responding to an Ido speaker]</i> is comprehensible to me, and I would use Ido, if there did not exist a much more supported language. [http://gxangalo.com/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=112&viewmode=flat&order=ASC&start=19] </blockquote>
It is possible to find trilingual discussions of this nature on the Internet in English, Esperanto and Ido, each understanding the other with little problem.
A number of Esperantists viewed the schism of Ido as a mixed blessing, and a number of writings show that some were inversely glad to see those who were interested only in creating a perfect language by constantly reforming it leave the fold so that those remaining could work on using and promoting the language itself. However, these "constant reformers" eventually moved on to other reform projects, few of which survived much beyond the deaths of the authors themselves, and Ido has remained constant since then&mdash;it is safe to say that were Ido a community of language reformers during its early days, that this is not the case anymore. {{ref|changes}}
A small sample of 24 Idists during late 2005 showed that 57% had begun their studies of the language during the past three years, 32% from the mid-1990s to 2002, and 8% had known the language from before.
==Language examples==
===La Princeto (The Little Prince)===
:Chapter 17 of [[The Little Prince]]; the conversation between the Little Prince and the snake upon his arrival on Earth. The title of the Ido-language version is '''La Princeto'''.
'''CHAPITRO XVII'''
:(...)
:&ndash;Bona nokto ! &ndash;dicis la surprizata princeto.
:&ndash;Bona nokto ! &ndash;dicis la serpento.
:&ndash;Adsur qua planeto me falis ? &ndash;questionis la princeto.
:&ndash;Adsur Tero, |
[[as of 2003|2003]].
Unfortunately, many manufacturers add additional coloring to disguise their cyanine CD-Rs, so you cannot determine the formulation of a disc based purely on its color. Similarly, a gold reflective layer does not guarantee use of phthalocyanine dye.
== Writing methods ==
The blank disc has a pre-groove track onto which the data is written. The pre-groove track, which also contains timing information, ensures that the recorder follows the same spiral
path as a conventional CD. Instead of pressing a CD with indentations, a CD-R writes data to a disc by using its lasers to physically "burn" the organic dye. When heated beyond a
certain temperature, the area that was "burned" becomes opaque and reflects less light than the areas that have not been "burned". Note that the "burning" process does not produce the conventional indentations (pits). The reflection modulation can be detected by a photo-diode.
Upon reading back the stored information, the laser operates at a low enough power not to "burn" the dye and an ''optical pick-up'' records the changes in the intensity of the reflected laser radiation when scanning along the groove and over the pits. The change of the intensity of the reflected laser radiation is transformed into an electrical signal, from which the digital information is recovered ("decoded"). The decomposition of the dye in the pit area through the heat of the laser is irreversible (permanent). Therefore, once a section of a CD-R is written, it cannot be erased or rewritten, unlike a [[CD-RW]]. A CD-R can be recorded in multiple sessions.
A [[CD recorder]] can write to a CD-R using several methods including:
#[[Disc At Once]] - the whole CD-R is written in one session with no gaps and the disc is "closed" meaning no more data can be added and the CD-R effectively becomes a standard read-only CD. With no gaps between the tracks the Disc At Once format is useful for "live" audio recordings.
#[[Track At Once]] - data is written to the CD-R one track at a time but the CD is left "open" for further recording at a later stage. It also allows data and audio to reside on the same CD-R.
#[[Packet Writing]] - used to record data to a CD-R in packets allowing extra information to be appended to a disc at a later time or information on the disc can be made "invisible". In this way CD-R can emulate CD-RW however each time information on the disc is altered more data has to be written to the disc. There can be compatibility issues with this format and some CD drives.
A rough estimation of the amount of data on a CD-R can be gained by inspecting the playback side of the disc. A visible variation in the surface can be observed. CD-Rs are written from the center of the disc outwards.
==Optimal storage conditions and expected lifespan==
At present, stated CD-R lifetimes are only ''estimates'' based on [[accelerated aging]] tests as the technology has not been in existence long enough to verify the upper range. With proper care it is thought that CD-Rs should be readable one thousand times or more and have a shelf life of several hundred years. Unfortunately, ''some common practices can reduce shelf life to only one or two years.'' Therefore, it is important to handle and store CD-Rs properly if you wish to read them more than a year or so later.
Burned CD-Rs suffer from material degradation, just like most writeable media. Optical discs commonly used for burning, such CD-R and [[CD-RW]] have a recording surface consisting of a layer of dye that can be modified by heat to store data. The degradation process can result in the data "shifting" on the surface and thus becoming unreadable to the laser beam.
Recommended care and storage practices for CD-Rs include:
*Store vertically in jewel cases or slim-line cases, one disc to a spindle. Archival cases use a ridged ring which grip the disc and prevent the recording surface from touching the surface of the case.
*Avoid bending the disc. To remove a CD-R from a jewel case, press down on the hub while gently gripping the edges of the disc; you should be able to simply lift the disk out of the case.
*Always hold a CD-R by lightly gripping the edges of the disc. Try to avoid getting fingperprints on the data side of the disc.
*Store in a cool, dry place. Optimal temperature range is 5-20°C (41-68°F). Optimal relative [[humidity]] range is 30-50%. These values should not be allowed to change rapidly.
*Avoid direct sunlight. Sunlight can heat a jewel case and indirectly thermally stress the disc itself. Direct [[UV radiation]] on either side of the disc itself can degrade the dye layer in a CD-R. On the other hand, smaller doses of X-ray radiation, from [[airport security|airport screening]] for example, and magnetism should not affect a CD-R.
*If possible, use only a ''felt-tip water-based marker'' to mark the label side of the CD-R. The best place to label a CD-R is the clear inner part near the center. [[Alcohol]]-based markers are thought to be less harmful than xylene or toluene-based markers. Typical [[permanent marker]]s are [[xylene]] or [[toluene]] based and should never be used to label optical media. Many vendors sell marking pens which are safe to use to label optical storage media.
*Paper labels should be applied to the ''outside'' of the jewel case, not to the label side of the CD-R itself. Over time, solvents in the paper, adhesives and inks can all degrade the disc. Labels applied unevenly to the disc can also cause the CD-R to [[wobble]] in high speed players and render them unusable.
*Avoid scratching either side of a CD-R. Perhaps counterintuitively even minor scratches on the ''label'' side can damage a disc, as the layer of plastic between the label side and the reflective layer is much thinner than the other side. Because CD-Rs use [[error-correcting code]]s, minor scratches on the data side should not render the disc unreadable, unless there are many of them close together. Deep scratches on the data side can interfere with the focus of the laser and render a disc unreadable. Scratches from rim to center are less harmful than concentric circular scratches. Writing on the label side of CD-R with a [[ballpoint pen]] can destroy it.
*Whilst '''not water proof''', CD-Rs are not greatly affected by exposure to water unless they have inkjet printing on the label side. Water will cause any inkjet printing to run unless it is protected by an outer layer.
== Cleaning CD-Rs ==
As a general rule only clean a CD-R if the playback is affected. The error correction of CD-R can effectively read through fingerprints as well as a highly scratched information surface.
Excess dust can be removed from the information surface by very lightly wiping the information side with a very soft cloth (such as a reading glasses cleaning cloth) from the centre of the disc in an outwards direction. Never wipe the information surface of any type of CD in a circular motion around the centre as this may create scratches in the same direction as the information and potentially cause data loss. An even gentler method is to blow the dust away using a can of pressurized clean air.
Fingerprints or stubborn dust can be removed from the information surface by wiping it with a cloth dampened with alcohol ([[methylated spirits]] or [[isopropyl alcohol]]) and again wiping from the centre outwards, with a very soft cloth.
'''Never''' use [[acetone]], nailpolish remover, [[kerosene]], [[petrol]] ([[gasoline]]) or any other type of petroleum-based solvent to clean a CD-R. Use of petroleum based solvents will damage the polycarbonate surface and the CD-R will become unreadable. Use only alcohol based products.
==Readability in CD drives==
There was some incompatibility with CD-Rs and older CD-ROM drives. This was primarily due to the lower reflectivity of the CD-R disc. In general, CD-ROM drives marked as 8x or greater will read CD-R discs. Some [[DVD player]]s will not read CD-Rs because of this change in reflectivity as well.
== See also ==
* [[CD-ROM]], [[GD-ROM]]
* [[DVD]], [[DVD-R]], [[DVD+R]], [[DVD+R DL]]
* [[CD recorder]]
* [[MultiLevel Recording]]
* [[LightScribe]]
* [[Rainbow Books]]
==External links==
* [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R & CD-RW] by Hugh Bennett
* [http://www.cdrfaq.org/ The CD-R FAQ]
* [http://www.osta.org/specs/pdf/opc.pdf Running Optimum Power Control: Data Integrity in CD-Recording] by Hugh Bennett
* [http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub121/contents.html Care and Handling of CDs and DVDs: A Guide for Librarians and Archivists], by Fred R. Byers; issued by the Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR) and [[NIST]]
* [http://www.chipchapin.com/CDMedia/cdr3.php3 Pregroove and timing on a CD-R]
* [http://msn.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,124312,00.asp?GT1=7645 Do Burned Cds have a short lifespan?]
[[Category:CD]]
[[Category:120 mm discs]]
[[Category:Audio storage]]
[[Category:Video storage]]
[[de:CD-R]]
[[es:CD-R]]
[[fr:Disque compact enregistrable]]
[[nl:CD-R]]
[[it:CD-R]]
[[he:CD-R]]
[[ja:CD-R]]
[[pl:CD-R]]
[[pt:CD-R]]
[[ru:CD-R]]
[[zh:CD-R]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cytosol</title>
<id>6781</id>
<revision>
<id>39898382</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T17:46:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fuzzform</username>
<id>546423</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */ not in standard format, but at least it's there</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''cytosol''' (cf. ''[[cytoplasm]]'', which also includes the [[organelle]]s) is the internal fluid of the [[cell (biology)|cell]], and a portion of [[cell metabolism]] occurs here. [[Protein]]s within the cytosol play an important role in [[signal transduction]] pathways and [[glycolysis]]. They also act as intracellular [[receptor]]s |
value <code>20</code> {{ref|javascript}}.
===Cookie attributes===
Beside the name/value pair, a cookie may also contain an expiration date, a [[path (computing)|path]], a [[domain name]], and whether the cookie is intended only for [[Transport Layer Security|encrypted connection]]s. RFC 2109 also specifies that cookies must have a mandatory [[version]] number, but this is usually omitted. These pieces of data follows the <code>name=value</code> pair and are separated by semicolons. For example, a cookie can be created by the server by sending a line <code>Set-Cookie: name=value; expires=date; path=/; domain=.domain.com</code>.
The domain and path tell the browser that the cookie has to be sent back to the server when requesting [[URL]]s of a given domain and path. If not specified, they default to the domain and path of the object that was requested. As a result, the domain and path strings may tell the browser to send the cookie when it normally would not. For security reasons, the cookie is accepted only if the server is a member of the domain specified by the domain string.
Cookies are actually identified by the triple name/domain/path, not only the name (the original Netscape specification considers only the pair name/path). In other words, same name but different domains or paths identify different cookies with possibly different values. As a result, cookie values are changed only if a new value is given for the same name, domain, and path.
The expiration date tells the browser when to delete the cookie. If no expiration date is provided, the cookie is deleted at the end of the user session, that is, when the user quits the browser. As a result, specifying an expiration date is a means for making cookies to survive across browser sessions. For this reasons, cookies that have an expiration date are called ''persistent''.
The expiration date is specified in the "Wdy, DD-Mon-YYYY HH:MM:SS [[GMT]]" format. As an example, the following is a cookie sent by a [[Yahoo!]] mail server (the value string has been changed):
<code>Set-Cookie: DX=g=1&q=abcd&gtr=sdfsfo; expires=Thu, 15&nbsp;Apr 2010 20:00:00 GMT; path=/; domain=.yahoo.com</code>
The name of this particular cookie is simply <code>DX</code>, while its value is the string <code>g=1&q=abcd&gtr=sdfsfo</code>. The server can use an arbitrary string as the value of a cookie. In this particular case, the server collapsed the value of a number of variables in a single string. The path and domain strings <code>/</code> and <code>.yahoo.com</code> tell the browser to send the cookie when requesting an arbitrary page of the domain <code>.yahoo.com</code>, with an arbitrary path.
===Expiration===
Cookies expire, and are therefore not sent by the browser to the server, under these conditions:
# at the end of the user session (i.e. when the browser is shut down) if the cookie is not persistent
# an expiration date has been specified, and has passed
# the expiration date of the cookie is changed (by the server or the script) to a date in the past
# the browser deletes the cookie by user request
The third condition allows a server or script to explicitly delete a cookie.
===Authentication===
Cookies can be used by a server to recognize authenticated users and to personalize the web pages of a site depending on the preferences of a user. This can be done for example as follows:
# the user inserts username and password in the text fields of a login page and sends them to the server;
# the server receives username and password and checks them; if correct, it sends back a page confirming that logging has been successful together with a cookie, storing the pair user/cookie;
# every time the user requests a page from the server, the browser automatically sends the cookie back to the server; the server compares the cookie with the stored ones; if a match is found, the server knows which user has requested that page.
This is the method commonly used by many sites that allow logging in, such as [[Yahoo!]] and [[Wikipedia]].
===Personalization===
Cookies can be used for allowing users to express preferences about a Web site. For example, the [[Google]] [[search engine]] allows the user to choose how many results are to be shown for every query, and this choice is maintained across sessions.
If a user was authenticated using the technique above, when they request a page the server is also sent the cookie associated with the user. It can therefore adapt the requested page to the stored used preferences. When authentication is not used, the user preferences are stored in a cookie. The users select their preference by entering them in a Web form and submitting it to the server. The browser encodes them in a cookie and sends it back to the browser. This way, every time the user accesses a page, the server is also sent the cookie where the preferences are stored, and can personalize the page according to the user preferences.
For example, Google stores the user preferences in a cookie of name <code>PREF</code>. This cookie is created with default values when the user accesses the site for the first time. For example, the cookie value contains the string <code>NR=10</code>, that indicates a default preference of ten hits displayed in each page. If the user changes this number to 20 in the preference page, the server modifies the cookie with <code>NR=20</code>. Every time the user queries the search engine, the cookie is sent to the server along with the query. This way, the server knows how many hits have to be shown in each page.
===Tracing===
Cookies can also be used for tracing the path of a user while visiting the web pages of a site. This can also be done in part by using the [[IP address]] of the computer requesting the page or the [[referer]] field of the [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP header]], but cookies allows for a greater precision. This can be done for example as follows:
# if the user requests a page of the site, but the request contains no cookie, the server presumes that this is the first page visited by the user; the server creates a random string and sends it as a cookie back to the browser together with the requested page;
# from this point on, the cookie will be automatically sent by the browser to the server every time a new page from the site is requested; the server sends the page as usual, but also store the URL of the requested page along with the date/time and the cookie in a log file.
By looking at the log file, it is then possible to find out which pages, and in which sequence, the user has visited. For example, if the log contains some requests done using the cookie <code>id=dfhsiw</code>, these requests all come from the same user. The URL and time/date stored with the cookie allows finding out which pages the user has visited, and at which time.
===Third party cookies===
Images or other objects contained in a Web page may reside in servers different from the one holding the page. In order to show such a page, the browser downloads all these objects, possibly receiving cookies. These cookies are called ''third-party cookies'' if the server sending them is located outside the domain of the Web page.
This condition is common with on-line advertisment. Indeed, [[Web banner]]s are typically stored in servers of the advertising company, which are not in the domain of the Web pages showing them. If third-party cookies are not rejected by the browser, an advertising company can track a user across the sites where it has placed a banner. In particular, whenever a user views a page containing a banner, the browser retrieves the banner from a server of the advertising company. If this server has previously set a cookie, the browser sends it back, allowing the advertising company to link this access with the previous one. By chosing a unique banner URL for every Web page where it is placed or by using the HTTP referer field, the advertising company can then find out which pages the user has viewed. The same technique can be used with [[Web bug]]s, that are still images embedded in a Web page, but are invisible to the user.
Third-party cookies are used to create an anonymous [[profile]] of the user. This allows the advertising company to select the banner to show to a user based on the user's profile. The advertising industry has always denied any other use of these profiles.
Many modern browsers, such as [[Internet Explorer]], [[Opera (browser)|Opera]] and [[Firefox (browser)|Firefox]], block third party cookies if requested by the user.
===Basket===
Some on-line shopping sites allow a user, even if unlogged, to store a number of items in a "virtual basket". The user starts navigating the site with an empty bag, and can add items to the bag while visiting the site. The list of items the user has chosen can be stored using cookies. For example, the server sends an empty cookie to the browser when the user visits the first page; whenever the user adds an item to the basket, the server adds the name of the item to the cookie.
This is a very insecure mechanism, because a malicious user can alter the cookie; a much more secure mechanism is to generate a random cookie as under "tracing", and using that as a lookup key in a database stored on the server.
===Cookie theft===
The cookie specifications constrain cookies to be sent back only to the servers in the same domain as the server originating them. However, the value of cookies can be sent to other servers using means different from the <code>Cookie</code> header.
In particular, scripting languages such as [[JavaScript]] and [[JScript]] are usually allowed access to cookie values and have some means to send arbitrary values to arbitrary servers on the [[Internet]]. These f |
miles) south of the city [http://www.asgdd.it//amevceme.htm], British and Commonwealth soldiers a few kilometers east of the center on the north bank of the Arno [http://www.veteransagency.mod.uk/remembrance/remembrance_cwgc6.htm])
In November 1966 the Arno flooded parts of the centre, damaging many art treasures. There was no warning from the authorities who knew the flood was coming, except a phone call to the jewellers on the Ponte Vecchio.
===Florence and the Renaissance===
The surge in artistic, literary, and scientific investigation that occurred in Florence in the [[14th century|14th]]-[[16th century|16th]] centuries was precipitated by Florentines' preoccupation with money, banking and trade and with [[conspicuous consumption|the display of wealth and leisure]].
Added to this, the crises of the [[Catholic]] church (especially the controversy over the French [[Avignon Papacy]] and the [[Western Schism|Great Schism]]) along with the catastrophic effects of the [[Black Death]] were to lead to a re-evaluation of [[medieval]] values, resultant in the development of a [[humanist]] culture, stimulated by the works of [[Petrarch]] and [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]]. This prompted a revisitation and study of the [[classical antiquity]], leading to the [[Renaissance]]. Florence benefited materially and culturally from this sea-change in [[social consciousness]].
==Geography==
{{section stub}}
===Climate===
{| class="wikitable"
! style="background: #99CCCC; color: #000080" height="17" | Month
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Jan
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Feb
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Mar
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Apr
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | May
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Jun
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Jul
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Aug
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Sep
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Oct
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Nov
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Dec
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Year
|-
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Avg high [°C](°F)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;" | 10 (50)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;" | 12 (54)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;" | 15 (59)
| style="background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;" | 19 (66)
| style="background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;" | 23 (74)
| style="background: #FF9900; color:#000080;" | 27 (81)
| style="background: #FF9900; color:#000080;" | 31 (88)
| style="background: #FF9900; color:#000080;" | 31 (87)
| style="background: #FF9900; color:#000080;" | 27 (80)
| style="background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;" | 21 (70)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;" | 15 (59)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;" | 11 (51)
| style="background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;" | 20 (68)
|-
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" height="16;" | Avg low temperature [°C](°F)
| style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;" | 2 (35)
| style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;" | 3 (37)
| style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;" | 5 (41)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color: black;" | 8 (46)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color: black;" | 11 (52)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color: black;" | 15 (59)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color: black;" | 17 (63)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color: black;" | 17 (63)
| style="background: #FFCC66; color: black;" | 14 (58)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color: black;" | 10 (50)
| style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;" | 6 (42)
| style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;" | 2 (36)
| style="background: #FFFF99; color: black;" | 9 (49)
|-
! style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;" | Rainfall ([[millimeters]])(inches)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | ? (2.90)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | ? (2.70)
| style="background: #44AADD;" | ? (3.20)
| style="background: #44AADD;" | ? (3.10)
| style="background: #44AADD;" | ? (2.90)
| style="background: #66CCFF;" | ? (2.20)
| style="background: #66CCFF;" | ? (1.60)
| style="background: #66CCFF;" | ? (3.00)
| style="background: #66CCFF;" | ? (3.10)
| style="background: #44AADD;" | ? (3.50)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | ? (4.40)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | ? (3.60)
| style="background: #2288BB;" | ? (?)
|}
==A tour of Florence==
[[Image:florence duomo tower.jpg|thumb|Florence Duomo and Campanile Tower]]
[[Image:Duomo combine.jpg|thumb|Combination pic of the view from the tower looking towards the Duomo]]
[[Image:Florence ponte vecchio.jpg|thumb|Ponte Vecchio]]
[[Image:Florence italy duomo.jpg|thumb|The Duomo in Florence is constantly being cleaned to remove the effects of pollution]]
[[Image:Florence bridges.jpg|right|thumb|The bridges of Florence at sunset from Piazzale Michelangelo]]
At the heart of the city is the [[Fountain of Neptune]], which is a masterpiece of marble sculpture at the terminus of a still functioning Roman [[aqueduct]].
The [[Arno river]], which cuts through the old part of the city, is as much a character in Florentine history as many of the men who lived there. Historically, the locals have had a love-hate relationship with the Arno &mdash; which alternated from nourishing the city with commerce, and destroying it by flood. Many of the bridges across the Arno were built by the Romans.
One of the bridges in particular, however, stands out as being unique &mdash; The [[Ponte Vecchio]], whose most striking feature is the multitude of shops built upon its edges, held up by stilts. First constructed by the [[Etruscans]] in ancient times, this bridge is the only one in the city to have survived [[World War II]] intact.
The most famous palace in the city is [[Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze|San Lorenzo]], which has become a monument to the [[Medici family]] who were one of the most powerful families in Florence during the [[15th century]]. Nearby is the [[Uffizi]] Gallery, one of the finest art galleries in the world.
The Uffizi itself is located on the corner of Piazza della Signoria, a site important for three main reasons:
* In [[1301]], it was where Dante was sent into Exile (a plaque on one of the walls of the Uffizi commemorates the event).
* In [[1497]], it was the location of the [[Bonfire of the Vanities]] (a plaque in the middle of the plaza commemorates that event), followed in [[1498]] by the execution of its instigator, [[Girolamo Savonarola]]
* In [[1504]], it was the original location of [[Michelangelo's David]] (now replaced by a reproduction as the original was moved indoors to the [[Accademia dell' Arte del Disegno]]), in front of the [[Palazzo della Signoria]] (aka Palazzo Vecchio).
In addition to the Uffizi, Florence has other world-class museums:
The [[Bargello]] concentrates on [[sculpture]], containing many priceless works of art created by such sculptors as [[Donatello]], [[Giambologna]], and [[Michelangelo]].
The ''[[Accademia dell' Arte del Disegno]]'' (often simply called the ''Accademia'') collection's highlights are [[Michelangelo's David]] and his ''Slaves''.
Across the Arno is the huge [[Pitti Palace]] lavishly decorated with the Medici family's former private collection. Adjoining the Palace are the [[Boboli Gardens]], elaborately landscaped and with many interesting sculptures.
The elaborate [[Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence|Santa Croce]] church contains the monumental tombs of [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], Michelangelo, [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]], Dante (actually a [[cenotaph]]), and many other notables.
The crowning architectural jewel of Florence is the domed cathedral of the city, [[Santa Maria del Fiore]], known as "The [[Duomo]]". The magnificent [[dome]] was built by [[Filippo Brunelleschi]]. The nearby [[Campanile]] Tower (by [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]]) and the [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)|Baptistery]] buildings are also highlights.
Other important [[Basilica|basilicas]] in Florence include [[Santa Maria Novella]], [[Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze|San Lorenzo]], [[Santo Spirito]] and the [[Orsanmichele]].
The city's principal football team is [[AC Fiorentina]].
Florence has been the setting for numerous works of [[fiction]] and [[film|movie]]s, including the [[novel]]s and associated films ''[[Hannibal (movie)|Hannibal]]'' and [[A Room with a View]].
==Demography==
Like many cities in [[Italy]], the pensioner population overwhelms those who are under 14 years of age. This ageing process is due to low [[fertility]] which is widespread in Italy.
'''Age Structure'''
*0-14: 11.0%
*15-64: 63.2%
*65+: 25.8%
'''Racial Profile'''
*91.8% [[Italy|Italian]]
*1.0% [[China|Chinese]]
*1.0% [[Albania|Albanian]]
==Transportation==
The principle transportation network within the city is run by the [http://www.ataf.net/Default_EN.asp ATAF and Li-nea] bus company, with tickets available at local tabacconists. [http://www.trenitalia.com/en/index.html Trenitalia] runs trains between the railway stations within the city, and to other destinations around [[Europe]]. Long distance buses are run by the SITA, Copit, CAP and Lazzi buses.
The centre of the city is closed to through-traffic, although [[bus]]es, [[taxi]]s and residents with appropriate permits are allowed in.
An urb |
here''<br />
''Cannot lacerate his breast.''<br />
''Imitate him if you dare,''<br />
''World-besotted traveller; he''<br />
''Served human liberty.'' — by and for [[Jonathan Swift]], translated from latin by [[William Butler Yeats]]
''Stranger by the roadside, do not smile''<br />
''When you see this grave, though it is only a dog's,''<br />
''My master wept when I died, and his own hand''<br />
''Laid me in earth and wrote these lines on my tomb.'' — (unknown origin)
''This Grave''<br />
''contains all that was mortal''<br />
''of a''<br />
''YOUNG ENGLISH POET''<br />
''who''<br />
''on his Death-Bed''<br />
''in the Bitterness of his heart''<br />
''at the Malicious Power of his enemies''<br />
''desired these words to be engraven on his Tomb Stone''<br />
''"HERE LIES ONE''<br />
'' WHOSE NAME WAS WRIT IN WATER"''<br />
''FEB 24 1821'' — [[John Keats]]
''Here lies one of the most intelligent animals who ever appeared on the face of the earth.'' — ([[Benito Mussolini]])
''Never Born, Never Died—Only visited this planet Earth between December 11, 1931 and January 19,1990.'' — ([[Rajneesh]])
''That's all folks!'' — ([[Mel Blanc]])
''[[Love Will Tear Us Apart]]'' — ([[Ian Curtis]])
''I hope for nothing. I fear nothing. I am free.''(translated) - ([[Nikos Kazantzakis]])
''Dúirt mé leat go raibh mé breoite'' — ([[Spike Milligan]], translation: "I told you I was ill")
[[J. R. R. Tolkien]] is buried next to his [[Edith Bratt|wife]], and on their tombstone the names "''[[Beren]]''" and "''[[Lúthien]]''" are engraved, a fact that sheds light on the love story of Beren and Lúthien which is recorded in several versions in his works.
''3.14159265358979323846264338327950288...'' - [[Ludolph van Ceulen]], he was so proud of his achievement, computing π (pi) to 35 digits, that he ordered it to be inscribed on his tombstone.
''Finally I am becoming stupider no more'' - [[Paul Erdos]], Hungarian mathematician.
==Other Epitaphs==
''Beware ye people passing by,''<br />
''As you are now, so once was I,''<br />
''And as I am now, so must you be,''<br />
''Prepare for death and follow me.'' — (Birdville Cemetary, Haltom City, Texas)
<!--
==Unusual events regarding epitaths==
In 2004, a teacher in [[northwestern China]] was put under investigation for getting his students write their own epitaphs. While the excerise was to develop students' values, and make them think about life, talking about death while still alive is a Chinese [[taboo]]. [http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1205330.html?menu=]
(Ananova has been known to pull stories out of their rear ends, so I say this goes until it can be confirmed by another independent news source. [[User:GusGus|Gus]] 05-Jan-6 7:20 PM EST)
-->
==See also==
* [[Chronogram]]
* [[Epigraph]]
==External links==
* [http://collections.iwm.org.uk/server/show/ConWebDoc.1261 What is the Kohima Epitaph?]
* [http://www.burmastar.org.uk/epitaph.htm Kohima Epitaph]
[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Inscriptions]]
[[da:Epitafium]]
[[de:Epitaph]]
[[es:Epitafio]]
[[fr:Épitaphe]]
[[he:אפיטף]]
[[nl:Grafschrift]]
[[pl:Epitafium]]
[[sk:Epitaf]]
[[sv:Epitafium]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epigram</title>
<id>10075</id>
<revision>
<id>42034522</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:00:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tomisti</username>
<id>348887</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[fi:Epigrammi]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''epigram''' is a short [[poem]] with a clever twist at the end or a concise and witty statement. They are among the best examples of the power of poetry to compress insight and [[wit]].
==Ancient Greek==
The epigram originated in Greece as a form for inscription on a monument or grave, hence the word 'epigram' from the Greek words meaning 'to write on'. Epigrams were thus much shorter than [[lyric poetry]] which developed from forms designed for performance accompanied by musical instruments.
One such monument inscription is [[Simonides of Ceos|Simonides's]] [[epitaph]] for the [[Sparta|Spartan]] dead after the [[Battle of Thermopylae]],which can be found in [[Herodotus]]' work [[The Histories]] (7.228), to the Spartans:
:::{{polytonic|&#8038; &#958;&#949;&#8150;&#957;', &#7936;&#947;&#947;&#8051;&#955;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#957; &#923;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#948;&#945;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#8055;&#959;&#953;&#962; &#8005;&#964;&#953; &#964;&#8135;&#948;&#949;}}
:::(O xein', angellein Lakedaimoniois hoti täde/
:::{{polytonic|&#954;&#949;&#8055;&#956;&#949;&#952;&#945; &#964;&#959;&#8150;&#962; &#954;&#949;&#8055;&#957;&#969;&#957; &#8165;&#8053;&#956;&#945;&#963;&#953; &#960;&#949;&#953;&#952;&#8057;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#953;}}.
:::keimetha tois keinon rhämasi peithomenoi.)
:Which to keep the poetic context can be translated as:
:::Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by
:::that here, obedient to their laws we lie
:or more literally as:
:::Oh foreigner, tell the [[Lacedaemon|Lacedaemonians]]
:::that here we lie, obeying those words.
Epigrams were not defined by their subject matter, however. The largest surviving collection, the [[Greek Anthology]], contains poems on love, inscriptions dedicating gifts to the [[Greek religion|gods]], moral or philosophical advice, and invective. Nor were epigrams required to be witty (though many, especially invectives and satirical ones, were). The defining characteristics of an epigram were its length, often restricted to a single couplet, and its [[meter (poetry)|meter]], almost always the [[elegiac couplet]].
Many noted Greek writers composed epigrams, including some, who, like [[Plato]], [[Solon]] and [[Aeschylus]], were more famous for their work in other genres. The 'Anthology' contains examples from very early Greek history all the way into the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period, and even some examples by [[Christian]]s. Epigrams were also written by women and other members of the less privileged classes. [[Nicarchus]] and [[Martial]] are two epigrammatists from the first century AD.
==Ancient Roman==
Roman epigrams owe much to their Greek predecessors and contemporaries. Roman epigrams, however, were more often satirical than Greek ones, and at times used obscene language for effect. Latin epigrams could be composed as inscriptions or [[graffiti]], such as this one from [[Pompeii]], which exists in several versions and seems from its inexact meter to have been composed by a less educated person. Its content, of course, makes it clear how popular such poems were:
::Admiror, O paries, te non cecidisse ruinis
::qui tot scriptorum taedia sustineas.
::I'm astonished, wall, that you haven't collapsed into ruins,
::since you're holding up the weary verse of so many poets.
However, in the literary world, epigrams were most often gifts to patrons or entertaining verse to be published, not inscriptions. Many Roman writers seem to have composed epigrams, including [[Domitius Marsus]], whose collection 'Cicuta' (now lost) was named after the poisonous [[hemlock]] tree for its biting wit, and [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]], more famous for his epic [[Pharsalia]]. Authors whose epigrams survive include [[Catullus]], who wrote both invectives and love epigrams-- his poem 85 is one of the latter.
::Odi et amo. Quare id faciam fortasse requiris.
:: Nescio, sed fieri sentio, et excrucior.
:: I hate and I love. Perhaps you're asking how I do this?
:: I don't know, but I feel it happening, and it's torture.
The master of the Latin epigram, however, is [[Martial]]. His technique relies heavily on the satirical poem with a joke in the last line, thus drawing him closer to the modern idea of epigram as a genre. Here he defines his genre against a (probably fictional) critic (in the latter half of 2.77):
::Disce quod ignoras: Marsi doctique Pedonis
::saepe duplex unum pagina tractat opus.
::Non sunt longa quibus nihil est quod demere possis,
::sed tu, Cosconi, disticha longa facis.
::Learn what you don't know: one work of (Domitius) Marsus or learned Pedo
::often stretches out over a doublesided page.
::A work isn't long if you can't take anything out of it,
::but you, Cosconius, write even a couplet too long.
==Poetic epigrams==
[[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] said,
:::What is an Epigram? A dwarfish whole;
:::Its body brevity, and wit its soul.
:::Little strokes
:::Fell great oaks.
::: &mdash; [[Benjamin Franklin]]
:::Here lies my wife: here let her lie!
:::Now she's at rest &mdash; and so am I.
:::&mdash; [[John Dryden]]
:::I am His Highness' dog at Kew;
:::Pray tell me, sir, whose dog are you?
::: &mdash; [[Alexander Pope]]
:::I'm tired of Love: I'm still more tired of Rhyme.
:::But Money gives me pleasure all the time.
::: &mdash; [[Hilaire Belloc]]
Some contemporary epigrams are collected at the [[Light Verse Resource Center]]. www.ddaze.com/04lvResource/zEpigram.htm
==Non-poetic epigrams==
Occasionally, simple and witty statements, though not poetical per se, may also be considered epigrams, such as one attributed to [[Oscar Wilde]]: "I can resist everything except temptation." [[Dorothy Parker]]'s witty one-liners can be considered epigrams. Also, [[Macdonald Carey]]'s legendary line "Like sands through the hourglass, so are the days of our lives" can be considered an epigram, as the meaning of life is concisely explained in a simile.
Another good example of a possible epigram,"The only way to get rid of a temptation |
14,781 kg
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture
|-
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001160.jpg|275px|Apollo 7 crew portrait (L-R: Eisle, Schirra and Cunningham)]]<br><small>''Apollo 7'' crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Eisle, Schirra and Cunningham)</small>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 7 crew
|}
'''Apollo 7''' was the first manned mission in the [[Apollo program]] to be launched. It was an eleven-day earth-orbital mission, the first manned launch of the [[Saturn IB]] launch vehicle, and the first three-man [[United States|American]] space mission.
==Crew==
*[[Wally Schirra]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 8]]'', ''[[Gemini 6A]]''), commander
*[[Donn Eisele]] (first time in space), command module pilot
*[[Walter Cunningham]] (first time in space), lunar module pilot
This crew was originally the backup crew of the ill-fated [[Apollo 1]].
===Backup Crew===
*[[Tom Stafford]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 6A]]'', ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo-Soyuz]]''), commander
*[[John_W._Young|John Young]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''[[Gemini 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-1]]'', ''[[STS-9]]''), command module pilot
*[[Eugene Cernan]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 17]]''), lunar module pilot
===Support Crew===
*[[Ron Evans]], (flew on ''[[Apollo 17]]'')
*[[Ed Givens]], (never flew in space due to being killed in a car accident)
*[[John Swigert]], (flew on ''[[Apollo 13]]'')
*[[William_Pogue|Bill Pogue]], (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'')
==Mission Parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:''' 14,781 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 231 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 297 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 31.63°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 89.78 min
===Rendezvous with spent S-IVB rocket stage===
*[[October 12]], [[1968]], 20:58:28 UTC
Stationkeeping with spent S-IVB rocket stage was performed for 25 minutes.
===See also===
*[[Splashdown]]
==Mission Highlights==
Apollo 7 was a confidence-builder. After the January 1967 [[Apollo 1|Apollo launch pad fire]], the Apollo command module had been extensively redesigned. Schirra, who would be the only astronaut to fly [[Mercury program|Mercury]], [[Gemini program|Gemini]] and Apollo missions, commanded this Earth-orbital shakedown of the command and service modules. Since it was not carrying a [[lunar module]], Apollo 7 could be launched with the [[Saturn IB]] booster rather than the much larger and more powerful [[Saturn V]].
The Apollo hardware and all mission operations worked without any significant problems, and the Service Propulsion System (SPS), the all-important engine that would place Apollo in and out of lunar orbit, made eight nearly perfect firings. Even though Apollo's larger cabin was more comfortable than Gemini's, eleven days in orbit took its toll on the astronauts. The food was bad, and all three developed colds. As a result Schirra became irritable with requests from Mission Control and all three began "talking back" to the [[capsule communicator|Capcom]] leading to none of the crew being selected for further missions. But the mission successfully proved the spaceworthiness of the basic Apollo vehicle.
Goals for the mission included the first live [[television]] broadcast from an American spacecraft ([[Gordon Cooper]] had broadcast slow scan television pictures from [[Mercury 9|Faith 7]] in 1963) and testing the [[lunar module]] docking maneuver.
First orbit: [[Perigee]] 231 km, [[Apogee]] 297 km, Period 89.78 min, Inclination 31.63 deg. Weight: C/SM 14,781 kg.
The splashdown point was 27 deg 32 min N, 64 deg 04 min W, 200 nautical miles (370 km) SSW of Bermuda and 13 km (8 mi) north of the recovery ship [[USS Essex (CV-9) | USS Essex]].
For nearly 30 years the Apollo 7 module was on loan (renewable every two years) to the National Museum of Science and Technology of Canada, in [[Ottawa]], along with the space suit worn by [[Wally Schirra]]. In November 2003 the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. requested them back for display at their new annex at the [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]].
The Apollo 7 Capsule is currently on display at the Frontiers of Flight Museum located next to Love Field in Dallas Texas. The spacecraft is on loan from the Smithsonian.
Apollo 7 was the only manned Apollo launch to take place from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's Launch Complex 34, as all subsequent Apollo (including Apollo-Soyuz) and Skylab missions were launched from [[Launch Complex 39]] at the nearby [[Kennedy Space Center]].
===Reference===
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
[[Image:Ap7-KSC-68PC-163.jpg|thumb|left|168px|Apollo 7 launch (NASA)]]
[[Image:As7-3-1545.jpg|thumb|left|255px|Apollo 7 SIV-B rocket stage (NASA)]]
[[Image:Apollo_7_Florida.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Apollo 7 view of Florida. (NASA)]]
<br style="clear: left"/>
{{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 6]]| after=[[Apollo 8]]}}
==External links==
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760072144_1976072144.pdf NASA Apollo 7 Mission Report - Dec. 1, 1968 (PDF format)]
*[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo7.htm Apollo 7 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]
[[Category:Human spaceflights|Apollo 07]]
[[Category:Apollo program|Apollo 07]]
[[Category:1968 in the United States]]
[[cs:Apollo 7]]
[[de:Apollo 7]]
[[fr:Apollo 7]]
[[it:Apollo 7]]
[[he:אפולו 7]]
[[hu:Apollo-7]]
[[nl:Apollo 7]]
[[pt:Apollo 7]]
[[ro:Apollo 7]]
[[sk:Apollo 7]]
[[fi:Apollo 7]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apollo 9</title>
<id>1774</id>
<revision>
<id>42106021</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:39:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right"
|+<font size="+1">'''Apollo 9'''</font>
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo-9-patch.jpg|200px|Apollo 9 insignia]]
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 9
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module:<br />''Gumdrop''<br />Lunar module:<br />''Spider''
|-
|'''Number of<br />crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[March 3]], [[1969]]<br />16:00:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A
|-
|'''EVA length:'''|| 1 h 8 min 1 s
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[March 13]], [[1969]]<br />17:00:54 UTC<br />23° 15' N - 67° 56' W
|-
|'''Duration:'''||10 d 1 h 0 min 54 s
|-
|'''Number of<br />orbits:'''||152
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 26,801 kg;<br />LM 14,575 kg
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001162.jpg|275px|Apollo 9 crew portrait (L-R: McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart)]] <br/>Apollo 9 crew portrait <br/>(L-R: McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart)
|-
!colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 9 Crew
|}
'''Apollo 9''' was the third manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]], a ten day earth-orbital mission launched [[3 March]] [[1969]]. It was the second manned flight of the Saturn V launch vehicle and the first manned flight of the [[Apollo Lunar Module]] (LM).
==Crew==
*[[James McDivitt]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 4]]'' & ''Apollo 9''), commander
*[[David Scott]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''Apollo 9'', & ''[[Apollo 15]]''), command module pilot
*[[Russell Schweickart]] (flew on ''Apollo 9''), lunar module pilot
===Backup crew===
*[[Pete Conrad]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 5]]'', ''[[Gemini 11]]'', ''[[Apollo 12]]'', ''[[Skylab 2]]''), commander
*[[Dick Gordon]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 11]]'', ''[[Apollo 12]]''), command module pilot
*[[Alan Bean]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 12]]'', ''[[Skylab 3]]''), lunar module pilot.
===Support crew===
*[[Fred Haise]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 13]]'')
*[[Jack Lousma]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 3]]'', ''[[STS-3]]'')
*[[Edgar Mitchell|Ed Mitchell]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 14]]'')
*[[Al Worden]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]'')
==Mission parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 26,801 kg; LM 14,575 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 189.5 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 192.4 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.57°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.64 min
===LM - CSM docking===
*'''Undocked''': [[March 7]], [[1969]] - 12:39:36 UTC
*'''Re-docked''':[[March 7]], [[1969]] - 19:02:26 UTC
===EVA===
* ''Schweickart'' - EVA - LM forward hatch
**'''Start''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 16:45:00 UTC
**'''End''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 17:52:00 UTC
**'''Duration''': 1 hour, 07 minutes
* ''Scott'' - EVA - CM side hatch
**'''Start''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 17:01:00 UTC
**'''End''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 18:02:00 UTC
**'''Duration''': 1 hour, 01 minute
===See also===
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
==Original mission profile==
In October 1967, it was planned that following the first manned orbital flight of the CSM ([[Apollo 7]], also known as the C Mission), the second manned Apollo m |
; and savior in Christian Science theology. Eddy distinguished between Jesus, the human man, and Christ, the eternal spirit of God that "animated" and inspired Jesus in his unparalleled ministry. Because of his special status due to the virgin birth and his pure, unselfish nature, Jesus voluntarily faced his struggle in Gethsemane, death, resurrection, and ascension to show humanity that no phase of mortal existence was beyond God's redeeming love. Eddy wrote: "Jesus of Nazareth taught and demonstrated man's oneness with the Father, and for this we owe him endless homage" (Science and Health 18). She taught that we are not Christians until we live, to some degree, the Christ-spirit Jesus suffered and rose to give us as his legacy. This was her understanding of his saying that "he that believeth on me, the works that I do shall he do also; and greater works than these shall he do, because I go unto my Father" (John 14:12). No one's ministry, however, can parallel or equal that of Jesus in Christian Science. Eddy even stipulated in her Church Manual that "careless comparison or irreverant reference to Christ Jesus is abnormal in a Christian Scientist and is prohibited" (41).
Christian Scientists are [[trinitarian]], but in an unorthodox way. Eddy calls the Godhead "Father Mother," signifying not an androgynous God but a God "without body, parts or passions," as in the [[Westminster creed]], who nevertheless functions both to govern and comfort. She calls Christ "the spiritual idea of sonship" that Jesus fully lived, or "demonstrated," for the sake of those who would follow him. She calls the Holy Ghost "divine Science or the Holy Comforter," the spiritual principles of Christian Science operating as the Holy Ghost in the world. (See Science and Health, 331).
=== Spiritual healing in the material world ===
Christian Science's focus on the idea of spiritual healing led to some measure of stir in the theological realm at first. Under the eye of the scientific revolutions of the 19th century, many mainstream denominations had relegated spiritual healing to the realm of a one-time [[dispensationalism|dispensation]] rather than a modern practice. During Christian Science's early days of rapid growth, claims of healing with Mary Baker Eddy's and the Science and Health's teachings became a subject of heated debate at Christian conventions, but for the same reason it also became a subject of reawakened interest in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].
While reliance on the theology of spiritual healing is important to Christian Scientists, it is also not officially required of them, which has led to mixed legal opinions as to what constitutes negligence in its use. Orthodox practitioners treating a patient who decides to switch to medical care will typically no longer pray for that person. "Mixing" of methods is discouraged among orthodox Christian Scientists because, according to Eddy, they work from opposite standpoints. In Christian Science, God made "man" perfect, so "prayerful treatment" works from the standpoint of perfection, seeing man in "reality" as God made him; whereas medical science works from the standpoint that something is wrong, which must first be diagnosed, then fixed.
Christian Science teaches that spiritual healing is a natural result of following Jesus' teachings. Healing was a major part of Jesus' ministry, and Christian Scientists see no basis for excluding it from the practice of modern day Christians. They believe that Jesus proved his teachings by his healings.
The Church claims to have over 50,000 testimonies of healing through Christian Science treatment alone. While most of these testimonies represent ailments neither diagnosed nor treated by medical professionals, the Church does require three other people to vouch for any testimony published in its official organ, the ''[[Christian Science Journal]]''. However, some critics of the Church complain that the verification guidelines are not strict enough, allowing verifiers who have not witnessed the claimed healing to "vouch for [the healing's] accuracy based on their knowledge of [the claimant]." (Taken from the Church's [http://www.spirituality.com/journal/testimony_guidelines.jhtml "Testimony guidelines"].)
Christian Scientists who wish to become public practitioners of Christian Science—spiritual healers—complete an intensive two-week "Primary" class. The instruction in this class is provided by a teacher. Teachers are added every three years by the church from the pool of active public practitioners. To become a teacher, they must first be selected by the church, then they take another class designated "Normal". Both classes are based on the Bible and the writings of Mary Baker Eddy. In particular, the "Primary" class focuses upon the chapter entitled "Recapitulation" in ''Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures''. This chapter uses the Socratic method of teaching and is where the "Scientific Statement of Being" is located. The "Normal" class focuses upon the Platform of Christian Science which is also found in ''[[Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures]]'', but begins on page 330 in the chapter entitled "Science of Being".
Ultimately, modern medical practice is more important to Christian Scientists than is believed by many outsiders looking in at the Church. Mrs. Eddy, the founder of the Church, said one may accept certain temporary aid from "materia medica" if a person is in such pain that he is unable to pray for himself.
["If patients fail to experience the healing power of Christian Science, and think they can be benefited by certain ordinary physical methods of medical treatment, then the Mind-physician should give up such cases, and leave invalids free to resort to whatever other systems they fancy will afford relief." Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures page 443]
While the Church does not require members to forgo medical treatment, most Christian Scientists do so voluntarily because of their faith and they feel they have a history of success with this alternative form of healing. Indeed, outsiders believe that the social pressures to eschew medical care is so strong among Christian Scientists that those who feel they must see a doctor endanger their social standing in the congregation, and depending on the policies of their local branch church, may be stripped of any church office or position they hold. However, the vast majority of Christian Scientists would feel this perspective is not borne out in their own actual experiences around choosing medical care.
== Organization ==
[[Image:Christian Science Mother Church, Boston, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|300px|The Mother Church, [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]].]]
The Mother Church is the church's world headquarters, and is located in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]. (An international daily newspaper, the ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', founded by Eddy in [[1908]] and winner of seven [[Pulitzer prize]]s, is published by the church through the [[Christian Science Publishing Society]].)
Branch Christian Science churches and Christian Science Societies are subordinate to the Mother Church, but are self-governed in the sense that they have their own constitutions, bank accounts, assets, etc., but in order to be recognised must abide by the practices that Mary Baker Eddy laid out in the ''[[Manual of The Mother Church]]''. Church services, along with every other aspect of church government, are regulated by the Manual, a constitution of sorts written by Eddy, and consisting of various regulations covering everything from the duties of officers, to discipline, to provisions for church meetings and publications.
The Manual enacted a rule of law over the Mother Church, though some controversy and historical ambiguity surround the Manual's current edition (the 89th), causing a minority of Christian Scientists to dispute the Manual's authority and authenticity.
Churches worldwide hold a one-hour service each Sunday, consisting of hymns, prayer, and readings from the ''[[King James Version]]'' of the [[Bible]] and ''[[Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures]]''. These readings are the weekly Lesson-Sermon, which is read aloud at all Sunday services in all Christian Science churches worldwide, and is studied by individuals at home throughout the preceding week. The Lesson, as it is informally called, is compiled by a committee at the Mother Church, and is made up of alternating passages from the Bible and Science and Health.
There are 26 set topics for the Lesson-Sermon, selected by Eddy herself. The topics follow each other in an unchanging, predetermined order, and the progression starts over mid-year so that every week in the year has a topic devoted to it.
The topics are:
*God
*Sacrament
*Life
*Truth
*Love
*Spirit
*Soul
*Mind
*Christ Jesus
*Man
*Substance
*Matter
*Reality
*Unreality
*Are Sin, Disease and Death Real?
*Doctrine of Atonement
*Probation After Death
*Everlasting Punishment
*Adam and Fallen Man
*Mortals and Immortals
*Soul and Body
*Ancient and Modern Necromancy, alias Mesmerism and Hypnotism, Denounced
*God the Preserver of Man
*Is the Universe, Including Man, Evolved by Atomic Force?
*Christian Science
In years in which there are 53 Sundays, the topic "Christ Jesus" occurs a third time, in December.
There is also a Lesson-Sermon for Thanksgiving Day.
Because there are no clergy in the church, branch church leadership consists of two Readers: the First Reader, who reads the passages from Science and Health at Sunday services, and the Second Reader, who reads the passages from the Bible. First Readers determine the hymns to be sung on |
nteger]]s, '''N'''<sup>+</sup> is the set of [[natural number]]s (except for [[0 (number)|zero]]), and '''Q''' is the set of [[rational number]]s, then [[division (mathematics)|division]] is a binary function from '''Z''' and '''N'''<sup>+</sup> to '''Q'''.
[[Naive set theory|Set-theoretically]], one may represent a binary function as a [[subset]] of the [[Cartesian product]] ''X'' × ''Y'' × ''Z'', where (''x'',''y'',''z'') belongs to the subset [[if and only if]] ''f''(''x'',''y'') = ''z''.
Conversely, a subset ''R'' defines a binary function if and only if, [[for any]] ''x'' in ''X'' and ''y'' in ''Y'', [[there exists]] a [[unique]] ''z'' in ''Z'' such that (''x'',''y'',''z'') belongs to ''R''.
We then define ''f''(''x'',''y'') to be this ''z''.
Alternatively, a binary function may be interpreted as simply a [[function (mathematics)|function]] from ''X'' × ''Y'' to ''Z''.
Even when thought of this way, however, one generally writes ''f''(''x'',''y'') instead of ''f''((''x'',''y'')).
(That is, the same pair of parentheses is used to indicate both function application and the formation of an [[ordered pair]].)
In turn, one can also derive ordinary functions of one variable from a binary function.
Given any element ''x'' of ''X'', there is a function ''f''<sup>''x''</sup>, or ''f''(''x'',·), from ''Y'' to ''Z'', given by ''f''<sup>''x''</sup>(''y'') := ''f''(''x'',''y'').
Similarly, given any element ''y'' of ''Y'', there is a function ''f''<sub>''y''</sub>, or ''f''(·,''y''), from ''X'' to ''Z'', given by ''f''<sub>''y''</sub>(''x'') := ''f''(''x'',''y''). (In computer science, this identification between a function from ''X'' × ''Y'' to ''Z'' and a function from ''X'' to ''Z''<sup>''Y''</sup> is called [[Currying]].)
The various concepts relating to functions can also be generalised to binary functions.
For example, the division example above is ''[[surjective function|surjective]]'' (or ''onto'') because every rational number may be expressed as a quotient of an integer and a natural number.
This example is ''[[injective function|injective]]'' in each input separately, because the functions ''f''<sup>''x''</sup> and ''f''<sub>''y''</sub> are always injective.
However, it's not injective in both variables simultaneously, because (for example) ''f''(2,4) = ''f''(1,2).
One can also consider ''partial'' binary functions, which may be defined only for certain values of the inputs.
For example, the division example above may also be interpreted as a partial binary function from '''Z''' and '''N''' to '''Q''', where '''N''' is the set of all natural numbers, including zero.
But this function is undefined when the second input is zero.
A [[binary operation]] is a binary function where the sets ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' are all equal; binary operations are often used to define [[algebraic structure]]s.
In [[linear algebra]], a [[bilinear transformation]] is a binary function where the sets ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' are all [[vector space]]s and the derived functions ''f''<sup>''x''</sup> and ''f''<sub>''y''</sub> are all [[linear transformation]]s.
A bilinear transformation, like any binary function, can be interpreted as a function from ''X'' × ''Y'' to ''Z'', but this function in general won't be linear.
However, the bilinear transformation can also be interpreted as a single linear transformation from the [[tensor product]] ''X'' [[Image:DirectProduct.png|(×)]] ''Y'' to ''Z''.
The concept of binary function generalises to ''ternary'' (or ''3-ary'') ''function'', ''quaternary'' (or ''4-ary'') ''function'', or more generally to ''n-ary function'' for any [[natural number]] ''n''.
A ''0-ary function'' to ''Z'' is simply given by an element of ''Z''.
One can also define an ''A-ary function'' where ''A'' is any [[set]]; there is one input for each element of ''A''.
In [[category theory]], ''n''-ary functions generalise to ''n''-ary morphisms in a [[multicategory]].
The interpretation of an ''n''-ary morphism as an ordinary morphisms whose domain is some sort of product of the domains of the original ''n''-ary morphism will work in a [[monoidal category]].
The construction of the derived morphisms of one variable will work in a [[closed monoidal category]].
The category of sets is closed monoidal, but so is the category of vector spaces, giving the notion of bilinear transformation above.
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Belfast Agreement</title>
<id>3944</id>
<revision>
<id>41468168</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:29:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Demiurge</username>
<id>72235</id>
</contributor>
<comment>inarguable no matter what your opinion of it is</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Belfast Agreement''' (also known as the '''Good Friday Agreement''' and, more rarely, as the '''Stormont Agreement''') was a major step in the [[Northern Ireland peace process]]. It was signed in [[Belfast]] on [[April 10]] [[1998]] ([[Good Friday]]) by the [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Republic of Ireland|Irish]] governments and endorsed by most [[Northern Ireland]] political parties. It was endorsed by the voters of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland in separate referenda on [[May 23]] [[1998]]. The [[Democratic Unionist Party]] is the only large party that opposes the Agreement.
==Main provisions==
*The principle that the constitutional future of Northern Ireland should be determined by the majority vote of its citizens.
* A commitment by all parties to "exclusively peaceful and democratic means".
* The establishment of a [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] with devolved legislative powers.
*Creation of a 'power-sharing' [[Northern Ireland Executive]], using the [[D'Hondt method]] to allocate Ministries proportionally to the main parties.
* Creation of a [[North-South Ministerial Council]] and North-South Implementation Bodies to bring about cross-border cooperation in policy and programmes on a number of issues.
*Establishment of a [[British-Irish Council]], composed of representatives from the governments of the [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Northern Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], the [[Channel Islands]], and the [[Isle of Man]], to discuss areas of common concern.
*Release within two years of [[paramilitary]] prisoners belonging to organisations observing a ceasefire.
* Establishment of the [[Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission]]
*A two year target for decommissioning of paramilitary weapons.
*The modification of the Republic's territorial claim to Northern Ireland in [[Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland|Articles 2 and 3]] of its constitution.
*New legislation for Northern Ireland on policing, [[human rights]] and equality.
*Demilitarisation of [[British army]] bases.
*[[Royal Ulster Constabulary|Police]] reform. Undertaken by the [[Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland|Patten Commission]] (1998-1999).
Vague wording of some of the provisions, which helped ensure acceptance of the agreement at the time, served to postpone debate on some of the more contentious issues - most notably paramilitary decommissioning, police reform and demilitarisation. A date of May, 2000, was set for total disarming of all paramilitary groups. On [[26 September]] [[2005]], it was announced that the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] had completely decommisioned their arsenal weapons and "put them beyond use". However, many [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]], most notably the DUP, have refused to accept this, and as such the powersharing assembly remains suspended.
==Referenda==
In May 1998 there were separate referenda in Northern Ireland and the Republic
of Ireland to endorse the Belfast Agreement. The "No" vote in Northern Ireland came predominantly from unionists opposed to perceived concessions being made to [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] and [[Irish republicanism|republicans]]. However [[opinion poll]]s suggest a slim majority of unionists may have voted "Yes". In the Republic of Ireland the electorate voted upon the [[Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland|Nineteenth Amendment]]. This amendment both permitted the state to comply with the Belfast Agreement and provided for the removal of the 'territorial claim' contained in Articles 2 and 3. The Republic of Ireland voted upon the [[Amsterdam Treaty]] on the same day. The results of the two, simultaneous referenda on the Belfast Agreement were as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Yes
!No
!Turnout
|-
![[Northern Ireland]]
|676,966 (71%)
|274,879 (29%)
|81%
|-
![[Republic of Ireland]]
|1,442,583 (94%)
|85,748 (6%)
|56%
|}
==See also==
*[[Northern Ireland peace process]]
*[[Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland]]
*[[Independent International Commission on Decommissioning]]
*[[Sunningdale Agreement]]
*[[Anglo-Irish Agreement]]
==External links==
*[http://www.northsouthministerialcouncil.org/ North-South Ministerial Council/An Chomhairle Aireachta Thuaidh/Theas]
*[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm Belfast Agreement] (full text)
*[http://www.britishirishcouncil.org/ British-Irish Council]
[[Category:History of Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Government of Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Treaties]]
[[Category:United Kingdom constitution]]
[[Category:Politics of Ireland]]
[[Category:1998 in law]]
[[de:Karfreitagsabkommen]]
[[es:Acuerdo de Viernes Santo]]
[[ga:Comhaontú Aoine an Chéasta]]
[[he:הסכם יום שישי הטוב]]
[[ja:ベルファスト合意]]
[[nl:Goede vrijdag akkoord]]
[[no:Belfastavtalen]]
[[pl:Porozumienie wielkopiątkowe]]
[[pt:Acordo de Belfast]]
[[fi:Pitkänperjantain sopimus]]
[[sv:Långfredagsavtalet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berne Conventi |
on===
Being the unofficial capital of the 'bible belt', a geographic region considered among the most highly religious in western civilization,{{fact}} the Atlanta cityscape is teeming with a seemingly countless number of large denominational churches and other places of worship. A large majority of Atlantans profess to following a Protestant Christian faith, and many people point out that religion plays a reasonably important role in their weekly lives.{{fact}} As a result, the city could arguably have the distinction of being among the most religious major cities in the country.{{fact}} Furthermore, a large number of students in the Metro area's northern counties attend faith-based private schools at a rate unsurpassed by many other parts of the country.{{fact}} Out of 75 private schools listed in Fulton county, only 8 have no religious ties. {{fact}}
As the see of the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] [[Archdiocese of Atlanta]], Atlanta serves as the [[Provincial See]] for the Province of Atlanta. The city is also a major [[Southern Baptist]] center.
==Economy==
Despite romantic associations, Atlanta has always been more a commercial city than an [[ante-bellum]] monument. It is the major center of regional commerce, and boasts an especially strong convention and trade show business. According to the [[Global city|ranking of world cities]] undertaken by the ''Globalization and World Cities Study Group & Network (GaWC)'' and based on the level of presence of global corporate service organisations, Atlanta is considered a "[[Gamma World City]]."
Several major national and international companies are headquartered in Atlanta or its nearby suburbs, including four Fortune 100 companies: [[The Coca-Cola Company]] (started in Atlanta), [[Home Depot]] (started in Atlanta), [[BellSouth]], and [[United Parcel Service]] in adjacent [[Sandy Springs, Georgia|Sandy Springs]]. Home Depot founder [[Bernie Marcus]] donated more than 200 million dollars to build the new [[Georgia Aquarium]]. [[Delta Air Lines]] is also headquartered in Atlanta and is a major employer. [[Newell Rubbermaid]] is one of the most recent companies to relocate its headquarters to the metro area (Sandy Springs).
Just west of Midtown, a former Atlantic Steel plant has been redeveloped as [[Atlantic Station]], a mixed-use urban renewal project combining housing, retail, and office space, and promoted as part of the solution to Atlanta's serious traffic and air quality problems. The metro area has one of America's longest average daily commutes, and is one of the most car-dependent cities on the planet due both to suburban sprawl and underfunded mass transit systems. It also has a reputation as being one of the most dangerous for pedestrians,{{fact}} as far back as 1949 when ''Gone with the Wind'' author [[Margaret Mitchell]] was struck by a speeding car and killed.
The city is a major [[cable TV|cable television]] programming source; [[CNN Center]], headquarters of the [[Cable News Network]], is in Atlanta where the network was founded by [[Ted Turner]], and [[The Weather Channel]] broadcasts from just outside of town. In addition to CNN, [[Time Warner]]'s other networks from Atlanta include [[Cartoon Network]]/[[Adult Swim]] and companion channel [[Boomerang]], [[Turner Network Television|TNT]], [[Turner South]], [[CNN International]], [[CNN en Español]], [[CNN Headline News]], [[CNN Airport Network]], and [[Turner Broadcasting System|TBS]]. Atlanta's [[TBS Superstation|WTBS]] channel 17 (originally WTCG) was Turner's start in television in the 1970s; after he bought the struggling UHF TV station, he turned it into a "Superstation" broadcasting both locally and nationally on the emerging cable providers. Atlanta's [[WSB (AM)|WSB]] was the first [[AM radio]] station in the South.
{{seealso|list of major companies in Atlanta}}
==Infrastructure==
===Government===
[[Image:Atlanta City Hall from HABS.jpg|thumb|Atlanta City Hall]]
Atlanta is governed by an at-large elected [[mayor]] and a city council. The city council consists of representatives of twelve districts from the city as well as three at-large positions. The mayor may veto a bill passed by the council, but the council may override with a two-thirds majority. The current mayor of Atlanta is [[Shirley Franklin]].
Possibly owing to the city's [[African American]] majority, each mayor elected since 1973 has been black; the uninterrupted string of black mayors in excess of thirty years is a first for any metropolitan area in the country. [[Maynard Jackson]] was elected for two terms and then for another term in the early 1990s. His successors [[Andrew Young]] (and later, [[Bill Campbell (mayor)|Bill Campbell]]) owed their success in the mayoral election at least in part to Jackson's endorsement.
In [[July 2004]], Atlanta became the first city in the state to impose a sales tax of its own, bringing the total to 8% in both the Fulton and DeKalb parts of the city. This passed in a referendum during the [[July 20]]th primary election with a 75% majority, after being allowed by the state legislature earlier in 2004. The sales tax helped to reduce a huge rate increase on water and sewer bills, necessary to pay three billion dollars in bonds to fix the city's aging (and in places decrepit) municipal water and sewer systems. [[Combined sewer overflows]] will also be eliminated, so that runoff water is separated, preventing diluted sewage from overflowing at [[sewage treatment plant]]s during heavy rains.
[[Image:GeorgiaCapitolBuilding.jpg|2936x1940, 457KB|thumb|right|The [[Georgia State Capitol]] in Atlanta]].
As the [[state capital]], Atlanta is also the site of most of Georgia's state government, including the [[Georgia State Capitol]] (topped with gold from [[Dahlonega, Georgia]]), the [[Georgia General Assembly|General Assembly]], and the residence of the [[Governor of Georgia]] in [[Buckhead (Atlanta)|Buckhead]]. It is also home to [[Georgia Public Broadcasting]] headquarters and [[Peachnet]], and is the county seat of Fulton County, with which it shares responsibility for the [[Atlanta-Fulton Public Library System]].
===Transportation===
[[Image:MARTA - N3 Station.jpg|thumbnail|right|300px|MARTA provides public transportation in Atlanta.]]
Atlanta is served by [[Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport]] {{airport codes|ATL|KATL}}, the world's busiest airport by [[World's busiest airports by passenger traffic|passenger traffic]] and by [[World's busiest airports by traffic movements|aircraft traffic]], providing air service to and from many national and international destinations. It is situated 10 miles south of downtown, adjacent to the intersection of [[Interstate 85|I-85]] and [[Interstate 285|I-285]]. The MARTA rail system has a station within the airport terminal, and provides direct service to the business areas in downtown Atlanta, [[Buckhead (Atlanta)|Buckhead]] and [[Sandy Springs, Georgia|Sandy Springs]]. The major [[general aviation]] airports near the city proper are [[DeKalb-Peachtree Airport]] {{airport codes|PDK|KPDK}} and [[Atlanta/Fulton County Airport-Brown Field]] {{airport codes|FTY|KFTY}}. See [[List of airports in the Atlanta area]] for a more complete listing.
Three major [[interstate highways]] intersect the city; [[Interstate 20|I-20]] runs east-west, while [[Interstate 75|I-75]] runs NW to SE and I-85 runs NE to SW, and join together as the [[Downtown Connector]] through the center of the city. I-285 (also known as "the Perimeter") encircles the city and some of its inner suburbs. I-75 just north of the Windy Hill Road interchange in Cobb County is one of the widest freeways (seventeen lanes) in the entire world. The intersection of I-85 and I-285 in [[Doraville, Georgia|Doraville]], locally referred to as [[Tom Moreland Interchange|Spaghetti Junction]], is one of the tallest in the eastern United States. Metropolitan Atlanta is crisscrossed by thirteen freeways (in addition to the aforementioned interstates, I-575, Georgia 400, Georgia 141, I-675, Georgia 316, I-985, Stone Mountain Freeway (US 78), and Langford Parkway (SR 166)). The [http://www.dot.state.ga.us/ Georgia Department of Transportation] operates [http://georgianavigator.com/ Georgia Navigator] to disseminate current traffic (travel times, camera images, accidents) and road (construction, flooding, ice, debris) conditions throughout the state.
[[MARTA]] is the [[public transit]] [[agency]] in the city, operating the [[metro|subway]] and [[bus]] system within Fulton and Dekalb Counties. Clayton County, Gwinnett County and Cobb County all operate separate, autonomous transit authorities, all consisting of a bus network, with no rail. However, many commuters in Atlanta and the surrounding suburbs use [[automobile]]s as their primary mode of transportation. This results in heavy [[traffic]] during rush hour and contributes to Atlanta's [[air pollution]] problems. In recent years, the Atlanta metro area has ranked at or near the top of the longest average commute time in the US.
Atlanta grew up as a railroad town and is still today a major rail junction, with several busy freight lines belonging to [[Norfolk Southern]] and [[CSX Transportation|CSX]] intersecting below street level in the downtown area. Long distance passenger service is provided by [[Amtrak]]'s [[Crescent (Amtrak)|Crescent train]] which connects Atlanta with the cities of [[New York City|New York]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], [[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]], [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] and [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]. The Amtrak station is situated at 1688 Peachtree St. N.W., several miles north of downtown and not well located for onward public transportation. An ambitious long-standing proposal would create a Multi-Modal Passenger Terminal in downtown adjacent to Philips Arena and the |
ing the drug, straws, crack pipes etc). It is important that people use new or properly sterilized needles for each injection. Information on cleaning needles using bleach is available from health care and addiction professionals and from [[needle exchange]]s. In the United States and some other countries, clean needles are available free in some cities, at needle exchanges or [[safe injection site]]s. Additionally, many states within the United States and some other nations have decriminalized needle possession and made it possible to buy injection equipment from pharmacists without a prescription.
===Mother to child transmission===
====Underlying science====
There is a 15–30% risk of transmission of HIV from mother to child during pregnancy, labour and delivery <ref name=Orendi>{{
cite journal
| author=Orendi, J. M., Boer, K., van Loon, A. M., Borleffs, J. C., van Oppen, A. C., Boucher, C. A.
| title=Vertical HIV-I-transmission. I. Risk and prevention in pregnancy
| journal=Ned. Tijdschr. Geneeskd | year=1998 | pages=2720-2724 | volume=142 | issue=50
| id={{PMID|10065235}}
}}</ref>. In developed countries the risk can of transmission of HIV from mother to child can be as low as 0-5%. A number of factors influence the risk of infection, particularly the viral load of the mother at birth (the higher the load, the higher the risk). Breastfeeding increases the risk of transmission by 10–15%. This risk depends on clinical factors and may vary according to the pattern and duration of breastfeeding.
====Prevention strategies====
Studies have shown that antiretroviral drugs, cesarean delivery and formula feeding reduce the chance of transmission of HIV from mother to child <ref name=Sperling>{{
cite journal
| author=Sperling, R. S., Shapirom D. E., Coombsm R. W., Todd, J. A., Herman, S. A., McSherry, G. D., O'Sullivan, M. J., Van Dyke, R. B., Jimenez, E., Rouzioux, C., Flynn, P. M. and Sullivan, J. L.
| title=Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant
| journal=N. Engl. J. Med. | year=1996 | pages=1621-1629 | volume=335 | issue=22
| id={{PMID|8965861}}
}}</ref>. When replacement feeding is acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe, HIV-infected mothers are recommended to avoid breast feeding their infant. Otherwise, exclusive breastfeeding is recommended during the first months of life and should be discontinued as soon as possible <ref name=UNAIDS>{{
cite web
| author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005
| url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf
| title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>.
==Treatment==
{{main|Antiretroviral drug}}
{{see|HIV vaccine}}
There is currently no cure for [[HIV]] or AIDS. Infection with HIV usually leads to AIDS and ultimately death. However, in western countries, most patients survive many years following diagnosis because of the availability of the highly active antiretroviral therapy ([[HAART]])<ref name=Schneider>{{
cite journal
| author=Schneider, M. F., Gange, S. J., Williams, C. M., Anastos, K., Greenblatt, R. M., Kingsley, L., Detels, R., and Munoz, A.
| title=Patterns of the hazard of death after AIDS through the evolution of antiretroviral therapy: 1984-2004
| journal=AIDS | year=2005 | pages=2009-2018 | volume=19 | issue=17
| id={{PMID|16260908}}
}}</ref>. In the absence of HAART, progression from HIV infection to AIDS occurs at a [[median]] of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing AIDS is only 9.2 months<ref name=Morgan2>{{
cite journal
| author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A.
| title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries?
| journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |11873003}}
}}</ref>. HAART dramatically increases the time from diagnosis to death, and treatment research continues.
Current optimal HAART options consist of combinations (or "cocktails") consisting of at least three drugs belonging to at least two types, or "classes," of [[anti-retroviral]] agents. Typical regimens consist of two [[nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitor]]s (NRTIs) plus either a [[protease inhibitor (pharmacology)|protease inhibitor]] or a non nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI). This treatment is frequently referred to as [[HAART]] (highly-active anti-retroviral therapy) <ref name=DhhsHivTreatment>{{
cite web
| author=[[Department of Health and Human Services]] | publisher=
| year=January, 2005
| url=http://www.hab.hrsa.gov/tools/HIVpocketguide05/PktGARTtables.htm
| title=A Pocket Guide to Adult HIV/AIDS Treatment January 2005 edition
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>. Anti-retroviral treatments, along with medications intended to prevent AIDS-related opportunistic infections, have played a part in delaying complications associated with AIDS, reducing the symptoms of HIV infection, and extending patients' life spans. Over the past decade the success of these treatments in prolonging and improving the quality of life for people with AIDS has improved dramatically <ref name=Wood>{{
cite journal
| author=Wood, E., Hogg, R. S., Yip, B., Harrigan, P. R., O'Shaughnessy, M. V. and Montaner, J. S.
| title=Is there a baseline CD4 cell count that precludes a survival response to modern antiretroviral therapy?
| journal=AIDS | year=2003 | pages=711-720 | volume=17 | issue=5
| id={{PMID|12646794}}
}}</ref><ref name=Chene>{{
cite journal
| author=Chene, G., Sterne, J. A., May, M., Costagliola, D., Ledergerber, B., Phillips, A. N., Dabis, F., Lundgren, J., D'Arminio Monforte, A., de Wolf, F., Hogg, R., Reiss, P., Justice, A., Leport, C., Staszewski, S., Gill, J., Fatkenheuer, G., Egger, M. E. and the Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration.
| title=Prognostic importance of initial response in HIV-1 infected patients starting potent antiretroviral therapy: analysis of prospective studies
| journal=Lancet | year=2003 | pages=679-686 | volume=362 | issue=9385
| id={{PMID|12957089}}
}}</ref>.
Because HIV disease progression in children is more rapid than in adults, and laboratory parameters are less predictive of risk for disease progression, particularly for young infants, treatment recommendations from the DHHS have been more aggressive in children than in adults, the current guidelines were published [[November 3]] [[2005]] <ref name=2005dhhsHivChildren>{{
cite web
| author=[[Department of Health and Human Services]] Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children
| publisher= | year=[[November 3]], [[2005]]
| url=http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/PediatricGuidelines_PDA.pdf
| title=Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>.
The DHHS also recommends that doctors should assess the viral load, rapidity in CD4 decline, and patient readiness while deciding when to recommend initiating treatment <ref name=2005DhhsHivTreatment>{{
cite web
| author=[[Department of Health and Human Services]] Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection
| publisher= | year=[[October 6]], [[2005]]
| url=http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf
| title=Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents
| accessdate=2006-01-17
}}</ref>.
There are several concerns about antiretroviral regimens. The drugs can have serious side effects<ref name=Saitoh>{{
cite journal
| author=Saitoh, A., Hull, A. D., Franklin, P. and Spector, S. A.
| title=Myelomeningocele in an infant with intrauterine exposure to efavirenz
| journal=J. Perinatol. | year=2005 | pages=555-556 | volume=25 | issue=8
| id={{PMID|16047034}}
}}</ref>. Regimens can be complicated, requiring patients to take several pills at various times during the day, although treatment regimens have been greatly simplified in recent years. If patients miss doses, drug resistance can develop <ref name=Dybul>{{
cite journal
| author=Dybul, M., Fauci, A. S., Bartlett, J. G., Kaplan, J. E., Pau, A. K.; Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV.
| title=Guidelines for using antiretroviral agents among HIV-infected adults and adolescents
| journal=Ann. Intern. Med. | year=2002 | pages=381-433 | volume=137 | issue=5 Pt 2
| id={{PMID|12617573}}
}}</ref>. Also, anti-retroviral drugs are costly, and the majority of the world's infected individuals do not have access to medications and treatments for HIV and AIDS.
Research to improve current treatments includes decreasing side effects of current drugs, further simplifying drug regimens to improve adherence, and determining the best sequence of regimens to manage drug resistance.
A number of studies have shown that measures to prevent opportunistic infections can be beneficial when treating patients with HIV infection or AIDS. Vaccination against hepatitis A and B is advised for patients who are not infected with these viruses and are at risk of getting infected. In addition, AIDS patients should receive vaccination against [[Streptococcus pneumoniae]] and should receive yearly vaccination against [[influenza virus]]. Patients with substantial immunosuppression are generally advised to receive prophylactic therapy for [[Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia]] (PCP), and many patients may benefit from prophylactic therapy for [[toxoplasmosis]] and [[Cryptococcus]] meningitis.
===Alternative m |
mentary therapies for cancer-related symptoms were not part of this review", cites studies indicating that several complementary therapies can provide benefits by, for example, reducing pain and improving the mood of patients.
Some argue that less research is carried out on alternative medicine because many alternative medicine techniques cannot be patented, and hence there is little financial incentive to study them. Drug research, by contrast, can be very lucrative, which has resulted in funding of trials by pharmaceutical companies. Many people, including conventional and alternative medical practitioners, contend that this funding has led to corruption of the scientific process for approval of drug usage, and that ghostwritten work has appeared in major [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] medical journals. (Flanagin ''et al.'' 1998, Larkin 1999). Increasing the funding for research of alternative medicine techniques was the purpose of the [[U.S. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine|National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]]. NCCAM and its predecessor, the Office of Alternative Medicine, have spent more than $200 million on such research since 1991. The German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices [[Commission E]] has studied many herbal remedies for efficacy. [http://www.csicop.org/si/2003-09/alternative-medicine.html]
===Safety===
Critics contend that "dubious therapies can cause death, serious injury, unnecessary suffering, and disfigurement" [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/harmquack.html] and that some people have been hurt or killed directly from the various practices or indirectly by failed diagnoses or the subsequent avoidance of conventional medicine which they believe is truly efficacious [http://www.valleyskeptic.com/perrot.htm].
Alternative medicine critics agree with its proponents that people should be free to choose whatever method of healthcare they want, but stipulate that people must be informed as to the safety and efficacy of whatever method they choose. People who choose alternative medicine may think they are choosing a safe, effective medicine, while they may only be getting [[quackery|quack]] remedies.
====Delay in seeking conventional medical treatment====
They state that those who have had success with one alternative therapy for a minor ailment may be convinced of its efficacy and persuaded to extrapolate that success to some other alternative therapy for a more serious, possibly life-threatening illness. For this reason, they contend that therapies that rely on the placebo effect to define success are very dangerous.
==== Danger can be increased when used as a complement to conventional medicine ====
A Norwegian multicentre study examined the association between the use of alternative medicines (AM) and cancer survival. 515 patients using standard medical care for cancer were followed for eight years. 22% of those patients used AM concurrently with their standard care.
The study revealed that death rates were 30% higher in AM users than in those who did not use AM: "The use of AM seems to predict a shorter survival from cancer." -- [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Retrieve&list_uids=12565991&dopt=Citation Does use of alternative medicine predict survival from cancer?]
Eur J Cancer 2003 Feb;39(3):372-7
Associate Professor Alastair MacLennan of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology in Adelaide University, Australia reports that a patient of his almost bled to death on the operating table. She had failed to mention she had been taking "natural" potions to "build up her strength" for the operation - one of them turned out to be a powerful anticoagulant which nearly
caused her death.
====Issues of regulation====
Critics contend that some branches of alternative medicine are often not properly regulated in some countries to identify who practices or know what training or expertise they may possess. Critics argue that the governmental regulation of any particular alternative therapy does necessitate that the therapy is effective.
==See also==
*[[Famous people in alternative medicine]]
*[[History of alternative medicine]]
*[[Terms and concepts in alternative medicine]]
Skeptical terms:
*[[Pseudoscience]]
*[[Quackery]]
*[[Snake oil]]
*[http://www.skepticwiki.org/wiki/index.php/SCAM sCAM (so-Called "Alternative" Medicine)]
== References ==
===Dictionary definitions===
*[http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?query=Complementary+medicine&action=Search+OMD Complementary medicine]
===World Health Organization publication===
*[http://www.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=1&codlan=1&codcol=15&codcch=614 WHO Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine]
=== Journals dedicated to alternative medicine research ===
* Alternative therapies in health and medicine. Aliso Viejo, CA : InnoVision Communications, c1995- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=9502013&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 9502013]
* Alternative medicine review : a journal of clinical therapeutic. Sandpoint, Idaho : Thorne Research, Inc., c1996- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=9705340&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 9705340]
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882 BMC complementary and alternative medicine]. London : BioMed Central, 2001- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=101088661&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 101088661]
* Complementary therapies in medicine. Edinburgh ; New York : Churchill Livingstone, c1993- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=9308777&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 9308777]
* [http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/ Evidence based complementary and alternative medicine]
* [http://www.openmindjournals.com/EBInteg.html Evidence Based journal of Integrative medicine]
* [http://www.jintmed.com/ Journal of Integrative medicine.]
* [http://www.catchword.com/titles/10755535.htm The journal of alternative and complementary medicine : research on paradigm, practice, and policy.] New York, NY : Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., c1995- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=9508124&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 9508124]
* Journal of alternative & complementary medicine. London : Argus Health Publications, c1989- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=9883124&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 9883124]
*[http://www.liebertpub.com/publication.aspx?pub_id=26 Journal for Alternative and Complementary Medicine]
*[http://www.sram.org/index.html Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine (SRAM)]
=== Research articles cited in the text ===
# Astin JA "Why patients use alternative medicine: results of a national study" ''JAMA'' 1998; '''279'''(19): 1548-1553
# Barnes P, Powell-Griner E, McFann K, Nahin R. "Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults: United States, 2002." ''Advanced data from vital health and statistics'' 2004; Hyattsville, Maryland:NCHS [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/report.pdf Online]
# Benedetti F, Maggi G, Lopiano L. "Open Versus Hidden Medical Treatments: The Patient's Knowledge About a Therapy Affects the Therapy Outcome." ''Prevention & Treatment'', 2003; '''6'''(1), [http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume6/pre0060001a.html APA online]
# Berga SL, Marcus MD, Loucks TL. "Recovery of ovarian activity in women with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea who were treated with cognitive behavior therapy." ''Fertility and Sterility'' 2003; ''80''(4): 976-981 [http://www.fertstert.org/article/PIIS0015028203011245/abstract Abstract]
# Downing AM, Hunter DG. "Validating clinical reasoning: a question of perspective, but whose perspective?" ''Man Ther'', 2003; '''8'''(2): 117-9. PMID 12890440 [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WN0-487KJXH-3&_coverDate=05%2F31%2F2003&_alid=110095405&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6948&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=8da5eb9e5359691e31c6cee489724da8 Manual Therapy Online]
# Eisenberg DM. "Advising patients who seek alternative medical therapies." ''Ann Intern Med'' 1997; '''127''':61-69. PMID 9214254
# Eisenberg, DM, Davis RB, Ettner SL "Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States 1990-1997." ''JAMA'', 1998; '''280''':1569-1575. PMID 9820257
# Ernst E. "Obstacles to research in complementary and alternative medicine." '''Medical Journal of Australia'', 2003; '''179'''(6): 279-80. PMID 12964907 http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/179_06_150903/ern10442_fm-1.html MJA online]
# Fenton MV, Morris DL. "The integration of holistic nursing practices and complementary and alternative modalities into curricula of schools of nursing." ''Altern Ther Health Med,'' 2003; '''9'''(4):62-7. PMID 12868254
# Flanagin A, Carey LA, Fontanarosa PB. "Prevalence of articles with honorary authors and ghost authors in peer-reviewed medical journals." ''JAMA'', 1998; '''280'''(3):222-4. [http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/280/3/222 Full text]
# Gonsalkorale WM, Miller V, Afzal A, Whorwell PJ. "Long term benefits of hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome." ''Gut'', 2003; '''52'''(11):1623-9. PMID 14570733
# Gunn IP. "A critique of Michael L. Millenson's book, Demanding medical excellence: doctors and accountability in the information age, and its relevance to CRNAs and nursing.&quo |
'' Freyr he is said to ride the horse [[Blóðughófi]] (''Bloody Hoof'').
Freyr's name is, as those of other gods, common in [[kenning]]s for warriors.
==''Ynglinga saga''==
[[Snorri Sturluson]]'s starts his epic history of the kings of Norway with ''[[Ynglinga saga]]'', a [[Euhemerus|euhemerized]] account of the Norse gods. Here Odin and the Æsir are men from Asia who gain power through their prowess in war and Odin's skills. But when Odin attacks the Vanir he bites off more than he can chew and peace is negotiated after a destructive and indecisive war. Hostages are exchanged to seal the peace deal and the Vanir send Freyr and Njörðr to live with the Æsir. At this point the saga, like ''Lokasenna'', mentions that incest was practised among the Vanir.
{|
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
Þá er Njörðr var með Vönum, þá hafði hann átta systur sína, því at þat váru þar lög; váru þeirra börn Freyr ok Freyja. En þat var bannat með Ásum at byggja svá náit at frændsemi. ''Ynglinga saga'' 4, [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php Schultz's edition]
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
While Njord was with the Vanaland people he had taken his own sister in marriage, for that was
allowed by their law; and their children were Frey and Freya. But among the Asaland people it was forbidden to intermarry with such near relations. ''Ynglinga saga'' 4, [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html Laing's translation]
|
|}
Odin makes Njörðr and Freyr priests of sacrifices and they become influential leaders. Odin goes on to conquer the North and settles in Sweden where he rules as king, collects taxes and maintains sacrifices. After Odin's death, Njörðr takes the throne. During his rule there is peace and good harvest and the Swedes come to believe that Njörðr controls these things. Eventually Njörðr falls ill and dies.
{|
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
Freyr tók þá ríki eptir Njörð; var hann kallaðr dróttinn yfir Svíum ok tók skattgjafir af þeim; hann var vinsæll ok ársæll sem faðir hans. Freyr reisti at Uppsölum hof mikit, ok setti þar höfuðstað sinn; lagði þar til allar skyldir sínar, lönd ok lausa aura; þá hófst Uppsala auðr, ok hefir haldizt æ síðan. Á hans dögum hófst Fróða friðr, þá var ok ár um öll lönd; kendu Svíar þat Frey. Var hann því meir dýrkaðr en önnur goðin, sem á hans dögum varð landsfólkit auðgara en fyrr af friðinum ok ári. Gerðr Gýmis dóttir hét kona hans; sonr þeirra hét Fjölnir. Freyr hét Yngvi öðru nafni; Yngva nafn var lengi síðan haft í hans ætt fyrir tignarnafn, ok Ynglingar váru síðan kallaðir hans ættmenn. Freyr tók sótt; en er at honum leið sóttin, leituðu menn sér ráðs, ok létu fá menn til hans koma, en bjoggu haug mikinn, ok létu dyrr á ok 3 glugga. En er Freyr var dauðr, báru þeir hann leyniliga í hauginn, ok sögðu Svíum at hann lifði, ok varðveittu hann þar 3 vetr. En skatt öllum heltu þeir í hauginn, í einn glugg gullinu, en í annan silfrinu, í hinn þriðja eirpenningum. Þá hélzt ár ok friðr. ''Ynglinga saga'' 12, [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php Schultz's edition]
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
Frey took the kingdom after Njord, and was called [[drott|drot]] by the Swedes, and they paid taxes to him. He was, like his father, fortunate in friends and in good seasons. Frey built a great temple at Upsal, made it his chief seat, and gave it all his taxes, his land, and goods. Then began the [[Uppsala öd|Upsal domains]], which have remained ever since. Then began in his days the [[Frode]]-peace; and then there were good seasons, in all the land, which the Swedes ascribed to Frey, so that he was more worshipped than the other gods, as the people became much richer in his days by reason of the peace and good seasons. His wife was called Gerd, daughter of [[Gymir|Gymis]], and their son was called [[Fjölnir|Fjolne]]. Frey was called by another name, [[Yngvi|Yngve]]; and this name Yngve was considered long after in his race as a name of honour, so that his descendants have since been called [[Yngling]]er. Frey fell into a sickness; and as his illness took the upper hand, his men took the plan of letting few approach him. In the meantime they raised a great [[tumulus|mound]], in which they placed a door with three holes in it. Now when Frey died they bore him secretly into the mound, but told the Swedes he was alive; and they kept watch over him for three years. They brought all the taxes into the mound, and through the one hole they put in the gold, through the other the silver, and through the third the copper money that was paid. Peace and good seasons continued. ''Ynglinga saga'' 12, [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html Laing's translation]
|
|}
[[Image:Yngvi-freyr.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Yngvi-Freyr constructs the [[Temple at Uppsala]] in this early 19th century artwork by [[Hugo Hamilton]].]]
{|
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
Þá er allir Svíar vissu, at Freyr var dauðr, en hélzt ár ok friðr, þá trúðu þeir, at svá mundi vera, meðan Freyr væri á Svíþjóð, ok vildu eigi brenna hann, ok kölluðu hann veraldar goð ok blótuðu mest til árs ok friðar alla ævi síðan. ''Ynglinga saga'' 13, [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php Schultz's edition]
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
When it became known to the Swedes that Frey was dead, and yet peace and good seasons continued, they believed that it must be so as long as Frey remained in Sweden; and therefore they would not burn his remains, but called him the god of this world, and afterwards offered continually [[blót|blood-sacrifices]] to him, principally for peace and good seasons. ''Ynglinga saga'' 13, [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html Laing's translation]
|
|}
Freyr had a son named [[Fjölnir]], who succeeds him as king and rules during the continuing period of peace and good seasons. Fjölnir's descendants are enumerated in ''[[Ynglingatal]]'' which describes the [[mythological kings of Sweden]].
==Other Icelandic sources==
Worship of Freyr is alluded to in several [[Icelanders' sagas]]. Those are ''[[Hrafnkels saga]]'', ''[[Hallfreðar saga]]'', ''[[Víga-Glúms saga]]'', ''[[Gísla saga]]'' and ''[[Vatnsdœla saga]]''.
Other Icelandic sources referring to Freyr include ''[[Íslendingabók]]'', ''[[Landnámabók]]'' and ''[[Hervarar saga]]''.
{{sect-stub}}
==Gesta Danorum==
The Danish ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' describes Freyr, under the name '''Frø''', as the "viceroy of the gods".
{|
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
Frø quoque deorum satrapa sedem haud procul Upsala cepit, ubi veterem litationis morem tot gentibus ac saeculis usurpatum tristi infandoque piaculo mutavit. Siquidem humani generis hostias mactare aggressus foeda superis libamenta persolvit. ''Gesta Danorum'' 3, [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/3/2/index.htm Olrik's edition]
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
There was also a viceroy of the gods, Frø, who took up residence not far from Uppsala and altered the ancient system of sacrifice practised for centuries among many peoples to a morbid and unspeakable form of expiation. He delivered abominable offerings to the powers above by instituting the slaughter of human victims. ''Gesta Danorum'' 3, Fisher's translation
|
|}
That Freyr had a cult at Uppsala is well confirmed from other sources. The reference to the change in sacrificial ritual may also reflect some historical memory. There is archaeological evidence for an increase in [[human sacrifice]]s in the late [[Viking Age]] {{ref|HumanSacrifice}} though among the Norse gods human sacrifice is most often linked to Odin. Another reference to Frø and sacrifices is found earlier in the work, where the beginning of an annual ''[[blót]]'' to him is related. King [[Hadingus]] is cursed after killing a divine being and atones for his crime with a sacrifice.
{|
|
Siquidem propitiandorum numinum gratia Frø deo rem divinam furvis hostiis fecit. Quem litationis morem annuo feriarum circuitu repetitum posteris imitandum reliquit. Frøblot Sueones vocant. ''Gesta Danorum'' 1, [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/1/8/index.htm Olrik's edition]
|
[I]n order to mollify the divinities he did indeed make a holy sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to the god Frø. He repeated this mode of propitiation at an annual festival and left it to be imitated by his descendants. The Swedes call it Frøblot. ''Gesta Danorum'' 1, Fisher's translation
|
|}
The sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to Freyr has a parallel in [[Ancient Greek religion]] where the [[Chthonic]] fertility deities preferred dark-coloured victims to white ones.
In book 9, Saxo identifies Frø as the "king of Sweden" (''rex Suetiae'').
{|
|
Quo tempore rex Suetiae Frø, interfecto Norvagiensium rege Sywardo, coniuges necessariorum eius prostibulo relegatas publice constuprandas exhibuit. ''Gesta Danorum'' 9, [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/9/4/index.htm Olrik's edition]
|
About this time the Swedish ruler Frø, after killing Sivard, king of the Norwegians, removed the wives of Sivard's relatives to a brothel and exposed them to public prostitution. ''Gesta Danorum'' 9, Fisher's translation
|
|}
The reference to public prostitution may be a memory of fertility cult practices. Such a memory may also be the source of a description in book 6 of the stay of [[Starcatherus]], a follower of Odin, in Sweden.
{|
|
Mortuo autem Bemono, Starcatherus ab athletis Biarmensibus ob virtutem accitus, cum plurima apud eos memoratu digna edidisset facinora, Sueonum fines ingreditur. Ubi cum filiis Frø septennio feriatus ab his tandem ad Haconem Daniae tyrannum se contulit, quod apud Upsalam sacrificiorum tempore constitutus effeminatos corporum motus scaenicosque mimorum plausus ac mollia nolarum crepitacula fastidiret. Unde patet, quam remotum a lascivia animum habuerit, qui ne eius quidem s |
nists'' or [[Settler (disambiguation)|settlers]].
A colony differs from a [[puppet state]] or [[satellite state]] in that a colony has no independent international representation and the top-level administration of a colony is under direct control of the metropolitan state.
The term "informal colony" is used by some historians to describe a country which is under the ''de facto'' control of another state, although this description is often contentious.
==Definitions==
In the modern usage, ''colony'' is generally distinguished from ''oversea possession''. In the former case, the local population, or at least the part of it not coming from the "metropolitan" (controlling) country, does not enjoy full citizenship rights. The political process is generally restricted, especially excluding questions of independence. In this case, there are [[settler]]s from a dominating foreign country, or countries, and often the property of [[indigenous people]]s is seized, to provide the settlers with land. Foreign mores, religions and/or legal systems are imposed. In some cases, the local population is held for [[unfree labour]], is submitted to brutal force, or even to policies of [[genocide]].
By contrast, in the case of overseas possessions, citizens are ''formally'' equal, regardless of origin and it is possible for legal independence movements to form; should they gain a majority in the oversea possession, the question of independence may be brought, for instance, to referendum. However, in some cases, settlers have come to outnumber indigenous people in overseas possessions, and it is possible for colonies to become overseas possessions, against the wishes of indigenous peoples. This often results in ongoing and long-lasting independence struggles by the descendants of the original inhabitants.
''Colony'' may also be used for countries that, while independent or considering themselves independent of a former colonizing power, still have a political and social structure where the rulers are a minority originating from the colonizing power. Such was the case with [[Rhodesia]] after the [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence]].
The term [[informal colony]] has also been used in relation to countries which, while they have never been conquered by force or ''officially'' ruled by a foreign power, have a clearly subordinate social or economic relationship to that power.
==History==
[[Image:Colonization 1945.png|400px|thumb|Colonization and imperialism in [[World War II]] (1945)]]
Originally, as with the [[Hellenic civilization|ancient (Hellenic) Greek]] ''[[apoikia]]'', the term ''colonization'' referred to the foundation of a new city or settlement, more often than not with nonviolent means (but see for instance the Athenian re-colonisation of [[Melos]] after wiping out the earlier settlement). The term '''''colony''''' is derived from the [[Latin]] '''''colonia''''', which indicated a place meant for [[agriculture|agricultural]] activities; these Roman colonies and others like them were in fact usually either conquered so as to be inhabited by these workers, or else established as a cheap way of securing conquests made for other reasons. The name of the [[Germany|German]] city [[Cologne]] also derives from ''colonia''. In the modern era, communities founded by colonists or [[settler]]s became known as ''settler colonies''.
The "age of [[imperialism]]" began in the [[15th century]] with the initiation of the vast [[Portuguese Empire]] and also the [[Spanish Empire]] in the Americas and lasted until the mid-[[20th century]] with the dismantling of the [[British Empire]]. During these centuries [[Europe]]an states, the [[United States]] and others took political control of much of the world's population and landmass. The term "colony" came to mean an overseas district with a majority [[indigenous people|indigenous]] population, administered by a distant colonial government. (Exceptions occurred: [[Russia|Russian]] colonies in [[Central Asia]] and [[Siberia]], American settlements in the [[American West]], and German colonies in [[Eastern Europe]] were not "overseas"; British colonies (or "overseas territories") like the [[Falkland Islands]] and [[Tristan da Cunha]] lacked a native population.) Most non-European countries were colonies of Europe at one time or another, or were handled in a quasi-colonial manner. The European colonies and former colonies in America made extensive use of [[slavery|slave labor]], initially using the native population, then through the importation of slaves from black Africa.
The [[Spain|Spanish]] colonial empire once encompassed all of South and Central America except for Brazil, with few exceptions; it crumbled starting in the early 19th century. After the Spanish and the Portuguese, the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC-1602) and later the [[Dutch West India Company]] (WIC) took over a lot of Portuguese possessions and expanded their large trade empire (See; [[Dutch colonial empire]]). In the [[19th century]], the largest European colonial empire was the British Empire under [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], including [[India]]. France once held much of Western and Central Africa, along with Indochina.
There existed various statuses and modes of operation for foreign countries, direct control by the colonizing country being the most obvious. Some colonies were operated through corporations (the [[British East India Company]] for [[India]]; the [[Congo Free State]] under the very brutal rule of [[Léopold II of Belgium]]); some were run as [[protectorate]]s. Quasi-colonies were run through proxy or puppet governments, generally kingdoms or dictatorships. For instance, it may be argued that [[Cuba]] before the Revolution was a quasi-colony of the United States, with an enormous influence of US economic and political interests; see [[banana republic]].
The United Kingdom used Australia as a [[penal colony]]: British convicts would be sent to forced labor there, with the added benefit that the freed convicts would settle in the colony and thus augment the European population there. Similarly, France once deported prostitutes and various "undesirables" to populate its colonies in North America, and until the 20th century operated a penitentiary on [[Devil's Island]] in [[French Guiana]].
The [[independence]] of these colonies began with that of [[13 colonies]] of Britain that formed the [[United States]], finalised in [[1783]] with the conclusion of a war begun in [[1776]], and has continued until about the present time, with for example [[Algeria]] and [[East Timor]] being relinquished by European powers only in [[1962]] and [[1975]] respectively (although the latter was forcibly made an [[Indonesia|Indonesian]] possession instead of becoming fully independent). This process is called '''[[decolonization]]''', though the use of a single term obscures an important distinction between the process of the [[settler]] population breaking its links with the mother country while maintaining local political supremacy and that of the [[indigenous people|indigenous]] population reasserting themselves (possibly through the expulsion of the settler population).
The movement towards decolonization was not uniform, with more newer powers, sometimes themselves ex-colonies or once threatened by colonial power, trying to carve a colonial empire. The United States, itself a former colony, expanded westwards by waging brutal wars against the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] population, including whole massacres of civilians, so as to make it possible for settlers to colonize the [[American West]]. It also colonized [[Hawaii]], and waged various wars and conduct armed expeditions so as to assert power over local governments (in [[Japan]], with [[Commodore Perry]] and in [[Cuba]], for example). European countries and the United States, exploiting the weakness of China's waning imperial regime, also maintained so-called [[international concession]]s in that country, a sort of colonial [[enclave]]; the coastal towns of [[Macau]] and [[Hong Kong]] were held on long-term leases by [[Portugal]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. During the first half of the 20th century, until its defeat the [[World War II|Second World War]], Japan, once afraid of becoming a European or American colony, built itself a colonial empire in China, Korea and the Western Pacific, using brutal military force.
Under the [[Geneva Conventions]] of [[1949]], it is a war crime to transfer, directly or indirectly, the civilian population of a country power onto land under that country's military occupation. The reasoning for this crime is apparently to emphasise that it is now a violation of international law to annex territory through military force. This phrase describes many of acts of [[colonisation]] in the past, and arguably outlaws colonisation.
See also: [[British Empire]], [[Portuguese Empire]], [[Spanish Empire]], [[French colonial empire]], [[Dutch colonial empire]], [[Colonialism]], [[Colonial mentality]],[[Colonization]], [[British Nationality Law]], [[Slavery]], [[Imperialism]], [[New Imperialism]], [[settler]].
Compare [[protectorate]], [[Crown colony]], [[dominion]], [[Proprietary colony]].
The Latin name ''colonia'' also became the name of several towns, the most famous of which is [[Cologne]].
==Colonies in ancient civilizations (examples)==
* [[Assyria]] was originally a colony of [[Babylonia]]
* [[Carthage]] was a [[Phoenicia]]n colony
* [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] was a colony of the Greeks of [[Thera]]
* [[Naples]] formed as a Greek colony
* [[Durrës]] formed as a Greek colony
==Modern colonies (examples)==
*[[India]] was under the direct control of the [[United Kingdom]] until [[1947]]. ''See also [[Crown colony]].''
*[[Korea]] was a colony of [[Japan]]
*The [[Philippines]], previously a colony of Spain |
ptics Environmental Defence - Global Warming Skeptics: A Primer] &mdash; How ExxonMobil funds scientists and media pundits to "de-bunk" the science of climate change
*[http://archive.greenpeace.org/climate/archive/kpresspack/debate.html Greenpeace: Industry And The Climate Debate]
*[http://www.opendemocracy.net/climate_change/ Open Democracy: The politics of climate change] &mdash; Article series by scientists, activists and others, and global online debate
*New Scientist 2002, [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/earth/climate-change/mg17423392.400 Too hot for head of climate panel]
*[http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article331083.ece What planet are you on, Mr Bush? (and do you care, Mr Blair?)]
*[http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2005/aug/policy/pt_skeptics.html "Skeptics get a journal"] by Paul D. Thacker, Environmental Science & Technology
*[http://www.giss.nasa.gov/edu/gwdebate/ Misusing figures about global warming in testimony to the United States Congress]
===Science===
*Committee on the Science of Climate Change, National Research Council, "[http://books.nap.edu/books/0309075742/html/index.html Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions]," (National Academies Press, 2001)
*[http://www.john-daly.com/index.htm Still Waiting For Greenhouse]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Environment/Climate_Change/ Climate Change] in the [[Open Directory Project]]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Environment/Opposing_Views/Climate_Change_Skeptics/ Climate Change Skeptics] in the Open Directory Project
*[http://www.junkscience.com/links/gwlinks.htm Junk Science: Global Warming links]
*[http://www.citizenreviewonline.org/special_issues/junk_science.htm Citizen Review: Junk Science Links]
*[http://www.climatechangedebate.org/debate_links.html Climate Change Debate: Links]
*[http://entropy.brneurosci.org/co2.html Cold Facts on Global Warming]
*[http://entropy.brneurosci.org/reviews/satanic.html Review: The Satanic Gases: Clearing the Air about Global Warming]
*[http://suppressednews.com/newsitems/local/AAyykVEupUMsWssrp.html Suppressed News: Junk Science Exploits Children]
*[http://www.greeningearthsociety.org/wca/2003/wca_5b.html Greening Earth Society: Free Speech for Me, Not For Thee]
*[http://www.aim.org/cgi-bin/aim/pubsearch.cgi?pubsec=allpubs&pubyear=alldates&words=global+warming&x=45&y=22 Accuracy In Media: Global Warming archives]
*[http://www.marshall.org/subcategory.php?id=9 Marshall Institute: Climate Change]
*[http://www.warwickhughes.com/climate/index.htm GLOBAL WARMING / A fraudulent notion based on corrupted data]
*[http://www.ecotrop.org/climate.html AntiEcohype: Climate Critical Commentaries]
*[http://muller.lbl.gov/TRessays/32-Global_Warming_Bombshell.htm "A Global Warming Bombshell"] by [[Richard A. Muller]], ''Technology Review'', Oct. 2004; calls into question famous graph by [[Michael Mann (scientist)|Michael Mann]]
*[http://www.climatechange.com.au/forum/ Climate Change Forum] Discuss issues to do with climate change, global warming and alternative energy with other enthusiastic individuals
*[http://www.pitt.edu/~gordonm/ A Public Debate on the Science of Global Warming]: Dr. James E. Hansen and Dr. Patrick J. Michaels, [[November 20]], [[1998]].
*[http://www.giss.nasa.gov/edu/gwdebate/ The Global Warming Debate]: Fundamental differences in opinion about climate change.
*{{Citenewsauthor | surname=Coren | given=Michael | title=The science debate behind climate change | date=[[8 April]] [[2005]] | org=CNN | url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/04/08/earth.science/index.html}}
**{{Citenewsauthor | surname=Pollard | given=Alison | title=Past may hold clues to climate's future | date=[[12 April]] [[2005]] | org=CNN | url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/04/08/earth.past.future/index.html}}
*{{cite journal
| author=Roger Pielke, Jr., Daniel Sarewitz
| title=Wanted: Scientific Leadership on Climate
| journal=Issues in Science and Technology
| volume=19 | issue=2 | year=2002 | pages=27-30
| url=http://www.issues.org/issues/19.2/p_pielke.htm
}}
* [http://www.realclimate.org RealClimate » Climate Science] RealClimate is a commentary site on climate science by working climate scientists for the interested public and journalists.
* [http://www.climateaudit.org ClimateAudit: statistical criticism of "hockey stick" climate history reconstructions]
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Debates]]
[[Category:Controversies]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Dantzig</title>
<id>13111</id>
<revision>
<id>36744535</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T04:10:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TacoDeposit</username>
<id>55736</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other */ This is a serious encyclopedia.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George Bernard Dantzig''' ([[8 November]] [[1914]] &ndash; [[13 May]] [[2005]]) was a [[mathematician]] who introduced the [[simplex algorithm]] and is considered the "Father of [[linear programming]]". He was the recipient of many honors, including the [[National Medal of Science]] in [[1975]], the [[John von Neumann]] Theory Prize in [[1974]].
He was a member of the [[National Academy of Sciences]], the [[National Academy of Engineering]], and the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]].
He earned [[bachelor's degrees]] in mathematics and physics from the [[University of Maryland, College Park|University of Maryland]] in [[1936]], his [[master's degree]] in mathematics from the [[University of Michigan]], and his [[PhD]] from [[UC Berkeley]] in [[1946]]. He received an honorary doctorate from the University of Maryland in [[1976]].
Dantzig's father, [[Tobias Dantzig]], was a [[Russia]]n mathematician who had studied with [[Henri Poincaré]] in [[Paris]]. Tobias married a fellow [[Sorbonne University]] student, Anja Ourisson, and the couple immigrated to the [[United States]].
==Truth in Urban Legends==
An actual event in Dantzig's life became the origin of a famous [[urban legend]] in [[1939]] while he was a graduate student at [[UC Berkeley]]. Near the beginning of a class that Dantzig was late for, professor [[Jerzy Neyman]] wrote two examples of famously unsolved [[statistics]] problems on the blackboard. When Dantzig later arrived, he assumed that the two problems were a homework assignment and wrote them down. According to Dantzig, the problems "seemed to be a little harder than usual", but a few days later he handed in completed solutions for both, still believing that they were an assignment that was past due. Six weeks later, Dantzig received a visit from an excited professor Neyman, who had prepared one of Dantzig's solutions for publication in a mathematical journal. Years later another researcher, [[Abraham Wald]], was preparing to publish a paper which arrived at a conclusion for the second problem, and included Dantzig as its co-author when he learned of the earlier solution.
This story began to spread, and was used as a motivational lesson demonstrating the power of positive thinking. Over time Dantzig's name was removed and facts were altered, but the basic story persisted in the form of an urban legend.
==The Birth of Linear Programming==
When [[World War II]] started, Dantzig's graduate studies at Berkeley were suspended, and he became Head of the Combat Analysis Branch of the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]]'s Headquarters Statistical Control, which had to deal with the logistics of supply chains and management of hundreds of thousands of items and people. The job provided the "real world" problems which linear programming would come to solve.
George Dantzig received his [[Ph.D.]] from Berkeley in [[1946]]. He was originally going to accept a teaching post at Berkeley, but was persuaded by his wife and former Pentagon colleagues to go back there as a mathematical adviser to the USAF. It was there, in [[1947]] that he first posed the Linear Programming problem, and proposed the Simplex Method to solve it. In [[1952]], he became a research mathematician at the [[RAND|RAND Corporation]], where he began implementing linear programming on the corporation's computers. In [[1960]], he was hired by his ''[[alma mater]]'', where he taught [[computer science]], eventually becoming the chairman of the [[Operations Research]] Center. In [[1966]], he took a similar position at [[Stanford University]]. He stayed with Stanford until his retirement in the [[1990s]].
In addition to his significant work in developing the simplex method and furthering linear programming, Dantzig also advanced the fields of decomposition theory, sensitivity analysis, complementary pivot methods, large-scale optimization, nonlinear programming, and programming under uncertainty. The first issue of the ''SIAM Journal on Optimization'' in [[1991]] was dedicated to him.
==Other==
The [[Mathematical Programming Society]] honored Dantzig by creating the [[Dantzig Award]], bestowed every three years since [[1982]] on one or two people who have made a significant impact in the field of mathematical programming.
Dantzig died on [[May 13]], [[2005]], in his home in Stanford, California, due to complications from [[diabetes]] and [[cardiovascular disease]].
==References==
* G. B. Dantzig 1940. ''On the non-existence of tests of "Student's" hypothesis having power functions independent of <math>\sigma</math>'', Annals of Mathematical Statistics, Volume 11, number 2, pp186-192
==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Dantzig_George}}
*[http://www.snopes.com/college/homework/unsolvable.asp Snopes urban legend reference on the legend to which Dantzig gave rise]
*[http://www.stanford.edu/group/SOL/dantzig.html Stanford Celebrates Dantzig's 80th birthday]
*[http://supernet.som.umass.edu/photos/gdobit.html Obit |
erve general aviation exclusively.
==Examples==
The following examples provide a partial list of typical general aviation operations:
* [[flight training]]
* [[gliding]]
* [[parachuting]]
* [[aerobatics]]
* privately-owned light aircraft flights sometimes from [[flying club]]s
* [[air ambulance]]
* pipeline surveys
* [[aerial photography]]
* traffic reporting
* [[Aerial application|crop dusting]]
* [[bush flying]]
* [[ballooning]]
* [[air charter]] including air taxi operations
* [[Cargo airline|many air cargo flights]]
* [[business jets]]
* police air patrols
* [[Aerial firefighting|forest fire fighting]]
* logging
* resource exploration
==Regulation and safety==
Since it includes both (non-scheduled) commercial operations and private operations, with aircraft of many different types and sizes, it is not possible to make blanket statements about the regulation or safety record of general aviation. At one extreme, in most countries business jets and large cargo jets face most of the same regulations as [[scheduled air transport]] and fly mostly to the same airports, so it is not surprising that they have comparable safety records. Commercial [[bush flying]] operations normally do not operate under as heavy a regulatory burden and often involve riskier operations into small airports or off-airport outside of [[radar]] coverage; as a result, the safety record in that sector can be considerably worse &mdash; bush pilots in [[Alaska]], for example, have a one in eight chance of dying on the job.[http://money.cnn.com/2003/10/13/pf/dangerousjobs/?cnn=yes] Most other sectors of general aviation fall between these extremes, depending on the environments in which they operate.
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Aviation]]
[[de:Allgemeine Luftfahrt]]
[[fr:Aviation générale]]
[[he:תעופה קלה]]
[[pt:Aviação geral]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grue</title>
<id>12613</id>
<revision>
<id>35610412</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-18T00:14:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Savidan</username>
<id>677067</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Grue''' has multiple meanings:
* [[Grue (color)]]
* [[Grue (monster)|Grue]] a monster from the [[Zork]] series
* [[Grue, Norway]], a municipality
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gliding</title>
<id>12614</id>
<revision>
<id>41512298</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:34:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.255.218.18|207.255.218.18]] ([[User talk:207.255.218.18|talk]]) to last version by 12.27.24.2</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gliding''' (or '''soaring''') is a [[recreation]]al activity and competitive [[sport]] where individuals fly un-powered [[aeroplane]]s known as [[glider]]s or [[sailplane]]s. Properly, the term ''gliding'' refers to descending flight of a heavier-than-air craft when gravity (its own weight) is its sole motive force; ''soaring'' is the correct term to use when the craft gains altitude or speed from movements of the atmosphere during the flight.
The words ''gliding'' and ''soaring'' are also used to describe the ways [[bird]]s capable of flight remain aloft without flapping their [[wing]]s; the mechanics of this process are explained in the article on [[bird flight]], while this article focuses on aircraft.
[[Image:LS40075.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A modern glider crossing the finish line at speed. It is jettisoning water that has been used as ballast]]
==Recreation versus sport==
While recreational glider enthusiasts enjoy the freedom, scenic views and sheer enjoyment of controlling the aircraft, others compete (up to [[World Gliding Championships|World Championship level]]), or practise competing, by flying as quickly as possible around a circuit defined by "turning-points". These competitions test the pilots' (and, in two-seat gliders, the co-pilots') ability to recognise and make use of local weather conditions, their flying skills and navigational abilities. There are also glider [[aerobatic|aerobatics]] competitions.
All methods of launching gliders (apart from self-launching motor-gliders) require assistance from other participants and so sailplane pilots band together within clubs to share an airfield and launch equipment, and to maintain high safety standards. Since assistance is also needed to rig and retrieve gliders as well as to train new pilots, there is an important social aspect to the sport.
==History==
All developments in heavier-than-air flight between [[1853]] ([[Sir George Cayley's coachman]]), and [[1903]] ([[Wright brothers]]) involved gliders (See [[History of Aviation]]). However, the ''sport'' of gliding only emerged after the [[World War I|First World War]] and the reason for its development can be traced to the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. The peace settlement imposed severe restrictions on the manufacture and use of single-seater powered aeroplanes in [[Germany]]. Thus, in the 1920s and 1930s, while aviators and aircraft makers in the rest of the world were working to improve the performance of powered aeroplanes, the Germans were designing, developing and flying ever more efficient gliders and discovering ways of using the natural forces in the atmosphere to make them fly further and faster. The first German gliding competition was held at the [[Wasserkuppe]] in [[1920]], organised by [[Oskar Ursinus]], and ten years later had become an international event. The sport has since been taken up in many countries. It does not matter whether the countries are flat or mountainous, hot or temperate, because gliders can soar in most places. Germany, however, remains the world centre of gliding, as evinced by the fact that all the major glider manufacturers are still based there.
[[Image:Bluesky2.jpg|thumb|right|Good gliding weather. Well formed ''[[cumulus cloud|cumulus]] humilis'', with darker bases, suggests active [[thermal]]s and light winds.]]
==Soaring==
Soaring is usually achieved by flying through a mass of air that is ascending as fast or faster than the sailplane is descending, and thus gaining [[potential energy]]. The most commonly used rising masses of air are [[thermal]]s (updrafts of warm air), [[Ridge Lift|ridge lift]] (found where the wind blows against the face of a hill and is forced to rise), and wave lift ([[standing wave]]s in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], analogous to the ripples on the surface of a stream). Ridge lift rarely allows pilots to climb much higher than about 2,000 ft (600 m) above the terrain; thermals, depending on the climate and terrain, can exceed 10,000 ft (3,000 m) in flat country and much higher in the mountains; wave lift has allowed gliders to achieve altitudes approaching 50,000 ft (15,000 m).
In thermal flight, the glider [[aviator|pilot]] attempts to find streams of air that are moving upwards as a result of being heated by contact with sun-lit earth. If the air contains enough moisture, the water will condense from the rising air and form cumulus clouds. Well-formed [[cumulus cloud]]s (the fluffy, cotton-wool type of cloud) with sharply defined flat bases often form at the tops of strong thermals. Once a thermal is encountered, the pilot banks sharply to keep the plane turning in a small circle within the thermal and so can ride upward. Rates of climb depend on conditions, but several metres per second is common.
As it requires rising heated air, thermalling is typically only effective in mid-latitudes from spring through into late summer. Other latitudes often have a layer of warm air, an [[Capping inversion|inversion]], which stops the air in the thermals from rising higher. During winter the solar heat can only create weak thermals.
In a few countries gliders can continue to climb into the clouds in uncontrolled airspace but in many countries the pilot must stop climbing at cloud-base (see [[Visual Flight Rules]]). Sometimes thermals do not create cumulus clouds. This can happen when the air has little moisture or when an inversion stops the thermal from rising high enough for the moisture to condense. Without clouds to mark the thermals, the pilot must use his skill and luck to find them. Typical locations to find thermals are over towns, freshly [[plough]]ed fields and [[asphalt]] roads, however thermals are often hard to associate with any feature on the ground.
A pilot who is [[Slope soaring|ridge soaring]] looks for air that is being lifted as it flows up the sides of hills. Ridge lift is present whenever the wind blows in any weather but sometimes it is augmented by thermals when the slopes also face the sun.
Mountain waves give long stretches of rising air and allow gliders to climb high, long before the sun has started heating the ground. Most sailplane altitude records have therefore been set by using in mountain waves from long mountain ranges all over the world. The current [http://records.fai.org/gliding/#current World Distance Record] of 3008 km by Klaus Ohlmann (on [[21 January]] [[2003]]) was also flown in the mountain wave in [[South America]]. Long, stationary [[lenticular cloud|lenticular]] (lens-shaped) clouds, perpendicular to the wind direction, frequently mark the crests of atmospheric waves.
On rare occasions, glider pilots have been able to use a technique called "[[dynamic soaring]]", where a sailplane can be made to gain [[kinetic energy]] by repeatedly crossing the boundary between air masses of different horizontal velocity. However, such zones of high "[[wind gradient]]" are usually much too low to be used safely by aircraft, so dynamic soaring is a technique only really useful to [[radio control]] [[model aircraft]] and to birds, notably to the [[albatross]]es who during long flights can be seen repeatedly |
color|colors]]; blue [[light]] has the shortest [[wavelength]] range of the three [[primary color|additive primary colors]]. The English language commonly uses "blue" to refer to any color from blue to [[cyan]].
In the [[RGB color space|RGB color system]], colors are made by mixing a red, a green and a blue color. When talking about RGB, therefore, some people use blue to mean that specific blue, which varies in shade according to the device used to display the RGB color. [[Absolute color spaces]] based on RGB, such as [[sRGB]] define an exact color for this blue, which may differ from the actual blue used in a particular computer monitor.
==Naming and etymology==
{{main|Color name}}
The modern English word ''blue'' comes from the [[Middle English]], where it began to be used along with ''bleu'', an [[Old French]] word of [[Germanic language|Germanic]] origin (possibly [[Old High German]] ''blao'', "shining"). A [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[Scottish English]] word for "blue-grey" is ''blae'', from the Middle English ''bla'' ("dark blue," from the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''blæd''). As a curiosity, ''blue'' is thought to be cognate with ''[[blond]]'' and ''[[black]]'', also with Latin ''flavus'' ("yellow"; see ''[[flavescent]]'' and ''[[flavine]]'') and with Russian белый, ''belyi'' ("white," see ''[[beluga]]''), all of which derive (according to the '' [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|American Heritage Dictionary]]'') from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] [[Root (linguistics)|root]] *''bhel-'' meaning "to shine, flash or burn", whence the names of various bright colors, and that of color black from a derivation meaning "burnt" (other words derived from this root include ''[[bleach]]'', ''[[bleak]]'', ''[[blind]]'', ''[[blank]]'', ''[[blush]]'', ''[[blaze]]'', ''[[flame]]'', ''[[fulminate]]'', ''flagrant'' and ''[[phlegm]]'').
Many languages do not have separate terms for blue and [[green]], instead using a cover term for both (when the issue is discussed in linguistics, this cover term is sometimes called ''[[grue (color)|grue]]'' in English). For example, in [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] both tree leaves and the sky are ''xanh'' (to distinguish, one may use ''xanh lá cây'' "leaf grue" for green and ''xanh nước'' "water grue" for blue). [[Chinese language|Chinese]] has a word 青 ''qīng'' that can refer to both, though it also has separate words for blue (蓝 / 藍, ''lán'') and green (绿 / 綠, ''lǜ''). In traditional [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (and related [[Celtic languages]]), ''glas'' could refer to blue but also to certain shades of green and [[grey]]; however, modern Welsh is tending towards the 11-color Western scheme, restricting ''glas'' to blue and using ''gwyrdd'' for green and ''llwyd'' for grey. In [[Swedish language|Swedish]], ''blå'', the modern word for blue, was used to describe [[black]] until the early [[20th century]].
On the other hand, [[Russian language|Russian]] does not have a single word referring to the whole range of colors denoted by the English term "blue." Instead, it treats light blue (голубой, ''goluboy'') as a separate color independent from plain or dark blue (синий, ''siniy''), while in English the light blues like [[azure]] and [[cyan]] are considered mere shades of "blue" and not shades of a different color. To better understand this, consider that English makes a similar distinction between "[[red]]" and light red ([[pink]], which is considered a different color and not merely a kind of red), but such a distinction is unknown in several other languages; for example, both "red" (红 / 紅, ''hóng'') and "pink" (粉红, ''fěn hóng'', lit. "powder red") have traditionally been considered varieties of a single color in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. Finally, it has been argued that [[Turkish language|Turkish]] treats dark or navy blue (''lacivert'', curiously a cognate of English ''[[azure]]'' and ''[[lapis lazuli]]'') as a separate color from plain or light blue (''mavi'').
==Sky==
A clear [[sky]] on a sunny [[day]] appears blue because of [[Rayleigh scattering]] of the light from the [[Sun]]. Large quantities of [[water]] appear blue because red light around 750 nm is absorbed as an overtone of the O-H stretching vibration. Interestingly, [[heavy water]] is colorless, because the absorption band (~950 nm) is outside the visible spectrum.
==Plants and animals==
[[Image:HyacinthoidesNonScripta.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The [[common bluebell]].]]
[[Image:Blueberries.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Blueberries]].]]
*'''[[Blue agave]]''' (''Agave tequilana'' var. ''weber'') is a blue-leafed [[Variety (biology)|variety]] of the [[Mexican agave]], used for making [[tequila]].
*'''[[Sockeye salmon|Blueback salmon]]''' (''Oncorhynchus nerka'') is a synonym for [[sockeye salmon]].
*'''[[Bluebell]]''' may refer to both the bulbous plants in the [[Hyacinthoides]] [[genus]] of [[lily|lilies]], or the plants in the genus [[Mertensia]].
*'''[[Blueberry]]''' refers to any of the plants in the genus [[Vaccinium]], all of which have flowers with edible [[berry|berries]] colored blue to blue-black, which are also called "blueberries."
*'''[[Scaup|Bluebill]]''' is a synonym for [[scaup]], the name for two [[diving duck]]s in the [[Aythya]] genus: [[Greater Scaup]] (''Aythya marila'') and [[Lesser Scaup]] (''Aythya affinis'').
*'''[[Bluebird]]s''' are any of the [[List of North American birds|North American songbirds]] in the genus [[Sialia]]: [[Eastern Bluebird]] (''Sialia sialis''), [[Western Bluebird]] (''Sialia mexicana''), or [[Mountain Bluebird]] (''Sialia currucoides''). They are medium-sized [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]] that usually have blue plumage and, in males, a rust-color breast.
*'''[[Bluebonnet]]s''' are two [[lupine]] [[Annual plant|annual flowers]] in the ''[[lupine|Lupinus]]'' genus that are native to [[Texas]]: ''Lupinus subcarnosus'' and ''Lupinus texensis''. They have a light blue appearance and palmately compound leaves. In [[Scots language|Scots]] it refers to the bird Parus cœruleus.
*'''[[Blow-fly|Bluebottle]]s''' or blow-flies are any of the flies in the genus [[Calliphiora]] that have a brightly-colored metallic body and breed in decaying organic material.
*'''[[Blue catfish]]''' (''Ictalurus furcatus'') is a long bluish [[North America]]n [[catfish]] species, often weighing more than 45 kg (100 pounds).
*'''[[Dendrobates azureus|Blue poison dart frog]]s''' (''Dendrobates azureus'') are poisonous South American frogs that [[Bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] [[neurotoxin]]s in their blue skin.
When a [[dog]] or [[cat]] is described as having a "blue" coat, it refers to a shade of grey which takes on a bluish tint, and diluted variant of a pure black coat. Breeds such as the [[Kerry Blue Terrier]] dog and [[Russian Blue]] cat have solid "blue" coats, as does the "British Blue" variety of the [[British Shorthair]] cat. Others, such as the [[Australian Shepherd]] and [[Border Collie]], may have '''blue [[Merle (coat color in dogs)|merle]]''' coats, which is "blue" mixed in with a solid, usually brown or black, base color. (See also [[Blue Dog Democrats]], below).
The western skink has a brilliant cobalt blue tail.
==Geography==
===Mountains and ranges===
* '''[[Blue Ridge Mountains]]''', eastern edge or front range of the [[Appalachian Mountains]].
* '''[[Blue Mountains]]''', sandstone mountain range west of [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]
===Rivers===
* '''[[Blue Nile]]''', a river originating at [[Lake Tana]] in [[Ethiopia]].
* '''[[Blue Earth River]]''', a tributary of the [[Minnesota River]] in [[Minnesota]], [[United States]]. Blue Earth is a translation of the [[Dakota]] Indian word ''Mahkato'', meaning ''greenish blue earth''. The Blue Earth River is named from the bluish green earth that was used by the [[Sisseton Dakota]] as a pigment, found in a [[shaley]] layer of the rock bluff of this stream about three miles from the [[river mouth]].
==Symbolism and expressions==
[[Image:Picasso with cloak.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Picasso's ''Self-portrait with Cloak'' (1901)]]
Blue often denotes injury, such as in the phrase "'''black and blue'''," since it is the color of a [[bruise]]. Blue is used also as a word to denote a sad or melancholy state, as in [[depression (mood)|depression]], or simply a state of deep contemplation (however, the phrase "blue skies," referring to sunny weather, implies cheerfulness). Symbolically, blue is associated with that state, such as the term '''[[blue period]]''' to describe
[[Pablo Picasso]]'s work form [[1901]] to [[1904]].
* Blue is associated with [[water]].
* '''Blue sky''' is a term used to describe the ability to conceptualize or create something from nothing. In other words, ''[[ex nihilo]]''. It is a term that can describe a person, i.e. ''She's an amazing blue sky business analyst.'' It can also be used to illustrate constraints, i.e. ''You cannot work from a blue sky angle as there are limitations to what can be done for this project.''
* In old [[Australia]]n slang, a "blue" can also describe a fight or an argument. Men with red hair may be nicknamed "Bluey". The phrase "true blue" also means "genuine" (example : "He's a true blue Aussie").
*A '''blue joke''' or '''blue comedy''' is comedy which uses references to socially [[taboo]] subjects such as [[sex]]ual or [[lavatory|lavatorial]] [[double entendre]].
*'''[[Blue law]]''' is the term for [[law]]s regulating issues of [[morality]], such as [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[gambling]], or [[pornography]].
* Although blue is traditionally associated with boys as [[pink]] is associated with girls, there have also been periods in which pink was consider |
nd [[Durkheim]] with interest, and applied it to his own.
However, over the years, Saussure became ever more obsessed with the idea of plagiarism, for fear of inadvertently incorporating the theories of one of his colleagues into his own research. He thereafter increasingly isolated himself. In reviewing the work being done in linguistics at this time, we find that many of the concepts that would appear in Saussure's Cours were already in development by other scholars, but not to the same degree or in the same manner. What was original about his concepts was his approach, his use of terminology and his incorporation of sociology, anthropology and philosophy.
Saussure returned to Geneva in 1891 and became a professor at the University. He was to teach there for the rest of his life. He began by giving courses in Sanskrit and Indo-European languages as well as historical and comparative linguistics. Only after a colleague died in 1906 did he add general linguistics; this would lead to the development of his famous three courses. As his curiosity and the complexity of his research increased, his published output decreased. In the last fifteen years of his life he produced only three papers. After 1906 the majority of his academic energy went into his series, ''Cours de linguistique générale''. He approached these courses from three directions, without using any course notes.
Saussure's systematic reexamination of language is based on four assumptions:
<br>
# The scientific study of language needs to develop and study the system rather than the history of linguistic phenomena.
# the basic elements of language can only be studied in relation to their functions rather than in relation to their causes.
# the relationship between the signifier and the signified in language is arbitrary.
# language is primarily a "social activity" (in some ways this is the most radical and yet least developed element of his system); language is socialized at every level, from the production of [[phonemes]] to the interpretation of complex meaning.
In many ways, the dualities of the first three assumptions are all reconfigured and resolved socially. They led Saussure to call for a new science that would go beyond linguistic science and study the life of signs within society. He would identify this as semiology, which is now interchangeably identified with semiotics' (from Dr. Klage's lecture on "Structuralism and Saussure").
Unbenownst to most of his colleagues, in the last seven years of his life Saussure began a new strain of research dealing with the anagrammatical properties of certain classical Latin and Indo-European poems. He mentioned his pursuit in only a few personal letters, and it wasn't until fifty years after his death that eight boxes of notebooks and sketches were discovered and analyzed. Saussure had become fascinated with the idea that, in a verse-form known as [[Saturnian (poetry)]] (with forebears reaching back through Homer to ancient Sanskrit), poets encoded a name – often that of a god or patron – into the words of a poem. He had serious questions about his research, and was unsure of his findings – the anagrams were sometimes misleading and even yielded incorrect names. More importantly, he realized his new work would undermine some of the basic tenets of his Cours; giving special status to poetic language over "normal" language.
Nevertheless, critics like [[Julia Kristeva]] and [[Jacques Derrida]] embraced this newfound work and incorporated it into their own approaches. As Kristeva proclaimed: "We accept the principles set out by Ferdinand de Saussure in his "Anagrams,"
# Poetic language adds a second, contrived, dimension to the original word
# There is a correspondence between elements, in both metre and rime
# Binary poetic laws transgress the rules of grammar
# The element of the key word (or even letter) 'may be spread over the whole length of the text or may be concentrated in a small space, such as one or two words.' (''Cambridge Companion to Saussure'', 184)
In the end, Saussure abandoned his anagrams, perhaps because he had set too stringent a system of rules for himself which would not allow for such a leap of imagination.
===The Course of General Linguistics (Cours de linguistique générale):===
Saussure died in February, 1913. Within a month colleagues and former students realized what might be the greatest tragedy of his passing: that the genius of his Cours de linguistique générale remained solely in the memories and notebooks of the students fortunate enough to have enrolled in one of his three courses. Immediately a plan was formulated by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye to recreate the Cours from the notes and memories of those students, along with a strong amount of editing. Albert Riedlinger's meticulous notes formed the basis of the manuscript and he provided editorial support.
There was, and has continued to be, much controversy over the "real" Saussure and the "interpreted" Saussure through his students' notes and editorial manipulation. Considering that the editors chose to write the manuscript in the first-person (which certainly would not have been inherent in student notes), it at least begs the question of authorial authenticity. Regardless, it has been called one of the great achievements of Western intellect, contemplating the issue that language can be analyzed as a formal system of organized difference, apart from the dialectics of real-time production and comprehension.
It is important to recall that structuralist analysis concerns itself with the units ("phonemes") and rules of the system, rather than its specific content. In terms of language, these units are words and rules are the grammar which make order of the words.
The Cours is broken down into a series of sections:<br>
1) Section I: The Nature of the Linguistic Sign.<br>
- which identifies the terms "concept," "sound image," "sign" (the union of concept and sound image), "signifier" (sound), "signified" (thought), "structure" (system of language), "arbitrary" (the idea that a community must agree on the meaning of a gesture - that it is not intrinsic), "synchronic" (an analysis of language as a system at the present moment rather than in the past or future), and "linear" (elements in the system have one degree of combinatorial freedom). While certain of the ideas in this section preexisted the Cours, the establishment of the "arbitrary" truly made it groundbreaking and paved the way for structuralism.<p>
2) Section II: Linguistic Value.<br>
- which raises the connection between ideas and language, and the inseparable link between thought and sound. The terms "langue" (system of language), "parole" (individual unit within langue), "value" (the system-internal compositional meaning of recurring bits of linguistic form), "signification" (meaning), and "difference" (relation that creates value) are developed here. Within this section also lies the portion which deals with Synagmatic and Associative Relations, the basis for the social foundations of the course and the analysis of groups and discourse.<p>
'A Selection of Basic Points from the Cours:
* the sound-image is nothing more than the sum of a limited number of elements or phonemes
* language is a storehouse of sound-images.
* the sound-image is sensory - "material" - and can be opposed to the more abstract term, the concept.
* language is a system of signs that express ideas, and is therefore comparable to a system of writing.
* a linguistic sign is a two-sided psychological entity made up of a concept and a sound-image that are intimately united, each recalling the other. This combination of concept and sound-image is also identified as signified and signifier.
* ''the linguistic sign is arbitrary'' - in the sense that there is no natural connection between the signifier and the signified.
* the sign is not only arbitrary but linear.
* it is impossible to conceive of ideas without language - language must preexist the idea - language becomes the sign of the idea.
* imagine thought as the front and back of a piece of paper, or two sides of a coin; irrevocably connected. So with language, sound and thought cannot be divided.
* signs used in writing are arbitrary.
(from ''The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism'', 961-76)
<p>
===Legacy:===
The impact of Saussure's work spread far beyond linguistics to have a profound effect on the humanities and social sciences. His work provided the foundation for structuralism and poststructuralism and was enmeshed in developments in literarary studies, history, anthropology and psychoanalysis. Among the notable theorists who recognized his influence on their work: [[Roman Jakobson]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], Jacques Derrida, [[Louis Althusser]], [[Roland Barthes]], [[Jacques Lacan]], Julia Kristeva, [[Umberto Eco]], [[A.J. Greimas]], [[Louis Hjelmslev]], [[Emile Benveniste]] and [[Vladimir Propp]].
<p>
Ironically, some of these scholars incorporated Saussure's theories into their work through the interpretation of others. Lévi-Strauss offers an example, reading Jakobson's essays on Saussure and applying them to his own long before he ever read the Cours. Barthes, also, undertook a long study of Saussure by reading the analyses of Jakobson, Greimas, Levi-Strauss, Hjelmslev, Benveniste, and Propp.
<p>
Publication and translation of the Cours occurred in unusual patterns around the world. While access in French language and other European editions was fast to spread across Europe and Russia prior to World War II, the work was not translated into English for almost forty years. However, it founds American linguistics through t |
a diplomat.
==Personal life==
Henry was born to John and Esther Grasset Laurens on [[March 6]], 1724 in [[Charleston, South Carolina]]. His father was a saddler and his parents had come to Charles Town as part of the [[Huguenot]] immigration, drawn by the promise of religious liberty. His family prospered, and in [[1744]] Henry went to [[England]] where he learned the ways of commerce from a merchant who had formerly lived in Charleston.
Henry returned to Charleston in 1747. He entered the export and import business and became a prosperous merchant. On [[June 25]], [[1750]] he married Eleanor Ball. The couple would have twelve children. While seven died in infancy or childhood, others achieved prominence. Their son [[John Laurens]] fought and died in the Revolution. Their daughter Mary married [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]], while their son Henry married Eliza, the daughter of [[John Rutledge]].
In 1772, Henry, like many successful American merchants began to buy farmland. He purchased 3,000 acres (12 km&sup2;) at [[Mepkin Abbey|Mepkin]]. Although he later bought another 20,000 acres (81 km&sup2;), Mepkin became the family seat. By 1776 he had given up his mercantile ventures, although he always ran his plantations in a very business-like way.
==Political career==
[[Image:Washington Gates Franklin Laurens Jones 1784.jpg|thumb|left|1. General [[George Washington]] 2. General [[Horatio Gates]] 3. Dr. [[Benjamin Franklin]] 4. Präsid Laurens 5. [[John Paul Jones]] / D. Berger sculp. 1784.]]
Laurens served in the militia, as did most able bodied men in his time. He rose to the rank of Lt. Colonel in campaigns against the [[Cherokee]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] in 1757-1761. [[1757]] also marked the first year he was elected to the colonial assembly. He was elected again every year but one until the revolution replaced the assembly with a state Convention as an interim government. The year he missed was [[1773]] when he visited England to arrange for his children's education. He was named to the colony's Council in 1764 and 1768, but declined both times. In [[1772]] he joined the [[American Philosophical Society]] of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], and carried on some extensive correspondence with other members.
As the [[American Revolution]] neared, Laurens first inclination was to support reconciliation with the [[United Kingdom|British Crown]]. But as conditions deteriorated he came to fully support the American position. When Carolina began the creation of a revolutionary government, he was elected to the Provincial Congress which first met on [[January 9]], [[1775]]. He was president of the ''Committee of Safety'', and presiding officer of that congress from June until March of [[1776]]. When South Carolina installed a full independent government, he served as the Vice President of South Carolina from March of 1776 to [[June 27]], [[1777]].
Henry Laurens was first named a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] on [[January 10]], [[1777]]. He served in the Congress from then until [[1780]]. He was the [[President of the Continental Congress]] from [[November 1]], 1777 to [[December 9]], [[1778]].
In the fall of [[1779]] the Congress named Laurens their minister to [[Netherlands|Holland]]. In early [[1780]] he took up that post and successfully negotiated Dutch support for the war. But on his return voyage that fall the British Navy intercepted his ship and discovered the draft of a possible U.S.-Dutch treaty prepared by [[William Lee]]. This treaty was used as a reason for war between Great Britain and the Netherlands. Laurens was charged with treason and imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]]. This became another issue between the British and Americans. In the field, most captives were regarded as prisoners of war, and while conditions were frequently appalling, prisoner exchanges and mail privileges were accepted practice. Finally, on [[December 31]], [[1781]] he was released in exchange for General [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] and completed his voyage.
In [[1783]] Laurens was in [[Paris]] as one of the Peace Commissioners for the negotiations leading to the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]]. While he didn't sign the primary treaty, he was instrumental in reaching the secondary accords that resolved issues involving the Netherlands and [[Spain]]. He generally retired from public life in 1784. He was sought for a return to the Continental Congress, the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] in [[1787]] and the state assembly, but he declined all of these jobs. He did serve in the state convention of [[1788]] where he voted to ratify the [[United States Constitution]].
==Later events==
The British forces from Charleston had burned the main home at Mepkin during the war. When Henry returned in [[1784]], the family lived in an outbuilding while the manor was rebuilt. He lived there the rest of his life, working to recover the estimated 40,000 pounds that the revolution had cost him. ''(This would be equivalent to about $3,500,000 in 2000 values.)'' He died at Mepkin on [[December 8]], 1792, and afterward was cremated and his ashes were interred there. The estate at Mepkin passed through several hands, but large portions of the estate still exist, and are now a [[Trappist]] abbey.
Some aspects of the life of Henry Laurens were used in creating the fictional character ''Benjamin Martin'' in the 2000 motion picture ''[[The Patriot (2000 film)|The Patriot]]''. Like Martin, he maintained a residence in Charleston and was a reluctant rebel. While he didn't see military service, his home was burned and his oldest son died in battle.
The city of [[Laurens, South Carolina|Laurens]] is named for him. General [[Lachlan McIntosh]], who worked for Laurens as a clerk and became close friends with him, named [[Fort Laurens]] after him.
==External links==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=L000121 Laurens' Congressional Biography]
*[http://www.mepkinabbey.org/home.htm Mepkin Abbey web site]
==Additional reading==
*Henry Laurens (Philip Hamer, editor); ''Papers of Henry Laurens, (10 volumes)''; 1915, New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons.
*David D. Wallace; "The Life of Henry Laurens: With a Sketch of the Life of Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens"; 1967, Russell & Russell Publishers, ISBN 0846210150.
{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[President of the Continental Congress|President of the Second Continental Congress]]| before=[[John Hancock]]| after=[[John Jay]]| years=[[November 1]], [[1777]] &ndash; [[December 9]], [[1778]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1724 births|Laurens, Henry]]
[[Category:1792 deaths|Laurens, Henry]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Laurens, Henry]]
[[Category:Lieutenant colonels|Laurens, Henry]]
[[Category:People from South Carolina|Laurens, Henry]]
[[nl:Henry Laurens]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HOTOL</title>
<id>14301</id>
<revision>
<id>38101860</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T04:42:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wolfkeeper</username>
<id>41690</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat: reusable launch vehicles</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''HOTOL''', for ''Horizontal Take-Off and Landing'', was an unrealised [[United Kingdom|British]] space shuttle proposal.
Designed as a [[single stage to orbit|single-stage-to-orbit]] (SSTO) reusable winged launch vehicle, it was to be fitted with a unique [[liquid air cycle engine]] (LACE) engine, the [[RB545]], built by [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls Royce]]. The engine was technically a liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen design, but by collecting and liquifying [[oxygen]] from the air as the spacecraft climbed, the amount of [[LOX]] (liquid oxygen) carried onboard was dramatically reduced. Since LOX typically represents the majority of the takeoff weight of a rocket, HOTOL was considerably smaller than normal all-LOX designs, roughly the size of a medium-haul airliner such as the [[MD-80]].
HOTOL would have been 63 metres long, 7 metres in diameter and with a wingspan of 28 metres. The unmanned craft was intended to put a payload of around seven tonnes in orbit. It was intended to take off from a runway, mounted on the back of a large rocket-boosted trolley that would help get the craft up to "working speed". The engine was intended to switch from jet propulsion to pure rocket propulsion at 26-32 km high, by which time the craft would be travelling at [[Mach number|Mach]] 5 to 7. After reaching orbit, HOTOL was intended to re-enter the atmosphere and glide down to land on a conventional runway. The internal landing gear were too small to carry the weight of the fully-fueled rocket, so emergency landings required the fuel to be dumped.
Development began with government funding in 1986. The design team was a joint effort between Rolls-Royce and [[British Aerospace]] led by John Scott and Dr Bob Parkinson.
During development, it was found that the comparatively heavy rear-mounted engine moved the center of mass of the vehicle rearwards. This meant that the vehicle had to be designed to push the center of drag as far rearward as possible to ensure stability over the entire flight regime. Redesign of the vehicle to do this cost a significant proportion of the payload, and made the economics unclear.
In 1988 the Conservative government withdrew further funding, the project was approaching the end of its design phase but the plans were still speculative and dogged with aerodynamic problems and operational disadvantages.
A cheaper redesign, '''Interim HOTOL''' or '''HOTOL 2''', to be launched from the back of an [[Antonov An-225]] [[transport aircraft]], was offered by [[British Aerospace|BAE]] in 1991 but that too was rejected.
[[Alan Bond (rocket deve |
ue]] and the [[National Organization for Women]] opposed the appointment based on Thomas's criticism of [[affirmative action]] and suspicions that Thomas might not be a supporter of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]''. Under questioning during confirmation hearings, Thomas repeatedly asserted that he had not formulated a position on the Roe decision.
Some of the public statements of Thomas' opponents foreshadowed the confirmation fight that would occur. One such statement came from noted feminist [[Florence Kennedy]] at a [[July]] [[1991]] conference of the National Organization for Women in [[New York City]]. Making reference to [[Robert Bork]] and the successful campaign against his Supreme Court nomination in [[1987]], she said of Thomas, "We're going to bork him." [http://opinionjournal.com/diary/?id=85000412]
The [[U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]] questioned Thomas about his political opinions and constitutional interpretation over several days. Toward the expected end of the confirmation hearings, Democratic staffers for the committee leaked the contents of an FBI report to [[NPR]]'s [[Nina Totenberg]], which reported that a former colleague of Thomas, [[University of Oklahoma]] law school professor [[Anita Hill]], had accused him of sexually harassing her when the two had worked together at the DOE and EEOC. However, seemingly contradictory statements by Anita Hill and additional testimony for Thomas by former female associates weakened the case against him. In the end, the Committee did not find sufficient evidence to corroborate Anita Hill's claim. Hill's supporters later insisted that relevant testimony from [[Angela Wright]], a PR director for the EEOC and a witness to the alleged offensive conduct, was suppressed, even though the Democrats controlled the Senate. (Democrats were reluctant to call Angela Wright as a witness after Thomas testified that he had fired her for calling another employee a 'faggot.')
Of the Committee's investigation of the Hill claims, Thomas said:
<blockquote>''...as far as I'm concerned, it is a high-tech [[lynching]] for uppity blacks who in any way deign to think for themselves, to do for themselves, to have different ideas, and it is a message that unless you kowtow to an old order, this is what will happen to you. You will be lynched, destroyed, caricatured by a committee of the US Senate rather than hung from a tree.'' [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new-yitna?id=UsaThom&images=images/modeng&data=/lv6/workspace/yitna&tag=public&part=24]</blockquote>
The content of the hearings, particularly Senator [[Orrin Hatch]]'s questions ''"[D]id you ever say in words or substance something like there is a pubic hair in my [[Coca-Cola|coke]]?"'' and ''"Did you ever use the term [[Long Dong Silver]] in conversation with Professor Hill?"'' rapidly became fodder for the nation's comedians.
The Committee sent the nomination to the full Senate without a recommendation either way. Thomas was confirmed by the Senate with a 52-48 vote on [[October 15]], [[1991]], making it the closest confirmation vote for a Justice in the [[20th century]]. The vote was not strictly by party line; he received "yea" votes from 41 Republicans and 11 Democrats and "nay" votes from 46 Democrats and 2 Republicans.
Thomas took his seat on [[October 23]], [[1991]].
== Judicial philosophy ==
On the Court, Thomas has argued for an [[originalism|originalist]] or "textualist" view of the Constitution faithful to that document's text and history. Especially early in his term on the court, critics often suggested that Thomas lacked a judicial philosophy of his own, and that he unreflectingly signed on to the opinions of Justice [[Antonin Scalia]]. Although Thomas has frequently voted with Scalia, his opinions have sometimes diverged from Scalia's based on Thomas's alternative readings of Constitutional history. Scalia appears much more willing to be guided by precedent in his decisions, even when he disagrees with the precedent in question. He has said that Thomas "doesn't believe in ''[[stare decisis]]'', period." Although both Thomas and Scalia are considered the court's conservative wing, originalism does not inherently or intrinsically favor conservative political views or liberal political views. Consequently, Thomas's originalism occasionally leads him to take what appears to be a "liberal" position on various issues, as discussed below.
In general, Thomas has been a proponent of an expansive [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] interpretation, arguing that anonymous speech, money donated to political campaigns, and [[commercial speech]] attempting to sell products all qualified for protection. In ''[http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93-986.ZO.html McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission]'' ([[1995]]), Thomas agreed with a majority of the Court that a law banning anonymous campaign literature violated the First Amendment. Scalia disagreed. He argued that the evidence was insufficient to conclude there was an original understanding and noted the wide popular support for laws against it. But while the Court majority based its decision on the fact that anonymity has "played an important role in the progress of mankind", Thomas filed a concurrence arguing that protection of anonymous speech was part of the original understanding of the amendment, noting that ''[[The Federalist Papers]]'' were published anonymously.
He has also taken the point of view that the [[Commerce Clause]] should be narrowly interpreted, covering only actual [[interstate commerce]], not things related to it; he thus concurred with the Court's decisions in ''[[United States v. Lopez]]'' invalidating a federal law prohibiting possession of a firearm in a school zone. In the same vein, Justice Thomas's judicial philosophy does not encompass the Dormant Commerce Clause, the negative implication of the Commerce Clause, which is often employed to strike down protectionist legislation.
Thomas has also defended firm interpretations of the [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Second Amendment]], suggesting in ''[[Printz v. United States]]'' that the [[Brady Act]]'s background checks may have violated it.
In 1992, eight months after being appointed to the court, Thomas joined a dissent in [[Planned Parenthood v. Casey]] authored by Justice Scalia, also joined by The Chief Justice (Rehnquist) and Justice White, which concluded "that a woman's decision to abort her unborn child is not a constitutionally protected "liberty" because (1) the Constitution says absolutely nothing about it [...]." Thomas (along with Scalia and White) also concurred with a separate dissent authored by Chief Justice Rehnquist which stated "We believe that [[Roe v. Wade|Roe]] was wrongly decided, and that it can and should be overruled consistently with our traditional approach to stare decisis in constitutional cases."
Thomas has followed a [[strict constructionism|narrow construction]] of the [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth Amendment]]. In ''[[Hudson v. McMillian]]'' ([[1992]]), he dissented, arguing that the beating of a [[Louisiana]] inmate by three prison guards was not [[cruel and unusual punishment]]. Thomas wrote that the beating, which left Hudson with minor bruises, facial swelling, loosened teeth, and a cracked dental plate, did not cause sufficient harm to meet the constitutional standard; however, he left open the option of a criminal charge or a tort claim, just not a constitutional claim. "In my view, a use of force that causes only insignificant harm to a prisoner may be immoral, it may be [[tort]]ious, it may be criminal, and it may even be remediable under other provisions of the Federal Constitution, but it is not 'cruel and unusual punishment.' In concluding to the contrary, the Court today goes far beyond our precedents."
Thomas has carved out a distinctive voice for himself on the highly-charged racial issues before the Court. In ''[[Missouri v. Jenkins]]'' ([[1995]]), the Court overturned a lower court ruling forcing the city of [[Kansas City, Missouri]] to spend more money on their predominantly black school system to attract white suburban children. Thomas filed a separate concurrence where he argued "'Racial isolation' itself is not a harm; only state-enforced segregation is," and that integration assumed that blacks could not get ahead on their own.
In ''[[Adarand Constructors v. Peña]]'' ([[1995]]), Thomas commented on [[affirmative action]]: "I write separately...to express my disagreement with the premise...that there is a racial paternalism exception to the principle of equal protection...That these programs may have been motivated, in part, by good intentions cannot provide refuge from the principle that under our Constitution, the government may not make distinctions on the basis of race. As far as the Constitution is concerned, it is irrelevant whether a government's racial classifications are drawn by those who wish to oppress a race or by those who have a sincere desire to help those thought to be disadvantaged. There can be no doubt that the paternalism that appears to lie at the heart of this program is at war with the principle of inherent equality that underlies and infuses our Constitution. See Declaration of Independence ('We hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness')."
In ''[http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0505_0717_ZS.html United States v. Fordice]'' ([[1992]]), he agreed that [[Mississippi]] had not done enough to [[desegregation|dese |
d of Zama. Hannibal amassed some 50,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry, while Scipio had a total of 34,000 infantry and 8,700 cavalry at his disposal. Placing his inexperienced cavalry on the flanks, Hannibal aligned his troops in three phalangial lines behind eighty [[war elephants]]. The first line consisted of mixed infantry of [[Gaul]]s, [[Liguria]]ns, and Balerians. In his second line he placed the Carthaginian and [[Libya]]n levies while his veterans from Italy were placed in the third line. Hannibal intentionally held back his third infantry line (perhaps the first example of a true [[Military reserves|reserve]] in military history), in order to thwart Scipio's tendency to pin the Carthaginian center and envelop his opponent's lines, as he had previously done at the [[Battle of Ilipa]]. Hannibal hoped that the combination of the war elephants and the depth of the first two lines would weaken and disorganize the Roman advance, whereupon he would complete a victory with his reserves in the third line and overlap Scipio's lines. Though this formation was indeed well-concieved, it failed to materialize into a victory for the aging Hannibal, who was suffering from mental exhaustion and deteriorating health after years of campaigning in Italy.
At the outset of the battle, the superior Roman cavalry swept their Carthaginian counterparts and pursued them off the field— depriving him of his entire body of cavalry (though it is believed that Hannibal had intended his cavalry to lure their opponents away from the battlefield, in effect eliminating the advantage the Romans enjoyed in this arm). Likewise, Hannibal’s first two lines, unable to cope against the well-trained and confident Roman soldiers, were disposed of thereafter. For years, Hannibal had won victories with his experienced army, but now he facing the best of Roman army, while he himself commanded a makeshift army, who fared poorly against the Romans. As Livy states ''“...the Romans immediately drove back the line[s] of their opponents; then pushing their elbows and the bosses of their shields, and pressing forward into the places which they had pushed them, they advanced at a considerable pace, as if there had been no one their to resist them...”'' {{ref|Dodge}}.
[[Image:Zama.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Painting of the [[Battle of Zama]] by [[Cornelis Cort]], 1567]] Moreover, Scipio came up with an inventive method of neutralizing Hannibal's elephants. Hannibal lost all of his original elephant troops (who crossed the Alps with him) by the battle of Cannae, but they were replenished in Africa. First of all, Scipio knew that elephants could only be ordered to charge forward, but they could only continue their charge in a straight line. So rather than lining his Roman forces in the traditional manipular lines, which put the velites, princeps, and triari in succeeding lines of 500 men groups, Scipio instead put the maniples in a chequer pattern, with his elite heavy infantry in diagonals. Scipio realized that intentionally opening gaps in his troops meant that the elephants would continue between them, without harming a soul. He did this, and after the elephants passed through his troops harmlessly and were picked off on the other side (many of them were so distraught, in fact, they charged back into their own Carthaginian lines). Scipio's troops then fell back into formation and continued marching.
Despite these setbacks, the battle remained a closely contended engagement. When the Roman infantry confronted the Carthaginian third line, the resulting clash was fierce and bloody, with neither side achieving local superiority. In fact, during one point of the battle, it seemed that Hannibal was on the verge of victory. However, Scipio was able to rally his men, and his cavalry, after pursuing the Carthaginian cavalry, returned in time to deliver a devastating blow in Hannibal's rear. This two-pronged attack caused the Carthaginian formation to disintegrate and collapse. Unable to cope against the well-trained and confident Roman soldiers with his own indifferent troops after losing his notorious advantage, Hannibal experienced a crushing defeat that put an end to all resistance on the part of Carthage. In total, as many as 20,000 men of Hannibal’s army were mercilessly killed at Zama, and an equal number of men were taken as prisoners. The Romans on the other hand, lost as few as 500 dead and 4,000 wounded. With their foremost general defeated, the Carthaginians had no choice but to accept defeat and surrender to Rome.
==Later career==
===Peacetime Carthage (200&mdash;196 B.C.) ===
Hannibal was still only in his forty-sixth year and soon showed that he could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Following the conclusion of a peace that left Carthage stripped of its formerly mighty empire Hannibal prepared to take a back seat for a time. However, the blatant corruption of the [[oligarchy]] gave Hannibal a chance of a come back and he was elected as ''[[suffet]]'', or chief [[magistrate]]. The office had become rather insignificant, but Hannibal restored its power and authority. The oligarchy, always jealous of him, had even charged him with having betrayed the interests of his country while in Italy, for neglecting to take Rome when he might have done so. So effectively did Hannibal reform abuses that the heavy tribute imposed by Rome could be paid by installments without additional and extraordinary taxation. He also reformed the [[Council of One Hundred]], stipulating that its membership be chosen by direct election rather than co-option
===Exile and death (195&mdash;183 B.C.) ===
Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed by Carthage's renewed prosperity, demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal thereupon went into voluntary [[exile]]. First he journeyed to [[Tyre]], the mother-city of Carthage, and thence to [[Ephesus]], where he was honorably received by [[Antiochus III]] of [[Syria]], who was preparing for war with Rome. Hannibal soon saw that the king's army was no match for the Romans. He advised him to equip a fleet and land a body of troops in the south of Italy, offering to take command himself. But he could not make much impression on Antiochus, who listened more willingly to courtiers and flatterers and would not entrust Hannibal with any important charge.
[[Cicero]] offers a story of Hannibal while at the court of [[Antiochus III]]. Hannibal attended a lecture by a certain Phormio, a [[philosopher]], that ranged through many topics. When [[Phormio]] finished the portion about the duties of a general, Hannibal was asked his opinion. ''"I have seen,"'' he replied, ''"during my life many an old fool; but this one beats them all."'' There is another story told about Hannibal while in exile, which puts an odd spin on his supposed "Punic perfidy". [[Antiochus III]] showed off a vast and well armed formation to Hannibal and asked him if they would be enough for [[Roman Republic|Rome]], to which Hannibal replied,'' "Yes, enough for the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], however greedy they may be."''
In [[190 BC]] he was placed in command of a [[Phoenicia]]n fleet but was defeated in a battle off the river [[Eurymedon River|Eurymedon]]. According to [[Strabo]] and [[Plutarch]], Hannibal also received hospitality at the [[Armenia|Armenian]] court of [[Artaxias I|Artaxias]] where he planned and supervised the building of the new royal capital [[Artaxata]]. From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to surrender him to the Romans, Hannibal fled to [[Crete]], but he soon went back to [[Asia Minor]] and sought refuge with [[Prusias I of Bithynia]], who was engaged in warfare with Rome's ally, [[King Eumenes II of Pergamum|King Eumenes II]] of [[Pergamum]]. Hannibal went on to serv Prusias in this war. In one of the victories he gained over Eumenes at sea, it is said that he used one of the first examples of [[biological warfare]] - he threw cauldrons of snakes into the enemy vessels. Once more the Romans were determined to hunt him down, and they sent [[Flaminius]] to insist on his surrender. Prusias agreed to give him up, but Hannibal determined not to fall into his enemies' hands. At [[Libyssa]] on the eastern shore of the [[Sea of Marmora]], he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried about with him in a ring. The precise year of his death is a matter of controversy. If, as [[Livy]] seems to imply, it was [[183 BC]], he died in the same year as Scipio Africanus.
==Sources==
Most of the sources we have about Hannibal are Romans, who considered him the greatest enemy they had ever faced. [[Livy]] gives us the idea that he was extremely cruel. Even [[Cicero]], when he talked of Rome and her two great enemies, spoke of the ''"honorable"'' [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] and the ''"cruel"'' Hannibal. Yet a different picture is sometimes revealed. When Hannibal's successes had brought about the death of two Roman [[consul]]s, he vainly searched for the body of [[Gaius Flaminius]] on the shores of [[Lake Trasimeno|Lake Trasimene]], held ceremonial rituals in recognition of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (General)|Lucius Aemilius Paullus]], and sent [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]]' ashes back to his family in Rome. By contrast, when [[Gaius Claudius Nero|Nero]] had accomplished his march back and forth to and from the [[Metaurus River|Metaurus]] he flung the head of Hannibal's brother into Hannibal's camp. Any bias attributed to [[Polybius]], however, is more troublesome, since he was clearly sympathetic towards Hannibal. Nevertheless, Polybius spent a long period as a hostage in Italy and relied heavily on Roman sources, so there remains the possibility that he was reproducing elements of Roman [[propaganda]].
==Legacy==
===Cultural References===
[[Image:Joseph Mallord William Turner 081.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''"Snow-storm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the |
ildren, and as a result, Mormon families tend to be larger than average. All sexual activity, both heterosexual and homosexual, outside of the marriage covenant is considered a significant sin. [[Same-sex marriage]]s are not performed or supported by the LDS church. Mormons are counseled not to partake of any form of media that is obscene or pornographic in any way, including media that depicts graphic representations of sex or violence.
The church emphasises the moral standards taught by Jesus Christ, including personal honesty, integrity, obedience to law, chastity outside of marriage and fidelity within marriage. The church puts notable emphasis on the family, and distinctively, the concept of a united family which lives and progresses forever is at the core of Latter-day Saint doctrine. The church opposes abortion, pornography, and gambling.
Latter-day Saint fathers who hold the priesthood typically bless their babies shortly after birth to formally give the child a name and a blessing and generate a Church record for them. Various blessings may be pronounced, as directed by inspiration.
=== Prayers ===
Formal public and personal prayers are addressed to "Heavenly Father" and offered in the name of Jesus Christ, followed by [[amen]]. When a prayer is given in public, it is customary for all attending to say "amen" at the prayer's conclusion. English-speaking members generally use "thee," "thou," "thy" and "thine" when addressing God, as a form of both familiarity and respect. Members who speak other languages use similar familiar, respectful [[syntax]] in prayer. Most prayers are extemporaneous and may be said while kneeling, standing, or sitting or in any other position.
Certain prayers associated with ordinances are defined and must be delivered verbatim, while others must follow a certain pattern. For example, the prayer to bless the sacrament is a set prayer which is delivered the same way each week. The priesthood holder kneels to say the prayer; if he accidentally deviates from the form, he is instructed to repeat the prayer until it is correct. Likewise, the prayer for baptism must be given verbatim prior to immersion; the priesthood holder stands in the water beside the person to be baptized, raises his right arm to the square, and pronounces the blessing. Other ordinations and blessings have a pattern, for example, in a confirmation prayer, the priesthood holder is to address the individual being confirmed by his or her full name, state the priesthood authority by which the ordinance is given, confirm that person as a member of the Church, and bestow the Holy Ghost with such words as "receive the Holy Ghost." This is usually followed by an extemporaneous personal blessing as directed by the Spirit.
=== Missionaries ===
{{main|Mormon missionary}}
The LDS Church has one of the most active [[missionary]] programs of any world church. As of [[31 December]] [[2004]] there were in excess of 51,000 full-time missionaries serving around the world at any given time without pay.
Missionary work is a fundamental principle of the Church, and has become one of the most readily identifiable characteristics of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. All missionaries have been assigned by Church headquarters to their area of work, which can be in any part of the world where governments allow them to preach. They contribute to their own support for up to two years, frequently learning another language. The Church also places an emphasis on humanitarian services, and vast [[genealogy|family history]] resources.
=== Education ===
Latter-day Saints believe that one of the most important aspects of life on earth is the opportunity for individuals to learn and grow. Accordingly, the Church strongly emphasizes education and subsidizes [[Brigham Young University]], [[Brigham Young University-Idaho]] (formerly Ricks College), and [[Brigham Young University-Hawaii]]. The Church also has a seminary program for high school students and an Institute of Religion program for college-age Church members. All members twelve and above attend Sunday School classes, which emphasize personal scripture studies and other forms of education and self-improvement.
In addition, the Church sponsors a low-interest educational loan program known as the [[Perpetual Education Fund]]. This fund is designed to benefit both young men and women from all parts of the world who have served a mission, returned to their home, and need further education to become productive citizens in their respective countries. As they finish their education and enter the work force, they then are able to pay back the funds provided so that other individuals can attend both vocational technical schools and university.
=== Preparedness ===
The LDS church strongly encourages every family to be prepared for disasters. Members are encouraged to plant gardens as well as maintain a year's supply of non-perishable food storage. As an whole, the Church is well equipped with neccessities that are on-hand and avaliable for immediate distribution when needed around the world. The Church's excellent response to emergencies or disasters is directed through the Bishop's Storehouse.
The bishop's storehouse system is a network of Church-owned and operated commodity resource centers. They work much like retail stores with the difference that goods cannot be purchased: they are given charitably, whether to entire areas (i.e. the recent Tsunami event) or upon an individual/family basis, to those deserving need. Member recipients are invited to work or render service to others in various ways in exchange for goods to avoid allowing the goods given to be a form of dole.
The concept of the storehouse and the Church Welfare Services emerged from scriptural principles, elucidated by a series of revelations given to the Prophet Joseph Smith beginning in 1831, a year after the Church was organized. In one revelation, Church members were directed to "remember the poor, and consecrate [their] properties for [the poor's] support".
The implementation of the mutual help program has varied considerably according to the economic conditions of the members and the organizational structure of the Church. Utilization of the storehouse concept received intense emphasis during the United Order effort of the 1870s. From that time forward, most [[ward]]s or congregations maintained their own storehouse until the introduction of regional storehouses (1934-1936). These storehouses figured prominently in the Church's effort to care for its people during the economic depression of the 1930s and formed the basis for a more systematic approach to shared assistance.
After World War II, the Church Welfare system, centered on the storehouse, evolved into an integrated and complex Church-wide production and distribution system. A higher level of coordination between Welfare farms, dairies, and canneries was established, and a wider range of goods became available. The Church established central storehouses to supply regional storehouses. In the 1970s, with the maturing of the storehouse system, the Church selectively introduced local production and storehouses in areas outside the United States where need and resources warranted.
Presently, the entire Bishop's Storehouse Resource System operates with efficiency and quality equal to commercial commodity activities, effectively assisting thousands of people every year with material necessities. Like other positions in the Church, the storehouse remains an operation based entirly on volunteer work. Anyone, whether a member or not, has the chance to give their time to the storehouse. Often, youth groups will go to work in a local storehouse cannery as a service activity. No offer of well-intended help is refused.
===Polygamy ===
At one time in its early history, the Church did endorse a form of [[polygamy]] called "[[plural marriage]]," but this is no longer the case. [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]], [[Brigham Young]] and other early members and leaders of the Church were married to more than one wife. The practice was officially withdrawn as stated in a declaration called "The Manifesto" which was given by President [[Wilford Woodruff]] in 1890 (see [http://scriptures.lds.org/od/1 Official Declaration 1]), and which advised Church members to obey the marriage laws of their land. After the Manifesto, Church members living in Mexico and Canada (in polygamist enclaves) continued the practice of plural marriage. The Church's position was reiterated and clarified in 1904 (commonly referred to as "The Second Manifesto"), with an additional request that no Church members enter into any form of plural marriage, regardless of their location, local customs, or legality. Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints found to be engaging in multiple marriage relationships are [[excommunicated]]. Converts from areas where polygamy is an accepted practice typically must end such relationships. Today, while plural marriage is not practiced, a widower qualified to enter the temple may receive permission to have his subsequent marriage(s) sealed if the woman has not been previously sealed to another man, allowing for the continuation of that relationship beyond death. A widow can be remarried in the temple, but can be sealed to only one husband. Although not practiced at the moment, a revelation on this doctrine is still part of the LDS scriptures in Doctrine and Covenants section 132, and many church members still believe that the principle of plural marriage is an eternal truth and will be practiced in the afterlife.
The church has repeatedly stated that members who engage in multiple simultaneous marriages will be excommunicated. Excommunication is the most severe disciplinary action the church undertakes, an |
ry==
''See main articles: [[historical revisionism]], [[virtual history]]''
[[Historian]]s also speculate in this manner; this type of speculation is known commonly as "counterfactual history" or "[[virtual history]]". There is considerable debate within the community of historians about the validity and purpose of this type of speculation.
For alternate histories which some assert to be factual rather than speculative, see [[conspiracy theory]] and [[historical revisionism]].
==Sidewise Award for Alternate History==
In [[1995]], the [[Sidewise Award for Alternate History]] was established to recognize best Long Form (novels and series) and best short form (stories) within the genres. The award is named for [[Murray Leinster]]'s story "Sidewise in Time."
== Published alternate histories ==
Literally thousands of alternate history stories and novels have been published. Following is a somewhat random sampling:
* ''[[Weapons of Choice: Axis of Time series]]'' by [[John Birmingham]], which is part Alternate History, part Science Fiction. Its point of divergence is 1942 when an American-led UN Multinational Force arrives uptime from 2021 via a wormhole that was accidentally generated as a byproduct of a scientific experiment. Of course one could say there is also a downtime point of divergence--the point at which the UN force disappears from its "normal" time. (In other words, within the framing logic of parallel universe science fiction, the fictional experiment creates two new worlds or histories, while presumably leaving unchanged the future of a third world--the one in which the wormhole was never generated.)
* ''[[Lighter than a Feather]]'' (1971) by [[David Westheimer]], a story of the American invasion of Japan, [[Operation Olympic]], which was to have taken place in November 1945. The novel is seen from the point of view of both low-level Japanese military and civilian and American military members.
* ''[[Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus]]'' by [[Orson Scott Card]], in which scientists from the future travel back to the 15th century to prevent the European colonisation of the Americas.
* ''[[Alvin Maker]]'' by [[Orson Scott Card]], in which Card imagines North America where people wield magic, or knacks, and the revolution was only partly successful.
* ''[[Bring the Jubilee]]'' by [[Ward Moore]], in which the South was not defeated in the [[American Civil War]] because it won the [[Battle of Gettysburg]].
* ''[[The Man in the High Castle|The Man in the High Castle]]'' by [[Philip K. Dick]] set in a world where the [[Axis powers]] won [[World War II]].
* ''[[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland]]'' by [[Robert Harris]] is also set in the 1960s in a Germany which won World War II.
*In "The Forfeited Birthright of the Abortive Far Western Christian Civilization," [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] describes a world in which the Franks lost to the Muslims at the [[Battle of Tours]] in [[732]].
* ''[[SS-GB]]'' by [[Len Deighton]] is a detective novel set in 1941 Britain in which the Germans have successfully occupied the country.
* ''If Hitler Had Invaded England'', by [[C.S. Forester]], found in his collection of published short stories, ''Gold from Crete''. The story is a fictionalized account of a German invasion of Britain in 1940, based on what Forester saw as realistic projections of German and British capabilities. The German invasion fails short of reaching London due to continued British supremacy at sea and in the air. The resulting lack of river transport capability leads to an Allied victory.
* ''Pavane'', by [[Keith Roberts]], assumes that Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] was assassinated, and in the ensuing disorder, the [[Spanish Armada]] was successful in suppressing [[Protestantism]]; the novel (actually a series of shorter pieces) is set in a 20th century where technology has advanced less than in our world, and where the [[Inquisition]] still has power.
* "[[The Last Article]]" is a [[short story]] by [[Harry Turtledove]], in which [[Mohandas Gandhi]] attempts to use [[non-violent resistance]] against India's [[Nazi]] occupiers.
* ''The Alteration'' by [[Kingsley Amis]] is set in a world very similar to that of ''Pavane''. In this world, [[Martin Luther]], rather than beginning the [[Protestant Reformation]], became [[pope]]. The novel concerns the attempt to prevent a young boy with a perfect singing voice from being recruited to the [[Holy See|Vatican's]] [[eunuch]] choir. There are a number of in-jokes, where famous works of [[fantasy and science fiction]] appear, under slightly different titles: 'The Wind in the Cloisters' and 'The Lord of the Chalices' for example.
* The "[[Lord Darcy]]" [[fantasy]] series by [[Randall Garrett]]; a number of short stories and one novel (''Too Many Magicians'') based on the premise that King [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] of [[England]] returned safely from [[France]] and that [[Roger Bacon]] had systematised the laws of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]. The stories are a series of traditional [[detective fiction]]-style [[murder mystery|murder mysteries]] with forensic magic being used in the investigation.
* The "[[Western Lights]]" [[science fantasy]] series by [[Jeffrey Barlough]] posits a cataclysmic event that has "sundered" [[Western Europe]] from the rest of the world. The series features somewhat [[Steampunk]] [[Victorian era|Victorian]] technology and society juxtaposed with [[Ice Age]]-era creatures such as [[mastodon]] and [[saber-toothed tiger]]s. Titles include ''Dark Sleeper'', ''The House in the High Wood'', and ''Strange Cargo''.
* ''[[GURPS Alternate Earths]]'' (ISBN 1-55634-318-3) and ''[[GURPS Alternate Earths II]]'' (ISBN 1-55634-399-X) a pair of "What might have been" supplements for the Third Edition of the [[GURPS]] role-playing game. Includes a world with a surviving Confederacy, a Nazi/Japanese Empire world, an Aztecs-rule-America scenario, a Viking empire and a unique "[[Hugo Gernsback|Gernsback]]" world in which the dreams of mad scientists and [[Doc Savage]] have become reality. The conflict between the [[Infinity Patrol (GURPS)|Infinity Patrol]] and [[Centrum (GURPS)|Centrum]] across the multiplicity of parallel Earths detailed in these supplements (and originating in ''[[GURPS Time Travel]]'') was made central to the Fourth Edition of GURPS as the default setting in the Basic Set and in the supplement ''[[GURPS Infinite Worlds]]''.
* ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' by [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] and [[Bruce Sterling]] is a [[steampunk]] novel which deals with a Victorian society in which [[Charles Babbage]]'s [[Analytical Engine]] takes on the roles of modern computers a century early.
* ''[[Arrowdreams: An Anthology of Alternate Canadas]]'', edited by [[Mark Shainblum]] and [[John Dupuis]] features stories by [[Eric Choi]], [[Dave Duncan (writer)|Dave Duncan]], [[Glenn Grant]], [[Paula Johanson]], [[Nancy Kilpatrick]], [[Laurent McAllister]], the late [[Keith Scott]], [[Shane Simmons]], [[Michael Skeet]], [[Edo van Belkom]] and [[Allan Weiss]]. The collection garnered an [[Aurora Award]] in the "Best Other Work in English" category, while Edo van Belkom's short story "Hockey's Night in Canada" captured another for "Best Short-Form Work in English."
* ''[http://www.incunabula.org/ebooks.html Ong's Hat]'' by [[Ong's Hat, New Jersey]] is an Internet legend that deals with a group of renegade scientists from Princeton that developed a means of travel to parallel universes and fled this Universe to found a colony in another world.
* ''[[How Few Remain]]'' by [[Harry Turtledove]] is set twenty years after a Southern victory in the [[American Civil War]] established the [[Confederate States of America]]. This novel is followed by the [[Great War (Harry Turtledove)|Great War]] trilogy, set in the 1910s, the [[American Empire (Harry Turtledove)|American Empire]] trilogy, taking the timeline up through the 1920s and 30s, and the [[Settling Accounts (Harry Turtledove)|Settling Accounts]] trilogy, detailing an alternate World War II.
* ''[[The Two Georges]]'' by [[Harry Turtledove]] and actor [[Richard Dreyfuss]] is set in modern times under the assumption that [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] of Great Britain and [[George Washington]] reached a settlement where the 13 Colonies remained within the British Empire with increased autonomy and virtually all of their grievances redressed. The book follows two Royal American Mounted Police officers attempting to recover the famous painting of the meeting between the Two Georges by [[Thomas Gainsborough]] after it had been stolen by anti-British terrorists. The painting had become a national treasure and the principal symbol of the unification between Britain and America.
* ''[[Making History]]'' (1996) by British actor, comedian and novelist [[Stephen Fry]] is set in a [[parallel world]] in which [[Adolf Hitler]] was never conceived, let alone born.
* ''[[For Want of a Nail]]'' (1973) by American business historian [[Robert N. Sobel]] - details a world in which the [[American Revolution]] failed. The British colonies become the Confederation of North America (CNA), while the defeated rebels go into exile in Spanish Tejas, eventually founding the United States of Mexico (USM) - a bitter rival to the CNA. The gigantic [[multinational corporation]] Kramer Associates, originally from Mexico but later based in [[Taiwan]], is the third world power, and the first power to detonate an [[atomic bomb]]. This book is of particular interest because it is written in the format of a standard popular history, complete with footnotes and discussions of differing historical interpretations, and for the fact that for many years, at least one major municipal library (the Denver Public Library) had t |
[http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/doraemon/ '''Doraemon Official TV Asahi Home Page''' (Japanese)]
* [http://www.doraemonpan.tk/ '''Doraemon goods Website''' (Japanese)]
* [http://www.ex.org/4.8/35-manga_doraemon.html Doraemon overview by EX manga]
* [http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/rei/MANGA/Doraemon.html Doraemon overview by Rei]
* [http://www.geocities.com/the_doraemon_resource/ Welcome to The Doraemon Resource]
* [http://www.time.com/time/asia/features/heroes/doraemon.html TIMEasia.com: Asian Heroes—Doraemon]
*[http://www.aku-tenshi.com/manga/dora.php Scanlations of the original Doraemon manga]
*[http://a.scarywater.net/shi-fa/ Fansubs of Doraemon(Scroll to the bottom)]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yuBfxPAeryw A rendition of the Doraemon theme]
[[Category:Doraemon| ]][[Category:manga]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ke-khì-niau Sió-tin-tang]]
[[de:Doraemon]]
[[es:Doraemon]]
[[eo:Doraemon]]
[[fr:Doraemon]]
[[ko:도라에몽]]
[[id:Doraemon]]
[[it:Doraemon]]
[[ms:Doraemon]]
[[nl:Doraemon]]
[[ja:ドラえもん]]
[[pt:Doraemon]]
[[sv:Doraemon]]
[[th:โดราเอมอน]]
[[vi:Đôrêmon]]
[[zh:哆啦A夢]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dragon Ball Z</title>
<id>8413</id>
<revision>
<id>42149935</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:41:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>202.7.202.2</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox animanga/Header|
title_name=Dragon Ball Z
|image=Dragonballz.jpg
|caption=Dragon Ball Z - The [[Freeza Saga]].
|ja_name=ドラゴンボールゼット
|ja_name_trans=Doragon Bōru Zetto
|genre=[[Shonen]] Action / Adventure
|creator=[[Toei Animation]]<br/>[[Akira Toriyama]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Anime|
title=
|director=Daisuke Nishio<br/>Osamu Kasai
|studio=[[Toei Animation]]
|network=[[Fuji Television|Fuji TV]]
|first_aired=[[April 26]], [[1989]]
|last_aired=[[January 31]], [[1996]]
|num_episodes=[[List of Dragon Ball Episodes|291]]
|anime_distributor=[[Pony Canyon]] (Japan)<br/>[[FUNimation Entertainment]] ([[United States|USA]])
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Other|
title=Movies
|content=<nowiki></nowiki>
*1. [[Return my Gohan!!]]
*2. [[The World's Strongest Guy]]
*3. [[Super Deciding Battle for the Entire Planet Earth]]
*4. [[Super Saiyan Son Gokū]]
*5. [[Cooler's Revenge|The Incredible Mightiest vs. Mightiest]]
*6. [[Return of Cooler|Clash!! 10,000,000,000 Powerful Warriors]]
*7. [[Super Android 13|Extreme Battle!! The Three Great Super Saiyans]]
*8. [[Broly: The Legendary Super Saiyan|Burn Up!! A Close, Intense, Super-Fierce Battle]]
*9. [[Bojack Unbound|The Galaxy at the Brink!! The Super Incredible Guy]]
*10. [[Broly: The Second Coming|The Dangerous Duo! Super-Warriors Can't Rest]]
*11. [[Bio-broly|Super-Warrior Defeat!! I'm the One who'll Win]]
*12. [[Fusion Reborn|Fusion Reborn!! Gokū and Vegeta]]
*13. [[Dragon Fist Explosion!! If Gokū Won't Do It, Who Will?]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Other|
title=TV Specials
|content=<nowiki></nowiki>
* 1. [[A Lonesome, Final Battle: The Father of Z-Warrior Kakarrot, who Challenged Freeza]]
* 2. [[Resistance to Despair!! The Remaining Super-Warriors, Gohan and Trunks]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}
'''''Dragon Ball Z''''' is the long-running [[sequel]] to the popular [[anime]] ''[[Dragon Ball (original series)|Dragon Ball]]''. The series is a close adaptation of the second half of the ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' [[manga]] (in the [[United States]], the manga's second half is also titled ''Dragon Ball Z'' to prevent confusion), but also features characters, situations and backstories not present in the original.
The series follows the adventures of the adult Son Gokū who, along with his companions, defends the earth against assorted [[Villains (Dragon Ball)|villains]]. While the original ''Dragon Ball'' anime followed Gokū through childhood into adulthood, ''Dragon Ball Z'' is a continuation of his adulthood life. The separation between the series is also significant as the latter series takes on a more dramatic and serious tone.
Originally, creator [[Akira Toriyama]] had planned to end the series after the Freeza Saga, but was made a significant offer to keep it going due to the story's continued value.
The anime first premiered in Japan on [[April 18]], [[1989]] (on [[Fuji Television|Fuji TV]]) at 7:00 PM and ended on [[January 31]], [[1996]]. In the U.S., the series ran between 1996 and 2003, though not always on the same networks or with continuity of dubbing. It aired in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], albeit with the same dubbing problem, on [[Cartoon Network]], premiering on [[March 6]], [[2000]] and running until 2002, with the final few episodes being shown on [[CNX]] starting from [[October 14]], [[2002]], before that channel relaunched as [[Toonami]], on which it was repeated daily.
After ''Dragon Ball Z'', the story of Son Gokū and friends continues in the anime-only series ''[[Dragon Ball GT]]''. This series is not based on a manga by Akira Toriyama.
Toriyama's humor/[[parody]] manga ''[[Neko Majin Z]]'' features several concepts introduced in ''Dragon Ball Z'' (several ''Dragon Ball Z'' characters even make various appearances), but that manga is designed as a parody and not a true continuation of the series.
==Plot Summary==
{{spoiler}}
[[Son Goku (Dragon Ball)|Son Gokū]], the protagonist, is an extremely powerful but somewhat naïve martial artist. After a visit from his previously unknown brother [[Raditz]], he discovers that he belongs to an [[Extraterrestrial life|alien race]] called Saiya-jin or [[Saiyan]] and that his kind once sent him to Earth to destroy it. When he refuses to reassume this task, Raditz challenges him to a lethal battle in which Gokū sacrifices himself to beat his brother (with the prospect of [[resurrection]] by the Dragon Balls). This, however, is the trigger for events of even greater magnitude to happen, making Gokū and his friends the foremost defenders of Earth, mankind and ultimately the whole universe.
Gokū later learns that his race was destroyed by the one and only [[Freeza]]-sama, the planet-conquering maniacal onslaught of an alien emperor. [[Zarbon]], Freeza's top henchman, had requested that the best solution would have been the complete annihilation and extinction of the Saiyan race, thus triggering Freeza's wrath. (See [[Frieza Family Tree|Freeza Family Tree]]) Freiza killed Gokū's father [[Bardock]] (or Viz's translation "Burdock") as well as King Vegeta when he attacked and obliterated the entire Saiyan planet from existence. After many years, Gokū comes face to face with Freiza and his wrath, in a decisive fight of good against evil.
As the series progresses, Son Gokū, his son, [[Son Gohan]], and their companions age, get immensely stronger and fight increasingly more powerful and sinister villains. Many of the main characters die, are resurrected (few of them stay dead), get married and/or have children. The series progresses dramatically throughout its entire run.
The overall mood changes significantly from the one of ''Dragon Ball'', as tournaments and personal vendettas are replaced by wars against alien villains threatening earth in its whole, changing the focus to violent battles and the feeling of a power struggle. There also is a change from the rather myth-oriented theme to a more science fiction oriented one, interpreting several facts from a very different point of view.
==DBZ and fandom==
''Dragon Ball Z'' was (and largely still is) one of the most popular shōnen anime series' worldwide. Due to its length, associated varying production quality, creative devices, and sometimes overenthusiastic [[fanboy|young fanbase]], anime fandom at large has mixed reactions to the series. These range from simple lack of interest to downright vocal hatred of the series as overrated and superficial. In response, fans of ''Dragon Ball Z'' have countered that many who criticize the series sound as though they don't know it as well as they'd like to think. While contributing much to the shōnen genre in Japan, some feel ''Dragon Ball Z'' has created a [[stereotype]] associated with anime at large in the West amongst those outside the anime community.
The main character of ''Dragon Ball Z'', Son Gokū, is often compared to the [[DC Comics]] hero [[Superman]], due to their outward similarities in origins (as redefined in ''DBZ'') and abilities. Many of these connections are a deliberate attempt by [[Akira Toriyama]] to pay homage to the Western superhero [[archetype]], just as the earlier ''Dragon Ball'' series paid homage to [[China|Chinese]] folk archetypes.
Because of inconsistencies both in the original manga and the anime series, and the common acceptance of the anime as [[canon (fiction)|canon]], much debate is had by the younger fanbase as to the relative strength (or [[power levels]], speaking in series terms) of the various characters. However most hardcore fans believe that anything that didn't appear in the original manga is irrelevant and can be ignored.
==Censorship Issues==
One of the biggest criticisms of the series in [[North America]] from fans is the extensive amount of editing and other changes it faced, in order to be broadcast.
''Dragon Ball Z'' was marketed to appeal to a wide range of viewers from all ages, and contains crude humor and occasional excesses of violence which are commonly seen as inappropriate for younger audiences by American standards. When it was marketed in the US, the distribution company [[FUNimation]] alongside with [[Saban]] decided to initially focus exclusively on the young children's market, because the anime market was still small compared to the much larger children's [[cartoon]] market. The series underwent many changes, with the removal of nudity and partial nudity, references to [[sex]], [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], and [[tobacco smoking|smoking]]. For example, FUNimation digitally removed the [[cigarette]] from one character's mouth, and digitally pasted the word ROOT above a sign that |
eld.png|[[Yale University|Yale]] <br> ''[[Urim and Thummim|אורים ותמים]]'' <br> ''Lux et veritas'' <br> ("Light and truth")
</gallery>
== Terminology ==
Named after the [[ivy]] plants that traditionally cover their historic buildings, the term Ivy League was first coined informally to refer to these institutions of [[higher education]] which compete in both [[scholastics]] and [[sport]]s. Formally, it also refers to the association of these schools in [[NCAA]] [[Division I]] [[College Athletic Conference|athletic]] competition. The Ivy League universities are often simply called the '''Ivies''' or, affectionately, the '''Ancient Eight'''.
Some attribute the name to the Roman numerals for four (IV), asserting that there was such a sports league originally with four members. The ''Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins'' helped to perpetuate this belief. The supposed "IV League" was formed over a century ago and consisted of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and a 4th school that varies depending on who is telling the story. [http://www.chipublib.org/008subject/005genref/faqiv.html]
[http://ezra.cornell.edu/posting.php?timestamp=1124946000]
[http://badgerherald.com/news/2003/03/03/origins_of_the_term_.php]
[http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/current/2002/101702/askbenny.html]
The term "Ivy League" refers strictly to the original eight universities. However, the prestige associated with the Ivy League has given rise to associative terms meant to imply perceived preeminence within other various realms of American higher education: "[[Jesuit Ivy]]", "[[Little Ivies]]", "[[Public Ivies]]", etc. These terms are strictly [[colloquial]] and have no relation to the original eight schools.
==History==
The Ivies and their founders share a common heritage. In England, dissident scholars from the [[University of Oxford]] founded the [[University of Cambridge]]. A University of Cambridge alumnus, [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]], bequeathed in his will a large donation to New College, which became Harvard University. Ten alumni of Harvard founded Yale, and other Harvard alumni, such as minister [[Increase Mather]] and his son [[Cotton Mather]], nurtured its development. Alumni of Yale founded (or co-founded) other future Ivy League institutions: Princeton University by [[Jonathan Dickinson (of New Jersey)|Jonathan Dickinson]] , Dartmouth College by [[Eleazar Wheelock]], and Cornell University by [[Andrew Dickson White]]. [[James Manning]], an alumnus from Princeton, co-founded Brown University. Clergymen of an [[Episcopal]]ian church in New York City became alarmed by the [[Presbyterian]] founding of Princeton University (then known as the ''College of New Jersey'') [http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/kingsv1/biosketches.htm]. They established their own "rival" institution, ''King's College'' (Columbia University), and elected as its first president a Yale alumnus named [[Samuel Johnson (1696-1772)|Samuel Johnson]], who also served as the sole faculty member in the college's early days. When ''King's College'' was renamed to ''Columbia College'' in [[1784]], Johnson's son [[William Samuel Johnson]], also a Yale alumnus, became its president. After the University of Pennsylvania opened, its founder [[Benjamin Franklin]] received [[honorary degree]]s from Harvard and Yale in [[1753]] and an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford in [[1762]] [http://www.gophila.com/Go/PressRoom/pressreleases/ben300/Resume_Ben_Franklin_Fact_Sheet.aspx].
The Ivies have been competing in sports as long as intercollegiate sports have existed in the United States. Boat clubs from Harvard and Yale met in the first sporting event held between students of two U.S. colleges on [[Lake Winnipesaukee]], [[New Hampshire]], in [[1852]]. As an informal [[American football|football]] league, the Ivy League dates from [[1900]] when [[Yale University|Yale]] took the conference championship with a 5-0 record. For many years Army (the [[United States Military Academy]]), Navy (the [[United States Naval Academy]]), and to a lesser extent [[Rutgers University|Rutgers]] were considered members, but dropped out shortly before formal organization. For instance, Army traditionally had a rivalry with Yale, and Rutgers had rivalries with Princeton and Columbia, which continue today in sports other than [[football]].
Before the formal formation of the Ivy League, there was an "unwritten and unspoken agreement among certain Eastern colleges on athletic relations". In [[1935]], [[The Associated Press]] reported on an example of collaboration between the schools:
<blockquote>''the athletic authorities of the so-called "Ivy League" are considering drastic measures to curb the increasing tendency toward riotous attacks on goal posts and other encroachments by spectators on playing fields.{{ref|early_cooperation}}''</blockquote>
Despite such collaboration, the universities did not seem to consider the formation of the league as imminent. [[Romeyn Berry]], Cornell's director of intercollegiate relations, reported the situation in January [[1936]] as follows:
<blockquote>''I can say with certainty that in the last five years — and markedly in the last three months — there has been a strong drift among the eight or ten universities of the East which see a good deal of one another in sport toward a closer bond of confidence and cooperation and toward the formation of a common front against the threat of a breakdown in the ideals of amateur sport in the interests of supposed expediency.''</blockquote>
<blockquote>''Please do not regard that statement as implying the organization of an Eastern conference or even a poetic "Ivy League." That sort of thing does not seem to be in the cards at the moment.''{{ref|unspoken_agreement}}</blockquote>
Within a year of this statement, on [[December 3]], [[1936]], the idea of an Ivy League gained enough traction among the undergraduate bodies of the universities that the ''[[Columbia Daily Spectator]]'', ''[[The Cornell Daily Sun]]'', ''[[The Dartmouth]]'', ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]'', ''[[The Daily Pennsylvanian]]'', ''[[The Daily Princetonian]]'' and the ''[[Yale Daily News]]'' would simultaneously run an editorial encouraging the seven universities to form the league in an effort to preserve the ideals of athletics. Part of the editorial read as follows:
<blockquote>
''The Ivy League exists already in the minds of a good many of those connected with football, and we fail to see why the seven schools concerned should be satisfied to let it exist as a purely nebulous entity where there are so many practical benefits which would be possible under definite organized association. The seven colleges involved fall naturally together by reason of their common interests and similar general standards and by dint of their established national reputation they are in a particularly advantageous position to assume leadership for the preservation of the ideals of intercollegiate athletics.''
</blockquote>
The proposal did not succeed — on [[January 11]], [[1937]], the athletic authorities at the schools rejected the "possibility of a heptagonal league in football such as these institutions maintain in basketball, baseball and track". However, they noted that the league "has such promising possibilities that it may not be dismissed and must be the subject of further consideration".{{ref|ivy_proposal_rejected}}
In [[1945]] the presidents of the eight schools signed the first '''Ivy Group Agreement''', which set academic, financial, and athletic standards for the [[American football|football]] teams. The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton Presidents' Agreement of [[1916]].
In [[1954]], the date generally accepted as the birth of the Ivy League, the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports. Competition began with the [[1956]] season.
As late as the [[1960s]] many of the Ivy League universities' undergraduate programs remained open only to men, with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding (1865) and Columbia being the last (1983) to become [[coeducation]]al. Before they became coeducational, many of the Ivy schools maintained extensive social ties with nearby [[Seven Sisters (colleges)|Seven Sisters]] [[women's college]]s, including weekend visits, dances and parties inviting Ivy and Seven Sisters students to mingle. This was the case not only at [[Barnard College]] and [[Radcliffe College]], which were situated very near to Columbia and Harvard, but at more distant institutions as well. The movie ''[[Animal House]]'' includes a satiric version of the formerly common visits by Dartmouth men to Massachusetts to meet [[Smith College|Smith]] and [[Mount Holyoke College|Mount Holyoke]] women, a drive of more than two hours. Some sources suggest that the Seven Sisters group was so named as a parallel to the Ivy League. [http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/PLLI/webreprt.html]
==Reputation==
All Ivy League schools are known for their highly selective undergraduate programs, and acceptance rates now range from 9.1% for Harvard to 26.1% for Cornell.
In most [[college and university rankings]], all or almost all of the Ivy League schools rank in the top tier. The ranking of the schools is greatly dependent on what each survey places the most weight, such as average class size, volume of research, and faculty accolades.
==Endowments==
===Total Endowment Wealth===
The Ivy League schools are among the wealthiest private universities in the U.S., a status commensurate with their ages and long-standing relationships with the highest echelons of American society. All of the Ivy League schools have [[financial endowment]]s o |
ct with [[oxygen]] in a [[combustion]] reaction, although they become increasing difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is:
:2C<sub>''n''</sub>H<sub>2''n''+2</sub> + (3''n''+1)O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 2(''n''+1)H<sub>2</sub>O + 2''n''CO<sub>2</sub>
In the absence of sufficient oxygen, [[carbon monoxide]] or even [[soot]] can be formed, as shown below for [[methane]]:
:2CH<sub>4</sub> + 3O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 2CO + 4H<sub>2</sub>O
:CH<sub>4</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; C + 2H<sub>2</sub>O
Alkanes usually burn with a non-luminous flame with very little soot formation.
The [[standard enthalpy change of combustion]], &Delta;<sub>c</sub>''H''<sup><s>o</s></sup>, for alkanes increases by about 650&nbsp;kJ/mol per CH<sub>2</sub> group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of &Delta;<sub>c</sub>''H''<sup><s>o</s></sup> than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable.
===Reactions with halogens===
Alkanes react with [[halogen]]s in a so-called [[halogenation]] reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced, or [[Substitution|substituted]], by halogen atoms. [[Free radical]]s are the reactive species which participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]], and can lead to an explosion.
The chain mechanism is as follows, using the chlorination of methane as a typical example:
:'''1.''' ''Initiation'': splitting of a chlorine molecule to form two chlorine atoms, initiated by [[ultraviolet radiation]]. A chlorine atom has an unpaired electron and acts as a free radical.
::Cl<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 2Cl&middot;
:'''2.''' ''Propagation'' (two steps): a hydrogen atom is pulled off from methane then the methyl radical pulls a Cl&middot; from Cl<sub>2</sub>.
::CH<sub>4</sub> + Cl&middot; &rarr; CH<sub>3</sub>&middot; + HCl
::CH<sub>3</sub>&middot; + Cl<sub>2</sub> &rarr; CH<sub>3</sub>Cl + Cl&middot;
:This results in the desired product plus another chlorine radical. This radical will then go on to take part in another propagation reaction causing a chain reaction. If there is sufficient chlorine, other products such as CH<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub> may be formed.
:'''3.''' ''Termination'': recombination of two free radicals:
::Cl&middot; + Cl&middot; &rarr; Cl<sub>2</sub>; or
::CH<sub>3</sub>&middot; + Cl&middot; &rarr; CH<sub>3</sub>Cl; or
::CH<sub>3</sub>&middot; + CH<sub>3</sub>&middot; &rarr; C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>.
:The last possibility in the termination step will result in an impurity in the final mixture; notably this results in an organic molecule with a longer carbon chain than the reactants.
In the case of methane or ethane, all the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and have an equal chance of being replaced. This leads to what is known as a ''statistical product distribution''. For propane and higher alkanes, the hydrogen atoms which form part of CH<sub>2</sub> (or CH) groups are preferentially replaced.
The reactivity of the different halogens varies considerably: the relative rates are: [[fluorine]] (108) > [[chlorine]] (1) > [[bromine]] (7&times;10<sup>&minus;11</sup>) > [[iodine]] (2&times;10<sup>&minus;22</sup>). Hence the reaction of alkanes with fluorine is difficult to control, that with chlorine is moderate to fast, that with bromine is slow and requires high levels of UV irradiation while the reaction with iodine is practically non-existent and [[Thermodynamics|thermodynamically]] unfavorable.
These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons.
===Cracking and reforming===
"[[Cracking]]" breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermic or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism, that is, bonds break symmetrically and thus pairs of [[free radical]]s are formed. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of [[acid]] [[catalyst|catalysts]] (usually solid acids such as [[silica-alumina]] and [[zeolite|zeolites]]) which promote a heterolytic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of [[ion|ions]] of opposite charges, usually a carbo[[cation]] and the very unstable [[hydride]] [[anion]]. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C-C scission in position [[beta scission|beta]] (i.e., cracking) and [[intramolecular|intra-]] and [[intermolecular]] hydrogen transfer or [[hydride transfer]]. In both types of processes, the corresponding reactive intermediates (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a
self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination.
Here is an example of cracking with butane CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub>
* 1st possibility (48%): breaking is done on the CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub> bond.
CH<sub>3</sub>* / *CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub>
after a certain number of steps, we will obtain an alkane and an [[alkene]]:
CH<sub>4</sub> + CH<sub>2</sub>=CH-CH<sub>3</sub>
* 2nd possibility (38%): breaking is done on the CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub> bond.
CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>* / *CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub>
after a certain number of steps, we will obtain an alkane and an [[alkene]]
from different types: CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub> + CH<sub>2</sub>=CH<sub>2</sub>
* 3rd possibility (14%): breaking of a C-H bond
after a certain number of steps, we will obtain an [[alkene]] and hydrogen gas: CH<sub>2</sub>=CH-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>
===Other reactions===
<!-- translated from [[:de:Alkane]] -->
Alkanes will react with [[steam]] in the presence of a [[nickel]] [[catalyst]] to give [[hydrogen]]. Alkanes can by [[Chlorosulfonation|chlorosulfonated]] and [[nitration|nitrated]], although both reactions require special conditions. The [[fermentation]] of alkanes to [[carboxylic acid]]s is of some technical importance. In the [[Reed reaction]], [[sulfur dioxide]], [[chlorine]] and [[photochemistry|light]] convert hydrocarbons to [[Sulfonic acid|sulfonyl chloride]]s.
==Hazards==
Methane is explosive in when mixed with air (1&ndash;8% CH<sub>4</sub>) and is a strong [[greenhouse gas]]: other lower alkanes can also form explosive mixtures with air. The lighter liquid alkanes are highly flammable, although this risk decreases with the length of the carbon chain. Pentane, hexane, heptane and octane are classed as ''dangerous for the environment'' and ''harmful''. The straight chain isomer of hexane is a [[neurotoxin]], and therefore rarely used commercially.
==Alkanes in nature==
<!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] -->
Although alkanes occur in nature in various way, they do not rank biologically among the essential materials. Cycloalkanes with 14 to 18 carbon atoms occur in [[musk]], extracted from [[deer]] of the family [[Moschidae]]. All further information refers to acyclic alkanes.
===Bacteria and archaea===
<!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] -->
[[Image:Rotbuntes Rind.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methanogen]]ic [[archaea]] in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the [[methane]] in the Earth's atmosphere.]]
Certain types of [[bacteria]] can metabolise alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains.
On the other hand certain [[archaea]], the [[methanogen]]s, produce large quantites of [[methane]] by the metabolism of [[carbon dioxide]] or other [[oxidation|oxidised]] organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of [[hydrogen]]:
:CO<sub>2</sub> + 4H<sub>2</sub> &rarr; CH<sub>4</sub> + 2H<sub>2</sub>O
Methanogens are also the producers of [[marsh gas]] in [[wetlands]], and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year&mdash;the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them. The methane output of [[cattle]] and other [[herbivore]]s, which can release up to 150&nbsp;litres per day, and of [[termite]]s, is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the [[intestine]]s of [[human]]s. Methanogenic archaea are hence at the end of the [[carbon cycle]], with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by [[photosynthesis]]. It is probable that our current deposits of [[natural gas]] were formed in a similar way.
===Fungi and plants===
<!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] -->
[[Image:Fuji apple.jpg|thumb|right|Water forms droplets on a thin film of alkane wax on the skin of the apple.]]
Alkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] groups of organisms: [[Fungus|fungi]], [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s. Some specialised yeasts, e.g. ''Candida tropicale'', ''[[Pichia]]'' sp., ''[[Rhodotorula]]'' sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon and/or energy. The fun |
uka]], politician
*[[Dullah Omar]], politician
*[[Andries Pretorius]], [[Boer]] leader and commandant-general (1799 - 1853)
*[[Deneys Reitz]], boer commando, former deputy Prime Minister and South African High Commissioner to [[London]] (1882 - 1944)
*[[Joe Slovo]], politician (1926 - 1995)
*[[Helen Suzman]], politician (1917 - )
*[[Frederik van Zyl Slabbert]], politician
*[[Jacob Zuma]], former deputy president (1942 - )
===Prime Ministers and Presidents===
*[[Jacobus Boshoff]], 2nd President of the [[Orange Free State]] (1808 - 1881)
*[[Louis Botha]], Boer commander-in-chief and 1st Prime Minister of South Africa (1862 - 1919)
*[[Pieter Willem Botha]], 9th and last Prime Minister and 8th State President of South Africa (1916 - )
*[[Jan Brand|Johannes Henricus Brand]], 4th President of the Orange Free State
*[[Thomas Francois Burgers]], 4th President of South African Republic (1871 - 1877)
*[[Frederik Willem de Klerk]], 9th and last State President of South Africa and joint [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner (1936 - )
*[[Christiaan De Wet|Christiaan Rudolph de Wet]], Boer general and acting President of the Orange Free State
*[[Nicolaas Johannes Diederichs]], 4th State President of South Africa(1903 - 1978)
*[[Jacobus Johannes Fouché]], 3rd State President of South Africa(1898 - 1980)
*[[James Barry Munnik Hertzog]], Boer general and 3rd Prime Minister of South Africa (1866 - 1942)
*[[Josias Hoffman]], 1st President of the Orange Free State
*[[Petrus Jacobus Joubert]], Boer general and member of the [[Troika]] in the South African Republic
*[[Paul Kruger]], member of the Troika, 5th and last President of [[South African Republic]] (1825 - 1904)
*[[Daniel François Malan]], 5th Prime Minister of South Africa and is responsible for laying the groundwork for Apartheid (1874 - 1959)
*[[Nelson Mandela]], 1st President of South Africa and joint [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner (1918 - )
*[[Thabo Mbeki]], 2nd and current President of South Africa (1942 - )
*[[Jozua François Naudé]], 2nd State President of South Africa
*[[Marthinus Wessel Pretorius]], 3rd President of the Orange Free State, 1st and 3rd President of the [[South African Republic]] (1819 - 1901)
*[[Francis William Reitz]], 5th President of the Orange Free State (1844 - 1934)
*[[Jan Smuts]], Boer general, British field marshal, 2nd and 4th Prime Minister of South Africa (1870 - 1950)
*[[Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom|Johannes Strijdom]], 6th Prime Minister of South Africa (1893 - 1958)
*[[Martinus Theunis Steyn]], 6th and last President of the Orange Free State (1857 - 1916)
*[[Charles Robberts Swart]], last Governor-General of the Union of South Africa and the 1st State President of the Republic of South Africa (1894 - 1982)
*[[Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd]], 7th Prime Minister of South Africa and primary architect of [[Apartheid]] (1901 - 1966)
*[[Marais Viljoen]], 5th and 7th State President of South Africa (1915 - )
*[[B.J. Vorster|Balthazar Johannes Vorster]], 8th Prime Minister and 6th State President of South Africa (1915 - 1983)
===Royalty===
*[[Goodwill Zwelethini kaBhekuzulu]], 8th and current king of the [[Zulu]] nation (1948 - )
*[[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]], politician and a Zulu prince (1928 - )
*[[Dinizulu|Dinizulu kaCetshwayo]], 5th Zulu king (1868 - 1913)
*[[Solomon kaDinizulu]], 6th Zulu king (1891 - 1933)
*[[Usibepu|uZibhebhu kaMaphitha]], Zulu prince and chief (1841 - 1904)
*[[Khetoane Modjadji]], Balobedu's 3th Rain Queen (1869 - 1959)
*[[Makoma Modjadji]], Balobedu's 4th Rain Queen (1905 - 1980)
*[[Mokope Modjadji]], Balobedu's 5th Rain Queen (1936 - 2001)
*[[Makobo Modjadji]], Balobedu's 6th Rain Queen (1978 - 2005)
*[[Mpande]], 3rd Zulu king and half-brother of Shaka (1798 - 1872)
*[[Cetshwayo|Cetshwayo kaMpande]], 4th Zulu king (1826 - 1884)
*[[Dingane|Dingane kaSenzangakhona]], 2nd Zulu king and half-brother of Shaka (1795 - 1840)
*[[Shaka]], founder of the [[Zulu]] nation (1787 - 1828)
*[[Cyprian Bhekuzulu kaSolomon]], 7th Zulu king (1924 - 1968)
==Prelates==
*[[Rev S.J. du Toit|Stephanus Jacobus du Toit]], cleric, pioneer of the recognition of the Afrikaans language and one of the founder members of the [[Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaners]] (1847 - 1911)
*[[Albert Luthuli]], cleric, politician and 1960 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner (&dagger; 1967)
*[[Charlotte Maxeke]], religious leader and politicial activist (1874 - 1939)
*[[Christiaan Frederick Beyers Naudé|Beyers Naude]], cleric and anti-apartheid activist (1915 - 2004)
*[[Desmond Tutu]], cleric and [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner
==Sport==
===Athletics===
*[[Okkert Brits]], athlete (1973 - )
*[[Zola Budd]], athlete (1966 - )
*[[Bruce Fordyce]], ultra-marathon runner
*[[Jacques Freitag]], high jumper (1982 - )
===Boxer===
*[["Baby" Jakes Matlala]], boxer and junior flyweight champion
*[[Mzukisi Sikali]], boxer (1971 - 2005)
===Cricket===
*[[Shafiek Abrahams]], cricketer (1968 - )
*[[Paul Adams (cricketer)|Paul Adams]], bowler (1977 - )
*[[Adam Bacher]], right-handed batsman (1973 - )
*[[Ali Bacher]], cricket administrator (1942 - )
*[[Eddie Barlow|Edgar John Barlow]], cricketer (1940 - 2005)
*[[Nicky Boje]], all-rounder (1973 - )
*[[Tertius Bosch]], cricketer (1966 - 2000)
*[[Johan Botha]], cricketer (1982 - )
*[[Mark Boucher]], cricketer (1976 - )
*[[David Callaghan]], cricketer (1965 - )
*[[Jimmy Cook]], cricketer (1953 - )
*[[Hansie Cronje]], Protea captain, cricketer (1969 - 2002)
*[[Daryll Cullinan]], specialist batsman (1967 - )
*[[Basil D'Oliveira]], cricketer (1931 - )
*[[Alan Dawson (cricketer)|Alan Dawson]], seam bowler (1969 - )
*[[Abraham de Villiers]], cricketer (1984 - )
*[[Fanie de Villiers]], fast medium bowler (1964 - )
*[[Matthew Dennington]], cricketer (1982 - )
*[[Boeta Dippenaar]], specialist batsman (1977 - )
*[[Allan Donald]], fast bowler (1966 - )
*[[Jean-Paul Duminy]], cricketer (1984 - )
*[[Clive Eksteen]], cricketer (1966 - )
*[[Steve Elworthy]], cricketer (1965 - )
*[[Herschelle Gibbs]], specialist batsman (1974 - )
*[[Tony Greig]], cricketer and commentator (1946 - )
*[[Andrew Hall]], cricketer (1975 - )
*[[Nantie Hayward]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Claude Henderson]], cricketer (1972 - )
*[[Omar Henry]], cricketer (1952 - )
*[[Andrew Hudson]], cricketer (1952 - )
*[[Martin van Jaarsveld]], specialist middle-order batsman (1974 - )
*[[Steven Jack]], cricketer (1970 - )
*[[Jacques Kallis]], all-rounder (1975 - )
*[[Chad Keegan]], cricketer (1979 - )
*[[Justin Kemp]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Jon Kent]], cricketer (1979 - )
*[[Gary Kirsten]], opening batsman (1967 - )
*[[Peter Kirsten]], cricketer (1955 - )
*[[Lance Klusener]], all-rounder (1971 - )
*[[Garnett Kruger]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Adrian Kuiper]], cricketer (1959 - )
*[[Charl Langeveldt]], cricketer (1974 - )
*[[Gerhardus Liebenberg]], cricketer (1972 - )
*[[Allan Lamb]], cricketer (1954 - )
*[[Craig Matthews]], cricketer (1965 - )
*[[Neil McKenzie]], cricketer (1975 - )
*[[Brian McMillan]], cricketer (1963 - )
*[[Albie Morkel]], cricketer (1981 - )
*[[Victor Mpitsang]], cricketer (1980 - )
*[[Andre Nel]], fast bowler (1977 - )
*[[Makhaya Ntini]], fast bowler (1977 - )
*[[Justin Ontong]], cricketer (1980 - )
*[[Robin Peterson]], spin bowler (1979 - )
*[[Kevin Pietersen]], cricketer (1980 - )
*[[Shaun Pollock]], Protea captain, fast-medium bowler (1973 - )
*[[Nic Pothas]], cricketer (1973 - )
*[[Ashwell Prince]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Meyrick Pringle]], cricketer (1966 - )
*[[Andrew Puttick]], cricketer (1980 - )
*[[Jonty Rhodes]], cricketer (1969 - )
*[[Clive Rice]], all-rounder (1949 - )
*[[David Richardson]], cricketer (1959 - )
*[[Jacques Rudolph]], cricketer (1981 - )
*[[Mark Rushmere]], cricketer (1965 - )
*[[Brett Schultz]], cricketer (1970 - )
*[[Graeme Smith]], Protea captain, cricketer (1981 - )
*[[Greg Smith (cricketer)|Greg Smith]], cricketer (1971 - )
*[[Richard Snell]], cricketer (1968 - )
*[[Errol Stewart]], lawyer, cricketer (1969 - )
*[[Dale Steyn]], cricketer (1983 - )
*[[Rudi Steyn]], cricketer (1967 - )
*[[Andrew Strauss]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Pieter Strydom]], cricketer (1969 - )
*[[Pat Symcox]], cricketer (1960 - )
*[[Roger Telemachus]], cricketer (1973 - )
*[[David Terbrugge]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Kepler Wessels]], South African captain, all-rounder (1957 - )
*[[Henry Williams (cricketer)|Henry Williams]], cricketer (1967 - )
*[[Charl Willoughby]], cricketer (1974 - )
*[[Mandy Yachad]], cricketer (1960 - )
*[[Monde Zondeki]], cricketer (1982 - )
===Football (Rugby Union)===
*[[Bakkies Botha]], rugby player (1979 - )
*[[Naas Botha]], rugby player and TV presenter (1958 - )
*[[Schalk Burger]], rugby player (1983 - )
*[[Danie Craven]], rugby player and administrator (1910 - 1994)
*[[Thinus Delport]], rugby player (1975 - )
*[[Jean de Villiers]], rugby player (1981 - )
*[[Frik du Preez]], rugby player (1935 - )
*[[Os du Randt]], rugby player (1972 - )
*[[Bryan Habana]], rugby player (1983 - )
*[[Marius Joubert]], rugby player (1979 - )
*[[Piet Malan]], rugby player (1919 - )
*[[Nick Mallett]], rugby coach (1956 - )
*[[Victor Matfield]], rugby player (1977 - )
*[[Percy Montgomery]], rugby player (1974 - )
*[[Breyton Paulse]], rugby player (1976 - )
*[[Francois Pienaar]], former [[South Africa national rugby union team|Springbok]] rugby captain (1967 - )
*[[Paul Roos (rugby player)|Paul Roos]], captain of first Springbok rugby team( - )
*[[Brent Russell]], rugby player (1980 - )
*[[Bobby Skinstad]], rugby player (1976 - )
*[[John Smit]], rugby player (1978 - )
*[[Rudolph Straeuli]], rugby coach (1963 - )
*[[Joel Stransky]], rugby player and TV presenter (1967 - )
*[[Gary Teichmann]], rugby player (1967 - )
*[[Joost van der Westhuizen]], rugby player (1971 - )
*[[Jaco van der Westhuyzen]], rugby player (1978 - )
*[[Fritz van Heerden]], rugby player (1970 - )
*[[Joe van Niekerk]], rugby player (1980 - )
*[[Jake White]], current Springboks rugby coach (1963 - )
*[[Chester Williams]], rugby player and coach (1970 - )
*[[Peter Jansen]], rugby player and administrator (1958 - |
]]
Ernest Hemingway was born on [[July 21]], [[1899]] in [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]], [[Illinois]], a suburb of [[Chicago]]. Hemingway's physician father, [[Clarence Edmonds]], attended to the birth of Ernest and subsequently blew a horn on his front porch; announcing to the neighbors that his wife had borne a baby boy. The Hemingways lived in a six-bedroom Victorian house built by Ernest's widowed grandfather, Ernest Hall, an [[England|English]] immigrant and Civil War veteran who lived with the family and is also Hemingway's namesake.
Hemingway was the firstborn son and the second of six children to Clarence ("Doctor Ed") and [[Grace Hall Hemingway]]. His mother was a [[homemaker]] with considerable singing talent who had once aspired to an opera career and earned money giving voice and music lessons. She was domineering and narrowly religious, mirroring the strict [[Protestant]] ethic of Oak Park, which Hemingway later said had "wide lawns and narrow minds"{{ref|ref1}}. His mother had wanted to bear twins, and when this did not happen, she dressed young Ernest and his sister Marcelline (eighteen months his senior) in similar clothes and with similar hairstyles, maintaining the pretense of the two children being "twins." Grace Hemingway further feminized her son in his youth by calling him "Ernestine"{{ref|ref2}} (while much is made of this by biographers--especially Kenneth S. Lynn--it should be noted that middle-class Victorian boys were often treated in this manner).
While his mother hoped that her son would develop an interest in music, Hemingway adopted his father's outdoorsy interests of hunting and fishing in the woods and lakes of northern [[Michigan]]. The family owned a house called Windemere on Michigan's [[Walloon Lake]], and would often spend summers vacationing there. These early experiences in close contact with [[nature]] would instill in Hemingway a lifelong passion for outdoor adventure and for living in areas of the world generally considered remote or isolated.
===First writing experiences===
Hemingway attended [[Oak Park and River Forest High School]] where he excelled both academically and athletically. Hemingway [[Boxing|boxed]] and played [[American football|football]], and displayed particular talent in [[English studies|English]] classes. His first writing experience was serving as editor for both ''Trapeze'' and ''Tabula'', the school's newspaper and literary magazine, respectively.
When Hemingway graduated from high school, he did not pursue a college education. Instead, at age seventeen, he began his writing career as a club [[reporter]] for ''[[The Kansas City Star]]'' (1916). Although he worked at the newspaper for only six months, throughout his lifetime he used the guidance from the ''Star'''s [[style guide]] as a foundation for his writing style: "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."{{ref|ref3}}
==World War I until the Spanish Civil War==
[[Image:Hemingway WorldWarIYoung.gif|thumb|200px|A young Hemingway in his World War I uniform]]
Hemingway left his reporting job after only a few months, and, against his father's wishes, tried to join the [[United States Army]] to see action in [[World War I]]. He supposedly failed the medical examination due to poor vision (there is no record of this), and instead joined the [[American Field Service]] Ambulance Corps and left for [[Italy]]. En route to the Italian front, he stopped in [[Paris]], which was under constant bombardment from [[Germany|German]] artillery. Instead of staying in the relative safety of the Hotel Florida, Hemingway tried to get as close to combat as possible.
Soon after arriving on the Italian front, he witnessed the brutalities of the war; on his first day of duty, an [[ammunition]] factory near [[Milan]] suffered an explosion. Hemingway had to pick up the human remains, mostly of women who had worked at the factory. This first, extremely cruel encounter with death left him shaken. The soldiers he met later did not lighten the horror; for example, one of them, [[Eric Dorman-Smith]], quoted to him a line from [[Henry IV, part 2 |Part Two of Shakespeare's ''Henry IV'']]: "By my troth, I care not; a man can die but once; we owe god a death...and let it go which way it will, he that dies this year is quit for the next."{{ref|ref4}}
(Hemingway, for his part, would conjure this very same [[Shakespeare]]an line in ''[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]'', one of his famous [[African]] short stories.) In another instance, a 50-year-old soldier, to whom Hemingway said, "You're ''troppo vecchio'' for this war, pop," replied, "I can die as well as any man."{{ref|ref5}}
At the Italian front on [[8 July]] [[1918]], Hemingway was wounded delivering supplies to soldiers, ending his career as an ambulance driver. The exact details of the attack are in dispute, but two facts are certain: Hemingway was hit by an [[Austria]] [[trench warfare|trench]] [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]] shell that left fragments in both of his legs, and he was subsequently awarded the [[Silver Medal of Military Valor]] (''medaglia d'argento'') from the Italian [[government]].
[[Image:Hemingway VonKurowsky.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Agnes von Kurowsky in Venice, Italy]]
After this experience, Hemingway convalesced in a Milan hospital run by the [[American Red Cross]]. There he met a nurse, Sister Agnes von Kurowsky of Washington, D.C., one of eighteen nurses attending groups of four patients each. Hemingway fell in love with Sister Agnes, who was more than six years older than him, but their relationship did not last. After he returned to the United States, she fell in love with and married another man.
===Literary aftermath of WWI===
====First novels and other early works====
After the war, Hemingway returned to Oak Park. In 1920, he took a job in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], at the ''[[Toronto Star]]'' as a freelancer, staff writer, and foreign [[correspondent]]. About this time, Hemingway met Canada's young literary prodigy [[Morley Callaghan]], who also was a cub reporter at the same paper. Callaghan, who respected Hemingway's work, showed him his own stories, and Hemingway praised them as fine work.
In 1921, Hemingway married his first wife, [[Hadley Richardson]]. The Hemingways decided to live abroad for a time, and, at the advice of [[Sherwood Anderson]], they settled, along with friend Morley Callaghan and [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] whom he would first meet at the [[Dingo Bar]], in Paris; there Hemingway covered the [[Greco-Turkish War]] for the ''Star''. After the 1922 publication and American banning of colleague [[James Joyce]]'s ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'', Hemingway used Toronto-based friends to smuggle copies of the novel into the United States. Hemingway's own first book, called ''Three Stories and Ten Poems'' (1923), was published in Paris by [[Robert McAlmon]]. In the same year, during a brief return to Toronto, Hemingway's first son, John, was born. Busy supporting a family, he became bored with the ''Toronto Star'' and resigned on [[January 1]], [[1924]].
[[Image:Stein by picasso.jpg|thumb|[[Gertrude Stein]] (pictured here in a portrait by [[Pablo Picasso]]) was a long-time mentor of Hemingway and served as an important influence on his style and literary development.]]
Hemingway's American literary debut came with the publication of the short story collection ''[[In Our Time (book)|In Our Time]]'' (1925). The vignettes that now constitute the interchapters of the American version were initially published in Europe as ''in our time'' (1924). This work was important for Hemingway, reaffirming to him that his minimalist style could be accepted by the literary community. "[[Big Two-Hearted River]]" is the collection's best-known story.
After Hemingway's return to Paris, Anderson gave him a letter of introduction to [[Gertrude Stein]]. She became his mentor and introduced him to the "Parisian Modern Movement" then ongoing in [[Montparnasse Quarter]]; this was the beginnings of the American expatriate circle that became known as the [[Lost Generation]], a term coined by Stein. The group often frequented [[Sylvia Beach]]'s bookshop, Shakespeare &amp; Co., at 12 ''Rue de l'Odéon''. Hemingway's other influential mentor was [[Ezra Pound]]{{ref|ref6}}, the founder of [[imagism]]. Hemingway later said in reminiscence of this eclectic group, "Ezra was right half the time, and when he was wrong, he was so wrong you were never in any doubt about it. Gertrude was always right."{{ref|ref7}}
Hemingway's favorite restaurant in Montparnasse was ''La Closerie des Lilas.'' It was here, in just over 6 weeks, that he wrote his second novel, ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]'' (1926). The novel, semi-autobiographical in that it follows a group of expatriate Americans in Europe, was successful and was met with critical acclaim. While Hemingway had initially claimed that the novel was an obsolete form of literature, he was apparently inspired to write one after reading Fitzgerald's manuscript for ''[[The Great Gatsby]]''.
Fitzgerald and Hemingway were at first close friends, often drinking and talking together. They frequently exchanged manuscripts, and Fitzgerald did much to advance Hemingway's career and the publication of his first collections of stories, although the relationship later cooled and became more competitive. Fitzgerald's wife [[Zelda Fitzgerald|Zelda]], however, disliked Hemingway from the start, openly describing him as "bogus" and "phoney as a rubber cheque" and asserting that his macho persona was a facade; she later became irrationally convinced that Hemingway was homosexual and accused Scott Fitzgerald of having an affair with him.
Hemingway divorced Hadley Richardson and married [[Pauline Pfeiffer]], a devout [[Roman Catholic Chu |
|CIAN]], [[Access Alberta]]
* 16 (Cable 11) - [[CBRFT]], [[Télévision de Radio-Canada|SRC]]
The [[cable television]] provider in Calgary is [[Shaw Cable]]. Network programming from the United States is received on cable via affiliates from [[Spokane, Washington]].
==Other names==
Calgary is also known by other names [http://got.net/~landauer/lists/CityOf.html]:
* Cowtown
* The [[Calgary Stampede|Stampede]] City
* The Heart of The New West (the New Convention and Visitors Bureau slogan)
* Canada's Oil Capital
==Sister Cities==
*[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px]] [[Phoenix, Arizona]] ([[United States]]) - 1997
*[[Image:Flag of South Korea.svg|25px]] [[Daejeon]] ([[South Korea]]) - 1996
*[[Image:Flag of Mexico.svg|25px]] [[Naucalpan]] ([[Mexico]]) - 1994
*[[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|25px]] [[Daqing]] ([[China]]) - 1985
*[[Image:Flag of India.svg|25px]] [[Jaipur]] ([[India]]) - 1973
*[[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|25px]] [[Quebec City]] ([[Canada]]) - 1956
==See also==
* [[Calgary Region]]
* [[Calgary Board of Education]] - Public school board
* [[University of Calgary]]
* [[Calgary Zoo]]
* [[Calgary Transit]]
* [[Calgary Stampede]]
* [[Fish Creek Provincial Park]]
* [[Downtown Calgary]]
* [[List of mayors of Calgary, Alberta]]
* [[List of the 100 largest cities in Canada]]
* [[List of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in Canada]]
* [[1988 Winter Olympics]]
* [[List of neighbourhoods in Calgary]]
* [[List of people born in Calgary, Alberta, Canada]]
* [[List of notable Calgarians]]
{{commons|Calgary}}
==External links==
* [http://www.calgary.ca/ The City of Calgary Official Website]
* [http://www.tourismcalgary.com/ Tourism Calgary]
* [http://www.calgary-city-maps.com/Alberta-Canada-weather.html Calgary Weather] Current observations and forecasts from various providers
* [http://www.downtowncalgary.com/ Downtown Calgary]
* [http://calgary.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page Calgary Wiki]
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Calgary Travel guide to ''Calgary''] from [[Wikitravel]]
* [http://mycalgary.net Travel guide to ''Calgary''] from mycalgary.net
* [http://65.104.36.251/default.asp?display=all&area=Calgary&textOnly=False The City of Calgary Travel Advisories]
* [http://65.104.36.251/default.asp?display=base&area=Calgary&textOnly=False The City of Calgary Traffic Cameras]
* [http://www.calgaryarea.com/ Calgary Community Associations]
===Images===
* [http://www.telusplanet.net/public/mycroft/links_photos_calgary.htm Pictures of Calgary]
* [http://www.terragalleria.com/north-america/canada/calgary Pictures of Calgary - Terra Galleria]
{| width = 75% border="1" cellpadding="4" align="center" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
| width = 35% align="center" |
| width = 30% align="center" | '''North:''' [[Rocky View No. 44, Alberta|Rocky View No. 44]]
| width = 35% align="center" |
|-
| width = 10% align="center" | '''West:''' [[Tsuu T'ina Nation 145, Alberta|Tsuu T'ina Nation 145]] <br>
| style="width:35%; text-align:center; font-size:120%;" | '''Calgary'''
| width = 30% align="center" | '''East:''' [[Rocky View No. 44, Alberta|Rocky View No. 44]]
|-
| width = 35% align="center" |
| width = 30% align="center" | '''South:''' [[Municipal District of Foothills No. 31, Alberta|Foothills No. 31]]
| width = 35% align="center" |
|}<br />
{| width = 75% border="1" cellpadding="4" align="center" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
| width = 35% align="center" |
| width = 30% align="center" | '''North:''' [[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]]
| width = 35% align="center" |
|-
| width = 10% align="center" | '''West:''' [[Cochrane, Alberta|Cochrane]] <br>
| style="width:35%; text-align:center; font-size:120%;" | '''Calgary'''
| width = 30% align="center" | '''East:''' [[Chestermere, Alberta|Chestermere]]
|-
| width = 35% align="center" |
| width = 30% align="center" | '''South:''' [[Okotoks, Alberta|Okotoks]]
| width = 35% align="center" |
|}
{{Olympic Winter Games Host Cities}}
{{alberta}}
[[Category:Calgary| ]]
[[Category:Calgary Region]]
[[Category:Cities in Alberta]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Winter Olympic Games]]
[[Category:Twin town with Quebec City]]
[[af:Calgary]]
[[da:Calgary]]
[[de:Calgary]]
[[et:Calgary]]
[[eo:Kalgario]]
[[es:Calgary]]
[[fi:Calgary]]
[[fr:Calgary]]
[[id:Calgary, Alberta]]
[[io:Calgary]]
[[it:Calgary]]
[[ja:カルガリー]]
[[ko:캘거리]]
[[nl:Calgary]]
[[nn:Calgary]]
[[no:Calgary]]
[[pl:Calgary]]
[[pt:Calgary]]
[[sr:Калгари]]
[[sv:Calgary]]
[[vi:Calgary, Alberta]]
[[zh:卡尔加里]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Complex analysis</title>
<id>5759</id>
<revision>
<id>42157694</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:02:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
<id>153314</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>a complex function does not need to be defined on an open set, only a holomorphic function</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Complex analysis''' is the branch of [[mathematics]] investigating [[Function (mathematics)|functions]] of [[complex numbers]]. It is of enormous practical use in [[applied mathematics]] and in many other branches of mathematics. Complex analysis is particularly concerned with [[analytic functions]] of complex variables, known as [[holomorphic function]]s.
== Complex functions ==
A complex function is a function in which the independent variable and the dependent variable are both complex numbers. More precisely, a complex function is a function defined on a subset of the complex plane with complex values.
For any complex function, both the independent variable and the dependent variable may be separated into [[Real number|real]] and [[Imaginary number|imaginary]] parts:
: <math>z = x + iy\,</math> and
: <math>w = f(z) = u + iv\,</math>,
: where <math>x,y,u,v \in \mathbb{R}.</math>
It follows that the components of the function,
: <math>u = u(x,y)\,</math> and
: <math>v = v(x,y)\,</math>,
can be interpreted as real valued functions of the two real variables, <math>x\,</math> and <math>y\,</math>.
The extension of real functions (exponentials, logarithms, trigonometric functions) to the complex domain is frequently used as an introduction to complex analysis.
== Holomorphic functions ==
{{main|Holomorphic function}}
Holomorphic functions are complex functions defined on an [[open set|open subset]] of the complex plane which are differentiable. Complex differentiability has much stronger consequences than usual (real) differentiability. For instance, holomorphic functions are infinitely differentiable, a fact that is far from true for real differentiable functions. Most elementary functions, including the [[exponential function]], the [[trigonometric function]]s, and all [[polynomial|polynomial functions]], are holomorphic.
''See also'': [[analytic function]], [[holomorphic sheaf]] and [[vector bundle]]s.
== Major results ==
One central tool in complex analysis is the [[path integral]]. The integral around a closed path of a function which is holomorphic everywhere inside the area bounded by the closed path is always zero; this is the [[Cauchy integral theorem]]. The values of a holomorphic function inside a disk can be computed by a certain path integral on the disk's boundary ([[Cauchy's integral formula]]). Path integrals in the complex plane are often used to determine complicated real integrals, and here the theory of [[residue (complex analysis)|residue]]s among others is useful (see [[methods of contour integration]]). If a function has a ''pole'' or ''singularity'' at some point, meaning that its values "explode" and it does not have a finite value there, then one can define the function's residue at that pole, and these residues can be used to compute path integrals involving the function; this is the content of the powerful [[residue theorem]]. The remarkable behavior of holomorphic functions near essential singularities is described by the [[Weierstrass-Casorati theorem]]. Functions which have only poles but no essential singularities are called [[meromorphic]].
[[Laurent series]] are similar to [[Taylor series]] but can be used to study the behavior of functions near singularities.
A bounded function which is holomorphic in the entire complex plane must be constant; this is [[Liouville's theorem (complex analysis)|Liouville's theorem]]. It can be used to provide a natural and short proof for the [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra|fundamental theorem of algebra]] which states that the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of complex numbers is [[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]].
An important property of holomorphic functions is that if a function is holomorphic throughout a [[simply connected]] domain then its values are fully determined by its values on any smaller subdomain. The function on the larger domain is said to be [[analytic continuation|analytically continued]] from its values on the smaller domain. This allows the extension of the definition of functions such as the [[Riemann zeta function]] which are initially defined in terms of infinite sums that converge only on limited domains to almost the entire complex plane. Sometimes, as in the case of the [[natural logarithm]], it is impossible to analytically continue a holomorphic function to a non-simply connected domain in the complex plane but it is possible to extend it to a holomorphic function on a closely related surface known |
space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intellectual property]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Immaculate Conception</title>
<id>15256</id>
<revision>
<id>41918512</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:44:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>163.1.107.243</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Parallelisms in other religions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bartolomé Esteban Perez Murillo 021.jpg|thumb|300px||Mary Immaculate]]
:''This article refers to the dogma of the immaculate conception of Mary, Mother of Jesus. For the doctrine of the virginal conception of Jesus Christ, see [[Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)]].''
The '''Immaculate Conception''' is a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[dogma]] that asserts that [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]], was preserved by [[God]] from the stain of [[original sin]] at the time of her own conception. Specifically, the dogma says she was not afflicted by the lack of [[sanctifying grace]] that afflicts mankind, but was instead filled with grace by God, and furthermore lived a life completely free from [[sin]]. It is commonly confused with the doctrine of the [[Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)|virgin birth]], though the two deal with separate subjects. Mary was conceived by normal biological means, but her soul was acted upon by God (kept "immaculate") at the time of her conception.
The Immaculate Conception was solemnly [[dogmatic definition|defined as a dogma]] by [[Pope Pius IX]] in his constitution ''Ineffabilis Deus'', published [[December 8]], [[1854]] (the [[Feast of the Immaculate Conception]]).
The Feast of the Immaculate Conception of Mary had been established in [[1483]] by Pope [[Sixtus IV]] who stopped short of defining the doctrine as a dogma of the Catholic Faith, thus giving Catholics freedom to believe in this or not; this freedom had been reiterated by the [[Council of Trent]]. The existence of the feast was a strong indication of the Church´s belief in the Immaculate Conception, even before its 19th century definition as a dogma.
The Catholic Church believes the dogma is supported by scripture (e.g. her being greeted by Angel Gabriel as "full of Grace"), and by the writings of many of the [[Church Fathers]], either directly or indirectly, and often calls Mary the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Blessed Virgin]] ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&bk=49&ch=001&l=48 1:48]). Catholic theology maintains that since Jesus became [[incarnation|incarnate]] of the Virgin Mary, she needed to be completely free of sin to bear the Son of God, and that Mary is "redeemed 'by the grace of [[Christ]]' but in a more perfect manner than other human beings" (Ott, ''Fund.'', Bk 3, Pt. 3, Ch. 2, §3.1.e).
In the Catholic Church, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on [[8 December]] is generally a [[Holy Day of Obligation]], and a public holiday in countries where Catholicism is predominant. Prior to the spread of this doctrine, December 8 was celebrated as the Conception of Mary, since September 8 is the Feast of the Nativity of Mary.
==History of the doctrine==
Aside from the acceptability of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, and its necessity or lack thereof, there is the history of its development within the Catholic Church. The Conception of Mary was celebrated in [[England]] from the ninth century. [[Eadmer]] was influential in its spread. The [[Normans]] suppressed the celebration, but it lived on in the popular mind. It was rejected by St. [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], [[Alexander of Hales]], and St. [[Bonaventure]] (who, teaching at [[Paris, France|Paris]], called it "this foreign doctrine", indicating its association with England). St [[Thomas Aquinas]] expressed questions about the subject, but said that he would accept the determination of the Church. These famous churchmen had problems with the doctrine due to their understanding of human conception. They did not believe that the soul was placed in the body at the moment of implantation in the womb. Aquinas and Bonaventure, for example, believed that Mary was completely free from sin, but that she was not given this grace at the instant of her conception.
The [[Oxford University|Oxford]] [[Franciscan]]s [[William of Ware]] and especially [[Beatification|Blessed]] [[John Duns Scotus]] defended the doctrine, despite the opposition of most scholarly opinion at the time. Scotus proposed a solution to the theological problems involved with reconciling the doctrine with that of universal redemption in Christ, by arguing that Mary's immaculate conception did not remove her from redemption by Christ, but rather was the result of a more perfect redemption given to her on account of her special role in history. Furthermore, Scotus said that Mary was redeemed ''in anticipation'' of Christ's death on the cross. This was similar to the way that the Church explained the Last Supper (since Catholic theology teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice of Calvary made present on the altar, and Christ did not die before the Last Supper). Scotus' defense of the immaculist thesis was summed up by one of his followers as ''potuit, decuit ergo fecit'' (God could do it, it was fitting that he did it, and so he did it). Following his defense of the thesis, students at Paris swore to defend the thesis, and the tradition grew of swearing to defend the doctrine with one's blood.
Popular opinion was firmly behind accepting this privilege for Mary, but such was the sensitivity of the issue and the authority of Aquinas, that it was not until 1854 that Pius IX, with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic [[Bishop]]s, pronounced the doctrine [[Papal infallibility|infallible]].
== Protestant and Eastern Orthodox opinion ==
The doctrine is generally not shared by either [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] or by [[Protestantism]].
Protestants generally reject the doctrine, because they do not consider the development of [[dogma]]tic [[theology]] to be authoritative apart from [[Biblical]] [[exegesis]], and the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception is not explicit in the [[Bible]]. It is accepted by some [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]], but is rejected by most in the [[Anglican Communion]]. In the [[Book of Common Prayer]], December 8 is a "lesser commemoration", whose observance is optional. However, members of the [[Society of Mary (Anglican)|Society of Mary]] are required to attend mass that day.
Orthodox Christians do believe that Mary was without sin for her entire life, but they do not share the Catholic Church's views on original sin. They note that [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] (d. [[430]]), whose works were not well known in Eastern Christianity until after the [[17th century]], has exerted considerable influence over the theology of sin that has generally taken root through the [[Holy See]], and since Eastern Orthodoxy does not share Rome's (or most Protestants') view of original sin, it considers unnecessary the doctrine that Mary would require purification prior to the Incarnation. Instead, Eastern Orthodox theologians suggest that the references among the Greek and Syrian Fathers to Mary's purity and sinlessness may refer not to an ''[[a priori]]'' state, but to her conduct after birth. Although this is not a [[dogma]] in the Orthodox Church, there is the universal belief that there was a pre-sanctification of Mary at the time of her conception, similar to the conception of Saint [[John the Baptist]]. However, there was no cleansing of original sin, since Orthodox Christians believe that that one cannot inherit original sin, or any sin for that matter; instead, 'original sin' in Orthodoxy refers to the general tendency towards sin and pain in the world, caused by the fall of Adam.
== Scriptural sources ==
In his Apostolic Constitution ''[http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P9INEFF.HTM Ineffabilis Deus]'' (December 8, 1854), which officially defined the Immaculate Conception as dogma for the Catholic Church, [[Pope Pius IX]] primarily appealed to the text of [[Genesis|Genesis]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__P5.HTM 3:15], where the serpent was told by God, "I will put enmity between you and the woman, between your seed and her seed." According to the Catholic understanding, this was a prophecy that foretold of a "woman" who would always be at enmity with the serpent — that is, a woman who would never be under the power of sin, nor in bondage to the serpent.
Some Catholic theologians have also found Scriptural evidence for the Immaculate Conception in the angel Gabriel's greeting to Mary at the Annunciation, recorded by Saint Luke in [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PWK.HTM 1:28]. The English translation, "Hail, Full of Grace," or "Hail, Favored One," is based on the Greek of [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PWK.HTM 1:28], &#935;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#949; &#954;&#949;&#967;&#945;&#961;&#953;&#964;&#969;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#951; ''Chaire kecharitomene''. The latter word has the verb "to grace" as its root, and the Greek syntax indicates that the action of the verb was passive, fully completed in the past, with results continuing into the future. Put another way, it means that the subject (Mary) was graced fully and completely at some time in the past, and continued in that fully graced state.
The [[Church Fathers]], almost from the beginning of Church History, found further Scriptural evidence by comparing the figure of Eve to the figure of Mary. St. [[Justin Martyr]] said that Mary was a kind of New Eve, "in order that the disobedience which proceeded from the serpent might receive its destruction in the same manner in which it derived its origin." (''Dialogue with |
Edited by Torsten Krude, CUP 2003: The Darwin Lectures for 2003, including one by Sir Aaron Klug on Rosalind Franklin's involvement in the determination of the structure of DNA.
* Wilkins, Maurice, ''The Third Man of the Double Helix: The Autobiography of Maurice Wilkins'' ISBN 0198606656.
== Francis Crick Archive ==
Papers by Francis Crick are available for study at the [[Wellcome Trust#Libraries and public facilities|Wellcome Library]]’s Archives and Manuscripts department. These papers include those dealing with Crick’s career after he moved to the Salk Institute in San Diego. [http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/geneticsandsociety/hg13f012.html The Crick papers]
== See also ==
* [[Neural correlate of consciousness]]
* [[Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/beautifulminds/homepage.html The British Library: "Beautiful Minds" exhibition]
*[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/beautifulminds/sounds.html#compton Listen to Francis Crick]
*[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1962/press.html Presentation speech] at the Nobel Prize ceremony in 1962.
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568380/Francis_Crick.html Francis Crick] - MSN Encarta
*[http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/DNA50/reviews.html Reading list] for discovery of DNA story from the National Centre for Biotechnology Education.
*[http://www.packer34.freeserve.co.uk/rememberingfranciscrickacelebration.htm Online guide] to the life and work of Francis Crick.
*[http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/crick/index.html Francis Crick papers]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/crickwatson1.shtml Listen] to Francis Crick and James Watson talking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974.
*''[http://www.artboy.info/strange/listen.html The Quest for Consciousness]'' select: SA#53 - ''The Quest for Consciousness - 65 minutes'' - a conversation on Consciousness with neurobiologist Francis Crick of the Salk Institute and neurobiologist Christof Koch from Caltech.
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,60-1195794_1,00.html Obituary] in "The Times" (London) of Francis Crick, [[30 July]] [[2004]].
*[http://www.biochemist.org/bio/02605/0080/026050080.pdf Francis Crick Obituary] ''The Biochemist''
*[http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020419 Obituary: Francis Crick's Legacy for Neuroscience] by Ralph M. Siegel and Edward M. Callaway
*[http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/watsoncrick.html 100 Scientists and Thinkers: James Watson and Francis Crick] from [[Time (magazine)|TIME magazine]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3937475.stm BBC News: Francis Crick dies aged 88]
*[http://www2.mrc-lmb.cam.ac.uk/archive/Crick62.html Francis Crick: Nobel Prize 1962, Physiology or Medicine]
*[http://www.artboy.info/strange/listen.html An interview with Francis Crick and Christof Koch, 2001]
*[http://www.steynonline.com/index2.cfm?edit_id=29 Mark Steyn's obituary for F. Crick]
*[http://www.salk.edu/news/releases/details.php?id=103 Salk Institute Press Release] on the death of Francis Crick.
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5549247 Associated press story on the death of Francis Crick]
*[http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/ppro/dna/scientists.html King's College London team] of - in alphabetical order - Franklin, Gosling, Randall, Stokes, Wilkins, and Wilson.
*http://www.intuition.org/txt/crick2.htm for Crick's comments on L.S.D.
[[Category:1916 births|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:2004 deaths|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:Atheists|Crick]]
[[Category:British neuroscientists|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:British scientists|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:Consciousness studies|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:Geneticists|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:Genital integrity activists|Crick, Francis]]]
[[Category:Humanists|Crick, Francis]]]
[[Category:Molecular biologists|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:Natives of Northamptonshire|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:Old Millhillians|Crick, Francis]]
[[Category:UCL alumni|Crick, Francis]]
[[af:Francis Crick]]
[[ca:Francis Crick]]
[[da:Francis Harry Compton Crick]]
[[de:Francis Crick]]
[[es:Francis Crick]]
[[eo:Francis CRICK]]
[[fr:Francis Crick]]
[[ko:프랜시스 크릭]]
[[id:Francis Crick]]
[[it:Francis Crick]]
[[he:פרנסיס קריק]]
[[nl:Francis Crick]]
[[ja:フランシス・クリック]]
[[no:Francis Crick]]
[[pl:Francis Crick]]
[[pt:Francis Crick]]
[[sk:Francis Harry Compton Crick]]
[[sv:Francis Crick]]
[[zh:佛朗西斯·克里克]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francis van Aarssens</title>
<id>11463</id>
<revision>
<id>32458175</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-23T07:00:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dtremenak</username>
<id>102010</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages maintenance|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Francis van Aarssens''' ([[1572]]-[[1641]]) was a
[[diplomacy|diplomat]] and statesman of the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]].
His talents commended him to the notice of Advocate [[Johan van Oldenbarnevelt]], who sent him, at the age of 26 years,
as a diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of
[[France]]. He took a considerable part in the negotiations of
the [[twelve years' truce]] in [[1606]].
His conduct of affairs having displeased the French king, he was recalled from his post by Oldenbarneveldt in [[1616]]. Such was the hatred he henceforth conceived against his former benefactor, that he did his very utmost to effect Oldebarneveldt's ruin. He was one of the packed court of judges who in [[1619]] condemned the aged statesman to death. For his share in this judicial murder a deep stain rests on the memory of Aarssens.
He afterwards became the confidential counsellor of [[Maurice of Nassau|Maurice, Prince of Orange]], and afterwards of [[Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange]], in their conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic. He was sent on special embassies to [[Venice]], [[Germany]] and [[England]], and displayed so much diplomatic skill and finesse that [[Cardinal Richelieu]] ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aarssens, Francis van}}
{{1911}}
{{Netherlands-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1572 births|Aarssens, Francis van]]
[[Category:1641 deaths|Aarssens, Francis van]]
[[Category:Diplomats|Aarssens, Francis van]]
[[Category:Dutch theologians|Aarssens, Francis van]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frigate</title>
<id>11464</id>
<revision>
<id>42121008</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:30:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mihalyia</username>
<id>459803</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Rating system of the Royal Navy}}
[[Image:La_Boudeuse.jpg|thumb|right|''Boudeuse'', of [[Louis Antoine de Bougainville]]]]
[[Image:La_Rieuse.jpg|thumb|right|''La Rieuse'', a 30-gun [[oar]] frigate (1674-1698)]]
'''Frigate''' is a name which has been used for several distinct types of [[warship]]s at different times. It has referred to a variety of ship roles and sizes. In the age of sail, it referred to a ship smaller and faster than a battleship, used for patrolling and escort work rather than fighting fleet actions. In modern military terminology, the definition of a frigate is a warship intended to protect other warships and [[merchant marine]] ships and as [[anti-submarine warfare]] (ASW) combatants for amphibious expeditionary forces, underway replenishment groups, and merchant [[convoy]]s. However, many ships known as frigates have bordered on, or entirely been more similar to a different class of ship including everything ranging from a [[destroyer]] to a [[Cruiser (warship)|cruiser]] or even a [[battleship]]. The variation coming from a number of sources such as the era, the particulars of battlefield roles, and the standards of a given country.
===Origin===
The term "frigate" was used in the seventeenth century, normally indicating a ship that was faster than usual.
Perhaps one of England's greatest shipwrights, [[Phineas Pett|Sir Phineas Pett]] ([[1570]]-[[1647]]), lived for ten years after the construction of one of the world's greatest ships, the [[HMS Sovereign of the Seas|''Sovereign of the Seas'']] was built and launched by his son Peter. Phineas Pett's innovations were perhaps to be finally realized in the designs of his son Peter Pett for the ''Frigate'' a design of English shipwrightry worthy of [[Mathew Baker]]. Sir Peter Pett was almost as distinguished as his father. He was the builder of the first frigate, ''Constant Warwick''.
[[William Symonds|Sir William Symonds]] said of this vessel: ''"She was an incomparable sailer, remarkable for her sharpness and the fineness of her lines; and many were built like her."'' Pett ''"introduced convex lines on the immersed part of the hull, with the [[studding sail|studding]] and sprit sails; and, in short, he appears to have fully deserved his character of being the best ship architect of his time."''
This kind of 17th-century frigate later developed into the two-decked [[ship of the line]] of 60-70 guns.
The classic sailing frigate as we know it from the Napoleonic wars can be traced back to French developments in the second quarter of the 18th century. These ships were [[full rigged]] and carried all their main guns on a single gun deck, what had used to be the upper gun deck on similarly-sized two-decked ships earlier. The lower 'gun' deck now carried no armament and functioned as an [[orlop deck]] where the crew lived, and was in fact placed below the waterline of the new frigates. The ne |
ing of [[April 20]] [[1879]], Alexander II was walking towards the Square of the Guards Staff and faced Alexander Soloviev, a 33 year-old former student. Having seen a revolver in his hands, the Tsar ran away; Soloviev fired five times but missed. He was sentenced to death and hanged on [[May 28]]. [[Image:Sankt Petersburg Auferstehungskirche 2005 d.jpg|thumb|150px|left|The [[Church of the Savior on Blood]] commemorates the spot where Alexander was assassinated.]]
The student acted on his own, but other revolutionaries were keen to kill Alexander. In December [[1879]], the [[Narodnaya Volya]] (People's Will), a radical revolutionary group which hoped to ignite a social revolution, organised an explosion on the railway from [[Livadia]] to [[Moscow]], but they missed the Tsar's train. Subsequently, on the evening of [[February 5]], [[1880]] the same revolutionaries set off a charge under the dining room of the [[Winter Palace]], right in the resting room of the Guards a story below. The Tsar was not harmed as he was late to the supper, and the explosion did not destroy the dining room either, although the floor was heavily damaged.
==Assassination==
After the last assassination attempt, [[Michael Tarielovich, Count Loris-Melikov|Count Loris-Melikov]] was appointed the head of the Supreme Executive Commission and given extraordinary powers to fight the revolutionaries. Loris-Melikov's proposals called for some form of parliamentary body, and the Emperor seemed to agree; these plans were never realized as on [[March 13]] ([[March 1]] [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]]), [[1881]] Alexander fell victim to a [[Nihilist]] plot. While driving on one of the central streets of [[St. Petersburg]], near the [[Winter Palace]], he was mortally wounded by the explosion of hand-made grenades and died a few hours afterwards. [[Nikolai Kibalchich]], [[Sophia Perovskaya]], [[Nikolai Rysakov]], [[Timofei Mikhailov]], and [[Andrei Zhelyabov]] were all arrested and sentenced to death. [[Gesya Gelfman]] was sent to [[Siberia]]. The Tsar was killed by the Pole [[Ignacy Hryniewiecki]] (1856-1881), who died during the attack. Hryniewiecki was a Pole from (Bobrujsk, now [[Babruysk]], [[Belarus]]). The Russians had instigated a complete ban on the [[Polish language]] in public places, schools, and offices in a process now known as [[Russification]]. This Russification scheme, it is theorized, led to Hryniewiecki's resolve to assassinate Alexander II.
<br style="clear:both;">
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Russian monarchs|Emperor of Russia]]|before=[[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]]|after=[[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]]|years=[[March 2]], [[1855]]&ndash;[[March 13]], [[1881]]}}
{{end box}}
-------
{{1911}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20050106.shtml The Assassination of Tsar Alexander II] from [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)]]
[http://www.emich.edu/public/history/moss/ Alexander II and His Times]
{{Commons|Alexander II of Russia}}
[[Category:1818 births|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:1881 deaths|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:Assassinated people|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:Crimean War people|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Murder victims|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:Murdered Russian monarchs]]
[[Category:Muscovites]]
[[Category:Russian emperors]]
[[Category:Rulers of Finland|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[ca:Alexandre II de Rússia]]
[[da:Alexander 2. af Rusland]]
[[de:Alexander II. (Russland)]]
[[eo:Aleksandro la 2-a (Rusio)]]
[[es:Alejandro II de Rusia]]
[[et:Aleksander II (Venemaa)]]
[[fi:Aleksanteri II (Venäjä)]]
[[fr:Alexandre II de Russie]]
[[gl:Alexandre II de Rusia]]
[[he:אלכסנדר השני קיסר רוסיה]]
[[io:Aleksandr 2ma]]
[[it:Alessandro II di Russia]]
[[ja:アレクサンドル2世 (ロシア皇帝)]]
[[nl:Alexander II van Rusland]]
[[pl:Aleksander II (car rosyjski)]]
[[pt:Alexandre II da Rússia]]
[[ru:Александр II]]
[[sv:Alexander II av Ryssland]]
[[uk:Олександр ІІ (російський імператор)]]
[[zh:亚历山大二世 (俄国)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander III of Russia</title>
<id>1592</id>
<revision>
<id>41903215</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:22:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.146.174.75</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Principles */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander (Aleksandr) III ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Александр III Александрович)''' (b.[[March 10]], [[1845]] &ndash; d.[[November 1]], [[1894]]) reigned as [[Tsar|Emperor]] of [[Russia]] from [[March 14]], [[1881]] until his death.
<!--Ivan Kramskoi (1837-1887) Portrait of Alexander III (1845-1894), the Russian Tsar. 1886 -->
[[Image:Kramskoy Alexander III.jpg|thumb|Painting of Tsar Alexander III (1886), by [[Ivan Kramskoi]] (1837-1887), original, 41 x 36 in.]]
==Principles==
Alexander was born in [[Saint Petersburg]], the second son of [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] and [[Marie of Hesse and by Rhine]]. In natural disposition he bore little resemblance to his soft-hearted, liberal minded father, and still less to his refined, philosophic, sentimental, chivalrous, yet cunning grand-uncle [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]], who coveted the title of "the first gentleman of [[Europe]]." While an enthusiastic amateur musician and patron of the ballet, he was seen as lacking exquisite refinement and studied elegance. Indeed, he rather gloried in the idea of being of the same rough texture as the great majority of his subjects. His straightforward, abrupt manner savoured sometimes of gruffness, while his direct, unadorned method of expressing himself harmonized well with his rough-hewn, immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements. His education was not fitted to soften these peculiarities. He is also noted for his immense physical strength.
==Rise to Power==
During the first twenty years of his life he had no prospect of succeeding to the throne, because he had an elder brother, Nicholas, who seemed of a fairly robust constitution. Even when this elder brother showed symptoms of delicate health it was believed that his life might be indefinitely prolonged by proper care and attention, and precautions had been taken for the succession by his betrothal with the beautiful princess [[Dagmar of Denmark]]. Under these circumstances the greatest solicitude was devoted to the education of Nicholas as csarevich, whereas Alexander received only the perfunctory and inadequate training of an ordinary grand-duke of that period, which did not go much beyond and secondary instruction, practical acquaintance with French, English and German, and a certain amount of military drill.
==Education==
When he became heir-apparent by the death of his elder brother in 1865, he began to study the principles of law and administration under [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], who was then a professor of civil law at [[Moscow State University]] and who later (in 1880) became [[chief procurator]] of the [[Holy Synod]]. Pobedonostsev awakened in his pupil very little love for abstract studies or prolonged intellectual exertion, but he influenced the character of Alexander's reign by instilling into the young man's mind the belief that zeal for [[Russian Orthodoxy|Russian Orthodox]] thought was an essential factor of Russian patriotism and was to be specially cultivated by every right-minded tsar.
On his deathbed, his elder brother had expressed a wish that his affianced bride, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, should marry his successor, and this wish was realized on [[November 9]] [[1866]]. The union proved a most happy one and remained unclouded to the end. During those years when he was heir-apparent&mdash;[[1865]] to [[1881]]&mdash;he did not play a prominent part in public affairs, but he allowed it to become known that he had certain ideas of his own which did not coincide with the principles of the existing government.
==Foreign Relations== [[Image:Paris(Seine).JPG|thumb|275px|Pont Alexandre III in [[Paris]] commemorates the conclusion of the [[Franco-Russian Alliance]].]]
He deprecated what he considered undue foreign influence in general, and German influence in particular, and he longed to see the adoption of genuine national principles in all spheres of official activity, with a view to realizing his ideal of a homogeneous Russia&mdash;homogeneous in language, administration and religion. With such ideas and aspirations he could hardly remain permanently in cordial agreement with his father, who, though a good patriot according to his lights, had strong German sympathies, often used the German language in his private relations, occasionally ridiculed the exaggerations and eccentricities of the Slavophiles and based his foreign policy on the Prussian alliance.
The antagonism first appeared publicly during the [[Franco-Prussian War]], when the tsar supported the cabinet of [[Berlin]] and the tsarevich did not conceal his sympathies with the French. It reappeared in an intermittent fashion during the years 1875&ndash;1879, when the Eastern question produced so much excitement in all ranks of Russian society. At first the tsarevich was more Slavophile than the government, but his [[phlegmatic]] nature preserved him from many of the exaggerations indulged in by others, and any of the prevalent popular illusions he may have imbibed were soon dispelled by personal observation in [[Bulgaria]], where he commanded the left wing of the invading army.
The [[Bulgaria|Bulgarians]] had been represented in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] and [[Moscow]] not only as martyrs but also as saints, and a very little personal experience sufficed to correct the error. Like most of his brother officers he could not feel any very great affection for the "little brothers", as the Bulgarians |
December 20, 1979 (signed into law by President [[Jimmy Carter]] on January 7, 1980), prodded by Chrysler workers and dealers in every congressional district who feared the loss of their livelihoods. With such help and a few innovative cars (such as the [[Chrysler K platform|K-car]] platform), especially the invention of the [[minivan]] concept, a market where Chrysler brands are still important, Chrysler avoided bankruptcy and slowly fought its way back up. By the early 1980s, the loans were being repaid at a brisk pace and new models based on the K-car platform were selling well. A [[joint venture]] with Mitsubishi called [[Diamond Star Motors]] strengthened the company's hand in the small-car market. The acquisition of [[American Motors|AMC]] by Chrysler in 1987, mostly for its [[Jeep]] brand, bolstered the firm further, although Chrysler was still the weakest of the Big Three American auto makers.
In the early 1990s, Chrysler made its first tentative steps back into Europe, setting up car production in [[Austria]], and beginning right-hand drive manufacture of certain Jeep models in a 1993 return to the [[UK]] market. The continuing popularity of Jeep, bold new models for the domestic market such as the [[Dodge Ram]] pickup, [[Dodge Viper]] sports car, and [[Plymouth Prowler]] hot rod, and new "cab forward" [[front wheel drive]] sedans put the company in a strong position as the decade waned.
===Daimler-Benz merger===
{{npov}}
Chrysler merged in 1998 with [[Daimler-Benz]] to form DaimlerChrysler AG. This was initially touted as a ''merger of equals'', but within a couple of years the truth was evident; it was effectively a buyout of Chrysler by Daimler-Benz, with the latter very much the dominant partner. As if on cue, the company went into another of its financial tailspins soon after the merger, greatly depressing the stock price of the merged firm and causing serious alarm at headquarters in Germany, which sent new CEO Jurgen Schremp to take charge. The Plymouth brand was phased out in 2001 and plans for cost-cutting by sharing of platforms and components began. The strongly Mercedes-influenced [[Chrysler Crossfire]] was one of the first results of this program. A return to [[rear wheel drive]] was announced, and in 2004, a new [[Chrysler 300]] using this technology and a new Hemi V8 appeared and became a solid hit. Ironically, by most standards, Dodge, Jeep, and Chrysler vehicles have surpassed the parent Mercedes in quality. Financial performance began to improve somewhat, with Chrysler now providing the lion's share of DCX profits, but the long-standing partnership with Mitsubishi appeared to be unraveling as DaimlerChrysler divested its stake in that firm.
On [[April 7]], [[2005]], a conclusion was announced by U.S. District Judge Joseph Farnan Jr. presiding over a bench trial in [[Wilmington, Delaware]] between Kirk Kerkorian and DaimlerChrysler AG regarding allegations that [[Jürgen Schrempp]] of Daimler Benz AG, prior to the 1998 merger, lied and manipulated the Security Exchange Commission and Chrysler Corporation's shareholders (the largest of which was Kirk Kerkorian's Tracinda Corporation) by touting the 1998 merger as a merger of equals, and not an outright acquisition. The judge was found to be in favor of DaimlerChrysler's position by rejecting Kerkorian's case. However, another case (based on the same merit) was settled in 2003 for $300 million to other shareholders. The Kerkorian case called for many more causes of action that undoubtedly needed to be carefully dealt with and took over one year to decide on.
==Logos==
[[Image:Logo pentastar.gif|right|Pentastar]]
The design shown at the top of the page is an adaptation of the original winged logo which Chrysler used on its cars at its inception in 1925. The logo was revived for the Chrysler division in the mid-1990s, and was surrounded by a pair of silver wings after the Daimler-Benz merger in 1998.
In 1963, the company had switched over to a star design which became known as the '''Pentastar''' (right) and was extensively used on dealer signage, advertisements, and promotional brochures. Contrary to popular belief, it was not designed to symbolize the five divisions of the corporation at the time, Plymouth, Dodge, Chrysler, Imperial and Dodge Truck. By 1963 there were only two auto divisions in the United States, Chrysler-Plymouth and Dodge. As well there were over a dozen other divisions in the Chrysler Corporation family, and management were after a symbol that all divisions could use.
Then Chrysler head Lynn Townsend was looking for a symbol that could be used by all divisions, on packaging, stationery, signage, advertising, etc. He wanted something that would be universally recognizable as "Chrysler" to anyone who saw it, from any perspective, from any culture. Chrysler's trademark symbol, the pentastar, was simple and easily recognizable from any perspective, even in motion on revolving signs. The symbol also facilitated Chrysler's expansion in the international market by removing the need to translate any text that is commonly used on logos.
Thus all divisions of Chrysler adopted the Pentastar. All car brands (Valiant, Plymouth, Dodge, Chrysler, Imperial, Hillman, Humber, Sunbeam, Singer, Simca), truck brands (Fargo, DeSoto, Dodge, Commer, Karrier), and all the other Chrysler divisions (air conditioning systems, heating, industrial engines, marine engines, outboard motors, boats, transmissions, [[four wheel drive]] systems, powdered metal products, adhesives, chemical products, plastics, electronics, tanks, missiles) and services (leasing and finance) were identified by the Pentastar. It united the firm's various products and services in the public's eye as no other auto firm has done.
The Pentastar appeared consistently but inconspicuously on the lower passenger-side fender of all Chrysler products, including foreign brands from 1964-71. It was placed on the passenger-side fender so it could be viewed by passers-by, a subtle method of getting the symbol ingrained in the public's mind. A nameplate has to be read, but a symbol is recognizable even to the illiterate. Thus North American and French cars had the Pentastar on the right fender and British on the left. The practice was revived in the 1990's. Beginning in 1981, the Pentastar replaced individual logos that had been used by Plymouth, Dodge and Chrysler and had in some cases identfied individual models, such as the [[Chrysler New Yorker]] in uses such as hood ornaments and decklid badges.
By 1993, Chrysler started to phase out the Pentastar, with Dodge getting its own "Ram" logo, and by 1995, Chrysler revived the rosette symbol it had used prior to the Pentastar; Plymouth was given a new sailboat logo. The Pentastar's last badging appearance was on the [[steering wheel]] and keys of the [[Chrysler minivans]] produced from 1996 through 2000.
Currently the only remaining traces of this motif are a large, star-shaped window at DaimlerChrysler's American headquarters in [[Auburn Hills, Michigan]], and '''Pentastar Aviation''', a former DaimlerChrysler subsidiary which reverted to its original name after being purchased, ironically, by a member of the Ford family. It is also likely that many dealerships still have signage and other traces still visually apparent to the Pentastar. Today, glass on Chrysler Group cars and trucks still have the Pentastar on them, however, its days appear to be numbered.
==See also==
* [[List of Chrysler vehicles]]
* [[List of automobile manufacturers]]
==External links==
* [http://www.chrysler.com/ Chrysler Official brand site]
* [http://chryslergroup.daimlerchrysler.com/ Chrysler Group corporate Official site]
* [http://www.daimlerchrysler.com/ DaimlerChrysler Official site]
* [http://www.chryslerheritage.com/pg500.htm History @ the Walter P. Chrysler Museum]
* [http://www.stockmopar.com Stock Mopar]
* [http://vintagecars.about.com/cs/americanclassics/a/dc_airflow.htm Chrysler Airflow article]
* [http://www.allpar.com/ Allpar.com ~ The web's best Mopar enthusiast site, devoted to all Chrysler products new and old]
* [http://www.histomobile.com/histomob/presmark.asp?chat=257&lan=2 An account of Chrysler's adventures in the European market]
* [http://pentastar.free.fr/ Site for Simca/Chrysler France products]
* [http://www.chrysler.com/design/vehicle_design/ Design gallery page at Chrysler.com]
* [http://www.1962to1965mopar.ornocar.com/pentastar.html Birth of the Pentastar]
* [http://www.thecarconnection.com/index.asp?n=156,175&sid=175&article=1215 End of the Pentastar]
* [http://www.thehemi.com/ Chrysler's Infamous Hemi]
* [http://chrysler.naszapaczka.com/ Chrysler Gallery]
==References==
"Why Chrysler Changed Its Corporate Identity". ''Ward's Quarterly'', Powers & Company, Inc. Detroit, Michigan, Winter, 1965.
Chrysler's foray into the Japanese market — its challenges and successes — is documented in [[Terry Sanders]]' film ''The Japan Project: Made in America''.
{{DaimlerChrysler}}
[[Category:1925 establishments]]
[[Category:Car companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Chrysler]]
[[Category:DaimlerChrysler]]
[[de:Chrysler Corporation]]
[[fr:Chrysler]]
[[hr:Chrysler]]
[[ja:クライスラー]]
[[nl:Chrysler]]
[[no:Chrysler]]
[[pl:Chrysler]]
[[sv:Chrysler Corporation]]
[[zh:克莱斯勒汽车公司]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>City of London</title>
<id>6883</id>
<revision>
<id>41616225</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:16:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For London as a whole, see the main article '''[[London]]'''.''
: ''For wider coverage, visit the [[Portal:London|'''London Portal''']].''
{{ Infobox London Borough |
name = City of London |
short_name |
ing technology and the environment. Since his death at the age of 49, he is still widely revered in [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]] [[fandom]] circles.
==Early life==
<!-- Please leave this section heading as is, for the chronology of events. Adams's own family (wife and daughter) are discussed later. -->
Douglas Adams was born to Janet (Donovan) Adams (now Janet Thrift) and Christopher Douglas Adams in [[Cambridge]], [[England]]. His parents had one other child together, Susan, who was born in March 1955. His parents separated and divorced in 1957, and Douglas, Susan, and Janet moved in with Janet's parents, the Donovans, in [[Brentwood, Essex]]. Douglas's grandmother kept her house as an official [[Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals|RSPCA]] refuge for hurt animals, which "exacerbated young Douglas's hayfever and asthma." {{ref|2005Webb01}}
Christopher Adams remarried in July 1960, to Mary Judith Stewart (born Judith Robertson). From this marriage, Douglas Adams had a half-sister, Heather. Janet remarried in 1964, to a veterinarian, Ron Thrift, providing two more half-siblings to Douglas: Jane and James Thrift.
==Education and early works==
Adams first attended Primrose Hill Primary School in [[Brentwood, Essex]]. He took the exams and interviewed for [[Brentwood School (Brentwood, England)|Brentwood School]] at age six, and attended the Preparatory School from 1959 to 1964, then the main school till 1970. He was in the top stream, and specialised in the arts in the sixth form, after which he stayed an extra term in a special seventh form class, customary in the school for those preparing for Oxbridge entrance exams.
While at the prep school, he had an English class, taught by Frank Halford, where Halford awarded Adams the only ten out of ten of his entire teaching career for a creative writing exercise. Adams remembered this for the rest of his life, especially when facing writer's block. Some of Adams's earliest writing was published at the school, such as a report on the school's Photography Club in ''The Brentwoodian'' (in 1962) or spoof reviews in the school magazine ''Broadsheet'' (edited by [[Paul Neil Milne Johnstone]]). Adams also had a letter and short story published nationally in the UK in the boys' magazine ''The Eagle'' in 1965. He met [[Griff Rhys Jones]], who was in the year below, at the school, and was in the same class as "Stuckist" artist [[Charles Thomson (artist)|Charles Thomson]]; all three appeared together in a production of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar in 1968. He was six feet tall (1.83 m) by the time he was 12, and he stopped growing only at 6'5" (1.96 m).
On the strength of a bravura essay on religious poetry that mixed the [[Beatles]] with [[William Blake]], he was awarded a place at [[St John's College, Cambridge|St John's College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] to read [[English literature|English]], entering in 1971. {{ref|ODNB}} Adams attempted early on to get into the [[Footlights]] Dramatic Club, with which several other names in British Comedy had been affiliated. He was, however, turned down, and started to write and perform in revues with Will Adams (no relation) and [[Martin Smith]], forming a group called "Adams-Smith-Adams." Later, on another attempt to join Footlights, Douglas Adams was encouraged by [[Simon Jones (actor)|Simon Jones]] and Adams found himself working with Rhys Jones, among others. In 1974, Adams graduated with a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] in [[English literature]].
Some of his early work appeared on [[BBC2]] (television) in 1974, in an edited version of the ''Footlights Revue'' from Cambridge, that year. A version of the same revue performed live in [[London]]'s [[West End of London|West End]] led to Adams being "discovered" by [[Monty Python]]'s [[Graham Chapman]]. The two formed a brief writing partnership, and Adams earned a writing credit in one episode (episode 45: "Party Political Broadcast on Behalf of the Liberal Party") of ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''. In the sketch, a man who had been stabbed by a nurse arrives at his doctor's office bleeding profusely from the stomach, when the doctor makes him fill out numerous senseless forms before he can administer treatment (a joke he later incorporated into the [[Vogon]]s' obsession with paperwork). Adams also contributed to a sketch on the album for ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]''.
[[Image:DNA in Monty Python.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Douglas Adams in his first ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus|Monty Python]]'' appearance, in full surgeon's garb in episode 42.]]
Douglas also had two "blink and you miss them" appearances in the fourth series of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''. At the beginning of Episode 42, "The Light Entertainment War," Adams is in a surgeon's mask (as Dr. Emile Koning, according to the on-screen captions), pulling on gloves, while [[Michael Palin]] narrates a sketch that introduces one person after another, and never actually gets started. At the beginning of Episode 44, "Mr Neutron," Adams is dressed in a "pepperpot" outfit and loads a missile onto a cart, driven by [[Terry Jones]], who is calling out for scrap metal ("Any old iron..."). The two episodes were first broadcast in November 1974. Adams and Chapman also attempted a few non-Python projects, including ''[[Out of the Trees]].''
Some of Adams's early radio work included sketches for ''[[The Burkiss Way]]'' in 1977 and ''[[The News Huddlines]]''. He also co-wrote, again with Graham Chapman, the [[20 February]] [[1977]] episode of Doctor on the Go, a sequel to the [[Doctor in the House (TV series)|Doctor in the House]] television comedy series.
As Adams had difficulty selling his jokes and stories, he took a series of "odd jobs" in order to have some income. A biography from an early edition of one of the ''HHGG'' novels provides the following description of his early career:
:After graduation he spent several years contributing material to radio and television shows as well as writing, performing, and sometimes directing [[revue| stage revues]] in [[London]], Cambridge and at the [[Edinburgh Fringe]]. He has also worked at various times as a [[hospital]] porter, [[barn]] builder, [[chicken]] shed cleaner, [[bodyguard]], [[radio producer]] and [[script editor]] of ''[[Doctor Who]]''.
Adams held the job as a bodyguard in the mid-1970s. He was employed by an Arab family, which had made its fortune in oil (and were from [[Qatar]], according to the ''Encyclopedia Britannica''). {{ref|EB_Adams}} He had a couple of favourite anecdotes about the job: one story related that the family once ordered one of everything from a hotel's menu, tried all of the dishes, and sent out for hamburgers. Another story had to do with a prostitute, sent to the floor Adams was guarding one evening. They acknowledged each other as she entered, and an hour later, when she left, she is said to have remarked, "At least you can read while you're on the job." {{ref|Webb2005_93}}
[[Image:Remarkable Fidgety River Title.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Title card from the ''[[Doctor Snuggles]]'' episode "The Remarkable Fidgety River", written by Douglas Adams and [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]].]]
In 1979, Adams and [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]] wrote the scripts for two half-hour episodes of ''[[Doctor Snuggles]]'': "The Remarkable Fidgety River" and "The Great Disappearing Mystery" (episodes seven and twelve). John Lloyd was also co-author of two episodes from the original "Hitchhiker" radio series (Fit the Fifth and Fit the Sixth (a.k.a. Episodes Five and Six, ''see explanation below'')), as well as ''[[The Meaning of Liff]]'' and ''[[The Deeper Meaning of Liff]]''. Lloyd and Adams also collaborated on an SF movie comedy project based on ''[[The Guinness Book of World Records]]'', which would have starred [[John Cleese]] as the UN Secretary General, and had a race of aliens beating humans in athletic competitions, but the humans winning in all of the "absurd" record categories. This latter project never proceeded past a treatment.
After the first radio series of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide'' became successful, Adams was made a BBC radio producer, working on ''[[Week Ending]]'' and a pantomime called ''[[Black Cinderella Two Goes East]]''. He left the position after six months to become the script editor for [[Doctor Who]].
==''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''==
[[Image:H2G2 UK front cover.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Front cover, designed by [[Hipgnosis]], of the original UK paperback edition of the novel ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''.]]
''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' was a concept for a science-fiction comedy radio series pitched by Adams and radio producer [[Simon Brett]] to [[BBC Radio 4]] in 1977. Adams came up with an outline for a pilot episode, as well as a few other stories (reprinted in Neil Gaiman's book ''[[Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy Companion]]'') that could potentially be used in the series.
According to Adams, the idea for the title ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' occurred to him while he lay drunk in a field in [[Innsbruck]], [[Austria]] (though he joked that the [[BBC]] would instead claim it was [[Spain]] "because it's easier to spell" {{ref|Adams2003_10}}), gazing at the stars. He had been wandering the countryside while carrying a book called the ''[[Hitch-hiker's Guide to Europe]]'' when he ran into a town where, as he humorously describes, everyone was either "deaf" and "dumb" or only spoke languages he couldn't. After wandering around and drinking for a while, he went to sleep in the middle of a field and was inspired by his inability to communicate with the |
:Rotational symmetry]]
<!-- Interwiki links -->
[[ca:Moment angular]]
[[da:Impulsmoment]]
[[de:Drehimpuls]]
[[es:Momento angular]]
[[fr:Moment angulaire]]
[[ko:각운동량]]
[[id:Momentum sudut]]
[[it:Momento angolare]]
[[he:תנע זוויתי]]
[[hu:Impulzusmomentum]]
[[ms:Momentum sudut]]
[[nl:Impulsmoment]]
[[ja:角運動量]]
[[pl:Moment pędu]]
[[pt:Quantidade de movimento angular]]
[[ru:Момент импульса]]
[[sl:Vrtilna količina]]
[[sv:Rörelsemängdsmoment]]
[[vi:Mô men động lượng]]
[[uk:Момент імпульсу]]
[[zh:角动量]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Plum pudding model</title>
<id>2840</id>
<revision>
<id>39130898</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T22:30:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Plum_pudding_atom.svg|right|thumb|250x|A schematic representation of the plum pudding model of the atom.]]
In [[physics]], the '''Plum pudding model''' of the [[atom]] was proposed by [[J. J. Thomson]], the discoverer of the electron, before the discovery of the [[proton]] or [[neutron]]. In this model, the atom is composed of electrons surrounded by a soup of positive charge, like [[plum]]s surrounded by [[pudding]]. The electrons were thought to be positioned uniformly throughout the atom. Instead of a soup, the atom was also sometimes said to have had a cloud of positive charge. The model was disproved by [[Ernest Rutherford]]'s [[gold foil experiment]], when he discovered the nucleus of the atom, thus leading to the [[Rutherford model]] of the atom.
This model can be compared to a British treat called [[plum pudding]], hence the name. It is also known as the '''chocolate chip cookie model'''.
{{physics-stub}}
{{sci-hist-stub}}
[[Category:Foundational quantum physics]]
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
[[ar:نظرية بودينج]]
[[ca:Model atòmic de Thomson]]
[[de:Thomsonsches Atommodell]]
[[el:Ατομικό μοντέλο του σταφιδόψωμου]]
[[es:Modelo atómico de Thomson]]
[[he:מודל עוגת הצימוקים]]
[[hu:Thomson-féle atommodell]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atom/Bohr model</title>
<id>2842</id>
<revision>
<id>15901227</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T20:24:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Bohr model]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bohr model]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wave model</title>
<id>2843</id>
<revision>
<id>38559784</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T02:50:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Unint</username>
<id>531119</id>
</contributor>
<comment>category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Schrödinger equation]] {{R from alternate name}} {{R from ASCII}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atomic theory</title>
<id>2844</id>
<revision>
<id>41782475</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:40:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jagged 85</username>
<id>468111</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], '''atomic theory''' is a [[theory]] of the nature of [[matter]]. It states that all matter is composed of [[atom]]s. The [[philosophy|philosophical]] background of the atomic theory is called [[atomism]]. The theory applies to the common [[phases of matter]], namely [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]ses, as directly experienced on Earth. Strictly speaking, it is not the appropriate theory for [[Plasma (physics)|plasmas]] or [[neutron star]]s where unusual environments such as extremes of temperature or density prevent atoms from forming.
==Importance ==
Arguably, the atomic theory is one of the most important theories in the [[history of science]], with wide-ranging implications for both pure and applied [[science]]. The theory is largely credited to [[John Dalton]], an 18th- and [[19th century]] British chemist.
Modern [[chemistry]] (and [[biochemistry]]) is based upon the theory that all matter is made up of atoms of different [[chemical element|elements]], which cannot be [[transmutation|transmuted]] by chemical means. In turn, chemistry has allowed for the development of the [[pharmaceutical]] industry, the [[petrochemical]] industry, and many others.
Much of [[thermodynamics]] is understandable in terms of [[kinetic theory]], whereby gases are considered to be made up of either atoms or [[molecule]]s, behaving in accordance with [[Newton's laws of motion]]. This was, in turn, a large driving force behind the [[industrial revolution]].
Indeed, many [[macroscopic]] properties of matter are best understood in terms of atoms. Other examples include [[friction]], [[material science]] and [[semiconductor]] theory. The latter is particularly important, as it is the foundation of [[electronics]].
==History==
From the [[6th century BC]], [[Hindu]], [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]]a philosophers in [[ancient India]] developed the earliest atomic theories. The first philosopher who formulated ideas about the atom in a systematic manner was [[Kanada]] who lived in the 6th century BC. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana who also lived in the 6th century BC and was a contemporary of [[Gautama Buddha]], had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. Indian atomists believed that an atom could be one of upto six elements, with each element having upto 24 properties. They developed detailed theories of how atoms could combine, react, vibrate, move, and perform other actions, and had particularly elaborate theories of how atoms combine, which explains how atoms first combine in pairs, and then group into trios of pairs, which are the smallest visible units of matter. This parallels with the structure of modern atomic theory, in which pairs or triplets of supposedly fundamental quarks combine to create most typical forms of matter. They had also suggested the possibility of splitting an atom which, as we know today, is the source of atomic energy. (See [[Atomism#Indian atomism|Indian atomism]] for more details.)
The existence of atoms was also proposed in the [[5th century BC]] by the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] philosophers [[Leucippus]] and his pupil [[Democritus]], for which they were called ''atomists''. They argued that all observed phenomena can be in principle explained by the motion of unchanging particles called atoms. Atomism was taken as the basis for a rational world philosophy by the [[Epicureanism|Epicureans]]. The greatest extant Greek treatise on atomic theory and its implications for religion, human life, the existence of the soul, and death, is ''[[De Rerum Natura]]'' ("On the Nature of Things"), written in the [[1st century BC]] by [[Lucretius Carus]].
Since Lucretius' work contradicted Christian concepts of an immortal soul (if the soul is composed of atoms, it must perforce perish upon death; therefore there is no afterlife), it was actively suppressed by Christian writers. The concept thus disappeared in Europe until the end of the [[Middle Ages]].
During the Middle Ages (the [[Islamic Golden Age]]), [[Islam]]ic atomists developed atomic theories that represent a synthesis of both Greek and Indian atomism. (See [[Atomism|Islamic atomism]] for more details.) Older Greek and Indian ideas were further developed by Islamic atomists, along with new Islamic ideas, such as the possibility of there being particles smaller than an atom. As Islamic influence began spreading through Europe, the ideas of Islamic atomism, along with the older ideas of Greek and Indian atomism, spread throughout Europe by the end of the Middle Ages, where modern atomic theories began taking shape.
A modern atomic theory was developed by [[Rudjer Boscovich]] in the [[18th century]], and after that applied in chemistry by [[John Dalton]]. Boscovich based his theory mostly on [[classical mechanics]] ([[Isaac Newton|Newtonian]] mechanics) and published it in [[1758]]. The theory was further developed by [[Amedeo Avogadro]] and the developers of the [[kinetic theory of gases]] such as [[James Clerk Maxwell]] and [[Ludwig Boltzmann]].
In the late [[19th century]], a movement led by [[Ernst Mach]], [[Wilhelm Ostwald]], and [[Karl Pearson]] rejected the atomic theory on [[epistemology|epistemological]] grounds. The dispute was not finally settled until [[Jean Perrin]]'s experimental investigation of [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s mathematical theory of [[Brownian motion]] in the early [[20th century]].
Although Dalton was the founder of modern atomic theory, the evolution of atomic theory did not stop there. [[Ernest Rutherford]] was a major contributor to the atomic model because he proved that although Dalton and Thompson were partially correct there was still a flaw in both of their models of the atom in that the atom consisted mostly of space. In [[1911]], Rutherford's [[gold foil experiment]] established that the mass of the atom is concentrated in its nucleus, disproving the [[plum pudding model]] of the atom. Then in [[1915]], [[Niels Bohr]] further advanced atomic theory by developing the [[Bohr model of the atom]], which soon led to the development of the modern quantum atom. Up until [[1932]], the prevailing atomic theory had provided evidence for the electron orbiting a nucleus with protons, but it wasn't until that year that [[James Chadwick]] added the discovery of the neutron to atomic theory. The study of these [[subatomic particle]]s eventually lead to the current [[Standard Model]] of [[particle physics]].
==Dalton's Atomic Theory==
* [[Elements]] are made of tiny particles called [[atoms]].
* All [[atoms]] of a given [[element]] are identical.
|
ith filtered water and [[sugar]] (or [[Sugar substitute|artificial sweeteners]]) and fill it into cans and bottles, which the bottlers then sell and distribute to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants and food service distributors. The bottlers are normally also responsible for all advertisement and other sales initiatives within their areas.
The Coca-Cola Company owns minority shares in some of its largest franchisees, like [[Coca-Cola Enterprises]] and [[Coca-Cola FEMSA]], but almost half of the volume sold in the world is produced by fully independent bottlers.
As sugar and sweeteners are added by the bottler, the sweetness of the drink is said to differ in various parts of the world, in order to cater for local taste.
==Coca-Cola design==
[[Image:Cocacola bottle.jpg|thumb|The first version of the famous bottle went into production in 1916.]]
The famous Coca-Cola [[logotype]] is said to have largely been created by John Pemberton's business partner, [[Frank Mason Robinson]], in 1885. It was Robinson who came up with the name, and he also chose the logo’s distinctive cursive script. The typeface used, known as Spencerian script, was developed in the mid 19th century and was the dominant form of formal handwriting in the United States during that period.
The equally famous Coca-Cola bottle, called the "Contour bottle" within the company, was created in 1915 by a [[Sweden|Swedish]] former [[glassblower]], Alexander Samuelsson, who had emigrated to the US in the 1880's and was employed as a manager at the Root Glass Company in [[Terre Haute, Indiana]], one of Coca-Cola's bottle suppliers. According to legend, having received the request for a truly distinctive bottle from bottler Benjamin F. Thomas, Samuelsson decided to see if the shapes of the two ingredients behind the product name (coca and kola nuts) could serve as inspiration. He looked in [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] and was quickly forced to dismiss the idea. However, he continued to turn the pages and eventually he saw a picture of a [[cacao]] tree seed pod, with its bulging shape and distinctive grooves.
In November 1915, Root Glass Company patented the bottle, and in 1916 it went into production. It is said that the owner of Root Glass became one of Indiana's wealthiest men because of the bottle, while Samuelsson didn't get anything more than his usual salary.
==Coca-Cola's advertising==
[[Image:Cokebottles.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Specially designed [[Christmas]] labels featuring [[Santa Claus]] give a seasonal twist to these '''Coca-Cola''' bottles. The characteristic shape of the bottles is [[trademark]]ed. It was designed to be universally recognizable, even when broken.]]
Coca-Cola's advertising has had a significant impact on American culture, and is frequently credited with the "invention" of the modern image of [[Santa Claus]] as an old man in red-and-white garments; however, while the company did in fact start promoting this image in the 1930s in its winter advertising campaigns, it was already common before that.{{ref|Claus}} In the 1970s, a song from a Coca-Cola commercial called "[[I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing]]", produced by [[Roquel Billy Davis|Billy Davis]], became a popular hit single, but there is no evidence that it did anything to increase sales of the soft drink.
Coke's advertising has been rather pervasive, as one of Woodruff's stated goals was to ensure that everyone on Earth drank Coca-Cola as their preferred beverage. Advertising for Coke is now almost ubiquitous, especially in southern areas of [[North America]], such as [[Atlanta]], where Coke was invented.
Coca-Cola has gone through a number of different advertising slogans in its long history, including "The pause that refreshes", "I'd like to buy the world a Coke", and "Coke is it" (see [[Coca-Cola slogans]]).
====Recent history====
During the [[1980s]], [[Pepsi-Cola]] ran a series of television advertisements showing people participating in taste tests in which they expressed a preference for Pepsi over Coke. Coca-Cola ran ads to combat Pepsi's ads in an incident sometimes referred to as the ''[[cola wars]]''; one of Coke's ads compared the so-called [[Pepsi challenge]] to two [[chimpanzee]]s deciding which [[tennis ball]] was furrier. Thereafter, Coca-Cola regained its leadership in the market.
In an attempt to broaden its portfolio, Coca-Cola purchased [[Columbia Pictures]] in 1982. Columbia provided subtle publicity through Coke product placements in many of its films while under Coke's ownership. However, after a few early successes, Columbia began to under-perform, and was dropped by the company in [[1989]].
Coca-Cola has a policy of avoiding using children younger than the age of 12 in any of its advertising as a result of a lawsuit from the beginning of the 20th century that alleged that Coke's [[caffeine]] content was dangerous to children.{{citationneeded}} However, in recent times, this has not stopped the company from targeting young consumers.{{citationneeded}} In addition, it has not been disclosed in exact terms how safe Coke is for consumption by young children (or pregnant mothers).{{citationneeded}}
====Sport event sponsorships====
Coca-Cola was the first-ever [[sponsor]] of the Olympic games, at the 1928 games in [[Amsterdam]] and has been an Olympics sponsor ever since. This corporate sponsorship included the [[1996 Summer Olympics]] hosted in [[Atlanta]], which allowed Coca-Cola to spotlight its hometown. Since 1978 Coca-Cola is the main sponsor of [[ FIFA ]] and has sponsored each [[FIFA World Cup]] and other competitions organised by FIFA. In fact, one of the [[FIFA]] tournament trophy: [[FIFA World Youth Championship]] from [[Tunisia]] in 1977 to [[Malaysia ]] in 1997 was called "FIFA - Coca Cola Cup". In addition, Coca Cola sponsors the annual '''Coca-Cola 600''' for the NASCAR Nextel Cup auto racing series at Lowe's Motor Speedway in Charlotte, North Carolina. Coca-Cola has a long history of sports marketing relationships, which over the years have included Major League Baseball, the National Football League, National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League, as well as with many teams within those leagues. They have been a long-time sponsor of the [[Australian Football League]], at one stage holding naming rights to the Premiership season. They also sponsor the [[International Rules football]] test game played between [[Australia]] and [[Ireland]] every year as well as the [[Football League]] in [[England]].
==Criticisms==
[[Image:Camel-3.jpg|thumb|left|A camel drinks a Coke.]]
====Urban Legends and unusual uses====
The numerous urban legends about Coca-Cola have led the [[Urban Legends Reference Pages]] to devote a whole section of their site to "[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/ Cokelore]". One false legend claims that Coke was once green, or was accidentally carbonated when a clerk squirted syrup into the wrong glass.
Coca-Cola has been the target of [[urban legend|urban legends]] decrying the drink for its supposedly copious amounts of [[acid]] (its [[pH]] value of 2.5 is midway between [[vinegar]] and [[gastric acid]]), or the "life-threatening" effects of its [[carbonated water]]. These urban legends usually take the form of "fun facts" — for example, "[[highway patrol|highway trooper]]s use Coke to clean blood from highways after accidents," "somebody once died in a Coke-drinking competition," or "Coke can dissolve a tooth overnight." All of these claims are false. (While Highway Troopers do not use Coca-Cola for this purpose, it was proven on the television program [[MythBusters]] that Coca-Cola can be used quite well as a blood cleaning agent.) ''For more on acidity and health concerns, see the [[#Acidity|Acidity]] subsection below.''
One unusual use for Coke is as a rust-control substance—the [[phosphoric acid]] in coke converts [[iron oxide]] to [[iron phosphate]], and as such can be used as an initial treatment for corroded iron and steel objects being renovated, etc. The acid can be used to [[anodize]] [[titanium]] according to various websites.{{ref|Seeley}}
Contrary to popular belief, the coca leaf extract [[cocaine]] was never added to Coca-Cola, per se. Because cocaine is naturally present in untreated coca leaves, small amounts of cocaine were also present in the beverage. Today's Coca-Cola uses "spent" coca leaves, those that have been through a cocaine extraction process, to flavor the beverage. Since this process cannot extract the cocaine [[alkaloids]] at a molecular level, the drink still contains trace amounts of the stimulant{{ref|rielly}}.
====Adverse long-term [[health effects]]====
While many [[nutrition|nutritionists]] believe that "soft drinks and other calorie-rich, nutrient-poor food can fit into a good diet"{{fact}}, it is generally agreed that Coca-Cola and other soft drinks can be harmful if consumed to excess, particularly to young children whose soda consumption competes with, rather than complements, a balanced diet.{{ref|candy}} Studies have shown that regular soft drink users have a lower intake of [[calcium]] (which can contribute to [[osteoporosis]]), [[magnesium]], [[ascorbic acid]], [[riboflavin]], and [[vitamin A]].{{ref|Calcium}}
The drink has also aroused criticism for its use of [[caffeine]].{{ref|Caffeine}} The soft drink industry dismisses many of these criticisms as urban myths.{{ref|Rumors}}
There are some reports that Coca-Cola is addictive, although the veracity of these reports has yet to be established.{{fact}}
=====Acidity=====
Evidence has been presented in numerous cases against Coca-Cola since the 1920s that decisively proves that the drink is not more harmful than comparable soft drinks, or indeed acidic fruit juices like apple juice. Under normal conditions, its acidity causes no |
ophyly]]: there never was a "proto-Centum" or a "proto-Satem", but the sound changes spread by areal contact among already distinct post-PIE languages (say, during the 3rd millennium BC).
{| align="center"
|[[Image:IndoEuropeanTreeA.PNG|thumb|800px| Indo-European Language Tree]]
|}
===Suggested superfamilies===
Some linguists propose that Indo-European languages are part of a hypothetical [[Nostratic language]] superfamily, and attempt to relate Indo-European to other language families, such as [[South Caucasian languages]], [[Altaic languages]], [[Uralic languages]], [[Dravidian languages]], [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]. This theory is controversial, as is the similar [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]] theory of [[Joseph Greenberg]], and the [[Proto-Pontic]] of John Colarusso.
==History==
{| align=right
|[[Image:IE5500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|late [[Proto-Indo-European language]] in the [[Kurgan]] framework]]
|-
|[[Image:IE4500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|mid-[[3rd millennium BC]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE3500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|mid [[2nd millennium BC]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE2500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|distribution around [[250 BC]]]]
|-
|[[Image:IE1500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|post- [[Roman Empire]] and [[Migrations period]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE0500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|late medieval distribution (after [[Islam]]ic, [[Hungary|Hungarian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] expansions)]]
|}
''See also: [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], [[Historical linguistics]], [[Glottochronology]].''
The possibility of common origin for some of these languages was first proposed by [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]] in [[1647]], proposing their derivation from "[[Scythian]]". However, the suggestions of van Boxhorn did not become widely known and were not pursued. The hypothesis was again proposed by [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]], who noticed similarities between four of the oldest languages known in his time, [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]], and [[Persian language|Persian]]. Systematic comparison of these and other old languages conducted by [[Franz Bopp]] supported this theory, and Bopp's ''Comparative Grammar'', appearing between [[1833]] and [[1852]] is considered the starting point of [[Indo-European studies]] as an academic discipline.
The common ancestral (reconstructed) language is called [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). There is disagreement as to the original [[geography|geographic]] location (the so-called "[[Urheimat]]" or "original homeland") from where it originated. There are two main candidates today:
# the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Caspian Sea]] (see [[Kurgan]])
# [[Anatolia]] (see [[Colin Renfrew]]).
Proponents of the Kurgan hypothesis tend to date the proto-language to ca. [[4000 BC]], while proponents of Anatolian origin usually date it several millennia earlier, associating the spread of Indo-European languages with the Neolithic spread of farming (see [[Indo-Hittite]]).
===Kurgan hypothesis===
{{main|Kurgan hypothesis}}
The Kurgan hypothesis was originally suggested by [[Marija Gimbutas]] in the [[1950s]]. According to the Kurgan hypothesis, early PIE was spoken in the [[chalcolithic]] steppe cultures of the [[5th millennium BC]] between the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Volga]].
Currently, her theories do not hold credence with most reputable scholars. Ms. Gimbutas's so-called Kurgan peoples theory relies heavily on Kurgan burial mounds. Unfortunately, it is unproven that these so-called Kurgan peoples were ever members of the Indo-European culture-linguistic group. Precisely because '''known''' ancient Indo-European cultures, (i.e. the Indo-Aryans [people of India], the Greeks, Estruscan/Romans, and the ancient norse peoples), universally practiced '''cremation''' and '''not''' burial. This contradiction with known and recorded cultural practices of [[cremation]] amongst proven ancient, yet geographically diverse Indo-Europeans groups, casts doubt on the probability that the so-called Kurgan culture were Indo-European. With these caveats in mind, below is outlined Gimbutas' Kurgan hypothesis.
Timeline
*[[4500 BC|4500]]&ndash;4000: '''Early PIE'''. [[Sredny Stog culture|Sredny Stog]], [[Dnieper-Donets culture|Dnieper-Donets]] and [[Samara culture|Sarama]] cultures, [[domestication of the horse]].
*[[4000 BC|4000]]&ndash;3500: The [[Yamna culture]], the prototypical [[kurgan]] builders, emerges in the steppe, and the [[Maykop culture]] in the northern [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]]. [[Indo-Hittite]] models postulate the separation of [[Anatolian languages|Proto-Anatolian]] before this time.
*[[3500 BC|3500]]&ndash;3000: '''Middle PIE'''. The Yamna culture is at its peak, representing the classical reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European society]], with [[Ukrainian stone stela|stone idols]], early two-wheeled proto-chariots, predominantly practicing [[animal husbandry]], but also with permanent settlements and [[hillfort]]s, subsisting on agriculture and fishing, along rivers. Contact of the Yamna culture with late [[Neolithic Europe]] cultures results in the "kurganized" [[Globular Amphora culture|Globular Amphora]] and [[Baden culture|Baden]] cultures. The [[Maykop culture]] shows the earliest evidence of the beginning [[Bronze Age]], and bronze weapons and artefacts are introduced to Yamna territory. Probable early [[Satemization]].
*[[3000 BC|3000]]&ndash;2500: '''Late PIE'''. The Yamna culture extends over the entire Pontic steppe. The [[Corded Ware culture]] extends from the [[Rhine]] to the [[Volga]], corresponding to the latest phase of Indo-European unity, the vast "kurganized" area disintegrating into various independent languages and cultures, still in loose contact enabling the spread of technology and early loans between the groups, except for the Anatolian and Tocharian branches, which are already isolated from these processes. The Centum-Satem break is probably complete, but the phonetic trends of Satemization remain active.
*[[2500 BC|2500]]&ndash;2000: The breakup into the proto-languages of the attested dialects is complete. [[Proto-Greek]] is spoken in the [[Balkans]], [[Indo-Iranian languages|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] north of the Caspian in the [[Sintashta-Petrovka]] culture. The Bronze Age reaches [[Central Europe]] with the [[Beaker culture]], likely composed of various Centum dialects. [[Proto-Balto-Slavic]] (or alternatively, [[Proto-Slavic]] and [[Proto-Baltic]] communities in close contact) develops in north-eastern Europe. The [[Tarim mummies]] possibly correspond to proto-[[Tocharians]].
*[[2000 BC|2000]]&ndash;1500: The [[chariot]] is invented, leading to the split and rapid spread of [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] and [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] from the [[Andronovo culture]] and the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]] over much of [[Central Asia]], Northern [[India]], [[Iran]] and Eastern [[Anatolia]]. Proto-Anatolian is split into [[Hittite language|Hittite]] and [[Luwian]]. The pre-Proto-Celtic [[Unetice culture]] has an active metal industry ([[Nebra skydisk]]).
*[[1500 BC|1500]]&ndash;1000: The [[Nordic Bronze Age]] develops (pre-)[[Proto-Germanic]], and the (pre-)[[Proto-Celtic]] [[Urnfield]] and [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] cultures emerge in Central Europe, introducing the [[Iron Age]]. [[Proto-Italic]] migration into the [[Italian peninsula]]. Redaction of the [[Rigveda]] and rise of the [[Vedic civilization]] in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Flourishing and decline of the [[Hittite Empire]]. The [[Mycenaean civilization]] gives way to the [[Greek Dark Ages]].
*[[1000 BC]]&ndash;[[500 BC]]: The [[Celtic languages]] spread over Central and Western Europe. Northern Europe enters the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]], the formative phase of [[Proto Germanic]]. [[Homer]] initiates Greek literature and early [[Classical Antiquity]]. The Vedic Civilization gives way to the [[Mahajanapadas]]. [[Zoroaster]] composes the [[Gatha]]s, rise of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], replacing the [[Elamites]] and [[Babylonia]]. The [[Cimmerians]] ([[Srubna culture]]) are replaced by [[Scythians]] in the Pontic steppe. [[Armenians]] succeed the [[Urartu]] culture. Separation of Proto-Italic into [[Osco-Umbrian languages|Osco-Umbrian]] and [[Latin-Faliscan languages|Latin-Faliscan]], and foundation of [[Rome]]. Genesis of the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and [[Old Italic alphabet|Old Italic]] alphabets. A variety of [[Paleo-Balkan languages]] are spoken in Southern Europe. The Anatolian languages are [[language death|extinct]].
===Competing hypotheses===
[[Colin Renfrew]] in [[1987]] suggested that the spread of Indo-European was associated with the [[Neolithic revolution]], spreading peacefully into Europe from [[Asia Minor]] from around [[7000 BC]] with the advance of farming (''wave of advance''). Accordingly, all of [[Neolithic Europe]] would have been Indo-European speaking, and the Kurgan migrations would at best have replaced Indo-European dialects with other Indo-European dialects.
[[Thomas Gamkrelidze]] and [[Vyacheslav V. Ivanov]] in [[1984]] placed the Indo-European homeland on [[Lake Urmia]]. They suggested that [[Armenian language|Armenian]] was the language which stayed in the Indo-European cradle while other Indo-European languages left the homeland. They are also the originators of the [[Glottalic theory]].
Some people have pointed to the [[Black Sea deluge theory]], dating the genesis of the [[Sea of Azov]] to ca. [[5600 BC]], as a direct cause of the Indo-European expansion. This event occurred in still clearly Neolithic times and is rather too early to fit with Kurgan archaeology. It may still be imagined as an event in the remote past of the [[Sredny Stog culture]], and the people living on the land now beneath the Sea |
p | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 8.79 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 8.34 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1734 | c=1461 | f=2662 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=2993 | c=2720 | f=4928 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 17.0 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 265 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 27.15 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1432 | 1584 | (1775) | (2040) | (2410) | (2964) | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 3<br />([[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.23 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 581.0 | 1140 | 2204 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|175]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (poly) 814 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 16.2 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmk | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (poly)<br />11.2 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 2760 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 64.8 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 26.3 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 40.2 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.231 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 481 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 746 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-60-0 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=holmium | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=165 | sym=Ho | na=100% | n=98 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
'''Holmium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ho''' and [[atomic number]] 67. Part of the [[lanthanide series]], holmium is a relatively soft and malleable silvery-white [[metal]]lic element, which is stable in dry air at room temperature. A [[rare earth]] metal, it is found in the minerals [[monazite]] and [[gadolinite]].
== Notable characteristics ==
A trivalent metallic rare earth element, holmium has the highest [[magnetic moment]] (10.6µB) of any naturally-occurring element and possesses other unusual magnetic properties. When combined with [[yttrium]], it forms highly [[magnetism | magnetic]] compounds.
Holmium is a relatively soft and malleable element that is fairly [[corrosion]]-resistant and stable in dry air at [[standard temperature and pressure]]. In moist air and at higher [[temperature]]s, however, it quickly [[oxidation | oxidizes]], forming a yellowish oxide. In pure form, holmium possesses a metallic, bright silvery luster.
== Applications ==
Because of its magnetic properties, holmium has been used to create the strongest artificially-generated [[magnetic field]]s when placed within high-strength [[magnet]]s as a [[magnetic pole]] piece (also called a [[magnetic flux concentrator]]). Since it can absorb [[nuclear fission]]-bred neutrons, the element is also used in [[nuclear control rod]]s. Other commercial applications of the element include;
*its very high magnetic moment is suitable for use in yttrium-[[iron]]-[[garnet]] (YIG) and yttrium-[[lanthanum]]-[[fluoride]] (YLF) solid state [[laser]]s found in [[microwave]] equipment (which are in turn found in a variety of medical and dental settings).
*Holmium oxide is used as a yellow [[glass]] coloring.
Few other uses have been identified for this element.
== History ==
Holmium (''Holmia'', [[Latin]] name for [[Stockholm]]) was [[discovery of the chemical elements|discovered]] by [[Marc Delafontaine]] and [[Jacques Louis Soret]] in [[1878]] who noticed the aberrant [[Spectrophotometry| spectrographic]] [[absorption band]]s of the then-unknown element (they called it "Element X"). Later in 1878, [[Per Teodor Cleve]] independently discovered the element while he was working on [[erbia]] earth ([[erbium oxide]]).
Using the method developed by [[Carl Gustaf Mosander]], Cleve first removed all of the known contaminants from erbia. The result of that effort was two new materials, one brown and one green. He named the brown substance holmia (after the Latin name for Cleve's home town, Stockholm) and the green one thulia. Holmia was later found to be the [[holmium oxide]] and thulia was [[thulium oxide]].
== Occurrence ==
Like all other rare earths, holmium is not naturally found as a free element. It does occur combined with other elements in the minerals [[gadolinite]], [[monazite]], and in other rare-earth [[mineral]]s. It is commercially extracted via [[ion-exchange]] from monazite sand (0.05% holmium) but is still difficult to separate from other rare earths. The element has been isolated through the [[reduction]] of its anhydrous [[chloride]] or [[fluoride]] with metallic [[calcium]]. Its estimated abundance in the [[Earth]]'s crust is 1.3 milligrams per kilogram.
== Isotopes==
[[Natural]] holmium contains one [[stable]] [[isotope]], holmium 165. Some synthetic radioactive isotopes are known, the most stable one is holmium 163, with a half life of 4570 years. All other radioisotopes have half lives not greater than 1.117 days, and most have half lives under 3 hours.
== Precautions ==
The element, as with other rare earths, appears to have a low acute [[toxic]] rating. Holmium plays no biological role in [[human]]s but may be able to stimulate [[metabolism]].
== References ==
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/67.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Holmium]
* ''Guide to the Elements &ndash; Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele067.html It's Elemental &ndash; Holmium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Holmium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ho/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Holmium] (also used as a reference)
* [http://www.americanelements.com/hoinfo3.htm American Elements &ndash; Holmium] (also used as a reference)
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Lanthanides]]
[[ca:Holmi]]
[[cs:Holmium]]
[[de:Holmium]]
[[et:Holmium]]
[[el:Όλμιο]]
[[es:Holmio]]
[[eo:Holmio]]
[[fr:Holmium]]
[[ko:홀뮴]]
[[io:Holmio]]
[[it:Olmio]]
[[he:הולמיום]]
[[lt:Holmis]]
[[lb:Holmium]]
[[hu:Holmium]]
[[nl:Holmium]]
[[ja:ホルミウム]]
[[nn:Holmium]]
[[pl:Holm (pierwiastek)]]
[[pt:Hólmio]]
[[ru:Гольмий]]
[[sl:Holmij]]
[[sr:Холмијум]]
[[fi:Holmium]]
[[sv:Holmium]]
[[th:โฮลเมียม]]
[[uk:Гольмій]]
[[zh:钬]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hafnium</title>
<id>13466</id>
<revision>
<id>41208468</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:16:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.76.121.230</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Occurrence */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=72 | symbol=Hf | name=hafnium | left=[[lutetium]] | right=[[tantalum]] | above=[[zirconium|Zr]] | below=[[rutherfordium|Rf]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=4 | period=6 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Hf,72| gray steel }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|178.49]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(2)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&#93; 4f<sup>14</sup> 5d<sup>2</sup> 6s<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 10, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 13.31 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 12 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=2506 | c=2233 | f=4051 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=4876 | c=4603 | f=8317 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 27.2 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 571 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.73 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 2689 | 2954 | 3277 | 3679 | 4194 | 4876 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 4<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.3 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 658.5 | 1440 | 2250 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|155]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|208]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|150]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 331 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 23.0 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 5.9 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 3010 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 78 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 30 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 110 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.37 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 5.5 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 1760 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 1700 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-58-6 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=hafnium | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=172 | sym=Hf
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=1.87 [[year|y]]
| dm=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de=0.350 | pn=172 | ps=[[lutetium|Lu]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=174 | sym=Hf
| na=0.162% | hl=2&times;10<sup>15</sup> [[year|y]]
| dm=[[alpha emission|&alpha;]] | de=2.495 | pn=170 | ps=[[ytterbium|Yb]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=176 | sym=Hf | na=5.206% | n=104 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=177 | sym=Hf | na=18.606% | n=105 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=178 | sym=Hf | na=27.297% | n=106 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=179 | sym=Hf | na=13.629% | n=107 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=180 | sym=Hf | na=35.1% | n=108 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=182 | sym=Hf
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=9&times;10<sup>6</sup> [[ |
.85.205</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox White Sox}}
The '''Chicago White Sox''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team that plays on the south side of [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The team is a charter member of the [[American League]]. They are the current [[2005 World Series|World Series champions]].
One of the AL's eight charter franchises, the White Sox dominated play during the early 20th century, winning 5 of the first 19 league pennants; but the team's fortunes dropped precipitously after it became involved in what is debatably the [[1919 World Series|greatest scandal in the history of the sport]]. After winning only one league championship in the years spanning 1920 to 2004, the team ended decades of frustration in [[2005 World Series|2005]] when it won its first world championship since [[1917 World Series|1917]]. The White Sox are one of two major league teams based in Chicago, the other being the [[Chicago Cubs]] of the [[National League]].
:'''All-time regular season record (1901-2005)''': 8210 won - 8020 lost - 101 tied - 3 no-decision
:'''See also''': [[List of Chicago White Sox people]]
==Franchise history==
The team began as the [[Sioux City, Iowa|Sioux City]] franchise in a minor league called the Western League. The WL had reorganized itself in November 1893, with [[Ban Johnson]] as President. Johnson, a Cincinnati-based reporter, had been recommended by his friend [[Charles Comiskey]], former major league star with the [[St. Louis Cardinals|St. Louis Browns]] in the [[1880s]], who was then managing the [[Cincinnati Reds]]. After the [[1894 in sports|1894]] season, when Comiskey's contract with the Reds was up, he decided to take his chances at ownership. He bought the Sioux City team and transferred it to [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]], where it enjoyed some success over the next 5 seasons.
In [[1900 in sports|1900]], the Western League changed its name to the American League. It was still officially a [[minor league baseball|minor league]], a part of the National Agreement and an underling of the National League. The NL actually gave permission to the AL to put a team in Chicago, and Comiskey moved his St. Paul club to Chicago's South Side. After the season, the AL declined to renew its membership in the National Agreement, and the war was on.
The club originally called itself the "White Stockings," the original name of the National League's [[Chicago Cubs]]. Incidentally, the White Stockings won the first AL pennant in 1900, albeit still officially as a minor league team. After acquiring a number of stars from the older league, including pitcher and manager [[Clark Griffith]], the White Sox also captured the AL's first major-league pennant the next year, in [[1901 in sports|1901]]. Headline editors at the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' sports department immediately began shortening the name to "White Sox," and the team officially adopted the shorter name in [[1903]]. The White Sox would continue to be built on pitching and defense in the following years, led by pitching workhorse [[Ed Walsh]], who routinely pitched over 400 innings each season in his prime.
===The Hitless Wonders===
Walsh, [[Doc White]] and [[Nick Altrock]] paced the White Sox to their [[1906 in baseball|1906]] pennant and their first [[1906 World Series|World Series]] victory, a stunning upset over the Cubs who had won a record 116 regular-season games. The Sox, dubbed the "Hitless Wonders" for having the lowest team batting average in the American League that year, nevertheless took the Series, and intracity bragging rights, in six games.
==="The Eight Men Out"===
The White Sox contended over the next decade, but did not bring home a pennant until [[1917 World Series|1917]]. Led by second baseman [[Eddie Collins]] and outfielder [[Shoeless Joe Jackson]], the White Sox now had offense to go with the pitching of [[Eddie Cicotte]] and [[Red Faber]], and a strong defense anchored by catcher [[Ray Schalk]] and third baseman [[Buck Weaver]]. The powerful Sox won a franchise-record 100 games, and beat the [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]] in six games in the [[1917 World Series|World Series]]. After an off-year in the war-shortened season of [[1918 in sports|1918]], the club bounced back to win the pennant in [[1919]] and entered the [[1919 World Series|World Series]] heavily favored to defeat the [[Cincinnati Reds]].
However, 1919 was the year of the infamous [[Black Sox scandal]]. Eight White Sox players, including Cicotte and Jackson, were involved, to varying degrees, in a plot by gamblers to "[[match fixing|fix]]" the World Series. Especially considering their lack of success since the scandal, many people feel that the White Sox have never quite overcome the stigma of being the only team to allegedly fix the World Series.
In that era, gamblers often influenced baseball games. Many players on a number of teams - often frustrated by their inability to make what they felt was a fair wage for being elite athletes - were willing to participate in fixing the outcome of baseball games in exchange for cash. However, until the Black Sox scandal, rarely did such attempts to fix games blow up into scandals of this proportion. Usually such scandals were limited to individual players and games in the regular season. Never before, as far as can be demonstrated with this degree of certainty, had the gamblers been so brazen as to attempt to fix the championship series.
The official evidence relating to participation in the 'fix' by the various accused players came to light late in the [[1920 in sports|1920]] season. It began with an investigation into a fixed Cubs game that had become very public knowledge, and soon the 1919 Series events were on the table. Comiskey, who himself had turned a blind eye to the rumors previously, was compelled to suspend the remaining seven players (Gandil, eventually perceived as the ringleader, the one "connected" to the gamblers, had retired after the 1919 season). The suspensions ground the team to a halt; it was well on its way to another pennant (indeed, the 1920 White Sox pitching staff was the first in the majors to feature four 20-game winners). However, the evidence of their involvement (signed confessions) disappeared from the [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]] courthouse, and lacking that tangible evidence, a criminal trial (whose scope was limited to the question of defrauding the public) ended in acquittals of all the players. Regardless, with the public's trust of the game of baseball at stake, newly-installed [[Commissioner of Baseball]] [[Kenesaw Mountain Landis|Judge Landis]] banned all the accused from baseball for life. As the players were leaving a hearing, legend has it that a young boy (said by some to have been a newsboy) yelled out to Shoeless Joe, "Say it ain't so, Joe!", although there is no evidence this exchange ever took place.
Though suspended from baseball, whether the eight players' efforts to fix the World Series definitively caused the team to lose remains unknowable, of course. Many players on the White Sox were not part of the fix and presumably did play their best. Evidence also suggests that at times many of the players aware of the fix did try their best, especially as the Series progressed. Shoeless Joe Jackson hit .375 for the Series. He swore under oath that he played to win the World Series and that he did not know some thought him involved until after the Series when he was handed money. Buck Weaver's crime was limited to having known of the plot and not having turned in his fellow ballplayers. Though it was readily acknowledged that he took no active role in the fix, he was disqualified for having done nothing to stop it.
The usual theory is that the players took part in this plot as an act of revenge against Comiskey, considered to be one of the meanest and tightest-fisted owners in the game. The term "Black Sox" came about earlier in the year, when Comiskey decided to make players pay for their own laundry. The players stopped doing their laundry in protest, and as their white stockings became soiled and dark, the writers tagged them with that nickname.
A pitch-by-pitch record of every at-bat of the entire World Series was kept and retained - something that had not been common practice before and would not become common practice for several more decades. Some baseball scholars who have studied this pitch-by-pitch record in tandem with other records of the game have said they cannot identify any additional specific evidence that might otherwise indicate the White Sox tried deliberately to act to fix this World Series. In contrast, there is the oft-reported story that at least one contemporary writer kept his own scorecard and marked plays that looked suspicious.
There was certainly no shortage of suspicion at the time. Just before the Series, it became known that gamblers had suddenly put lots of money on the heavy-underdog Reds. That fueled discussion that the Series had been "doped", in the slang of the day. The rumors were so public and so potent that the Official Baseball Guide for 1920 chided the accusers editorially, little knowing how the story would ultimately play out that year.
Although Jackson may have played relatively honestly, as a batter he had limited influence. The best insurance for the gamblers was to get some pitchers. Cicotte purposely lost Game 1, with the storied signal to the gamblers that the fix was on when he hit the first batter with the pitch. Lefty Williams, one of the "[[Eight Men Out]]", lost 3 games, a Series record. Dick Kerr, who was not part of the fix, won both of his starts. Cicotte bore down and won Game 7 of the best-5-of-9 Series, angry that the gamblers were now reneging on their promises, as they claimed that all the mon |
beled as Arianism include:
*[[Unitarianism|Unitarians]], who believe that God is one as opposed to a Trinity, and many of whom believe in the moral authority, but not the deity, of Jesus.
*[[Jehovah's Witnesses]], who hold that at one point in time Jesus did not exist.
*[[Christadelphians]], who believe that Jesus' pre-natal existence was conceptual, as the "Logos", rather than literal.
*Followers of the various churches of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], who believe in the unity in purpose of the Godhead but that Jesus is a divine being separate from and subordinate to God the Father.
*[[Islam|Muslims]], who believe that Jesus (generally called [[Isa]]), was a prophet of the one God, but not himself divine.
For more on the theology of these groups, see their respective articles.
==See also==
* [[Germanic Christianity]]
* [[Protestantism]]
* [[Semi-Arianism]]
* [[Anomoean]], extreme sect of pure Arians
* [[Christology]]
== Bibliography ==
* [[Athanasius of Alexandria]], ''History of the Arians'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-47.htm Part I] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-48.htm Part II] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-49.htm Part III] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-50.htm Part IV] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-51.htm Part V] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-52.htm Part VI] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-53.htm Part VII] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-54.htm Part VIII]
* Ivor J. Davidson, ''A Public Faith'', Volume 2 of Baker History of the Church, 2005, ISBN 0801012759
* J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines'', 1978, ISBN 006064334X
* William C. Rusch, ''The Trinitarian Controversy'', (Sources of Early Christian Thought), 1980, ISBN 0800614100
* [[John Henry Newman]], ''[http://www.newmanreader.org/works/arians/index.html Arians of the Fourth Century]'', 1871
* [[Philip Schaff|Schaff, Philip]] ''[http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/3_ch09.htm Theological Controversies and the Development of Orthodoxy]'', History of the Christian Church, Vol III, Ch. IX
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01707c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Arianism]
*[http://mb-soft.com/believe/txo/arianism.htm Believe: Arianism]
[[Category:Ancient Christian Denominations]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Antitrinitarianism]]
[[Category:Arianism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Heresy]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[bg:Арианство]]
[[cs:Ariánství]]
[[da:Arianisme]]
[[de:Arianismus]]
[[eo:Arianismo]]
[[es:Arrianismo]]
[[fi:Areiolaisuus]]
[[fr:Arianisme]]
[[gl:Arianismo]]
[[he:המינות האריאנית]]
[[ia:Arianismo]]
[[it:Arianesimo]]
[[ja:アリウス派]]
[[nl:Arianisme]]
[[no:Arianisme]]
[[pl:Arianizm]]
[[pt:Arianismo]]
[[ru:Арианство]]
[[sv:Arianism]]
[[zh:阿里烏教派]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 1</title>
<id>1254</id>
<revision>
<id>41892543</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:16:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Furry</username>
<id>461810</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ Added birth of Lionel Bart in 1930.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=1}}
|}
'''August 1''' is the 213th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (214th in [[leap year]]s), with 152 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[30 BC]] - [[Octavian]] (later known as [[Augustus]]) enters [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]], bringing it under the control of the [[Roman Republic]].
*[[527]] - [[Justinian I]] becomes [[Byzantine Emperor]].
*[[607]] - [[Ono no Imoko]] is dispatched as envoy to the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] court in [[China]] (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 3, 607).
*[[1291]] - The [[Switzerland|Swiss Confederation]] is formed.
*[[1461]] - [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] is crowned king of [[England]].
*[[1492]] - [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella of Castile|Isabella]] drive the [[Jew|Jews]] out of [[Spain]].
*[[1498]] - [[Christopher Columbus]] becomes the first European to visit [[Venezuela]].
*[[1619]] - First African [[slavery|slave]]s arrive in [[Jamestown, Virginia]].
*[[1664]] - The [[Ottoman Empire]] is defeated in the [[Battle of Saint Gotthard]] by an [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austria]]n army led by [[Raimondo Montecuccoli]], resulting in the [[Peace of Vasvár]].
*[[1774]] - The element [[oxygen]] is discovered by [[Carl Wilhelm]] and [[Joseph Priestley]].
*[[1798]] - [[Battle of the Nile]] starts between French and British fleets.
*[[1820]] - [[London]]'s [[Regent's Canal]] opens.
*[[1831]] - [[London Bridge]] opens.
*[[1832]] - The [[Black Hawk War]] ends.
*[[1834]] - [[Slavery]] is abolished in the [[British Empire]].
*[[1838]] - Slaves in [[Trinidad and Tobago]] are emancipated.
*[[1864]] - The [[Elgin Watch Company]] is founded in [[Elgin, Illinois]]
*[[1876]] - [[Colorado]] is admitted as the 38th [[U.S. state]].
*[[1894]] - The [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)|First Sino-Japanese War]] erupts between [[Japan]] and [[China]] over [[Korea]].
*[[1902]] - The [[United States]] buys the rights to the [[Panama Canal]] from [[France]].
*[[1907]] - First [[Scouting|Scout]] camp opens on [[Brownsea Island]]. It was set up on July 29th and ran until August 9th.
*[[1914]] - [[Germany]] declares war on [[Russia]] at the opening of [[World War I]].
*[[1927]] - The [[Nanchang Uprising]] marks the first significant battle in the [[Chinese Civil War]] between the [[Kuomintang]] and [[Communist Party of China]]. This day is commemorated as the anniversary of the founding of the [[People's Liberation Army]].
*[[1936]] - The [[Berlin]] [[Olympic Games]] open.
*[[1937]] - [[Tito]] reads the resolution "[[Manifesto]] of constitutional [[congress]] of KPH" to the constitutive [[congress]] of KPH ([[Croatian Communist Party]]) in woods near [[Samobor]].
*[[1941]] - The first [[Jeep]] is produced.
*[[1944]] - [[Anne Frank]] makes the last entry in her [[diary]].
*1944 - [[Warsaw Uprising]] against the [[Nazi]] occupation breaks out in [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]].
*[[1945]] - [[Mel Ott]] becomes the third member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at the [[Polo Grounds]] in [[New York, New York]].
*[[1946]] - The Japanese Federation of Trade Unions is formed.
*[[1948]] - The [[U.S. Air Force Office of Special Investigations]] is founded.
*[[1957]] - The United States and [[Canada]] form the North American Air Defense Command ([[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]]).
*[[1960]] - [[Dahomey]] (later renamed [[Benin]]) declares independence from [[France]]
** [[Communist party|Communist]] [[Party of Independence and Work|PAI]] is banned in [[Senegal]].
*[[1961]] - [[Six Flags Over Texas]], the first [[Six Flags]] [[amusement park|park]], opens.
*[[1965]] - Princess [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Beatrix]] of the [[Netherlands]] announces her engagement to [[Claus von Amsberg]].
*[[1966]] - [[Charles Whitman]] kills 15 people shooting from a tower at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] before being killed by the police.
*1966 - Purges of intellectuals and imperialists becomes official [[People's Republic of China]] policy at the beginning of the [[Cultural Revolution]].
*[[1967]] - [[Israel]] annexes East [[Jerusalem]].
*[[1970]] - [[Powder Ridge Rock Festival]]
*[[1971]] - [[George Harrison]]'s [[The Concert for Bangladesh|Concert for Bangladesh]] in New York City features, among others, [[Bob Dylan]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[Ringo Starr]] and [[Leon Russell]].
*[[1975]] - [[CSCE Final Act]] creates the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe]].
*[[1977]] - [[Frank H.T. Rhodes]] is elected President of [[Cornell University]], a post he would hold for 18 years.
*[[1981]] - First broadcasts by [[MTV]]. The first video played was "[[Video Killed The Radio Star]]" by the [[Buggles]].
*[[1994]] - [[Michael Jackson]] and [[Lisa Marie Presley]] confirm rumors that they had married eleven weeks earlier.
*[[1996]] - [[Olympic Games]]: [[Michael Johnson (athlete)|Michael Johnson]] wins the 200-meter dash in 19.32 seconds, beating the old world record by over 0.3 seconds.
*1996 - [[MTV2]] makes its first broadcasts. The first video played was [[Beck]]'s "[[Where It's At]]".
*[[2001]] - An agreement is reached on the position of the minority [[Albanian language]] in the [[Republic of Macedonia]].
*2001 - [[Bulgaria]], [[Cyprus]], [[Latvia]], [[Malta]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Slovakia]] join the [[European Environment Agency]].
*2001 - Alabama Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Roy Moore]] has a 2-1/2 ton [[Ten Commandments]] monument installed in the rotunda of the judiciary building, leading to a [[Glassroth v. Moore|lawsuit]] to have it removed and his own removal from office.
*[[2004]] - A supermarket fire kills 215 people and injures 300 in [[Asunción]], [[Paraguay]].
*[[2005]] - [[German spelling reform of 1996]] is formally implemented
*2005 - [[Disneyland Resort Line]] of the [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR]] opens to the public.
==Births==
*[[10 BC]] - [[Claudius]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[54]])
*[[126]] - [[Pertinax]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[193]])
*[[1313]] - [[Emperor Kogon]] of Japan (d. [[1364]])
*[[1377]] - [[Emperor Go-Komatsu of Japan]] (d. [[1433]])
*[[1545]] - [[Andrew Melville]], Scottish theologian and religious reformer (b. [[1622]])
*[[1555]] - [[Edward Kelley]], English spirit medium (d. [[1597]])
*[[1579]] - [[Luís Vélez de Guevara]], Spanish writer (d. [[1644]])
*[[1630]] - [[Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh]], English statesman (d. [[1673]])
*[[1713]] - [[Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (d. [[1780]])
*[[1714]] - [[Richard Wilson (painter)|Richard Wilson]], Welsh painter (d. [[1782]])
*[[1744]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], French scient |
farther south can be produced in commercial quantities.
{| border=0 cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0 width=600 style="font-size:smaller; clear:both;"
|+ style="font-size:larger;"| '''Relative elevations, average depths, maximum depths, and volumes of the Great Lakes.'''
|-
|colspan=2|
<timeline>
ImageSize = width:595 height:250
PlotArea = width:525 height:200 left:50 bottom:15
AlignBars = justify
Period = from:-1000 till:600
TimeAxis = orientation:vertical
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-1000
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-1000
Colors =
id:blue1 value:rgb(0.0,0.0,0.75)
id:blue2 value:rgb(0.1,0.1,0.8)
id:blue3 value:rgb(0.2,0.2,0.85)
id:blue4 value:rgb(0.3,0.3,0.9)
id:blue5 value:rgb(0.4,0.4,0.95)
id:textinbar value:yelloworange
id:textoutsidebar value:redorange
Define $elevation = shift:(0,15) mark:(line,textoutsidebar) textcolor:textoutsidebar
Define $avgdepth = mark:(line,textinbar) textcolor:textinbar
Define $maxdepth = shift:(0,-11) mark:(line,textoutsidebar) textcolor:textoutsidebar
PlotData=
align:center
bar:Superior from:-732 till:600 width:194 color:blue1
$elevation at:600 text:"600 ft~(183 m)"
$avgdepth at:117 shift:(0,1) text:"483 ft (147 m)"
$maxdepth at:-732 text:"1332 ft (406 m)"
bar:Michigan from:-348 till:577 width:113 color:blue5
$elevation at:577 text:"577 ft~(176 m)"
$avgdepth at:298 shift:(0,2) text:"279 ft~(85 m)"
$maxdepth at:-348 text:"925 ft (282 m)"
bar:Huron from:-173 till:577 width:101 color:blue3
$elevation at:577 text:"577 ft~(176 m)"
$avgdepth at:382 shift:(0,1) text:"195 ft (59 m)"
$maxdepth at:-173 text:"750 ft (229 m)"
bar:Erie from:359 till:569 width:49 color:blue2
$elevation at:569 text:"569 ft~(173 m)"
$avgdepth at:507 align:left shift:(30,2) textcolor:textoutsidebar text:"62 ft (19 m)"
$maxdepth at:359 text:"210 ft~(64 m)"
bar:Ontario from:-559 till:243 width:44 color:blue4
$elevation at:243 text:"243 ft~(74 m)"
$avgdepth at:-40 shift:(0,2) text:"283 ft~(86 m)"
$maxdepth at:-559 text:"802 ft~(244 m)"
align:left shift:(35,0) textcolor:green
at:243 text:"surface~elevation"
at:-40 text:"average~depth"
at:-559 text:"maximum~depth"
</timeline>
|- valign=top
!align=right| Notes:
| The area of each rectangle is proportionate to the volume of each lake. All measurements at Low Water Datum.
|- valign=top
!align=right| Source:
| [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]'s [http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/gl-fact1.html Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1].
|}
==Geologic pre-history==
<gallery>
Image:Great Lakes Lake Superior.png|[[Lake Superior]]
Image:Great Lakes Lake Michigan.png|[[Lake Michigan]]
Image:Great Lakes Lake Ontario.png|[[Lake Ontario]]
Image:Great Lakes Lake Huron.png|[[Lake Huron]]
Image:Great Lakes Lake Erie.png|[[Lake Erie]]
</gallery>
The Great Lakes were formed at the end of the last [[ice age]] about 10,000 years ago, when the [[Laurentide ice sheet]] receded. When this happened, the glaciers left behind a large amount of meltwater (see [[Lake Agassiz]]) which filled up the basins that the glaciers had carved, thus creating the Great Lakes as we know them today. Because of the uneven nature of glacier [[erosion]], some higher hills became [[Islands_of_the_Great_Lakes|Great Lakes islands]]. The ''[[Niagara Escarpment]]'' follows the contour of the Great Lakes between New York and Wisconsin -- [[Herbert Simon]] called this escarpment ''the spinal cord of my native land''.
==Economy==
The lakes are extensively used for [[transport]], though [[cargo]] traffic has decreased considerably in recent years. The [[Great Lakes Waterway]] makes each of the lakes accessible.
During settlement, the Great Lakes and its rivers were the only practical means of moving people and freight. Anything and everything floated on the lakes. Some ended up on the bottom due to storms, fires, collisions and underwater hazards. (See ''[[SS_Edmund_Fitzgerald|Edmund Fitzgerald]]'' and ''[[Le Griffon]]''.) [[Barge|Barges]] from middle [[North America]] were able to reach the Atlantic Ocean from the Great Lakes when the [[Erie Canal]] opened in [[1825]]. By 1848, with the opening of the [[Illinois_and_Michigan_Canal|Illinois and Michigan Canal]] at [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], direct access to the Mississippi River was possible from the lakes. With these two canals an all-inland water route was provided between New York City and New Orleans.
The main business of many of the passenger lines in the 1800s was transporting [[immigration|immigrants]]. Many of the larger cities owe their existence to their position on the lakes as a freight destination as well as for being a magnet for immigrants. After railroads and surface roads developed the freight and passenger businesses dwindled and, excepting ferries and a few foreign cruise ships, now has vanished.
Yet, the immigration routes still have an effect today. Immigrants often formed their own communities and some areas have a pronounced ethnicity, say Dutch, German, Polish or Finnish, among many others. Since many immigrants settled for a time in New England before moving westward, many areas on the U.S. side of the Great Lakes also have a New England feel, especially in home styles and accent.
Since general freight these days is transported by railroads and trucks (lorries), domestic ships mostly move bulk cargoes, such as [[iron ore]] and its derivatives, [[coal]] and [[limestone]] for the [[steel]] industry. The domestic bulk freight developed because of the nearby mines. It was more economical to transport the ingredients for steel to centralized plants rather than try to make steel on the spot. Ingredients for steel, however, are not the only bulk shipments made. Grain exports are also a major shipping commodity on the lakes.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, iron and other ores such as copper were shipped south (downbound ships) and supplies, food staples, and coal was shipped north (upbound). Due to the location of the coal fields in [[Pennsylvania]] and [[West Virginia]], and the general northeast track of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], railroads naturally developed shipping routes that went due north to ports such as [[Erie, Pennsylvania]] and [[Ashtabula, Ohio]].
Because the lake maritime community largely developed independently, it has its own language. Ships, no matter the size, are referred to as ''boats''. When the sailing ships gave way to steamships, they were called ''steamboats''&mdash;the same term used on the Mississippi. The ships also have a distinctive design. Ships that primarily trade on the lakes are known as ''lakers''. Foreign boats are known as ''salties''.
One of the more common sights on the lakes is the 1,000 by 105-foot (305 by 32-m), 60,000 U.S. [[long ton]] (61,000 [[tonne|metric tonnes]]) self-unloader. This is a laker with a huge conveyor belt system that can unload itself by swinging a crane over the side. Understandably, because most things go by land and the fact that one modern ship is the equivalent of many older ships, the Great Lakes fleet is a fraction of what it once was.
===Modern economy===
The Great Lakes are used as a major mode of [[transport]] for bulk goods. The brigantine ''[[Le Griffon]]'', which was commissioned by [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle]], was towed to the southern end of the [[Niagara River]], to become the first sailing ship to travel the upper Great Lakes on [[August 7]], [[1679]].
In 2002, 162 million net tons of dry bulk cargo was moved on the Lakes. This was, in order of volume: iron ore, coal, stone, grain, salt, cement and potash. The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry. There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo but most container ships cannot pass the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway because they are too wide. The total amount of shipping on the lakes has been on a downward trend for several years.
[[Image:Carlb-lake-ontario-02.jpg|right|350px|Wolfe Islander III, Kingston, Ontario]]
Recreational boating and tourism are major industries on the Great Lakes. A few small cruise ships operate on the Great Lakes including a couple of [[sailing|sailing ships]]. Sport fishing, commercial fishing, and Native American fishing represent a US$4 billion a year industry with [[salmon]], [[whitefish (genus)|whitefish]], [[smelt]], [[lake trout]], and [[walleye]] being major catches.
The Great Lakes are used to supply drinking water to tens of millions of people in bordering areas. This valuable resource is collectively administered by the state and provincial governments adjacent to the lakes.
===Passenger traffic===
Several ferries operate on the Great Lakes to carry passengers to various islands, including [[Isle Royale]], [[Pelee, Ontario|Pelee Island]], [[Mackinac Island]], [[Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)|Beaver Island]], both [[Bois Blanc Island]]s, [[Kelleys Island, Ohio|Kelleys Island]], [[South Bass Island]], [[North Manitou Island]], [[South Manitou Island]], [[Harsens Island]], [[Manitoulin Island]], and the [[Toronto Islands]]. [[2005|As of 2005]], three car ferry services cross the Great Lakes: a steamer across Lake Michigan from [[Ludington, Michigan]] to [[Manitowoc, Wisconsin]]; a high speed catamaran on a second Lake Michigan route from [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] to [[Muskegon, Michigan]]; and [[Spirit of Ontario I|an international ferry]] across Lake Ontario from [[Rochester, New York]] to [[Toronto, Ontario]].
===Perils on the Inland Seas===
Travel on the Lakes has not been without risks. There are parts where no land is visible due to the curvature of the earth and the immense size of the Lakes: thus they are sometimes |
m used by [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] to refer to a particular form of [[heresy]]. Being declared a Covenant-breaker by the head of the Faith is somewhat equivalent to [[Cherem]] in Judaism, [[Excommunication]] in Christianity and [[Takfir]] in Islamic law, i.e. Bahá'ís avoid association with them, even if the Covenant–breaker is a family member. The authority to declare a Bahá'í a Covenant-breaker resides solely with the head of the Bahá'í Faith, which since 1963 has been the (elected) [[Universal House of Justice]], situated in [[Haifa]], Israel.
==Definition==
Covenant-breaking does not refer to attacks from those who are not Bahá'ís or who have left the Bahá'í Faith out of disagreement with its tenets. Rather is in reference to internal campaigns of opposition whereby the Covenant-breaker is seen to be as one who is challenging the internal succession of the Faith and thereby causing internal division, or by claiming or supporting an alternate succession of authority or administrative structure.
In a letter to an individual dated [[23 March]] [[1975]], the Universal House of Justice wrote:
:"When a person declares his acceptance of Bahá'u'lláh as a Manifestation of God he becomes a party to the Covenant and accepts the totality of His Revelation. If he then turns round and attacks Bahá'u'lláh or the Central Institution of the Faith he violates the Covenant. If this happens every effort is made to help that person to see the illogicality and error of his actions, but if he persists he must, in accordance with the instructions of Bahá'u'lláh Himself, be shunned as a Covenant-breaker."
The term 'Covenant-breaker' or, in Arabic 'naqidin', was first used by [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] to describe the partisans of his brother [[Mírzá Muhammad `Alí]], who challenged his leadership. In `Abdu'l-Bahá's [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá|Will and Testament]], He appointed [[Shoghi Effendi]] as the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith and called for the eventual election of the [[Universal House of Justice]], and defined in the same manner opposition to these two institutions as Covenant-Breaking. `Abdu'l-Bahá advised all Bahá'ís to shun anyone opposing the Covenant: "...one of the greatest and most fundamental principles of the Cause of God is to shun and avoid entirely the Covenant-breakers, for they will utterly destroy the Cause of God, exterminate His Law and render of no account all efforts exerted in the past." [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/WT/wt-2.html#gr10]
==Categorization==
=== Included categories of people ===
While most Covenant-breakers are involved in schismatic groups, that is not always the case. For example, a Bahá'í who refuses to shun Covenant-breakers is at risk of being named one. One article [http://bahai-library.com/?file=momen_encyclopedia_covenant], originally written for the Bahá'í Encyclopedia, characterized Covenant-breakers that have emerged in the course of Bahá'í history as belonging to one of four categories:
#Leadership challenge: These are persons who dispute the authority and legitimacy of the head of the religion and advanced claims either for themselves or for another. The main examples of these are [[Mírzá Muhammad `Alí]], and [[Mason Remey|Charles Mason Remey]].
#Dissidence: Those who disagree with the policies and actions of the head of the religion without, however, advancing an alternative claim for leadership. This group consisted mostly of opponents of the Bahá'í administration such as [[Ruth White]], [[Ahmad Sohrab]], and [[Hermann Zimmer]].
#Disobedience: Those who disobey certain direct instructions from the head of the religion. Mostly the instruction in question is to cease to associate with a Covenant-breaker. Examples of this type include most of the descendants of `Abdu'l-Bahá during Shoghi Effendi's time.
#Apostates who maliciously attack the Bahá'í Faith. Examples include [[Ávárih]] and [[Níkú]].
=== Excluded categories of people ===
Shoghi Effendi wrote to the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada in 1957: "''People who have withdrawn from the Cause because they no longer feel that they can support its Teachings and Institutions sincerely, are not Covenant-breakers -- they are non-Bahá'ís and should just be treated as such. Only those who ally themselves actively with known enemies of the Faith who are Covenant-breakers, and who attack the Faith in the same spirit as these people, can be considered, themselves, to be Covenant-breakers.''" (cf: Shoghi Effendi, Messages to Canada, p. 64) Beyond this, many other relationships to the Bahá'í Faith exist, both positive and negative. Covenant-breaking does not seem to apply to most of them.
The following is a partial list of those who could not rightly be termed covenant-breakers:
* Members of other religions or no religion without any particular relationship to the Bahá'í Faith.
* Followers of [[Mirza Yahya Nuri Subh-i Azal|Subh-i-Azal]], Baha'u'llah's half-brother, who are known in modern times as Bayanis are often mistakenly referred to by this label. The appelation seems, however, misapplied. Since Covenant-breaking presumes that one has submitted oneself to a covenant and then broke it, and Bayanis never swore allegence to Baha'u'llah, they cannot therefore be said to have broken his covenant.
* Bahá'ís who simply leave the faith. (see above)
* Bahá'ís who, in the estimation of the head of the religion have insufficiently understood the nature of the covenant from the start. These are sometimes "disenrolled" and are considered to have never actually been Bahá'ís, given their fundamental diversion from this core Bahá'í doctrine.
* External enemies of the Bahá'í Faith.
==Current groups==
{{main|Bahá'í divisions}}
Most of the currently active groups regarded by the larger group of Bahá'ís as Covenant-breakers originated in the claims of Charles Mason Remey to the Guardianship in 1960. The [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá]] states that Guardians should be [[lineal primogeniture|lineal descendant]]s of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], and that each Guardian must select his successor during his lifetime, and that the nine [[Hands of the Cause of God]] permanently stationed in the [[holy land]] must assent to the appointment to avoid ambiguity. While most Bahá'ís interpret lineal descendency to mean physical familial relation to Bahá'u'lláh, some have interpreted this to include spiritual and/or adoptive descendants.
The majority of Bahá'ís accepted the determination of the [[Hand of the Cause of God|Hands of the Cause]] upon the death of Shoghi Effendi, that he passed away "without having appointed his successor", owing to an absence of both a will and a valid descendant of Bahá'u'lláh who could qualify under the terms of the `Abdu'l-Bahá's will. Later the [[Universal House of Justice]], first elected in [[Haifa]] in [[1963]], made a ruling on the subject that it was not possible for another Guardian to be appointed.
In 1960 Mr. Remey, a Hand of the Cause himself, retracted his earlier position, and claimed had been coerced. He claimed to be the successor to Shoghi Effendi. He and the small number of Bahá'ís who followed him were expelled from the majority group by the Hands of the Cause.
The largest of the remaining followers of Mr. Remey, members of the [[Orthodox Bahá'í Faith]], believe that legitimate authority passed from Shoghi Effendi to Mason Remey to Joel Marangella. They believe this succession, and thus whomever Mr. Marangella so appoints to be in keeping with the provisions of the Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá regarding the appointment of future guardians. They, therefore, regard the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, Israel to be illegitimate, and its members and followers to be Covenant-breakers.
Some groups outside the majority consider the right to declare someone a covenant breaker to have been ended with the passing of Shoghi Effendi, and therefore members of these groups often choose to associate with non-members. These are often shunned, however, by those who believe that such authority persists in the House of Justice.
The present descendents of expelled members of Bahá'u'lláh's family have not specifically been declared Covenent-breakers, though they mostly do not associate themselves with the Bahá'í religion. A small group of Bahá'ís in Northern New Mexico believe that these descendents are eligible for appointment to the Guardianship and are waiting for such a direct descendant of Bahá'u'lláh to arise as the rightful Guardian.
There also existed a small number of "Free Bahá'ís" in Europe who accepted Ruth White and Hermann Zimmer's claim that the Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá' was a forgery. These claims too were rejected by the largest group of Bahá'ís in Haifa who consider these groups as Covenant-breakers.
Since the time of Bahá'u'lláh until the present, the many attempts by individual Bahá'ís to create schism or division have ended in failure during the lifetime of the individual. This is seen by Bahá'ís as a confirmation of Abdu'l-Baha's warning
:"Should any, within or without the company of the Hands of the Cause of God disobey and seek division, the wrath of God and His vengeance will be upon him."
::(Abdu'l-Baha, The Will and Testament, p. 12)
==See also==
*[[Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh]]
==References==
*{{cite book
|author=`Abdu'l-Bahá
|authorlink=`Abdu'l-Bahá
|origyear=1901-08
|year=1992
|title=The Will And Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
|publisher=Bahá'í Publications Australia
|location=Mona Vale, N.S.W, Australia
|id=ISBN 0909991472
|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/WT/
}}
*{{cite book
|author=Bahá'u'lláh
|authorlink=Bahá'u'lláh
|origyear=1873
|year=1992
|title=The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book
|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
|id=ISBN 0853989990
|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/
}}
*{{cite book
|first=Hasan
|last=Bal |
[[Journey (band)|Journey]])
:[[James Honeyman-Scott]] ([[The Pretenders]])
:[[Brian Setzer]] ([[The Stray Cats]], [[The Brian Setzer Orchestra]])
:[[Paul Simon]] ([[Simon and Garfunkel]])
:[[Slash (musician)|Slash]] ([[Slash's Snakepit]], [[Guns N' Roses]], & [[Velvet Revolver]])
:[[Fred Sonic Smith|Fred "Sonic" Smith]] ([[MC5]])
:[[Robert Smith]]
:[[Billy Squier]]
:[[John Squire]]
:[[Steve Stevens]] ([[Billy Idol]], [[Kyosuke Himuro]])
:[[Izzy Stradlin]] ([[Guns N' Roses]])
:[[Andy Summers]] ([[The Police (band)|The Police]])
:[[Akira Takasaki]] ([[Loudness (heavy metal)|Loudness]])
:[[Porl Thompson]]
:[[Pete Townshend]] ([[The Who]])
:[[Robin Trower]] ([[Paramounts,Procol Harum,Robin Trower]])
:[[Steve Vai]] ([[Frank Zappa]], [[Alcatrazz]], [[David Lee Roth]], & [[Whitesnake]])
:[[Eddie Van Halen]] ([[Van Halen]])
:[[Tom Verlaine]] ([[Television (band)|Television]])
:[[Jack White (musician)|Jack White]] ([[The White Stripes]])
:[[Jason White]] ([[Pinhead Gunpowder]])
:[[Nancy Wilson (guitarist)|Nancy Wilson]] ([[Heart (band)|Heart]])
:[[Angus Young]] ([[AC/DC]])
:[[Malcolm Young]] ([[AC/DC]])
:[[Neil Young]] ([[Buffalo Springfield]], [[Crazy Horse (band)|Crazy Horse]], [[CSN&Y]], [[The Esquires]], [[The Stray Gators]])
:[[Frank Zappa]] (among other things, played with [[The Mothers of Invention]])
:[[Blues Saraceno]]
:[[Del Marquis]] (played for [[Scissor Sisters]])
:[[Rivers Cuomo]] ([[Weezer]])
:[[Brian Bell]] ([[Weezer]])
:[[Aly and A.J.]](sister singing group)
----
===[[Heavy metal music|Metal]]===
:[[John LeCompt]] ([[Evanescence]])
:[[Buckethead]] (solo artist, [[Deli Creeps]], [[Giant Robot]], [[Guns N' Roses]], [[Colonel Calypool's Bucket of Bernie Brains]], [[Praxis]])
:[[Mikael Åkerfeldt]] ([[Opeth]])
:[[Michael Amott]] ([[Arch Enemy (band)|Arch Enemy]]) ([[Carcass (band)|Carcass]])
:[[Christopher Amott]] ([[Arch Enemy (band)|Arch Enemy]])
:[[Steve Ewin]] (solo artist)
:[[Jason Becker]] (solo artist, [[Cacophony]], [[David Lee Roth]])
:[[Jonathan Donais]] ([[Shadows Fall]])
:[[Nuno Bettencourt]] ([[Extreme (band)|Extreme]])
:[[Matt Bachand]] ([[Shadows Fall]])
:[[Wes Borland]] ([[Limp Bizkit]])
:[[Bumblefoot]] ([[Bumblefoot|Ron Thal]])
:[[Dimebag Darrell]] ([[Pantera]], [[Rebel Meets Rebel]], [[Damageplan]])
:[[Shifa]] ([[Poizon Green]])
:[[Alex Wand]]
:[[Chris DeGarmo]] ([[Queensrÿche]])
:[[K. K. Downing]] ([[Judas Priest]])
:[[Todd Duane]] (solo artist)
:[[Marty Friedman (guitarist)|Marty Friedman]] (solo artist, [[Cacophony]], [[Megadeth]])
:[[Stephan Fortè]] ([[Adagio]])
:[[Kirk Hammett]] ([[Metallica]])
:[[James Hetfield]] ([[Metallica]])
:[[Kenny Hickey]] ([[Type O Negative]])
:[[Scott Ian]] ([[Anthrax_(band)|Anthrax]])
:[[Chris Impellitteri]] (solo artist)
:[[Tony Iommi]] ([[Black Sabbath]])
:[[Matthias Jabs]] ([[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]])
:[[Adam Jones]] ([[Tool_(band)|Tool]])
:[[Kerry King]] ([[Slayer]])
:[[Alexi Laiho]] ([[Children of Bodom]])
:[[Roope Latvala]] ([[Children of Bodom]], [[Sinergy]])
:[[Herman Li]] ([[DragonForce]])
:[[Peter Lindgren]] ([[Opeth]])
:[[Sam Totman]] ([[Dragonforce]])
:[[Andy LaRocque]] ([[King Diamond (band)|King Diamond]])
:[[George Lynch (musician)|George Lynch]] ([[Dokken]], [[Lynch Mob (band)|Lynch Mob]])
:[[Daron Malakian]] ([[System of a Down]])
:[[Yngwie Malmsteen]] (solo artist, [[Alcatrazz]], [[Steeler]])
:[[Jim Martin]] ([[Faith No More]])
:[[Borislav Mitic]] (solo artist)
:[[Vinnie Moore]]
:[[James Murphy (musician)|James Murphy]] (solo artist, [[Death (band)|Death]], [[Disincarnate]], [[Testament (band)|Testament]])
:[[Dave Murray]] ([[Iron Maiden]])
:[[Dave Mustaine]] ([[Megadeth]])
:[[John Petrucci]] ([[Dream Theater]], [[Liquid Tension Experiment]])
:[[Randy Rhoads]] ([[Quiet Riot]], [[Ozzy Osbourne]])
:[[Michael Romeo]] ([[Symphony X]])
:[[Michael Schenker]] (solo artist, [[UFO (band)|UFO]])
:[[Rudolph Schenker]] ([[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]])
:[[Chuck Schuldiner]] ([[Death (band)|Death]], [[Control Denied]])
:[[Adrian Smith]] ([[Iron Maiden]])
:[[Bill Steer]] ([[Carcass (band)|Carcass]])
:[[Troy Stetina]]
:[[Joe Stump]]
:[[Izzy Stradlin]] ([[Guns N' Roses]])
:[[Akira Takasaki]] ([[Loudness (heavy metal)|Loudness]])
:[[The Great Kat|Katherine "The Great Kat" Thomas]]
:[[Glenn Tipton]] ([[Judas Priest]])
:[[Steve Vai]] ([[Frank Zappa]], [[Alcatrazz]], [[David Lee Roth]], [[Whitesnake]])
:[[Eddie Van Halen]] ([[Van Halen]])
:[[Rich Ward]] ([[Stuck Mojo]]), [[Sick Speed]], [[Fozzy]], [[The Duke]])
:[[Michael Wilton]] ([[Queensrÿche]])
:[[Zakk Wylde]] ([[Black Label Society]], [[Pride & Glory]], [[Ozzy Osbourne]])
:[[Dweezil Zappa]]
:[[Ben Weinman|Benjamin Weinman]] ([[The Dillinger Escape Plan]])
:[[Andrew Matthews]]
:[[Kai Hansen]] ([[Helloween]], [[Iron Savoir]], [[Gamma Ray]])
=== [[Experimental_music|Experimental]] ===
:[[Derek Bailey]]
:[[Glenn Branca]]
:[[Rhys Chatham]]
:[[Nels Cline]]
:[[Loren Mazzacane Conners]]
:[[Kim Gordon]] ([[Sonic Youth]])
:[[Keiji Haino]]
:[[Henry Kaiser]]
:[[Thurston Moore]] ([[Sonic Youth]])
:[[KK Null]]
:[[Paul Panhuysen]]
:[[Lee Ranaldo]] ([[Sonic Youth]])
:[[Hans Reichel]]
:[[Jim_O%27Rourke_%28musician%29|Jim O'Rourke]]
:[[Keith Rowe]]
:[[Elliott Sharp]]
:[[Davey Williams]]
-->
==See also==
*[[List of guitarists]]
*[[Guitar]]
*[[Classical guitar]]
*[[Lute]]
*[[Electric guitar]]
==External links==
* [http://www.guitarfoundation.org/ The Guitar Foundation of America]
* [http://www.guitaristheaven.com/ http://www.guitaristheaven.com] A site for guitar fanatics. Includes lessons, interviews, transcriptions, reviews, DVD reviews, wallpapers, picks gallery and an impressive list of guitar heroes.
* [http://www.cyberfret.com http://www.cyberfret.com ] Another web page with tips and tricks
* [http://www.jazzguitar.be/jazzguitar_licks.html Jazz Guitar Online ] Signature licks
* [http://www.wikiguitar.net Wiki Guitar] Wiki based guitar resource with tablature archive.
* [http://www.harmony-central.com http://www.harmony-central.com] Guitar reviews of countless manufacturers
*[http://www.dimebagdarrell.co.uk/ Dimebag Darrell Tribute Site] News, photos and video of Dimebag Darrell
*[http://www.guitarchordsmagic.com/ Guitar Chords Online]
*[http://www.guitarist.info/ Guitarist Related Information]
*[http://www.guitar-poll.com/ Guitar Poll]
*[http://www.guitar-forum.co.uk/ Guitar Forum] Forum for guitar fanatics, Includes lessons, friendly members willing to help anyone who needs it
[[Category:Guitarists| ]]
[[da:Guitarist]]
[[de:Gitarrist]]
[[es:Guitarrista]]
[[fr:Guitariste]]
[[he:גיטריסט]]
[[ko:기타리스트]]
[[it:Chitarrista]]
[[lb:Lëscht vun de Gittaristen]]
[[hu:Gitáros]]
[[nl:Lijst van gitaristen]]
[[ja:ギタリストの一覧]]
[[sv:Gitarrist]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gothic novel</title>
<id>12622</id>
<revision>
<id>41795005</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:24:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>145.254.161.119</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Strawberryhill.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Strawberry Hill, an English villa in the [[Neo-Gothic|"Gothic revival"]] style, built by seminal Gothic writer Horace Walpole]]
The '''gothic novel''' is a [[literary genre]] that belongs to [[Romanticism]] and began in Britain with ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'' ([[1764]]) by [[Horace Walpole]]. It is the predecessor to modern [[horror fiction]] and, above all, has led to the common definition of "gothic" as being connected to the dark and horrific.
Prominent features of gothic novels included terror, mystery, the [[supernatural]], [[ghost]]s, haunted buildings, castles, trapdoors, doom, death, decay, madness, hereditary curses, and so on.
== Origins of the gothic novel ==
The term "gothic" was originally a disparaging term applied to a style of medieval architecture ([[Gothic architecture]]) and art ([[Gothic art]]). The opprobrious term "gothick" was embraced by the [[18th century]] proponents of the [[gothic revival]], a forerunner of the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] genres. Gothic revival architecture, which became popular in the [[nineteenth century]], was a reaction to the classical architecture that was a hallmark of the Age of Reason.
In a way similar to the gothic revivalists' rejection of the clarity and rationalism of the [[neoclassicism|neoclassical]] style of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightened]] [[Establishment]], the term "gothic" became linked with an appreciation of the joys of extreme emotion, the thrill of fearfulness and awe inherent in the [[sublime (philosophy)|sublime]], and a quest for ''atmosphere''. The ruins of gothic buildings gave rise to multiple linked emotions by representing the inevitable decay and collapse of human creations -- thus the urge to add fake ruins as eyecatchers in English landscape parks. English Protestants often associated medieval buildings with what they saw as a dark and terrifying period, characterized by harsh laws, torture, and [[superstition|superstitious]] rituals.
==The first gothic novels==
The term "gothic" came to be applied to the literary genre precisely because the genre dealt with such emotional extremes and dark themes, and because it found its most natural settings in the buildings of this style -- castles, mansions, and monasteries, often remote, crumbling, and ruined. It was a fascination with this architecture and its related art, poetry (see [[Graveyard Poets]]), and even landscape gardening that inspired the first wave of gothic novelists. For example, [[Horace Walpole]], whose ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'' is often regarded as the first true gothic novel, was obsessed with fake medieval gothic architecture, and built his own house, [[Strawberry Hill, London|Strawberry Hill]], in that form, sparking off a fashion for [[gothic revival]].
Walpole's novel arose out of this obsession with the medieval. He originally claimed |
der Freunde der Kavallerie (German)]
[[Category:Cavalry|*]]
[[Category:Medieval warfare]]
[[Category:Military occupations]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[bg:Кавалерия]]
[[ca:Cavalleria]]
[[cs:Jezdectvo]]
[[da:Kavaleri]]
[[de:Kavallerie]]
[[eo:Kavalerio]]
[[es:Caballería]]
[[fr:Cavalerie]]
[[ko:기병]]
[[it:Cavalleria]]
[[he:חיל הפרשים]]
[[lt:Kavalerija]]
[[ms:pasukan berkuda]]
[[nl:Cavalerie]]
[[ja:騎兵]]
[[no:Kavaleri]]
[[pl:Jazda]]
[[pt:Cavalaria]]
[[ru:Кавалерия]]
[[sv:Kavalleri]]
[[zh:骑兵]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canonization of Saints</title>
<id>6817</id>
<revision>
<id>15904933</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Canonization]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Citric acid cycle</title>
<id>6818</id>
<revision>
<id>41540359</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:03:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ESkog</username>
<id>88149</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.198.112.12|68.198.112.12]] ([[User talk:68.198.112.12|talk]]) to last version by Scattered Lights</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''citric acid cycle''' (also known as the '''tricarboxylic acid cycle''', the '''TCA''' cycle, or the '''Krebs cycle''') is a series of [[chemical reaction]]s of central importance in all living [[cell (biology)|cell]]s that utilize [[oxygen]] as part of [[cellular respiration]]. In [[aerobic organism]]s, the citric acid cycle is part of a [[metabolic pathway]] involved in the chemical conversion of [[carbohydrate]]s, [[fat]]s and [[protein]]s into [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water]] to generate a form of usable energy.
It is the second of three metabolic pathways that are involved in [[fuel molecule]] [[catabolism]] and [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] production, the other two being [[glycolysis]] and [[oxidative phosphorylation]].
The citric acid cycle also provides precursors for many compounds such as certain [[amino acid]]s, and some of its reactions are therefore important even in cells performing [[fermentation]].
==History==
The ''citric acid cycle'' is also known as the ''Krebs cycle'' after Sir [[Hans Adolf Krebs]] (1900-1981), who proposed the key elements of this pathway in 1937 and was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]] for its discovery in [[1953]]. It is correctly written without a possessive [[apostrophe]].
==Location of cycle and inputs and outputs==
The citric acid cycle takes place within the [[mitochondrial matrix]] in [[eukaryote]]s, and within the [[cytoplasm]] in [[prokaryote]]s.
[[Image:TCA_reactions.png|thumb|center|738px|'''The reactions of TCAC as they happen in a human cell'''.</br><div style="border-width: 0px; border-bottom: 1px solid black; text-align: left;">The color scheme is as follows: <span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="color: blue;">enzymes</span>, <span style="color: rgb(219,155,36);">coenzymes</span>, <span style="color: rgb(151,149,45);">substrate names</span>, <span style="color: rgb(227,13,196);">metal ions</span>, <span style="color: rgb(128,0,0);">inorganic molecules</span>, <span style="color: red;">inhibition</span>, <span style="color: green;">stimulation</span> </span>.</div>]]
[[Fuel molecule]] catabolism (including [[glycolysis]]) produces [[acetyl-CoA]], a two-[[carbon]] [[acetyl]] group bound to [[coenzyme A]]. Acetyl-CoA is the main input to the citric acid cycle.
[[Citrate]] is both the first and the last product of the cycle (Fig 1), and is regenerated by the condensation of [[oxaloacetate]] and acetyl-CoA.
{| align="center" cellpadding="3" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-top: 15px; margin-bottom: 15px; border: 1px solid black;"
|- bgcolor="#cccccc"
! Molecule
! [[Enzyme]]
! Reaction type
! [[Reactant]]s/<br /> [[Coenzyme]]s
! [[Product (chemistry)|Product]]s/<br /> Coenzymes
|-
| I. [[Citric acid|Citrate]]
| 1. [[Aconitase]]
| [[Dehydration]]
|
| [[Water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
|-
| II. ''[[cis]]''-[[Aconitic acid|Aconitate]]</td>
| 2. Aconitase
| [[Hydration]]
| H<sub>2</sub>O
|
|-
| III. [[Isocitric acid|Isocitrate]]
| 3. [[Isocitrate dehydrogenase]]
| [[Oxidation]]
| [[Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide|NAD]]<sup>+</sup>
| NADH + [[Proton|H<sup>+</sup>]]
|-
| IV. [[Oxalosuccinic acid|Oxalosuccinate]]
| 4. [[Isocitrate dehydrogenase]]
| [[Decarboxylation]]
|
|
|-
| V. &alpha;-[[Ketoglutaric acid|Ketoglutarate]]
| 5. [[Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase|&alpha;-Ketoglutarate<br /> dehydrogenase]]
| Oxidative<br />decarboxylation
| NAD<sup>+</sup> +<br />[[Coenzyme A|CoA-SH]]
| NADH + H<sup>+</sup><br />+ [[Carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]]
|-
| VI. [[Succinyl-CoA]]
| 6. [[Succinyl coenzyme A synthetase|Succinyl-CoA synthetase]]
| [[Hydrolysis]]
| [[Guanosine diphosphate|GDP]]<br />+ [[Inorganic phosphate|P<sub>i</sub>]]
| [[Guanosine triphosphate|GTP]] +<br />CoA-SH
|-
| VII. [[Succinic acid|Succinate]]
| 7. [[Succinate dehydrogenase]]
| Oxidation
| [[FAD]]
| FADH<sub>2</sub>
|-
| VIII. [[Fumarate]]
| 8. [[Fumarase]]
| Addition ([[Water|H<sub>2</sub>O]])
| H<sub>2</sub>O
|
|-
| IX. ''L''-[[Malic acid|Malate]]
| 9. [[Malate dehydrogenase]]
| Oxidation
| NAD<sup>+</sup>
| NADH + H<sup>+</sup>
|-
| X. [[Oxaloacetic acid|Oxaloacetate]]
| 10. [[Citrate synthase]]
| [[Condensation reaction|Condensation]]
|
|
|-
| XI. [[Acetyl coenzyme A|Acetyl-CoA]]
|
|
|
|
|}
The sum of all reactions in the citric acid cycle is:
: Acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD<sup>+</sup> + FAD + GDP + P<sub>i</sub> + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O → <br> CoA-SH + 3 NADH + H<sup>+</sup> + FADH<sub>2</sub> + GTP + 2 CO<sub>2</sub> + 3 H<sup>+</sup>
Two carbons are [[oxidation|oxidized]] to CO<sub>2</sub>, and the energy from these reactions is stored in [[Guanosine triphosphate|GTP]] , NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub>. NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub> are [[coenzyme]]s (molecules that enable or enhance enzymes) that store energy and are utilized in [[oxidative phosphorylation]].
===A simplified view of the process:===
* The process begins with the oxidation of pyruvate, producing one CO<sub>2</sub>, and one acetyl-CoA.
* Acetyl-CoA reacts with the four carbon carboxylic acid, oxaloacetate--to form the six carbon carboxylic acid, citrate.
* Through a series of reactions citrate is converted back to oxaloacetate. This cycle produces 2 CO<sub>2</sub> and consumes 3 NAD<sup>+</sup>, producing 3NADH and 3H<sup>+</sup>.
* It consumes 3 H<sub>2</sub>O and consumes one FAD, producing one FADH<sup>+</sup>.
* 1st turn end= 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH<sub>2</sub>
* Since there are two molecules of Pyruvic acid to deal with, the cycle turns once more.
* The complete end result= 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH<sub>2</sub>
== Regulation ==
Many of the enzymes in the TCA cycle are regulated by [[Enzyme#Metabolic pathways and allosteric enzymes|negative feedback]] from ATP when the [[energy charge]] of the cell is high. Such enzymes include the [[pyruvate dehydrogenase]] complex that synthesises the acetyl-CoA needed for the first reaction of the TCA cycle. Also the enzymes citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, that regulate the first three steps of the TCA cycle, are inhibited by high concentrations of ATP. This regulation ensures that the TCA cycle will not oxidise excessive amount of pyruvate and acetyl-CoA when ATP in the cell is plentiful. This type of negative regulation by ATP is by an [[allosteric]] mechanism.
Several enzymes are also negatively regulated when the level of reducing equivalents in a cell are high (high ratio of NADH/NAD+). This mechanism for regulation is due to [[Enzyme#Competitive inhibition|substrate inhibition]] by NADH of the enzymes that use NAD+ as a substrate. This includes both the entry point enzymes pyruvate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase.
== Major metabolic pathways converging on the TCA cycle ==
Most of the body's [[catabolic]] pathways converge on the TCA cycle, as the diagram shows. Reactions that form intermediates of the cycle are called [[anaplerotic reactions]].
The citric acid cycle is the second step in [[carbohydrate catabolism]] (the breakdown of sugars). [[Glycolysis]] breaks [[glucose]] (a six-carbon-molecule) down into [[pyruvate]] (a three-carbon molecule). In [[eukaryote]]s, pyruvate moves into the [[mitochondrium|mitochondria]]. It is converted into acetyl-CoA and enters the citric acid cycle.
In [[protein catabolism]], [[protein]]s are broken down by [[protease]] [[enzyme]]s into their constituent amino acids. These [[amino acid]]s are brought into the cells and can be a source of energy by being funnelled into the citric acid cycle.
In [[fat catabolism]], [[triglyceride]]s are [[hydrolysis|hydrolyzed]] to break them into [[fatty acid]]s and [[glycerol]]. In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of [[gluconeogenesis]]. In many tissues, especially heart tissue, fatty acids are broken down through a process known as [[beta oxidation]] which results in acetyl-CoA which ca |
ibutor>
<username>Johntex</username>
<id>149583</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/60.240.173.1|60.240.173.1]] ([[User talk:60.240.173.1|talk]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about lipid molecules. '''Fat''' may also refer to [[obesity]] or [[adipose tissue]]. '''[[FAT]]''' is an acronym.}}
{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''Fat''' is one of the three main [[Food guide pyramid|classes of food]]. It has many meanings, and the only good description is in technical terms. There are triglycerides, fatty acids, sterols, but "fat" may also refer to adipose tissue.
The main constituents of both [[animal fat]] and [[vegetable oils]] are [[triglyceride]]s, that is [[glycerin]] molecules with three [[fatty acids]] attached. Nutritional fat is a mixture of many types of [[triglyceride]]s, which differ in the length of their [[fatty acid]] chains, as well as the number and position of single and double bonds between their carbon atoms. Fat molecules contain only oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon atoms.
[[Vitamin]]s [[Vitamin A|A]], [[Vitamin D|D]], [[Vitamin E|E]], and [[Vitamin K|K]] are fat-soluble meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats are sources of [[essential fatty acid]]s, an important dietary requirement.
Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy [[skin]] and [[hair]], insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. They also serve as energy stores for the body. In [[food]], there are two types of fats: [[Saturated_fat|saturated]] and [[Unsaturated_fat|unsaturated]]. Saturated fat is a sort of a straight chain of carbon connected or bonded with 2 molecules of hydrogen. At the very beginning of this chain is a molecule of oxygen and a molecule of hydroxide. Unsaturated fat is the same thing with one major exception; some of those carbon atoms are not bonded with two hydrogen atoms so it becomes a very "fluid" state. Fats are broken down in the body to release [[Glycerin|glycerol]] and free [[fatty acid]]s. The glycerol can be converted to [[glucose]] by the liver and thus used as a source of energy. The fatty acids are a good source of energy for many tissues, especially heart and skeletal muscle.
==Energy==
With an nutritional energy density of approximately 37 [[Joule|kJ]] (9 [[kilocalorie]]s) per [[gram]], compared to [[sugar]] with 17 kJ/g (4 kcal/g) or [[ethanol]] with 29 kJ/g (7 kcal/g), it is the most concentrated form of metabolic [[energy]] available to humans.
==Adipose tissue==
{{main|Adipose tissue}}
[[Adipose tissue|Adipose]], or fatty, tissue is the human body's means of storing metabolic energy over extended periods of time. Depending on current [[physiological]] conditions, [[adipocytes]] store fat derived from the diet and liver [[metabolism]] or degrades stored fat to supply [[fatty acids]] and [[glycerol]] to the [[circulatory system|circulation]]. These metabolic activities are regulated by several hormones (i.e., [[insulin]], [[glucagon]] and [[epinephrine]]). The location of the tissue determines its metabolic profile: "Visceral fat" (around the abdomen) is prone to lead to [[insulin resistance]], while "peripheral fat" (around the limbs) is much more harmless.
==Metabolism==
{{main|Fatty acid metabolism}}
The [[metabolism]] of lipids is a closely regulated system in virtually all lifeforms. It is affected by a variety of [[enzyme]]s and, in higher organisms, regulated by [[hormone]]s. Research is ongoing on the relative influence of various hormonal regulators on the [[anabolism]] (production) and [[catabolism]] (breakdown, also termed ''lipolysis'') of fatty molecules.
A subject of particularly close study is [[cholesterol]], levels and types of which are influenced by the fatty acid metabolism and is known for its role in development of [[atherosclerosis]].
==See also==
{{cookbookpar|Oil and fat}}
* [[Carbohydrate]]
* [[Protein]]
* [[Lipid]]
* [[Brown fat]]
* [[adipocytes|White fat (adipocytes)]]
* [[Omega-3 fatty acid]]
* [[Cooking oil]]
* [[Yellow grease]]
==External links==
{{wiktionarypar|fat}}
* [http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/fattyacids.html Chemical Structure of Fats and Fatty acids]
[[Category:Lipids]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[ca:Greix]]
[[da:Fedtstof]]
[[de:Fett]]
[[es:Grasa]]
[[eo:Graso]]
[[fr:Graisse]]
[[it:Grasso]]
[[he:FAT]]
[[nl:Vet]]
[[ja:脂肪]]
[[pl:Tłuszcz (chemia)]]
[[pt:Gordura]]
[[su:Gajih]]
[[fi:Rasva]]
[[sv:Fett]]
[[ta:கொழுப்பு]]
[[th:ไขมัน]]
[[zh:脂肪]]
==References==
Rebecca J. Donatelle. Health, The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Front line</title>
<id>11043</id>
<revision>
<id>40345061</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T23:22:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.61.255.85</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
A '''front line''' is a line of confrontation in an [[armed conflict]], most often a [[war]]. On either side of the front line stand the forces of the various [[combatant]]s. In modern [[warfare]], due to the broken nature of mechanized combat, front lines rarely form; instead a zone of confrontation comprises a wide band where forces engage in [[battle]].
[[World War I]] featured the most clearly defined front lines known to date: the front line in [[France]] became marked by dug [[trench]]es almost throughout.
The adjective ''front-line'' is also used to describe [[weapons]], [[ships]] or [[aircraft]] that are of the latest fighting standard, or [[army]] units intended to serve at the front line.
== See also ==
* [[FEBA]] ("Forward Edge of Battle Area")
* [[FLOT]] ("Forward Line of Own Troops")
==External Links==
*{{memoryalpha}}
[[Category:Ground warfare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frankenstein</title>
<id>11044</id>
<revision>
<id>42058750</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:49:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mjpieters</username>
<id>86312</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.253.219.131|62.253.219.131]] to last version by Mjpieters</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the monster itself, see [[Frankenstein's monster]].
[[Image:Frankenstein Cover.jpg|thumb|The cover of one of Barnes & Noble Classics reprinted editions.]]
'''''Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus''''' is a [[novel]] by [[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]]. First published in [[London]] in 1818 (but more often read in the revised third edition of 1831), it is a novel infused with some elements of the [[Gothic novel]] and the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] movement. It was also a warning against the "over-reaching" of modern man and the [[Industrial Revolution]]. (The novel's subtitle, ''The Modern [[Prometheus]]'', alludes to the over-reaching and punishment of the character from [[Greek mythology]].) The story has had an influence across [[literature]] and [[popular culture]] and spawned a complete genre of [[horror fiction|horror]] stories and [[film]]s. Many distinguished authors, such as [[Brian Aldiss]], claim that it is the very first [[science fiction]] novel.
==Plot synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
:''"It was on a dreary night of November, that I beheld the accomplishment of my toils. With an anxiety that almost amounted to agony, I collected the instruments of life around me, that I might infuse a spark of being into the lifeless thing that lay at my feet. It was already one in the morning; the rain pattered dismally against the panes, and my candle was nearly burnt out, when, by the glimmer of the half-extinguished light, I saw the dull yellow eye of the creature open; it breathed hard, and a convulsive motion agitated its limbs."''
The novel opens with Captain Walton on a ship sailing north of the Arctic Circle. Walton's ship becomes ice-bound, and as he contemplates his isolation and paralysis, he spots a figure traveling across the ice on a dog sledge. This is [[Victor Frankenstein]]'s [[Frankenstein's Monster|creature]]. Soon after he sees the ill Victor Frankenstein himself, and invites him onto his boat. The narrative of Walton is a [[Frame Narrative|frame narrative]] that allows for the story of Victor to be related. At the same time, Walton's predicament is symbolically appropriate for Victor's tale of displaced passion and brutalism.
Victor takes over telling the story here. Curious and intelligent from a young age, he is self taught by masters of [[Medieval]] alchemy, reading such authors as [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Paracelsus]], and shunning modern [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] teachings of natural science (see also [[Middle Ages in history#Romantics|Romanticism and the Middle Ages]]). He leaves his beloved family in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]] to study in [[Ingolstadt]], [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]] where he is first introduced to modern science. In a moment of inspiration, combining his new found knowledge of natural science with that of the alchemy dreams of his old masters, Victor discovers the means by which inanimate matter can be imbued with life. With great drive and fervor, he sets about constructing a creature &mdash; perhaps intended as a companion &mdash; through means which Shelley refers to only ambiguously. Subsequent visual interpretations of the story have included the creation of Frankenstein's monster through alchemy, by the piecing together of corpses, or a combination of the two. In the novel it is stated (chapter 4, volume 1) that he uses bones from charnel-houses where corpses were kept at the time.
He intends the creature to be beautiful, but when the creature awakens, Victo |
Eth</Td> <td>10443</td><td>66627</td><td>&#66627;</td><td>Eth</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>1041C</td><td>66588</td><td>&#66588;</td><td>Thee</Td> <td>10444</td><td>66628</td><td>&#66628;</td><td>Thee</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>1041D</td><td>66589</td><td>&#66589;</td><td>Es</Td> <td>10445</td><td>66629</td><td>&#66629;</td><td>Es</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>1041E</td><td>66590</td><td>&#66590;</td><td>Zee</Td> <td>10446</td><td>66630</td><td>&#66630;</td><td>Zee</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>1041F</td><td>66591</td><td>&#66591;</td><td>Esh</Td> <td>10447</td><td>66631</td><td>&#66631;</td><td>Esh</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>10420</td><td>66592</td><td>&#66592;</td><td>Zhee</Td> <td>10448</td><td>66632</td><td>&#66632;</td><td>Zhee</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>10421</td><td>66593</td><td>&#66593;</td><td>Er</Td> <td>10449</td><td>66633</td><td>&#66633;</td><td>Er</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>10422</td><td>66594</td><td>&#66594;</td><td>El</Td> <td>1044A</td><td>66634</td><td>&#66634;</td><td>El</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>10423</td><td>66595</td><td>&#66595;</td><td>Em</Td> <td>1044B</td><td>66635</td><td>&#66635;</td><td>Em</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>10424</td><td>66596</td><td>&#66596;</td><td>En</Td> <td>1044C</td><td>66636</td><td>&#66636;</td><td>En</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>10425</td><td>66597</td><td>&#66597;</td><td>Eng</Td> <td>1044D</td><td>66637</td><td>&#66637;</td><td>Eng</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>10426</td><td>66598</td><td>&#66598;</td><td>&lt;Reserved&gt;</Td></Tr>
<tr><td>10427</td><td>66599</td><td>&#66599;</td><td>&lt;Reserved&gt;</Td></Tr>
</table>
==See also==
*[[Cherokee alphabet]]
==External links==
*Unicode Code Chart, 10400-1044F (Deseret), retrieved from http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U10400.pdf
* [http://www.coloradohistory.org:5000/about_chs/curators/Deseret.htm Colorado History page]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/deseret.htm The Deseret Alphabet at Omniglot]
[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
[[Category:Artificial scripts]]
[[Category:Mormonism]]
[[Category:English spelling]]
[[de:Deseret-Alphabet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data Compression/sampling frequency</title>
<id>8223</id>
<revision>
<id>15906237</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-25T20:07:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brion VIBBER</username>
<id>51</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Merging to Sampling frequency</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sampling frequency]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Definition Of Music</title>
<id>8225</id>
<revision>
<id>17936148</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-01T03:52:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deltabeignet</username>
<id>195366</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>slightly changed focus in accordance w/ move</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Definition of music]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Danish</title>
<id>8226</id>
<revision>
<id>41726037</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:49:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Spasage</username>
<id>472206</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Danish''' may refer to:
* '''[[Danish language|Danish]]''', a [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic language]] spoken almost exclusively in [[Denmark]]
* the '''[[Danish people]]''', mainly citizens or inhabitants of Denmark
* '''[[Danish pastry]]''', often simply called '''danish'''
* '''Danish tongue''' is a common historical name of '''(West) [[Old Norse]]''', the parent language of all North Germanic languages
* '''[[Daner]]''', a Germanic tribe
* '''[[Danish]]''', a proper Arabic name
* [[Ihsan Danish]], Poet from [[Pakistan]]
{{disambig}}
[[bg:Датски]]
[[pt:Dinamarquês]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Danish language</title>
<id>8227</id>
<revision>
<id>42061652</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:18:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NongBot</username>
<id>817745</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: th</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Danish
|nativename=dansk
|states=[[Denmark]], [[Faroe Islands]], [[Greenland]], [[Germany]] ([[Schleswig-Holstein]])
|speakers=5.5 million
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[North Germanic language|North Germanic]]
|fam4=East Scandinavian
|nation=[[Denmark]], [[European Union]], [[Germany]] (protected minority language)
|agency=[[Dansk Sprognævn]] ("Danish Language Committee")
|iso1=da|iso2=dan|iso3=dan}}
'''Danish''' (''dansk'') belongs to the [[North Germanic languages]] (also called Scandinavian languages), a sub-group of the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages]]. It is spoken by around 5.5 million people mainly in [[Denmark]] including some 50,000 people in the northern parts of [[Schleswig-Holstein]] in [[Germany]], where it holds the status of minority language. Danish also holds official status and is a mandatory subject in school in the former Danish colonies of [[Greenland]] and the [[Faroe Islands]], that now enjoy limited autonomy. In [[Iceland]], which was a part of Denmark until [[1944]], Danish is still the second foreign language taught in schools (although a few learn Swedish or Norwegian instead).
The language started diverging from the common ancestor language [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] sometime during the [[13th century]] and became more distinct from the other emerging Scandinavian national languages with the first bible translation in [[1550]], establishing an [[orthography]] differing from that of [[Swedish language|Swedish]], though written Danish is usually far easier for Swedes to understand than the spoken language. Modern spoken Danish is characterized by a very strong tendency of reduction of many sounds making it particularly difficult for foreigners to understand and properly master, not just by reputation but by sheer phonetic reality.
==Classification and related languages==
Danish belongs to the East Scandinavian languages, together with Swedish. Though Norwegian is classified as a West Scandinavian language together with [[Faroese language|Faroese]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], a more recent classification based on mutual intelligibility places Icelandic and Faroese in a separate ''Insular Scandinavian'' branch while Norwegian is considered to be a ''Mainland Scandinavian'' language and grouped with Danish and Swedish. Written Danish and Norwegian [[Bokmål]] are particularly close, though the phonology and prosody of all three languages differ somewhat. Proficient speakers of any of the three languages can understand the others, though studies have shown that speakers of Norwegian generally understand both Danish and Swedish far better than Swedes or Danes understand any of the other languages.
==History==
[[Image:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|right|250px|thumb|This is the approximate extent of [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] and related languages in the early [[10th century]]. The red area is the distribution of the dialect '''Old West Norse'''; the orange area is the spread of the dialect '''Old East Norse'''. The pink area is [[Old Gutnish]] and the green area is the extent of the other [[Germanic languages]] with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility.]] In the [[8th century]], the common [[Germanic language]] of [[Scandinavia]], [[Proto-Norse language|Proto-Norse]], had undergone some changes and evolved into [[Old Norse]]. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, which resulted in the appearance of two similar dialects, ''Old West Norse'' ([[Norway]] and [[Iceland]]) and ''Old East Norse'' ([[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]]).
Old East Norse is in Sweden called ''Runic Swedish'' and in Denmark ''Runic Danish'', but until the [[12th century]], the dialect was the same in the two countries. The dialects are called ''runic'' due to the fact that the main body of text appears in the [[runic alphabet]]. Unlike [[Proto-Norse]], which was written with the [[Elder Futhark]] alphabet, Old Norse was written with the [[Younger Futhark]] alphabet, which only had 16 letters. Due to the limited number of runes, some runes were used for a range of [[phoneme]]s, such as the rune for the [[vowel]] ''u'' which was also used for the vowels ''o'', ''ø'' and ''y'', and the rune for ''i'' which was also used for ''e''.
A change that separated Old East Norse (Runic Swed |
Inventory: 3-4 C-17ER on order
* May be operated by [[No. 36 Squadron RAAF|No. 36 Squadron]] based at either [[RAAF Base Richmond]] or [[RAAF Base Amberley]].
== Specifications (C-17) ==
[[Image:C-17 3-view.png|right|400px]]
<h3> General characteristics <h3>
* '''Crew:''' 3 <small>(2 pilots, 1 loadmaster)</small>
* '''Capacity:'''
** Cargo: 170,900 lb (77,500 kg)
** Troops: 102, regular or airborne
** Medevac: 36 litter and 54 ambulatory patients
* '''Length:''' 174 ft (53 m)
* '''Wingspan:''' 169.8 ft (58 m)
* '''Height:''' 55.1 ft (16.8 m)
* '''Wing area:''' 3,800 ft&sup2; (353 m&sup2;)
* '''Empty:''' lb ( kg)
* '''Loaded:''' lb ( kg)
* '''Maximum takeoff:''' 585,000 lb (265,500 kg)
* '''Powerplant:''' 4 &times; [[Pratt & Whitney PW2000|Pratt & Whitney F117-PW-100]] [[turbofan]]s, 40,440 [[pound-force|lb<sub>f</sub>]] (180 kN) thrust
<h3> Performance <h3>
* '''Maximum speed:''' 450 knots (830 km/h)
* '''Cruise speed:''' 390 knots (722 km/h)
* '''Range:'''
** C-17: 2,400 nm (4,400 km)
** C-17ER: 2,800 nm (5,200 km)
* '''Service ceiling:''' 45,000 ft (13,700 m)
* '''Rate of climb:''' ft/min ( m/min)
* '''Wing loading:''' lb/ft&sup2; ( kg/m&sup2;)
* '''Thrust/weight:'''
== References ==
* {{note|gdr_2003}} "[http://www.global-defence.com/2003/globe_master.htm RAF's Globe Master]." ''[[Global Defence Review]]''. [[2003]].
* {{note|expatica_bdr}} "[http://www.expatica.com/source/site_article.asp?subchannel_id=52&story_id=15827&name=Berlin+to+designate+tsunami+relief+as+development+aid+ Berlin designates tsunami relief as aid]." ''[[Expatica]]''. [[January 17]], [[2005]].
* {{note|raaf_pr}} "[http://www.minister.defence.gov.au/NelsonMintpl.cfm?CurrentId=5449 New Heavy Airlift Capability For The Royal Australian Air Force]." RAAF press release. [[March 2]], [[2006]].
* {{note|wsj_aussie_c17}} "[http://online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20060302-012420.html?mod=COMPANY Australia To Spend Up To A$2B On Boeing C-17 Aircraft]." ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. [[March 2]], [[2006]].
{{airlistbox}}
{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin:4px auto; clear:both; font-family:Arial,Helvetica; font-size:72%; align="center; bgcolor="#efefef""
|-
|bgcolor="#DCDCDC"| '''Modern USAF Series'''
| rowspan="2" |
''Transport''<br>
[[C-5 Galaxy]]<br>
C-17 Globemaster III<br>
[[C-20 Gulfstream III]]<br>
[[C-21 Learjet]]<br>
[[Boeing C-22|C-22B]]<br>
[[Boeing C-32|C-32]]<br>
[[C-130 Hercules]]<br>
[[C-141B Starlifter]]<br>
[[C-37 Gulfstream V|C-37A]]<br>
[[C-40 Clipper|C-40B/C]]<br>
[[VC-25 - Air Force One]]<br>
| rowspan="2" |
''Fighter''<br>
[[F-15 Eagle]]<br>
[[F-15E Strike Eagle]]<br>
[[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]<br>
''Electronic''<br>
[[E-3 Sentry]]<br>
[[E-4B]]<br>
[[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C Joint Stars]]<br>
[[EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J]] <br>
[[EC-130H Compass Call]]<br>
|rowspan="2" |
''Miscellaneous ''<br>
[[HC-130P]]/[[HC-130N|N]]<br>
[[HH-60G Pave Hawk]]<br>
[[KC-10 Extender]]<br>
[[KC-135 Stratotanker]]<br>
[[MC-130E]]/[[MC-130H|H]] <br>
[[MC-130P Combat Shadow]]<br>
[[MH-53J Pave Low|MH-53J]]/[[MH-53M Pave Low|M Pave Low]] <br>
[[OC-135 Open Skies|OC-135B Open Skies]]<br>
[[RC-135 Rivet Joint|RC-135V/RC-135W Rivet Joint]]<br>
[[Lockheed U-2|U-2S/TU-2S]]<br>
[[UH-1 Iroquois|UH-1N Huey]]<br>
| rowspan="2" |
''Trainers''<br>
[[T-1 Jayhawk]]<br>
[[T-37 Tweet]]<br>
[[T-38 Talon]]<br>
[[Boeing T-43|T-43]]<br>
[[T-6 Texan II]]<br>
''Weather''<br>
[[WC-130 Hercules]]<br>
[[WC-135]]<br>
''UAV''<br>
[[RQ-1 Predator|RQ-1/MQ-1 Predator UAV]] <br>
[[Global Hawk| Global Hawk UAV ]] <br>
|-
|''Attack''<br>
[[A-10 Thunderbolt II]]<br>
[[OA-10 Thunderbolt II|OA-10]]<br>
[[AC-130 gunship|AC-130H/U Gunship]]<br>
''Bomber'' <br>
[[B-1B Lancer]]<br>
[[B-2 Spirit]]<br>
[[B-52 Stratofortress]]<br>
[[F-117A Nighthawk]]<br>
|}
==External links==
* [http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/c17/c17spec.htm Official site].
* [http://www.b-domke.de/AviationImages/Globemaster.html More detailed photographs].
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/c-17.htm GlobalSecurity.org entry].
==Related content==
{{aircontent|
|links=yes
|has sequence=yes
|has relations=yes
|has lists=no
|see also?=yes
|sequence=
* [[C-12 Huron|C-12]] - [[Boeing YC-14|C-14]] - [[McDonnell Douglas YC-15|C-15]] - [[C-16]] - '''C-17''' - [[Boeing C-18|C-18]] - [[Boeing C-19|C-19]] - [[C-20 Gulfstream III|C-20]] - [[C-21 Learjet|C-21]]
|related=
* [[McDonnell Douglas YC-15]]
|similar aircraft=
* [[C-141 Starlifter]] - [[Kawasaki C-1]]
|has lists=no
<!-- |lists=
* [[List of airliners]] -->
|see also?=yes
|see also=
* [[Strategic airlift]]
* [[Airhead]]
}}
{{Commons|C-17 Globemaster III}}
[[Category:U.S. military transport aircraft 1990-1999]]
[[de:McDonnell Douglas C-17]]
[[fr:McDonnell Douglas C-17 Globemaster III]]
[[ja:C-17 (輸送機)]]
[[sl:McDonnell Douglas C-17 Globemaster III]]
[[sv:Boeing C-17 Globemaster III]]
[[zh:C-17运输机]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caber</title>
<id>6732</id>
<revision>
<id>15904853</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-22T15:24:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DJ Clayworth</username>
<id>16175</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to Caber toss</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Caber toss]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Garbage collection (computer science)</title>
<id>6734</id>
<revision>
<id>42081206</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:21:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Awaterl</username>
<id>246</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Mutator refers to an application in GC parlance, not a mutator method in object-oriented parlance.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Garbage (computer science)}}
In [[computer science]], '''garbage collection''' (also known as '''GC''') is a form of automatic [[memory management]]. The '''garbage collector''' or '''collector''' attempts to reclaim ''[[garbage (computer science)|garbage]]'', or memory used by [[Object (computer science)|objects]] that will never again be accessed or mutated by the [[Application software|application]]. Garbage collection was invented by [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] around [[1959]] to solve the problems of manual memory management in his recently devised [[Lisp programming language]].
Garbage collection is often portrayed as the opposite of [[manual memory management]], which requires the programmer to specify which objects to deallocate and return to the memory system. However, many systems use a combination of the two approaches, and there are other techniques being studied (such as [[region inference]]) to solve the same fundamental problem.
== Description ==
The basic principle of how a garbage collector works is:
# Determine what data objects in a program will not be accessed in the future
# Reclaim the storage used by those objects
By making manual memory deallocation unnecessary (and typically impossible), garbage collection frees the programmer from having to worry about releasing objects that are no longer needed, which can otherwise consume a significant amount of design effort. It also aids in making language safer, because it prevents several classes of runtime errors. For example, it prevents [[dangling pointer]] errors, where a reference to a deallocated object is used.
Many [[computer language]]s require garbage collection, either as part of the language specification (''e.g.'' [[Java programming language|Java]], [[C Sharp|C#]], and most [[scripting languages]]) or effectively for practical implementation (''e.g.'' formal languages like [[lambda calculus]]); these are said to be '''garbage-collected languages'''. Other languages were designed for use with manual memory management, but have garbage collected implementations (''e.g.'', [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]]). Some languages, like [[Modula-3]], allow both garbage collection and manual memory management to co-exist in the same application by using separate heaps for collected and manually managed objects. In any case, it is far easier to implement garbage collection as part of the language's [[compiler]] and [[runtime]] system, but ''post hoc'' GC systems exist, including ones that do not require recompilation. The garbage collector will almost always be closely integrated with the [[Dynamic memory allocation|memory allocator]].
==Tracing garbage collectors==
Tracing garbage collectors are the most common type of garbage collector. They focus on determining which objects are ''reachable'' (or potentially reachable), and then discard all remaining objects.
===Reachability of an object===
Informally, a reachable object can be defined as an object for which there exists some name in the program environment that leads to it, either directly or through references from other reachable objects. More precisely, objects can be reachable in only two ways:
# A distinguished set of objects are assumed to be reachable -- these are known as the ''roots.'' Typically, these include all the objects referenced from anywhere in the [[call stack]] (that is, all local variables and parameters in the functions currently being invoked), and any global variables.
# Anything referenced from a reachable object is itself reachable. This is referred to as [[transitive relation|transitivity]].
The reachability definition of "garbage" is |
ns.
* The [[neutron]]-[[nuclear fission|fission]] chain reaction: a neutron plus a fissionable [[atom]] causes a fission resulting in a larger number of neutrons than was consumed in the initial reaction.
*[[Chemical reaction]]s, where a product of a reaction is itself a reactive particle which can cause more similar reactions. For example, every step of [[Hydrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]] + [[Chlorine|Cl<sub>2</sub>]] chain reaction consumes one [[molecule]] of H<sub>2</sub> or Cl<sub>2</sub>, one [[free radical]] H· or Cl· producing one [[Hydrochloric acid|HCl]] molecule and another free radical.
*[[Electron avalanche]] process: Collisions of [[free electron]]s in a strong [[electric field]] forming "new" electrons to undergo the same process in successive cycles.
==See also==
*[[Nuclear chain reaction]]
*[[Polymerase chain reaction]]
*[[Markov chain]]
*[[Chain letter]]
*[[Ladder-up reaction]]
[[Category:Chemical kinetics]]
[[ca:Reacció en cadena]]
[[cs:Řetězová reakce]]
[[de:Kettenreaktion]]
[[es:Reacción en cadena]]
[[fr:Réaction en chaîne]]
[[nl:Kettingreactie]]
[[pl:Reakcja łańcuchowa]]
[[pt:Reacção em cadeia]]
[[sv:Kedjereaktion]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chu Mei-feng</title>
<id>7835</id>
<revision>
<id>40362414</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chu Mei-feng''', (&#29865;&#32654;&#40179; [[pinyin]]: Qú M&#283;ifèng) born [[1966]], [[Republic of China|Taiwanese]] politician, was director of [[Hsinchu]]'s Bureau of Cultural Affairs. She is noted for her outspokenness, sharp-wittedness, and beauty.
Chu campaigned under the [[New Party (Taiwan)|New Party]] (NP) for election to the [[Legislative Yuan]]'s [[Taichung City]] electoral district and was seen as a threat to the incumbent [[Shen Chih-hui]], despite a string of high-profile relationships including one with Hsinchu's mayor, [[Tsai Jen-chien]], who was ten years older than she and a member of the rival [[Democratic Progressive Party]] (DPP).
On [[December 17]], [[2001]], the [[tabloid]] <cite>Scoop Weekly</cite> published a lengthy story about Chu's alleged [[promiscuity]] and distributed a video taken secretly with a pinhole camera, purportedly showing Chu having sex with a married man. The video was sold on [[Video CD]]s in [[Hong Kong]] and Taiwan. Chu sued the tabloid for [[libel]] on [[December 31]], 2001. The magazines in question were pulled from the market as a result, but not before several thousand copies were sold. The video found its way onto the Internet.
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1875385.stm BBC Article]
{{China-bio-stub}}
{{Asia-politician-stub}}
<!-- Chu is her family name. Do not reverse the order, please. -->
[[Category:1966 births|Chu, Mei-feng]]
[[Category:Living people|Chu, Mei-feng]]
[[Category:Politicians of the Republic of China|Chu, Mei-feng]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CF</title>
<id>7836</id>
<revision>
<id>15905884</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-24T14:13:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Cf]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cf]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caddy</title>
<id>7837</id>
<revision>
<id>42148265</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:25:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.226.175.226</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Etymology */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses2|Caddy}}
In [[golf]], a '''caddy''' (or '''caddie''') is the person who carries a player's bag, and gives insightful advice and moral support. A caddy is aware of the challenges and obstacles of the golf course being played, along with the best strategy in playing it. This includes knowing overall yardage, pin placements and club selection.
== Etymology ==
The records are not certain, but historians believe that [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]], came up with the term "'''caddy'''" in the late 16th century. Mary grew up in [[France]] where military cadets carried golf clubs for royalty. It is possible that Mary brought the custom to [[Scotland]], where the term evolved into the word "caddy."
Alternatively, the word "'''caddy'''" may have originated from the [[Malay language|Malay]] word 'kati'. Kati is a measure for tea leaves and is printed on boxes used to carry and collect the tea leaves, hence its use in terms reflecting carrying and collecting.
Also, the word may have originated from the Welsh term "cad", which is a "battle", "contest", or "test", such as the [[Cad Goddeau]].
== Types of caddying ==
'''Traditional caddying''' involves both the ''golfer'' and the ''caddy'' walking the course. The caddy is in charge of carrying the player’s bag and both the caddy and the golfer walk at the same pace. This is the most common method used in [[golf club (equipment)|golf clubs]] and is the only method allowed in the [[Professional Golfers' Association|PGA (Professional Golf Association)]] and [[LPGA|LPGA (Ladies Professional Golf Association)]].
'''Fore-caddying''' is a type of caddying where the caddy is always ahead of the golfer, marking their ''shots'' where they land. The caddy will start out a ''hole'' by running to the landing spot of their golfer’s tee shot. The job of the caddy is to ''mark'' the ''ball'' with a ''towel'', ''stick'', ''etc.'' so that the golfer does not have to waste time searching for it. If the hole is long and requires multiple shots before the golfer can reach the "green" (the putting surface at the end of each hole), then the fore-caddy will go ahead to the next landing area and mark his/her golfer’s ball until the ball reaches the green. Once the golfer is on the green, the ''fore-caddy'' maintains regular caddy duties like raking sand traps and taking the pin out of the cup. After the golfer is finished putting on the green, the ''fore-caddy'' returns to his/her duties and heads out to the next hole’s landing spot. This routine continues for the remainder of the course. The main purpose of this type of caddying is to let the golfers ride in ''carts'' if they are unable to walk the course with a caddy.
'''Cart-caddying''', a type of ''fore-caddying'', consists of a caddy driving a cart for the entire round of golf. The main job of the caddy is to drive ahead of the walking golfer and ''mark'' their ball before they get there. Getting to the ball first, the caddy can determine what type of shot the golfer should play.
== Duties ==
The caddy's duties include ''carrying the bag, reading greens, raking [[bunkers]], giving correct yardage, helping with club selection, cleaning clubs and golf balls, replacing “divots” (chunks of grass), pulling the pin, knowing the conditions of the course, and providing pleasant company''. Caddies must also be alert at all times. Any penalty caused by the caddy is added on to his/her golfer’s ''score''. The caddy should be aware of their surroundings at all times, especially when players are hitting. Standing in other golfers’ ''line of putting or line of sight'' while they are hitting a ball is discouraged. Also, during ''tournaments'' the caddy is expected to know the rules and point out any rule-breaking on the part of the golfer. The caddy is responsible for knowing the ''maximum club limit'' allowed. A caddy on the [[PGA Tour]], Miles Byrne, became famous when he forgot to count the clubs in [[Ian Woosnam]]'s bag (only 14 allowed) before the final round of the [[British Open]]. His mistake cost Woosnam two strokes and possibly the championship. Duties performed by the caddy can directly affect the play of the golfer.
== Relationship between the caddy and the golfer ==
The caddy and the golfer spend hours at a time together, which allows them to develop a ''relationship''. One of the caddy’s jobs is to support the player mentally to help them golf a better round. "Small talk" is one of the ways that the caddy and the golfer can get to know each other. Most of the time, the golfer initiates the conversation by asking the caddy personal questions to get to know them and build a rapport. ''Questions'' brought up may include where the caddy lives, where they go to school, professional aspirations, and the size of their family. The golfer usually proceeds to tell the caddy about himself, forming a relationship for the duration of the round. A seasoned caddy becomes pretty adept at reading the players he is working for and knowing if they prefer to receive advice during their rounds of golf or whether they prefer to be left alone and make decisions on their own.
== Weekly schedule ==
The weekly schedule for a caddy consists of working one to six days. The most caddied days are Saturdays and Sundays when golfers have off work. Caddies that are dedicated will work up to the maximum six days a week. The number of days worked is limited to when the course is open. Usually the course is closed one day out of the week (typically Monday). This allows for the “greenskeeper”, or person in charge of keeping the course up to playing standards, to maintain the course; mowing and doing repairs where is needed. At some courses, caddies are allowed to golf the day the course is closed.
== Pay scale ==
Caddies are paid at the end of the round by cash or with a ticket that can be cashed by the club. Depending on how good the caddy is, there is a minimum ''base pay'' that is enforced by the club: |
/www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=2140]
The value of the alliance was again questioned when a new US Ambassador arrived to take up his post in Wellington, New Zealand, in 2005. In his first speech on the topic of NZ-US relations the Ambassador referred to the ANZUS treaty repeatedly as "Anzoo". Some commentators questioned how the Ambassador might know much about the alliance if he couldn't name it properly.
===Trivia===
An exhibit commemorating the past and present of the ANZUS Treaty is located at [[the Pentagon]]. Known as the "ANZUS Corridor", it is located on the second floor of the A-ring, between Apex 1/2 and Apex 3/4.
The break down of the NZ-US relationship was dramatised on film by [[Greg McGee]] in the movie "Fallout".
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
==See also==
*[[Australian Defence Force]]
*[[Military of New Zealand]]
*[[United States armed forces]]
*[[SEATO]]
*[[Pine Gap]]
*[[David Lange]]
*[[New Zealand Labour Party]]
{{col-2}}
==External links==
*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1952/2.html Text of the ANZUS Treaty]
*[http://www.make-believe.org/essays/thesis.html Australia and the ANZUS Crisis - chronicles the near-death experience of ANZUS in 1985]
*[http://www.cis.org.au/policy/spr03/polspr03-5.htm Will New Zealand ever rejoin ANZUS?]
{{col-end}}
[[Category:Cold War treaties]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Australia]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Military alliances]]
[[Category:United States treaties]]
[[de:ANZUS-Abkommen]]
[[it:ANZUS]]
[[ja:太平洋安全保障条約]]
[[hu:ANZUS]]
[[pl:Pakt Bezpieczeństwa Pacyfiku]]
[[ru:АНЗЮС]]
[[sv:ANZUS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Axiology</title>
<id>3143</id>
<revision>
<id>39369663</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T18:42:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.20.110.97</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Axiology''', from the Greek ''axia'' (''&alpha;&xi;&iota;&alpha;'', value, worth), is the study of value or quality. It is often thought to include [[ethics]] and [[aesthetics]]&mdash;philosophical fields that depend crucially on notions of value&mdash;and sometimes it is held to lay the groundwork for these fields, and thus to be similar to [[value theory]] and [[meta-ethics]]. The term was used in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but in recent decades, [[value theory]] has tended to replace it in discussions of the nature of value or goodness in general. Main article: ''[[Goodness and value theory]]''.
One area in which research continues to be pursued is so-called ''[[formal axiology]],'' or the attempt to lay out principles regarding value with [[mathematical rigor]].
The term is also used sometimes in [[economics]].
A popular work by [[Robert M. Pirsig]], ''[[Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance]],'' introduced the term "axiology" to a general audience, although not in any technical context.
== External links ==
* [http://www.formalontology.it/being.htm Being in philosophy and linguistics]
{{Philosophy navigation}}
[[Category:Meta-ethics]]
[[de:Wertphilosophie]]
[[es:Axiología]]
[[fr:Axiologie]]
[[it:Assiologia]]
[[pl:Aksjologia]]
[[ru:Аксиология]]
[[sv:Axiologi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A Doll's House</title>
<id>3144</id>
<revision>
<id>41845561</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:52:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Prosfilaes</username>
<id>49272</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''There is a separate article about [[The Sandman: The Doll's House|The Doll's House, the graphic novel collection of the comic book The Sandman]].''
'''''A Doll's House''''' (Original [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] title: ''Et dukkehjem'') is a [[1879]] [[play]] by [[Norway|Norwegian]] playwright [[Henrik Ibsen]]. The play was highly controversial when first published, as it is sharply critical of [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[marriage]] norms. It is considered a prime example of what is called the [[Well-Made Play]].
''A Doll's House'' was made into [[A Doll's House (movie)|numerous movies]], including a [[1973]] version directed by [[Joseph Losey]].
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
''A Doll's House'' is a scathing criticism of the traditional roles of men and women in Victorian marriage. As Ibsen wrote in his initial notes for the play, "There are two kinds of moral law, two kinds of conscience, one in man and a completely different one in woman. They do not understand each other; but in matters of practical living the woman is judged by man’s law, as if she were not a woman but a man."
Ibsen has his [[protagonist]], Nora, leave her husband in search of the wider world, after realizing that he is not the noble creature she has supposed him to be. Her role in the marriage is that of a [[doll]], her house a "[[dollhouse|Doll's House]]", and indeed her husband Torvald refers to her incessantly as his little "[[starling]]" and as his "[[squirrel]]". She is not even permitted a key to the [[mailbox]]. Ibsen noted, "A woman cannot be herself in contemporary society, it is an exclusively male society with laws drafted by men, and with counsel and judges who judge feminine conduct from the male point of view." When she is [[blackmail]]ed because of an improper act that she commits in order to save her husband's life&nbsp;&ndash; [[forgery|forging]] her father's name on a note&nbsp;&ndash; her husband shows disgust and horror at what she had done upon finding this out. His only concern is his own reputation, despite the love for him that prompts her to do it.
When the blackmailer (Krogstad) recants, it could all be over, and in a traditional Victorian drama all would then be resolved. For Ibsen, however, and for Nora, it is too late to go back to the way things were. Her illusions destroyed, she decides she must leave her husband, her children, and her Doll's House to discover what is truly real and what is not. As Ibsen described it, "Depressed and confused by her faith in authority, she loses faith in her moral right and ability to bring up her children. A mother in contemporary society, just as certain insects go away and die when she has done her duty in the propagation of the race."
==Critics==
To the Victorians, this was scandalous. Nothing was considered more sacrosanct than the covenant of marriage, and to portray it in such a way was completely unacceptable. Some theatre houses refused to stage the play, so Ibsen was pressed to write an alternate ending that was far less black. This distressed him considerably, and on occasion he actually submitted a "correction" at the last minute to the actors on opening nights.
==See also==
* [[A Doll's House (film)|Artistic depictions of the play]]
==External links==
*{{gutenberg|no=2542|name=A Doll's House}}
*{{gutenberg|no=15492|name=A Doll's House}} (alternate edition)
[[Category:Norwegian plays|Doll's House, A]]
[[de:Nora oder ein Puppenheim]]
[[it:Casa di bambola]]
[[he:בית הבובות (מחזה)]]
[[no:Et Dukkehjem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AIM-9 Sidewinder</title>
<id>3145</id>
<revision>
<id>40564207</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T13:32:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bastin8</username>
<id>154626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>United Kingdom</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:sidewider_missile_20040710_145400_1.4.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Sidewinder Missile]]
The '''AIM-9 Sidewinder''' is a [[heat-seeking]], short-range, [[air-to-air missile]] carried by [[fighter aircraft]]. It is named after the [[Sidewinder (snake)|Sidewinder snake]], which also detects its prey via body heat. The Sidewinder was the first really effective air-to-air missile, widely imitated and copied. Its latest variants remain in active service with many air forces.
==History==
===Early development===
The Sidewinder missile was a development of the Naval Ordnance Test Station (NOTS), Inyokern, California, now the Naval Air Weapon Development Center, China Lake, California. It was officially designated in 1952 and was originally conceived by William Burdette McLean.
Developed by the [[US Navy]] starting in the late [[1940s]], the Sidewinder introduced several new technologies that made it simpler and much more reliable than its [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) counterpart, the [[AIM-4 Falcon]]. After terrible experiences with the Falcon in the [[Vietnam War]], the Air Force replaced its Falcons with Sidewinders.
The primary advantage to the Sidewinder is its sophisticated, yet simple detection and guidance system. During [[World War II|WWII]] the Germans had experimented with [[infrared]] guidance systems in a large missile known as the [[Enzian missile|Enzian]], but were unable to get it to work reliably. The Enzian was guided by an [[Infra-red|IR]] detector mounted in a small, steerable telescope. A vane in front of the mirror shaded the detector, so the system could locate the target. By continually turning toward the telescope, the missile was guided toward the target using what is known as a ''pure pursuit''.
The Sidewinder improved on this. The first was to replace the "steering" mirror with a mirror rotating around a shaft pointed out the front of the missile. The detector was mounted in front of the mirror. Instead of attempting to track the target in the mirror, the IR sensor would see the target as brief flashes as the mirror lined up with the target. By knowing where the flash was as the mirror spun, the direction (radially) to the target was also known. This system could also track the radial angle to the target by timing the flashes. If the target was further to the side, the flash seen in t |
temples one will find [[Shiva]] [[lingam]] together with [[vaishnava]] aspects of worship.
[[Hinduism]], especially its history and heritage, is vitally important and is strongly defining the characteristics of [[Indian nationalism]], and the political identity and expression of India's Hindus.
==Hallmarks of Hindu Society==
===Ethnic and Cultural Fabric===
[[Image:Early morning on the Ganges.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Ganges is considered as the most sacred river by Hindus]]
{{seealso|Indo-Aryans|Aryan Invasion Theory|Demographics of India|History of India}}
Hinduism has one of the most gentically and ethnically diverse body of adherents in the world. Hinduism, its religious doctrines, traditions and observances are very typical and inextricably linked to the culture and demographics of India.
Large tribes and communities of indigenous origins, are also closely linked to the earliest synthesis and formation of Hindu civilization. Peoples of [[Mongoloid]] roots living in the states of north eastern India and [[Nepal]] were also a part of the earliest Hindu civilization. Immigration and settlement of peoples from [[Central Asia]] and peoples of [[Indo-Greek]] heritage have brought their own influence on Hindu society. For example, the staunchest defenders of Hindu India against Muslim invaders were the [[Rajput]]s of modern [[Rajasthan]], who were immigrants from Central Asia. The [[Mehr]] community of Rajasthan and [[Gujarat]] is also proud of its Central Asian roots, but more fiercely proud of its Hindu traditions and faith.
The Dravidian deities of the Indus Valley Civilization have uncanny resemblances to Hindu gods such as [[Shiva]]. The roots of Hinduism in southern India, and amongst tribal and indigenous communities is just as ancient and fundamentally contributive to the foundations of the religious and philosophical system. Today, almost all Hindus belong to the ethnic communities living in the 28 states and 7 union territories of [[India]], and the provinces of [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Bangladesh]].
Ancient Hindu kingdoms arose and spread the religion and traditions across [[South East Asia]], particularly [[Thailand]], [[Burma]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Cambodia]] and what is now central [[Vietnam]]. A form of [[Hinduism]] particularly different from Indian roots and traditions is practised in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]], where Hindus form 90% of the population. Indian migrants have taken Hinduism and Hindu culture to [[South Africa]], [[Fiji]], [[Mauritius]] and other countries in and around the [[Indian Ocean]], and in the nations of the [[West Indies]] and the [[Caribbean]].
Many Europeans, Africans and Americans have adopted spiritual and religious exercises inspired by [[Hinduism]] in [[North America]], [[Western Europe]] and [[Southern Africa]]. The [[ISKCON]] is a sect of the devotees of [[Krishna]], specifically, [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], mainly in the [[United States]] but spreading across the world, embracing people and working in countries completely unassociated with India.
===Linguistics of Hinduism===
[[Image:Mahabharata2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Believed to be written in 3100 B.C.E., the [[Mahabharata]] is one of oldest known [[epic poetry|epics]]. Shown here is a scene from the epic [[Battle of Kurukshetra]]]]
{{seealso|Sanskrit}}
Although the [[Vedas]], the [[Mahabharata]] and the [[Ramayana]] have been written in the ancient language of [[Sanskrit]], Hinduism has several important religious and philosophical works written in other ancient languages like [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]], [[Pāli|Pali]], [[Prakrit]], and modern languages like [[Hindi]], [[Punjabi]], [[Malayalam]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Marathi]] and [[Bengali]].
The approximately 950 million Hindus who live in the [[Indian subcontinent]] are the people who speak the 18 official languages of [[India]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Gurkhali]] in [[Nepal]], some 5-10 more unofficial languages and over 1,000 dialects.
Most of modern discourses, essays and analysis of Hindu religion and society, and re-telling of its greatest epics, are published in the [[English language]]. Millions of Hindus are known to be well-versed with that language.
===Dietary Habits and Doctrines===
{{seealso|Vegetarianism|Vegan|Cuisine of India|Jainism}}
[[Vegetarianism]] is not as common amongst Hindus as is thought in the West. While 82% of the population of India is Hindu, only about 20% is vegetarian. Vegetarianism is recommended for its [[sattvic]] qualities. Most Hindus abstain from [[Beef]] while others refrain from meat on holy days. {{facts}}
[[Vegetarianism]] has gained immense popular strength since the early beginning as is evident from [[Bhagavada Gita]], arising from the principle of [[ahimsa]], or absolute non-violence to '''all''' forms of life. This has also inspired a stricter, regimental adherence to vegetarianism in [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]]. Especially in the Indian state of [[Gujarat]] and many states in South India, many are puritanical in their adherence. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] was the most prominent proponent of veganism/vegetarianism since mid-15th century redefining Hinduism by Adi Shankaracharya.
[[Vegetarianism]] in Hinduism is encouraged due to the belief that animals have [[Atman]] or soul and thus should not be killed. Also killing leads to bad [[karmic]] consequences and the consumption of flesh is not [[sattvic]]; meaning one can not achieve full spirituality or a close connection with [[Brahman]] god.
In fact, in upper castes, medieval society it was frequently considered vulgar and uncouth - not to mention against the religion - to eat meat.
===Ceremonies, Observances and Pilgrimage===
Hinduism is also very diverse in the religious ceremonies performed by its adherents for different periods and events in life, and for death.
====Initiation====
Normally, Young male members of the [[Brahmin]] and [[Kshatriya]] caste may perform a coming of age ceremony, however as the caste system has been disregarded and was not part of [[Hinduism]], through birth as such, various members of other "castes" also perform this ceremony. The [[Upanayana]] commonly known as ''Janoy'', or the Thread Ceremony. The Janoy is a six or nine cotton threads/strings (approximately ones' arm length) rolled together to resemble an umblical cord to symbolise the New birth/ new eyes {Upa = Higher/new; Nayan = Eyes/birth} as a student. Hence, from this day onward he belongs to the Guru, who takes the place of mother and father in nurturing and training young male.
The Upanayana is akin to Bar-Mitzva in Jewish culture. This ceremony was performed before the boy went up to the Guru's ashram (school). In a ceremony administered by a priest, a young boy usually shaves his hair off as a measure of austerity (or just some portions, as deemed appropriate) and a Janoy is hung from around his left shoulder to his right waist line for Brahmins and from right shoulders to left waistline by Kshatriyas. The ceremony varies from region to community, and includes reading from the [[Vedas]] and special ''mantras'' and ''shlokas''. For Brahmin boy, he has to rememeber the Gayatri Mantra. The boy also swears to obey his Guru and also takes oaths to confirm that he will not take intoxicants, speak the Truth, serve the Guru,and to stay celibate through education.
Young females (prepubescent until married) while do not have similar ritual passage as young males, they follow annual Monsoon Austerity Ritual of Purification by not eating cooked food for one or two weeks, depending on age of child. This is known as "Goryo or Goriyo". During this period they cultivate from seeds of paddy, wheat and mung beans in a small pottary, to which they are asked by mother to guard and nurture.
Rites of initiation exist for the other castes, but differ from region to region. In [[Telugu people|Telugu]] society, for example, pre-teen females have an ''voneelu'' ceremony, in which the girl wears a ''ghagra choli'' or ''langa voni'' or half-sari (depending on what she likes) while friends and relatives bless her, and then changes into a sari - symbolising the transition from girlhood to womanhood. Traditional [[South Indian]] jewelery (which is also considered Hindu due to its religious artwork) is also worn. Telugu boys have a similar ceremony called a ''Panchalu'' ceremony when they are 14-15, during which they wear a formal gold-bordered ''pancha''.
Another initiation ceremony that has nearly died out, but is still practised among conservative Hindus, especially among the women of traditional temple priests of South India is when the girl has her first theetu (menstrual period {in this context}). The ceremony is generally carried out only by women.
Theetu is generally taken as an individual in a polluted state. A thirteen day theetu period follows after a family member dies, and a two day theetu for when a woman has her menstrual period. During theetu, an individual must not have physical contact with anyone that is not a family member, nor enter kitchen, prayer room, or temple. Traditional Hindu women generally keep their hair braided. Women that are "theetu" are expected to keep their hair unbraided. However, these practices are getting less importance as modernisation progresses.
===New Year===
Unlike most other cultures, [[New Year]] is celebrated as a festival in India. Many regions have different calendars and mostly start in March. New Year is celebrated at different times of the year by people of different states. That is people from Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra states celebrate New Year on the same day, but people from Tamil Nadu celebrate the New Year at different time. For example [[Telugu people]] call new year [[Ugadi]]. They eat a special kind of thing on the start of the year called ''Ugaadi pachchadi'' that contains al |
lls how "close" these two nodes are.
On [[April 20]] [[2004]] [http://williamtozier.com/slurry Bill Tozier], a researcher with Erd&#337;s number 4, offered the chance for collaboration to attain an Erd&#337;s number 5 in an auction on [[eBay]].<!-- [http://cgi.ebay.com/ws/eBayISAPI.dll?ViewItem&item=3189039958] --> The final bid was $1,031, though apparantly the winning bidder had no intention to pay [http://www.zephoria.org/thoughts/archives/2004/04/21/decrease_your_erdos_number.html]. The winner considered it a "mockery", and said "papers have to be worked and earned, not sold, auctioned or bought".
Another [[eBay]] auction <!-- [http://cgi.ebay.com/ws/eBayISAPI.dll?ViewItem&category=317&item=5909401796] -->offered an Erd&#337;s number of 2 for a prospective paper to be submitted for publication to ''Chance'' (a magazine of the [[American Statistical Association]]) about skill in the [[World Series of Poker]] and the [[World Poker Tour]]. It closed on [[22 July]] [[2004]] with a winning bid of $127.40. This is noteworthy because with the exception of a few co-authored articles to be published posthumously, 2 is the minimum number that can now be achieved.
It is jokingly said that [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Baseball Hall of Famer]] [[Hank Aaron]] has an Erd&#337;s number of 1 because they both autographed the same baseball when [[Emory University]] awarded them honorary degrees on the same day.
==See also==
* [[Small-world network]]s
* [[Small world phenomenon]]
* [[Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon]]
* [[Shusaku number]]
* [[Erdős-Bacon number]]
==External links==
* Jerry Grossman, [http://www.oakland.edu/enp The Erdös Number Project]. Contains statistics and a complete list of all mathematicians with an Erd&#337;s number less than or equal to 2.
[[Category:Social networking]]
[[Category:Mathematics]]
[[Category:Academic publishing]]
[[ca:Nombre d'Erdős]]
[[de:Erdös-Zahl]]
[[fr:Nombre d'Erdős]]
[[ko:에르되시 수]]
[[hu:Erdős-szám]]
[[nl:Erdősgetal]]
[[pl:Liczba Erdősa]]
[[th:หมายเลขแอร์ดิช]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Education vouchers</title>
<id>9743</id>
<revision>
<id>15907614</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Education voucher]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edgar Allen Poe/The Black Cat</title>
<id>9744</id>
<revision>
<id>15907615</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-12T07:36:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gtrmp</username>
<id>38984</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Black Cat (short story)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edgar Allan Poe/The Black Cat</title>
<id>9745</id>
<revision>
<id>24815862</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T15:07:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Black Cat (short story)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edgar Allan Poe/The Devil in the Belfry</title>
<id>9746</id>
<revision>
<id>15907617</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-12T15:36:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to The Devil in the Belfry</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Devil in the Belfry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Education voucher</title>
<id>9750</id>
<revision>
<id>41514817</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:52:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.190.62.54</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Criticism */ fundamentalist opposition</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''education voucher''', commonly called a '''school voucher''', is a certificate by which parents are given the ability to pay for the [[education]] of their children at a school of their choice, rather than the [[public school]] to which they were assigned.
==Controversy==
===Proponents===
Those in favor of [[school choice]] argue that they should be permitted to spend their tax dollars at the educational facility of their choosing, allowing parents to be able to choose which school they want their children to attend. In addition, it is promised that this will allow [[competition]] between schools, improving the quality of schools overall. Some studies support the hypothesis of reduced racial and economic segregation through the abolishment of territorial-based school allocation in the public monopoly system (where students are assigned to schools according to territory, thus dividing students between richer and poorer neighborhoods), as well as greater free choice and quality improvement by forcing schools to compete among themselves by offering more diverse and interesting programs.
===Criticism===
Some critics of the voucher system note that it is possible to have choice between schools without vouchers ''within'' the public school system, as exists in some public school systems.
Anti-school choice or anti-choice detractors state that such choice often results in the selection of a religious school, so that public funds are given to a religious institution, thus violating the [[separation of church and state]]. Theoretically, a religious school that endorses extremism (be it Christian, Muslim, etc.) could be eligible to accept taxpayer funded vouchers. Further, many argue that given the limited budget for schools, a voucher system weakens [[public school]]s while at the same time not necessarily providing enough money for people to attend [[private school]]s. (The opponents assert a tendency of the costs of tuition to rise along with its demand, which further compounds the problem.) This weakens the educational possibilities for many. Since vouchers typically pay much less than the tuition charged by the private schools, only the richer students and those given [[scholarship]]s will be able to attend them (and, those schools where the tuition might be cheaper, might not accept vouchers &ndash; see next paragraph regarding fundamentalist opposition). Opponents also claim that the vouchers are tantamount to providing taxpayer-subsidized [[white flight]] from urban public schools, whose student bodies are predominantly non-white in most large cities. Proponents such as [[Milton Friedman]] respond that the poor have an incentive to support school choice, as their children attend substandard schools, and would thus benefit most from alternative schools. Consequently, minorities, especially blacks, would benefit and contribute to the diversity of private schooling. The rich on the other hand, already attend schools of remarkable quality in affluent suburbs and would have no incentive to switch schools. In short, the more decrepit the school one attends, the more incentive he has to switch schools and thus benefit from school vouchers.
Interestingly, some [[fundamentalist]] groups side with liberals in opposition to school vouchers, albeit on different grounds. The general fundamentalist opposition is based on the ''source'' of the vouchers, which would be the government. Fundamentalists (who strongly oppose '''''any''''' government oversight of their operations) state that, if a church-run school accepts a government voucher, they have thus allowed the government the "right" to dictate the school's operation, and by extension the church's operation as well. Therefore, the government could order the church to stop speaking against practices such as [[abortion]] and [[homosexuality]], since it now "controls" the church through its acceptance of government funds.
====Economics====
A minority of voucher opponents in the U.S. object on radically different grounds. These opponents believe that granting government money, even indirectly, to private and religious schools will inevitably lead to increased governmental control over non-government education. Individuals who oppose vouchers on these grounds are often [[libertarian]]; a few of them go so far as to call for the abolition of all government sponsorship of education in the U.S. The [[Alliance for the Separation of School & State]] opposes education vouchers on the grounds that "if vouchers become commonplace, private and religious schools will become more and more like public schools"[http://www.honestedu.org/misc/vouchers.php]. Other libertarians, such as [[Milton Friedman]], fully support school vouchers, though his plan assumes no additional regulation of private schools.
In addition, economists point to the problem of "[[cream skimming]]," a variety of [[adverse selection]] in the educational market. With a presumably greater pool of applicants, the [[private school]]s will be more selective over which students to admit, possibly excluding those who belong to the "wrong" religion or ethnicity, those with disabilities such as autism or multiple sclerosis, and those with disciplinary problems. On the other hand, by law the public schools have to educate ''everyone'', so that they become a "dumping ground" for those students unwanted by the private schools. This further undermines the reputation of the public schools, leading to a [[virtuous circle and vicious circle|vicious circle]] that tends toward the total abolition of the public schools and the end of universal education. Alternatively, private schools may spring up to meet the demand of those empowered by school choice and thus negate this possible disaster.
Often, the low costs of the private schools |
ributor>
<ip>80.139.114.122</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Disk storage''' is a group of [[computer storage|data storage]] mechanisms for [[computer]]s; data are transferred to planar surfaces or disks for temporary or permanent storage. '''Disk drive''' is a [[peripheral device]] used to read from and write to a disk.
In the early [[1960s]] single data [[bit]]s were stored as magnetic charges in magnetic [[core memory]].
The scientists at [[International Business Machines|IBM]] in [[San Jose, California]] successfully created a rotating drum that was coated in a magnetically polarizable film that could be used to store data by changing and sensing magnetic polarization. The drum was superseded by disks, as the lower mass and inertia allowed smaller and lighter devices. [[Reynold B. Johnson|Reynold Johnson]] an inventor who worked for IBM for many years is said to be the "father" of the disk drive.
In [[Music|musical]] and [[sound reproduction|audio]] data storage, the first devices were also drum shaped, called [[phonograph cylinder]]s, which were popularized by [[Thomas Edison]]. In the [[1910s]] these were replaced as the dominant medium of [[sound recording]] by analogue disc records, commonly called ''[[gramophone record]]s'' (in [[British English]]) or ''phonograph records'' (in [[American English]]). From the [[1950s]] through the [[1980s]], audio recordings were also done on [[magnetic tape]] media of several types, although the [[vinyl record]] remained the most popular medium for home use. These were mostly replaced by [[compact disc]] technology, where the data is recorded in a digital format as [[optical]] information. This compact disc technology has been widely accepted, and data storage, using writable compact disks or [[CD-R]] devices is very common.
The [[random access memory|random-access]], low-density storage of disks has historically been complemented by
the [[sequential access|sequential-access]] high density storage provided by [[magnetic tape]]. Vigorous innovation
in disk storage technology, coupled with less vigorous innovation in tape storage,
has reduced the density and cost per bit gap between disk and tape, reducing the importance of
tape as a complement to disk.
In disk storage, there are the two primary access methods. [[Block storage]] means that the disk is divided into normally equal-sized blocks which are accessed at random by the operating system. [[File storage]] contains an [[abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]] of files and directories which can be used to refer to storage content. Another access method, [[content-addressable memory|content-addressable storage]] (CAS) uses a hashing algorithm to refer to pieces of data.
==Basic terminology==
* Rotation - how the disks spin. Two techniques are common.
** [[Constant angular velocity]] (CAV) keeps the disk spinning at a fixed rate, measured in rotations per minute (RPM). This means the heads cover more distance per unit of time on the outer tracks than on the inner tracks. This method is typical with computer hard drives.
**[[Constant linear velocity]] (CLV) keeps the distance covered by the heads per unit time fixed. Thus the disk has to slow down as the arm moves to the outer tracks.
* Low level [[disk format|formatting]] - establishing the tracks and sectors.
* Platter - individual disk. A disk drive may have several platters.
* Track - the circle of recorded data on a single recording surface for a single arm position.
* [[Sector]] -- tracks are further divided into sectors. A single read or write operation covers an entire sector.
*Cylinder -In a multi-head drive, all the tracks under the heads for a given arm position can be read without seek delay. The operating system treats the contents of those tracks as a single cylinder.
* Head - the device that reads and writes the information - magnetic or optical - on the disk surface.
* Arm - the mechanical assembly that supports the heads as they move in and out.
* [[Seek time]] - average time needed to move the heads to a new track.
* [[rotational delay]] - average time, once the arm is on the right track before a head is over a desired sector.
==See also==
*[[floppy disk]]
*[[hard disk]]
*[[compact disc]]
*[[Early IBM disk storage]]
*[[Redundant array of independent disks|RAID]]
*[[Solid state disk]]
*[[Fragmentation]]
*[[Advanced_Technology_Attachment|ATA]]
*[[SCSI]]
*[[Serial ATA]]
*[[ATA_over_Ethernet|AoE]]
[[Category:Computer storage]]
[[Category:Rotating disc computer storage media|*Disk storage]]
[[uk:Диск]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demisesquicentennial</title>
<id>8473</id>
<revision>
<id>15906468</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-06T18:23:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Anniversary]] per vfd</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anniversary]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington</title>
<id>8474</id>
<revision>
<id>42009833</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:53:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>218.101.64.58</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
| name=The Duke of Wellington
| image=Field_Marshal_Arthur_Wellesley_KG_CCB_GCH_CoR_1st_Duke_of_Wellington.jpg
| country=the United Kingdom
| term=January 1828 &ndash; November 1830<br>[[17 November]] [[1834]] &ndash; [[9 December]] [[1834]]
| before=[[Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich|The Viscount Goderich]]<br/>[[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|The Viscount Melbourne]]
| after=[[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey|The Earl Grey]]<br/>[[Robert Peel|Sir Robert Peel, Bt]]
| date_birth=c. [[1 May]], [[1769]]
| place_birth=Possibly [[Dublin]] or [[County Meath]]
| date_death=[[14 September]], [[1852]]
| place_death=[[Walmer]], [[Kent]]
| party=[[Tory]]
}}
'''Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Royal Guelphic Order|GCH]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]], [[Royal Society|FRS]] ([[circa|c.]] [[1 May]] [[1769]] &ndash; [[14 September]] [[1852]]) was an [[Ireland|Irish]] born [[United Kingdom|British]] soldier and statesman, widely considered one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century. Commissioned an [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]] in the [[British Army]], he would rise to prominence in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], eventually reaching the rank of [[Field Marshal]].
Wellington commanded the Allied forces during the [[Peninsular War]], pushing the [[Military of France|French Army]] out of [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]] and reaching southern [[France]]. Victorious and hailed as a hero in [[England]], he was obliged to return to continental Europe to command the Anglo-Allied forces at [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]], after which [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] was permanently exiled at [[St. Helena]]. Wellington was victorious over Napoleon and the French at each of six major battles, confirming his place as one of history's greatest generals and strategists.
Wellington is often compared to the [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|1st Duke of Marlborough]], with whom he shared many characteristics, chiefly a transition to politics after a highly successful military career. He served as a [[Tory]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] on two separate occasions, and was one of the leading figures in the [[House of Lords]] until his retirement in 1846.
==Early life==
Born '''The Honourable Arthur Wesley''' at either his family's [[social season]] [[Dublin]] residence, [[Mornington House]], or at his family seat, Dangan Castle near [[Trim]] in [[County Meath]], [[Ireland]]. He was the third son of [[Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington]]. His exact date of birth is a matter of some contention. All that exists is a church registry of the event marked a few days after it must have occurred. The most likely date is [[1 May]] 1769, but any day for a few days before or after is possible. He legally changed his surname (with other members of his family) to '''Wellesley''' in March 1798.
He came from a titled family long settled in Ireland; his father was the [[Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington|1st Earl of Mornington]], his eldest brother, who would inherit his father's Earldom, would be created [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Marquess Wellesley]], and two of his other brothers would be raised to the [[peerage]] as [[Baron Maryborough]] and [[Baron Cowley]].
Wesley was educated at [[Eton College|Eton]] from 1781 to 1785, but a lack of success there, combined with a shortage of family funds, led to a move to [[Brussels]] in [[Belgium]] to receive further education. In 1787, his mother and brother Richard purchased for Wesley a commission as an [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]] in the [[List of Regiments of Foot|73rd Regiment of Foot]]; he attended the Military Academy of [[Angers]] in [[France]], after having received earlier training in England. His first assignment was as [[aide-de-camp]] to two successive [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland|Lords Lieutenant of Ireland]] (1787&ndash;1793). He was promoted to [[Lieutenant]] in 1788; two years later, he was elected as an independent [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Trim]] in the [[Irish House of Commons]] (in 1790), a position he held until 1797. He rose rapidly in rank (largely through the purchase system, which at that time allowed, and, indeed, generally required, officers in the British Army to purchase their rank) becoming [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] in the [[33rd Regiment of Foot]] in 1793. He participated in the unsuccessful campaign against the French in the [[Netherlands]] between 1794 and 1795, and was present at the Battle of [[Boxtel]].
In 1796, after a promotion to [[ |
con|Italy}} [[Paolino Pulici]] (Torino)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianni Rivera]] (Milan)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Savoldi]] (Bologna)
|width="50"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
* 1973/74 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giorgio Chinaglia]] ([[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]])
* 1974/75 - 18 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Paolino Pulici (Torino)
* 1975/76 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Paolino Pulici (Torino)
* 1976/77 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Graziani]] (Torino)
* 1977/78 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolo Rossi]] (Vicenza)
* 1978/79 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Bruno Giordano]] (Lazio)
* 1979/80 - 16 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Bettega]] (Juventus)
* 1980/81 - 18 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Pruzzo]] (Roma)
* 1981/82 - 15 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Roberto Pruzzo (Roma)
* 1982/83 - 16 goals {{flagicon|France}} [[Michel Platini]] (Juventus)
* 1983/84 - 20 goals {{flagicon|France}} Michel Platini (Juventus)
* 1984/85 - 18 goals {{flagicon|France}} Michel Platini (Juventus)
* 1985/86 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Roberto Pruzzo (Roma)
* 1986/87 - 17 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Pietro Paolo Virdis]] (Milan)
* 1987/88 - 15 goals {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Diego Maradona]] ([[Napoli Soccer|Napoli]])
* 1988/89 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Serena]] (Internazionale)
* 1989/90 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Marco Van Basten]] (Milan)
* 1990/91 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianluca Vialli]] (Sampdoria)
* 1991/92 - 25 goals {{flagicon|Netherlands}} Marco Van Basten (Milan)
* 1992/93 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Signori]] (Lazio)
* 1993/94 - 23 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Giuseppe Signori (Lazio)
* 1994/95 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Gabriel Batistuta]] (Fiorentina)
* 1995/96 - 24 goals:
**{{flagicon|Italy}} Giuseppe Signori (Lazio)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Igor Protti]] ([[A.S. Bari|Bari]])
* 1996/97 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Filippo Inzaghi]] ([[Atalanta B.C.|Atalanta]])
* 1997/98 - 27 goals {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Oliver Bierhoff]] ([[Udinese Calcio|Udinese]])
* 1998/99 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Amoroso]] (Udinese)
* 1999/00 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Andriy Shevchenko]] (Milan)
* 2000/01 - 26 gaols {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Hernán Crespo]] (Lazio)
* 2001/02 - 24 goals:
**{{flagicon|France}} [[David Trézéguet]] (Juventus)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Dario Hubner]] ([[Piacenza F.C.|Piacenza]])
* 2002/03 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Christian Vieri]] (Internazionale)
* [[Serie A 2003-04|2003/04]] - 24 goals {{flagicon|Ukraine}} Andriy Shevchenko (Milan)
* [[Serie A 2004-05|2004/05]] - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Cristiano Lucarelli]] ([[A.S. Livorno Calcio|Livorno]])
|}
*[http://www.rsssf.com/tablesi/italtops.html Figure before 1997 from RSSSF.com ]
*[http://www.lega-calcio.it/ita/atim_archivio_classifica.shtml Figure after 1997 from lega-calcio.it]
==Trivia==
*The record for non-Italian players of the same nationality in one match is held by [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]]. On [[January 18]] [[2006 in sports|2006]], [[Julio Ricardo Cruz|Cruz]] (one goal), [[Nicolas Burdisso|Burdisso]], [[Javier Zanetti|J. Zanetti]] (captain), [[Juan Sebastián Verón|Verón]], [[Esteban Cambiasso|Cambiasso]], [[Cristian González|Kily González]] and [[Walter Samuel|Samuel]] played as starters to complete 7 [[:Category:Argentine footballers|Argentine footballers]] for the team that defeated [[Treviso F.B.C. 1993|Treviso]] 0-1 [http://www.ole.com.ar/jsp/v4/pagina.jsp?pagId=1126624].
*Oldest Player Appearence:
#{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Marco Ballotta]] 41 years and 302 days at [[S.S. Lazio]] ([[January 29]] [[2006]])
#{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Dino Zoff]] 41 years-old ([[1983]])
==See also==
*[[Sports attendances]]
==External link==
*[http://lega-calcio.it Official Site]
; History
* [http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-seasons.html Serie A] — All results since 1929, statistics, compare teams ...
{{Serie A}}
[[Category:Italian football competitions]]
[[Category:National football (soccer) premier leagues]]
[[cs:Serie A]]
[[de:Serie A]]
[[fr:Championnat d'Italie de football]]
[[id:Seri A]]
[[it:Campionato di calcio italiano]]
[[he:סרייה א']]
[[nl:Serie A]]
[[ja:セリエA (サッカー)]]
[[no:Serie A]]
[[pl:Serie A]]
[[pt:Serie A]]
[[fi:Serie A]]
[[sv:Serie A i fotboll]]
[[vi:Danh sách vô địch Serie A]]
[[tr:Serie A]]
[[zh:意大利足球甲级联赛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inter Milan</title>
<id>15497</id>
<revision>
<id>27713516</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-08T11:33:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robchurch</username>
<id>315649</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Internazionale Milano F.C.]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IPCC Policymakers Summary</title>
<id>15499</id>
<revision>
<id>15912972</id>
<timestamp>2003-02-06T10:57:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MyRedDice</username>
<id>5862</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (combining content)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inhalants</title>
<id>15500</id>
<revision>
<id>15912973</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inhalant]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inhalant</title>
<id>15501</id>
<revision>
<id>41730234</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:49:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rhymeless</username>
<id>58267</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Common inhalants */ +freon</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Inhalants''' are a chemically diverse group of psychoactive substances composed of organic solvents and volatile substances commonly found in more than 1000 common household products, such as [[glue]]s, hair spray, air fresheners, [[gasoline]], [[Naphtha|lighter fluid]], and [[paint]].
The practice of inhaling such substances is sometimes colloquially referred to as '''solvent abuse''' or '''huffing'''.
Solvents are some of the most dangerous substances used recreationally, and can cause serious damage to the [[brain]] and [[central nervous system]], and are generally only used by young [[substance abuse]]rs or as a desperate last resort for financially deprived drug addicts. While not regulated in the [[United States]] under the [[Controlled Substances Act]], many states have placed restrictions on the sale of these products to minors.
==Methods of use==
Inhalants may be sniffed directly from an open container or "huffed" from a rag soaked in the substance and held to the face. Alternatively, the open container or soaked rag can be placed in a plastic bag where the vapors concentrate, and the bag held to the face as the user inhales.
Solvent-based and markers are generally held to the nose, and the fumes inhaled. Propane and butane may be inhaled directly from the canister.
Although inhalant abusers may prefer one particular substance because of the odor or taste, a variety of substances may be used because of their similar effects, availability, and cost. Once inhaled, the extensive capillary surface of the [[lung]]s allows rapid absorption of the substance, and blood levels peak rapidly. Entry into the [[brain]] is so fast that the effects of inhalation can resemble the intensity of effects produced by intravenous injection of other psychoactive drugs.
==Usage and availability==
Inhalant abuse is common among children and adolescents.
Inhalants are readily available, inexpensive, and easy to conceal. Therefore, they are increasingly popular with young people and are, for many, one of the first substances abused.
In the United States the extent of the inhalant problem among children and adolescents was, at first, virtually unrecognized by the general public. However, an event in early [[1999]] called national attention to this severe problem. Five high school girls were killed in a car accident outside [[Philadelphia]], and the coroner's report showed that four of the five, including the driver, had ingested "significant" amounts of a [[computer keyboard]] cleaner.
Since this event, there has been an increased awareness of the threat of inhalant abuse.
In [[Australia]] the inhalation of volatile substances is known as sniffing. Petrol (gasoline) sniffing has reached epidemic proportions in the remote [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] communities and outback towns. One response has been the introduction of low-volatility [[Opal (fuel)|Opal petrol]] in the central desert regions, and the banning of petrol from some areas (where [[diesel]] fuelled vehicles are used).
Gasoline inhalation became common on [[Russia]]n ships following attempts to limit the supply of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] to crew in the 1980s. The documentary "Children Underground" depicts the huffing of Aurolac by Romanian homeless children.
==Common inhalants==
* [[butane]]
* [[canned air]] (compressed [[hydrofluorocarbon]]s)
* [[casette]] player head cleaner
* [[correction fluid]]
* [[diethyl ether]]
* [[embalming chemicals|embalming fluid]] ([[formaldehyde]] or similar chemicals)
* [[freon]]
* [[gasoline]]
* [[glue]]s and cements (rubber cement, plastic cement, etc.)
* [[nail polish]] remover ([[acetone]] or similar chemicals)
* [[paint]] or [[spraypaint]]
* [[Paint thinner]] ([[turpentine]] or similar chemicals)
* [[Scotchgard]]
* [[xylent]] markers
== See also ==
* "[[Sniffin' Glue]]" (magazine)
* "[[The Pod]]" (recording)
==External links==
* [http://www.inha |
berg began to write letters to ''The [[New York Times]]'' about political issues such as [[World War II]] and workers' rights.{{ref|BioProject2}} When he was a junior in high school, he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist. The trip disturbed Ginsberg and he later described it, along with his relationship with his mother, in his long autobiographical poem ''[[Kaddish (poem)|''Kaddish for Naomi Ginsberg (1894-1956)]].''{{ref|Modern2}}
In 1943 Ginsberg graduated from high school and briefly attended [[Montclair State University]] before entering [[Columbia University]] on a scholarship from the [[Young Men's Hebrew Association]] of Paterson. ([[1949]])[http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/08/specials/ginsberg-obit.html]. In his freshman year he met fellow undergraduate [[Lucien Carr]], who introduced him to a number of future Beat writers including [[Jack Kerouac]], [[William S. Burroughs]], and [[John Clellon Holmes]]. Carr also introduced Ginsberg to [[Neal Cassady]], one of the many that Ginsberg loved. Kerouac later described the meeting between Ginsberg and Cassady in the first chapter of his 1957 novel ''[[On the Road]].''{{ref|Modern3}}
In [[1954]] Ginsberg met [[Peter Orlovsky]], a young man of 21 with whom he fell in love and who remained his life-long lover, and with whom he eventually shared his interest in Tibetan Buddhism. Later in his life, Ginsberg formed a bridge between the [[Beat_generation|Beat]] movement of the [[1950s]] and the [[hippies]] of the [[1960s]], befriending, among others, [[Timothy Leary]], [[Gregory Corso]], [[Bob Kaufman]], [[Herbert Huncke]], [[Rod McKuen]], and [[Bob Dylan]].
In 1965 Ginsberg was deported from Cuba for for publicaly protesting against Cuba's anti-marijuana stance and its penchant for throwing homosexuals in jail.
The Cubans sent him to Czechoslovakia, Where one week after being named the King of a May Day parade, Ginsberg was labeled an "immoral menace" by the Czech government and deported.
In 1982, he was featured on "Ghetto Defendant", a song by [[The Clash]], on their album "[[Combat Rock]]". Ginsberg died of cancer on [[April 5]], [[1997]].
==Career==
Ginsberg's [[poetry]] was strongly influenced by [[modernism]], [[romanticism]], the beat and cadence of [[jazz]], and his [[Kagyu]] [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] practice and [[Jew]]ish background. He considered himself to have inherited the visionary and [[homoeroticism|homoerotic]] poetic mantle handed from the English poet and artist [[William Blake]] on to [[Walt Whitman]]. The power of Ginsberg's verse, its searching, probing focus, its long and lilting lines, as well as its New World exuberance, all echo the continuity of inspiration which he claimed. Other influences included the American poet [[William Carlos Williams]].
Ginsberg's principal work, "[[Howl]]", is well-known to many for its opening line: "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness". It was considered scandalous at the time of publication due to the rawness of the language, which is frequently explicit. Shortly after its [[1956]] publication by [[San Francisco]]'s [[City Lights Bookstore]], it was banned for obscenity. The ban became a [[cause célèbre]] among defenders of the [[First Amendment]], and was later lifted after judge Clayton W. Horn declared the poem to possess redeeming social importance. Ginsberg's [[leftist]] and generally anti-establishment politics attracted the attention of the [[FBI]], who regarded Ginsberg as a major security threat. [[Image:Ginsberg.jpg|right|175px|thumb|Allen Ginsberg]]
Ginsberg's spiritual journey began early on with his reported spontaneous visions, and continued with an early trip to [[India]] and a chance encounter on a New York City street (they both tried to catch the same cab) with [[Chögyam Trungpa]], Rinpoche, a [[Tibetan Buddhist]] meditation master of the [[Vajrayana]] school, who became his friend and life-long teacher. Ginsberg helped found the [[Jack Kerouac]] School of Disembodied Poetics at [[Naropa University]] in [[Boulder, Colorado]], a school founded by Chögyam Trungpa, Rinpoche. Music and chanting were both important parts of his live delivery during poetry readings. He often accompanied himself on a handheld organ called a harmonium, and was often accompanied by a guitarist. Attendance to his poetry readings was generally standing room only for most of his career, no matter where in the world he appeared.
Ginsberg won the National Book Award for his book "The Fall of America." In 1993, the French Minister of Culture awarded him with the medal of [[Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres]] (the Order of Arts and Letters).
In [[1994]], when the [[International Lesbian and Gay Association]] successfully banished all connections to the [[North American Man-Boy Love Association]] in order to gain consultative status in the United Nations, Ginsberg opposed (together with modern gay rights founder [[Harry Hay]]). He said that he supported NAMBLA's right to [[free speech]] because the hysteria over [[pederasty]] reminded him of the hysteria over homosexuality itself while he was growing up. While his poetry praised the love of youths, his interests lay mostly in young men above the age of consent.
==Quotations==
* "Our goal was to save the planet and alter human consciousness. That will take a long time, if it happens at all."
* "Poetry is not an expression of the party line. It's that time of night, lying in bed, thinking what you really think, making the private world public, that's what the poet does."
* "Pot is fun."
* "The only thing that can save the world is the reclaiming of the awareness of the world. That's what poetry does."
* "Master thyself and others will follow."
* "First thought, best thought." (referring to his, and other Beat writers' unique style of writing poetry)
* "The CIA and the Mafia are in cahoots"
==Bibliography==
* ''[[Howl|Howl and Other Poems]]'' ([[1956]])
* ''[[Kaddish (poem)|Kaddish and Other Poems]]'' ([[1961]])
* ''Reality Sandwiches'' ([[1963]])
* ''[[The Yage Letters]]'' ([[1963]]) &ndash; with [[William S. Burroughs]]
* ''Planet News'' ([[1968]])
* ''The Gates of Wrath: Rhymed Poems [[1948]]&ndash;[[1951]]'' ([[1972]])
* ''The Fall of America: Poems of These States'' ([[1973]])
* ''Iron Horse'' ([[1972]])
* ''Mind Breaths'' ([[1978]])
* ''Plutonian Ode: Poems [[1977]]&ndash;[[1980]]'' ([[1982]])
* ''Collected Poems: [[1947]]&ndash;[[1980]]'' ([[1984]])
* ''White Shroud Poems: [[1980]]&ndash;[[1985]]'' ([[1986]])
* ''Cosmopolitan Greetings Poems: [[1986]]&ndash;[[1993]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''Howl Annotated'' ([[1995]])
* ''Illuminated Poems'' ([[1996]])
* ''Selected Poems: [[1947]]&ndash;[[1995]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''Death and Fame: Poems [[1993]]&ndash;[[1997]]'' ([[1999]])
'''Further Reading'''
*Miles, Barry. ''Ginsberg: A Biography.'' London: Virgin Publishing Ltd. (2001), paperback, 628 pages, ISBN 0753504863
*Schumacher, Michael (edt.). ''Family Business: Selected Letters Between a Father and Son.'' Bloomsbury (2002), paperback, 448 pages, ISBN 1582342164
*Schumacher, Michael. ''[[Dharma Lion: A Biography of Allen Ginsberg]].'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994.
*Bullough, Vern L. "Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context." Harrington Park Press, 2002. pp 304-311.
== Notes ==
<!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely named footnotes.
NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
-->
<div style="font-size: 90%">
#{{note|Modern}} [http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm "Allen Ginsberg's Life" by Ann Charters.] Modern American Poetry website. Accessed 10/20/05.
#{{note|BioProject}} [http://www.popsubculture.com/pop/bio_project/allen_ginsberg.html Biographical Notes on Allen Ginsberg] by Bonesy Jones on the Biography Project. Accessed 10/20/05.
#{{note|BioProject2}} Ibid.
#{{note|Modern2}} [http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm "Allen Ginsberg's Life" by Ann Charters.] Modern American Poetry website. Accessed 10/20/05.
#{{note|Modern3}} Ibid.
<!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. -->
</div>
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://wiredforbooks.org/allenginsberg/ 1985 audio interview with Allen Ginsberg by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio]
*[http://www.poets.org/agins Allen Ginsberg on Poets.org] With audio clips, poems, and related essays, from the Academy of American Poets
*[http://www.heureka.clara.net/art/ginsberg.htm Allen Ginsberg]
*[http://www.levity.com/digaland/celestial "Ginsberg's Celestial Homework"]
*[http://www.ginzy.com/ "The clearing house for all things Ginsberg"]
*[http://www.lichtensteiger.de/ginsberg.html On Allen Ginsberg] by Ralph Lichtensteiger
*[http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/66nov/hoax.htm "The Great Marijuana Hoax &ndash; Allen Ginsberg"](the first half of which was written on marijuana)
*[http://www.allenginsberg.org allenginsberg.org | MP3 files and much more]
*[http://www.archive.org/audio/audio-details-db.php?collection=naropa&collectionid=naropa_allen_ginsberg&from=BA Naropa Audio Ar |
aphy Society]] 1, 259-261, 1879.
There were several early failed attempts at proving the [[theorem]]. One [[mathematical proof|proof]] of the theorem was given by [[Alfred Kempe]] in [[1879]], which was widely acclaimed; another proof was given by [[Peter Tait]] in [[1880]]. It wasn't until [[1890]] that Kempe's proof was shown incorrect by [[Percy Heawood]], and [[1891]] that Tait's proof was shown incorrect by [[Julius Petersen]] - each false proof stood unchallenged for 11 years.
In [[1890]], in addition to exposing the flaw in Kempe's proof, Heawood proved that all planar graphs are five-colorable; see [[five color theorem]].
Significant results were produced by [[Croatia]]n mathematician [[Danilo Blanuša]] in the [[1940s]] by finding an original [[snark (graph theory)|snark]].
During the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] [[Germany|German]] mathematician [[Heinrich Heesch]] developed methods of applying the [[computer]] in searching for a proof.
In [[1969]] [[United Kingdom|British]] mathematician [[G. Spencer-Brown]] claimed that the theorem could be proven with [[Laws of form|mathematics he had developed]]. However, he was never able to produce a proof.
It was not until [[1976]] that the four-color conjecture was finally proven by [[Kenneth Appel]] and [[Wolfgang Haken]] at the [[University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign| University of Illinois]]. They were assisted in some algorithmic work by J. Koch.
If the four-color conjecture was false, there would be at least one map with the smallest possible number of regions that requires five colors. The proof showed that such a minimal counterexample cannot exist through the use of two technical concepts:
* An ''unavoidable set'' contains regions such that every map must have at least one region from this collection.
* A ''reducible configuration'' is an arrangement of countries that cannot occur in a minimal counterexample. If a map contains a reducible configuration, and the rest of the map can be colored with four colors, then the entire map can be colored with four colors and so this map is not minimal.
Using mathematical rules and procedures based on properties of reducible configurations (e.g. the method of discharging, rings, Kempe chains, etc.), Appel and Haken found an unavoidable set of reducible configurations, thus proving that a minimal counterexample to the four-color conjecture could not exist. Their proof reduced the infinitude of possible maps to 1,936 reducible configurations (later reduced to 1,476) which had to be checked one by one by computer. This reducibility part of the work was independently double checked with different programs and computers. However, the unavoidability part of the proof was over 500 pages of hand written counter-counter-examples, much of which was Haken's teenage son Lippold verifying [[Graph coloring|graph colorings]]. The computer program ran for hundreds of hours.
Since the proving of the theorem, efficient algorithms have been found for 4-coloring maps requiring only O(''n''<sup>2</sup>) time, where ''n'' is the number of vertices. In [[1996]], [[Neil Robertson]], [[Daniel Sanders]], [[Paul Seymour]] and [[Robin Thomas]] created a quadratic time algorithm, improving on a quartic algorithm based on Appel and Haken’s proof. This efficiency increase was due to their new proof, which was similar to Appel and Haken's proof but reduced the complexity of the problem and required checking only 633 reducible configurations. Both the unavoidability and reducibility parts of this new proof required the use of a computer and are impractical for humans to check by hand.
In [[2004]], [[Benjamin Werner]] and [[Georges Gonthier]] formalized a proof of the theorem inside the [[Coq]] theorem prover (Gonthier, n.d.). This removes the need to trust the various computer programs used to verify particular cases &mdash; it is only necessary to trust the Coq prover.
There are also efficient algorithms to determine whether 1 or 2 colors are enough to color a map. Determining whether 3 colors suffices is, however, [[NP-complete]], and so unlikely to have a fast solution. Determining whether a general (possibly non-planar) graph can be 4-colored is also NP-complete.
== Not for map-makers ==
The four color theorem does not arise out of and has no origin in practical cartography. According to Kenneth May, a mathematical historian who studied a sample of atlases in the Library of Congress, there is no tendency to minimise the number of colors used. Many maps use color for things other than political regions. Most maps use more than four colors, and when only four colors are used, usually the minimum number of colors actually needed is less than four.
Furthermore, on most actual maps there are lakes and these must all be in the same color. This is then additional to whatever colors are required for political regions. (If the lakes are counted as a single region, the theorem does not apply. It can be applied to the map's land areas alone, though, by notionally assigning each lake to one or more of the adjacent political regions.)
Textbooks on cartography and the history of cartography don't mention the four color theorem, even though map coloring is a subject of discussion. Generally, mapmakers say they are more concerned about coloring maps in a balanced fashion, so that no single color dominates. Whether they use four, five, or more colors is not their primary concern.
== Formal statement in graph theory ==
To formally state the theorem, it is easiest to rephrase it in [[graph theory]]. It then states that the [[vertex|vertices]] of every [[planar graph]] can be [[graph coloring|colored]] with at most four colors so that no two adjacent vertices receive the same [[color]]. Or "every planar graph is four-colorable" for short. Here, every region of the [[map]] is replaced by a vertex of the graph, and two vertices are connected by an [[Edge_(graph_theory)|edge]] [[if and only if]] the two regions share a border segment (not just a corner).
[[image:PlanarGraph4.png|center|]]
== False disproofs ==
Like many famous open problems of mathematics, the four color theorem has attracted a large number of false proofs and disproofs in its long history. Some, like Kempe's and Tait's mentioned above, stood under public scrutiny for over a decade before they were exposed. But many more, authored by amateurs and cranks, were never published at all.
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:400px;">
{|
|[[Image:4ct-non-counterexample.png|150px]]
''This map has been colored with five colors...''
|[[Image:4ct-non-counterexample-2.png|150px]]
''...but it is necessary to change at least four of the ten regions to obtain a coloring with only four colors.''
|}
</div>
</div>
Generally, the simplest "counterexamples" attempt to create one region which touches all other regions. This forces the remaining regions to be colored with only three colors. Because the four color theorem is true, this is always possible; however, because the person drawing the map is focused on the one large region, they fail to notice that the remaining regions can in fact be colored with three colors.
This trick can be generalized: there are many maps where if the colors of some regions are selected beforehand, it becomes impossible to color the remaining regions without exceeding four colors. A casual verifier of the counterexample may not think to change the colors of these regions, so that the counterexample will appear as though it is valid.
Perhaps one effect underlying this common misconception is the fact that the color restriction is not [[transitive]]: a region only has to be colored differently from regions it touches directly, not regions touching regions that it touches. If this were the restriction, planar graphs would require arbitrarily large numbers of colors.
Other false disproofs violate the assumptions of the theorem in unexpected ways, such as using a region that consists of multiple disconnected parts, or disallowing regions of the same color from touching at a point.
== Generalizations ==
[[Image:Torus-with-seven-colours.png|thumb|right|300px|By joining the single arrows together and the double arrows together, one obtains a [[torus]] with seven mutually touching regions; therefore seven colors are necessary]]
One can also consider the coloring problem on surfaces other than the [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]. The problem on the [[sphere]] is equivalent to that on the plane. For closed (orientable or non-orientable) surfaces with positive [[Genus (mathematics)|genus]], the maximum number ''p'' of colors needed depends on the surface's [[Euler characteristic]] &chi; according to the formula
:<math>p=\left\lfloor\frac{7 + \sqrt{49 - 24 \chi}}{2}\right\rfloor</math>,
where the outermost brackets denote the [[floor function]]. The only exception to the formula is the [[Klein bottle]], which has Euler characteristic 0 and requires 6 colors. This was initially known as the [[Heawood conjecture]] and proved as [[The Map Color Theorem]] by [[Gerhard Ringel]] and [[J. T. W. Youngs]] in [[1968]].
For example, the [[torus]] has Euler characteristic &chi; = 0 and thus ''p'' = 7, so no more than 7 colors are required to paint any map on a torus.
== Real world counterexamples ==
In the real world, [[Exclave|not all countries are contiguous]] (e.g. [[Alaska]] as part of the [[United States]], [[Nakhichevan]] as part of [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Kaliningrad]] as part of [[Russia]]). If the chosen coloring scheme requires that the territory of a particular country must be the same color, four colors may not be sufficient. Conceptually, a constraint such as this enables the map to become non-planar, and thus the four color theorem no longer applies. For instance, consider a simplified map:
[[Image:Four_color_inadequacy_example.png|none|]]
In this ma |
esidents of Comoros]]
*[[Military of Comoros]]
*[[Transportation in Comoros]]
== Further reading ==
* ''The Comoros Islands: Struggle Against Dependency in the Indian Ocean'' Malyn Newitt
* ''Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands'' Martin Ottenheimer
* ''Lonely Planet World Guide: Madagascar and Comoros'' Gemma Pitcher and Patricia C. Wright
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Comoros}}
===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/comoros/ allAfrica - Comoros] news headline links
*[http://www.comores-online.com/al-watwan/ Al-Watwan] weekly newspaper
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1070727.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Comores'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cn.html CIA World Factbook - ''Comoros'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/cn/ US State Department - ''Comoros''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
===Directories===
*[http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/comoros.htm al-Bab - ''Comoros''] directory category
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Comoros.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Angola''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://www.comores-online.com/accueilgb.htm MweziNet] directory and encyclopedia
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Comoros/ Open Directory Project - ''Comoros'']
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/comoros.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Comoros''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Comoros/ The Index on Africa - ''Comoros''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Comoros/ Yahoo! - ''Comoros''] directory category
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.anytravels.com/africa/comoros/ Travel Overview of Comoros]
===Other===
*[http://www.comores-online.com/accueilgb.htm Comores Online] portal
*[http://www.chez.com/prc/ Republican party of Comoros]
*[http://www.irinnews.org/frontpage.asp?SelectRegion=Southern_Africa&SelectCountry=Comoros Report from IRIN (UN office for the coordination of Humanitarian Affairs)]
*[http://www.ksu.edu/sasw/comoros/comoros.html The islands of Comoros]
*[http://www.comoros-online.com www.comoros-online.com - First information website on Comoros - Association MWEZINET "La passion des Comores"]
{{Africa}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Arab League]]
[[Category:Comoros|*]]
[[Category:Comoros archipelago]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
[[af:Comore-eilande]]
[[ar:جزر القمر]]
[[zh-min-nan:Komor]]
[[bn:কোমোরোস]]
[[bs:Komori]]
[[ca:Comores]]
[[cs:Komory]]
[[da:Comorerne]]
[[de:Komoren]]
[[et:Komoorid]]
[[es:Comoras]]
[[eo:Komoroj]]
[[fa:کومور]]
[[fr:Union des Comores]]
[[ko:코모로]]
[[id:Komoro]]
[[ia:Comoras]]
[[is:Kómoreyjar]]
[[it:Comore]]
[[he:קומורו]]
[[lv:Komoru salas]]
[[lt:Komorai]]
[[li:Comore]]
[[ms:Comoros]]
[[na:Comoros]]
[[nl:Comoren]]
[[nds:Komoren]]
[[ja:コモロ]]
[[no:Komorene]]
[[nn:Komorane]]
[[pl:Komory]]
[[pt:Comores]]
[[ru:Коморские острова]]
[[sa:कोमोरोस]]
[[sq:Komoros]]
[[sk:Komory]]
[[sl:Komori]]
[[fi:Komorit]]
[[sv:Komorerna]]
[[sw:Komoro]]
[[sr:Комори]]
[[tl:Comoros]]
[[uk:Коморскі острови]]
[[zh:葛摩]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Critical philosophy</title>
<id>5404</id>
<revision>
<id>28358145</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-15T02:50:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>131.247.229.77</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Attributed to [[Immanuel Kant]], the '''critical philosophy''' movement sees the primary task of [[philosophy]] as [[criticism]] rather than justification. Philosophers, according to this view, should not attempt to prove theories, but rather should offer all theories--including those about philosophy itself--to critical review, and measure their success by how well they withstand criticism.
"Critical philosophy" is also used as just another name for Kant's philosophy itself.Kant said that the problem was not what was out there, but the question of what experience itself was. We must first determine how human reason works so that we can apply it to sense experience and metaphysical objects.
{{Philo-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>People's Republic of China</title>
<id>5405</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42161127</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:39:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.181.75.84</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Economy */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{dablink|PRC redirects here. For other uses, see [[PRC (disambiguation)]]. For the historical and cultural entity, see [[China]].}}
{{Infobox Country|
native_name = 中华人民共和国<br>Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó<br>People's Republic of China|
common_name = People's Republic of China |
image_flag = Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg |
image_coat = PRC coa.png|20px |
national_motto = |
image_map = LocationPRChina.png |
national_anthem = ''[[March of the Volunteers]]'' |
official_languages = [[Chinese language|Chinese]]<sup>1</sup>|
capital = [[Beijing]] |latd=36|latm=55|latNS=N|longd=116|longm=23|longEW=E|
government_type = [[Communist state|Communist]] [[Single-party state|one-party state]]<sup>2</sup> |
leader_titles = [[President of the People's Republic of China|President]]<br>[[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]] |
leader_names = [[Hu Jintao]]<br>[[Wen Jiabao]]|
largest_city = [[Shanghai]] |
area = 9,596,960<sup>2</sup> |
areami² = 3,704,427 <sup>2</sup> | <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
area_rank = 4th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12|
percent_water = 2.8%<sup>2</sup> |
population_estimate = 1,306,313,813<sup>2</sup> |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 1st |
population_census = N/A |
population_census_year = 2000|
population_density = 140<sup>2</sup> |
population_densitymi² = 363<sup>2</sup> | <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
population_density_rank = 77th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $8.091 trillion<sup>2</sup> |
GDP_PPP_rank = 2nd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5642<sup>2</sup> |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 98th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.755 |
HDI_rank = 85th |
HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Chinese Civil War|Establishment]] |
established_events = &nbsp;- Declared |
established_dates = <br> [[October 1]], [[1949]] |
currency = [[Renminbi|Renminbi Yuan]] (RMB¥)<sup>2</sup> |
currency_code = CNY |
time_zone = |
utc_offset = +8|
time_zone_DST = |
utc_offset_DST = +9, does not observe |
cctld = [[.cn]]<sup>2</sup> |
calling_code = 86<sup>2</sup> |
footnotes=<sup>1</sup>[[Standard Mandarin]] (Putonghua) is the official spoken standard, except in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] where [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]] is used more often. Chinese is co-official with [[English language|English]] in Hong Kong and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] in Macau, respectively. In minority areas, Chinese is co-official to various extents with minority languages such as [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], [[Mongolian language|Mongol]], and [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]].<br><sup>2</sup>Information for mainland China only. [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], and [[Taiwan]] are excluded.}}
{{portal}}
The '''People's Republic of China''' ('''PRC'''; [[Simplified Chinese character|Simplified Chinese]]: 中华人民共和国, [[Traditional Chinese character|Traditional Chinese]]: 中華人民共和國; [[pinyin]]: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó {{Audio|Zh-Zhonghua renmin gongheguo.ogg|listen}}), or '''[[China]]''', is a [[state]] in [[East Asia]]. The PRC is home to over 1.3 billion people, which makes it the largest country on earth in terms of population.
Since its founding in [[1949]], the PRC has been led by the [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC) under a [[Single-party state|one-party]] system. Though [[Constitution of the PRC|constitutionally]] a [[socialist state]], the PRC has extensively [[privatization|privatized]] its economy in the past three decades under "[[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]]." Nonetheless, it retains significant political control over the remaining [[state-owned enterprise]]s and the [[bank]]ing sector. These [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]] have succeeded in creating jobs and spurring economic growth, lifting much of the populace from poverty and leading to a growing Chinese [[Geopolitics|global]] influence in [[economics|economic]], [[Politics of China|political]], [[military]], [[science|scientific]], [[technology|technological]], and [[Culture of China|cultural]] affairs.
In an ongoing dispute, the PRC [[political status of Taiwan|claims sovereignty over Taiwan]] and some neighboring islands, whose control was never relinquished by the [[Republic of China]]. The PRC asserts the Republic of China to be an illegitimate and supplanted entity and administratively categorizes [[Taiwan]] as the 23rd province of the PRC. The term "[[mainland China]]" is sometimes used to denote the area under the PRC's rule, usually excluding the two [[Special Administrative Region]]s, [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]].
==Terminology==
The name '''New China''' has been frequently applied to China as a positive term by the Communist Party as a political and social term contrasting China before 1949 (the establishment of the PRC) and the new socialist state, and sometimes used by writers outside mainland China. The PRC has also been known (mainly in the [[Cold War]] era), as '''Communist China''' and somewhat disparagingly as '''Red China''', to distinguish it from the ROC on Taiwan (once known as Nationalist China or Free China). In some contexts, particularly in economics, trade, and sporting, & |
g;59'49" [[Latitude|North]], 120&deg;32'42" [[Longitude|West]] (46.997064, -120.545119){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 17.2 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (6.6 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 17.1 km&sup2; (6.6 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&sup2; (0.1 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 0.75% water.
== Demographics ==
[[Image:ellensburg.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Art house in Ellensburg, Washington]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 15,414 people, 6,249 households, and 2,649 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 903.1/km&sup2; (2,338.9/mi&sup2;). There are 6,732 housing units at an average density of 394.4/km&sup2; (1,021.5/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 88.07% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.17% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.95% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 4.09% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.16% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.86% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.69% from two or more races. 6.33% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 6,249 households out of which 20.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.4% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 57.6% are non-families. 35.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.12 and the average family size is 2.84.
In the city the population is spread out with 15.8% under the age of 18, 39.3% from 18 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 12.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 24 years. For every 100 females there are 95.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 93.1 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $20,034, and the median income for a family is $37,625. Males have a median income of $31,022 versus $22,829 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $13,662. 34.3% of the population and 18.8% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 29.0% of those under the age of 18 and 11.2% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== External links ==
*[http://www.ci.ellensburg.wa.us/ Ellensburg official website]
*[http://www.ellensburg-chamber.com/ Ellensburg Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.ellensburgrodeo.com/ Ellensburg Rodeo]
*[http://www.cwu.edu/ Central Washington University]
*[http://www.anderson-hay.com/ Anderson Hay & Grain Co., Inc.]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|46.997064|-120.545119}}
{{Washington}}
[[Category:Cities in Washington]]
[[Category:Kittitas County, Washington]]
[[de:Ellensburg]]
[[ja:エレンズバーグ (ワシントン州)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eugene Oregon</title>
<id>9622</id>
<revision>
<id>15907495</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eugene, Oregon]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eugene, Oregon</title>
<id>9623</id>
<revision>
<id>42019230</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:42:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PDXblazers</username>
<id>915752</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Sports */ Eugene's hockey team name changed</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eugenebroadway.jpg|right|thumb|420px|''East Broadway at night, Downtown Eugene'']]
'''Eugene''' is the third largest [[city]] [http://www.eugene-or.gov/portal/server.pt] and boasts the second largest [[metropolitan area|metropolitan population]] [http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=1119225167&men=gcis&lng=en&gln=xx&dat=32&geo=-223&srt=pnan&col=aohdq&pt=a&va=x&geo=-3793] in the state of [[Oregon]], and is also the [[county seat]] of [[Lane County, Oregon]], [[United States|USA]]. It is located at the south end of the [[Willamette Valley]], at the confluence of the [[McKenzie River]] and the [[Willamette River]], about 60 miles (97 km) east of the [[Oregon Coast]].
Eugene is home to the [[University of Oregon]]. The city is also noted for its natural beauty, activist political leanings, alternative lifestyles, recreation opportunities (especially [[bicycling]], [[rafting]], and [[kayaking]]), and arts focus. In fact, Eugene's motto is "The World's Greatest City for the Arts and Outdoors" and is also referred to as "The Emerald City" and "The Track Capital of the World." The [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] corporation had its beginnings in Eugene.
==History==
Eugene is named after its founder, [[Eugene Franklin Skinner]]. In [[1846]], Skinner erected the first cabin in the area. It was used as a [[trading post]] and was dubbed as a [[post office]] in [[1850]]. Skinner founded Eugene in [[1862]] and later ran a ferry service across the Willamette River where the Ferry Street Bridge now stands.
Preceding the institution of the [[University of Oregon]] was Columbia College, which was also founded around the same area the UofO resides in today. That institute, however, fell victim to two different major fires over four years, and after being rebuilt twice already, it was decided to not be rebuilt again. Commonly even today, people refer to parts of Eugene's campus area as "College Hill," and this name does not come from the adjacent location of the University of Oregon, but rather the former location of Columbia College. Columbia College preceded the University of Oregon by a few years.
The town raised the initial funding to start a public University, which later became the [[University of Oregon]], with the hope of turning the small town into a cultural center of learning. In 1872 the [[Oregon Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] passed a bill ratifying the University. Interestingly, the nearby town of Albany was Eugene's biggest competitor to provide a home for this institute. In 1873 community member J. H. D. Henderson donated the hilltop land for the campus, overlooking the city. The University first opened in 1876 with regents electing first faculty and naming John Wesley Johnson as president with the first students registering on [[16 October]] [[1876]]. It would not be until 1877, later known as Deady Hall (for the first Board of Regents President and community leader Judge [[Matthew P. Deady]]) that the first building would be completed. It is also to place specific emphasis on the fact that the University of Oregon has been a leader in diversity since its very beginning; the University of Oregon's first class included two Japanese students.
Eugene is the home of Oregon's largest publicly owned electric utility, the Eugene Water & Electric Board, which got its start in the first decade of the last century after there was a typhoid epidemic traced to the groundwater supply. Eugene condemned the private utility and began treating river water (first the Willamette, but now the McKenzie) for domestic use. EWEB got into the electric business when power was needed for the water pumps and excess electricity was used for street lighting.
==Geography and Climate==
===Geography===
[[Image:ORMap-doton-Eugene.png|right|Location of Eugene, Oregon]]Eugene is located at 44&deg;3'28" North, 123&deg;6'37" West (44.057663, -123.110345) (see [[Geographic references]]) at an elevation of 426 feet.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 105.0 km&sup2; (40.6 mi&sup2;){{GR|1}}. 104.9 km&sup2; (40.5 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&sup2; (0.04 mi&sup2; or 0.10%) of it is water.
To the north of downtown is [[Skinner Butte]] park. Forested [[Hendricks Park]] is famous for its Rhododendron Garden. [[Alton Baker Park]], along the Willamette river, attracts visitors to jog its running paths, bike its endless bike paths and bike bridges, swim the wild Willamette, canoe the millrace, sit at the duck ponds, and visit the Owens Rose Garden. A climb up Spencer Butte, south of the city, offers a lovely look at Eugene and the headwaters of the Willamette. [[Mount Pisgah Arboretum]], to the east, is another large and special park, and host to the annual mushroom festival.
Eugene has a striking urban forest. The town is packed with trees, and its citizens are very proud and protective of them. The [[University of Oregon]] campus is itself a world-class arboretum, with over 500 species of trees, and its own tourbook. The city operates and maintains scenic hiking trails that pass through and across the ridges of a cluster of small mountains in the southern portion of the city, on the fringe of residential neighborhoods. Some trails allow biking and others are for hikers only.
The [[Willamette River|Willamette]] and [[McKenzie River|McKenzie]] rivers run through Eugene and its sister city [[Springfield, Oregon|Springfield]].
===Climate===
Eugene's [[mean]] annual temperature is 52.1 &deg;F (11.2 &deg;C) [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/online/ccd/nrmavg.txt]; its annual rainfall is 50.9 inches (1293 mm) [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/online/ccd/nrmpcp.txt]. Interestingly, Eugene is actually colder on average than Portland, despite being located more than 160km (approx. 100 miles) south and having only a marginally higher elevation. Eugene's average July low temperature is 10.6 &deg;C (51.1 &deg;F) [http://www.worldclimate.com/cgi-bin/data.pl?ref=N45W122+1304+356751C], while Portland's average July low is 13.6 &deg;C (56.5 &deg;F |
ically controversial action of the early Bolsheviks.
During the [[Spanish Civil War]], a pro-Soviet Communist Party gained considerable influence due to the necessity of aid from the Soviet Union. Communists and liberals on the Republican side fought mainly against the [[Falange]] fascists, but also put some effort against the [[anarchist]] [[Spanish Revolution]], ostensibly to bolster the anti-Fascist front (the anarchist response was, "The revolution and the war are inseperable"). The most dramatic action against the anarchists was in May of 1937, when Communist-led police forces attempted to take over a [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]-run telephone building in [[Barcelona]]. The telephone workers fought back, setting up barricades and surrounding the Communist "[[Lenin Barracks]]." Five days of street fighting in the [[Barcelona May Days]] ensued. The enmity between anarchists at communists reached a new high, and remained there.
Bitter feelings between anarchists and communists are apparent even today in revolutionary circles. Much conflict and arguing occurs as it did in the 19th century between Marx and Bakunin. However, in recent times, anarchists and communists often join in protest (at least for pragmatic purposes) on certain issues, such as the recent [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].
==Notable Anti-Communists==
*Fascists [[Benito Mussolini]], [[Augusto Pinochet]], [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Francisco Franco]]
*Politicians [[Winston Churchill]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Joseph McCarthy]], [[Margaret Thatcher]]
*Economists [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], [[Milton Friedman]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Ludwig von Mises]]
*Historians [[Robert Conquest]], [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]], [[Richard Pipes]], [[Nikolai Tolstoy]]
*Writers [[Taylor Caldwell]], [[David Caute]], [[Arthur Koestler]], [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], [[Peregrine Worsthorne]]
*Religious Leaders [[Rev. Sun Myung Moon]], [[Pope John Paul II]] (opposed the [[communist states]])
== Anti-Communists who are also [[Anti-fascism|Anti-Fascists]] ==
*[[Hannah Arendt]]
*[[Albert Camus]]
*[[Winston Churchill]]
*[[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]]
*[[Pope John Paul II]] (opposed the [[communist states]])
*[[Joseph McCarthy]]
*[[George Orwell]]
*[[Ayn Rand]]
*[[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]
*[[Lech Wałęsa]]
*[[Milovan Đilas]]
==Notable Anti-Communist Dissidents==
''See also .''
*[[Václav Havel]] ([[Czechoslovakia]]) - later became the last President of [[Czechoslovakia]] (1990-1993) and the first President of [[Czech Republic]] (1993-2003)
*[[Lech Wa&#322;&#281;sa]] ([[Poland]]) - later became the president of Poland 1990-1995
*[[Zviad K. Gamsakhurdia]] ([[USSR]]) - [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] dissident during the Soviet regime, later became the president of Georgia
*[[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] ([[USSR]]) - famous [[Russia]]n novelist
*[[Milovan &#272;ilas]] ([[SFRY|Yugoslavia]])
*[[Harry Wu]] ([[China]])
*[[Wang Youcai]] ([[China]])
==Anti-Communist Statesmen and Military Leaders==
*[[Fulgencio Batista]] - leader of [[Cuba]], overthrown in the [[Cuban Revolution]]
*[[Pieter Willem Botha]] prime minister (later state [[president]]) of [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]] 1978-1989
*[[Zbigniew Brzezinski]] - [[United States National Security Advisor]] to President [[Jimmy Carter]], 1977-1980
*[[Winston Churchill]] - [[British Prime Minister]], 1940-45, 1951-55, leader of counterrevolutionary forces in [[Russian Civil War]].
*[[Martin Dies, Jr.]] - [[United States]] congressman 1930-1944, 1952-1958
*[[Ngo Dinh Diem]] - President of [[South Vietnam]] 1955-1963, assassinated
*[[Samuel Kanyon Doe]] - President of [[Liberia]] 1980-1990, assassinated
*[[King Faisal]] - King of [[Saudi Arabia]]
*[[Francisco Franco]] - leader of [[Spain]] 1939-1975, following the [[Spanish Civil War]]
*[[Licio Gelli]], head of [[P2]]
*[[Barry Goldwater]] - [[United States]] Senator 1953-1964, 1968-1987
*[[Jesse Helms]] - [[United States]] Senator
*[[Adolf Hitler]] - [[Chancellor]] of Germany 1933-1945
*[[Miklós Horthy]] - [[Regent]] of [[Hungary]] 1920-1944
*[[Chiang Kai-Shek]] - leader of the [[Republic of China]] 1928-1975, which was later relocated to [[Taiwan]]
*[[John F. Kennedy]] - President of the [[United States]] 1961-1963
*[[Jomo Kenyatta]] - President of [[Kenya]] 1964-1978
*[[Nguyen Khanh]] - premier (1964) of [[South Vietnam]] and current Chief of State of the [[Government of Free Vietnam]] 2005-
*[[Jeane Kirkpatrick]] - [[United States]] diplomat, ambassador to the [[United Nations]] under [[Ronald Reagan|President Reagan]]
*[[Henry Kissinger]] - [[Secretary of State]] for the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] and [[Gerald Ford|Ford]] administrations
*[[Daniel Malan]] - prime minister of [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]] 1948-1954
*[[Douglas MacArthur]] - [[United States]] general, led the American forces in the [[Korean War]]
*[[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]] - White military leader, later [[President of Finland]] 1867-1951
*[[Ferdinand Marcos]] - Preident of the [[Philippines]] 1965-1986, established diplomatic relations with the [[People's Republic of China]]
*[[Mobutu Sese Seko]] - President of [[Zaire]] 1965-1997 (although the country he ruled did not become [[Zaire]] until [[1971]])
*[[Joseph McCarthy]] - [[United States]] [[Senator]] 1947-1957
*[[Benito Mussolini]] - [[Fascism|Fascist]] leader of [[Italy]] 1922-1944
*[[Richard Nixon]] - President of the [[United States]] 1969-1974, established diplomatic relations with [[People's Republic of China|Communist China]]
*[[Lon Nol]] - Premier (later president) and dictator of [[Cambodia]], overthrown by the [[Khmer Rouge]]
*[[Boun Oum]] - Prince of [[Laos]]
*[[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] - [[Shah]] of [[Iran]] 1953-1979, overthrown in the [[Iranian revolution]]
*[[George Papadopoulos]] - [[Greece|Greek]] leader from 1967 to 1974
*[[Augusto Pinochet]] - leader of [[Chile]] 1973-1990, overthrew the socialist government of [[Salvador Allende]].
*[[Ronald Reagan]] - President of the [[United States]] 1981-1989
*[[Syngman Rhee]] - president of [[South Korea]] 1948-1960
*[[António de Oliveira Salazar]] - Dictator of [[Portugal]] 1932-1968
*[[Jonas Savimbi]] - rebel against the Marxist government of [[Angola]]
*[[Ian Smith]] - Prime Minister of [[Rhodesia]], now [[Zimbabwe]]
*[[Paul Schäfer]] - former leader of the anti-communist [[Colonia Dignidad]] community in [[Chile]]
*[[Anastasio Somoza García]] - president of Nicaragua
*[[Anastasio Somoza Debayle]] - president of [[Nicaragua]] 1967-1972, 1974-1979, overthrown by the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinistas]]
*[[Luis Somoza Debayle]] - president of Nicaragua
*[[Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom]] - Prime Minister of [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]] 1954-1958
*[[Alfredo Stroessner]] - leader of [[Paraguay]] 1954-1989
*[[Suharto]] - President of Indonesia
*[[Svinhufvud]] - [[President of Finland]] 1931-1937
*[[Robert Taft]] - [[United States]] Senator
*[[Eugène Terre'Blanche]] - founder and leader of the [[Neo-Nazism|Neo-Nazi]] [[Afrikanerweerstandsbeweging]]
*[[Margaret Thatcher]] - Prime Minister of the [[United Kingdom]] 1979-1990
*[[Nguyen Cao Ky]] - Premier (later Vice-President) of [[South Vietnam]]
*[[Nguyen Van Thieu]] - Last President of [[South Vietnam]] 1967-1975
*[[Moise Tshombe]] - President of [[Katanga]]
*[[Rafael Trujillo]] - leader of [[Dominican Republic]]
*[[Harry S. Truman]] - President of the United States, 1945-1953
*[[Arthur H. Vandenberg]] - [[United States Senator]]
*[[Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd]] - Prime minister of [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]] 1958-1966, architect of [[apartheid|grand apartheid]]
*[[Jorge Rafael Videla]] - [[Argentina|Argentine]] political and military leader
*[[Balthazar Johannes Vorster]] - Prime minister of [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]] 1966-1978
==Leaders of the Russian anti-Bolshevik [[White Movement]]==
:''See also: [[:Category:Russian counter-revolution people]]''
*[[Anton Ivanovich Denikin]]
*[[Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel]]
*[[Aleksandr Vasilevich Kolchak]]
*[[Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich]]
*[[Pyotr Nikolayevich Krasnov]]
===Anti-Communist Terrorists===
* [[Luis Posada Carriles]] - alleged [[Terrorism|terrorist]] who blew up a Cuban passenger jet in [[1976]], killing the 73 passengers aboard, and admitted to plotting attacks that damaged tourist spots. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0512/dailyUpdate.html]
* [[Orlando Bosch]]
* [[Stefano Delle Chiaie]]
* [[Kenkokukai]], [[Japan]]ese nationalists who bombed the [[USSR|Soviet]] embassy in [[1928]]
* [[Eugène Terre'Blanche]]
* [[Michael Townley]]
* [[Osama Bin Laden]] fought aside and supported the [[Mujahideen]], against the invasion of the [[Soviet]] [[communists]] or "[[atheists]]" in [[Afghanistan]].
==See also==
*[[American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia]]
*[[Anti-fascism]]
*[[Cold War]]
*[[Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia]]
*[[Criticisms of communism]]
*[[Evil empire]]
*[[House Unamerican Activities Committee]]
*[[Joseph McCarthy]] and [[McCarthyism]]
*[[National Committee for a Free Europe]]
*[[Nationalist Movement]]
*[[Operation Gladio]]
*[[Radio Free Europe]]
*[[Reagan Doctrine]]
*[[Stay-behind]]
*[[Strategy of tension]]
*[[Truman Doctrine]]
*[[War on terror]]
*[[World Anti-Communist League]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iww.org/en/culture/articles/zinn14.shtml Workers of the World:The IWW Shattered]
*[http://anti-communist.org Anti-Communist.org]
[[Category:Anti-communism|Anti-communism]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Political movements]]
[[Category:Soviet dissidents]]
[[cs:Antikomunismus]]
[[de:Antikommunismus]]
[[eo:Antikomunismo]]
[[es:Anticomunismo]]
[[et:Antikommunism]]
[[fr:Anticommunisme]]
[[it:Anticomunismo]]
[[ja:反共主義]]
[[pt:Anticomunismo]]
[[sv:Antikommunism]]
[[vi:Chủ nghĩa chống cộng sản]]
[[zh:反共主义]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anomalous phenomenon</title>
<id>3180</id>
<revision>
<id>41706510</id>
<timestamp>2006 |
'.
==Lyrics==
===Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau===
Mae hen wlad fy nhadau yn annwyl i mi,<br>
Gwlad beirdd a chantorion, enwogion o fri;<br>
Ei gwrol ryfelwyr, gwladgarwyr tra mâd,<br>
Dros ryddid collasant eu gwaed.
:Gwlad, gwlad, pleidiol wyf i'm gwlad.<br>
:Tra môr yn fur i'r bur hoff bau,<br>
:O bydded i'r hen iaith barhau.<br>
Hen Gymru fynyddig, paradwys y bardd,<br>
Pob dyffryn, pob clogwyn i'm golwg sydd hardd;<br>
Trwy deimlad gwladgarol, mor swynol yw si<br>
Ei nentydd, afonydd, i mi.
Os treisiodd y gelyn fy ngwlad tan ei droed,<br>
Mae hen iaith y Cymry mor fyw ag erioed,<br>
Ni luddiwyd yr awen gan erchyll law brad,<br>
Na thelyn berseiniol fy ngwlad.<br>
== Translation ==
===Land Of My Fathers===
O land of my fathers, O land of my love,<br>
Dear mother of minstrels who kindle and move,<br>
And hero on hero, who at honour's proud call,<br>
For freedom their lifeblood let fall.
:Wales! Wales! O but my heart is with you!
:And long as the sea
:Your bulwark shall be,
:To Wales my heart shall be true.
O land of the mountains, the bard's paradise,<br>
Whose precipice, valleys lone as the skies,<br>
Green murmuring forest, far echoing flood<br>
Fire the fancy and quicken the blood.
For tho' the fierce foeman has ravaged your realm,<br>
The old speech of Wales he cannot o'erwhelm,<br>
Our passionate poets to silence command<br>
Or banish the harp from your strand.
''The above is a fairly free translation in verse.''
''A more literal translation would be:''
<!-- ===The Old Land Of My Fathers===
The old land of my fathers is dear to me,<br>
Land of poets and singers, famous men of renown;<br>
Her brave warriors, very splendid patriots,<br>
For freedom shed their blood.
:Nation [or country], Nation, I am partial to my Nation.
:While the sea [is] a wall to the pure, most loved region,
:O may the old language [''sc.'' Cymraeg] endure.
Old mountainous Wales, paradise of the bard,<br>
Every valley, every cliff, to me is beautiful.<br>
Through patriotic feeling, so charming is the murmur<br>
Of her brooks, rivers, to me.
If the enemy oppresses my land under his foot, <br>
The old language of the Welsh is as alive as ever.<br>
The muse is not hindered by the hideous hand of treason,<br>
Nor [is] the melodious harp of my country.
''Another possible translation is:''
-->===The Land Of My Fathers===
The land of my fathers is dear unto me,<br>
Old land where the minstrels are honored and free;<br>
Its warring defenders so gallant and brave,<br>
For freedom their life's blood they gave.
:Home, home, true am I to home,
:While seas secure the land so pure,
:O may the old language endure.
Old land of the mountains, the Eden of bards,<br>
Each gorge and each valley a loveliness guards;<br>
Through love of my country, charmed voices will be <br>
Its streams, and its rivers, to me.
Though foemen have trampled my land 'neath their feet, <br>
The language of Cambria still knows no retreat;<br>
The muse is not vanquished by traitor's fell hand,<br>
Nor silenced the harp of my land.
== Parodies ==
[[Swansea]] poet [[Nigel Jenkins]] wrote an English phonetic version of the first verse for the benefit of non-Welsh speakers[http://www.paulflynnmp.co.uk/commonsdetail.jsp?id=873], said to be inconspicuous in chorus as long as one doesn't smile:
:My hen laid a haddock, one hand oiled a flea,<br>
:Glad farts and centurions threw dogs in the sea,<br>
:I could stew a hare here and brandish Dan’s flan,<br>
:Don’s ruddy bog’s blocked up with sand.
:Dad! Dad! Why don’t you oil Auntie Glad?<br>
:Can whores appear in beer bottle pies,<br>
:O butter the hens as they fly!
Popular among fans of [[Bristol City F.C.|Bristol City Football Club]] is this parody[http://www.footballchants.org/viewChants.php?divs=D2&teams=53&let=B#12796]:
:Wales, Wales, bloody great fishes are Wales,<br>
:They swim in the sea,<br>
:We eat them for tea,<br>
:Oh bloody great fishes are Wales.
== External links ==
*[http://www.davnor.force9.co.uk/anthem/national_anthem.ram Real Audio sound file]
*[http://www.newi.ac.uk/buckleyc/landof.mid Midi sound file]
*[http://www.llgc.org.uk/drych/drych_s044.htm Hen wlad fy nhadau, the national anthem] (National Library of Wales website)
*[http://home.eunet.no/~aharries/landof.htm Land of my Fathers, midi file and lyrics]
*[http://www.llgc.org.uk/drych/HWFNh.mp3 Madge Breese's 1899 recording (MP3)] ''(National Library of Wales Digital Mirror)''
[[Category:National anthems]]
[[Category:Patriotic songs]]
[[Category:Welsh culture]]
[[Category:Welsh music]]
[[br:Hen Wlad fy Nhadau]]
[[cy:Hen Wlad fy Nhadau]]
[[de:Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]
[[eo:Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]
[[fr:Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]
[[nl:Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]
[[nn:Hen Wlad fy Nhadau]]
[[pt:Hino do País de Gales]]
[[sl:Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Habermas</title>
<id>13562</id>
<revision>
<id>15911161</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-25T14:06:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.141.45.125</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to main entry on Jürgen Habermas</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jürgen Habermas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Herman Brood</title>
<id>13563</id>
<revision>
<id>36112087</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T18:38:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Empoor</username>
<id>154938</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Biography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Biography==
[[Image:Herman brood.jpg|thumb|200px|right]]
'''Herman Brood''' (pronounced "Broat" /bro:t/; [[Zwolle]], [[November 5]], [[1946]] &ndash; [[Amsterdam]], [[July 11]], [[2001]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[musician]], [[painter]] and [[media]] personality. Brood was the Dutch [[personification]] of ''[[sex, drugs and rock 'n roll]]''.
After playing [[piano]] in [[Cuby and the Blizzards]] and several other bands since [[1964]], Brood started his own group, Herman Brood and His Wild Romance, in [[1977]]. The band had their first hit single, ''Saturday Night'', in [[1978]]. But even more than his music, it was his outspoken statements in the press about sex and [[drug use]] that made Herman Brood famous in the Netherlands. For a while in the early [[Eighties]] he was romantically involved with similarly outrageous [[Germany|German]] [[artist]], [[Nina Hagen]], with whom he appeared together in the movie ''Cha Cha.'' Brood relished the [[media]] attention and became the most famous [[hard drug]] user of the Netherlands. In the [[Nineties|1990s]] he took up painting and became as successful as a painter as he was as a musician.
With the band 'Herman Brood and his Wild Romance' he made his best known album 'Schpritz' (a play on the German word for injection needle), containing anti-drug use songs like 'Dope Sucks', but also 'Saturday Night'. Brood swore off most drugs, reducing his drug use to [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] and a daily shot of [[amphetamine|speed]]. When in [[2001]], he found out that he had only a few months left to live, Herman took matters into his own hands and, depressed by the failure of his drug rehabilitation programme, committed [[suicide]] on [[July 11]] by jumping off the [[Amsterdam]] [[Hilton Hotel|Hilton]] at the age of 54.
[http://www.boertienfoto.nl/BROOD.jpg]
== Herman Brood, the artist ==
Although Herman Brood was famous mostly among music fans outside of Holland, in his own country of origin he is primarily known and loved for his contributions to [[public art]], particularly for creating [[murals]] in different public places in Amsterdam. Most art critics still have a hard time trying to describe the unique Herman Brood style, but many of his murals have definitely made a great contribution to the ever young beauty of the Dutch capital.
Herman Brood had a great impact on the following generation of Dutch street and public artists.
See also:
[http://images.google.nl/images?q=Herman+Brood+art&hl=nl&lr=&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wi Herman Brood as an artist]
==Discography==
* ''Street'' (1977)
* ''Shpritsz'' (1978)
* ''Cha Cha'' (1978)
* ''Go Nutz'' (1980)
* ''Wait a Minute...'' (1980)
* ''Modern Times Revive'' (1981)
* ''Frisz & Sympatisz'' (1982)
* ''The Brood'' (1984)
* ''Bühnensucht/Live'' (1985)
* ''Yada Yada'' (1988)
* ''Hooks'' (1989)
* ''Freeze'' (1990)
* ''Saturday Night Live!'' (1992)
* ''Fresh Poison'' (1994)
* ''50 The Soundtrack'' (1996)
* ''Ciao Monkey'' (2000)
''50 The Soundtrack'' is a tribute album for Herman's 50th birthday, on which he sings duets with various guests.
==Trivia==
*Herman Brood never made it big in the US, but a poster of 'Herman Brood and his Wild Romance' can be seen in the Cronenberg film [[Scanners]] (about 53 minutes into the film).
==External links==
*[http://www.hermanbrood.nl Planet Brood (Brood's homepage)]
*[http://www.zing.demon.nl Zing (Herman Brood page van Jaap Stiemer)]
[[Category:1946 births|Brood, Herman]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Brood, Herman]]
[[Category:Dutch musicians|Brood, Herman]]
[[Category:Entertainers who committed suicide in their 50s|Brood, Herman]]
[[de:Herman Brood]]
[[nl:Herman Brood]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homomorphism</title>
<id>13564</id>
<revision>
<id>39871645</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T13:03:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>152.81.9.244</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This word should not be confused with [[homeomorphism]].''
In [[abstract algebra]], a '''homomorphism''' is a structure-preserving [[map (mathematics)|map]] between two [[algebrai |
arkness and tries unsuccessfully to find out about the origin of the lotus. Then he hears the syllables ''ta-pa'' and starts to perform [[asceticism]] and becomes empowered by [[Vishnu]] for creation.
===Siberian Shamanism===
In the [[shaman|shamanic]] religion of the ancient [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and other [[Siberia|Siberian]] nomads, [[Bai-Ulgan]] was the force behind creation. Inasmuch as Siberian shamanism may be said to parallel Gnostic cosmological beliefs, Bai-Ulgan has been compared to the Demiurge.
==References==
* [http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/nhl.htm The Nag Hammadi Library] (see [[Nag Hammadi]])
==See also==
* [[Archon]]
* [[Brahma]]
* [[Bythos]]
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[Gnosticism]]
* [[Johannite]]
* [[Mandaean]]
* [[Platonism]]
* [[Sethian|Sethianism]]
* [[Tetragrammaton|YhWh]]
* [[Timaeus]]
* [[Urizen]]
* [[Yaw (god)|Yaw]]
[[Category:Creator deities]]
[[Category:Gnostic deities]]
[[Category:Platonic deities]]
[[Category:Dualistic Gods]]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]
[[de:Demiurg]]
[[es:Demiurgo]]
[[fr:Démiurge]]
[[it:Demiurgo]]
[[nl:Demiurg]]
[[ja:デミウルゴス]]
[[pl:Demiurg]]
[[pt:Demiurgo]]
[[ru:Демиург]]
[[fi:Demiurgi]]
[[sv:Demiurg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Defenestration of Prague</title>
<id>8797</id>
<revision>
<id>15906747</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-14T16:04:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Parker</username>
<id>42</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Defenestrations of Prague]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dubrawka</title>
<id>8798</id>
<revision>
<id>40600490</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:15:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.16.1.121</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dabrowka.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Dubrawka, by [[Jan Matejko]]]]
'''Dubrawka''' of [[Bohemia]] ([[Czech language|Czech]], ''Doubravka''; [[Polish language|Polish]], ''Dobrawa'' or ''Dąbrówka''; born ''circa'' [[925]]/[[931]], died [[977]]) was the daughter of Duke [[Boleslav I]] of [[Bohemia]] and of Adiva of England. Adiva was a daughter of King [[Edward the Elder]] of England.
Dubrawka was first married to Günther von Merseburg. They had a son named Ekkehard I. [[Margrave]] Ekkehard I of Meissen, Duke of [[Thuringia]], married Suanehild [[Billung]] and their son, Margrave Hermann of Meissen, married Regelinda (or Reginlindis), a daughter of Boleslaus (or [[Boleslaw I Chrobry]]).
After Günther von Merseburg's death, his widow Dubrawka married [[Mieszko I]] in [[965]].
'''FATHER''': [[Boleslaus I]] the Cruel
'''SIBLINGS''': [[Boleslaus II the Pious]], Mlada (Maria) and Strakhkvas (Christian).
'''HUSBAND''': [[Mieszko I]]
'''CHILDREN''': [[Boleslaus I of Poland]], [[Vladivoj]] and Świętosława.
[[Category:920s births]]
[[Category:930s births]]
[[Category:977 deaths]]
[[Category:Polish queens consort]]
[[de:Dubrawka von Böhmen]]
[[fr:Dubravka]]
[[no:Dubrawka]]
[[pl:Dobrawa Przemyślidka]]
[[ru:Дубравка]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>D. B. Cooper</title>
<id>8799</id>
<revision>
<id>41921507</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:08:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted fix of link to disambiguation page ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]) Series</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DBCooper.jpg|right|frame|A 1972 FBI composite drawing of D. B. Cooper]]
'''D. B. Cooper''', aka '''Dan Cooper''', was a notorious [[airplane]] [[hijacker]] who in 1971, after receiving a ransom payout of $200,000, leapt from the back of a [[Boeing 727]] as it was flying over the [[Pacific Northwest]]. No conclusive evidence has ever surfaced regarding Cooper's whereabouts, and several theories offer competing explanations of what happened after his famed jump. The only clues to have turned up in the case are ambiguous: around $5,000 that washed up on the banks of the [[Columbia River]], and part of a sign believed to be from the rear stairway of the plane from which Cooper jumped. The nature of Cooper's escape and the uncertainty of his fate continue to intrigue people. Today, the Cooper case remains the world's only unsolved [[skyjacking]].
==The hijacking==
[[Image:Dbc.jpg|right|frame|FBI sketch of DB Cooper age progression]]
At 16:35 on [[Thanksgiving]] Eve, [[November 24]], [[1971]] in the [[United States]], a man travelling under the name '''Dan Cooper''' hijacked a [[Northwest Orient Airlines]] [[Boeing 727|Boeing 727-051]], flight 305, flying from [[Portland International Airport]] ([[IATA airport code|PDX]]) in [[Portland, Oregon]], with the threat of a bomb (he had a briefcase containing wires and "red sticks").
Dan Cooper boarded the plane of only 36 passengers and 6 crew. He wore a black raincoat, loafers, a dark business suit, a neatly pressed white shirt, a narrow black tie and a pearl stickpin. He also had black wrap-around sunglasses.
[[Image:DB Cooper Wanted Poster 2.jpg|thumb|left|frame|FBI wanted poster of D.B. Cooper]]
The jet was barely in the air before he paged his flight attendant, Florence Schaffner, sitting nearby, for his drinks. As he paid her, he also handed her a note. She thought he was giving her his phone number, so she slipped it, unopened, into her pocket. Cooper leaned closer, "Miss, you'd better look at that note. I have a bomb." In the envelope was a note that said, "I have a bomb in my briefcase. I will use it if necessary. I want you to sit next to me. You are being hijacked."
When the flight attendant informed the cockpit about Cooper and the note, one of the skeptical pilots went to the back of the plane and sat down next to Dan Cooper. He asked, "So what's all this about a bomb?" Dan Cooper opened his case a crack and closed it again, long enough for the pilot to see red cylinders and wires. The pilot returned to the cockpit and the crew informed authorities on the ground of the situation, and were told to cooperate with the hijacker.
When the plane landed at [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport]] near [[Seattle, Washington]] at 17:45, its intended destination, he released the passengers in exchange for $200,000 and four [[parachute]]s. At 19:45 he had the flight crew take the plane back into the air, ordering them to fly towards [[Mexico]] at low speed and altitude with the landing gear down and 15 degrees of flap. At some point during the journey he jumped out of the rear stairway of the airplane with the money and parachutes. The [[FBI]] believed his descent was at 20:11 over southwest [[Washington]], because the rear stairway "bumped" at that time. Due to poor visibility, his descent went unnoticed by the [[United States Air Force]] [[F-106]] [[jet fighter]]s tracking the airliner. He was believed to have landed southeast of the town of Ariel by the edge of [[Lake Merwin]], 30 miles north of Portland, Oregon.
Despite an eighteen-day search of the projected landing zone, no trace of the man or his parachute was ever found, and it remains unknown whether he survived the escape. On [[February 13]], [[1980]], $5,800 (in bundles of $20 bills) of the ransom money was found by a family on a picnic five miles northwest of [[Vancouver, Washington]] on the banks of the Columbia River.
The FBI questioned and then released a man by the name of D.B Cooper, who was never considered a significant suspect. Due to a miscommunication with the media, however, the initials "D. B." became firmly associated with the hijacker and this is how he is now known.
Following three similar (but less successful) hijackings in [[1972]], the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] required that all Boeing 727 aircraft be fitted with a device known as the "[[Cooper Vane]]", a mechanical aerodynamic wedge that prevents the rear stairway from being lowered in flight.
==Suspects==
[[Image:DBCooper article.jpg|200 px|right|thumb|The Salt Lake Tribune's article about the 1972 capture of Richard McCoy]]
===Richard McCoy, Jr.===
One of the 1972 hijackings was carried out by Richard McCoy, Jr. On [[April 7]], [[1972]], four months after D. B. Cooper's hijacking, McCoy boarded United Flight 855 during a stopover in Denver. It was a Boeing 727 with aft stairs, the same type used in the Cooper incident, which McCoy used to escape after giving the crew the same type of instructions as Dan Cooper.
Police started to investigate McCoy after a tip. He was a married former [[Mormon]] [[Sunday school]] teacher with two young children who was studying law enforcement at [[Brigham Young University]]. He was also a [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] veteran, a former [[Green Berets|Green Beret]] [[helicopter]] [[Aviator|pilot]], and an avid [[skydiving|skydiver]].
Following a [[fingerprint]] and handwriting match, McCoy was arrested two days after the hijacking. Inside his house FBI agents found a [[jumpsuit]] and a duffel bag filled with cash totalling $499,970. McCoy claimed innocence, but was convicted and received a 45-year sentence.
Once incarcerated, using his access to the prison's dental office, McCoy fashioned a fake handgun out of dental paste. He and a crew of convicts escaped in August [[1974]] by stealing a [[garbage truck]] and crashing it though the prison's main gate. It took three months for the FBI to locate McCoy, in [[Virginia]]. McCoy shot at the FBI agents and agent Nicholas O'Hara fired back with a shotgun, killing him.
''D. B. Cooper: The Real McCoy'', co-authored by an ex-FBI agent named Russell Calame, was published in [[1991]]. The book made the case that Cooper and McCoy were really the same person, citing similar methods of hijacking and a tie left by Cooper similar to those worn by Brigham Young students. The author said that McCoy "never |
xhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (Top Dead Center - TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle (which varies between engines). Any [[heat]] not translated into work is a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.
==Parts==
[[Image:Four stroke cycle compression.jpg|thumb|An illustration of several key components in a typical [[four-stroke cycle|four-stroke]] engine]]
The parts of an engine vary depending on the engine's type. For a [[four-stroke cycle|four-stroke]] engine, key parts of the engine include the [[crankshaft]] (purple), one or more [[camshaft]]s (red and blue) and [[poppet valve|valve]]s. For a [[two-stroke cycle|two-stroke]] engine, there may simply be an exhaust outlet and fuel inlet instead of a valve system. In both types of engines, there are one or more cylinders (grey and green) and for each cylinder there is a [[spark plug]] (darker-grey), a [[piston]] (yellow) and a [[crank (mechanism)|crank]] (purple). A single sweep of the cylinder by the piston in an upward or downward motion is known as a stroke and the downward stroke that occurs directly after the air-fuel mix in the cylinder is ignited is known as a power stroke.
A [[Wankel engine]] has a triangular rotor that orbits in an [[epitroichoid]]al (figure 8 shape) chamber around an eccentric shaft. The four phases of operation (intake, compression, power, exhaust) take place in separate locations, instead of one single location as in a reciprocating engine.
A [[Bourke Engine]] uses a pair of pistons integrated to a [[Scotch Yoke]] that transmits reciprocating force through a specially designed bearing assembly to turn a crank mechanism. Intake, compression, power, and exhaust all occur in each stroke of this yoke.
==Classification==
There is a wide range of internal combustion engines corresponding to their many varied applications. Likewise there is a wide range of ways to classify internal-combustion engines, some of which are listed below.
Although the terms sometimes cause confusion, there is no real difference between an "engine" and a "motor." At one time, the word "engine" (from [[Latin]], via [[Old French]], ''ingenium'', "ability") meant any piece of [[machinery]]. A "motor" (from Latin ''motor'', "mover") is any machine that produces mechanical [[Power (physics)|power]]. Traditionally, [[electric motor]]s are not referred to as "engines," but combustion engines are often referred to as "motors."
===Principles of operation===
[[Image:Antique gasoline engine.jpg|thumb|A 1906 gasoline engine]]
[[Reciprocating engine|Reciprocating]]:
* [[two-stroke cycle|Two-stroke engine]]
* [[four-stroke cycle|Four-stroke engine]]
* [[Sleeve_valve|Sleeve valve four-stroke]]
* [[Bourke Engine]]
[[Pistonless rotary engine|Rotary]]:
*Demonstrated:
** [[Wankel engine]]
*Proposed:
** [[orbital engine]]
** [[quasiturbine]]
Continuous combustion:
* [[gas turbine]]
* [[jet engine]]
* [[rocket engine]]
===Engine cycle===
Engines based on the [[two-stroke cycle]] use two strokes (one up, one down) for every power stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokes, alternative methods must be used to [[scavenge]] the cylinders. The most common method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to use the downward motion of the piston to pressurize fresh [[charge]] in the [[crankcase]], which is then blown through the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls. Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light (for their power output), and mechanically very simple. Common applications include [[snowmobile]]s, [[lawnmower]]s, [[chain saw]]s, [[jet ski]]s, [[moped]]s, [[outboard motor]]s and some [[motorcycle]]s. Unfortunately, they are also generally louder, less efficient, and far more polluting than their four-stroke counterparts, and they do not scale well to larger sizes. Interestingly, the largest compression-ignition engines are two-strokes, and are used in some locomotives and large ships. These engines use
[[forced induction]] to scavenge the cylinders.
Engines based on the [[four-stroke cycle]] or Otto cycle have one power stroke for every four strokes (up-down-up-down) and are used in cars, larger [[boat]]s and many light [[aircraft]]. They are generally quieter, more efficient and larger than their two-stroke counterparts. There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the [[Atkinson cycle|Atkinson]] and [[Miller cycle|Miller]] cycles. Most truck and automotive Diesel engines use a four-stroke cycle, but with a compression heating ignition system it is possible to talk separately about a [[diesel cycle]]. The [[Wankel engine]] operates with the same separation of phases as the four-stroke engine (but with no piston strokes, would more properly be called a four-phase engine), since the phases occur in separate locations in the engine; however like a two-stroke piston engine, it provides one power 'stroke' per revolution per rotor, giving it similar space and weight efficiency. The [[Bourke cycle]]'s combustion phase more closely
approximates [[constant volume combustion]] than either four stroke or two stroke cycles do. It also uses less moving parts, hence needs to overcome less [[friction]] than the other two reciprocating types have to. In addition, its greater [[expansion ratio]] also means more of the heat from its combustion phase is utilized than is used by either four stroke or two stroke cycles.
===Fuel and oxidizer types===
Fuels used include [[gasoline]] (British term: petrol), [[Liquified Petroleum Gas]], [[Vapourized Petroleum Gas]], [[compressed natural gas]], [[hydrogen]], [[diesel fuel]], [[JP18]] (jet fuel), [[landfill gas]], [[biodiesel]], [[peanut oil]], [[ethanol]], [[methanol]] (methyl or wood alcohol). Even fluidised metal powders and explosives have seen some use. Engines that use gases for fuel are called gas engines and those that use liquid hydrocarbons are called oil engines. However, gasoline engines are unfortunately also often colloquially referred to as 'gas engines'.
The main limitations on fuels are that the fuel must be easily transportable through the [[fuel system]] to the [[combustion chamber]], and that the fuel release sufficient [[energy]] in the form of [[heat]] upon [[combustion]] to make use of the engine practical.
The oxidiser is typically air, and has the advantage of not being stored within the vehicle, increasing the power-to-weight ratio. Air can, however, be compressed and carried aboard a vehicle. Some submarines are designed to carry pure [[oxygen]] or [[hydrogen peroxide]] to make them air-independent. Some race cars carry [[nitrous oxide]] as oxidizer. Other chemicals such as chlorine or fluorine have seen experimental use; but mostly are impractical.
[[Diesel engines]] are generally heavier, noisier and more powerful at lower speeds than [[gasoline engine]]s. They are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road-vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly more so for their increased fuel-efficiency over [[gasoline engine]]s), ships and some [[locomotive]]s and light [[aircraft]]. Gasoline engines are used in most other road-vehicles including most cars, [[motorcycle]]s and [[moped]]s. Note that in [[Europe]], sophisticated diesel-engined cars have become quite prevalent since the 1990s, representing around 40% of the market. Both gasoline and diesel engines produce significant emissions. There are also engines that run on [[hydrogen car|hydrogen]], [[methanol]], [[ethanol]], [[liquefied petroleum gas]] (LPG) and [[biodiesel]]. [[Paraffin]] and [[Tractor vaporising oil]] (TVO) engines are no longer seen.
[[image:Moore-single-cylinder-gasoline-engine.jpg|left|thumb|150px|One-cylinder gasoline engine (c. 1910).]]
===Cylinders===
Internal combustion engines can contain any number of cylinders with numbers between one and twelve being common, though as many as 28 have been used. Having more cylinders in an engine yields two potential benefits: First. the engine can have a larger displacement with smaller individual reciprocating masses (that is, the mass of each piston can be less) thus making a smoother running engine (since the engine tends to vibrate as a result of the pistons moving up and down). Second, with a greater displacement and more pistons, more fuel can be combusted and there can be more combustion events (that is, more power strokes) in a given period of time, meaning that such an engine can generate more torque than a similar engine with fewer cylinders. The down side to having more pistons is that, over all, the engine will tend to weigh more and tend to generate more internal friction as the greater number of pistons rub against the inside of their cylinders. This tends to decrease fuel efficiency and rob the engine
of some of its power. For high performance gasoline engines using current materials and technology (such as the engines found in modern automobiles), there seems to be a break point around 10 or 12 cylinders, after which addition of cylinders becomes an overall detriment to performance and efficiency, although exceptions such as the W-16 engine from [[Volkswagen]] exist.
*Most car engines have four to eight cylinders, with some high performance cars having ten, twelve, or even sixteen, and some very small cars and trucks having two or three. In previous years some quite large cars, such as the [[DKW]] and [[Saab 92]], had two cylinder, two stroke engines.
*[[Radial engine|Radial]] [[aircraft]] engines, now obsolete, had from five to 28 cylinders. A row contains an odd number of cylinders, so an even number indicates a two- or four-row engine.
*[[Motor cycle]]s commonly have from one to four cylinders, with a few high performance models having six.
*[[Snowmobile]]s usually have two cylinders. Some larger (not necessarily hig |
ary model for the atom, with electrons orbiting a sun-like nucleus. However, a naive planetary model has several difficulties, the most serious of which is the loss of energy by [[synchrotron radiation]]. That is, an accelerating [[electric charge]] emits [[electromagnetic wave]]s which carry [[energy]]; thus, with each orbit around the nucleus, the electron would radiate away a bit of its orbital energy, gradually spiralling inwards to the nucleus until the atom was no more. A quick calculation shows that this would happen almost instantly; thus, the naive planetary theory cannot explain why atoms are extremely long-lived.
The naive planetary model also failed to explain [[emission line|atomic spectra]], the observed discrete spectrum of light emitted by electrically excited atoms. Late [[19th century]] experiments with [[electric discharge]]s through various low-pressure [[gas]]ses in evacuated glass tubes had shown that atoms will emit light (that is, electromagnetic radiation), but only at certain discrete frequencies. A naive planetary model cannot explain this.
To overcome these difficulties, [[Niels Bohr]] proposed, in [[1913]], what is now called the '''Bohr model of the atom'''. The key ideas were:
* (1) The orbiting electrons existed in orbits that had discrete [[Quantization (physics)|quantized]] energies. That is, not every orbit is possible but only certain specific ones.
* (2) The laws of [[classical mechanics]] do not apply when electrons make the jump from one allowed orbit to another.
* (3) When an electron makes a jump from one orbit to another the energy difference is carried off (or supplied) by a single quantum of light (called a [[photon]]) which has an energy equal to the energy difference between the two orbitals.
* (4) The allowed orbits depend on quantized (discrete) values of orbital [[angular momentum]], ''L'' according to the equation
:: <math> \mathbf{L} = n \cdot \hbar = n \cdot {h \over 2\pi} </math>
: Where ''n'' = 1,2,3,&hellip; and is called the [[principal quantum number]], and ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]].
Assumption (4) states that the lowest value of ''n'' is 1. This corresponds to a smallest possible radius of 0.0529 nm. This is known as the [[Bohr radius]]. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the proton.
The Bohr model is sometimes known as the '''semiclassical model of the atom''', as it adds some primitive quantization conditions to what is otherwise a [[classical mechanics]] treatment. The Bohr model is certainly not a full quantum mechanical description of the atom. Assumption 2) states that the laws of classical mechanics don't apply during a [[quantum jump]], but it doesn't state what laws should replace classical mechanics. Assumption 4) states that angular momentum is quantised but does not explain why.
==Refinements==
Several enhancements to the Bohr model were proposed; most notably the '''Sommerfeld model''' or '''Bohr-Sommerfeld model''', which attempted to add support for elliptical orbits to the Bohr model's circular orbits. This model supplemented condition (4) with an additional radial quantization condition, the '''Sommerfeld-Wilson quantization condition'''
:<math>\oint p dq = nh</math>
where ''p'' is the [[generalized momentum]] conjugate to the radial [[generalized coordinate]] ''q''.
The Bohr-Sommerfeld model proved to be extremely difficult and unwieldy when its mathematical treatment was further fleshed out. In particular, the application of traditional [[perturbation theory]] from classical [[planetary mechanics]] lead to further confusions and difficulties. In the end, the model was abandoned in favour of the full [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] treatment of the [[hydrogen atom]], in [[1925]], using [[Schroedinger]]'s [[wave mechanics]].
However, this is not to say that the Bohr model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr-Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-order [[perturbation theory|perturbation]], the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in the [[Stark effect]]. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model.
The Bohr model does make accurate predictions that fit well with experimental data, using, at its core, only a simple set of assumptions. However, it is not a complete picture, just an aid to understanding. Atoms are not really little solar systems.
== Electron energy levels in hydrogen ==
The Bohr model is accurate only for one-electron systems such as the [[hydrogen atom]] or singly-ionized [[helium]]. This section uses the Bohr model to derive the energy levels of hydrogen.
The derivation starts with three simple assumptions:
:1) All particles are wavelike, and an electron's wavelength <math>\lambda</math>, is related to its velocity ''v'' by:
:::<math>\lambda = \frac{h}{m_e v}</math>
::where ''h'' is [[Planck's Constant]], and <math>m_e</math> is the mass of the electron. Bohr did not make this assumption (known as the [[de Broglie hypothesis]]) in his original derivation, because it hadn't been proposed at the time. However it allows the following intuitive statement.
:2) The circumference of the electron's orbit must be an integer multiple of its wavelength:
:::<math>2 \pi r = n \lambda \,</math>
::where ''r'' is the radius of the electron's orbit, and ''n'' is a positive integer.
:3) The electron is held in orbit by the [[Coulomb's law|coulomb force]]. That is, the coulomb force is equal to the [[centripetal force]]:
:::<math>\frac{kq_e^2}{r^2} = \frac{m_e v^2}{r} \,</math>
::where <math>k = 1 / {4 \pi \epsilon _0}</math>, and <math>q_e</math> is the charge of the electron.
These are three equations with three unknowns: <math>\lambda</math>, ''r'', ''v''. After solving this system of equations to find an equation for just ''v'', it is placed into the equation for the total energy of the electron:
::{|
|-
|<math>E \,</math>
|<math>=E_{kinetic} + E_{potential} \,</math>
|-
|
|<math>= \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}m_e v^2 - \frac{k q_e^2}{r}</math>
|}
Because of the [[virial theorem]], the total energy simplifies to
::<math>E = -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}m_e v^2 </math>
Substituting, one obtains the energy of the different levels of hydrogen:
::{|
|<math>E _n \,</math>
|<math>= -2 \pi^2 k^2 \left( \frac{m_e q_e^4}{h^2} \right) \frac{1}{n^2} \,</math>
|-
|
|<math>= \frac{-m_e q_e^4}{8 h^2 \epsilon_{0}^2} \frac{1}{n^2} \,</math>
|}
Or, after plugging in values for the constants,
::{|cellpadding="2" style="border:2px solid #ccccff"
|<math>E_n = \frac{-13.6 \ \mathbf{eV}}{n^2} \,</math>
|}
Thus, the lowest energy level of hydrogen (''n'' = 1) is about -13.6 [[electronvolt|eV]]. The next energy level (''n'' = 2) is -3.4 eV. The third (''n'' = 3) is -1.51 eV, and so on. Note that these energies are less than zero, meaning that the electron is in a bound state with the proton. Positive energy states correspond to the [[ionization|ionized]] atom where the electron is no longer bound, but is in a [[scattering theory|scattering state]].
===Energy in terms of other constants===
Starting with what we found above,
:<math>E_n = \frac{-m_e q_e^4}{8 h^2 \epsilon_{0}^2} \frac{1}{n^2} \,</math>
We can multiply top and bottom by <math>c^2</math>, and we'll arrive at
:<math>E_n = \frac{-m_e c^2 q_e^4}{8 h^2 c^2 \epsilon_{0}^2} \frac{1}{n^2} \,</math>
From here we can now write the energy level equation in terms of other constants to:
:<math>E_n = \frac{-E_r\alpha^2}{2n^2}</math>
where,
:<math>E_n \ </math> is the [[energy level]]
:<math>E_r \ </math> is the [[rest energy]] of the [[electron]]
:<math>\alpha \ </math> is the [[fine structure constant]]
:<math>n \ </math> is the [[principal quantum number]].
==Rydberg Formula==
The [[Rydberg formula]] describes the transitions or [[quantum jump]]s between one energy level and another. When the electron moves from one energy level to another, a [[photon]] is given off. Using the derived formula for the different 'energy' levels of hydrogen one may determine the 'wavelengths' of light that a hydrogen atom can give off.
The energy of photons that a hydrogen atom can give off are given by the difference of two hydrogen energy levels:
::<math>E=E_i-E_f=\frac{m_e e^4}{8 h^2 \epsilon_{0}^2} \left( \frac{1}{n_{f}^2} - \frac{1}{n_{i}^2} \right) \,</math>
:where <math>n_f</math> means the final energy level, and <math>n_i</math> means the initial energy level. It is assumed that the final energy level is less than the initial energy level.
Since the energy of a [[photon]] is
::<math>E=\frac{hc}{\lambda} \,</math>
the wavelength of the photon given off is
::<math>\frac{1}{\lambda}=\frac{m_e e^4}{8 c h^3 \epsilon_{0}^2} \left( \frac{1}{n_{f}^2} - \frac{1}{n_{i}^2} \right) \,</math>
The above is known as the [[Rydberg formula]]. This formula was known in the nineteenth century to scientists studying [[spectroscopy]], but there was no theoretical justification for the formula until Bohr derived it, more or less along the lines above.
==Shortcomings==
The Bohr model gives an incorrect value <math> \mathbf{L} = \hbar </math> for the ground state orbital angular momentum. The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero.
The Bohr model also has difficulty |
ah's name carries with it an element of passivity.
Jonah's passive character then is contrasted with the other main character: [[Yahweh]] (lit. "I will be what I will be"). Yahweh's character is altogether active. While Jonah flees, Yahweh pursues. While Jonah falls, Yahweh lifts up. The character of Yahweh in the story is progressively revealed through the use of irony. In the first part of the book, Yahweh is depicted as relentless and wrathful; in the second part of the book, He is revealed to be truly loving and merciful.
The other characters of the story include the sailors in chapter 1 and the people of Nineveh in chapter 3. These characters are also contrasted to Jonah's passivity. While Jonah sleeps in the hull, the sailors pray and try to save the ship from the storm (2:4-6). While Jonah passively finds himself forced to act under the Divine Will, the people of Nineveh actively petition Yahweh to change His mind.
===Plot===
The plot of the story is fairly direct, although the strong use of irony presents an unexpected turn of events. The story centers around the conflict between Jonah and Yahweh. Yahweh calls Jonah to proclaim judgement to Nineveh, yet Jonah resists and attempts to flee to Tarshish. From this point on, Jonah begins his descent from the Divine Will into the "belly of Sheol." Yet Yahweh relentlessly pursues Jonah, even bringing a great storm upon Jonah so that he is forced into the sea. Finally, Jonah relents and obeys the call to prophesy against Nineveh. Ironically, the relentless God demonstrated in the first 2 chapters, becomes the merciful God in the last two chapters (see 3:10). The author's use of irony is also demonstrated in that Jonah becomes the most effective of all prophets. While most of the prophets (i.e. those with great names) were relatively ineffective in turning people from their sins, Jonah turns 120,000 people to Yahweh!
==Interpretive history==
[[Image:Dore_jonah.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Jonah preaching to the Ninevites, by [[Gustave Dore]].]]
[[Image:Dore_jonah_whale.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Jonah Cast Forth By The Whale, by [[Gustave Dore]].]]
As with many canonical books, the Book of Jonah has had a long and varied interpretive history. This history spans from ancient rabbinic interpretations to "post modern" reader-response interpretations. The interpretative styles of Jews, Christians, Muslims, and atheists have all been employed to understand the story of Jonah. This section will consider how these various groups have interpreted Jonah throughout time.
===Early Jewish interpretation===
The story of Jonah has numerous theological implications, and Jews have always recognized this. In their early translations of the Hebrew Bible, Jewish translators tended to remove anthropomorphic imagery in order to prevent the reader from misunderstanding the ancient texts. This tendency is evidenced in both the Aramaic translations (i.e. the [[Targum]]) and the Greek translations (i.e. the [[Septuagint]]). As far as Jonah is concerned, Targum Jonah offers a good example of this.
====Targum Jonah====
In Jonah 1:6, the [[Masoretic Text]] (MT) reads, "...perhaps God will pay heed to us...." This phrase, however, is problematic. Are God's actions dictated by our desires, or our requests? But God, Jews believed, was unchangeable. How could a mere human direct the divine will? So, Targum Jonah translates this passage as: "...perhaps there will be mercy from the Lord upon us...." The captain's proposal was now no longer an attempt to change the divine will; rather, it was an attempt to appeal to divine mercy. Furthermore, in Jonah 3:9, the MT reads, "Who knows, God may turn and relent [lit. repent]?" Yet Targum Jonah translates this as, "Whoever knows that there are sins on his conscience let him repent of them and we will be pitied before the Lord." God does not change his mind; rather God simply fulfills his promise: when His people repent, he will pity them and forgive them.
====Dead Sea Scrolls====
Among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] (DSS), the book was only found in half of the ten Minor Prophets manuscripts and is not even mentioned among the non-biblical manuscripts (Abegg 443). If scholarly consensus is correct in its assessment that the DSS were the product of the [[Essenes]], this would be no surprise. The book of Jonah not only posed problems for Jews because it tells of God changing His mind, it also demonstrates God’s favor to one of Israel’s gentile enemies.
===Early Christian interpretation===
====New Testament====
The earliest Christian interpretations of Jonah are found in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] (see Matthew 12:38-42 and 16:1-4) and the [[Gospel of Luke]] (see Luke 11:29-32). Both Matthew and Luke record a tradition of Jesus’ interpretation of the story of Jonah (notably, Matthew includes two very similar traditions in chapters 12 and 16). As with most Old Testament interpretations found in the New Testament, Jesus’ interpretation is primarily “typological”. Jonah becomes a “type” for Jesus. Jonah spent three days in the belly of the fish; Jesus will spend three days in the ground. Here, Jesus plays on the imagery of [[Sheol]] found in Jonah’s prayer. While Jonah metaphorically declared, “Out of the belly of Sheol I cried,” Jesus will literally be in the belly of Sheol. Finally, Jesus compares his generation to the people of Nineveh. Jesus fulfills his role as a type of Jonah, however his generation fails to fulfill its role as a type of Nineveh. Nineveh repented but his generation, which has seen and heard one even greater than Jonah, fails to repent. Through his typological interpretation of the story of Jonah, Jesus has weighed his generation and found it wanting.
====Augustine of Hippo====
Contrary to popular belief, the debate over the credibility of the miracle of Jonah is ''not'' a modern one. Without a doubt, [[naturalism]] and the philosophy of [[David Hume]] have impacted modern interpretations of the miraculous story; yet the credibility of a human being surviving in the belly of a great fish has long been questioned. In c. 409 CE, [[Augustine of Hippo]] wrote to Deogratias concerning the challenge of some to the miracle recorded in the Book of Jonah. He writes:
"The last question proposed is concerning Jonah, and it is put as if it were not
from Porphyry, but as being a standing subject of ridicule among the Pagans; for his words are:
“In the next place, what are we to believe concerning Jonah, who is said to have been three days
in a whale’s belly? The thing is utterly improbable and incredible, that a man swallowed with his
clothes on should have existed in the inside of a fish. If, however, the story is figurative, be pleased
to explain it. Again, what is meant by the story that a gourd sprang up above the head of Jonah
after he was vomited by the fish? What was the cause of this gourd’s growth?” Questions such as
these I have seen discussed by Pagans amidst loud laughter, and with great scorn." (Letter CII, Section 30)
Augustine responds that if one is to question one miracle, then one should question all miracles as well (section 31). Nevertheless, despite his apologetic, Augustine views the story of Jonah as a figure for Christ. For example, he writes: "As, therefore, Jonah passed from the ship to the belly of the whale, so Christ passed from the cross to the sepulchre, or into the abyss of death. And as Jonah suffered this for the sake of those who were endangered by the storm, so Christ suffered for the sake of those who are tossed on the waves of this world." Augustine credits his allegorical interpretation to the interpretation of Christ himself (Matt. 12:39,40), and he allows for other interpretations as long as they are in line with Christ's.
===Islamic interpretation===
In the [[Qur'an]], Jonah is called Yunus (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
===Modern interpretation===
In Jonah 2:1 (1:17 in English translation), the Hebrew text reads ''dag gadol'' (דג גדול), which literally means "great fish." The [[LXX]] translates this phrase into Greek as ''ketos megas'' (κητος μεγας). The word ''ketos'' alone means "huge fish," and in Greek mythology the term was closely associated with sea monsters. (See http://www.theoi.com/Ther/Ketea.html for more information regarding Greek mythology and the [[Ketos]].) Jerome later translated this phrase as ''piscis granda'' in his [[Latin Vulgate]]. However, he translated ''ketos'' as ''cetus'' in Matthew 12:40.
At some point, ''cetus'' became synonymous with whale (e.g. cetyl alcohol, which is alcohol derived from whales). In his 1534 translation, [[William Tyndale]] translated the phrase in Jonah 2:1 as "greate fyshe," and he translated the word ''ketos'' (Greek) or ''cetus'' (Latin) in Matthew 12:40 as "whale." Tyndale's translation was, of course, later incorporated into the [[Authorized Version]] of 1611. Since, the "great fish" in Jonah 2 has been most often interpreted as a whale.
====Historical and literary criticism====
Some biblical scholars believe Jonah's prayer (2:2-9) to be a later addition to the story (see [[source criticism]] for more information on how such conclusions are drawn). Despite questions of its source, the prayer carries out an important function in the narrative as a whole.
At this point in the story, the reader would expect Jonah to repent, yet Jonah does not repent. The prayer is ''not'' a psalm of lament; rather, it is a psalm of thanksgiving. The presence of the prayer, then, serves to interpret the swallowing of the fish to be Yahweh's salvation. Yahweh has lifted Jonah out of Sheol and set him on the path to carry out His will. The story of descent (from Israel?, to Tarshish, to the sea, to under the sea) becomes the story of ascent (from the belly of the fish, to land, to the city of Nineveh).
Thus, the |
[Henry Yeh|Yeh, Henry]], (born 1979), Chinese dissident
*[[A. B. Yehoshua|Yehoshua, A. B.]], Israeli author
*[[Aleksei Yeliseyev|Yeliseyev, Aleksei]], (born 1934), astronaut
*[[Boris Yeltsin|Yeltsin, Boris]], (b. 1931), Russia politician
*[[Yen Chia-jin]], (1905-1993)
*[[Donnie Yen|Yen, Donnie]], American martial artist and actor
*[[Stephen Yenser|Yenser, Stephen]], (fl. 1980s), American poet <!-- Whitman winner&ndash;''The Fire In All Things''-->
*[[James Lucas Yeo|Yeo, James Lucas]] (1782-1818), British naval commander
*[[Philip Yeo|Yeo, Philip]], industrial & systems engineer
*[[F. F. E. Yeo-Thomas|Yeo-Thomas, Edward]], (1901-1964), British spy
*[[Michelle Yeoh|Yeoh, Michelle]], (born 1962), Chinese actress
*[[Narciso Yepes|Yepes, Narciso]], musician
*[[Andrey Yeremenko|Yeremenko, Andrey]], Soviet soldier <!-- Soviet marshal and front line general in Stalingrad -->
*[[Robert Yerkes|Yerkes, Robert]], (1876-1956), psychologist
*[[Nicholas Yermakov|Yermakov, Nicholas]], (born 1951), Russian author
*[[Sergei Yesenin|Yesenin, Sergei]], (1895-1925), poet
*[[Yevgeny Yevtushenko|Yevtushenko, Yevgeny]], (b. 1933), Russian novelist
*[[Nikolai Yezhov|Yezhov, Nikolai Ivanovich]], (1895-1940)
= Yi - Yn =
*[[Yi Jachun]], (1315-1360), Chinese soldier
*[[Yi Kun-mo]], (1986-1988), prime minister
*[[Yi Sun-sin]], (1545-1598), Korean admiral
*[[Zhang Yimou|Yimou, Zhang]] (born 1950), film director
*[[Yip Man]] (1893-1972)
*[[Eliyahu Yishai|Yishai, Eliyahu]] (born 1962/63), Israeli politician
*[[Marko Yli-Hannuksela|Yli-Hannuksela, Marko]] (born 1973), Finnish wrestler
*[[Arvo Ylppö|Ylppö, Arvo]], (1887-1992), Finnish physician
*[[Victor Yngve|Yngve, Victor]], (born 1920), linguist
= Yo =
== Yoa ==
*[[Dwight Yoakam|Yoakam, Dwight]], singer-songwriter, musician
*[[Joseph Yoakum|Yoakum, Joseph]], (1886-1972), painter
*[[Yoannis I of Alexandria]], (496-505), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis II of Alexandria]], (505-516), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis III of Alexandria]], (681-689), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis IV of Alexandria]], (776-799), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis IX of Alexandria]], (1320-1327), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis V of Alexandria]], (1146-1166), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis VI of Alexandria]], (1189-1216), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis VII of Alexandria]], (1261-1268), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis X of Alexandria]], (1363-1369), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XI of Alexandria]], (1428-1453), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XII of Alexandria]], (1480-1483), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XIII of Alexandria]], (1483-1524), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XIV of Alexandria]], (1573-1589), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XIX of Alexandria]], (1929-1942), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XV of Alexandria]], (1621-1631), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XVI of Alexandria]], (1676-1718), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XVII of Alexandria]], (1727-1745), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XVIII of Alexandria]], (1770-1797), Coptic Pope
== Yob - Yos==
*[[Malik Yoba|Yoba, Malik]], (b. 1957), American actor
*[[Jean-Christophe Yoccoz|Yoccoz, Jean-Christophe]], (b.1957), French mathematician
*[[Francis Parker Yockey|Yockey, Francis Parker]], (1917-1960), American philosopher and author
*[[Yodo-Dono]] (1567-1615), Japanese concubine
*[[Paramahansa Yogananda|Yogananda, Paramahansa]], (1893-1952)
*[[Yoko Shimomura]], (born 1970), Japanese composer
*[[Jane Yolen|Yolen, Jane]], (born 1939) author
*[[Emperor Yomei|Yōmei, Emperor]], (d. 587), emperor of Japan
*[[Michael Yon|Yon, Michael]], American journalist
*[[Yon Hyong-muk]], (fl. 1990s), North Korean politician <!-- prime minister -->
*[[Charlotte Mary Yonge|Yonge, Charlotte M]], (1823-1901), British novelist
*[[Yongle Emperor of China]], (1360-1424)
*[[Michael York (actor)|York, Michael]], (born 1942), British actor
*[[Mike York|York, Mike]], (b. 1978), hockey player
*[[Thom Yorke|Yorke, Thom]], (born 1968), English musician
*[[Adam Yosef|Yosef, Adam]], (b. 1981), British journalist
*[[Yoshikawa Eiji|Yoshikawa, Eiji]], (1892-1962), novelist
*[[Yoshikawa Takeo|Yoshikawa, Takeo]], (1916- c. 2000), Japanese spy
*[[Tokugawa Yoshinobu|Yoshinobu, Tokugawa]], (1837-1913), shogun
*[[Ouchi Yoshitaka|Yoshitaka, Ouchi]], (1507-1551), Japanese feudal leader
*[[Ashikaga Yoshiteru|Yoshiteru, Ashikaga]], (1536-1565), Japanese feudal leader
*[[Akihito Yoshitomi|Yoshitomi, Akihito]], Japanese artist <!-- creator the [[manga]] [[Eat-Man]] -->
*[[David Yost|Yost, David]], American actor
*[[Tina Yothers|Yothers, Tina]] (born 1973), American child actress
==You==
=== Youd - Youe ===
*[[Samuel Youd|Youd, Samuel]], (born 1922), author
*[[Bernard Youens|Youens, Bernard]], (1914-1984), British actor
=== Youn ===
==== Young ====
===== People named Young =====
====== Young, A-H ======
*[[Dr. Dre|Young, Andre]], (b. 1965), musician & producer
*[[Andrew Young|Young, Andrew]], (b. 1932), American activist & diplomat
*[[Angus Young|Young, Angus]], (b. 1955), musician
*[[Brigham Young|Young, Brigham]], (1801-1877), American religious leader
*[[Charles Augustus Young|Young, Charles Augustus]], (1834-1908), American astronomer
*[[Coleman Young|Young, Coleman]], (1918-1997), American politician
*[[Colville Young|Young, Colville N.]], (born 1932), British colonial administrator
*[[Cy Young|Young, Cy]], (1867-1955), American baseball player
*[[Dave Young|Young, Dave]], (fl. 2000s), Canadian bassist <!-- jazz bassist -->
*[[David Young|Young, David]], poet
*[[Ed Young|Young, Ed]], <!-- children's --> author & illustrator <!-- (''Lon Po Po'', ''Seven Blind Mice'') -->
*[[Edward Young|Young, Edward]], (1683-1765), English poet
*[[Francis Brett Young|Young, Francis Brett]], (1884-1954), British novelist
*[[Gig Young|Young, Gig]], (1913–1978), American film actor
*[[Graham Young|Young, Graham Frederick]], (1947-1990), British serial killer
*[[Horatio Nelson Young|Young, Horatio Nelson]], (1845-1913), American sailor
====== Young, J-W ======
*[[James Young|Young, James]], (1811–1883), Scottish chemist
*[[Jimmy Young (boxer)|Young, Jimmy]], (fl. 1970s), American boxer
*[[Jimmy Young (disc jockey)|Young, Jimmy]], (born 1923), British disc jockey
*[[John Young|Young, John]], (1802-1852), American politician
*[[John W. Young|Young, John Watts]], (b. 1930), American astronaut
*[[La Monte Young|Young, La Monte]], (born 1935), American composer
*[[Lester Young|Young, Lester]], (1909-1959), American jazz musician
*[[Loretta Young|Young, Loretta]], (1913-2000), American actress
*[[Mae Young|Young, Mae]], (born 1923), American performance wrestler & manager
*[[Malcolm Young|Young, Malcolm]], (b. 1953), Scottish-born Australian musician
*[[Marguerite Young|Young, Marguerite]], (1908-1995), American poet
*[[Michelle Young|Young, Michelle]], American vocalist
*[[Neil Young|Young, Neil]], (b. 1945) American singer-songwriter
*[[Otis Young|Young, Otis]] (1932-2001), American actor
*[[James Young|Young, Paraffin]], (1811–1883), Scottish chemist
*[[Lester Young|Young, Prez]], (1909-1959), American jazz musician
*[[Robert Young (actor)|Young, Robert]], (1907-1998), American actor
*[[Robert Clark Young|Young, Robert Clark]], (born 1960), American novelist
*[[Simon Young|Young, Simon]], (fl. mid-19th century), Pitcairn Isl. politician
*[[Thomas Young (scientist)|Young, Thomas]], (1773-1829), English physicist
*[[Venn Young|Young, Venn]], (1929-1993), New Zealand politician
*[[Will Young|Young, Will]], (born 1979), British musician
===== Youngd - Youngs =====
*[[Luther Wallace Youngdahl|Youngdahl, Luther W.]], (1896-1978), American politician
*[[George Younger|Younger, George]], (1931-2003), British politician
*[[Francis Younghusband|Younghusband, Francis]], (1863-1942), British explorer
*[[Kim Youngsam|Youngsam, Kim]], (born 1927), Korean politician
==== Youni ====
*[[Waqar Younis|Younis, Waqar]], Pakistani cricket player
===Your - Youz===
*[[Marguerite Yourcenar|Yourcenar, Marguerite]], (1903-1987), Belgian novelist
*[[Yousab I of Alexandria]], (831-849), Coptic Pope
*[[Ramzi Yousef|Yousef, Ramzi]], activist
*[[Youssef El Khazen]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[Mikhail Youzhny|Youzhny, Mikhail]], tennis player
== Yoz ==
*[[Emperor Yozei|Yōzei, Emperor]], (869-949), emperor of Japan
= Yr - Ys =
*[[Hipólito Yrigoyen|Yrigoyen, Hipólito]], (1852-1933), Argentine politician <!-- full name "Juan Hipólito del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús Yrigoyen Alem" -->
*[[Eugène Ysaÿe|Ysaÿe, Eugène]], (1858-1931), composer
= Yu =
*[[Christina Yu|Yu, Christina]], (fl. 1990s), Hong-Kong-born fashion designer
*[[Han Yu|Yu, Han]], Chinese poet
*[[Li Yu|Yu, Li]], Chinese poet
*[[Yuan-Cheng Fung]], (born 1919), biomechanics researcher <!-- , (correct filing appears to be "Fung, Yuan-Cheng", but retained here for accessibility),-->
*[[Yuan Shikai]], (1859-1916), Chinese soldier & politician
*[[Suleiman Yudakov|Yudakov, Suleiman]], (1916-1990), Tajik composer
*[[Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich|Yudenich, Nikolai]]
*[[Yukihiro Takahashi]], (1952), Japanese musician
*[[Tohir Yuldashev|Yuldashev, Tohir]], Uzbek activist
*[[David Levy Yulee|Yulee, David Levy]], (1810-1886), American politician & railroad executive
*[[Yun Isang|Yun, Isang]], (1917-1995), Korean-German composer
*[[Yun Po Sun]], (1897-1990), South Korean politician
*[[Mandawuy Yunupingu|Yunupingu, Mandawuy]], (b. 1956), Australian singer & political activist
*[[Yunus Emre]], (fl. 13th century), Turkish poet
*[[Sabir Yunusov|Yunusov, Sabir]], (1909-1995), Soviet scientist
*[[Fyodor Yurchikhin|Yurchikhin, Fyodor]], (b. 1959), Soviet Georgian astronaut
*[[Yuri (singer)|Yuri]], (born 1964), Mexican singer
*[[Yakov Yurovsky|Yurovsky, Yakov Mikhailovich]] (1878-1938), Russian executioner
*[[Emperor Yuryaku|Yūryaku, Emperor]], emperor of Japan
*[[Yusab II of Alexandria]], (1946-1956), Coptic Pope
*[[Abdulqawi Yusuf|Yusuf, Abdulqawi]], Somali lawyer and academic
*[[Viktor Yushchenko|Yushchenko, Viktor]], (born 1954), Ukrainian politician
*[[Kateryna Yushchenko-Chumachenko|Yushchenko-Chumachenko, Kateryna Mykhaylivna]], (born 1961), Ame |
on has been made between psychedelic drugs and brain damage; however, high doses over time of some [[dissociative]]s and [[deliriants]] have been shown to cause [[Olney's lesions]] in animals, and have been suspected to occur in humans.
== Pharmacology ==
Hallucinogens can be classified by quality of action, mechanisms of action, or by chemical structure. These classifications often correlate to some extent. The classification system below attempts to blend these three approaches in order to create a balanced and simple overview that is as clear and easy to grasp as possible.
Almost all hallucinogens contain [[nitrogen]] and are classified as [[alkaloids]]. [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] and [[Salvinorin A]] are exceptions. Many hallucinogens often have chemical structures similar to those of human [[neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]], such as [[serotonin]], and temporarily interfere with the action of neurotransmitters and/or receptor sites.
A classical classification is that of Lewin (Phantastica, 1928):<br/>
''Class I Phantastica'' roughly correspond to the [[psychedelic drug|psychedelics]], which is a more modern term usually used as synonym to "hallucinogen" by people with positive attitudes towards them. Here the term is used a bit differently to discriminate one particular class of hallucinogens which it seems to describe best. They typically have no sedative effects (sometimes the opposite) and there is usually a clearcut memory to their effects.
''Class II Phantastica'' correspond to the other classes in this scheme. They tend to sedate in addition to their hallucinogenic properties and there often is an impaired memory trace after the effects wear off.
==Pharmacological classes of hallucinogens==
=== [[Psychedelic drug|Psychedelics]] ([[serotonin]] 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor agonists) ===
* [[Tryptamine|Tryptamines]]
** [[Ergoline|Lysergamides]]
* [[Phenethylamine]]s
** Substituted phenethylamines
** Substituted [[amphetamine]]s
*** [[Empathogen/Entactogen|Empathogens and/or Entactogens]] ([[serotonin]] releasers)
* [[Cannabinoids]] (CB-1 cannabinoid receptor agonists)
=== [[Dissociative drug|Dissociatives]] ===
* [[NMDA]] receptor antagonists and [[Sigma-1 receptor|sigma<sub>1</sub>]] ligands
* Kappa [[Opioid receptor|opioid receptor]] agonists
* [[Inhalants]]
* [[Cholinergic]]s
=== [[Deliriant]]s ([[anticholinergic]]s) ===
* [[Tropane]]s
* [[Antihistamine]]s
== Hallucinogenic plants, fungi, and animals ==
Among the best-known hallucinogenic plants and fungi are:
=== Plants ===
==== Psychedelics ====
* [[Ayahuasca]] (contains [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] and an [[MAOI]], commonly ''[[Banisteriopsis caapi]]'' with ''[[Psychotria viridis]]'')
* [[Epená]] (''Virola sp.'') (contains [[5-MeO-DMT]] and [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]])
* [[Hawaiian baby woodrose]] (''Argyreia nervosa'') (contains [[Ergine]])
* [[Ololiuhqui]]/[[Coaxihuitl]] (''Turbina/Rivea corymbosa'') (contains [[Ergine]])
* [[Ipomoea violacea|Tlitliltzin/Badoh Negro]] (''Ipomoea violacea'') (contains [[Ergine]])
* [[Iboga]] (''Tabernanthe iboga'') (contains [[ibogaine]])
===== Cacti psychedelics =====
* [[Peruvian Torch]] cactus (''Trichocereus peruvianus'') (contains [[mescaline]])
* [[Peyote]] cactus (''Lophophora williamsii'') (contains [[mescaline]])
* [[San Pedro (cactus)|San Pedro]] cactus (''Trichocereus pachanoi'') (contains [[mescaline]])
==== Quasi-psychedelics ====
* [[Cannabis]] (contains [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]])
* [[Sinicuichi]] (''Heimia salicifolia'') (questioned hallucinogenic activity)
* [[Nutmeg]] (''Myristica fragrans'') (questioned hallucinogenic activity)
==== Dissociatives ====
* [[Iboga]] (''Tabernanthe iboga'') (contains [[ibogaine]])
* [[Salvia divinorum|Diviner's sage]] (''Salvia divinorum'') (contains [[salvinorin A]])
==== Deliriants ====
* [[Deadly nightshade]] (''Atropa belladonna'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
* [[Floripondio]] (''Brugmansia sp.'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
* [[Henbane]] (''Hyoscyamus niger'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
* [[Mandrake (plant)|Mandrake]] (''Mandragora sp.'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
* [[Datura stramonium|Thorn Apple/Jimson Weed]] (''Datura sp.'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
=== Fungi ===
==== Psychedelics ====
* [[Psychedelic mushroom|Psilocybe mushrooms]] (''Psilocybe sp.'' and some ''Conocybe'', ''Panaeolus'' and ''Stropharia'') (contain [[psilocybin]] and [[psilocin]])
* [[Ergot]] fungus (''Claviceps purpurea'') (not hallucinogenic in itself, but contains [[LSD]] precursors)
==== Dissociatives ====
* [[Fly Agaric]] mushroom (''Amanita muscaria'') (contains [[muscimol]])
=== Animals ===
==== Psychedelics ====
* [[Psychoactive toads]] (''Bufo alvarius'') (contain [[5-MeO-DMT]] and [[Bufotenine]])
== See also ==
* [[Empathogen]]
* [[Entactogen]]
* [[Entheogen]]
* [[Ergotism]]
* [[Psychedelic mushroom]]
* [[Psychedelic]]
* [[Psychoactive]] or [[psychotropic]]
* [[Pharmacology]]
* [[Psychedelic psychotherapy]]
* [[Research chemicals]]
* [[Richard Evans Schultes]] and [[Albert Hofmann]], ''Plants of the Gods''
* [[Set and setting]]
==External links==
* [http://www.erowid.org/ Erowid]
* [http://www.dextromethorphan.ws/ DXM Harm Reduction Project], exclusively about DXM.
* [http://www.coricidin.org/ Coricidin (Dextromethorphan + Chlorpheniramine Maleate) Harm Reduction], devoted exclusively to risks of Coricidin abuse.
* [http://www.psychedelic-library.org/grinspoo.htm Psychedelic Drugs in the Twentieth Century (Grinspoon)]
* [http://www.psychedelicjones.com/ PsychedelicJones] One man's experiences exploring psychedelic consiousness with magic mushrooms, salvia divinorum and other substances.
* [http://www.cognitiveliberty.org Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics]
* [http://www.spiritplants.org/ Spirit Plants]
* [http://www.plot55.com/growing/ Growing Entheogenic Plants (Plot55.com)]
* [http://www.shroomery.org/ The Shroomery] Detailed information about magic mushrooms including identification, cultivation and spores, psychedelic images, trip reports and an active community.
* [http://www.sci-con.org/editorials/20030603.html Science & Consciousness Review] - The Neurochemistry of Psychedelic Experience
{{Hallucinogens}}
{{Entactogens}}
{{Dissociative hallucinogens}}
{{Deliriants}}
{{Cannabinoids}}
{{Hallucinogenic mushrooms}}
[[Category:Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants]]
[[af:Hallusinogeen]]
[[de:Halluzinogen]]
[[es:Alucinógeno]]
[[fr:Hallucinogène]]
[[io:Halucinigiva drogo]]
[[is:Ofskynjunarlyf]]
[[he:הלוצינוגן]]
[[ms:Halusinogen]]
[[ja:幻覚剤]]
[[fi:Hallusinogeeni]]
[[pl:Substancje psychozomimetyczne]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hydrogen</title>
<id>13255</id>
<revision>
<id>42080071</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:10:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.114.182.66|65.114.182.66]] ([[User talk:65.114.182.66|talk]]) to last version by DV8 2XL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=1 | symbol=H | name=hydrogen | left=([[neutron]]) | right=[[helium]] | above=- | below=[[lithium|Li]] | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[nonmetal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=1 | period=1 | block=s }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | H,1| colorless }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-27 kg|1.00794]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(7)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | 1s<sup>1</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 1 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[gas]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gplstp | 0.08988 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=14.01 | c=-259.14 | f=-434.45 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=20.28 | c=-252.87 | f=-423.17 }}
|-
| [[Triple point]] || 13.8033 K, 7.042 kPa
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (H<sub>2</sub>) 0.117 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | (H<sub>2</sub>) 0.904 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (H<sub>2</sub>)<br />28.836 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | 15 | 20 | comment= }}
|-
| [[Critical temperature]] || 32.19 K
|-
| [[Critical pressure]] || 1.315 MPa
|-
| [[Critical density]] || 30.12 g/L
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | '''1''', -1<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.20 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 1312.0 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|25]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|53]] }} ([[Bohr radius]])
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|37]] }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|120]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | ??? }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 180.5 m}}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_mps | (gas, 27 °C) 1310 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 1333-74-0 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=hydrogen | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=1 | sym=H | na=99.985% | n=0 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=2 | sym=H | na=0.015% | n=1 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=3 | sym=H | na=[[Trace radioisotope|trace]] | hl=12.32 [[years|y]] | dm=[[beta minus decay|β<sup>-</sup>]] | de=0.019 | pn=3 | ps=[[helium|He]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=green }}
'''Hydrogen''' ([[Latin]]: ''hydrogenium'', from [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''hydro'': water, ''genes'': forming) is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''H''' and [[atomic number]] 1. At [[standard temperature and pressure]] it is a colorless, odorless, [[nonmetal]]lic, [[Valence (chemistry)|univalent]], tasteless, highly [[combustion|f |
ef." (See ''Retirement, death, and honors'' section [[#Retirement, death, and honors|below]] for more on this topic.)
Although the nation was at peace in the late 1780s, Washington worried that the fledgling nation had such a weak central government that it could not survive a future war. He therefore endorsed plans to create a new constitution. His support guaranteed it would happen and he presided over the [[Philadelphia Convention|Constitutional Convention]] in [[Philadelphia]] in 1787. For the most part, he did not participate in the debates involved, but his prestige was great enough to maintain collegiality and to keep the delegates at their labors. He adamantly enforced the secrecy adopted by the Convention during the summer. Many believe that the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Framers]] created the [[Presidency]] with Washington in mind. After the Convention, his support convinced many, including the [[Virginia]] legislature, to support the [[U.S. Constitution|Constitution]].
Washington farmed roughly 8,000 acres (32 km²). Like many Virginia planters at the time, he had little cash on hand and was frequently in debt, even though he owned much land. He eventually had to borrow $600 to relocate to New York, then the center of the American government, to take office as president.
==Presidency: 1789-1797==
===Beginnings===
George Washington was [[U.S. presidential election, 1789|elected]] unanimously by the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]] in 1789, and remains the only person ever to be elected president unanimously (a feat which he duplicated in 1792). As runner-up with 34 votes, [[John Adams]] became [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]-elect. The [[First United States Congress|First U.S. Congress]] voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year&mdash;a significant sum in 1789. Washington was perhaps the wealthiest American at the time; his western lands were potentially valuable--but no one lived on them as yet. He declined his salary. It was part of his self-structured image as [[Cincinnatus]], the citizen who takes on the burdens of office as a civil duty. Washington attended carefully to the pomp and ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts.
Washington's election was a disappointment to [[Martha Washington]], the [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]], who wanted to continue living in quiet retirement at Mount Vernon after the war. Nevertheless, she quickly assumed the role of hostess, opening her [[parlor]] and organizing weekly dinner parties for as many dignitaries as could fit around the presidential table.
===Policies===
In the beginning of his term, he met individually with his advisors, but, by 1791, held regular cabinet meetings. Washington had to referee between the Treasury's [[Alexander Hamilton]], who had bold plans to establish the national credit and build a financially powerful nation, and [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]], who usually opposed him. Hamilton won most of these battles and, after Washington denounced the [[Democratic-Republican societies]] as dangerous, he was hailed as the leading figure in the new [[Federalist Party]]. Jefferson did win the location of the new national capital, which would be located in the South, in what was soon named "Washington, District of Columbia".
In 1791, Congress imposed an [[excise tax]] on [[distilled]] [[spirits]], leading to protests. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in [[United States district court|U.S. district court]], the protests turning into full-scale riots, and outright [[Whiskey Rebellion|rebellion]]. On [[August 7]], Washington invoked the [[Militia Law of 1792]] to summon the [[militia]]s of Pennsylvania, Virginia and several states. He raised an army of militiamen, and marched at its head into the rebellious districts, making him the only sitting US President to march at the head of a column of troops. There was no fighting, but Washington's forceful action proved the new government could protect itself. In leading the military force against the rebels Washington became the only president to personally lead troops in battle while [[commander-in-chief]]. It also marked the first time under the new constitution that the federal government had used strong military force to exert authority over the states and citizens.
The United States had acquired title to the [[Northwest Territory]] from Great Britain in the Revolutionary War, but the [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]] who lived there were not consulted. Violence often resulted, the largest conflict being the [[Northwest Indian War]], in which the Indians won victories until being defeated at the [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]] in 1794.
In 1793, the revolutionary government of France sent diplomat [[Citizen Genet|Edmond-Charles Genêt]], who attempted to turn popular sentiment towards American involvement in the war against [[Great Britain]]. Genêt was authorized to issue [[letters of marque and reprisal]] to American ships and gave authority to any French [[Consulate general|consul]] to serve as a [[prize court]]. Genêt's activities forced Washington to ask the French government for his recall.
The [[Jay Treaty]], named after [[Chief Justice of the United States]] [[John Jay]] who was sent by Washington to [[London]] to negotiate an agreement, was a treaty between the [[United States]] and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] signed on [[November 19]], 1794 that attempted to clear up some of the lingering problems of American separation from Great Britain following the [[American Revolutionary War]]. The Treaty was strongly attacked by supporters of France, led by the Jeffersonians, but Washington, supported by [[Alexander Hamilton]], obtained its ratification by [[United States Congress|Congress]]. The British had to clear out of their forts around the [[Great Lakes]]. It remained in effect until the [[War of 1812]].
[[Alexander Hamilton]] used Federal patronage to set up a national network of friends of the Administration. This developed into a full-fledged party, with Hamilton the key leader. The [[Federalist party]] elected [[John Adams]] president in 1796. Washington himself spoke often against the ills of political parties, and thus never declared his support one way or another. He did, however, support Hamiltonian politics over Jeffersonian, but never made a statement to that effect. Washington was more or less not a member of any party in existence at that time.
Washington had to be talked into a second term of office as President, and very reluctantly agreed to it. However, after two terms, Washington refused to run for a third term in office. By refusing a third term, Washington established a firm, but unwritten precedent of a maximum of two terms for a U.S. president. It was broken by [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] in 1940, but after his death was formally integrated into the [[United States Constitution|Federal Constitution]] by the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd Amendement]].
[[George Washington's Farewell Address|Washington's Farewell Address]] (issued as a public letter) was the defining statement of Federalist party principles and one of the most influential statements of American political values. Most of the Address dealt with the dangers of bitter partisanship in domestic politics. He called for men to put aside party and unite for the common good. He called for an America wholly free of foreign attachments, as the United States must concentrate only on American interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, and warned sternly against involvement in European wars. Long-term alliances should be avoided, but he said the 1778 alliance with France had to be observed. The Address quickly entered the realm of "received wisdom." Many Americans, especially in subsequent generations, accepted Washington's advice as gospel and, in any debate between neutrality and involvement in foreign issues, would invoke the message as dispositive of all questions. Not until 1949 would the United States again sign a treaty of alliance with a foreign nation.
At John Adams' inauguration, Washington is said to have approached Adams afterwards and stated "Well, I am fairly out and you are fairly in. Now we shall see who enjoys it the most!" Washington also declined to leave the room before Adams and the new [[Vice President of the United States]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], establishing the principle that even a former president is, after all, only a private citizen.
===Major presidential acts===
* Signed [[Judiciary Act of 1789]]
* Signed [[Indian Intercourse Act]]s, starting in 1790
* Signed [[Residence Act|Residence Act of 1790]]
* Signed [[Bank of North America|Bank Act of 1791]]
* Signed [[Coinage Act (1792)|Coinage Act of 1792]] or Mint Act
* Signed [[Fugitive Slave Act (1793)|Fugitive Slave Act of 1793]]
* Signed [[Naval Act of 1794]]
===Administration and Cabinet===
[[Image:Washington (3).jpg|250px|thumb|right|The '''[[Lansdowne portrait]]''' of President Washington by [[Gilbert Stuart]]]]
{| cellpadding=1 cellspacing=4 style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;text-align:left" align=left
!bgcolor=#000000 colspan=3|
|-
|'''OFFICE'''||'''NAME'''||'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|[[President of the United States|President]]||'''George Washington'''||1789&ndash;1797
|-
|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||'''[[John Adams]]'''||1789&ndash;1797
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||'''[[Thomas Jefferson]]'''||1789&ndash;1793
|-
|&nbsp;||'''[[Edmund Randolph]]'''||1794&ndash;1795
|-
|&nbsp;||' |
h holding a shuttered [[lantern]]. Galileo would open his shutter, and, as soon as his assistant saw the flash, he would open his shutter. At a distance of less than a mile, Galileo could detect no delay in the round-trip time greater than when he and the assistant were only a few yards apart. While he could reach no conclusion on whether light propagated instantaneously, he recognized that the distance between the hilltops was perhaps too small for a good measurement.
Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with being one of the first to understand sound frequency. After scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of sound to the spacing of the chisel's skips (frequency).
In his 1632 [[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems|Dialogue]] Galileo presented a physical theory to account for [[tide]]s, based on the motion of the Earth. If correct, this would have been a strong argument for the reality of the Earth's motion. (The original title for the book, in fact, described it as a dialogue on the tides; the reference to tides was removed by order of the Inquisition.) His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the [[Adriatic Sea]] compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure. Kepler and others correctly associated the Moon with an influence over the tides, based on empirical data; a proper physical theory of the tides, however, was not available until Newton.
Galileo also put forward [[Galilean invariance|the basic principle of relativity]], that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[theory of relativity]].
==Mathematics==
While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day. The analyses and proofs relied heavily on the [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxian]] theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of [[Euclid's Elements]]. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by [[Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia|Tartaglia]] and others; but by the end of Galileo's life it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of [[René Descartes|Descartes]], which a modern finds incomparably easier to follow.
Galileo produced one piece of original and even prophetic work in mathematics: [[Galileo's paradox]], which shows that there are as many perfect squares as there are whole numbers, even though most numbers are not perfect squares. Such seeming contradictions were brought under control 250 years later in the work of [[Georg Cantor]].
==Technology==
Galileo made a few contributions to what we now call [[technology]] as distinct from pure physics, and suggested others. This is not the same distinction as made by Aristotle, who would have considered all Galileo's physics as ''techne'' or useful knowledge, as opposed to ''episteme'', or philosophical investigation into the causes of things.
In 1595&ndash;1598, Galileo devised and improved a "Geometric and Military Compass" suitable for use by [[artillery|gunners]] and [[surveyor]]s. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by [[Niccolo Tartaglia]] and [[Guidobaldo del Monte]]. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating [[cannon]]s accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of [[gunpowder]] for [[cannonball]]s of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular [[polygon]], computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations.
About 1606&ndash;1607 (or possibly [[Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology|earlier]]), Galileo made a [[thermometer]], using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.
In 1609, Galileo was among the first to use a [[refracting telescope]] as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons.
In 1610, he used a telescope as a compound [[microscope]], and he made improved microscopes in 1623 and after. This appears to be the [[Timeline of microscope technology|first]] clearly documented use of the compound microscope.
In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of [[longitude]]. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life; but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] in 1681 and was later used extensively for land surveys; for navigation, the first practical method was the [[chronometer]] of [[John Harrison]].
In his last year, when totally [[blindness|blind]], he designed an [[escapement]] mechanism for a pendulum clock. The first fully operational pendulum clock was made by [[Christiaan Huygens]] in the 1650s.
He created [[Sketch (drawing)|sketches]] of various [[invention]]s, such as a [[candle]] and [[mirror]] combination to reflect light throughout a building, an automatic [[tomato]] picker, a pocket comb that doubled as an eating utensil, and what appears to be a [[ballpoint pen]].
[[Image:Galilee.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Galileo Galilei]]
==Church controversy==
:''Main article: [[Galileo affair]]''.
Psalms 93 and [[psalm 104|104]], and Ecclesiastes 1:5 speak of the motion of celestial bodies and the suspended position of the earth. Galileo defended [[heliocentrism]], and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine's]] position on Scripture: not to take every passage too literally. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the sun does rise and set. In fact, it is the earth's rotation which gives the impression of the sun in motion across the sky.
By 1616 the attacks on Galileo had reached a head, and he went to Rome to try to persuade the Church authorities not to ban his ideas. In the end, [[Cardinal Bellarmine]], acting on directives from the Inquisition [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02411d.htm], delivered him an order not to "hold or defend" the idea that the Earth moves and the Sun stands still at the centre. The decree did not prevent Galileo from hypothesizing heliocentrism. For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy.
He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of [[Cardinal Barberini]] as [[Pope Urban VIII]] in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, [[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems]], was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the [[Inquisition]] and papal permission.
Pope Urban VIII personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberate, Simplicius, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'', was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. This fact made ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'' appear as an advocacy book; an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. To add insult to injury, Galileo put the words of Pope Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicius. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. However, the pope did not take the public ridicule lightly, nor the blatant bias. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the pope, and was called to Rome to explain himself.
With the loss of many of his defenders in Rome because of ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'', Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy in 1633. The sentence of the Inquisition was in three essential parts:
* Galileo was required to [[recantation|recant]] his heliocentric ideas, which were condemned as "formally heretical";.
* He was ordered imprisoned; the sentence was later commuted to house arrest.
* His offending ''Dialogue'' was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.
After a period with the friendly [[Alessandro Piccolomini|Archbishop Piccolomini]] (The Archbishop of Siena was Ascanio Piccolomini; the link here is to Alessandro Piccolomini, who died in 1578) in [[Siena]], Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at [[Arcetri]] near Florence, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest when he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, [[Two New Sciences]]. This book has received high praise from both [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Albert Einstein]]. As a result of this work, Galileo is often called, the "father of modern physics".
On [[31 October]] [[1992]], Pope John Paul II officially announced that the Church had mishandled the case.
==Galileo's writings==
[[Image:Galileo Galilei01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Statue outside the [[Uffizi]], Florence]]
* ''[[Two New Sciences]]'' 1638 [[Lowys Elzevir]] (Louis Elsevier) |
oietos icon]] (a.k.a. the ''Mandelion''; now lost) from Edessa to Constantinople on 16 August [[944]]
*[[Palio di Siena|Palio dell'Assunta]] in [[Siena]]
* USA: legal [[Holidays of the United States#State holidays |holiday]] in Vermont for the [[Battle of Bennington]] in [[1777]] (which actually took place in the state of New York)
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/16 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 15]] - [[August 17]] - [[July 16]] - [[September 16]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:16 Augustus]]
[[ar:16 أغسطس]]
[[an:16 d'agosto]]
[[ast:16 d'agostu]]
[[bg:16 август]]
[[be:16 жніўня]]
[[bs:16. august]]
[[ca:16 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 16]]
[[cv:Çурла, 16]]
[[co:16 d'aostu]]
[[cs:16. srpen]]
[[cy:16 Awst]]
[[da:16. august]]
[[de:16. August]]
[[et:16. august]]
[[el:16 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:16 de agosto]]
[[eo:16-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 16]]
[[fo:16. august]]
[[fr:16 août]]
[[fy:16 augustus]]
[[ga:16 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:16 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 16일]]
[[hr:16. kolovoza]]
[[io:16 di agosto]]
[[id:16 Agustus]]
[[ia:16 de augusto]]
[[ie:16 august]]
[[is:16. ágúst]]
[[it:16 agosto]]
[[he:16 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:16 Agustus]]
[[ka:16 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:16 zélnika]]
[[ku:16'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 16]]
[[lb:16. August]]
[[li:16 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 16]]
[[mk:16 август]]
[[ms:16 Ogos]]
[[nap:16 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:16 augustus]]
[[ja:8月16日]]
[[no:16. august]]
[[nn:16. august]]
[[oc:16 d'agost]]
[[pl:16 sierpnia]]
[[pt:16 de Agosto]]
[[ro:16 august]]
[[ru:16 августа]]
[[sco:16 August]]
[[sq:16 Gusht]]
[[scn:16 di austu]]
[[simple:August 16]]
[[sk:16. august]]
[[sl:16. avgust]]
[[sr:16. август]]
[[fi:16. elokuuta]]
[[sv:16 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 16]]
[[tt:16. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 16]]
[[th:16 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:16 tháng 8]]
[[tr:16 Ağustos]]
[[uk:16 серпня]]
[[wa:16 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 16]]
[[zh:8月16日]]
[[pam:Agostu 16]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alan Kay</title>
<id>1449</id>
<revision>
<id>42107734</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:51:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gazpacho</username>
<id>74520</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alan-Kay.jpg|thumb|right|Alan Kay during an interview.]]
'''Alan Kay''', born [[May 17]], [[1940]], is an [[United States|American]] [[computer scientist]], known for his early work on [[object-oriented programming]] and user interface design.
Until [http://blogs.siliconvalley.com/gmsv/2005/07/hewlettpackards.html recently] he was a Senior Fellow at [[HP Labs]], an Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], a Visiting Professor at [[Kyoto University]], and an Adjunct Professor at [[MIT]]. He is also the president of the [[Viewpoints Research Institute]].
== Early life and work ==
Originally from [[Springfield, Massachusetts]], Kay earned a [[Bachelor's degree]] in Mathematics and Molecular Biology from the [[University of Colorado]], and another [[Master's degree]] and Ph.D. from the [[University of Utah]]. At the University of Utah in the 1960s, Kay worked with [[Ivan Sutherland]] on pioneering graphics applications including [[Sketchpad]]. Around this time, he also worked as a professional [[jazz]] guitarist.
Kay joined [[Xerox]] Corporation's [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]] Research Center ([[Xerox PARC|PARC]]) in 1970. In the seventies he was one of the key members there to develop prototypes of networked workstations using the programming language [[Smalltalk]]. These inventions were later commercialized by [[Apple Computer|Apple]] in the [[Apple Macintosh]].
Kay is one of the fathers of the idea of object-oriented programming, along with some colleagues at PARC and predecessors at the [[Norwegian Computing Centre]]. He is the conceiver of the [[Dynabook]] concept which defined the basics of the laptop computer and the tablet computer and he is also considered by some as the architect of the modern windowing [[graphical user interface]] (GUI).
After 10 years at Xerox PARC, Kay became [[Atari]]'s chief scientist for three years.
== Recent work and recognition ==
Starting in 1984, Kay was a Fellow at [[Apple Computer]] until [[Steve Jobs]] eliminated the company's R&D group. He then joined [[Walt Disney Imagineering]] as a [[Disney Fellow]] and remained there until Disney ended its Disney Fellow program. After Disney, Kay worked with a team at [[Applied Minds]], then became a Senior Fellow at [[Hewlett-Packard]] until HP disbanded the Advanced Software Research Team on July 20 2005. He is currently head of Viewpoints Research Institute.
=== Squeak and Croquet development ===
Kay collaborated with many others to start the open source [[Squeak]] dynamic media software in December 1995 when he was still at Apple, and he continues to work on it. More recently he started, along with [[David A. Smith]], [[David P. Reed]], Andreas Raab, [[Julian Lombardi]], and [[Mark McCahill]], the [[Croquet project]], which seeks to offer an open source networked 3D environment for collaborative work.
===$100 laptop===
At the [[World Summit on the Information Society]] in November 2005, the MIT research laboratories unveiled a new [[$100 laptop]] co-developed by Kay for students around the world.
=== Awards and honors ===
In 2001 Alan Kay received the [http://www.udk-berlin.de/doku/award.html UdK 01-Award] in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]] for pioneering the [[GUI]].
In 2003 he received the ACM [[Turing Award]] for his work on [[object oriented programming]].
In 2004 he received the [[Kyoto Prize]] and the [[Charles Stark Draper]] Prize along with [[Butler W. Lampson]], [[Robert W. Taylor]] and [[Charles P. Thacker]]
In 2005 he received an honorary doctoral degree from the [[Georgia Institute of Technology]].
<!-- in 2004??, he became an honorary professor at the [[Berlin University of the Arts]]. -->
== Personal Background==
Kay is an avid and gifted musician who plays keyboards and guitar. He has a special interest in the baroque pipe organ, early keyboard instruments and guitar. He was a former professional jazz and rock and roll guitarist. He is married to [[Bonnie MacBird]], a writer/producer/actor/artist.
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.mprove.de/diplom/referencesKay.html Detailed Alan Kay bibliography]
* [http://www.mrl.nyu.edu/~noah/nmr/book_samples/nmr-26-kay.pdf Personal Dynamic Media] &ndash; By Alan Kay and [[Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)|Adele Goldberg]]
*[http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/feature_stories/2002/alankaybio.html Alan Kay's HP bio]
*[http://www.fortune.com/fortune/fastforward/0,15704,661671,00.html ''A PC Pioneer Decries the State of Computing''] &ndash; By David Kirkpatrick, ''[[Fortune magazine]]'', [[8 July]] [[2004]] (Available for fee)
*[http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=alan%20kay Doing with Images Makes Symbols: Communicating with Computers] Video lecture by Alan Kay with lots of examples of early graphic user interfaces
*[http://www.educause.edu/LibraryDetailPage/666?ID=COM9802 The Computer "Revolution" Hasn't Happened Yet!] talk at EDUCOM 1998 (computers in education)
*[http://www.ecotopia.com/webpress/futures.htm Predicting the Future] remarks from 1989 Stanford Computer Forum
*[http://www.csupomona.edu/%7eitac/mediavision/streaming/tae/alan_kay.html Education in the Digital Age] talk
*[http://acmqueue.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=273 A Conversation with Alan Kay] Big talk with the creator of Smalltalk—and much more.
*[http://thinkubator.ccsp.sfu.ca/Dynabook From Dynabook to Squeak - A Study in Survivals] listof links tracing the evolution of Kay's vision
*[http://gagne.homedns.org/~tgagne/contrib/EarlyHistoryST.html The Early History of Smalltalk]
*[http://www.windley.com/archives/2006/02/alan_kay_is_com.shtml The Best Way to Predict the Future is to Prevent It]
*[http://www.windley.com/archives/2006/02/alan_kay_the_10.shtml The $100 Laptop, Learners, and Powerful Ideas]
[[Category:1940 births|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:American computer programmers|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:American computer scientists|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Apple employees|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Disney Imagineers|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Hewlett-Packard people|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Human-computer interaction notables|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Turing Award laureates|Kay, Alan]]
[[de:Alan Kay]]
[[eo:Alan KAY]]
[[fr:Alan Kay]]
[[it:Alan Kay]]
[[ja:アラン・ケイ]]
[[nl:Alan Kay]]
[[pt:Alan Kay]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>APL programming language</title>
<id>1451</id>
<revision>
<id>42006462</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:26:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KymFarnik</username>
<id>170535</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Calculation */ Drop Appears - wrong</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''APL''' (for '''A Programming Language''') is an [[array programming]] language based on a notation invented in [[1957]] by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]] while at [[Harvard University]]. It originated in an attempt to provide consistent notation for the teaching and analysis of topics related to the application of computers. The notation was later used to describe the [[IBM]] [[System/360]] machine architecture, a description much more concise and exact than the existing documentation and revealing several previously unnoticed problems. Then, a [[IBM Selectric typewriter|Selectric]] typeball was made to write a linear representation of this notation. In [[1964]] a subset of the notation was implemented as a programming language.
Dr. Iverson published his notation in [[1962]] in a book titled ''A Programming Language'' and APL got its name from the title of this b |
da]] in [[Lycia]].
A library, dubbed the [[Villa of the Papyri]], in [[Herculaneum]], owned by [[Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar's]] father-in-law, [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus]], was preserved by the eruption of [[Vesuvius]] in [[79 AD]], and was found to contain a large number of works by [[Philodemus]], a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the school's enduring popularity. The task of unrolling and deciphering the charred papyrus scrolls continues today.
After the official approval of [[Christianity]] by [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]], Epicureanism was repressed. Epicurus' theory that the gods were unconcerned with human affairs had always clashed strongly with the Judeo-Christian God, and the philosophies were essentially irreconcilable. For example, the word for a heretic in the Talmudic literature is "Apikouros". [[Lactantius]] criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his <i>Divine Institutes</i>. The school endured a long period of obscurity and decline. However, there was a resurgance of [[atomism]] among scientists in the [[18th Century|18th]] and [[19th Century|19th]] Centuries, and in the late 20th Century, the school was revived. A directory of contemporary followers of Epicurus can be found on gardenofepicurus.com.
==Teachings==
Epicurus' teachings represented a departure from the other major Greek thinkers of his period, and before, but was nevertheless founded on many of the same principles as [[Democritus]]. Like Democritus, he was an atomist, believing that the fundamental constituents of the world were uncuttable little bits of matter (atoms) flying through empty space (void). Everything that occurs is the result of the atoms colliding, rebounding, and becoming entangled with one another, with no purpose or plan behind their motions.
He admitted women and slaves into his school, emphasized the senses in his [[epistemology]], and was one of the first Greeks to break from the god-fearing and god-worshipping tradition common at the time, even while affirming that religious activities are useful as a way to contemplate the gods and to use them as an example of the pleasant life.
Epicurus' philosophy is based on the theory that all good and bad derive from sensation. Pleasureable sensations are good. Painful sensations are bad. Although Epicurus was commonly misunderstood to advocate the rampant pursuit of pleasure, what he was really after was the absence of pain (both physical and mental, i.e., anxiety).
Although Epicurus believed in pursuing pleasure, he was by no means a hedonist in our modern sense of the word. He explicitly warned against overindulgence because it often leads to pain. For instance, in what might be described as a "hangover" theory, Epicurus warned against pursuing love too ardently, as it often leads to pain. However, having a circle of friends you can trust is one of the most important means for securing a tranquil life.
Epicurus also believed (in contradistinction to [[Aristotle]]) that death was not bad. According to Epicurus, good and bad derive from sensation. Bad cannot exist without sensing pain. When man is alive, he does not feel the pain of death because he is not experiencing death. When a man dies, he does not feel the pain of death because he is dead and, since death is annihilation, he feels nothing. Therefore, as Epicurus famously said, "death is nothing to us."
In contrast to the [[Stoics]], Epicureans showed little interest in participating in the politics of the day, since doing so leads to trouble. "Live in seclusion!" was the advice of Epicurus. His garden can be compared to present day communes. There are many people in our own time who have sought a safe harbor away from society.
The most known Epicurean verse, which epitomizes the Epicurean philosophy, is ''lathe bi&#333;sas'' &#955;&#940;&#952;&#949; &#946;&#953;&#974;&#963;&#945;&#962; ([[Plutarchus]] ''De latenter vivendo'' 1128c; [[Flavius Philostratus]] ''Vita Apollonii'' 8.28.12), meaning "live secretly", "get through life without drawing attention to yourself", i. e. live without pursuing glory or wealth or power, but anonymously, enjoying little things like food, the company of friends etc.
==Legacy==
Elements of Epicurean philosophy have resonated and resurfaced in various diverse thinkers and movements throughout Western intellectual history. The [[Problem of evil|Epicurean paradox]] is a famous argument against the existence of God.
Epicurus was one of the first thinkers to develop the notion of justice as a social contract. He defined justice as an agreement "neither to harm nor be harmed." The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness. Because of this, laws that do not help contribute to promoting human happiness are not just.
This was later picked up by the democratic thinkers of the [[French Revolution]], and others, like [[John Locke]], who wrote that people had a right to "life, liberty, and property." To Locke, one's own body was part of their property, and thus one's right to property would theoretically guarantee safety for their persons, as well as their possessions.
This triad was carried forward into the American freedom movement and [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]], by American founding father, [[Thomas Jefferson]], as "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."
Epicurus was also a significant source of inspiration and interest for [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Nietzsche cites his affinities to Epicurus in a number of his works, including [[The Gay Science]], [[Beyond Good and Evil]], and his private letters to Peter Gast. Nietzsche was attracted to, among other things, Epicurus' ability to maintain a cheerful philosophical outlook in the face of painful physical ailments. Nietzsche also suffered from a number of sicknesses during his lifetime. However, he thought that Epicurus' conception of happiness as freedom from anxiety was too passive and negative.
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.gardenofepicurus.com GardenofEpicurus.com] - A Directory of Epicurean Gardens, FAQ, and information on how to become an Epicurean.
*[http://www.epicurus.info Epicurus.info] - Epicurean Philosophy Online: features classical e-texts & photos of Epicurean artifacts.
*[http://www.epicurus.net Epicurus.net] - Epicurus and Epicurean Philosophy
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/epicur.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] - Entry for "Epicurus"
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epicurus/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] - Entry for "Epicurus"
*[http://www.societasviaromana.org/Collegium_Philosophicum/epicurus.php Epicurus & Lucretius] - Small article by "P. Dionysius Mus"
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/epicureangroup/ The Epicurean Group] - Yahoo Discussion Group
* ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1841/dr-theses/index.htm The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature]'' - [[Karl Marx]]’s doctoral thesis.
[[Category:Ancient Greeks]]
[[Category:341 BC births]]
[[Category:270 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Hellenistic philosophers]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[bg:Епикур]]
[[bs:Epikur]]
[[ca:Epicur]]
[[de:Epikur]]
[[el:Επίκουρος]]
[[es:Epicuro]]
[[eo:Epikuro]]
[[fa:اپیکور]]
[[fr:Épicure]]
[[gl:Epicuro de Samos]]
[[ko:에피쿠로스]]
[[is:Epikúros]]
[[it:Epicuro]]
[[he:אפיקורוס]]
[[la:Epicurus]]
[[hu:Epikurosz]]
[[nl:Epicurus]]
[[ja:エピクロス]]
[[no:Epikur]]
[[pl:Epikur]]
[[pt:Epicuro de Samos]]
[[ru:Эпикур]]
[[sk:Epikuros]]
[[sl:Epikur]]
[[fi:Epikuros]]
[[sv:Epikuros]]
[[uk:Епікур]]
[[zh:伊壁鸠鲁]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epitaph</title>
<id>10074</id>
<revision>
<id>41733022</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:24:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Darklion 008</username>
<id>1010749</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">''See [[Epitaph Records]] for the record label''
An '''epitaph''' (literally: "''on the gravestone''" in ancient [[Greek language|Greek]]) is text honoring the dead, most commonly inscribed on a tombstone or plaque. Traditionally an epitaph is in verse, but there are exceptions.
Some [[poets]] have been known to compose their own epitaphs prior to their death.
==Famous Epitaphs==
''O xein', angellein Lakedaimoniois hoti täde/''<br />
''keimetha tois keinon rhämasi peithomenoi!''<br />
''Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by''<br />
''that here, obedient to their laws we lie'' —[[Simonides of Ceos|Simonides]]'s [[epigram]] at [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]]
''When You Go Home, Tell Them Of Us And Say,''</br>
''For Their Tomorrow, We Gave Our Today''
The [[Kohima]] Epitaph which is on the [[World War II]] War Memorial for the Allied fallen at the [[battle of Kohima]]. Attributed to John Maxwell Edmonds (1875-1958), an English classicist, suggested for the memorial by Major John Etty-Leal, the GSO II of the 2nd Division, another classical scholar.
''Hodie mihi, cras tibi'' - (Famous Latin epitaph: mine today, yours tomorrow).
''No greater friend, no worst enemy'' - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Roman Dictator
''Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear, ''</br>
''To dig the dust enclosed here. ''</br>
''Blest be the man that spares these stones,'' </br>
''But cursed be he that moves my bones.'' — (From the grave of [[William Shakespeare]]).
''Nature, and nature's laws,''<br />
''Lay hid in night,''<br />
''God said, let Newton be!''<br />
''And all was light.'' — from the grave of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], a poem from [[Alexander Pope]]
''SWIFT has sailed into his rest;''<br />
''Savage indignation t |
;Blessed are the pure in heart for they shall see Alāha." And in the Arabic Bible the same words ([[Matthew 5:8|Mt 5:8]]): "طُوبَى لأَنْقِيَاءِ الْقَلْبِ، فَإِنَّهُمْ سَيَرَوْنَ الله"
==Other beliefs==
[[The Nation of Gods and Earths]], one of the many sects created as the result of black separatist movements in the United States, holds that the word "Allāh" is the name of the original black man and stands for "Arm, Leg, Leg, Arm, Head". [http://web.archive.org/web/20041019023127/http://www.ibiblio.org/nge/] [http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/2002-10-29-oped-goldblatt_x.htm] This concept is alien to mainstream Islam, which strictly opposes any attempt to portray Allāh as a human or in any other way. Mainstream Islam also prohibits attibuting divine qualities to, worshipping, or glorifying anything other than Allāh.
The [[Bahá'í Faith]], whose [[:Category:Bahá'í texts|scriptures]] are primarily written in [[Arabic]] and [[Farsi]], also uses '''Allah''' to mean God, though in practice the customary word for God in the local language is typically used when speaking in that language. Some particular uses are not translated, but the Arabic phrase is used. The chief example of this would be the Bahá'í customary greeting '''Alláh'u'abhá''' which is commonly translated as ''God is the All Glorious''.
==See also==
*[[God]]
*[[Islam]]
*[[99 Names of God]]
*[[Muhammad]]
*[[Monotheism]]
==External Links==
*[http://www.faizani.com/portal/allah.html Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] For further discussion on Allah, the word's etymology, and the Islamic concept
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Arabian deities]]
[[Category:Deities]]
[[Category:Quran]]
[[Category:Singular God]]
[[Category:Aqidah]]
[[af:Allah]]
[[ar:الله]]
[[bs:Allah]]
[[ca:Al·là]]
[[da:Allah]]
[[de:Allah]]
[[et:Allah]]
[[es:Alá]]
[[fa:الله]]
[[fr:Allah]]
[[ko:알라]]
[[id:Allah]]
[[is:Allāh]]
[[it:Allah]]
[[hu:Allah]]
[[ms:Allah]]
[[nl:Allah]]
[[ja:アッラーフ]]
[[no:Allah]]
[[nn:Allah]]
[[pl:Allah]]
[[pt:Alá]]
[[ru:Аллах]]
[[simple:Allah]]
[[sr:Алах]]
[[fi:Allah]]
[[sv:Allah]]
[[tt:Allah]]
[[th:อัลลอหฺ]]
[[tr:Allah]]
[[uk:Аллах]]
[[zh:安拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antarctica</title>
<id>741</id>
<revision>
<id>42159026</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:16:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Piotrus</username>
<id>59002</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Gondwana breakup */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=250 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''Antarctica'''</big></big>
| align=center colspan=2 style="background:#f9f9f9;" |
[[Image:Flag of Antarctica.svg|left|100px]]
[[Image:LocationAntarctica.png|250px|Location of Antarctica]]
|-
| '''Area''' || 14,000,000&nbsp;km² (280,000&nbsp;km² ice-free, 13,720,000&nbsp;km² ice-covered)
|-
| '''Population''' || ~1,000 (none permanent)
|-
| '''Government''' || None, governed by the [[Antarctic Treaty System]]
|-
| '''Partial Territorial claims''' || {{ARG}} <br> {{AUS}} <br> {{CHL}} <br> {{FRA}} <br> {{NZL}} <br> {{NOR}} <br> {{GBR}}
|-
| '''Internet [[Top-level domain|TLD]]''' || [[.aq]]
|-
| '''Calling Code''' || +672
|}
:''For the [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] novel, see [[Antarctica (novel)]]''
'''Antarctica''' ([[Greek language|Greek]], ''antarktikos'': "opposite the [[Arctic]]"<ref>Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon '' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=%239514 "antarktikos"]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref>) is a [[continent]] encircling the [[Earth|Earth's]] [[South Pole]], surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]] and divided in two by the [[Transantarctic Mountains]]. It is a [[desert|cold desert]] and, on average, the coldest place on Earth. 98% of the continent is covered by [[ice]]. Its 14 million&nbsp;km&sup2; make it the fifth largest continent and the world's largest [[desert]]. There are no permanent human residents, and only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including [[penguins]], [[fur seals]], [[lichen]]s, and hundreds of types of [[algae]].
Although myths and speculation about a ''[[Terra Australis]]'' ("Southern Land") go back to antiquity, the first commonly accepted sighting of the continent occurred in 1820 and the first verified landing in 1821 by the [[Russia]]n expedition of [[Mikhail Lazarev]] and [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]]. The continent had been largely neglected in the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of efficient resources, and its isolated location.
Antarctica is not under the political sovereignty of any nation, although seven countries ([[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Chile]], [[France]], [[Norway]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]]) maintain territorial claims. Most other countries do not recognise these claims, and the claims of Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom all overlap. Its usage is regulated by the [[Antarctic Treaty]], signed in 1959 by 12 countries, which prohibits any military activity, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's [[ecozone]]. Ongoing experiments are conducted yearly by more than 4,000 scientists of diverse backgrounds and interests.
==Exploration==
{{main|History of Antarctica}}
[[Image:Shackleton expedition.jpg|left|thumb|210px|''The Endurance'' at night during [[Ernest Shackleton]]'s [[Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] in 1914.]]
In the Western world, beliefs in a ''[[Terra Australis]]''—a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to "balance" out the northern lands of Europe, Asia and north Africa—had existed for centuries. Even by late in the 17th century, after explorers had found that [[South America]] and [[Australia]] were not part of "Antarctica", geographers believed the continent was much larger than its true size. European maps continued to show this land until [[Captain]] [[James Cook]] and the crews of his expedition's ships, ''[[HMS Resolution (Cook)|Resolution]]'' and ''[[HMS Adventure (1771)|Adventure]]'', crossed the [[Antarctic Circle]] on [[January 17]], [[1773]] and again in 1774.<ref>The Mariners' Museum [http://www.mariner.org/educationalad/ageofex/cook.php ''Age of Exploration - James Cook'']. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref>
The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various organizations (the [[National Science Foundation]],<ref>National Science Foundation. [http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/antpanel/antpan05.pdf History of Antarctica] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref> [[NASA]],<ref>NASA, U.S. Government [http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html Palmer biography] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref> the [[University of California, San Diego]],<ref>University of California, San Diego [http://arcane.ucsd.edu/pstat.html Palmer Station] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref> and other sources<ref>South-Pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000052.htm An Antarctic Time Line : 1519 - 1959]. Retrieved February 12, 2006</ref><ref>Polar Radar for Ice Sheet Measurements. [http://ku-prism.org/polarscientist/timeline/antarcticexplorers1800.html Antarctic Explorers Timeline: Early 1800s]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref>), three men all sighted Antarctica within days or weeks of each other: [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]] (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy), [[Edward Bransfield]] (a captain in the British navy), and [[Nathaniel Palmer]] (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). Bransfield supposedly saw Antarctica on [[January 27]], [[1820]], three days before Palmer sighted land. It is certain that on [[January 28]], [[1820]] the expedition led by [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]] and [[Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev]] on two ships reached a point within 32&nbsp;km (20&nbsp;miles) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there.
In 1841 explorer [[James Clark Ross]] sailed through what is now known as the [[Ross Sea]] and discovered [[Ross Island]]. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the [[Ross Ice Shelf]]. [[Mount Erebus]] and [[Mount Terror (Antarctica)|Mount Terror]] are named after two ships from his expedition: ''[[HMS Erebus (1826)|HMS Erebus]]'' and ''[[HMS Terror (1813)|HMS Terror]]''.<ref>[http://www.south-pole.com/p0000081.htm James Clark Ross] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref>
During an [[expedition]] by [[Ernest Shackleton]], parties led by [[T. W. Edgeworth David]] became the first to climb [[Mount Erebus]] and to reach the [[South Magnetic Pole]].<ref>Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=6660 ''Tannatt William Edgeworth David''] Retrieved February 7, 2006.</ref> On [[December 14]], [[1911]], a party led by Norwegian polar explorer [[Roald Amundsen]] from the ship ''[[Fram]]'' became the first to reach the [[South Pole]], using a route from the [[Bay of Whales]] and up the [[Axel Heiberg Glacier]].<ref>South-pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000101.htm ''Roald Amundsen''] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref>
After [[Robert Falcon Scott]]'s journey, [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport and conducting extensive geological and biological research.<ref>70South. [http://www.70 |
on in 1961 had Eichmann revealed Mengele's whereabouts.
A footnote to Eichmann's SS career focuses on the point as to why he was never promoted to the rank of full SS-Colonel, known as ''[[Standartenführer]]''. With Eichmann's record and responsibilities, he would have been a prime candidate for advancement, yet after 1941, his SS record contains no evidence that he was ever even recommended for another promotion. Many have speculated that [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]] may have seen Eichmann as a dangerous man, rising through the SS ranks, and had curbed his SS career to prevent Eichmann from becoming too powerful.
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Eichmann trial news story.ogg|title= "Guilty! Eichmann to Hang"|description= U.S. news story on the Eichmann trial, from National Archives|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video end}}
==Books==
* [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem]]: A Report on the Banality of Evil'' (1963)
* [[David Cesarani]], ''Eichmann: His Life and Times'' (2004)
* [[Harry Mulisch]], ''Case 40/61; report on the Eichmann trial'' (1963)
* Moshe Pearlman: ''The Capture of Adolf Eichmann'', 1961. (cited in Hannah Arendt: ''Eichmann in Jerusalem'', Penguin, 1994, p.235)
* Pierre de Villemarest, ''Untouchable—Who protected [[Martin Bormann|Bormann]] & [[Heinrich Müller|Gestapo Müller]] after 1945...,'' Aquilion, 2005, ISBN 1904997023 (Gestapo Müller was one of the chiefs of Adolf Eichmann)
==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/wwtwo/eichmann_01.shtml BBC: ''Adolf Eichmann: The Mind of a War Criminal'']
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/eichcap.html ''The Capture of Adolf Eichmann''] from the [[Jewish Virtual Library]]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB150/index.htm Declassified CIA names file on Adolf Eichmann] - Provided by the ''[[National Security Archive]]''
* [http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/ Eichmann trial: The complete transcripts] - Provided by the ''[[Nizkor Project]]''
<!--Interlanguage links-->
[[Category:1906 births|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:1962 deaths|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:Natives of North Rhine-Westphalia|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:War criminals|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:Executed Nazi leaders|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:Holocaust|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:Lieutenant colonels|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:SS Officers|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:Nazi leaders|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[ar:أدولف أيخمان]]
[[bg:Адолф Айхман]]
[[da:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[de:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[eo:Adolf EICHMANN]]
[[es:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[fi:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[fr:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[he:אדולף אייכמן]]
[[hr:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[hu:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[it:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[ja:アドルフ・アイヒマン]]
[[ka:აიხმანი, ადოლფ]]
[[ko:아돌프 아이히만]]
[[nl:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[no:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[pl:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[pt:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[ru:Эйхман, Адольф]]
[[sk:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[sr:Адолф Ајхман]]
[[sv:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[zh:阿道夫·艾希曼]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Absolute value</title>
<id>991</id>
<revision>
<id>41279961</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T06:34:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kieff</username>
<id>56905</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Notes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''absolute value''' (or '''modulus'''<sup id="ref_Argand"><small>[[#endnote_Argand|1]]</small></sup>) of a [[real number]] is its numerical value without regard to its [[sign]]. So, for example, 3 is the absolute value of both 3 and &minus;3. In computers, the [[mathematical function]] used to perform this calculation is usually given the name '''abs()'''.
Generalizations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings. For example an absolute value is also defined for the [[complex number]]s, the [[quaternion]]s, [[ordered ring]]s, [[Field (mathematics)|field]]s and [[vector space]]s.
The absolute value is closely related to the notions of [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]], [[distance]], and [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] in various mathematical and physical contexts.
[[Image:Absolute value.png|frame|The graph of the absolute value function for real numbers.]]
==Real numbers==
For any [[real number]] <math>a,</math> the '''absolute value''' or '''modulus''' of <math>a,</math> is denoted <sup id="ref_Wolfram"><small>[[#endnote_Wolfram|2]]</small></sup> <math>|a|,</math> and is defined as
:<math>|a| := \begin{cases} a, & \mbox{if } a \ge 0 \\ -a, & \mbox{if } a < 0. \end{cases} </math>
As can be seen from the above definition, the absolute value of <math>a</math> is always either [[positive number|positive]] or [[0 (number)|zero]], never [[negative and non-negative numbers|negative]].
From a geometric point of view, the absolute value of a real number is the [[distance]] along the [[real number line]] of that number from zero, and more generally the absolute value of the difference of two real numbers is the distance between them. Indeed the notion of an abstract [[distance function]] in mathematics can be seen to be a generalization of the properties of the absolute value (see [[#Distance|"Distance"]] below).
The following proposition, gives an [[identity (mathematics)|identity]] which is sometimes used as an alternative (and equivalent) definition of the absolute value:
'''PROPOSITION 1''':
:<math>|a| = \sqrt{a^2}</math>
The absolute value has the following four fundamental properties:
'''PROPOSITION 2''':
:{| cellpadding=10
|-
|<math>|a| \ge 0 </math>
|Non-negativity
|-
|<math>|a| = 0 \iff a = 0 </math>
|Positive-definiteness
|-
|<math>|ab| = |a||b|\,</math>
|[[Multiplicativeness]]
|-
|<math>|a+b| \le |a| + |b| </math>
|[[Subadditivity]]
|}
Other important properties of the absolute value include:
'''PROPOSITION 3''':
:{| cellpadding=10
|-
|<math>|-a| = |a|\,</math>
|[[Symmetry]]
|-
|<math>|a - b| = 0 \iff a = b </math>
|Identity of indiscernibles (equivalent to positive-definiteness)
|-
|<math>|a - b| \le |a - c| +|c - b| </math>
|[[Triangle inequality]] (equivalent to subadditivity)
|-
|<math>|a/b| = |a| / |b| \mbox{ (if } b \ne 0) \,</math>
|Preservation of division (equivalent to multiplicativeness)
|-
|<math>|a-b| \ge |a| - |b| </math>
|(equivalent to subadditivity)
|}
Two other useful inequalities are:
:<math>|a| \le b \iff -b \le a \le b </math>
:<math>|a| \ge b \iff a \le -b \mbox{ or } b \le a </math>
The above are often used in solving inequalities; for example:
:{|
|-
|<math>|x-3| \le 9 </math>
|<math>\iff -9 \le x-3 \le 9 </math>
|-
|
|<math>\iff -6 \le x \le 12 </math>
|}
== Complex numbers ==
<div style="float:right; margin-left:3px; margin-right:3px" title="Graphic Representation">
[[image:complex.png]]
</div>
Since the [[complex number]]s are not [[ordered set|ordered]], the definition given above for the real absolute value cannot be directly generalized for a complex number. However the identity given in Proposition 1:
:<math>|a| = \sqrt{a^2}</math>
can be seen as motivating the following definition.
For any [[complex number]]
:<math>z = x + iy\,</math>
the '''absolute value''' or '''modulus''' of <math>z</math> is denoted <math>|z|,</math> and is defined as
:<math>|z| := \sqrt{x^2 + y^2}.</math>
It follows that the absolute value of a real number ''x'' is equal to its absolute value considered as a complex number since:
:<math> |x + i0| = \sqrt{x^2 + 0^2} = \sqrt{x^2} = |x|.</math>
Similar to the geometric interpretation of the absolute value for real numbers, it follows from the [[Pythagorean theorem]] that the absolute value of a complex number is the distance in the [[complex plane]] of that complex number from the [[origin (mathematics)|origin]], and more generally, that the absolute value of the difference of two complex numbers is equal to the distance between those two complex numbers.
The complex absolute value shares all the properties of the real absolute value given in Propositions 2 and 3 above. In addition, If
:<math> z = x + \mathrm{i}y = r (\cos \phi + \mathrm{i}\sin \phi ) \,</math>
and
:<math>\bar{z} = x - iy</math>
is the [[complex conjugate]] of <math>z</math>, then it is easily seen that
:<math>|z| = r\,</math>
:<math>|z|=|\bar{z}|</math>
:<math>|z| = \sqrt{z\bar{z}}</math>
== Absolute value functions==
The real absolute value function is [[continuous function|continuous]] everywhere. It is [[derivative|differentiable]] everywhere except for ''x'' = 0. It is [[monotonic function|monotonically decreasing]] on the interval <nowiki>(-&infin;, 0]</nowiki> and [[monotonic function|monotonically increasing]] on the interval <nowiki>[0, &infin;)</nowiki>. Since a real number and its negative have the same absolute value, it is an [[even function]], and is hence not [[invertible]].
The [[complex number|complex]] absolute value function is continuous everywhere but differentiable ''nowhere'' (One way to see this is to show that it does not obey the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]]).
Both the real and complex functions are [[idempotent]].
==Ordered rings==
The definition of absolute value given for real numbers above can easily be extended to any [[ordered ring]]. That is, if <math>a</math> is an element of an ordered ring <math>R</math>, then the '''absolute value''' of <math>a</math>, denoted by <math>| |
ed echo of his system of ethics (the latter being expressed in ''[[Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik]]'', available in English as two separate books, ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' and ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]]''; ethics also occupies about one fourth of his central work, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]''). In occasional political comments in his ''[[Parerga and Paralimpomena]]'' and ''[[Manuscript Remains]]'', Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government. What was essential, he thought, was that the state should "leave each man free to work out his own salvation", and so long as government was thus limited, he would "prefer to be ruled by a lion than one of [his] fellow rats" &mdash; i.e., a monarch. Schopenhauer did, however, share the view of [[Thomas Hobbes]] on the necessity of the state, and of state violence, to check the destructive tendencies innate to our species. Schopenhauer, by his own admission, did not give much thought to politics, and several times he writes prideful boasts of how little attention he had paid "to political affairs of [his] day". In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he did indeed maintain his aloof position of "minding not the times but the eternities".
== Schopenhauer on women ==
Schopenhauer is also famous for his essay "On Women" (''Über die Weiber''), in which he expressed his opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" on female affairs. He claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey", and opposed [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]]'s poem in honor of women, ''Würde der Frauen''. The essay does give two compliments however: that "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are" and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. However, the latter was discounted as weakness rather than humanitarian virtue.
The ultra-intolerant view of women contrasts with Schopenhauer's generally liberal views on other social issues: he was strongly against [[taboo]]s on issues like [[suicide]] and [[masochism]] and condemned the treatment of African [[slavery|slave]]s. This [[polemic]] on female nature has since been fiercely attacked as [[misogyny|misogynistic]]. However, he did not hold a universally negative opinion of women in particular; one should note that Schopenhauer had a very high opinion of [[Madame de Guyon]], whose writings and biography he highly recommended.
In any case, the controversial writing has influenced many, from [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] to [[19th century]] [[feminism|feminists]]. While Schopenhauer's hostility to women may tell us more about his [[biography]] than about philosophy, his [[biology|biological]] analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]] in the [[twentieth century]].
==Schopenhauer on homosexuality==
Schopenhauer was also one of the first philosophers since the days of [[Greek philosophy]] to address the subject of male [[homosexuality]]. In the third, expanded edition of ''The World as Will and Representation'' ([[1856]]), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the "Metaphysics of Sexual Love." In it, he develops the idea that since only mature men and fully adult but pre-[[menopause|menopausal]] women are capable of bearing healthy children, in early adolescence and in late middle age the sexual appetite is susceptible of being turned towards another channel.
While there may again be more [[autobiography]] than analysis in this hypothesis, it is consistent with the general tenor of Schopenhauer's thought, which gives the Will in nature the position of setting an agenda for individual lives. It is also one of the first attempts at portraying homosexuality as a natural phenomenon, acknowledging its existence in every culture, and seeking to explain its appearance even in those cultures whose moralities sharply condemn homosexual behaviour.
==Schopenhauer on Hegel==
Schopenhauer seems to have disliked just about everything concerning his contemporary [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]. The following quotation from ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' (page 15-16) is quite famous:
{{Quotation|If I were to say that the so-called philosophy of this fellow [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] is a colossal piece of mystification which will yet provide posterity with an inexhaustible theme for laughter at our times, that it is a [[pseudophilosophy|pseudo-philosophy]] paralyzing all mental powers, stifling all real thinking, and, by the most outrageous misuse of language, putting in its place the hollowest, most senseless, thoughtless, and, as is confirmed by its success, most stupefying verbiage, I should be quite right.<p>
Further, if I were to say that this summus philosophus [...] scribbled nonsense quite unlike any mortal before him, so that whoever could read his most eulogized work, the so-called [[Phenomenology of the Mind]], without feeling as if he were in a madhouse, would qualify as an inmate for [[Bethlem Royal Hospital|Bedlam]], I should be no less right.|Arthur Schopenhauer|''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' (page 15-16)}}
But Schopenhauer had good reason to mistrust the writings of Hegel. In his "Foreword to
the first edition" of his work [[Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik]], Schopenhauer
had found Hegel to have fallen prey to the ''[[Post hoc ergo propter hoc]]'' fallacy.
Schopenhauer's critique of Hegel is most certainly directed at his perception that Hegel's works use deliberately impressive but ultimately vacuous [[jargon]] and [[neologism]]s, and that they contained castles of abstraction that sounded impressive but ultimately contained no verifiable content. He also thought that his glorification of church and state were designed for personal advantage and had little to do with search for philosophical truth. Although Schopenhauer may have appeared vain in his constant attacks on [[Hegel]], they were not necessarily devoid of merit: the [[Right Hegelians]] interpreted Hegel as seeing the Prussian state of his day as perfect and the goal of all history up until then.
==Common Misconceptions==
Many are put off Schopenhauer by descriptions of him as an obstinate and arrogant man, who did not lead the ascetic life that he glorified in his work. The idea that he made resignation into a command to virtue is inaccurate, as he was merely trying to explain asceticism in terms of [[metaphysics]]. He does refer to the asceticism as a state of "inner peace and cheerfulness", but he also clearly states that he was not trying to recommend the denial of the will above the affirmation of the will. Furthermore, the call to asceticism was supposed to come to select individuals as knowledge all of a sudden, rather than being a virtue that can be taught. "In general," he wrote, "it is a strange demand on a moralist that he should commend no other virtue than that which he himself possesses." (''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol.I, § 68)
[[Nietzsche]] seems to have made this misinterpretation, leading some people to a distorted view of Schopenhauer. The following sentence from ''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]'' is often quoted:
{{Quotation|He has interpreted art, heroism, genius, beauty, great sympathy, knowledge, the will to truth, and tragedy, in turn, as consequences of "negation" or of the "will's" need to negate.|[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]|''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]''}}
Schopenhauer did see all these things as means to a more peaceful and enlightened way of life, but none of them were "denial of the will-to-live". Only asceticism is referred to in that way. [[Nietzsche]] also claimed that Schopenhauer did not recognise that suffering had a redemptive quality, yet his recognition of this seems blatantly clear in part 4 of ''The World as Will and Representation''.
Also, his identification of the [[Will (philosophy)|will]] with the Kantian "thing-in-itself" has been misunderstood. [[Kant]] defined things-in-themselves as being beyond comprehension and that no-one could know the inner nature of a material thing. It is sometimes thought that Schopenhauer denied this, but he did not. What he did assert was that one could know things about the thing-in-itself. For example, you can know that the will is a striving force, that it is endless, that it causes suffering, that it will produce boredom if unoccupied, etc. However, he did not say that you could directly know the will. In addition, it has sometimes been criticised that he never defined the will, but he explained that it could not be fully defined.
==Influence==
Schopenhauer is thought to have influenced the following intellectual figures and schools of thought: [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Richard Wagner]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Theodule Ribot]], [[Eugene O'Neill]], [[Max Horkheimer]], [[C. G. Jung]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], [[Dylan Thomas]], [[Emil Cioran]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Phenomenalism]], and [[Recursionism]].
==See also==
*[[Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy (Schopenhauer)|Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy]]
== Bibliography ==
=== Major works ===
*''Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde'', 1813 ''(On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason)''
*''Über das Sehen und die Farben'', 1816 ''(On Vision and Colours)''
*''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung'', 1818/1819, vol 2 1844 ''([[The World as Will and Representation]]'', sometimes also known in Engl |
] consisting of a "bailiff, jurats, and commonalty". By a Charter of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] in [[1589]] the bailiff was replaced by a mayor.
With the reform of English local government in [[1888]], Hastings became a [[County Borough]], in other words responsible for all its local services, independent of the surrounding county, and long had its own police force. County borough status was abolished by the [[Local Government Act 1972]] in [[1974]], and it became a district within the [[non-metropolitan county]] of East Sussex.
==Buildings==
[[Image:Net_shops_Hastings.jpg|right|thumb|250px|"Net shops"]]
The most important buildings from the late medieval period are the two churches in the Old Town, All Saints' and St Clement's.
On the beach near the Old Town are the so-called "net shops", said to be unique to Hastings, but similar huts can be found in [[Whitby]] &mdash; these are wooden constructions, weatherboarded and tarred, of various shapes and sizes, used for storage. The buildings were built tall and narrow to avoid payment of ground tax. The huts were never used for net drying; this is a popular misconception: nets were dried on the beach or on the piece of land known as the Minnis.
[[Image:Pelham Crescent Hastings.JPG|left|thumb|250px|Pelham Crescent and St Mary in the Castle, with the castle ruins above]]
Not much remains of Hastings Castle apart from an arch of the chapel, some walls, and underground dungeons.
In Medieval times the town featured a Priory, dedicated to the Holy Trinity. Remains of this were found when the old cinema was demolished and a supermarket built on the corner of Cambridge Gardens; these remains have been preserved and buried under the site. The area that was Priory Meadow Cricket Ground and latterly [[Priory Meadow Shopping Centre]] is the location of the Medieval Harbour, which was "lost" after several storms blocked the entrance. The area is still below sea level and prone to flooding.
In front of the castle is an elegant Georgian terrace, Pelham Crescent, at the centre of which is the classical church of St Mary in the Castle (its name recalling the old chapel in the castle above) now in use as an arts centre. The building of the crescent and the church necessitated further cutting away of the castle hill cliffs.
For many years the traffic intersection at the town centre was marked by "The Memorial", a clock tower commemorating Albert the [[Prince Consort]], subsequently demolished, following an arson attack in the 1970s.
For many years the commercial centre of the town was divided by concrete barriers separating pedestrians from vehicles. The 1990s saw pedestrianisation of significant parts of the commercial heart of the town, restricting vehicle access to service vehicles only at all times.
The bathing pool at [[St Leonards-on-Sea]] was regarded in its day as one of the best open-air swimming and diving complexes in Europe, but it closed some years ago, having become part of a [[holiday camp]]. The area is still known by locals as "The Bathing Pool", which confuses some visitors as no pool exists.
The most notable recent architectural changes have been;
* Demolition of the 1930s [[Hastings railway station|railway station]] and its replacement by an impressive glass and steel structure opened in [[2004]]
* Construction of the [http://www.uch.ac.uk University Centre].
* Demolition of the Marlborough Hotel, Warrior Square and its sympathetic replacement with a new health centre and sheltered housing.
==Fishing==
Until the development of tourism, [[fishing]] was Hastings' major industry. Steve Peak's monumental book on the fishing fleet<sup>[[#References|2]]</sup>, is a major work of scholarship and affection, available from the town's museums. The opening paragraph gives a flavour of the subject:
:"The Hastings fishing industry has a long and unusual history. Fishing boats similar to those used at Hastings today have worked from almost the same beach under the Hastings cliffs for at least 400, and quite probably 600 or more years. Despite the exposed landing site the Hastings fleet has survived many difficult times because the town lies next to one of Britain's most prolific fishing grounds, Rye Bay."
Hastings being no longer a port, fishing vessels have to be registered at [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]], and thus bear the letters R.X.
==Visitor attractions==
[[Image:Hastingspiersnow.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Hastings Pier and beach in the Winter]]
Hastings has a [[pier]], built in the 19th century, and wholly updated in the early 21st century. At one time there was another pier at St Leonards. Opposite the pier is the White Rock Theatre which mainly stages traditional seaside light entertainment shows. North of this and a little way inland are a 25m public swimming pool and leisure centre at Summerfields. This also has the local museum, law courts, police and fire stations nearby.
Near the castle ruins, on the West Hill, are "St Clement's Caves", partly natural, but mainly excavated by hand from the soft sandstone.
[[Image:Hastings furnicular railway.jpg|thumb|left|The ''East Hill Lift'': one of the two funicular railways in Hastings]]
There are a [[miniature railway]], fairground rides and amusement arcades catering for tourists near the Fishmarket. The fishmarket includes the striking net shops, fisherman's museum and Hastings Sea Life Centre. Fishing boats are likely to be drawn up on the beach and there is a lifeboat station. Nearby is Hastings Old Town with a number of buildings dating from the earliest days of the town. There are two [[funicular railway]]s, known as the East Hill Lift and West Hill Lift respectively. Slightly inland is the small Stables Theatre, which shows mainly local productions.
To the east of the town is the [http://www.hastings.gov.uk/hcp/default.aspx Hastings Country Park]. This is an area of 2.67 km&sup2; of lightly wooded and open land extending from hastings approximately 3 miles (5 km) along the cliff tops to [[Fairlight]].
Another family pool with wave machine and water slide is situated at Glyne Gap, on the coast mid-way between Bexhill and Hastings. Glyne Gap also sports a bowling alley and shopping centre.
There is a small cinema in Hastings but the nearest 'multiplex' is at Eastbourne.
There is also a yearly carnival, an "Old Town Week" during August, a beer festival in Alexandra Park, and an International Chess Congress. During Hastings week held each year around the 14th October the Hastings Boroughs Bonfire Society stages a torchlight procession through the streets, beach bonfire and spectacular firework display.
==Transport links==
Hastings is linked to [[London]] by two [[railway]] lines. The shorter is the former [[South Eastern Railway]] (SER) route to [[Charing Cross railway station|Charing Cross]] via [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]] and [[Tunbridge Wells]], opened 1852, and the longer is the former [[London, Brighton and South Coast Railway]] (LBSCR) route to [[Victoria Station (London)|Victoria]] via [[Bexhill-on-Sea|Bexhill]], [[Eastbourne]] and [[Lewes]]. There is also a line via [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]] to [[Ashford, Kent|Ashford]]. The ex-SER route suffered for many years from the narrowness of some of its tunnels, so that special locomotives and rolling stock had to be built to meet the restricted [[loading gauge]], for instance the [[Southern Railway (UK)|Southern Railway's]] [[Schools Class]] and later the flat-sided [[Hastings diesels]]. This problem was eventually overcome, permitting the electrification of this line in [[1996]] and much improved services. The town currently has four railway stations: from west to east they are West St Leonards, St Leonards Warrior Square, [[Hastings railway station|Hastings]], and Ore. West Marina station (on the LBSCR line) was very near to West St Leonards (on the SER line) and was closed some years ago. New stations have been proposed.
Hastings is linked to London by the [[A21 road|A21]] trunk road. There have been improvements in this road over the years, notably [[bypass]]es for [[Sevenoaks]], [[Tonbridge]], [[Pembury]] and [[Lamberhurst]], but the [[dual carriageway]] stops well short of Hastings. Long-term plans for a much improved east-west route and a Hastings bypass were abandoned in the [[1990s]], but a new road to [[Bexhill-on-Sea]] was announced in [[2004]] to relieve the congested coastal route.
Hastings at one time had a network of [[tram]]s, later replaced by [[trolleybus]]es. The "Save our trolleys" campaign was unsuccessful, and the town is now served by diesel buses.
== Economic and social status==
<div style="float:right;width:220px;">
[[Image:Hastings1.jpg|thumb|View of houses from the East Hill Lift top entrance|220px]]
[[Image:Hastings_night.jpg|thumb|View of houses from the East Hill Lift top entrance at night|220px]]
</div>
Hastings has long been known as a retreat for artists and painters. For example, the pre-Raphaelite painters including [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and [[William Holman Hunt]] admired the town for its light and clear air. In the [[19th century]] the towns became prosperous on the basis of the tourist trade from [[London]] and the [[Midlands]]. With the rise of international [[tourism]] from England it has declined substantially.
The town expanded as part of the Government policy to disperse population out of London in the 1960s and 70s. This brought with it some light industry. The policy was discontinued and further town growth is considerably restricted by planning policies of Rother District, which has administrative control of much of the undeveloped land adjoining Hastings. It is now one of the most economically disadvantaged [[Districts of England|districts]] in south-east England.
There is, at first glance, no immediate clear reason why Hasti |
, and she contributed to various periodicals "The Romaunt of Margaret", "The Romaunt of the Page", "The Poet's Vow", and other pieces. In 1838 appeared ''The Seraphim and Other Poems'' (including "Cowper's Grave"). Shortly thereafter the death, by drowning, of her favourite brother gave a serious shock to her already fragile health, and for a time she hovered between life and death. Eventually, however, she regained strength, and meanwhile her fame was growing. The publishing about 1841 of "The Cry of the Children" gave it a great impulse, and about the same time she contributed some critical papers in prose to R.H. Horne's ''New Spirit of the Age''. In 1844 she published two volumes of ''Poems'', which comprised "The Drama of Exile", "Vision of Poets", and "Lady Geraldine's Courtship". In 1845 she met for the first time her future husband, [[Robert Browning]]. Their courtship and marriage, owing to her delicate health and the extraordinary objections entertained by Mr. Barrett to the marriage of any of his children, were carried out under somewhat peculiar and romantic circumstances. After a private marriage and a secret departure from her home, she accompanied her husband to Italy, which became her home almost continuously until her death, and with the political aspirations of which she and her husband both thoroughly identified themselves. The union proved one of unalloyed happiness to both, though it was never forgiven by Mr. Barrett. In her new circumstances her strength greatly increased. Her husband and she settled in [[Florence]], and there she wrote ''Casa Guidi Windows'' (1851)—by many considered her strongest work—under the inspiration of the Tuscan struggle for liberty. ''Aurora Leigh'', her largest, and perhaps the most popular of her longer poems, appeared in 1856. In 1850 ''The Sonnets from the Portuguese''—the history of her own love-story, thinly disguised by its title—had appeared. In 1860 she issued a collected edition of her poems under the title, ''Poems before Congress''. Soon thereafter her health underwent a change for the worse; she gradually lost strength, and died on [[June 29]], [[1861]]. She is buried in Florence in the [[English Cemetery, Florence]].
Mrs. Browning is generally considered the greatest of English poetesses. Her works are full of tender and delicate, but also of strong and deep, thought. Her own sufferings, combined with her moral and intellectual strength, made her the champion of the suffering and oppressed wherever she found them. Her gift was essentially lyrical, though much of her work was not so in form. Her weak points are the lack of compression, an occasional somewhat obtrusive mannerism, and frequent failure both in metre and rhyme. Though not nearly the equal of her husband in force of intellect and the higher qualities of the poet, her works had, as might be expected on a comparison of their respective subjects and styles, a much earlier and wider acceptance with the general public. Mrs. Browning was a woman of singular nobility and charm, and though not beautiful, was remarkably attractive. [[Mary Russell Mitford]] thus describes her as a young woman: "A slight, delicate figure, with a shower of dark curls falling on each side of a most expressive face; large, tender eyes, richly fringed by dark eyelashes, and a smile like a sunbeam." Anne Thackery described her as: "Very small and brown" with big, exotic eyes and an overgenerous mouth.
Her most famous work is ''[[Sonnets from the Portuguese]]'', a collection of love sonnets written by Browning but disguised as a translation. By far the most famous poem from this collection, with one of the most famous opening lines in the English language, is number 43:
[[image:Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning.jpg|framed|Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]
:How do I love thee? Let me count the ways.
:I love thee to the depth and breadth and height
:My soul can reach, when feeling out of sight
:For the ends of Being and ideal Grace.
:I love thee to the level of everyday's
:Most quiet need, by sun and candle-light.
:I love thee freely, as men strive for Right;
:I love thee purely, as they turn from Praise.
:I love thee with the passion put to use
:In my old griefs, and with my childhood's faith.
:I love thee with a love I seemed to lose
:With my lost saints!---I love thee with the breath,
:Smiles, tears, of all my life!---and, if God choose,
:I shall but love thee better after death.
==See also==
*[[Flush: A Biography]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0024865 ''The Barretts of Wimpole Street''] at [[The Internet Movie Database|IMDb]]
*[[Project Gutenberg]] e-text of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2002 Sonnets from the Portuguese]''
*{{gutenberg author | id=Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning | name=Elizabeth Barrett Browning}}
*[http://www.quotesandpoem.com/poems/PoetsAndPoems/Browning Poetry, Letters and Quotes by Elizabeth Barrett Browning]
<BR>
[[Category:1806 births|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:1861 deaths|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:English poets|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Women poets|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[de:Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]
[[fr:Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]
[[hr:Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]
[[it:Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]
[[he:אליזבת בארט בראונינג]]
[[pl:Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]
[[sl:Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enlil</title>
<id>9628</id>
<revision>
<id>40620093</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T21:53:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stewartadcock</username>
<id>29890</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Minor changes to text to improve readability.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Mesopotamian myth (7)}}
'''Enlil''' was the name of a chief deity in [[Babylon]]ian religion, perhaps pronounced and sometimes rendered in translations as '''Ellil''' in later [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]. The name is of [[Sumerian]] origin and has been believed to mean 'Lord Wind' though a more literal interpretation is 'Lord of the Command'.
Enlil was the god of wind, or the sky between earth and heaven. One story has him originate as the exhausted breath of [[An (mythology)|An]] (God of the heavens) and Ki (goddess of the Earth) after sexual union. Another is that he and his sister [[Ninhursag]]/Ninmah/Aruru were children of an obscure god known as Enki 'Lord Earth' (not the famous [[Enki]]) borne by Ninki 'Lady Earth'.
When Enlil was a young god, he was banished from [[Dilmun]], home of the gods, to [[Kur]], the underworld for raping a young girl named [[Ninlil]]. Ninlil followed him to the underworld where she bore his first child, the moon god [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]]. After fathering three more underworld deities, Enlil was allowed to return to Dilmun.
Enlil was also known as the inventor of the pickaxe/hoe (favorite tool of the Sumerians) and caused plants to grow. He was in possession of the holy [[Me (mythology)|Me]], until he gave them to [[Enki]] for safe keeping, who summarily lost them to [[Inanna]] in a drunken stupor.
Enlil's relation to An 'Sky', in theory the supreme god of the Sumerian pantheon, was somewhat like that of a Frankish mayor of the palace compared to the king, or that of a Japanese shogun compared to the emperor, or to a prime minister in a modern constitutional monarchy compared to the supposed monarch. While An was in name ruler in the highest heavens, it was Enlil who mostly did the actual ruling over the world.
By his wife [[Ninlil]] or Sud, Enlil was father of the moon god [[Nanna]] (in Akkadian [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]]) and of [[Ninurta]] (also called Ningirsu). Enlil is sometimes father of [[Nergal]], of [[Nisaba]] the goddess of grain, of [[Pabilsag]] who is sometimes equated with Ninurta, and sometimes of [[Enbilulu]]. By [[Ereshkigal]] Enlil was father of [[Namtar]].
Enlil is associated with the ancient city of [[Nippur]], and since Enlu with the determinative for "land" or "district" is a common method of writing the name of the city, it follows, apart from other evidence, that Enlil was originally the patron deity of [[Nippur]].
At a very early period&mdash;prior to [[3000 BC]]&mdash;Nippur had become the centre of a political district of considerable extent. Inscriptions found at Nippur, where extensive excavations were carried on during [[1888]]&ndash;[[1900]] by Messrs Peters and Haynes, under the auspices of the [[University of Pennsylvania]], show that Enlil was the head of an extensive [[Babylonian mythology|pantheon]]. Among the titles accorded to him are "king of lands," "king of heaven and earth" and "father of the gods".
His chief temple at Nippur was known as [[Ekur]], signifying 'House of the mountain', and such was the sanctity acquired by this edifice that Babylonian and [[Assyria]]n rulers, down to the latest days, vied with one another in embellishing and restoring Enlil's seat of worship, and the name Ekur became the designation of a temple in general.
Grouped around the main sanctuary, there arose temples and chapels to the gods and goddesses who formed his court, so that Ekur became the name for an entire sacred precinct in the city of Nippur. The name "mountain house" suggests a lofty structure and was perhaps the designation originally of the staged tower at Nippur, built in imitation of a mountain, with the sacred shrine of the god on the top.
When, with the political rise of Babylon as the centre of a great empire, Nippur yielded its prerogatives to the city over which [[Marduk]] presided, the attributes and the titles of Enlil were largely transferred to Marduk. But |
uises between the islands during that era. The fledgling colonists were given large stocks of canned food, water, and other supplies including a gasoline powered refrigerator, radio equipment, complete medical kits and (characteristic for that time) vast quantities of cigarettes. They varied their diet by fishing. Most of their work involved making hourly weather observations and gradually developing a rudimentary infrastructure on the island, including the clearing of a landing area for airplanes. Similar projects were started on nearby [[Baker Island]], [[Jarvis Island]], and two other islands.
In keeping with its potential aviation role Howland Island was a scheduled refueling stop for American pilot [[Amelia Earhart]] and navigator [[Fred Noonan]] on their [[Amelia Earhart#Flights|round-the-world flight]] in [[1937]] and [[WPA]] funds were used to construct three airstrips on the atoll that year. They took off from [[Lae]], [[New Guinea]] and radio transmissions from Earhart were picked up on the island when their aircraft reached its vicinity but they were never seen again.
[[Image:Bhjhowlnd_remnants180.gif|left|thumb|250px|Building ruins near the site of Itascatown on Howland Island]]
A [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]ese air attack on [[December 8]], [[1941]] by fourteen twin-engined bombers killed two of the Kamehameha School colonists (Richard "Dicky" Kanani Whaley and Joseph Kealoha Keli'hananui) at the beginning of U.S. involvement in [[World War II]]. Two days later, a Japanese submarine shelled what was left of the government colony's few buildings into ruins. The two survivors were evacuated by a US Navy destroyer on [[January 31]], [[1942]]. The island was occupied by a [[battalion]] of [[United States]] [[Marines]] in late 1943 and known as Howland Naval Air Station during this brief period but was abandoned after the war (the colonization projects on the other four islands were also disrupted by the war and ended at the same time).
By the 1970s Howland Island was over-run by a population of feral [[cat]]s, descendants of individuals brought by earlier human colonists. The cats were gradually removed during the 1980s and the area was designated a bird and wildlife refuge. However, abandoned World War II military debris continued to be a concern. [[Amateur radio]] enthusiasts made several authorised visits to the island during the 1990s and early 2000s. In 2006, trespassing by commercial fishing boats and their helicopters was cited as a serious problem.
Public entry to the island is by special-use permit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service only and is generally restricted to scientists and educators. Representatives from the agency visit the island on average once every two years, often coordinating transportation with amateur radio operators or the [[United States Coast Guard|U.S. Coast Guard]] to defray the high expense of logistical support required to visit this remote atoll.
''See also'': [[History of the Pacific Islands]]
[[Image:HowlandIsland.jpeg|thumb|right|Howland Island map.]]
== Geography ==
Located in the North Pacific Ocean at ({{coor dm|0|48|N|176|38|W|}}), the island is tiny at just 1.84 km² (455 acres) and 6.4 km of coastline. The island has an elongated shape on a north-south axis. The climate is equatorial, with little rainfall and a burning sun. Temperatures are moderated somewhat by a constant wind from the east. The terrain is low-lying and sandy: a coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing [[reef]] with a slightly raised central area. The highest point is about 6 meters above [[sea level]].
There are no natural [[fresh water]] resources. The landscape features scattered grasses along with prostrate vines and low-growing shrubs. A 1942 eyewitness description mentioned "a low grove of dead and decaying kou trees" on a very shallow hill at the island's center but 58 years later ([[2000]]) a visitor accompanying a scientific expedition reported seeing "a flat bulldozed plain of coral sand, without a single tree" and some traces of building ruins. Howland is primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife. The U.S. claims an [[exclusive economic zone]] of 200 nautical miles (370 km) and a [[Territorial waters|territorial sea]] of 12 nautical miles (22 km).
The island's [[time zone]] is [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -12
== Transportation ==
There are no harbors or docks. The reefs may pose a hazard. There is one boat landing area along the middle of the sandy beach on the west coast.
===Kamakaiwi Field===
Ground for a rudimentary aircraft landing area was cleared during the mid-1930s in anticipation that the island might eventually be used as a stop-over for a commercial trans-Pacific air route and to further U.S. territorial claims in the region. In 1937 three graded, unpaved runways were constructed by the Bureau of Air Commerce to accommodate Amelia Earhart's modern twin-engined [[Lockheed]] [[Lockheed L-10 Electra|L-10E Electra]] for a scheduled refueling stop on her flight around the world. The facility was named ''Kamakaiwi Field'' after James Kamakaiwi, a young Hawaiian who arrived with the first group of four colonists, was subsequently picked as leader and spent a total of over 3 years on Howland, far longer than the average recruit. It has also been referred to as ''WPA Howland Airport'' (the [[WPA]] contributed about 20% of the $12,000 cost). The airport was never used, suffered repeated damage during World War II and later all but disappeared. Ironically, while the atoll was colonized in 1935 as a future aviation facility and is referenced in popular culture almost exclusively because of its association with the last flight of Earhart and Noonan, no airplane is known to have ever landed on Howland Island.
[[Image:HowlandIslandLightWW2damage.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Earhart Light, pictured here showing damage it sustained during WWII, was named for [[Amelia Earhart]] during the late 1930s.]]
===Earhart Light===
Earhart Light is a [[day beacon]] or navigational landmark shaped somewhat like a short [[lighthouse]] (with no illumination), painted with wide stripes and meant to be seen from several miles out to sea during daylight hours. It is located near the boat landing at the middle of the west coast by the former site of Itascatown. It was partially destroyed during early World War II in the Japanese attacks, but was later rebuilt. By 2000, the Earhart beacon was said to be crumbling and hadn't been painted in decades.
== Alternate history website ==
Howland and neighboring [[Baker Island|Baker]] and [[Jarvis Island|Jarvis]] Islands were the subject of an Internet-based [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] hoax developed by Stephen Abbott, a [http://www.sacomm.com/ political consultant] and apparently [http://home.comcast.net/~nhprman/AH.htm prolific author in this genre].
Abbott's fictional [http://users.metro2000.net/~stabbott/RHBJ.htm ''Official Government Website of the Republic of Howland Baker and Jarvis'' ], which was not functioning in February 2006, described (mostly without photography) a populated, thriving tourist destination on Howland and Baker Islands, including a [http://users.metro2000.net/~stabbott/hbFacts.htm faked CIA World Factbook entry], elaborate information on travel and tourism as well as imaginary air and sea travel information. Abbott gave this fiction its greatest depth with an alternate history and government, complete with a constitution and supplemented by simulated local news coverage.
During the early 2000s the [[website]]'s high ranking on various [[search engine]]s caused confusion among some [[Internet]] users who were unaware of the site's fictional nature. Although an early version of the website contained a diminutively linked, vaguely titled (''Too good to be true? Click here and find out'') [http://users.metro2000.net/~stabbott/RHBIexplained.html explanation and disclaimer], by September 2005 this link had been displayed much more prominently on the main page.
== External links ==
*[http://www.janeresture.com/howland/ Geography, history and nature on Howland Island]
*[http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-cp/history/WEBLIGHTHOUSES/LHPACIFIC.html Howland Island day beacon]
* [http://kapalama.ksbe.edu/archives/historical/huipanalaau/end.php Eyewitness account of the Japanese raids on Howland Island (includes a grainy photo of Itascatown)]
*[http://pacificislands.fws.gov/wnwr/pbakernwr.html Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge]
*[http://www.pbs.org/odyssey/odyssey/20001204_log_transcript.html 'Voyage of the Odyssey'] - pictures and travelogue
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/desertisland9.html Howland Island at Infoplease]
{{Pacific_Islands}}
{{United States}}
[[Category:Insular areas of the United States]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:National Wildlife Refuges of the United States]]
[[Category:Oceanian countries]]
[[ca:Illa Howland]]
[[de:Howlandinsel]]
[[et:Howland]]
[[es:Isla Howland]]
[[he:האולנד (אי)]]
[[id:Pulau Howland]]
[[ja:ハウランド島]]
[[ko:하울랜드 섬]]
[[nl:Howlandeiland]]
[[pt:Ilha Howland]]
[[fi:Howland Island]]
[[tr:Howland Adası]]
[[zh:豪兰岛]]
[[zh-min-nan:Howland-tó]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Howland Island</title>
<id>13416</id>
<revision>
<id>15911029</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-12T18:36:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bkonrad</username>
<id>44062</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rd --> Howland Island</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Howland Island</title>
<id>13417</id>
<revision>
<id>15911030</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-03T00:09:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="pres |
ge:wikisource-logo.jpg|50px|none|Wikisource]]</div>
<div style="margin-left: 60px;">[[Wikisource]] has original text related to this article:
<div style="margin-left: 10px;">'''''[[:s:Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus|Frankenstein]]'''''</div>
</div>
</div>
*{{gutenberg|no=84|name=Frankenstein}} (omits the prefaces)
*[http://librivox.org/frankenstein-or-modern-prometheus-by-mary-w-shelley/ Free audiobook] from [http://librivox.org LibriVox] (without prefaces and edition information)
*[http://www.literature.org/authors/shelley-mary/frankenstein/ Online Literature Library] (w/ the prefaces)
*[http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/chronologies/mschronology/mws.html Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley Chronology & Resource Site]
*[http://rss.duchs.com/shelley/frankenstein-or-the-modern-prometheus/ RSS Version] [[RSS (file format)|RSS]] Version of the Text
*[http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/frankenstein/ Online Sparknotes for Frankenstein]
*[http://members.inode.at/359743/frankenstein/ Frankenstein Castle] - site devoted to the Frankenstein films.
*[http://web.quipo.it/frankenstein Frankenstein: A New Reality] - examination of the book and its influences.
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/franken1.htm Toonopedia] entry on the early Frankenstein comic books.
[[Category:1818 books|Frankenstein]]
[[Category:Horror novels|Frankenstein]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels|Frankenstein]]
[[Category:Gothic novels|Frankenstein]]
[[Category:Romanticism]]
[[Category:British novels]]
[[da:Frankenstein]]
[[de:Frankenstein]]
[[es:Frankenstein (novela)]]
[[eo:Frankenŝtejno]]
[[fr:Frankenstein ou le Prométhée moderne]]
[[hr:Frankenstein]]
[[it:Frankenstein]]
[[he:פרנקנשטיין]]
[[nl:Frankenstein]]
[[ja:フランケンシュタイン]]
[[no:Frankenstein]]
[[pl:Frankenstein]]
[[pt:Frankenstein]]
[[ru:Франкенштейн (персонаж)]]
[[fi:Frankenstein]]
[[sv:Frankenstein]]
[[zh:弗兰肯斯坦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FIDE</title>
<id>11045</id>
<revision>
<id>15908832</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-22T18:51:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wik</username>
<id>15756</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fédération_Internationale_des_Échecs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fédération Internationale de Basketball</title>
<id>11048</id>
<revision>
<id>15908833</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-25T05:05:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neonumbers</username>
<id>123144</id>
</contributor>
<comment>swapping Fédération Internationale de Basketball and International Basketball Federation pages</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Basketball Federation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FIFA</title>
<id>11049</id>
<revision>
<id>42153091</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:13:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>201.37.252.174</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other tournaments */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FIFA.png|right]]
The '''Fédération Internationale de Football Association''', universally known by its acronym '''FIFA''', is the international [[sport governing body|governing body]] of [[football (soccer)]]. Its headquarters are in [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]] and its current [[List of FIFA presidents|president]] is [[Sepp Blatter]].
==History==
{{main|History of FIFA}}
The need for a single body to oversee the worldwide game became apparent at the beginning of the [[20th century]] with the increasing popularity of international fixtures. The English [[The Football Association|Football Association]] had chaired many discussions on setting up an international body, but was perceived as making no progress. It fell to seven other European countries to band together to form this association. FIFA was founded in [[Paris]] on [[May 21]], [[1904]] - the [[French language|French]] name and acronym persist to this day, even in [[English language|English]]-speaking countries. Its first president was [[Robert Guérin]].
FIFA presided over its first international competition in [[1906]], however it met with little approval or success. This, in combination with economic factors, led to the swift replacement of Guérin with [[Daniel Burley Woolfall]] from [[England]], by now a member association. The next tournament staged, the football competition for the [[Football at the 1908 Summer Olympics|1908 Olympics in London]] was more successful, despite the presence of professional footballers, contrary to the founding principles of FIFA.
Membership of FIFA expanded beyond Europe with the application of [[South African Football Association|South Africa]] in [[1909]], [[Argentine Football Association|Argentina]] in [[1912]] and the [[United States Soccer Federation|United States]] in [[1913]].
FIFA however floundered during [[World War I]] with many players sent off to war and the possibility of travel for international fixtures severely limited. Post-war, following the death of Woolfall, the organisation fell into the hands of Dutchman [[Carl Hirschmann]]. It was saved from extinction, but at the cost of the withdrawal of the [[Home Nations]], who cited an unwillingness to participate in international competitions with their recent World War enemies.
The FIFA collection is held by the [[National Football Museum]] in [[England]].
==The World Cup==
[[Image:Wohlfahrtsbriefmarke-fifa.jpg|right|thumb|[[Football World Cup Trophy|FIFA World Cup Trophy]] on a German [[Postage stamp|Stamp]]]]
{{main|Football World Cup}}
[[Jules Rimet]] became the third President of FIFA in [[1921]]. He presided over another two successful Olympic competitions despite the absence of [[England national football team|England]] and [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]]. The success of the competitions, combined with the rising profile of the game, allowed FIFA to seriously consider, for the first time, staging its own regular World Championship. Talks on the matter began in [[1928]], and the first [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] took place in [[Uruguay]] in [[Football World Cup 1930|1930]] and was won by the home nation. Despite the reluctance of participation from European nations (due to the travel time required and the ongoing [[economic depression]]), the tournament was considered a success and plans were laid for the next World Cup in [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]], in [[Italy]].
Excluding a break for [[World War II]], the World Cup continues to be held once every four years, with the most recent tournament in [[2002 Football World Cup|2002]] held in [[South Korea]] and [[Japan]]. The next World Cup will be held in [[Germany]] in [[2006 Football World Cup|2006]].
==Other tournaments==
Aside from the World Cup and Olympic competitions, FIFA organises World Championships for players at [[FIFA U-17 World Championship|under-17 level]] and [[FIFA World Youth Championship|youth level]]. In addition to this, it has introduced the [[Confederations Cup]], a competition for the champions from each confederation (plus the hosts and World Cup Winners), every two years; in the year before a World Cup, it serves as a dry run for that competition, with the World Cup host staging the tournament as a test of facilities.
With the development of the women's game, FIFA introduced the [[FIFA Women's World Cup|Women's World Cup]] in [[1991]] and the [[FIFA U-20 Women's World Championship|Women's Under-20 World Championship]] in [[2002]] (started as U-19, will become U-20 in [[2006]]). A [[FIFA U-17 Women's World Championship|U-17 women's championship]] will start in [[2008]].
FIFA's only major [[football club|club]] competition is the [[FIFA Club World Championship]]. It was slated as the natural progression of the [[European/South American Cup]] (which itself ran under a variety of names) to include clubs from all confederations. The tournament was not warmly received on its debut in [[FIFA Club World Championship 2000|2000]] and its [[2002]] edition was cancelled. Three years later, with a shorter revised format, the tournament returned for its [[FIFA Club World Championship 2005|2005]] edition in [[Japan]].
FIFA also presides over World Cups in modified forms of the game including [[beach football]] (the [[FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup]] and [[futsal]] (the [[FIFA Futsal World Championship]]).
==Laws of the game==
The [[laws of football]] that govern the game are not solely the responsibility of FIFA; they are maintained by a body called the [[International Football Association Board]] (IFAB). FIFA has a 50% representation on its board (four representatives); the other four are provided by the football associations of [[The Football Association|England]], [[Scottish Football Association|Scotland]], [[Football Association of Wales|Wales]], and [[Irish Football Association|Northern Ireland]], in recognition of the British nations' unique contribution to the creation and history of the game.
==Organisation==
[[Image:World Map FIFA.png|thumb|400px|Map of the World with the six confederations.]]
Under the auspices of the President, FIFA is split into six confederations which oversee the game in the different continents and regions of the world. National federations must claim membership to both FIFA and the confederation in which their nation is geographically resident for their teams to qualify for entry to FIFA's competitions (with a few geographic exceptions listed below):
*[[Asian Football Confederation|AFC - Asian Football Confederation]] in [[Asia]] and [[Australia]]
*[[Confédération Africaine de Football|CAF - Confédération Africaine de Football]] in [[Africa]]
*[[CONMEBOL|CONMEBOL - Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol]] in [[South America]]
*[[CONCACAF|CONCACAF - Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football]] in [[North America]] and [[Central America]] |
ultural Sociology''. Lexington. ISBN 0669218375. Revised edition: (2000) ''Heavy Metal: The Music and its Culture''. DaCapo. ISBN 0306809702.
==External links==
* [http://www.metalrules.com/ Metal Rules] Since 1995 spewing metal
* [http://www.metallian.com/ Metallian] The Metal Encyclopedia with news, interviews and reviews
* [http://www.hmas.org/ HMAS] The site for heavy metal reviews, interviews and no commercial influence or spyware
* [http://www.metalsludge.com/ Metal Sludge] Politically incorrect news and views from the world of hard rock and heavy metal with a sense of humor
* [http://www.metalstorm.ee/ Metal Storm] International webzine dedicated to all things metal
[[Category:Heavy metal]]
[[Category:Musical movements]]
[[Category:Musical genres]]
[[bg:Метъл]]
[[cs:Heavy metal]]
[[da:Heavy metal]]
[[de:Metal]]
[[et:Metal]]
[[als:Heavy Metal]]
[[es:Heavy metal]]
[[eo:Pezmetalo]]
[[fr:Heavy metal]]
[[gl:Heavy Metal]]
[[it:Heavy metal]]
[[he:הבי מטאל]]
[[lv:Smagais metāls (mūzikas žanrs)]]
[[lt:Sunkusis metalas]]
[[hu:Heavy metal]]
[[nl:Metal]]
[[ja:ヘヴィメタル]]
[[no:Heavy metal]]
[[pl:Heavy metal]]
[[pt:Heavy metal]]
[[ru:Метал]]
[[sl:Metal]]
[[fi:Heavy metal]]
[[sv:Heavy metal]]
[[tr:Heavy metal]]
[[zh:重金属]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Helvetii</title>
<id>13870</id>
<revision>
<id>33290545</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-30T20:36:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up and re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Map Gallia Tribes Towns.png|thumb|300px|A map of [[Gaul]] showing the northern [[Alp]]ine position of the [[Helvetii]].]]
The '''Helvetii''' (in [[Latin]]) were the [[Celt]]ic inhabitants of modern [[Switzerland]]. In the first century BC, they migrated from Southern [[Germany]] to Switzerland. They were described by [[Julius Caesar]] in his ''[[De Bello Gallico]]''.
Under pressure from Germanic tribes in their home territory, they were planning to migrate into Gaul with their entire tribe under the command of [[Orgetorix]]. Caesar was called upon by the [[Gaul]]s of the province of [[Gallia Narbonensis]], which had already been conquered and organized, to defend them from the invading Helvetii.
Caesar, at the time, commanded six legions comprised of nearly 29,000 men. The Helvetii, according to Caesar's writings, had 370,000 people (including children and women), but only 110,000 men-at-arms. Caesar hastily recruited two more fresh legions in preparation.
By the time the tribe began its march, Orgetorix had died. Before leaving, the Helvetii burned their villages and destroyed what foodstuff and other commodities they could not take with them so that they could not turn back.
Lured to a disadvantageous position with the Romans taking the high ground near the [[Aedui]] capital of [[Bibracte]], the Helvetii were attacked by the superior [[Roman Empire|Roman]] forces, who managed to kill nearly 60 percent of the tribe and capture another 20 percent as slaves. The remainder of the Helvetii were driven back into their old lands, [[Helvetia]].
In [[52 BC]], 10,000 Helvetii joined [[Vercingetorix]]'s forces in his attempt to liberate Gaul.
[[Category:Ancient Gauls]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[als:Helvetier]]
[[de:Helvetier]]
[[fr:Helvètes]]
[[nl:Helvetii]]
[[ru:&#1043;&#1077;&#1083;&#1100;&#1074;&#1077;&#1090;&#1099;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heretics of Dune</title>
<id>13871</id>
<revision>
<id>40738301</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T18:11:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.101.98.232</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Synopsis */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DuneSeries}}
'''''Heretics of Dune''''' is a 1984 [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]], fifth in a series of six novels.
1,500 years have passed since [[Leto Atreides II|Leto's]] reign ended; humanity is firmly on the [[Golden Path]]. By crushing the aspirations of humans for 3,500 years, Leto caused the Scattering, an explosion of humanity into the rest of the universe upon his death. Now, some of those who went out into the universe are coming back, bent on conquest. Only the [[Bene Gesserit]] perceive the Golden Path, and are faced with a choice: keep to their traditional role of hidden manipulators, quietly easing tensions and guiding human progress, while struggling for their own survival; or embrace the Golden Path and push humanity onward into a new future where humans are free from the threat of extinction.
{{spoiler}}
==Synopsis==
[[Image:HereticsofDune.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Heretics of Dune]]
Much has changed in the millennium and a half since the death of the God Emperor. True to his prophecies, sandworms have reappeared on [[Arrakis]] (now called '''Rakis''') and created Dune anew, renewing the flow of spice to the galaxy. The Empire, meanwhile, has fallen into chaos and confusion; with Leto's death, a hugely complex economic system built on spice collapsed, and with it much of civilization. The famine caused by this resulted in millions upon millions leaving known space in a great [[the scattering|Scattering]].
The planets of the old empire have now recovered, and a new civilization has risen. There is no longer one dominant power, but three - the [[Ixians]] (the builders of [[No-ship|no-ships]] capable of piloting between the stars and invisible to outside detection), the [[Bene Tleilax]] (who have learned to manufacture spice in their [[Axolotl tank|axlotl tanks]]), and the [[Bene Gesserit]] (subtle political manipulators). Lesser powers are the [[Spacing Guild]] and the [[Fish Speakers|Fish Speaker council]].
However, circumstances are about to change, as new forces begin to make their presence felt in old worlds. People from the Scattering are returning with their own peculiar powers, secrets, and agendas. The most powerful of these forces are the [[Honored Matres]], who are a kind of twisted Bene Gesserit, an order of women who take power via bodies bred and trained for two purposes: combat and the sexual control of men.
Things are brought to the boil by something new arising on [[Arrakis|Rakis]]. Another of the God Emperor's prophecies has come to pass. A girl called [[Sheeana]] has been discovered who can control the giant worms of Rakis. The priesthood on Rakis has accepted her as holy, and the Bene Gesserit watch her development with serious interest.
The Bene Gesserit have long been waiting for this to occur. They have been buying [[Duncan Idaho]] [[ghola|gholas]] generation after generation from the Tleilaxu, in anticipation of the promised sandrider. The Sisterhood intends to use an Idaho ghola to gain control of this sandrider, and thus regain control of the religious forces of mankind. Unlike the multiple Idahos that the God Emperor used in his service, the Bene Gesserit have subtly been altering the gholas to bring their physical reflexes up to modern standards.
Upon the discovery of the sandrider, [[Taraza]] (the Mother Superior and leader of the Bene Gesserit) brings [[Miles Teg]] reluctantly out of retirement and details him to guard the new Idaho. Teg is the [[Mentat]] son of a Bene Gesserit [[Reverend Mother (Dune)|Reverend Mother]], born to serve the Sisterhood as the commanding [[Bashar]] of all their forces. Guarding Idaho is not some minor task, as the previous eleven gholas have all been assassinated upon reaching adulthood. Taraza also meets with Reverend Mother [[Darwi Odrade]] and details her to take command of the Bene Gesserit keep on Rakis. Odrade is considered something of a loose cannon in the Bene Gesserit: other Sisters are suspicious of Odrade's limited [[prescience]] (inherited through her [[Atreides]] genes), an ability that manifests itself in subtle detections of threats to the Sisterhood. Further, Odrade does not obey normal Bene Gesserit prohibitions about showing emotion. Despite this, she is supremely talented and most suited to Taraza's needs.
The novel begins on Gammu (previously known as [[Giedi Prime]], former homeworld of [[House Harkonnen]]) where the Bene Gesserit are bringing up a new Duncan Idaho ghola. [[Lucilla (Bene Gesserit)|Lucilla]], a young [[Bene Gesserit Imprinter]], has been sent by Taraza to teach this ghola and bind his loyalty to the Sisterhood. Lucilla's task is made difficult by internal divisions within the Bene Gesserit. The Sisterhood is fiercely divided on the issue of the Duncan Idaho gholas: a strong minority believes that they are dangerous to the Bene Gesserit, and owing to the Byzantine nature of Sisterhood politics, they have placed one of their leaders, Schwangyu, in charge of the project. Lucilla has the additional agenda of repairing any damage created by Schwangyu, who has been subtly encouraging its failure, and even protecting Idaho from Schwangyu if it should prove necessary.
Duncan Idaho has already been damaged by Schwangyu by the time Lucilla arrives on Gammu. He hates the Bene Gesserit, and only hopes to escape their control of his life. He is extremely precocious and has already divined the fact that he is a ghola.
The action shifts to a Bene Tleilax meeting in council. The Bene Tleilax are secretly an intensely religious organization who have long nursed dreams of hegemony of human space, dominating others under the weight of their religion. They are currently discussing the so-called [[Atreides Manifesto]], an anonymous document that attacks all religions in known space, except for the Tleilaxu's. They decide to treat the Manifesto as a gift from God and spread it far and wide. The council also reveals the existence of a new breed of Face Dancer. While previous Face Dancers could only mimic t |
(biblical)|Lot]] is connected with three, afterwards two, men or messengers; but possibly in the original form of the story Yahweh appeared alone (Cf. 18:1 with 18:2, and note change of number in 19:17). At [[Bethel (Israel)|Bethel]], [[Jacob]] sees the angels of God on the [[Jacob's Ladder (Bible)|ladder]] (Genesis 28:12), and later on they appear to him at [[Mahanaim]] (Genesis 32:1). In all these cases the angels, like the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'', are connected with or represent a [[theophany]]. Similarly the "man" who wrestles with Jacob at [[Peniel]] is identified with God (Genesis 32:24, 30). In [[Isaiah]] 6 the [[Seraph|seraphim]], superhuman beings with six wings, appear as the attendants of Yahweh. Thus, the pre-exilic literature rarely mentions angels, or other superhuman beings other than Yahweh and manifestations of Yahweh; the pre-exilic [[prophet]]s hardly mention angels. An angel of [[Books of Kings|I Kings]] 13:18 might be the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'', as in 19:5, cf. 7, or the passage, at any rate in its present form, may be exilic or post-exilic. Nevertheless we may well suppose that [[polytheist]]s in [[ancient Israel]] believed in superhuman beings other than Yahweh, but that the [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] writers have mostly suppressed references to them as unedifying.
Once the doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed, in the period immediately before and during the Exile (Deuteronomy 6:4-5 and Isaiah 43:10), we find angels prominent in the [[Book of Ezekiel]]. [[Ezekiel]], as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced by the hierarchy of supernatural beings in the [[Babylonian and Assyrian religion|Babylonian religion]], and perhaps even by the [[angelology]] of [[Zoroastrianism]] (it is not, however, certain that these doctrines of Zoroastrianism were developed at so early a date). Ezekiel 9 gives elaborate descriptions of cherubim (a class, or type of angels); and in one of his visions, he sees seven angels execute the judgment of God upon Jerusalem. As in Genesis, they are styled "men"; ''mal'akh'', for "angel", does not occur in Ezekiel. Somewhat later, in the visions of [[Zechariah]], angels play a great part; they are sometimes spoken of as "men", sometimes as ''mal'akh'', and the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' seems to hold a certain primacy among them (Zecharias 1:11). The [[Satan]] also appears to prosecute (so to speak) the High Priest before the divine tribunal (Zecharias 3:1). Similarly in the [[Book of Job|Job]] the ''bne Elohim'', sons of God, appear as attendants of God, and amongst them, Satan (Hebrew ''ha satan''), again in the role of public prosecutor, the defendant being Job (Job 1, 2. Cf. [[Books of Chronicles|I Chronicles]] 21:1). Occasional references to "angels" occur in the Psalter (Pss. 91:11, 103:20 &c.); they appear as ministers of God.
In Psalms 78:49 the "evil angels" of the [[Authorized Version]] conveys a false impression; it should be "angels of evil", ''i.e.'' angels who inflict chastisement as ministers of God.
The seven angels of Ezekiel may be compared with the seven eyes of Yahweh in Zecharias 3:9, 4:10. The latter have been connected by Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven chief angels (Tobit 12:15; Revelations 8:2), parallel to and influenced by the Ameshaspentas ([[Amesha Spenta]]), or seven great spirits of the [[Persian mythology]].
In the Priestly Code, c. [[400 BC]], there is no reference to angels, apart from the possible suggestion in the plural in Genesis 1:26.
During the [[Persian Empire|Persia]]n and Greek periods, the doctrine of angels underwent a great development, partly, at any rate, under foreign influences. In Daniel, c. [[160 BC]], 71 angels, usually spoken of as "men" or "'''Angel-princes'''", appear as guardians or champions of the individual nations, defending them as God sits in council with them over the world; grades are implied, there are "princes" and "chief" or "great princes"; and the names of some angels are known, [[Gabriel (archangel)|Gabriel]], [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]]; the latter is pre-eminent (Dan. 8:16; 10:13, 20-21), he is the guardian of Israel's leading [[Kingdom of Judah]]. Again in [[Tobit]] a leading part is played by [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]], "one of the seven holy angels". (Tob. 12:15.)
In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the [[demon]] or evil angel. In the canonical Hebrew/[[Aramaic]] scriptures, angels may inflict suffering as ministers of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter; but they appear as subordinates to God, fulfilling His will, and not as independent, morally evil agents. The statement (Job 4:18) that God "charged his angels with folly" applies to all angels. In Daniel, the princes, or guardian angels, of the heathen nations oppose Michael, the guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit, we find [[Asmodeus]] the evil demon, τὸ πονηρὸν δαιμόνιον, who strangles Sarah's husbands, and also a general reference to "a [[devil]] or evil spirit", πνεῦμα (Tobit 3:8, 17; 6:7).
The Fall of the Angels is not properly a scriptural doctrine, though it is based on Gen. 6:2, as interpreted by the [[Book of Enoch]]. It is true that the ''bnē Elohim'' of that chapter are subordinate superhuman beings (cf. above), but they belong to a different order of thought from the angels of Judaism and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no way suggests that the ''bne Elohim'' suffered any loss of status through their act.
The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represent the gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the process by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded by [[John Milton|Milton]] in ''[[Paradise Lost]]''. The development of the doctrine of an organized hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish literature of the period [[200 BC]] to A.D. [[100]]. In Jewish apocalypses especially, the imagination ran riot on the rank, classes and names of angels; and such works as the various books of [[Enoch]] and the [[Ascension of Isaiah]] supply much information on this subject.
=== Appearance of angels ===
In the [[Hebrew Bible]], angels often appear to people in the shape of humans of extraordinary beauty, and often are not immediately recognized as angels (Gen. xviii. 2, xix. 5; Judges, vi. 17, xiii. 6; II Sam. xxix. 9); some fly through the air; some become invisible; sacrifices touched by them are consumed by fire; and they may disappear in sacrificial fire, like [[Elijah (prophet)|Elijah]], who rode to heaven in a fiery chariot. Angels, or the Angel, appeared in the flames of the [[Burning bush|thorn bush]] (Gen. xvi. 13; Judges, vi. 21, 22; II Kings, ii. 11; Ex. iii. 2). They are described as pure and bright as Heaven; consequently, they are said to be formed of fire, and encompassed by light (Job, xv. 15), as the Psalmist said (Ps. civ. 4, R. V.): "Who makes winds his messengers; his ministers a flaming fire." Some verses in the
[[Apocrypha]] depict angels wearing blue or red robes but no such reference occurs in the
Protestant books.
Though superhuman, angels can assume human form; this is the earliest conception. Gradually, and especially in post-Biblical times, angels came to be bodied forth in a form corresponding to the nature of the mission to be fulfilled—generally, however, the human form. Angels bear drawn [[sword]]s or other destroying weapons in their hands—one carries an ink-horn by his side—and ride on horses (Num. xxii. 23, Josh. v. 13, Ezek. ix. 2, Zech. i. 8 et seq.). It is worth noting that these angels carry items that are contempory to the time in which they visit (perhaps angels are bound by the technology which humans have achieved). A terrible angel is the one mentioned in I Chron. xxi. 16, 30, as standing "between the earth and the heaven, having a drawn sword in his hand". In the [[Book of Daniel]], reference is made to an angel "clothed in linen, whose loins were girded with fine gold of Uphaz: his body also was like the [[beryl]], and his face as the appearance of [[lightning]], and his eyes as lamps of fire, and his arms and his feet like in color to polished [[brass]], and the voice of his words like the voice of a multitude" (Dan. x. 5, 6). This imagery is very similar to the description of Jesus in the book of Revelation. Angels are thought to possess wings (Dan. ix. 21), as they are described in the Bible, and depicted in Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian art. They are commonly depicted with [[halo (religious symbol)|halo]]s.
In [[Christian iconography]], the use of wings is an iconographic convention that is intended to denote the figure as a [[spirit]]. Depictions of angels in Christian art as winged human forms, unlike classical pagan depictions of the major deities, follow the iconic conventions of lesser winged gods, such as [[Eos]], [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]], [[Thanatos]] and [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]].
Angels are portrayed as powerful and dreadful, endowed with wisdom and with knowledge of all earthly events, correct in their judgment, holy, but not infallible: they strive against each other, and God has to make peace between them. When their duties are not punitive, angels are beneficent to man (Ps. ciii. 20, lxxviii. 25; II Sam. xiv. 17, 20, xix. 28; Zech. xiv. 5; Job, iv. 18, xxv. 2).
The number of angels is enormous. [[Jacob]] meets a host of angels; [[Joshua]] sees the "captain of the host of the Lord"; God sits on His throne, "all the host of heaven standing by Him on His right hand and on his left"; the sons of God come "to present themselves before the Lord" (Gen. xxxii. 2; Josh. v. 14, 15; I Kings, xxii. 19; Job, i. 6, ii. 1; Ps. lxxxix. 6; Job, xxxiii. 23). The general conception is the one of [[Book of Job|Job]] (xxv. 3): "Is there any number of his armies?&q |
'Martin Chu-ming Lee''. Chinese living in the US may rearrange their names when written in English to avoid misunderstanding. However, some well-known Chinese names remain in the traditional order even in English literature, e.g. ''[[Mao Zedong]]''.
Vietnamese names are generally stated in East Asian order (family name first) even when writing in English. Names of Hungarian individuals appear in Western order in English writing. Koreans write their name either way when writing in English. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism says, "Personal names are written by family name first, followed by a space and the given name". In practice, however, given name first seems to be more common.
In English writings originating from non-English cultures (e.g. English newspapers in China), the family name is often written with all capital letters to avoid being mistaken as a middle name, e.g. ''Martin LEE Chu-ming'' or using small capitals, as ''Martin L<small>EE</small> Chu-ming'' or with a comma, as ''[[Akutagawa Ryunosuke|AKUTAGAWA, Ryunosuke]]'' to make clear which name is the family name. Such practice is particularly common in mass-media reporting international events like the [[Olympic Games]]. ''[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html The CIA World Factbook]'' stated that "The ''Factbook'' capitalizes the surname or family name of individuals for the convenience of [their] users who are faced with a world of different cultures and naming conventions." For example, ''[[Leslie Cheung|Leslie Cheung Kwok Wing]]'' might be mistaken as Mr. Wing by readers unaware of Chinese naming conventions.
Vietnamese family names present an added complication. Like Chinese family names, they are placed at the beginning of a name, but unlike Chinese names, they are not usually the primary form of address. Rather, people will be referred to by their given name, usually accompanied by an honorific. For example, [[Phan Van Khai]] is properly addressed as ''Mr. Khai'', even though ''Phan'' is his family name. This pattern contrasts with that of most other East Asian naming conventions.
In Japan, women surrender their surnames upon marriage, and use the surnames of their husbands. However, a convention that a man uses his wife's family name if the wife is an only child is sometimes observed. A similar tradition called ''ru zhui'' (&#20837;&#36101;) is common among Chinese when the bride's family is wealthy and has no son but wants the heir to pass on their assets under the same family name. The Chinese character ''zhui'' (&#36101;) carries a money [[Radical (Chinese character)|radical]] (&#35997;), which implies that this tradition was originally based on financial reasons. All their offspring carry the mother's family name. If the groom is the first born with an obligation to carry his own ancestor's name, a compromise may be reached in that the first male child carries the mother's family name while subsequent offspring carry the father's family name. The tradition is still in use in many Chinese communities outside of [[mainland China]]. Under [[Mao Zedong]]'s communist rule, Chinese citizens had no personal assets to pass to their heirs therefore such traditions became unnecessary. It is uncertain whether [[Chinese economic reform]] will revive such tradition.
In [[Hong Kong]], mainland China, Korea, and [[Taiwan]], women keep their own surnames, while the family as a whole is referred to by the surnames of the husbands.
In Hong Kong, some women would be known to the public with the surnames of their husbands preceding their own surnames, such as [[Anson Chan|Anson Chan Fang On Sang]]. Anson is an English given name, On Sang is the given name in Chinese, Chan is the surname of Anson's husband, and Fang is her own surname. A name change on legal documents is not a must.
In [[Macau]], some people have their names in Portuguese spelt with some [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] style, such as [http://carlos.com.hk/carlos.htm Carlos do Rosario Tchiang].
Chinese women in [[Canada]], especially [[Hongkonger]]s in [[Toronto]], would preserve their [[maiden name]]s before the surnames of their husbands when written in English, for instance Rosa Chan Leung, where Chan is the maiden name, and Leung is the surname of the husband.
In [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]], surnames are predominantly monosyllabic (written with one [[hanzi|character]]), though a small number of common [[Chinese compound surname|disyllabic (or written with two characters) surnames]] exists (e.g. the Chinese name ''Ou Yang'', the Korean name ''Namgung'').
==Mongolia==
In [[Mongolia]], it is customary for children to take the first name of their father as their surname. For example the name ''Tselmuun Zorigoo'' indicates that the person's father's first name is ''Zorigoo''.
==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|Appendix:Names}}
* [[List of most common surnames]]
* [[Family name etymology]], [[German family name etymology]]
* [[Family name affixes]]
* [[List of common Chinese surnames]]
* [[List of Jewish surnames]]
* [[List of Middle Eastern surnames]]
* [[List of Eastern European surnames]]
* [[List of Italian surnames]]
* [[List of Central Asian, Iranian, Caucasian and Tatar surnames]]
* [[List of South Asian surnames]]
* [[List of Southeast Asian surnames]]
* [[List of Hispanic and Romance-speaking cultures surnames]]
* [[List of Germanic-speaking cultures surnames]]
* [[List of Swedish surnames]]
* [[List of African surnames]]
* [[Family history]]
* [[Patronymic]]
* [[Personal name]]
* [[Nickname]]
* [[Maiden name]]
* [[Legal name]]
==External links==
* ''[http://genealogy.about.com/library/surnames/bl_meaning.htm Glossary of Surname Meanings & Origins]''
* ''[http://www.volkmar-weiss.de/inbreeding.html Inbreeding and genetic distance between hierarchically structured populations measured by surname frequencies]''
* ''[http://www.polishroots.org/surnames/surnames_endings.htm Short explanation of Polish surname endings and their origin]''
* ''[http://www.searchforancestors.com/surnames/origin/ Dictionary of Surname Origins and Last Name Meanings]''
* ''[http://www.mydanishroots.com/surnames/in_denmark.html Surnames in Denmark - Naming Traditions, Meaning, and Origin]''
* ''[http://www.shtetlinks.jewishgen.org/Kolomea/nameorigin.htm History of Jewish family Names]''
*''[http://www.ancestryconnections.com Search for specific Surnames]''
*''[http://www.data-wales.co.uk/names.htm Data Wales Surnames]''
*''[http://www.amlwchdata.co.uk/welsh_names_and_meaning.htm Welsh surnames and their meaning]''
*''[http://names.orangehedgehog.com British Surname Distribution Profiles]''
[[Category:Naming conventions]]
[[Category:Surnames| ]]
[[br:Anv-familh]]
[[da:Efternavn]]
[[de:Familienname]]
[[eo:Familia nomo]]
[[es:Apellido]]
[[fr:Nom de famille]]
[[id:Marga]]
[[it:Cognome]]
[[ja:姓]]
[[nl:Achternaam]]
[[nn:slektsnamn]]
[[pl:Nazwisko]]
[[pt:Sobrenome]]
[[ru:Фамилия]]
[[fi:Sukunimi]]
[[sv:Efternamn]]
[[vi:Họ (người)]]
[[zh:姓氏]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Franc</title>
<id>10815</id>
<revision>
<id>41950171</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:59:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Schutz</username>
<id>27196</id>
</contributor>
<comment>main article for Swiss franc; rm it from "See also"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
The '''franc''' is the name of several [[currency]] units, most notably for the former French francs. The name is said to derive from the [[Latin]] inscription ''francorum rex'' ("King of the [[Franks]]") on early [[France|French]] [[coin]]s, or from the [[French language|French]] ''franc'', meaning "free".
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpading="2"
|-
! bgcolor=pink colspan=2 | Franc
|- bgcolor="black" align="center"
| [[Image:1francosvizzero1983front.jpg|1 Swiss franc 1983 obverse]]
| [[Image:1francosvizzero1983back.jpg|1 Swiss franc 1983 reverse]]
|-
! colspan="2" | 1 Swiss franc 1983
|- bgcolor="black" align="center"
| [[Image:1francofrancese1991front.jpg|1 French franc 1991 coin obverse]]
| [[Image:1francofrancese1991back.jpg|1 French franc 1991 coin reverse]]
|-
! colspan="2" | 1 French franc 1991
|- bgcolor="black" align="center"
| [[Image:1francobelga1996front.jpg|1 Belgian franc 1996 coin obverse]]
| [[Image:1francobelga1996back.jpg|1 Belgian franc 1996 coin reverse]]
|-
! colspan="2" | 1 Belgian franc 1996
|- bgcolor="black" align="center"
| [[Image:1francolussemburgo1990front.jpg|1 Luxembourg franc 1990 obverse]]
| [[Image:1francolussemburgo1990back.jpg|1 Luxembourg franc 1990 coin reverse]]
|-
! colspan="2" | 1 Luxembourg franc 1990
|- bgcolor="black" align="center"
| [[Image:1francomonaco1978front.jpg|1 Monaco franc 1978 coin obverse]]
| [[Image:1francomonaco1978back.jpg|1 Monaco franc 1978 coin reverse]]
|-
! colspan="2" | 1 Monaco franc 1978
|}
Countries which use francs include [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]] and most of the [[Francophone]] countries of [[Africa]]. Before the introduction of the [[euro]], francs were also used in [[France]], [[Belgium]] and [[Luxembourg]], while [[Andorra]] and [[Monaco]] accepted the French franc as [[legal tender]]. One franc is typically divided into 100 [[centime|centimes]].
The French franc symbol is an F with a line through it (&#8355;).
==Origins==
The franc was originally a French [[gold]] coin of 3.87 g minted in [[1360]] on the occasion of the release of King [[John II of France|John II ("the good")]], held by the English since his capture at the [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Battle of Poitiers]] four years earlier. It was equivalent to one |
re mostly found in East Asia. These consist of a single large comb with blow only reed-plates on the top and bottom. Each reed sits inside a single cell in the comb, and the instrument mimics the layout of a piano or mallet insturment, with the natural notes of a C diatonic scale available from the lower reed-plate and the sharps/flats from the upper reed-plate in groups of two and three holes with gaps in-between (thus there is no E#/Fb hole nor a B#/Cb hole on the upper reed-plate). These are available in several pitch ranges, with the lowest pitched starting two-octaves below middle C and the highest beginning on middle C itself. These usually cover a two or three octave range. These are usually played in an East Asian harmonica orchestra, using these instruments instead of the chromatic harmonica, and often serve to function in place of brass section—hence it was called horn harmonica in Asia.
==== The Bass harmonica ====
The Bass harmonica consists of two separate combs joined together one atop the other with moveable connectors at their ends. These are all-blow instruments covering much the same range as the violin family [[Double Bass]]. Those made today are all octave tuned, in that each hole has two reeds one of which plays the bass note and the other a note an octave higher. The lower comb contains the notes of the C major diatonic scale, while the upper comb contains the notes of a C#/Db diatonic scale.
See the fuller description at: [http://www.bassharp.com/bh_101.htm www.bassharp.com].
==== The Chord harmonica ====
The chord harmonica has 48 chords: major, seventh, minor, augmented and diminished for ensemble playing. It is laid out in four-note clusters, each sounding a different chord on inhaling or exhaling. Typically each hole has two reeds for each note, tuned to one octave of each other, but less expensive models often have only one reed per note.
In addition to these, quite a few orchestra harmonicas are also designed to serve both as a bass and chord harmonica, with bass notes next to chord groupings. Other interesting harmonicas include the Polyphonias which are designed to make glissandos and other effects very easy to play--few acoustic instruments can play a chromatic glissando as fast as a Polyphonia.
=== New Developments ===
====The Suzuki Overdrive ====
The Suzuki Overdrive is designed to facilitate [[overblowing]] and overdriving. The Overdrive is constructed with individual air-chambers for each reed in the covers. Holes at the ends of each chamber are located to allow the player to block off the air flow with their fingers and thus silence that reed. This isolates the other reed which shares the same comb chamber and allows that reed to be overblown or bent as if it were the only reed in its cell. This allows for many techniques and manipulations of the reed that can be difficult to perform on a standard diatonic harmonica.
====The Hohner XB-40====
The Hohner XB-40 is an entirely new design. Here the blow reeds and the draw reeds are sealed off from one another with valves, effectively creating two separate cells in the comb for each hole in the mouthpiece: one for blow and another for draw. A second reed is then placed in this cell at a zero-offset so that it does not sound under normal playing. However, it is placed on the opposite side of the reed-plate from the speaking reed and tuned so that it responds when the player "bends" the note downwards in pitch. This allows for every note on the XB-40 to be bent downwards a whole-tone or more, whereas on standard diatonics only certain notes (the higher-pitched in the cell) will bend at all. In terms of sound production mechanics, the sounds are closer to the sound of a chromatic, since it use additional reeds to reach some other harmonics.
====ChengGong Harmonica====
Another recent innovation in the harmonica is the ChengGong (a pun on the inventor's name and Xin Gong, "Success") Harmonica, invented by XueXue Cheng of China. It has two parts: the main body, and a sliding mouth piece. The body is a 24 hole diatonic harmonica that starts from b2 to d6 (covering 3 octaves). Its 11-hole mouthpiece can slide along the front of the harmonica, which gives numerous chord choices and voicings (seven triads, three 6th chords, seven 7th chords, and seven 9th chords, with a total of 24 chords available). Yet, the ChengGong is still capable of playing single note melodies and double stops over a range of 3 diatonic octaves, all the while maintaining a small profile, not much larger than a 12-hole chromatic. Also, unlike conventional harmonicas, blowing and drawing produce the same notes. In this way, its tuning is closer to the note layout of a typical asian tremelo harmonica or the Polyphonias.
=== The Pitch Pipe ===
The [[pitch pipe]] is essentially a specialty harmonica which is designed not for playing music as such but for giving a reference pitch to singers and other instruments. Notably, the only difference between some early pitch-pipes and harmonicas is the name of the instrument, reflecting the maker's target audience.
== Harmonica Techniques ==
=== Bending and other techniques ===
In addition to the 19 notes readily available on the diatonic harmonica, players can play other notes by adjusting their [[embouchure]] and forcing the reed to resonate at a different pitch. One does this by relaxing and coordinating muscles in the throat, mouth, and lips. This technique is called "bending", a term borrowed from guitarists, who literally "bend" a string in order to create subtle changes in pitch. Using bending, a player can reach all the notes on the major scale. "Bending" also creates the [[glissando]]s characteristic of much blues harp and country harmonica playing. Bending on a guitar bends the pitch upward. However, typically 'bending' on a harmonica means the pitch falls downward. Bends are essential for most blues and rock harmonica due to the soulful sounds the instrument can bring out. The famous 'wail' of the blues harp typically required bending.
|D |F |A# |
|B |D# |F# |B |
hole: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
---------------------------------------
blow: |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |
draw: |D |G |B |D |F |A |B |D |F |A |
---------------------------------------
|C# |F# |A# |C# |E |G# |
|F |A |
|G# |
The physics of bending are quite complex, but amount to this: a player can bend the pitch of the higher-tuned reed down toward the pitch of the lower-tuned reed in any given hole. In other words, on holes 1 through 6, the draw notes can be bent and on holes 7 through 10 the blow notes can be bent. Hole 3 allows for the most dramatic bending: in C, it is possible to bend 3 draw from a B down to a G#, or anywhere in between.
==== Overbending ====
In the [[1970s]], [[Howard Levy]] developed the "overbending" technique, which, combined with bending, allowed players to play the entire chromatic scale. When bending, the player forces the lower of the two reeds in a chamber to vibrate faster. When overbending, the player isolates the ''higher'' of the two reeds and by so doing can play higher pitched notes. By using both bending and overbending techniques a player can play the entire chromatic scale using a diatonic harmonica. This has allowed diatonic harmonica players to expand into areas traditionally viewed as inhospitable to the instrument such as [[Jazz]].
The overbend is a difficult technique to master. To facilitate overbending, many players use specially modified or customised harmonicas. Any harmonica can be set-up for better overbending. The primary needs are tight tolerances between the reed and reed-plate and a general level of air-tightness between the reed-plate and comb. The former often necessitates lowering the "gap", the space between the tip of the reed and the reed-plate. Another often used technique is to make the space between the sides of the slots in the reed-plate and the reed itself as small as possible by drawing in the metal on the sides of the reed-plate slots towards the reed. While these modifications make the harmonica overbend more easily, overbending is often possible on stock diatonic harmonica, especially on a airtight design.
Although there are players who use precise overbends and bends to play the diatonic harmonica as a fully chromatic instrument, this is still very rare, not simply because the technique is difficult, but also because the sound of an overbend is different from the sound of other notes, as is also the case of normal bent notes. Thus, even though a player could play any melody in any key (within a three octave range) on a C diatonic harmonica (examples: Tinus Koorn and Otavio Castro), most diatonic players prefer to use either use the chromatic, or different keys of diatonic harmonicas for different songs, matching the possibilities of glissandos, register and dynamics of a given harmonica to a melody.
=== Positions ===
In addition to playing the diatonic harmonica in its original key, it is also possible to play the harmonica in other keys by playing in other "positions", either by playing in another mode (playing in D Dorian or G mixolydian on a C Major harmonica) or by bending notes to achieve a scale not otherwise available on the harmonica (playing in E mixolydian on a C Major harmonica). Harmonica players (especially blues players) have developed a set of terminology around different "positions" which can be somewhat confusing to other musicians. There are twelve "natural positions" that can be achieved without bending; however, in general, harmonica players restrict to the following three:
*1st position (or "straight harp"): Ionian mode. Playing the harmonica a |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.