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independent means, on the basis that she had been injured when Schopenhauer allegedly pushed her. Marquet had noisily attracted Schopenhauer's attention. Then, Marquet's companion witnessed her as being prostrate outside of his apartment. Marquet claimed that the philosopher had assaulted and battered her after she refused to leave his doorway. In this manner, she succeeded in gaining, through the court, a portion of Schopenhauer's limited wealth; he had to make payments for many years. His reputation was permanently damaged by her legal machination.
Schopenhauer's health deteriorated during the year of [[1860]]. He died of [[natural causes]] on [[September 21]] of the same year at the age of 72.
Schopenhauer called himself a [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] and despised Hegel. He formulated a [[philosophical pessimism|pessimistic]] [[philosophy]] that gained importance and support after the failure of the German and Austrian [[revolution]]s of [[1848]].
== Philosophy ==
Schopenhauer's starting point was [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s division of the universe into [[phenomenon]] and [[noumenon]], claiming that the noumenon was the same as that in us which we call [[will (philosophy)|Will]]. It is the inner content and the driving force of the world. For Schopenhauer, human will had [[ontology|ontological]] primacy over the [[intellect]]; in other words, desire is understood to be prior to thought, and, in a parallel sense, will is said to be prior to being. In solving/alleviating the fundamental problems of life, Schopenhauer was rare among philosophers in considering [[philosophy]] and [[logic]] less important (or less effective) than [[art]], certain types of charitable practice ("loving kindness", in his terms), and certain forms of religious discipline; Schopenhauer concluded that discursive thought (such as philosophy and logic) could neither touch nor transcend the nature of desire— i.e., the will. In ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Schopenhauer posited that humans living in the [[realm of objects]] are living in the [[realm of desire]], and thus are eternally tormented by that desire (his idea of the role of desire in life is similar to that of [[Vedanta]] [[Hinduism]] and Buddhism, and Schopenhauer draws attention to these similarities himself).
While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his [[methodology]] was resolutely [[empirical]], rather than speculative or transcendental:
{{Quotation|Philosophy... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions.|Arthur Schopenhauer|''Parerga & Paralipomena'', vol. i, pg. 106., E.F.J. Payne Translation}}
{{Quotation|This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration.|Arthur Schopenhauer|''World as Will and Representation'', vol. i, pg. 273, E.F.J. Payne Translation}}
Schopenhauer's identification of the Kantian ''noumenon'' (i.e., the actually existing entity) with what we call our will deserves some explanation. The noumenon was what Kant called the ''Ding an Sich'', the "Thing in Itself", the reality that is the foundation of our [[sense|sensory]] and [[mind|mental]] representations of an external world; in Kantian terms, those sensory and mental representations are mere phenomena. Schopenhauer's assertion that what we call our will is the same as this ''noumenon'' might at first instance strike some as oddly as [[Heraclitus]]'s revelation that everything is made out of [[fire]].
But Kant's philosophy was formulated as a response to the radical [[philosophical skepticism]] of [[David Hume]] and his fellow [[British Empiricists]], who claimed that as far as we could tell there was [[solipsism|no outside reality]] beyond our mental representations of it. Schopenhauer begins by arguing that Kant's demarcation between external objects, knowable only as phenomena, and the Thing in Itself of noumenon, contains a significant omission. There is, in fact, one physical object we know more intimately than we know any object of sense perception. It is our own body.
We know our [[human anatomy|human bodies]] have [[boundary|boundaries]], and occupy space, the same way other objects known only through our named senses do. Though we seldom think of our bodies as physical objects, we know even before reflection that it shares some of their properties. We understand that a watermelon cannot successfully occupy the same space as an oncoming truck. We know that if we tried to repeat the experiment with our own bodies, we would obtain similar results. We know this even if we do not understand the [[physics]] involved.
We know that our consciousness inhabits a physical body, similar to other physical objects only known as phenomena. Yet, our consciousness is not commensurate with our body. Most of us possess the power of voluntary motion. We usually are not aware of our [[lung]]s' breath, or our [[heart]]beat, unless our attention is called to it. Our ability to control either is limited. Our [[kidney]]s command our attention on their schedule rather than one we choose. Few of us have any idea what our [[liver]]s are doing right now, though this organ is as needful as lungs, heart, or kidneys. The conscious mind is the servant, not the master, of these and other organs. These organs have an agenda which the conscious mind did not choose, and has limited power over.
When Schopenhauer identifies the ''noumenon'' with the desires, needs, and impulses in us that we name "will," what he is saying is that we participate in the reality of an otherwise unachievable world outside the mind through will. We cannot ''prove'' that our mental picture of an outside world corresponds with a reality by reasoning. Through will, we know—without thinking— that the world can stimulate us. We suffer fear, or desire. These states arise involuntarily. They arise prior to reflection. They arise even when the conscious mind would prefer to hold them at bay. The rational mind is for Schopenhauer a leaf borne along in a stream of pre-reflective and largely unconscious emotion. That stream is will; and through will, if not through logic, we can participate in the underlying reality that lies beyond mere phenomena. It is for this reason that Schopenhauer identifies the ''noumenon'' with what we call our will.
Also, Schopenhauer's philosophy could be considered as [[panpsychism]] and [[solipsism]], and in some way [[Gnosticism|gnostic]].
== Psychology ==
Schopenhauer was perhaps even more influential in his treatment of man's [[mind]] than he was in the realm of [[philosophy]].
Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the tribulations of [[love]]. But Schopenhauer addressed it, and related concepts, forthrightly.
:"We should be surprised that a matter that generally plays such an important part in the life of man [love] has hitherto been almost entirely disregarded by philosophers, and lies before us as raw and untreated material."
He gave a name to a [[force]] within man which he felt invariably had precedence over reason: the [[Will to Live]] (Wille zum Leben), defined as an inherent [[drive]] within human beings, and indeed all creatures, to stay alive and to [[reproduce]].
Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it to be an immensely powerful force lying unseen within man's [[psyche]] and dramatically shaping the [[world]]:
:"The ultimate aim of all love affairs ...is more important than all other aims in man's life; and therefore it is quite worthy of the profound seriousness with which everyone pursues it."
:"What is decided by it is nothing less than the composition of the next generation..."
These ideas foreshadowed and laid the groundwork for [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s [[theory of evolution]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]'s [[Will to Power]] and [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]'s concepts of the [[libido]] and the [[unconscious]] [[mind]].
== Aesthetics ==
:''See main article: [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics]]''
This wild and powerful drive to reproduce, however, caused [[suffering]] and [[pain]] in the world. For Schopenhauer, one way to escape the suffering inherent in a world of Will was through [[art]].
Through art, Schopenhauer thought, the thinking subject could be jarred out of their limited, individual [[perspective]] to feel a sense of the [[universal (metaphysics)]] directly — the "universal" in question, of course, was the will. The contest of personal [[desire]] with a world that was, by nature, inimical to its satisfaction is inevitably tragical; therefore, the highest place in art was given to [[tragedy]]. [[Music]] was also given a special status in [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics]] as it did not rely upon the medium of representation to communicate a sense of the universal. Schopenhauer believed the function of art to be a [[meditation]] on the unity of [[human nature]], and an attempt to either demonstrate or directly communicate to the [[audience]] a certain [[existential]] [[angst]] for which most forms of entertainment — including bad art — only provided a distraction. A wide range of authors (from [[Thomas Hardy]] to [[Woody Allen]]) and artists have been influenced by this system of [[aesthetics]], and in the 20th century this area of Schopenhauer's work garnered more attention and praise than any other.
According to Daniel Albright (2005), "Schopenhauer thought that [[music]] was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself."
==Politics==
Schopenhauer's [[politics]] were, for the most part, a much-diminish |
rion Reef
*Moore Reef
Lighthouses are located on following reefs or islands:
*Bougainville Reef
*East Diamond Islet
*Frederick Reefs
*Lihou Reef
*Saumarez Reef
== Geography ==
Most of the atolls fall into two groups, while '''Mellish Reef''' to the east, and '''Middleton Reef''' and '''Elizabeth Reef''' to the south are grouped separately:
===Northwestern Group===
#Osprey Reef (submerged atoll roughly oval in shape, measuring 25 by 12 km, covering around 195 km², with lagoon up to 30 m deep)
#Shark Reef (small elongated submerged reef 15 km South of Osprey Reef, with a least depth of 7.8 m)
#Bougainville Reef (small submerged atoll, 2.5 by 4 km, area 8 km² with lagoon, dries at half tide)
#East Holmes Reef (submerged atoll, about 14 by 10 km, area 125 km² with lagoon)
#West Holmes Reef (submerged atoll 6 km East of East Holmes Reef, about 18 by 7 km, area 125 km² with lagoon that is open on the West side, two small cays)
#Flora Reef (small submerged atoll, 5 by 4 km, about 12 km²)
#Diane Bank (sunken atoll, depths of less than 10 m over an area of 65 by 25 km, or 1300 km², along the northern edge 3 m deep, with Sand Cay in the Northwest, 3 m high)
#North Moore Reef (small submerged atoll, 4 by 3 km, area 8 km² including lagoon that is open on the Northwest side)
#South Moore Reef (small submerged reef 5 km South of North Moore Reef)
#Willis Islets (sunken atoll, bank 45 by 19 km, bank area more than 500 km², 3 islets on the Northwestern side: North Cay, Mid Islet almost 8 m high, South Islet or Willis Island 10 m high)
#Magdelaine Cays & Coringa Islets (one large, partially sunken atoll structure, almost 90 by 30 km, bank area about 1500 km², 2 islets of the Magdelaine Cays in the North: North West Islet (area approximately 0.2 km²) and South East Cay (area 0.37 km²); 2 islets of the Coringa Islets 50 to 60 km further Southwest: Southwest Islet or Coringa Islet (area 0.173 km²), and Chilcott Islet (area 0.163 km²))
#Herald Cays, Northeast Cay (encircled by a reef of 3 by 3 km, total area 6 km², land area 0.34 km²)
#Herald Cays, Southwest Cay (4 km Southwest of Northeast Cay, encircled by a reef of 2 by 2 km, total area 3 km², land area 0.188 km²)
#[[Lihou Reef and Cays]] (largest atoll in the coral sea, with a size of 2500 km², land area 0.91 km²)
#Diamond Islets & Tregosse Reefs (large, partially sunken atoll, 100 by 52 km, area of the bank over 3000 km², with 4 islets and 2 small submerged reefs in the Northeast and Southeast: West Diamond Islet, Central Diamond Islet, East Diamond Islet on the Northeastern rim of the former atoll, and South Diamond Islet, East Tregosse Reef and West Tregosse Reef on the Southern rim)
#North Flinders Reef (large atoll, 34 by 23 km, area 600 km², with 2 islets, Flinders Cay being the larger one with a length of 200 m and a height of 3 m)
#South Flinders Reef (atoll, 15 by 5 km, 60 km²)
#Herald's Surprise (small submerged reef North of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 2 km)
#Dart Reef (small submerged reef Northwest of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 3 km, area 6 km² including small lagoon that is open to the North)
#Malay Reef (small submerged reef, not clearly defined, no breakers, difficult to see)
#Abington Reef (submerged reef, nearly awash, 4 by 2.5 km, area 7 km²)
#Marion Reef (large circular atoll formation that is comprised of three main units located on the Eastern side: Marion, Long and Wansfell; and a number of smaller reefs on the west. The formation sits atop a submarine feature known as the '''Marion Plateau''' which is separated from the larger Coral Sea Plateau to the north by the '''Townsville Trough'''. Three small sand cays are located on the eastern side of Marion Reef: Paget Cay, on Long Reef, Carola Cay, south of Long Reef, and Brodie Cay, on Wansfell Reef.
The atolls of the Northwestern Group, except Osprey Reef and Shark Reef in the North, and Marion Reef in the South, are located on the '''Coral Sea Plateau''' (Queensland Plateau), a contiguous area of depths less than 1000 m.
'''Flinders Reefs''' (North and South), '''Herald's Surprise''' and '''Dart Reef''' form a cluster of reefs of 66 by 26 km.
'''Magdelaine Cays''', '''Coringa Islets''' and '''Herald Cays''' are part of the 8856 km² '''Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve''', created on August 16, 1982 and located around 400 km east of [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]] and 220 to 320 km from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef. The 6 islets of the nature reserve have areas from 0.16 to 0.37 km², for a total of 1.24 km².
'''[[Lihou Reef]]''' was declared a Nature Reserve on August 16, 1982, with an area of 8440 km².
The Nature Reserves were created to protect wildlife in the respective areas of the territory.
===Mellish Reef===
#Mellish Reef, being about 300 kilometres to the east of the '''Northwestern Group''', thus the most distant from the Australian continent of all the reefs and atolls of the Coral Sea Islands Territory, is not considered to be part of any group. It has the outline of a boomerang-shaped platform around 10 km in length and 3 km across, area 25 km². The surrounding reefs, which enclose a narrow lagoon, are completely submerged at high tide. Near the centre of the lagoon is the only permanent land of the reef - Heralds-Beacon Islet. The island is a small cay measuring 600 m by 120 m, area 57,000 m², only rising a few meters above the high water mark.
Information courtesy of [http://www.oceandots.com/pacific/coralsea/mellish.htm Oceandots.com]
===Southeasterly Group===
#Frederick Reefs: The reefs form a semi-enclosed lagoon, known as Anchorage Sound, with an opening on the North side. The complex measures about 10 by 4 km, with an area of 30 km². On the southern side of the reef lies Observatory Cay, the only permanently dry land, although there are a few of others cays that can be awash at high tide.
#Kenn Reef, submerged atoll of about 15 by 8 km, area 40 km², islet Observatory Cay in the Southeast, 2 m high
#Saumarez Reefs, southernmost reefs to be located on the Coral Sea Shelf; three main reefs and numerous smaller reefs that form a large crescent-shaped formation open to the northwest, about 27 by 14 km, area less than 300 km². There are two sand cays: North East Cay and South West Cay.
#Wreck Reefs: atoll 25 by 5 km, area 75 km², open on the North. Islets found on the reefs include Bird Islet, West Islet and Porpoise Cay.
#Cato Reef: Cato bank 21 by 13 km, area 200 km² of dephts less than 17 m; Cato Reef encircles an area of 3.3 by 1.8 km, area 5 km² including lagoon; Cato Island, in the West of the lagoon, 650 by 300 m, area 1.5 km², 6 m high. Close to the Southeast corner of Cato bank is Hutchison Rock, with 1 m depth over it.
===Extreme South===
Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, together with reefs around [[Lord Howe Island]] ([[New South Wales]]) 150 km to the south, are regarded as the southernmost coral reefs in the world. Their location, where tropical and temperate ocean currents meet, contributes to an unusually diverse assemblage of marine species.
These mostly submerged atolls which dry only during low tide were added to the territory only in 1989. They are located on the [[Lord Howe Rise]] in the [[Tasman Sea]] which joins the [[Coral Sea]] in the South. Already on December 23, 1987, they were protected as '''Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Nature Reserve''', which has an area of 1880 km².
#Middleton Reef, atoll about 8.9 by 6.3 km, area 37 km² including lagoon, one islet: Elizabeth island (Elizabeth cay), no vegetation, 600 meters by 400 meters (area 0.2 km<sup>2</sup>), highest point close to the Northern end 1.5 meters. At low tides much of the reef flat is exposed.
#Elizabeth Reef, atoll about 8.2 by 5.5 km, area 51 km² including lagoon, one islet: The Sound, 100 by 70 meters (area 5,000 m&sup2;), highest point 0.8 meters. At low tides much of the reef flat is exposed.
===Overview of islets and cays===
{| class="wikitable"
! Complex
! Type
! Number of islets and cays
|-
| align=left | West Holmes Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 2
|-
| align=left | Diane Bank
| mostly sunken atoll
| align=right | 1
|-
| align=left | Willis Group
| partially sunken atoll
| align=right | 3
|-
| align=left | Magdelaine Cays & Coringa Islets
| partially sunken atoll
| align=right | 4
|-
| align=left | Herald Cays (North)
| reef
| align=right | 1
|-
| align=left | Herald Cays (South)
| reef
| align=right | 1
|-
| align=left | Lihou Reef and Cays
| atoll
| align=right | 18
|-
| align=left | Diamond Islands & Tregosse Reefs
| partially sunken atoll
| align=right | 4
|-
| align=left | Flinders Reefs (North)
| atoll
| align=right | 2
|-
| align=left | Marion Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 4
|-
| align=left | Mellish Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 1
|-
| align=left | Frederick Reefs
| atoll
| align=right | 1
|-
| align=left | Kenn Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 1
|-
| align=left | Saumarez Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 2
|-
| align=left | Wreck Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 3
|-
| align=left | Cato Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 1
|-
| align=left | Middleton Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 1
|-
| align=left | Elizabeth Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 1
|-
| align=left |
|
| align=right | 51
|}
==See also==
*[[Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands]]
==External links==
*[http://www.dotars.gov.au/terr/coral/index.aspx DOTARS: Coral Sea Islands]
*[http://mitglied.lycos.de/dc3mf/Eliza.htm Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs]
*[http://www.oceandots.com/pacific/elizmid/ Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs - General]
*[http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/marine-surveys/elizabeth-middleton-reefs-surveys-december2003/pdf/elizabeth-middleton-reefs-surveys-december2003.pdf Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs - Biology]
{{Australia}}
[[Category:Islands of Australia]]
[[de:Korallenmeerinseln]]
[[es:Islas del Mar del Coral]]
[[fr:Îles de la Mer de Corail]]
[[it:Isole del Mar dei Coralli]]
[[he:טריטוריית איי ים האל |
ing in some small, open economies (particularly in [[Europe]]) as a means of distinguishing their observations from popular pejorative usage and to highlight ties to classical theories.
==Classical theoretical origins==
Corporatism is a form of [[class collaboration]] put forward as an alternative to [[class conflict]], and was first proposed in [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s 1891 [[encyclical]] [[Rerum Novarum]], which influenced [[Catholic trade unions]] that organised in the early twentieth century to counter the influence of trade unions founded on a [[socialist]] ideology. Theoretical underpinnings came from the [[medieval]] traditions of [[guild]]s and craft-based economics; and later, [[syndicalism]]. Corporatism was encouraged by Pope [[Pius XI]] in his 1931 encyclical [[Quadragesimo Anno]].
[[Gabriele D'Annunzio]] and [[anarcho-syndicalist]] [[Alceste de Ambris]] incorporated principles of corporative philosophy in their [[Constitution of Fiume]].
One early and important theorist of corporatism was [[Adam Müller]], an advisor to [[Prince Metternich]] in what is now eastern [[Germany]] and [[Austria]]. Müller propounded his views as an antidote to the twin "dangers" of the [[egalitarianism]] of the [[French Revolution]] and the [[laissez-faire]] economics of [[Adam Smith]]. In Germany and elsewhere there was a distinct aversion among rulers to allow unrestricted capitalism, owing to the [[feudalism|feudalist]] and [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] tradition of giving state privileges to the wealthy and powerful.
Under [[fascism]] in Italy, business owners, employees, trades-people, professionals, and other economic classes were organized into 22 guilds, or associations, known as "corporations" according to their industries, and these groups were given representation in a legislative body known as the ''Camera dei Fasci e delle Corporazioni.'' For excerpts from Mussolini's essay discussing the corporatist state, see [[Doctrine of Fascism]].
Similar ideas were also ventilated in other European countries at the time. For instance, [[Austria]] under the [[Engelbert Dollfuss|Dollfuß]] dictatorship had a constitution modelled on that of Italy; but there were also conservative philosophers and/or economists advocating the corporate state, for example [[Othmar Spann]]. In [[Portugal]], a similar ideal, but based on bottom-up individual moral renewal, inspired [[António de Oliveira Salazar|Salazar]] to work towards corporatism. He wrote the [[Portuguese Constitution of 1933]], which is credited as the first [[corporatist]] constitution in the world.
==Neo-corporatism==
In the recent literature of [[political science]] and [[sociology]], corporatism (or neo-corporatism) lacks negative connotation. In the writings of Philippe Schmitter, Gerhard Lehmbruch and their followers, "neo-corporatism" refers to social arrangements dominated by tri-partite bargaining between [[labor unions|unions]], the private sector (capital), and government. Such bargaining is oriented toward (a) dividing the productivity gains created in the economy "fairly" among the social partners and (b) gaining wage restraint in recessionary or inflationary periods.
Most political economists believe that such neo-corporatist arrangements are only possible in societies in which labor is highly organized and various [[labor unions]] are hierarchically organized in a single labor federation. Such "encompassing" unions bargain on behalf of all workers, and have a strong incentive to balance the employment cost of high wages against the real income consequences of small wage gains. Many of the small, open European economies, such as [[Sweden]], [[Austria]], [[Norway]], [[Ireland]], and the [[Netherlands]] fit this classification. In the work of some scholars, such as [[Peter J. Katzenstein]], neo-corporatist arrangements enable small open economies to effectively manage their relationship with the global economy. The adjustment to trade shocks occurs through a bargaining process in which the costs of adjustment are distributed evenly ("fairly") among the social partners.
Examples of modern neocorporatism include the [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] Conference or in the Economic and Social Committee of the [[European Union]], the collective agreement arrangements of the Scandinavian countries, the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[Poldermodel]] system of consensus, or the [[Republic of Ireland]]'s system of [[Social Partnership]]. In [[Australia]], the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]] governments of [[1983]]-[[1996|96]] fostered a set of policies known as ''The Accord'', under which the [[Australian Council of Trade Unions]] agreed to hold back demands for [[wages|pay increases]], the compensation being increased expenditure on the "[[social wage]]", Prime Minister [[Paul Keating]]'s name for broad-based [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]] programs. In [[Italy]], the [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]] administration inaugurated in [[July 23]] [[1993]] a ''concertation'' ([[Italian Language|italian]]: ''concertazione'') policy of peaceful agreement on salary rates between [[government]], the three main [[trade unions]] and the [[Confindustria]] employers' federation. Before that, salary augmentations always were conquered by [[strike action|strike actions]]. In [[2001]] the [[Silvio Berlusconi]] administration put an end to concertation.
Most theorists agree that neo-corporatism is undergoing a crisis. In many classically corporatist countries, traditional bargaining is on the retreat. This crisis is often attributed to [[globalization]], but this claim is not undisputed.
==State corporatism==
While classical corporatism and its intellectual successor, neo-corporatism (and their [[Corporatism#Criticism|critics]]) emphasize the role of corporate bodies in influencing government decision-making, corporatism used in the context of the study of [[autocratic]] [[states]], particularly within [[East Asian studies]], usually refers instead to a process by which the state uses officially-recognized organizations as a tool for restricting public participation in the political process and limiting the power of [[civil society]].
Under such a system, as described by Jonathan Unger and Anita Chan in their essay ''China, Corporatism, and the [[East Asian Model]]''[http://www.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/wk_wzdetails.asp?id=1544],
<blockquote>at the national level the state recognizes one and only one organization (say, a national labour union, a business association, a farmers' association) as the sole representative of the sectoral interests of the individuals, enterprises or institutions that comprise that organization's assigned constituency. The state determines which organizations will be recognized as legitimate and forms an unequal partnership of sorts with such organizations. The associations sometimes even get channelled into the policy-making processes and often help implement state policy on the government's behalf.</blockquote>
By establishing itself as the arbitrator of legitimacy and assigning responsibility for a particular [[constituency]] with one sole organization, the state limits the number of players with which it must negotiate its policies and co-opts their leadership into policing their own members. This arrangement is not limited to economic organizations such as business groups or trade unions; examples can also include social or religious groups. Examples abound, but one such would be the [[People's Republic of China]]'s [[Islamic Association of China]], in which the state actively intervenes in the appointment of [[imams]] and controls the educational contents of their seminaries, which must be approved by the government to operate and which feature courses on "patriotic reeducation".[http://hrw.org/wr2k2/asia4.html] Another example is the phenomenon known as "Japan, Inc.", in which major industrial [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerates]] and their dependent workforces were consciously manipulated by the Japanese [[MITI]] to maximize post-war economic growth.
==Criticism of Corporatism==
'''Corporatism''' or '''neo-corporatism''' is often used popularly as a pejorative term in reference to perceived tendencies in politics for [[legislator]]s and [[Administration#Government|administrations]] to be influenced or dominated by the interests of business enterprises. The influence of other types of corporations, such as [[labor unions]], is perceived to be relatively minor. In this view, government decisions are seen as being influenced strongly by which sorts of policies will lead to greater profits for favored companies.
Corporatism is also used to describe a condition of corporate-dominated [[globalization]]. Points enumerated by users of the term in this sense include the prevalence of very large, [[multinational corporation]]s that freely move operations around the world in response to corporate, rather than public, needs; the push by the corporate world to introduce legislation and treaties which would restrict the abilities of individual nations to restrict corporate activity; and similar measures to allow corporations to sue nations over "restrictive" policies, such as a nation's environmental regulations that would restrict corporate activities.
Critics of capitalism often argue that any form of capitalism would eventually devolve into corporatism, due to the [[Wealth condensation|concentration of wealth]] in fewer and fewer hands. A permutation of this term is '''corporate globalism'''. [[John Ralston Saul]] argues that most Western societies are best described as corporatist states, run by a small elite of professional and interest groups, that exclude political participation from the citizenry.
Many critics of free market theories, such as [[George Orwell]], have argued that corporatism (in the sense of an economic system dominated by m |
ecorded. The reason for this false record, Bawlf writes, was for political reasons: competition with the Spanish in the Americas. Queen Elizabeth wanted to keep any information on the Northwest Passage secret. Unfortunately, she did such a good job on the cover-up that the location of Nova Albion and the highest latitude the expedition reached is still a source of controversy today, giving Drake and his men less credit for their great accomplishments than they deserve.
Drake's brother endured a long period of torture in [[South America]] at the hands of Spaniards, who sought intelligence from him about Francis Drake's voyage. The precise location of Drake's port was carefully guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards, and several of Drake's maps may even have been altered to this end. It is unlikely that the riddle of Drake's port will ever be unraveled, for the relevant records at [[London]]'s [[Whitehall Palace]] were burned.
It is said that Drake left behind many of his men as a small colony, but planned return voyages to the colony were never realized. The land Drake claimed in the name of the Holy [[Trinity]] for the English Crown was called ''[[Nova Albion]]'' &#8212; that is in [[Latin]], "New England."
Drake's voyage to the west coast of [[North America]] is important for a number of reasons. When Drake landed, his chaplain held Holy [[Eucharist|Communion]], as in the words of [[Thomas Cranmer]], "it is very meet and right and our bounden duty so to do." This was one of the first [[Protestantism|Protestant]] church services in all the [[New World]] (though French [[Huguenots]] had founded an ill-fated colony in Florida in the 1560s). Drake was seen to be gaining prestige at the expense of the [[Papacy]].
What is certain of the extent of Drake's claim and territorial challenge to the Papacy and the Spanish crown is that his port was founded ''somewhere'' north of Point Loma; that all contemporary maps label all lands above the Kingdoms of New Spain and New Mexico as "''Nova Albion''", and that all colonial claims made from the East Coast in the 1600s were "From Sea to Sea." The colonial claims were established with full knowledge of Drake's claims, which they reinforced, and remained valid in the minds of the colonialists when the colonies became free states. Maps made soon after would have "''Nova Albion''" written above the entire northern frontier of New Spain. These territorial claims would later become important during the negotiations that ended the [[Mexican-American War]] between the United States and Mexico.
Drake now headed westward across the Pacific, and a few months later, reached the [[Moluccas]] -- a group of islands in the southwest Pacific (east of today's [[Indonesia]]).
He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]], and reached [[Sierra Leone]] by [[July 22]], [[1580]]. On [[September 26]], the ''Golden Hind'' sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 crew remaining aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The Queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth, Drake was knighted by Queen Elizabeth aboard the ''Golden Hind'', and became the Mayor of Plymouth and a Member of Parliament.
The Queen ordered all written accounts of Drake's voyage considered [[classified information]], and its participants sworn to silence on pain of death; her aim was to keep Drake's activities away from the eyes of rival Spain.
== The Spanish Armada ==
[[Image:Drake_Statue.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Statue of Drake on Plymouth Hoe]]
War broke out between Spain and England in 1585. Drake sailed to the New World and sacked the ports of [[Santo Domingo]] and [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]]. On the return leg of the voyage, he captured the Spanish fort of [[St. Augustine, Florida|San Agustín]] in Florida. These exploits encouraged King Philip II of Spain to order the planning for an invasion of England.
In a pre-emptive strike, Drake "singed the King of Spain's beard" by sailing a fleet into [[Cadiz]], one of Spain's main ports, and occupying the town for three days, destroying 31 enemy ships as well as a large quantity of stores, and capturing 6 ships. This attack delayed the Spanish invasion by a year.
Drake was [[vice admiral]] in command of the English fleet (under [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]]) when they overcame the [[Spanish Armada]] that was attempting to invade England in [[1588]]. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel, Drake captured the Spanish galleon ''Rosario'', along with Admiral [[Pedro de Valdes]] and all his crew, but causing confusion in the English fleet in the process. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries. Drake's responsibilities included carrying a stern lantern intended as a guiding light at night for other English vessels opposing the Armada. This exemplified Drake's ability, as a privateer, to suspend strategic purpose, if a tactical profit were on offer.
On the night of [[29 July]], along with Howard, Drake organised the fire-ships, causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of [[Calais]] into the open sea. The next day, Drake was present at the [[Spanish Armada#Battle of Gravelines|Battle of Gravelines]].
The most famous (but probably made up) anecdote about Drake's life relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of [[bowls]] on [[Plymouth Hoe]]. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards. This battle was the high point of the remarkable mariner's career.
In 1589, the year after defeating the Armada, Drake was sent to liberate [[Portugal]], which had been annexed by King Philip II of Spain under a [[personal union]] in 1580. En route, he sacked the city of [[A Coruña]] in Spain. This massive combined naval and land expedition (see "[[English Armada]]") was a dismal failure, attributed to a grievous lack of organization, poor training, and paltry supplies. It was a crucial turning point in the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)]].
== Final years ==
Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid fifties. In [[1595]], following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America where he suffered several defeats in a row, he unsuccessfully attacked [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]]. The Spanish gunners from [[El Morro Castle]] shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake's flagship, but he survived. In [[1596]], he died of [[dysentery]] while again unsuccessfully attacking [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]], where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter. He was buried at sea in a lead coffin near [[Portobelo]] in [[Panama]].
==Drake in popular culture==
* In the ''[[Jennings (novels)|Jennings]]'' series of novels, the fictional Linbury Court Preparatory School also has a house named after Drake, to which the main characters, Jennings and Darbishire, belong.
* Drake's anti-Spanish exploits were loosely the basis for Warner Brother's production of the 1940 film ''[[The Sea Hawk (1940 film)|The Sea Hawk]]'' starring [[Errol Flynn]] as the dashing fictional Captain Geoffery Thorpe, who also was a favourite of [[Queen Elizabeth I]] during the film.
* There was a 1962 NBC television series based on him, titled ''[[Sir Francis Drake (television)|Sir Francis Drake]]''.
* A popular legend holds that if England is ever in peril, beating [[Drake's Drum]] will cause Sir Francis return to save the country. This is a variation of the [[King_in_the_mountain|sleeping hero]] folktale.
* Drake's exploits were extolled by the patriotic Victorian poet Sir [[Henry Newbolt]] in the poem [http://www.bartleby.com/103/41.html ''Drake's Drum'']. A similarly-named poem was written by the late Victorian poetess [[Norah M. Holland]].
* During his circumnavigation of the globe, Drake posted a plate upon leaving his landing place on the West coast of North America, claiming the land for England. In the [[1930s]], it appeared that [[Drake's Plate of Brass|Drake's plate]] had been found near San Francisco. Forty years later, scientists confirmed that the plate was a [[hoax]], as had been suspected. Later information attributed the hoax to [[E Clampus Vitus]].
* There is a [[high school]] named for Drake in [[San Anselmo, California]].
* A major East-West road in [[Marin County, California]] is named Sir Francis Drake Boulevard. It connects Point San Quentin on [[San Francisco Bay]] with [[Point Reyes]] and [[Drakes Bay]]. Each end is near a site considered by some to be Drake's landing place.
* One of the four [[House System|houses]] of [[United Kingdom|British]] [[public school (England)|public school]] [[Churcher's College]] is named for Drake. One of the six [[House System|houses]] of [[Hong Kong]] [[secondary school]] [[Sha Tin College]] is also named for Drake.
* Though England considers him a hero, Spaniards regard Drake as a cruel and bloodthirsty pirate who used to sack defenseless Spanish harbors. Drake, or ''Draco'' ("Dragon"), to give his Spanish name, was used as a bogeyman for centuries after his "vicious" raids.
* On the [[Advance Wars]] [[video game]] series, there is a [[CO]] named Drake, whose strength point is [[naval combat]].
==References==
* [[Samuel Bawlf|Bawlf, R. Samuel]]. ''The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, 1577-1580.''(Douglas & McIntyre, 2003)
* Hughes-Hallett, Lucy. ''Heroes: A History of Hero Worship.'' Alfred A. Knopf, New York, New York, 2004. ISBN 1-4000-4399-9.
* [[Garett Mattingly|Mattingly, Garett]], [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner in [[1960]]. ''"[[The |
(2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
1.08% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
27.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
16.83 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.02 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.98 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
96.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
50.08 years
<br>''male:''
48.94 years
<br>''female:''
51.26 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
3.73 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Gabonese (singular and plural)
<br>''adjective:''
Gabonese
'''Ethnic groups:'''
#Bantu tribes including four major tribal groupings (Fang, Eshira, Bapounou, Bateke)
# other Africans, notably 'forrest people' (pygmee, now sedentarizing) such as the Babongo tribe
# Europeans 154,000, including 6,000 French and 11,000 persons of dual nationality)
'''Religions:'''
[[Christianity|Christian]] 55%-75%, [[Islam|Muslim]] less than 1%, [[animism|animist]] (mainly [[Bwiti]], circa 30%, the third official religion)
'''[[Language]]s:'''
[[French language|French]] (official since colonial rule), [[Fang language|Fang]], [[Myene language|Myene]], [[Bateke language|Bateke]], Bapounou/Eschira, [[Bandjabi language|Bandjabi]]
'''[[Literacy]]:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
63.2%
<br>''male:''
73.7%
<br>''female:''
53.3% (1995 est.)
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Gabon]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Gabon]]
[[pt:Demografia do Gabão]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Gabon</title>
<id>12031</id>
<revision>
<id>38562694</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T03:16:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.200.151.167</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Legislative branch */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Gabon}}
'''Politics of Gabon''' takes place in a framework of a [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Gabon]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], though there is also a [[Prime Minister of Gabon]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament. Since independence the party system is dominated by the conservative [[Gabonese Democratic Party]].
==Political developments==
Under the [[1961]] [[constitution]] (revised in [[1975]] and rewritten in [[1991]]), Gabon became a [[republic]] with a [[president]]ial form of government. The [[National Assembly]] has 120 [[Chamber of Deputies|deputies]] elected for a 5-year term. The president is elected by [[universal suffrage]] for a 7-year term. The president appoints the [[prime minister]], the [[cabinet]], and [[judge]]s of the independent [[Supreme Court]]. The government in [[1990]] made major changes in the political system. A transitional constitution was drafted in May as an outgrowth of a national political conference in March-April and later revised by a constitutional committee. Among its provisions were a [[Western world#Western thought|Western]]-style [[bill of rights]]; creation of a [[National Council of Democracy]], which oversees the guarantee of those rights; a governmental advisory board on [[economics|economic]] and [[social issue]]s; and an independent [[judiciary]]. After approval by the National Assembly, the PDG Central Committee, and the president, the Assembly unanimously adopted the constitution in March 1991. Multi-party [[Legislature|legislative]] [[election]]s were held in 1990-91, despite the fact that [[Opposition party|opposition parties]] had not been declared formally legal.
After a peaceful transition, the elections produced the first representative, [[Multi-party system|multi-party]], National Assembly. In January 1991, the Assembly passed by unanimous vote a law governing the [[legalization]] of opposition parties. The president was re-elected in a disputed election in [[1993]] with 51% of [[vote]]s cast. Social and political disturbances led to the [[1994]] [[Paris Conference and Accords]], which provided a framework for the next elections. Local and legislative elections were delayed until [[1996]]-[[1997]]. In 1997, [[constitutional amendment]]s were adopted to create an appointed [[Senate]], the position of [[vice president]], and to extend the president's term to 7 years. Facing a divided opposition, President [[Omar Bongo]] was re-elected in December [[1998]], with 66% of the votes cast. Although the main opposition parties claimed the elections had been manipulated, there was none of the [[Civil disobedience|civil disturbance]] that followed the 1993 election. The president retains strong powers, such as authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a [[Siege|state of siege]], delay legislation, conduct [[Referendum|referenda]], and appoint and dismiss the prime minister and cabinet members. For administrative purposes, Gabon is divided into 9 [[province]]s, which are further divided into 36 [[prefecture]]s and 8 separate [[subprefecture]]s. The president appoints the provincial [[governor]]s, the [[prefect]]s, and the [[subprefect]]s.
==Political conditions==
At the time of [[History of Gabon|Gabon's independence]] in [[1960]], two principal political parties existed: the [[Bloc Democratique Gabonais]] (BDG), led by [[Leon M'Ba]], and the [[Union Democratique et Sociale Gabonaise]] (UDSG), led by [[Jean-Hilaire Aubame]]. In the first post-[[independence]] election, held under a parliamentary system, neither party was able to win a [[majority]]. The BDG obtained support from three of the four independent legislative deputies, and M'Ba was named prime minister. Soon after concluding that Gabon had an insufficient number of people for a [[two-party system]], the two party leaders agreed on a single list of candidates. In the February 1961 election, held under the new presidential system, M'Ba became president and Aubame foreign minister.
This [[Single-party state|one-party system]] appeared to work until February [[1963]], when the larger BDG element forced the UDSG members to choose between a merger of the parties or resignation. The UDSG cabinet ministers resigned, and M'Ba called an election for February [[1964]] and a reduced number of National Assembly deputies (from 67 to 47). The UDSG failed to muster a list of candidates able to meet the requirements of the electoral decrees. When the BDG appeared likely to win the election by default, the [[Military of Gabon|Gabonese military]] toppled M'Ba in a bloodless [[coup]] on [[February 18]], 1964. [[Military of France|French troops]] re-established his government the next day. Elections were held in April with many opposition participants. BDG-supported candidates won 31 seats and the opposition 16. Late in [[1966]], the constitution was revised to provide for automatic succession of the vice president should the president die in office. In March [[1967]], Leon M'Ba and Omar Bongo (then Albert Bongo) were elected president and vice president. M'Ba died later that year, and Omar Bongo became president.
In March [[1968]], Bongo declared Gabon a one-party state by dissolving the BDG and establishing a new party--the Parti Democratique Gabonais. He invited all Gabonese, regardless of previous political affiliation, to participate. Bongo was elected president in February 1975 and re-elected in December [[1979]] and November [[1986]] to 7-year terms. In April 1975, the office of vice president was abolished and replaced by the office of prime minister, who has no right to automatic succession. Under the 1991 constitution, in the event of the president's death, the prime minister, the National Assembly president, and the defense minister share power until a new election is held. Using the PDG as a tool to submerge the regional and tribal rivalries that have divided Gabonese politics in the past, Bongo sought to forge a single national movement in support of the government's development policies.
Opposition to the PDG continued, however, and in September 1990, two coup attempts were uncovered and aborted. Economic discontent and a desire for political liberalization provoked violent [[demonstration]]s and strikes by students and workers in early 1990. In response to grievances by workers, Bongo negotiated with them on a sector-by-sector basis, making significant wage concessions. In addition, he promised to open up the PDG and to organize a national political conference in March-April 1990 to discuss Gabon's future political system. The PDG and 74 political organizations attended the conference. Participants essentially divided into two loose coalitions, the ruling PDG and its allies and the United Front of Opposition Associations and Parties, consisting of the breakaway Morena Fundamental and the Gabonese Progress Party.
The April conference approved sweeping political reforms, including creation of a national senate, decentralization of the [[budget]]ary process, freedom of assembly and press, and cancellation of the [[Visa (document)#Exit visas|exit visa]] requirement. In an attempt to guide the political system's transformation to multi-party democracy, Bongo resigned as PDG chairman and created a transitional government headed by a new Prime Minister, Casimir Oye-Mba. The Gabonese Social Democratic Grouping (RSDG), as the resulting government was called, was smaller than the previous government and included representatives from several opposition parties in its cabinet. The RSDG drafted a pr |
escaped the burning. Piecing those together produced the "Old Script" texts. One problem that has plagued Confucianism, through the ages, is the question of which set of texts is the more authentic; the "Old Script" texts tend to have greater acceptance. In actuality, the verification and comparison for authenticity between the 'old scripts' and 'new scripts' text has remained the works of Confucian scholars for 2000 years up to the twentieth century. Their work also involved interpretation and derivation of meanings from the text under a field of study was known as ''Jingxue'' 經學 ("the study of classics").
===Is Confucianism a religion?===
It is debatable whether Confucianism should be called a [[religion]]. While it prescribes a great deal of ritual, little of it could be construed as worship or meditation in a formal sense. Confucius occasionally made statements about the existence of other-worldly beings that sound distinctly [[agnostic]] and [[humanistic]] to Western ears. For example, he stated "Show respect to the ghosts and spirits, but keep them at a distance" (''Analects'', VI 19). He also said, when asked by an impetuous disciple how to serve ghosts and spirits, "Till you have learnt to serve men, how can you serve ghosts?" The disciple (Zilu) then asked about the dead. The Master said, "Till you know about the living, how are you to know about the dead?" (''Analects'' XI. 11. tr. [[Arthur Waley|Waley]]) Thus, Confucianism is often considered an [[ethical tradition]] and not a [[religion]].
Its effect on Chinese and other East Asian societies and cultures has been immense and parallels the effects of religious movements, seen in other cultures. Those who follow the teachings of Confucius are comforted by it; it makes their lives more complete and their sufferings bearable. It includes a great deal of ritual and (in its [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] formulation) gives a comprehensive explanation of the world, of human nature, etc. Moreover, religions in Chinese culture are not mutually exclusive entities — each tradition is free to find its specific niche, its field of specialisation. One can be a [[Taoism|Taoist]], [[Christianity|Christian]], [[Islam|Muslim]], [[Shinto|Shintoist]] or [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and still profess Confucianist beliefs.
Although Confucianism may include ancestor worship, sacrifice to ancestral spirits and an abstract celestial deity, and the deification of ancient kings and even Confucius himself, all these features can be traced back to non-Confucian Chinese beliefs established long before Confucius and, in this respect, make it difficult to claim that such rituals make Confucianism a religion.
Generally speaking, Confucianism is not considered a religion by Chinese or other East Asian people. Part of this attitude may be explained by the stigma placed on many "religions" as being superstitious, illogical, or unable to deal with modernity. Many Buddhists state that Buddhism is not a religion, but a philosophy, and this is partially a reaction to negative popular views of religion. Similarly, Confucians maintain that Confucianism is not a religion, but rather a moral code or philosophic world view.
The question of whether Confucianism is a religion, or otherwise, is ultimately a definitional problem. If the definition used is worship of supernatural entities, the answer may be that Confucianism is not a religion, but then this definition could also be used to argue that many traditions commonly held to be religious ([[Buddhism]], some forms of [[Islam]], etc.) are also not, in fact, religions. If, on the other hand, a religion is defined as (for example) a belief system that includes moral stances, guides for daily life, systematic views of humanity and its place in the universe, etc., then Confucianism most definitely qualifies. As with many such important concepts, the definition of religion is quite contentious. Herbert Fingarette's ''Confucius: The Secular as Sacred'' is a good treatment of this issue.
==Names for Confucianism==
Several names for Confucianism exist in [[Chinese language|Chinese]].
*"School of the Scholars" ([[pinyin]] ''Rújiā'')
**儒家 ([[Traditional Chinese|Traditional]] and [[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]] Chinese)
*"Teaching of the Scholars" ([[pinyin]]: ''Rujiao'')
**儒教 ([[Traditional Chinese|Traditional]] and [[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]])
*"Scholarly study" or "Scholar studies" ([[pinyin]]: ''Ruxue'')
**儒學 ([[Traditional Chinese|Traditional]])
**儒学 ([[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]])
*"Teaching of Confucius" or "Religion of Confucius" ([[pinyin]]: ''Kongjiao'')
** 孔教 ([[Traditional Chinese|Traditional]] and [[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]])
Three of these four (i.e. ''Rujia'', ''Rujiao'', ''Ruxue'') use the Chinese word ''Ru'', a key Confucian term meaning "scholar," a person who pursues the Confucian ideal of study and self-refinement, often a [[scholar-official]]. These names do not directly use the name "Confucius" (''Kong Zi'') at all, but instead center on the central figure/ideal of the Confucian scholar.
''Rujia'', in addition to "School of the Scholars" also literally means "Scholar house" or "Scholar family."
''Rujiao'' and ''Kongjiao'' contain the Chinese term ''jiao'', the noun "teaching", used in such as terms as "education" or "educator", but also, notably, the term most frequently used for constructing the names of [[religion]]s in Chinese. The Chinese terms for many religions all end with ''jiao'': ''Fojiao'' ("The Teaching of the Buddha", i.e., Buddhism), ''Jidujiao'' ("The Teaching of Christ", i.e., Christiantity), ''Youtaijiao'' ("The Teaching of [[Judah]] or [[Yehuda]]", i.e., Judaism), etc. ''Ruxue'' contains ''xue'', meaning literally "study" or "studies", but parallel to the suffix "-ology" or "-ics", used in the Chinese term for most sciences and academic fields (e.g. ''Huaxue'' 化学, "chemistry"; ''xinlixue'' 心理学, "psychology").
The different names for Confucianism are often used interchangeably, especially in popular culture, though they do have different connotations. For example, many Confucians object strongly to calling Confucianism ''Rujiao'', because this implies, in their view, that it is a superstitious religion rather than a logical philosophy. See discussion of [[Confucianism#Is Confucianism a religion.3F|whether or not Confucianism is a religion]].
==See also==
{{wikiquotepar|Confucius}}
* [[List of Confucianists]]
* [[Traditional Chinese religion]]
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Junzi]]
* [[Confucianism and other schools of thought]]
==External links==
===Translations===
*[http://www.comparative-religion.com/confucianism/ Confucianism and Confucian texts]
*[http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Lunyu The Analects of Confucius] in Chinese with English translations of [[James Legge]] and [[D.C. Lau]]
===Articles and books===
* Creel, Herrlee G. ''Confucius and the Chinese Way.'' Reprint. New York: Harper Torchbooks. (Originally published under the title ''Confucius -- the Man and the Myth.'')
* Fingarette, Herbert. ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/1577660102/103-3648291-0906232?v=glance Confucius: The Secular as Sacred]''. ISBN 1577660102.
* Ivanhoe, Philip J. ''Confucian Moral Self Cultivation.'' 2nd rev. ed., Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
* Nivison, David S. ''The Ways of Confucianism.'' Chicago: Open Court Press.
[[Category:Confucianism| ]]
[[Category:Secularism]]
[[Category:Chinese traditional religion]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[ar:كونفشيوسية]]
[[ca:Confucianisme]]
[[de:Konfuzianismus]]
[[et:Konfutsianism]]
[[es:Confucianismo]]
[[eo:Konfuceismo]]
[[fr:Confucianisme]]
[[gl:Confucionismo]]
[[ko:유교]]
[[id:Konfusianisme]]
[[it:Confucianesimo]]
[[he:קונפוציאניזם]]
[[lv:Konfūcisms]]
[[lt:Konfucianizmas]]
[[hu:Konfucianizmus]]
[[nl:Confucianisme]]
[[nds:Konfuzianismus]]
[[ja:儒教]]
[[no:Konfusianisme]]
[[pl:Konfucjanizm]]
[[pt:Confucionismo]]
[[ru:Конфуцианство]]
[[sk:Konfucianizmus]]
[[sl:Konfucionizem]]
[[sr:Конфучијанизам]]
[[fi:Kungfutselaisuus]]
[[vi:Nho giáo]]
[[zh:儒家]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese philosophy</title>
<id>5822</id>
<revision>
<id>37957713</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T04:58:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Korg</username>
<id>263660</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.104.241.41|70.104.241.41]] to last version by 88.108.166.97</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:yin-yang-and-bagua-near-nanning.jpg|thumb|300px|Yin/Yang symbol and 'ba gua' paved in a clearing outside of Nanning city, Guangxi province.]]
'''[[China|Chinese]] [[philosophy]]''' has a history of several thousand years. Its origins are often traced back to the [[I Ching|Yi Jing]] (the ''Book of Changes''), an ancient compendium of [[divination]], which introduced some of the most fundamental terms of Chinese philosophy. Its age can only be estimated, but it certainly draws from an oracular tradition that goes back to [[neolithic]] times.
== Brief history ==
Early [[Shang Dynasty|Shang]] thought was based upon a cyclic notion of time, corresponding to the seasons. This notion, which remained relevant throughout Chinese history, represents a fundamental distinction from [[western philosophy]], in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, [[fate]] could be manipulated by the great deity [[Shang Di]] ([[Chinese language|ch.]] &#19978;&#24093;; [[pinyin|py]] shàngdì), most frequently translated as "Lord on High". [[Ance |
stitution of the People's Republic of China]] states -
:::''The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.''
===Chief executive officer===
In the vast majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, [[executive branch|executive authority]] is vested, at least ''notionally'', in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, ''[[de facto]]'' chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is ''theoretically'' exercised by the head of state but in practice exercised ''on the advice'' of the prime minister or cabinet. This produces such terms as ''Her Majesty's Government'' and ''His Excellency's Government''. Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[France]], [[Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. The few exceptions include the [[Republic of Ireland]], where executive authority is explicitly vested in the cabinet, and [[Sweden]]. The head of state may also be described as ''commander-in-chief'' of the armed forces, although in parliamentary systems this is only a notional designation.
::'''Example 1 (presidential system):''' Article 2, Section 1 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
:::''The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.''
::'''Example 2 (Victorian era constitutional monarchy):''' Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the [[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] 1900:
:::''The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.''
::'''Example 3 (mid-20th century constitutional monarchy):''' According to Section 12 of the [[Constitution of Denmark]] 1953:
:::''Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers.''
::'''Example 4 (modern republican parliamentary system):''' According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 [[Constitution of Greece]]:
:::''The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and by the government.''
===Chief appointments officer===
*He or she appoints most or all the key officials in the state, including members of the cabinet, the prime minister (if there is one), key judicial figures and all major office holders. In most parliamentary systems the prime minister is appointed with the consent of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the prime minister's advice. Some countries have exceptions - under Article 4 of the [[Constitution of Sweden|Instrument of Government]] 1974, the constitution of Sweden grants to the parliamentary speaker the role of formally appointing the prime minister. In practice, this decision is often a formality. The last time a [[United Kingdom]] monarch actually had a choice over who to pick to be prime minister occurred in 1963, when Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] chose Sir [[Alec Douglas-Home]] to succeed [[Harold Macmillan]]. In presidential systems such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, and this nomination is often subject to parliamentary confirmation (in the case of the U.S., the [[U.S. Senate]] has to approve cabinet nominees and judicial appointments by simple majority).
*He or she may dismiss office-holders. In parliamentary systems, this is only done on the binding ''advice'' of another office-holder; for example, members of the Irish cabinet are dismissed by the [[President of Ireland]] ''on the advice'' of the Taoiseach (prime minister). In some instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder themselves. Many heads of state or their representatives have the ''theoretical power'' to dismiss any office-holder while it is exceptionally rarely used. Its use is sometimes controversial, such as when the Australian Governor-General dismissed the prime minister during the 1975 [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975|Australian Constitutional Crisis]]. In [[France]], while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of his government, he in practice can request it if the prime minister is from his own majority. In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the U.S., convention calls for cabinet secretaries to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.
::'''Example 1 (semi-presidential system):''' Chapter 4, Section 2 of the [[Constitution of the Republic of Korea]] states:
:::''The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.''
::'''Example 2 (parliamentary system):''' Article 13.1.1 of the [[Constitution of Ireland]]:
:::''The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann [the lower house], appoint the Taoiseach [prime minister].''
===Legislative roles===
[[Image:Bushtaxcuts.jpg|right|framed|U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] signs a bill into law at a public ceremony. As Head of State, the President has several ways by which to use the ability to approve or veto a proposed bill, though if he directly vetoes the bill a [[supermajority]] can override it.]]
Most states require that all [[bill (proposed law)|bill]]s passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and the Republic of Ireland, the head of state is in fact formally considered a tier of parliament. In presidential systems the head of state often has power to veto a bill. In most parliamentary systems, however, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, but may, in granting a bill their assent, nevertheless indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as [[promulgation]]. Some [[Commonwealth of Nations]] states call this procedure [[Royal Assent]].
::'''Example 1 (presidential system):''' Article 1, Section 7 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
:::''Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States.''
::'''Example 2 (parliamentary system):''' Section 11.a.1. of the [[Basic Laws of Israel]] states:
:::''The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.''
In some parliamentary systems the head of state retains certain powers, in relation to bills, to be exercised at their discretion. They may have authority to:
*Veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time.
*Reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with the Royal Prerogative; this power is rarely is used).
*Refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality (e.g. the [[President of Ireland]])
*Refer a bill to the people in a [[referendum]] (e.g. the President of Ireland may do so in certain circumstances).
If he is also chief executive, he can thus politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.
===Supreme commander of the military===
*A head of state is generally the notional or literal [[commander-in-chief]] of a state's [[armed forces]], holding the highest office in all military [[chain of command|chains of command]].
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:E II R in Uniform.JPG|right|frame|[[Queen Elizabeth II]], seen here in [[military uniform|uniform]] as [[Colonel-in-Chief]] of the [[Coldstream Guards]], is nominally Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces in each of her realms.]] -->
'''Example:''' Article II, Section 2 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
:::''The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States.''
*In military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from ''coups-de-état'', this position is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond its normal constitutional role, as [[King Albert I of the Belgians]] did during [[World War I]].
===Summoning and dissolving the legislature===
*A head of state is often empowered to ''summon'' and ''dissolve'' the legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is done on the advice of the prime minister or cabinet. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states, however, have fixed term parliaments, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g. Article II, Section 3, of the [[U.S. Constitution]]). In other systems there are fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a prime minister has lost the confidence of parliament, some states allow the head of state to refuse a parliamentary dissolution, where one is requested, forcing the prime minister's resignation.
::'''Example:''' Article 13.2.2. of the [[Constitution of Ireland]] states:
:::''The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve [[Dáil Éireann]] on the advice of a Taoiseach |
dus ex mundis'' of stars, and not -- as other authors sustained at the time -- ephemeral creations, divine instruments, or heavenly messengers. Each comet was a world, a permanent celestial body, formed of the four elements.
Bruno's cosmology is marked by infinitude, homogeneity, and [[isotropy]], with planetary systems distributed evenly throughout. [[Matter]] follows an active [[animism|animistic]] principle: it is [[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]] and discontinuous in structure, made up of discrete [[atom]]s. This animism (and a corresponding disdain for mathematics as a means to understanding) is the most dramatic respect in which Bruno's cosmology differs from what today passes for a common-sense picture of the universe.
== In film and fiction ==
*[http://www.giordanobruno.info/film.html Biography drama ''Giordano Bruno''] directed by Guiliano Montaldo (1973)
*[[Ægypt]], a four-volume novel by [[John Crowley]], includes a major storyline following the adventures of Giordano Bruno, positing among other things two meetings between Bruno and Dr. [[John Dee]].
== Notes==
# {{note|Copernicus}} Sheila Rabin, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/ Nicolaus Copernicus] in the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (online, accessed [[19 November]] [[2005]]).
== References ==
{{wikiquote}}
*''[[Eros and Magic in the Renaissance]]'', [[Ioan P. Couliano]], ISBN 0226123154.
*''Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition'', [[Frances Yates]], ISBN 0226950077
*''Cause, Principle and Unity : And Essays on Magic by Giordano Bruno'', ISBN:0521596580
*''The Cabala of Pegasus by Giordano Bruno'', ISBN: 0300092172
*"[http://www.esotericarchives.com/bruno/home.htm Writings of Giordano Bruno]"
*"[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03016a.htm Giordano Bruno]", ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (1908)
==Legacy==
*The 20-km diameter [[Impact crater|crater]] '''[[Giordano Bruno (crater)|Giordano Bruno]]''', named in Bruno's honor, is located on the [[moon]] at 103° east [[lunar longitude]], 36° north [[lunar latitude]]. It is believed to have been created by a meteorite impact in 1178, witnessed by five English monks as relayed in [[Carl Sagan|Carl Sagan's]] [[Cosmos]].
*In [[1926]] the Theosophical Broadcasting Station Pty Ltd, owned by interests associated with the local branch of [[Theosophical Society Adyar]], was granted a radio broadcasting licence in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]. The station's call sign, "[[2GB]]" was chosen to honour the Italian philosopher who was much admired by Theosophists. Although the ownership of the station subsequently passed to strictly commercial interests the call sign is retained.
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geddy Lee</title>
<id>12964</id>
<revision>
<id>41776705</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:51:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anger22</username>
<id>1008387</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>changed naming standard - see talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:R30geddy.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Geddy Lee <br />(30th Anniversary tour photo 2004)]]
'''Geddy Lee [[Order of Canada|OC]]''' (born '''Gary Lee Weinrib''', [[July 29]], [[1953]]) is a [[Canada|Canadian]] musician who is the [[vocalist]], [[bassist]], and [[keyboardist]] for the [[progressive rock]] group [[Rush (band)|Rush]].
Born in [[Toronto]], [[Canada]], Lee grew up as the son of [[Poles|Polish]] parents who were both survivors of [[Nazi]] [[concentration camps]] [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]] and [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]]. Lee's [[stage name]] (and later legal name) "Geddy" was inspired by the heavily-accented pronunciation of his given first name "Gary" by his grandmother.
In 2004, ''[[Canadian Jewish News]]'' would feature Lee's reflections upon his mother's experiences and his own [[Jewish]] heritage. [http://www.cjnews.com/viewarticle.asp?id=4075]
An award-winning musician, Lee's style, technique, and virtuosity on the [[bass guitar]] have proven very influential in the rock and [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] genres, inspiring (by their own accounts) such players as [[Steve Harris (musician)|Steve Harris]] of [[Iron Maiden]], [[John Myung]] of [[Dream Theater]], [[Les Claypool]] of [[Primus (band)|Primus]], [[Cliff Burton]] of [[Metallica]], and countless others. Lee's vocal style, while less influential, is nonetheless distinctive; one ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' critic opined a negative review in the [[Rolling Stone Album Guide]] that Geddy Lee's voice was a cross between [[Robert Plant]]'s and [[Donald Duck]]'s voices. Reference to the latter in the brief review upset many die-hard fans of Rush and Lee.
[[Image:Geddy-Lee.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Geddy Lee in concert with Rush.<br />Milan, Italy (September 21, 2004)]]
Lee's first solo effort, ''[[My Favorite Headache]]'', was released in [[2000]]. In addition to his composing, arranging, and performing duties for Rush, Lee has produced albums for various other bands, including [[Rocket Science]], and recorded a short rendition of "[[O Canada]]" with Lifeson included on the ''[[South Park]]'' soundtrack. Geddy Lee is also heard singing the minor hit "Take Off" on the [[McKenzie Brothers]] ([[Rick Moranis]] and [[Dave Thomas (actor)|Dave Thomas]]) 1981 comedy album ''The Great White North: Bob and Doug McKenzie''.
Geddy is also a devoted [[baseball]] fan who performed "O Canada" at the 1993 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game]], and took batting practice with the then-[[California Angels]] (circa 1992).
Along with his colleagues [[Alex Lifeson]] and [[Neil Peart]], Lee was made an Officer of the [[Order of Canada]] on [[May 9]], [[1996]]. The trio were the first rock musicians so honoured.
== Instruments ==
Although he has varied his equipment lineup from time to time (experimenting with [[Steinberger]] and Wal basses), Lee has long favored [[Rickenbacker]] basses (particularly the 4001 model, which he used extensively in studio and live shows during most of the 70's and early 80's up to the [[Signals (album)|Signals]] album) and [[Fender]] Jazz basses. In [[2002]], Fender released the [http://www.fender.com/products/search.php?partno=0257702306 Geddy Lee Jazz Bass], a Jazz built to Lee's specifications, which he now uses extensively on tour. In addition to several aesthetic changes, the instrument features upgraded vintage-style pickups and a ''BadAss II'' bass bridge.
== Awards ==
* Bass Hall of Fame - ''Guitar Player Magazine''
* 6 time winner: "Best Rock Bass" - ''Guitar Player Magazine''
* 1993 - "Best Rock Bass Player" ''Bass Player'' readers' poll
{{Rush}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gianfrancesco Poggio Bracciolini</title>
<id>12965</id>
<revision>
<id>15910611</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-12T02:11:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zzyzx11</username>
<id>182902</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merged and redirected to [[Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geologic time scale</title>
<id>12967</id>
<revision>
<id>41372085</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:29:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.215.171.202</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Table of geologic time */ - minor spelling mistake</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align="right"
|-
| __toc__
|}
The '''geologic time scale''' is used by [[geologist]]s and other scientists to describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred during the [[history]] of the [[Earth]]. The table of geologic periods presented here is in accordance with the dates and [[nomenclature]] proposed by the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]], and uses the standard color codes of the [[United States Geologic Survey]].
Current geologic [[Radiometric dating|evidence]] holds that the [[age of the Earth]] is about 4570 million years old. The geologic or ''[[deep time]]'' of Earth's past has been organized into various units according to events which took place in each period. Different spans o |
t there is no holiday on [[26 December]].
==European observance==
In [[Austria]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Hungary]], [[the Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]] and [[Sweden]], the 26th is known as the ''Second day of Christmas'' (''"der zweite Weihnachtsfeiertag"'' in Germany, ''Annandag Jul'' &mdash; "the day after Christmas" &mdash; in Sweden) and is also a public holiday. In Ireland, the holiday is known as [[St Stephen's Day]], or [[Wrens Day|Wren's Day]]; in Austria it is called ''Stefanitag'' and in Finland ''tapaninpäivä'' which also mean "St. Stephen's Day"; in Wales, it is known as ''G&#373;yl San Steffan'' (St. Stephen's Holiday). In [[Catalonia]], this day is known as ''Sant Esteve'', [[Catalan language|Catalan]] for St. Stephen. A practice known as Hunt the [[Wren]] is still practiced by some in the [[Isle of Man]], where people thrash out wrens from [[Hedge (gardening)|hedgerows]]. Traditionally they were killed and their feathers presented to households for good luck. In Germany the days between Christmas and new year are called "the days between the years" (zwischen den Jahren) and becoming more and more important for retailers to clear the unsold christmas goods.
==North American observance==
In both the United States (where the term "Boxing Day" is not used and is in fact unfamiliar to most) and Canada (where, as previously mentioned Boxing Day is observed as a holiday), Boxing Day is the day when many retail stores sell their products at discounted rates. This results in huge lineups at retailers. Stores have these sales to clear out old inventory for the next year; this is often in large part because for many US corporations and proprietorships, there is a millage tax (similar to property taxes) on any inventory retained as of [[1 January]] of each year (or [[7 January]]/[[15 January]] in some tax jurisdictions). Thus it behooves retailers to clear out as much retained inventory as possible to avoid the millage tax consequences.
Many products have a [[mail-in rebate]] to be used, a tactic used by manufacturers to clear their inventory. This trend is also increasingly occurring in the UK (despite it being a public holiday).
==Events on Boxing Day==
*[[Boxing Day Test]] ([[Test cricket|Test Match]] [[cricket]])
*[[Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race]]
*[[Football in England|English]] and [[Football in Scotland|Scottish Football]] matches
*[[Junkanoo]] is celebrated in [[The Commonwealth of The Bahamas]]
==References==
* {{Note|mw}} [http://www.merriamwebster.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=boxing+day Merriam Webster] and [http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-9317905 Encyclopedia Britannica] describing Boxing day as "the first weekday after Christmas", where [http://www.merriamwebster.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=weekday weekday] may or may not include Saturday.
* {{Note|smh}} The [http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2004/11_november/17/radio4_sun26.shtml British Broadcasting Corporation] refers to Sunday, [[26 December]] as "Boxing Day"
==External links==
* [http://www.snopes.com/holidays/christmas/boxing.asp The Origins of Boxing Day] (from [[Snopes.com]]) - A discussion of various theories on the origin of Boxing Day
* [http://www.n-chicken.net/features/boxingday/boxday.shtml Boxing Day: A Bafflingly Mysterious Enigma Puzzle] - Humorous (ficional) speculation on Boxing Day's origins.
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[[ga:Lá 'le Stiofán]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bogosity</title>
<id>4683</id>
<revision>
<id>15902943</id>
<timestamp>2003-02-19T01:26:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MyRedDice</username>
<id>5862</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Quantum bogodynamics]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Quantum bogodynamics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bungy jumping</title>
<id>4685</id>
<revision>
<id>15902945</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-03T16:33:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Moving to the more common spelling.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bungee jumping]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balochistan</title>
<id>4686</id>
<revision>
<id>37776854</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T02:12:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Khoikhoi</username>
<id>657950</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The name Balochistan or Baluchistan refers to several articles:
* '''[[Balochistan (region)]]''' is the name of a large region covering southwest [[Pakistan]] and southeast [[Iran]].
* '''[[Balochistan (Pakistan)]]''' is the name of a province of Pakistan.
* '''[[Balochistan (Iran)]]''' is part of the Iranian province of [[Sistan and Baluchistan Province|Sistan va Baluchestan]].
* '''[[Baluchistan (Chief Commissioners Province)]]''' refers to a former province of Pakistan and [[Provinces of India|British India]].
* '''[[Baluchistan States Union]]''' refers to a short-lived region of Pakistan.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balochistan (Pakistan)</title>
<id>4687</id>
<revision>
<id>41179098</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T16:03:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Siddiqui</username>
<id>308269</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* British Era */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Pakistan infobox|
region = Balochistan |
flag = Pk-bal.gif |
map = PakistanBalochistan.png |
capital = [[Quetta]] |
latd = 30.12 |
longd = 67.01 |
pop_year = 2003 |
population = 7,167,554 |
density = 20.64|
area = 347,190 |
languages = [[Balochi language|Balochi]] <br> [[Pushtu language|Pashto]] <br> [[Brahui language|Brahui]] <br> [[Persian language|Persian]] (Farsi)|
status = Province |
districts = 26 |
towns = |
unions = |
established = 1st July 1970|
governor = Owais Ahmed Ghani |
minister = Jam Muhammad Yousaf |
legislature = Provincial Assembly |
seats = 65 |
website = www.balochistan.gov.pk |
website_title = Gov't of Balochistan |
footnotes = |
}}
{{otheruses4|the Pakistani province of Balochistan|other uses|Balochistan}}
The province of '''Balochistan''' (or '''Baluchistan''') in [[Pakistan]] contains most of historical [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] and is named after the [[Baloch]]. Neighbouring regions are [[Iranian Balochistan]] to the west, [[Afghanistan]] and [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Pakistan]] to the north and [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]] to the east. To the south is the [[Arabian Sea]]. The principal languages in the province are [[Balochi language|Baluchi]], [[Pashto]], [[Brahui language|Brahui]], and [[Persian language|Persian]] (Farsi). The capital and largest city is [[Quetta]].
==Geography==
Balochistan is located at the eastern edge of the [[Iranian plateau]] and in the difficult to define border region between [[Southwest Asia|Southwest]], [[Central Asia|Central]], and [[South Asia]]. It is geographically the largest of the four provinces at [[1 E11 m²|347,190]] [[square kilometre|km²]] and composes 42% of the total land area of Pakistan. The [[population density]] is very low due to the mountainous terrain and scarcity of water. The southern region is known as [[Makran]]. A region in the centre of the province is known as [[Kalat]].
The [[Sulaiman Mountains]] dominate the northeast corner and the [[Bolan Pass]] is a natural route into Afghanistan towards [[Kandahar]]. Much of the province south of the Quetta region is sparse desert terrain with pockets of inhabitable towns mostly near rivers and streams.
The capital city is [[Quetta]], located in the most densely populated district in the northeast of the province. Quetta is situated in a river valley near the border with Afghanistan, with a road to [[Kandahar]] in the northwest.
At [[Gwadar]] on the coast the Pakistani government is currently undertaking a large project with Chinese help to build a large port. This is being done partially to provide the [[Pakistan Navy]] with another base, and to reduce Pakistan's reliance on [[Port of Karachi|Karachi]] and [[Port Qasim]], which are currently the only major ports.
==Climate==
{{sect-stub}}
==Demographics and society==
Balochistan has a population of around 7 million inhabitants. The Baloch numerically dominate the south of the province, while the [[Pashtuns]] are the majority in and around Quetta and the north. Near the [[Kalat]] region and other parts of the region the [[Brahui]] are a significant presence, while along the coast various [[Makrani]] peoples of mixed origins can be found such as the [[Meds]] and small groups of descendents of African slaves known as the [[Hubshi]] can also be found. [[Persian language|Persian]]-speaking [[Dehwars]] also live in the Kalat region and further west towards the border with Iran. In addition, hundreds of thousands of [[Afghan]] refugees can be found in the province including Pashtuns, [[Tajiks]], and [[Hazara]]s. [[Sindhi]] farmers have also moved to the more arable lands in the east.
==History==
:''See also the general history and culture of the historic region of [[Balochistan]]''.
===Ancient History===
Balochistan was the site of the earliest known [[farming]] settlements between [ |
Israelites to northern parts of the Assyrian empire. There was peace in the area for 10 years or so , but then, Sargon returned in 711 to crush a coalition of Egypt and the Philistines. [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] had stayed out of this conflict, [[Hezekiah]] wisely listening to Isaiah’s advice.
[[Hezekiah]] and Sennacherib:
Sennacherib came to the throne of Assyria in 705. He had trouble immediately – with Ethiopian monarchs in Egypt and with the Babylonian leader, Merodach-Baladan. Despite Isaiah’s warnings, [[Hezekiah]] became involved as well. The Assyrians invaded the area, taking 46 towns before putting [[Jerusalem]] under siege. Isaiah persuaded [[Hezekiah]] to trust in the Lord and [[Jerusalem]] was spared.
[[Babylon]]:
Merodach-Baladan took power in [[Babylon]] in 721. Sargon entered [[Babylon]] without a fight in 711, but after Sargon’s death, Merodach-Baladan rebelled against Sennacherib. [[Babylon]] was defeated this time but would revive in another century to defeat Assyria and subjugate the [[Jew|Jews]] and destroy [[Jerusalem]].
==Themes==
[[Image:William Strutt Peace 1896.jpg|thumb|''Peace'', 1896 etching by [[William Strutt]], based upon Isaiah 11:6,7]]
Isaiah is concerned with the connection between worship and ethical behavior. One of his major themes is God's refusal to accept the ritual worship of those who are treating others with cruelty and injustice.
Isaiah speaks also of [[idolatry]], which was common at the time. The Canaanite worship, which involved fertility rites, including sexual practices forbidden by [[Jewish law]], had become popular among the [[Jew|Jewish]] people. Isaiah picks up on a theme used by other prophets and tells [[Judah (biblical figure)|Judah]] that the nation of Israel is like a wife who is committing adultery, having run away from her true husband, God.
An important theme is that God is the God of the whole earth. Many gods of the time were believed to be local gods or national gods who could participate in warfare and be defeated by each other. The concern of these gods was the protection of their own particular nations. Isaiah's God is a conceived as the only true god, and the god of all humankind, not just the Israelite nation.
No one can defeat God; if God's people suffer defeat in battle, it is only because God chooses for that to happen. Furthermore, God is concerned with more than the Jewish people. God has called [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and [[Israel]] His covenant people for the specific purpose of teaching the world about Him.
A unifying theme found throughout the Book of Isaiah is the use of the expression of "the Holy One of Israel". This is a title for God that is found 12 times in chapters 1-39 and 14 times in chapters 40-66. This expression is unique within the [[Old Testament]] to the book of Isaiah which suggests that, although scholars believe that the book of Isaiah was written in various sections by different authors (on which, more below), the work was intended to be a unified body evidenced with the attention to literary consistency.
A final thematic goal that Isaiah constantly leans toward throughout the writing is the establishment of God's kingdom on earth, with rulers and subjects to who strive to live by the will of God.
==Authorship issues==
===Critical positions===
One of the most critically debated issues in Isaiah is the proposal that it is the work of more than a single author. Different proposals suggest that there have been two or three main authors, while alternative views suggest an additional number of minor authors or editors. (The idea is not that dissimilar to the process used on Wikipedia: an initial section of text, much more than a stub, may have been edited in minor ways before one or maybe two more authors added substantial blocks of material. A small amount of further editing proceeded after that before the final text was 'protected').
Almost all scholars who accept that there are multiple authors recognise some sort of division at the end of chapter 39. Supporters of the three author proposal see a further division at the end of chapter 55. For most of the twentieth century the three-author position was the most widely held; in the 1990s, more complex and carefully nuanced positions (such as that from Williamson, 1994) started to appear.
The typical objections to single authorship of the book of Isaiah are as follows:
#Anonymity&#8594; That is to say that Isaiah’s name is suddenly not used from chapter 40-66.
#Style &#8594; There is a sudden change in the mood of the book from Isaiah after chapter 40.
#Historical Situation &#8594; If this were one man, then he would have to have intimate knowledge of a time 150 years after his life.
These and other considerations have led most modern critical scholars to conclude that the book of Isaiah, in its present form, is the result of an extensive editing process, in which the promises of God's salvation are re-interpreted and claimed for the Judean people through the history of their exile and return to the land of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. Since it is probably useless to try to reconstruct a precise account of the history of the book's composition (though many have tried), biblical scholars such as [[Brevard Childs]] have argued for reading the book as a literary unity. In fact, the most notable change in the scholarly climate has been a recognition that even if the book is the work of many editors, it has been bequeathed to us as a unity, and should be studied as such. Current research is exploring the book's ''intertextuality'', the allusions and references later editors made to connect the different layers of the book.
===The Traditional position===
While critical scholars are united in a multiple author theory, there are writers, especially in the [[Fundamentalist]] [[Protestant]] and traditionalist [[Catholic]] traditions, who maintain the unity of Isaiah. An example of the approach is illistrated by the words of Jesus Christ in John 12:38-40.
38This was to fulfill the word of Isaiah the prophet:
"Lord, who has believed our message
and to whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?"
39For this reason they could not believe, because, as <b>Isaiah says elsewhere:</b>
40"He has blinded their eyes
and deadened their hearts,
so they can neither see with their eyes,
nor understand with their hearts,
nor turn—and I would heal them."
The linking passage, verse 39, between the two passages says that the same Isaiah wrote them both. Since verse 38 comes from Isaiah 53:1 and verse 40 comes from Isaiah 6:10, there cannot be two books of Isaiah, or two separate people who contributed to the one book. Other references would appeal to [[Josephus| Josephus]], who attributes both sections of the book of Isaiah to a single author, and would point to the distinctive use of the title "the Holy One of Israel" for [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] as a unifying theme.
==Use in the New Testament==
Isaiah was quoted extensively by the authors of the New Testament. A selection of such quotations is discussed here.
===Principal passages===
One of the most famous quotations from Isaiah in the New Testament is the citation of '''Isa. 7:14''' in [[Matthew 1:23|Matt. 1:23]]. This passage is a prophecy about a "virgin" who shall bear a child. Matthew states that this passage refers to the birth of Jesus. Modern scholars believe that the prophecy originally referred to a young woman of Isaiah's own day, who was not necessarily a virgin, in modern terms; the context indicates that she would have her child within the year.
'''Isaiah 61:6''' is cited in 1 Peter 2:9. Isaiah prophesies that Israel will become a holy priesthood in which everyone serves the Lord. Peter applies this to the Christian Church.
Romans 9:27-29, in discussing the history of Israel's relationship with God, quotes '''Isaiah 1:9''' and '''Isaiah 10:22-23'''. Following that, in Romans 9:33, Paul refers to Isaiah 8:14 and 28:16, and applies them to [[Jesus]], the precious stone over which Israel stumbles.
'''Isaiah 6:9''' is echoed in Matthew 13:14-15 and in Mark 4:12, where a reference to the telling of God's truth in stories, so that people will see but not see the point, and hear but not hear the meaning, is applied to [[Jesus]], who was known for his parables, or stories which told God's truths.
'''Isaiah 8:12''' is cited in 1 Peter 3:14, as Peter counsels Christians to be unafraid, as Isaiah counselled the Jews who trusted God to be unafraid.
In 1 Peter 1:24-25, asserting the enduring value of the Scriptures, Peter refers to '''Isaiah 40:6-8.''' In 1 Peter 2:6-8, he, like Paul, uses '''Isaiah 8:14''' and '''28:16''' to refer to Jesus.
'''Isaiah 8:17-18''' are cited in Hebrews 2:13.
'''Isaiah 9:1''' is cited in [[Matthew 4:15]]-[[Matthew 4:16|16]], as Matthew applies the prophecy of a light shining to those in darkness to Jesus' ministry in the parts of the country described in the passage.
===Additional passages===
Some other Isaiah passages are listed below, with the comparable [[New Testament]] passage(s) following each one, indented and in italics.
'''Is. 1:9''' If the LORD of hosts
had not left us a few survivors,
we would have been like Sodom,
and become like Gomorrah.
::''Rom. 9:29 And as Isaiah predicted, “If the Lord of hosts had not left survivors to us, we would have fared like Sodom and been made like Gomorrah.”''
'''Is. 6:9''' And he said, “Go and say to this people:
‘Keep listening, but do not comprehend;
keep looking, but do not understand.’
::''Matt. 13:14, 15 With them indeed is fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah that says: ‘You will indeed listen, but never understand, and you will indeed look, but never perceive. For this people’s heart has grown dull, and their ears are hard of hearing, and they have shut their eyes; so that they might n |
"primary ether"'', ''"secondary ether"'', and ''"tertiary ether"'' are occasionally used and refer to the carbon atom next to the ether oxygen. In a ''primary ether'' this carbon is connected to only one other carbon as in [[diethyl ether]] CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-O-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub>. An example of a ''secondary ether'' is [[diisopropyl ether]] (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CH-O-CH(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> and that of a ''tertiary ether'' is [[di-tert-butyl ether]] (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>C-O-C(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>.
<center>
[[Image:Dimethylether chemical structure.png|40px|Dimethyl ether]]
[[Image:Diethylether chemical structure.png|72px|A primary ether (diethyl ether)]]
[[Image:Diisopropyl ether chemical structure.png|71px|A secondary ether (diisopropyl ether)]]
[[Image:Di-tert-butyl ether chemical structure.png|72px|A tertiary ether (di-''tert''-butyl ether)]]
<br>
Dimethyl ether, a ''primary'', a ''secondary'', and a ''tertiary ether''.
</center>
== Polyethers ==
Polyethers are compounds with more than one ether group. While the term generally refers to [[polymer]]s like [[polyethylene glycol]] and [[polypropylene glycol]], low molecular compounds such as the [[crown ether]]s may sometimes be included.
== Chemical reactions ==
=== Synthesis ===
# [[Alcohol|R-OH]] + R-OH &rarr; R-O-R + [[Water_(molecule)|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
#: This direct reaction requires drastic conditions (heat and an acid catalyst) and is usually not applicable. Such conditions can destroy the delicate structures of some [[functional group]]s. There exist several milder methods to produce ethers.
# [[Alkoxide|R-O<sup>-</sup>]] + [[Alkyl halide|R-X]] &rarr; R-O-R + [[Halide|X<sup>-</sup>]]
#: This is called [[Williamson ether synthesis]]. It involves treatment of a parent [[alcohol]] with a strong [[Base_(chemistry)|base]] to form the alkoxide [[anion]] followed by addition of an appropriate aliphatic compound bearing a suitable [[leaving group]] (R-X). Suitable leaving groups (X) include [[iodide]], [[bromide]], or [[sulfonate]]s. This method does not work if R is aromatic like in [[bromobenzene]]. Likewise, this method only gives the best yields for primary carbons, as secondary carbons will undergo E2 elimination on exposure to the basic alkoxide anion used in the reaction. Aryl ethers can be prepared in the [[Ullmann condensation]].
# [[alkene|R<sub>2</sub>C=CR<sub>2</sub>]] + R-OH &rarr; R<sub>2</sub>CH-C(-O-R)-R<sub>2</sub> (under [[acid]] [[catalysis]])
=== Reactions ===
Ethers are of very low chemical [[reactivity]]. They are [[Hydrolysis|hydrolyzed]] only under drastic conditions like heating with [[boron tribromide]] or boiling in [[hydrobromic acid]]. Lower mineral acids containing a halogen, such as [[hydrochloric acid]] will cleave ethers, but very slowly. Hydrobromic acid and [[hydroiodic acid]] are the only two that do so at an appreciable rate
Ethers can act as [[Lewis base]]s. For instance, diethyl ether forms a complex with [[boron]] compounds, such as [[boron trifluoride]] diethyl etherate .F<sub>3</sub>B:O(CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>
[[Epoxide]]s, or cyclic ethers in three-membered rings, are highly susceptible to nucleophilic attack and are reactive in this fashion.
[[Image:Diethylether peroxide chemical structure.png|frame|Structure of the polymeric diethyl ether peroxide]]
Primary and secondary ethers with a CH group next to the ether oxygen easily form highly [[Explosive material|explosive]] [[organic peroxide]]s (e.g. [[diethyl ether peroxide]]) in the presence of oxygen, light, and metal and [[aldehyde]] impurities. For this reason ethers like diethyl ether and [[Tetrahydrofuran|THF]] are usually avoided as [[solvent]]s in industrial processes.
== Physical properties ==
Ether molecules cannot form [[hydrogen bond]]s among each other, resulting in a relatively low [[boiling point]] comparable to that of the analogous [[alkane]]s. Ethers are more [[hydrophobic]] than esters or [[amide]]s of comparable structure.
== Nomenclature ==
In the [[IUPAC nomenclature]] system, ethers are named using the general formula ''"alkoxyalkane"'', for example CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-O-CH<sub>3</sub> is methoxyethane. If the ether is part of a more complex molecule, it is described as an alkoxy substituent, so -OCH<sub>3</sub> would be considered a ''"[[methoxy]]-"'' group. The nomenclature of describing the two alkyl groups and appending ''"ether"'', e.g. ''"ethyl methyl ether"'' in the example above, is a [[trivial name|trivial usage]].
== Important ethers ==
* [[Ethylene oxide]], the smallest cyclic ether: [[Image:Ethylene oxide chemical structure.png|28px|Chemical structure of ethylene oxide]]
* [[Dimethyl ether]], an [[aerosol spray#Propellant|aerosol spray propellant]]: [[Image:Dimethylether chemical structure.png|40px|Chemical structure of dimethyl ether]]
* [[Diethyl ether]], a common low boiling solvent: [[Image:Diethylether chemical structure.png|72px|Chemical structure of diethyl ether]]
* [[Dimethoxyethane]], a high boiling solvent: [[Image:Dimethoxyethane chemical structure.png|86px|Chemical structure of dimethoxyethane]]
* [[Dioxane]], a cyclic ether and high boiling solvent: [[Image:Dioxane chemical structure.png|41px|Chemical structure of dioxane]]
* [[Tetrahydrofuran|THF]], a cyclic ether, one of the most polar simple ethers that is used as a solvent: [[Image:THF chemical structure.png|37px|Chemical structure of THF]]
* [[Anisole]] (methoxybenzene), a major constituent of the [[essential oil]] of [[anise]] seed: [[Image:Anisole chemical structure.png|37px|Chemical structure of anisole]]
* [[Crown ether]]s, cyclic polyethers that are used as [[phase transfer catalyst]]s: [[Image:18-crown-6 chemical structure.png|55px|Chemical structure of 18-crown-6]]
* [[Polyethylene glycol]], a linear polyether, e.g. used in [[cosmetics]]: [[Image:Polyethylene glycol chemical structure.png|86px|Chemical structure of polyethylene glycol]]
== See also ==
* [[Functional group]]
* [[Methoxy]]
* [[Petroleum ether]], not an ether but a low boiling alkane mixture.
* [[Thioether]], analogs of ethers with the oxygen replaced by sulfur.
== External links ==
* [http://www.ilpi.com/msds/ref/ether.html ILPI] page about ethers.
[[Category:Ethers]]
[[bg:Етер]]
[[de:Ether]]
[[es:Éter (química)]]
[[eo:Etero]]
[[fr:Éther (chimie)]]
[[ko:에터]]
[[it:Eteri]]
[[he:אתר (כימיה)]]
[[hu:Éter (kémia)]]
[[nl:Ether (chemie)]]
[[ja:エーテル (化学)]]
[[no:Eter]]
[[nn:Eterar]]
[[pl:Eter (chemia)]]
[[pt:Éter]]
[[ru:Простые эфиры]]
[[sr:Етар (хемија)]]
[[sv:Eter (kemikalie)]]
[[vi:Ete]]
[[zh:醚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ecliptic</title>
<id>9264</id>
<revision>
<id>42122757</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:44:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>206.124.131.3</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ xlinks with diagrams [[User:Twang|Twang]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:ecliptic.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|The plane of the ecliptic is well seen in this picture from the [[1994]] lunar prospecting [[Clementine mission|Clementine]] [[spacecraft]]. Clementine's camera reveals (from right to left) the [[Moon]] lit by [[Earthshine]], the [[Sun]]'s glare rising over the Moon's dark [[limb]], and the planets [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]], [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] (the three dots at lower left).]]
{{Expandarticle}}
{{expert}}
The '''ecliptic plane''' is the geometric [[plane (mathematics)|plane]] that contains the [[orbit]] of the [[Earth]]. The '''ecliptic''' is the intersection of the ecliptic plane and the [[celestial sphere]]. A more intuitive definition would be to say that the ecliptic is the apparent path of the Sun during a year as seen from Earth. The orbits of most [[planet]]s in the [[Solar System]] lie very close to it. Seen from the Earth, this is a bisecting [[great circle]], superimposed upon the [[celestial sphere]], which contains the different [[point]]s of the [[Sun]]'s path, relative to the background [[star]]s, over the course of a [[year]]. The [[zodiac]] also lies along the '''ecliptic plane'''. The ecliptic plane is [[inclination|inclined]] by ~23.5°, with respect to the [[celestial equator]]; a result of [[axial tilt]]. The [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|orbital plane]] of the [[Moon]] is inclined by ~5°, with respect to the ecliptic.
Because there are ~365.25 [[day]]s in a [[year]] and 360 [[degree (angle)|degree]]s in a [[circle]], the Sun appears to move along the ecliptic at a rate of about 1° per day. This motion is from [[Cardinal directions|west]] to [[Cardinal directions|east]], in opposition to the apparent east-west movement of the [[celestial sphere]].
The ecliptic and the celestial equator intersect at two points, directly opposite one another. These are the [[equinox]]es and when the Sun appears at these points, day and night are each about 12 hours long at all locations on Earth. The normals to the ecliptic plane are the ecliptic poles, which are named North and South after the closest terrestrial pole, about 23.5° away.
The point on the ecliptic that is farthest north of the celestial equator is called the [[summer solstice]] in the northern hemisphere, and the [[winter solstice]] in the southern hemisphere. When the Sun is farthest south of the celestial equator the reverse is true. The Sun's apparent annual motion along the ecliptic, a result of the Earth's orbital motion and [[inclination]], is illustrated in the following figure. The |
-
|{{SWEf}}
| -
| -
|1 ([[Football World Cup 1958|1958]]*)
|}
Six of the seven champions have won at least once while playing in their own homeland. This is a major reason why nations actively lobby to be selected as hosts, leading to the frequent accusation that FIFA arranges favourable refereeing and draws for them.
The only previous winner to have lost on home ground is [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]], who dropped the deciding match when they hosted the [[Football World Cup 1950|1950]] tournament. Even traditionally "weaker" nations have been successful during their spell as hosts. [[South Korea national football team|South Korea]], which had never managed to pass the first round, made it to the semifinals as a co-host in [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]]. [[England national football team|England]] ({{Wc|1966}}) and [[France national football team|France]] ({{Wc|1998}}) won their only Cups while playing as host nations.
Seventy-eight nations have qualified for the final tournament at least once. The top 10 national teams in terms of the number of appearances are (includes appearances in the upcoming [[2006 Football World Cup]]):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Appearances!!Team
|-
|18||{{BRAf}}
|-
|16||{{GERf}}<br>{{ITAf}}
|-
|14||{{ARGf}}
|-
|13||{{MEXf}}
|-
|12||{{ENGf}}<br>{{FRAf}}<br>{{ESPf}}
|-
|11||{{BELf}}<br>{{SWEf}}
|}
===Best performances by continental zones===
{{seealso|National team appearances in the FIFA World Cup}}
To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by [[UEFA|European]] and/or [[CONMEBOL|South American]] teams.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Continent!!Best performance
|-
|[[CONMEBOL|South America]]||9 titles, won by [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]], [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]], and [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]]
|-
|[[UEFA|Europe]]||8 titles, won by [[Germany national football team|Germany]], [[Italy national football team|Italy]], [[England national football team|England]], and [[France national football team|France]]
|-
|[[CONCACAF|North America]]||Semifinal ([[United States men's national soccer team|USA]], [[Football World Cup 1930|1930]])
|-
|[[Asian Football Confederation|Asia]]||Semifinal ([[South Korea national football team|South Korea]], [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]])
|-
|[[Confederation of African Football|Africa]]||Quarterfinal ([[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]], [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]]; [[Senegal national football team|Senegal]], [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]])
|-
|[[Oceania Football Confederation|Oceania]]||First round ([[Australia national football (soccer) team|Australia]], [[Football World Cup 1974|1974]]; [[New Zealand national soccer team|New Zealand]], [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]])
|}
==Awards==
{{main|FIFA World Cup awards}}
At the end of each World Cup final tournament, six awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than winning the tournament outright.
There are currently six awards:
*The '''adidas Golden Shoe''' (formerly called the '''Golden Shoe''', or, sometimes, the ''Golden Boot'', first awarded in 1930) for top goal scorer;
*The '''adidas Golden Ball''' for best player (formerly called the '''Golden Ball''', first awarded in [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]]);
*The '''Yashin Award''' for best goalkeeper (first awarded in [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]]);
*The '''FIFA Fair Play Award''' for the team with the best record of fair play (first awarded in [[Football World Cup 1978|1978]]);
*The '''Most Entertaining Team''' award for the team that has entertained the public the most, during the World Cup final tournament, as determined by a poll of the general public, first awarded in [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]];
*The '''Gillette Best Young Player''' award for best player under 21 years of age at the start of the calendar year, which will be awarded for the first time in [[Football World Cup 2006|2006]].
==Records and statistics==
{{main|FIFA World Cup records}}
* '''Largest margin of victory''': Hungary 9-0 South Korea, [[Football World Cup 1954|1954]]; Yugoslavia 9-0 Zaire [[Football World Cup 1974|1974]]; Hungary 10-1 El Salvador, [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]]
* '''Fastest goal from kickoff''': [[Hakan Şükür]], 11 seconds, Turkey vs South Korea, [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]]
* '''Most World Cup tournament appearances''': [[Antonio Carbajal]] (Mexico, 1950-1966) and [[Lothar Matthäus]] (West Germany and Germany, 1982-1998), 5
* '''Most World Cup match appearances''': [[Lothar Matthäus]], 25
* '''Most Caps''': [[Kristine Lilly]] (2006), 302
* '''Most goals scored''': [[Gerd Müller]] (West Germany 1970-1974), 14
* '''Most goals scored in one tournament''': [[Just Fontaine]] (France), 13, [[Football World Cup 1958|1958]]
* '''Oldest player and goalscorer''': [[Roger Milla]], 42 years and 39 days, Cameroon vs Russia, [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]]
==References==
<!--See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
<references/>
==See also==
*[[FIFA Women's World Cup]]
*[[Homeless World Cup]]
*[[FIFA World Cup mascot]]
*[[List of national football teams]]
*[[World Cup|List of other competitions named World Cup]]
*[[List of sporting events]]
==External links==
* [http://www.fifa.com/en/index.html FIFA organization official site]
* [http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/ FIFA World Cup Germany 2006 Official Site]
* [http://www.fifa.com/infoplus/IP-201_02E_WC-origin.pdf FIFA Official Ranking of all Participants at Finals 1930-2002 (PDF)]
* [http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/p/pwc/index.html FIFA Match Results for all Stages 1930-2002]
* [http://www.worldcup-history.com WorldCup-History.com]
*[http://www.soschildrensvillages.org.uk/charity-news/six-villages.htm Official FIFA World Cup Charity Campaign]
* [http://www.planetworldcup.com ''Planet World Cup'' with information on each men's World Cup finals]
* [http://www.worldcupblog.org World Cup Blog]
* [http://www.geocities.com/worldcupspreadsheet World Cup 2006 spreadsheet - computes standings from scores]
{{fb start}}
{{International Football}}
{{Football World Cup}}
{{fb end}}
[[Category:Football World Cup|*]]
[[Category:International national football competitions|World Cup]]
[[ar:كأس العالم لكرة القدم]]
[[bg:Световно първенство по футбол]]
[[bs:SP u nogometu]]
[[cs:Mistrovství světa ve fotbale]]
[[da:Verdensmesterskab (fodbold)]]
[[de:Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft]]
[[et:Jalgpalli maailmameistrivõistlused]]
[[es:Copa Mundial de Fútbol]]
[[eo:Mond-Pokalo de Futbalo]]
[[fa:جام جهانی فوتبال]]
[[fr:Coupe du monde de football]]
[[ga:Corn Sacair an Domhain]]
[[ko:축구 월드컵]]
[[id:Piala Dunia FIFA]]
[[it:Campionato mondiale di calcio]]
[[he:גביע העולם בכדורגל]]
[[lv:FIFA Pasaules kauss]]
[[lt:Pasaulio futbolo čempionatas]]
[[nl:Wereldkampioenschap voetbal]]
[[ja:FIFAワールドカップ]]
[[no:Verdensmesterskapet i fotball]]
[[pl:Mistrzostwa świata w piłce nożnej]]
[[pt:Copa do Mundo]]
[[ru:Чемпионат мира ФИФА]]
[[sq:Kampionati Botëror i Futbollit]]
[[simple:FIFA World Cup]]
[[sl:Svetovno prvenstvo v nogometu]]
[[sr:Светско првенство у фудбалу]]
[[fi:Jalkapallon maailmanmestaruuskilpailut]]
[[sv:VM i fotboll]]
[[ta:உலகக்கோப்பை காற்பந்து]]
[[th:ฟุตบอลโลก]]
[[vi:Giải vô địch bóng đá thế giới]]
[[uk:Чемпіонат світу з футболу]]
[[zh:世界盃足球賽]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fabius Maximus</title>
<id>11371</id>
<revision>
<id>41857834</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:39:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Bishop</username>
<id>13008</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wikify what?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus''' (c. [[275 BC]]-[[203 BC]]), called '''Cunctator''' (''the Delayer''), was a Roman politician and soldier, born in [[Rome]] around [[275 BC]] and died in Rome in [[203 BC]]. He was [[consul]] five times ([[233 BC]], [[228 BC]], [[215 BC]], [[214 BC]] and [[208 BC]]) and was twice [[Roman dictator|dictator]], [[221 BC|221?]]&ndash;[[219 BC]], and [[217 BC]]. His nickname '''Cunctator''' (akin to the [[English language|English]] [[noun]] ''cunctation'') means "delayer" in [[Latin]], and refers to his [[tactics]] in deploying the troops during the [[Second Punic War]]. His cognomen ''Verrucosus'' means ''warty''.
Descended from an ancient [[patrician]] family, the [[Fabii]], he was a grandson of Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges and a great-grandson of [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus]], both famous consuls. He probably participated in the [[First Punic War]], although no details of his role are known. After the end of the war he rapidly advanced his political career. He served twice as [[consul]] and [[censor]] and in [[218 BC]] he took part in the embassy to [[Carthage]]. It was Fabius who formally declared war on the city after the capture of [[Sagonte]] by [[Hannibal]]. The [[Roman Senate|Senate]] named him dictator in [[217 BC]] after the disaster at the [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]] in June of that year; this was unusual, as dictators were usually elected by the consuls.
Fabius was well-aware of the military superiority of the Carthaginians, and when Hannibal invaded [[Italy]] he refused to meet him in a pitched battle. Instead he kept his troops close to Hannibal, hoping to exhaust him in a long [[war of attrition]]. Fabius was able to harass the Carthaginian foraging parties, limiting Hannibal's ability to wreak destruction while conserving his own military force.
The Romans were unimpressed with this defensive strategy and at first gave Fabius his nickname as an insult. The strategy was in part ruined because of a lack of unity in the command of the Roman army: the [[magister equitum]], Minucius, was a political enemy of Fabius. It was only after Fabius had saved him from an attack by Hannibal that Minuciu |
and music-to-film [[synchronisation]]. Further, Satie became one of the first musicians to perform a [[cameo appearance]] - he was in a [[1924]] film by [[René Clair]] (see: [http://hem.fyristorg.com/ebay/wav/entracte.rm a sample of the film (rm format)] and the ''[[Entr'acte]]'' article).
All by himself Satie appears to have been the avant-garde to half of the avant-garde movements of the [[20th century]]. Many of these "precursorisms" are possibly based on quite superficial resemblances only, while, on the other hand, he undeniably inspired and influenced many later artists, and their ideas. According to Milhaud, Satie had "prophesied the major movements in classical music to appear over the next fifty years within his own body of work." There is a website exploring that theory in detail: [http://www.comcen.com.au/~carowley/index.html Erik Satie's Crystal Ball]
'''Satie as humorist''': many would be surprised to know how many of Satie's seemingly humorous compositions were at heart taken very seriously by him. When he forbade commentaries written in his [[Partition#Music|partition]]s to be read aloud, he probably saw this himself as a means to safeguard the seriousness of his intentions. When, at the first public performance of ''[[Socrate]]'', there was laughter, he felt hurt. Many other examples of his serious attitude can be found, but there's no doubt that Satie was a witty person, certainly not without many humorous [[idiosyncrasy|idiosyncrasies]].
'''Satie and compositions in three parts''': although many of his compositions (e.g., most of the pre-[[World War I|war]] piano pieces) were indeed in three parts, there is no general rule in this respect. After his death, publishers would force more of them into an artificial three-part structure; Satie had actually already made a joke of such proceedings with his seven-part ''[[Trois Morceaux en forme de poire]]''.
'''Satie and (lack of) money''': although Satie certainly knew periods of dire poverty, and was perhaps a little uncontrollable in his spending, in long periods of his life he had few worries in this sense. Although maybe not having much money in his pockets, he was (certainly from the second decade of the [[20th century|new century]]) often invited to expensive restaurants and to all sort of events, and was given financial help, by all sort of people.
'''Satie as an opponent of other musical styles'''. The musical styles Satie opposed were allegedly numerous: Wagnerism, Romanticism (Saint-Saëns, Franck, etc.), Impressionism (Debussy and Ravel), [[Expressionism]] (later Ravel), [[Slavism]] (Stravinsky), [[post-Wagnerism]] ([[Arnold Schoenberg|Schoenberg]]), [[cabaret]] music, etc. Apart from some animosities on the personal level (which can be seen as symptomatic of most adherents of avant-garde movements of those days), Satie's ideas on other music of his time generally had more subtlety; for example, about [[César Franck]] he could not be brought to write critically, but would avoid the issue with jokes ("Franck's music shows surprisingly much Franckism; Some even say César Frank was lazy, which is not a commendable property in a hard working man"). Perhaps the same can be said as above regarding "Satie as precursor": there is much empty discussion &ndash; for example, the debate with Debussy appears to have been over whether or not Satie was a precursor of Impressionism, which would not have made much sense if he had been opposed to Impressionism as such.
'''Satie and boredom'''. Lacking any form of [[musical development|development]], Satie's compositions tend to be very short; a typical [[Movement (music)|movement]] of a Satie composition takes less than two minutes to play, and compositions with more than five movements are exceptional. Even his larger-scale works conforming to the genres known in his time would be two to five times shorter than the usual duration of such compositions (''Socrate'', a [[secular]] [[oratorio]] - or "symphonic drama" - lasting about half an hour, is the longest). In general, Satie thought it to be a great fault for a composer to bore his audience in any way. There are eight of his compositions that use repetition as a compositional technique, more than doubling the total duration:
* ''[[Vexations]]'': with 840 repetitions of the musical motif (and many more of the melody of the bass), this is definitely the longest single-movement work with a ''defined'' number of repetitions (note that, without the repetitions, the actual music takes less than two minutes to play). No explanation by Satie survives regarding the exceptional length of the piece. If excluding the ''Tango'' mentioned in the next point, performing the ''Vexations'' takes longer than all his other music played in sequence.
* For ''Le Tango'' ("The Tango"), a rather catchy tune from ''[[Sports et divertissements]]'', Satie indicates in the score ''perpétuel'' (i.e. something like a [[perpetuum mobile]], which in French is "mouvement perpétuel"). There is little indication how Satie understood this "perpetual", apart that at the premiere, at least ''assisted'' by Satie, there was obviously nothing repeated ''ad infinitum'', taken literally. When performed for a recording there is seldom more than one repeat of this part of the composition, making it one of the "shortest" [[tango music | tango]]s ever, something like a ''Minute Tango''.
* Five pieces of ''furniture music'', which were intended as "background" music with no number of repeats specified. The circumstances in which such music was performed by Satie himself indicate, however, that the total playing times would be intended to be the usual 'intermission' time of a stage production (see [[Entr'acte]]). While the public was not expected to be silent, these compositions can hardly be seen as an experiment in boredom.
* His music for the film ''Entr'acte'' has ten repeat zones in order to synchronise with the twenty-minute film (which has a very varied plot, so not much boredom is to be found there either).
'''Satie and sexuality''': much has been said about Satie's sexuality, ranging from "hidden" ''homosexuality'' to "ordinary" ''heterosexuality''. In fact, apart from the short-lived, and highly "idealised", Valadon period, Satie's behaviour appeared more or less [[asexual]]: he tended to be dismissive when the topic of sexuality came up. See also:
* [[Gymnopédie]]
* Forum/News Group application of the Satie website by Niclas Fogwall (see link below).
==Notes==
#{{note|publications}} English translations of these pieces were published in ''A Mammal's Notebook'' see [[#Sources|Sources]] section below.
==See also==
A number of works by Erik Satie are listed in the [[:Category:compositions by Erik Satie|Category of compositions by Erik Satie]].
===External links===
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.af.lu.se/~fogwall/satie.html Satie Home page] &mdash; a very full website dedicated to Satie, including a forum (managed by Niclas Fogwall). On the same website:
**[http://www.af.lu.se/~fogwall/samples.html A collection of Satie's music samples]
**[http://www.af.lu.se/~fogwall/pictures.html Pictures of Satie]
**[http://www.af.lu.se/~fogwall/satie/forum/ News Group (Forum)]
* [http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=SatieE&preview=1 Satie's Scores] &mdash; by the [[Mutopia Project]]
===Sources===
Niclas Fogwall's website mentioned above contains a [http://www.af.lu.se/~fogwall/intro.html comprehensive list of Satie publications], while more book references are mentioned on several contributors' pages at that site. Apart from sources mentioned in the text itself, the present Wikipedia article drew from, amongst others, the following publications (in English, unless indicated):
;Writings by Satie
* ''A Mammal's Notebook: Collected Writings of Erik Satie'' (Serpent's Tail; Atlas Arkhive, No 5, 1997) ISBN 0947757929 (with introduction and notes by Ornella Volta, translations by Anthony Melville, contains several drawings by Satie)
* ''Correspondance presque complète: Réunie, établie et présentée par Ornella Volta'' (Paris: Fayard/Imes, 2000; 1265pp) ISBN 2213606749 (an almost complete edition of Satie's letters, in French)
;Books on Satie
* [[Ornella Volta|Volta, Ornella]] and Simon Pleasance, ''Erik Satie'' (Hazan: The Pocket Archives Series, 1997; 200pp) ISBN 2850255653
* [[Alan Gillmor|Gillmor, Alan M.]], ''Erik Satie'' (Twayne Pub., 1988, reissued 1992; 387pp) ISBN 0393308103
* [[Ornella Volta|Volta, Ornella]] and Michael Bullock, ''Satie Seen Through His Letters'' (Marion Boyars, 1994) ISBN 071452980X
* [[Robert Orledge|Orledge, Robert]], ''Satie Remembered'' (London: Faber and Faber, London, 1995)
* [[Robert Orledge|Orledge, Robert]], ''Satie the Composer'' Cambridge University Press: 1990; 437pp &mdash; in the series ''Music in the Twentieth Century'' <nowiki>[ed.]</nowiki> Arnold Whittall) ISBN 0521350379
* Templier, Pierre-Daniel (translated by Elena L. French and David S. French), ''Erik Satie'' (The MIT Press, 1969, reissued 1971) ISBN 0262700050 ''and'' (New York: Da Capo Press, 1980 reissue) ISBN 0306760398 (note: Templier extensively consulted Conrad, Erik Satie's brother, when writing this first biography that appeared in 1932. The English translation was, however, criticised by [[John Cage]]; in a letter to Ornella Volta ([[25 May]] [[1983]]) he referred to the translation as disappointing compared to the formidable value of the original biography)
* ''Satie the Bohemian: from Cabaret to Concert Hall'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999; 596pp) &mdash; a fully researched account of Satie's musical career in what then was regarded as popular music)
===Recordings and arrangements===
;Piano works
Recordings of Satie's piano works have been released performed by [[Reinbert de Leeuw]], [[Pascal Rog |
244–1274).
* [[Henry I of Hesse]], "the Child" (1244–1308).
* [[Henry I, Duke of Guise]] (1550–1558).
* [[Henry of Portugal]] (1512–1580).
* [[Henri I de Bourbon, Prince de Condé]] (1552–1588)
* [[Henri Ier de Montmorency]] (1534–1614).
* [[Henry I, Duke of Lorraine]] (1563–1624).
* [[Henri de Savoie, 4th Duc de Nemours]] (1572–1632).
* [[Henri Christophe|Henri I of Haiti]] (1767–1820).
{{disambig}}
[[es:Enrique I]]
[[fr:Henri Ier]]
[[it:Enrico I]]
[[hu:I. Henrik]]
[[nl:Hendrik I]]
[[ja:ハインリヒ1世]]
[[pl:Henryk I]]
[[ru:Генрих I]]
[[fi:Henrik I]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Honolulu, Hawaii</title>
<id>13887</id>
<revision>
<id>42083992</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:45:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.9.8.226</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Government */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City
|official_name = Honolulu, Hawai{{okina}}i
|image_map = HonoluluHILM.GIF
|map_caption = Location of Honolulu within the [[City & County of Honolulu|City & County of Honolulu, Hawai{{okina}}i]].
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Political divisions of the United States|State]]<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[City]] & [[List of counties in California|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]]<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[City & County of Honolulu|Honolulu]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 272.1
|area_land = 222.0
|area_water = 50.1
|population_as_of = 2004
|population_total = 377,260 (estimate)
|population_density = 1,674.4
|timezone = [[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone|Hawai{{okina}}i-Aleutian]]
|utc_offset = -10
|latitude = 21°18'32" N
|longitude = 157°49'34" W
|footnotes =
}}
{{dablink|"Honolulu" redirects here. For the city and county, see [[City & County of Honolulu]]. For the film titled Honolulu, see [[Honolulu (1939 film)]]}}
'''Honolulu''' is the [[capital]] and largest community of the [[U.S. State]] of [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]]. In the [[Hawaiian language]], ''honolulu'' means "sheltered bay" or "place of shelter." The [[census-designated place]] (CDP) is located along the southeast coast of the island of [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]]. The term also refers to the District of Honolulu (see Geography below). As of July 1, 2004, the [[U.S. Census Bureau]] estimate for Honolulu puts the [[population]] at 377,260 and that of the city and county (essentially, the Island of O{{okina}}ahu) is 900,000. In Hawai{{okina}}i, local governments operate only at the county level, and the [[City & County of Honolulu]] encompasses all of the Island of O{{okina}}ahu (approximately 600 square miles).
==History==
[[Image:Honolulu from Diamond Head.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Honolulu (Waikiki) as seen from Diamond Head]]
It is not known when Honolulu was first settled by the original [[Polynesia]]n migrants to the archipelago. Oral histories and artifacts indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 12th century. However, after [[Kamehameha I|Kamehameha I]] conquered [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]] in the Battle of [[Nuuanu Pali|Nu{{okina}}uanu Pali]], he moved his royal court from the [[Hawaii (island)|Island of Hawai{{okina}}i]] to [[Waikiki|Waikīkī]] in 1804. His court later relocated, in 1809, to what is now [[downtown Honolulu]].
Captain William Brown of England was the first foreigner to sail, in 1794, into what is now Honolulu Harbor. More foreign ships would follow, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between [[North America]] and [[Asia]].
In 1845, [[Kamehameha III|Kamehameha III]] moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from [[Lahaina, Hawaii|Lāhainā]] on [[Maui]] to Honolulu. He and the kings that followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as [[Cathedral Church of Saint Andrew, Honolulu|St. Andrew's Cathedral]], [[Iolani Palace|{{okina}}Iolani Palace]], and [[Aliiolani Hale|Ali{{okina}}iolani Hale]]. At the same time, Honolulu became the center of commerce in the Islands, with descendants of American missionaries establishing major businesses in downtown Honolulu.
Despite the turbulent history of the late 19th century and early 20th century, which saw the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, Hawai{{okina}}i's subsequent annexation by the [[United States]], and the [[Japan|Japanese]] attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], Honolulu would remain the capital, largest city, and main airport and seaport of the Hawaiian Islands.
An economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawai{{okina}}i. Modern air travel would bring thousands, eventually millions (per annum) of visitors to the Islands. Today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawai{{okina}}i, with thousands of hotel rooms.
==Geography and climate==
Honolulu is located at 21&deg;18'32" North, 157&deg;49'34" West (21.308950, -157.826182){{GR|1}}. While this is clearly in the [[tropics]], the [[climate]] ([[temperature]] and [[humidity]]) is moderated by the mid-ocean location and some cooling achieved by the [[California Current]] that passes through the islands much of year. The average daily low and high temperatures in January are 65/80 &deg;F (18/27 &deg;C) and in July are 74/88 &deg;F (23/31 &deg;C). Temperatures exceed 90 &deg;F (32 &deg;C) only rarely, with lows in the 50's °F (15 &deg;C) occurring perhaps once or twice in a year. The hottest [[temperature]] ever recorded in Honolulu was 95 &deg;F (35 &deg;C) on [[September 19]], [[1994]] and the coldest [[temperature]] ever recorded was 53 &deg;F (11.6 &deg;C) on [[January 31]], [[1998]], 1972 and 1948 and on [[January 20]], [[1969]] and on [[February 1]] and [[2]], 1976 and on [[February 9]], [[1981]] and on [[February 12]], [[1983]].
[[Image:ISS007E16813_Hono.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Honolulu as seen from the International Space Station]]
The '''Honolulu District''' is located on the southeast coast of O&lsquo;ahu between [[Makapuu|Makapu{{okina}}u]] and [[Halawa, Hawaii|Hālawa]]. The District boundary follows the Ko{{okina}}olau crestline, so Makapu{{okina}}u Beach is in the Ko{{okina}}olaupoko District. On the west, the district boundary follows Hālawa Stream, then crosses [[Red Hill Underground Fuel Storage Facility|Red Hill]] and runs just west of [[Salt Lake, Hawaii|Āliamanu Crater]], so that [[Aloha Stadium]], [[Pearl Harbor]] (with the [[USS Arizona Memorial]]), and [[Hickam Air Force Base]] are actually all located in the island's {{okina}}Ewa District.
Most of the city's commercial and industrial developments are located on a narrow but relatively flat coastal plain, while numerous ridges and valleys located inland of the coastal plain divide Honolulu's residential areas into distinct neighborhoods: some spread along valley floors (like Mānoa in Mānoa Valley) and others climb the interfluvial ridges. Within Honolulu proper can be found several [[volcanic cone]]s: [[Punchbowl]], [[Diamond Head, Hawaii|Diamond Head]], [[Koko Head]] (includes [[Hanauma Bay]]), Koko Crater, Salt Lake, and Āliamanu being the most conspicuous.
Honolulu and [[Juneau, Alaska]] are the only 2 US state capitals that cannot be reached directly by road from the contiguous 48 States. Direct connections to these capitals require a boat or a plane.
==Government==
{{main|City & County of Honolulu}}
Originally governed by a Board of Supervisors, the [[City & County of Honolulu]] is administered under a [[mayor-council]] system of governance overseeing all municipal services: civil defense, driver licensing, emergency medical, fire, parks and recreation, police, sanitation, streets, vehicle registration, voter registration, water, among others. One of the largest municipal governments in the United States, the City & County of Honolulu has an annual operating budget of $1 billion.
The current mayor of Honolulu is [[Mufi Hannemann]] (term ends January 2009).
==Neighborhoods and special districts==
[[Image:Honolulu_Downtown.jpg|right|thumb|250px|View of downtown Honolulu at Bishop and King streets with First Hawaiian Center building (left) and Bank of Hawai{{okina}}i (right)]]
* '''[[Downtown Honolulu]]''' is the financial, commercial, and governmental center of Hawai{{okina}}i. On the waterfront is [[Aloha Tower]], which for many years was the tallest building in Hawai{{okina}}i. Currently the tallest building is the 438-foot-tall (134 m) [[First Hawaiian Center]], located on King and Bishop Streets ([http://www.lightfantastic.org/imr/places/firsthawaiiancenter.html]).
* The '''Capitol District''' is the eastern part of Downtown Honolulu. It is the current and historic center of Hawai{{okina}}i's state government, incorporating the [[Hawaii State Capitol|Hawai{{okina}}i State Capitol]], [[Iolani Palace|{{okina}}Iolani Palace]], [[Honolulu Hale]] (City Hall), State Library, and the statue of King [[Kamehameha I]], along with numerous government buildings.
* '''[[Kakaako|Kaka{{okina}}ako]]''' is a light-industrial district between Downtown and Waikīkī that has seen a large-scale redevelopment effort in the past decade. It is home to two major shopping areas, [[Ward Warehouse]] and [[Ward Centre]]. The [[John A. Burns School of Medicine]], part of the [[University of Hawai'i at Mānoa|University of Hawai{{okina}}i at Mānoa]] is also located there. A Memorial to the [[USS Greeneville (SSN-772)|''Ehime Maru'' Incident]] victims is built at Kaka{{okina}}ako Waterfront Park.
* '''[[Waikiki|Waikīkī]]''' is the world famous tourist district of Honolulu, located between the Ala Wai Canal and the [[Pacific Ocean]] next to [[ |
me oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin. Deoxyhemoglobin has a much greater affinity for H+ than does oxyhemoglobin so it binds most of the hydrogen ions.
===Color===
In humans and other hemoglobin-using creatures, oxygenated blood is a bright red in color. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red, which can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken. However, due to an optical effect caused by the way in which light penetrates through the skin, veins typically appear blue in color.[http://www.people.virginia.edu/~rjh9u/blueblud.html] This has led to a common misconception that before venous blood is exposed to air it is blue.
==Health and disease==
===Ancient medicine===
[[Hippocrates|Hippocratic]] medicine considered blood one of the [[four humors]] (together with [[phlegm]], [[yellow bile]] and [[black bile]]). As many diseases were thought to be due to an excess of blood, [[bloodletting]] and [[leeching]] were a common intervention until the [[19th century]] (it is still used for some rare blood disorders).
In classical Greek medicine, blood was associated with air, springtime, and with a merry and gluttonous (''sanguine'') personality. It was also believed to be produced exclusively by the [[liver]].
===Diagnosis===
[[Blood pressure]] and [[blood test]]s are amongst the most commonly performed diagnostic investigations that directly concern the blood.
===Pathology===
''See also [[blood diseases]]''
Problems with blood circulation and composition play a role in many diseases.
* [[Injury|Wounds]] can cause major blood loss (see [[bleeding]]). The [[thrombocyte]]s cause the blood to [[coagulation|coagulate]], blocking relatively minor wounds, but larger ones must be repaired at speed to prevent [[exsanguination]]. Damage to the internal organs can cause severe [[internal bleeding]], or [[hemorrhage]].
* Circulation blockage can also create many medical conditions from [[ischemia]] in the short term to tissue [[necrosis]] and [[gangrene]] in the long term.
* [[Hemophilia]] is a genetic illness that causes dysfunction in one of the blood's [[coagulation|clotting mechanism]]s. This can allow otherwise inconsequential wounds to be life-threatening, but more commonly results in [[hemarthrosis]], or bleeding into joint spaces, which can be crippling.
* [[Leukemia]] is a group of [[cancer (medicine)|cancers]] of the blood-forming tissues.
* Major blood loss, whether traumatic or not (e.g. during surgery), as well as certain blood diseases like [[anemia]] and [[thalassemia]], can require [[blood transfusion]]. Several countries have [[blood bank|blood banks]] to fill the demand for transfusable blood. A person receiving a blood transfusion must have a [[blood type]] compatible with that of the donor.
* Blood is an important vector of infection. [[HIV]], the [[virus]] which causes [[AIDS]], is transmitted through contact between blood, [[semen]], or the bodily secretions of an infected person. [[Hepatitis B]] and [[Hepatitis C|C]] are transmitted primarily through blood contact. Owing to [[blood-borne infection]]s, bloodstained objects are treated as a [[Biological hazard|biohazard]].
* Infection of the blood is [[bacteremia]] or [[sepsis]]. [[Malaria]] and [[trypanosomiasis]] are blood-borne parasitic infections.
===Treatment===
[[Blood transfusion]] is the most direct therapeutic use of blood. It is obtained from human donors by [[blood donation]]. As there are different [[blood type]]s, and transfusion of the incorrect blood may cause severe complications, [[crossmatching]] is done to ascertain the correct type is transfused.
Other blood products administered [[intravenous]]ly are platelets, blood plasma, cryoprecipitate and specific coagulation factor concentrates.
Many forms of medication (from [[antibiotic]]s to [[chemotherapy]]) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by the digestive tract.
As stated above, some diseases are still treated by removing blood from the circulation.
It is the fluid part of the blood that saves lives where severe blood loss occurs, other preparations can be given such as ringers atopical plasma volume expander as a non-blood alternative, and these alternatives where used are rivalling blood use where used.
==Mythology and religion==
Due to its importance to life, blood is associated with a large number of beliefs. One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships; to be "related by blood" is to be related by ancestry or descendance, rather than marriage. This bears closely to [[bloodline]]s, and sayings such as "blood is thicker than water" and "bad blood", as well as "[[Blood brother]]".
===Indo-European paganism===
Among the [[Germanic tribe]]s (such as the [[Anglo-Saxons]] and the [[Viking]]s), blood was used during the sacrifices, the ''[[Blót]]s''. The blood was considered to have the power of its originator and after the butchering the blood was sprinkled on the walls, on the statues of the gods and on the participants themselves. This act of sprinkling blood was called ''bleodsian'' in [[Old English language|Old English]] and the terminology was borrowed by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] becoming ''to bless'' and ''blessing''. The [[Hittite language|Hittite]] word for blood, ''ishar'' was a cognate to words for "oath" and "bond", see [[Ishara]].
===Judaism===
In [[Judaism]], blood cannot be consumed even in the smallest quantity ([[Leviticus]] 3:17 and elsewhere); this is reflected in the [[Kashrut|dietary laws]]. Blood is purged from [[meat]] by [[salting (food)|salting]] and [[pickling]].
Other rituals involving blood are the covering of the blood of [[fowl]] and [[game]] after slaughtering ([[Leviticus]] 17:13); the reason given by the [[Torah]] is: "Because the life of every animal is [in] his blood" (ibid 17:14), although from its context in [[Leviticus]] 3:17 it would appear that blood cannot be consumed because it is to be used in the [[sacrifice|sacrificial service]] (known as the ''[[korbanot]]''), in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]].
Ironically, [[Judaism]] has historically been the religion to be most affected by [[blood libel]]s.
===Christianity===
[[Christianity|Christians]] believe that the [[Eucharist]] [[wine]] [[transubstantiation|is]], or [[memorialism|represents]], the blood of [[Jesus]]. This belief is rooted in [[the Last Supper]] as written in the four gospels of the [[Bible]], in which Jesus stated to his [[disciples]] that the bread which they ate was his body, and the wine his blood. ''"This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you." (Luke 22:20, [[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]])''. The accepted Christian belief is that Jesus' blood atoned for the sins of the people.
===Jehovah's Witnesses===
{{main|Jehovah's Witnesses and blood}}
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] are prohibited from eating blood and accepting tranfusions of whole blood or any of red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma. They are permitted to accept fractions, and the acute normovolemic hemodilution (ANH) and autologous blood salvage (cell saver) procedures.
===Vampire legends===
[[Vampire]]s are fictional beings thought to cheat death by drinking the blood of the living.
===Chinese and Japanese culture===
In Chinese culture, it is often said that if a man's nose produces a small flow of blood, this signifies that he is experiencing sexual desire. This often appears in [[China|Chinese-language]] and [[Hong Kong]] [[film]]s.
This is also evident in [[Japan]]ese culture and is parodied in [[anime]] and [[manga]]. Male characters will often be shown with a [[nosebleed]] if they have just seen a female nude or in little clothing, or if they have had an erotic thought or fantasy.
==See also==
* [[Artificial blood]]
* [[List of human blood components]]
* Blood as [[food]]: see [[black pudding]]
* Blood and [[video game censorship]]
* [[Taboo food and drink#Blood|Taboo food and drink]]
* [[Blood donation]]
* [[Blood types]]
{{blood}}
{{cardiovascular_system}}
[[Category:Cardiovascular system]]
[[Category:Blood|*]]
[[bg:Кръв]]
[[bs:Krv]]
[[ca:Sang]]
[[cs:Krev]]
[[cy:Gwaed]]
[[da:Blod]]
[[de:Blut]]
[[es:Sangre]]
[[eo:Sango]]
[[fa:خون]]
[[fr:Sang]]
[[gd:Fuil]]
[[gl:Sangue]]
[[ko:혈액]]
[[id:Darah]]
[[ia:Sanguine]]
[[it:Sangue]]
[[he:דם]]
[[lt:Kraujas]]
[[hu:Vér]]
[[mk:Крв]]
[[ms:Darah]]
[[nl:Bloed]]
[[nds:Blood]]
[[ja:血液]]
[[no:Blod]]
[[nn:Blod]]
[[pam:Daya]]
[[pl:Krew]]
[[pt:Sangue]]
[[ru:Кровь]]
[[sq:Gjaku]]
[[simple:Blood]]
[[sk:Krv]]
[[sl:Kri]]
[[sr:Крв]]
[[su:Getih]]
[[fi:Veri]]
[[sv:Blod]]
[[tr:Kan]]
[[uk:Кров]]
[[zh:血液]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benoît Mandelbrot</title>
<id>3999</id>
<revision>
<id>41796731</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:36:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Avraham</username>
<id>353669</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Suggested reading */ [[Category:Jewish mathematicians|</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Benoit Mandelbrot.gif|thumb|right|Benoît Mandelbrot]]
'''Benoît B. Mandelbrot''' (born [[November 20]], [[1924]]) is a [[Poland|Polish]]-born [[France|French]] [[mathematics|mathematician]] and leading proponent of [[fractal]] [[geometry]]. He is [[Sterling Professor]] of Mathematical Sciences, [[Emeritus]] at [[Yale University]] and [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[Fellow]] [[Emeritus]] at the [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]].
==Early years==
Born in [[Warsaw]], Mandelbrot lived in [[France]] from the age of 12 to near the end of his college studies. He was born into a family with a strong academic tradition - his mother was a medical doctor and his uncle, [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]], was a famous Parisian mathematician. His father, however, made his living trading clothing. His family left Poland for Paris |
d gray;"| Azad Kashmir province map
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;"| [[image:PakistanAzadKashmir.png|150px|]]<br>Azad Kashmir in [[Pakistan]]
|-
|[[Subnational entity|Provincial Capital]]
|[[Muzaffarabad]]
|-
|[[Status]]
|Disputed Territory
|-
| [[Languages]]
| [[Hindko]]<br>[[Potwar]]<br>[[Punjabi]]<br>[[Pashto]]
|-
| [[Population]]
| 3,000,000 [http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/pds2003/table-01.pdf]
|-
| [[Tax|Revenue & NFC]] <br> &nbsp;- Share in national revenue <br> &nbsp;- Share receives
|<br> % (contribution) <br> % (from fed. govt)
|-
| [[Time zone]]
| [[Pakistan Standard Time|PST]], [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +5
|-
|Number of [[District|Districts (Taluka)]]
|
|-
|Number of [[Towns]]
|
|-
| [[President]]
| [http://www.klc.org.pk/president/president.htm Major General (R) Sardar Muhammad Anwar Khan]
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;" | [http://www.klc.org.pk/ Govt of Azad Kashmir Official Website]
|}
'''Azad Jammu and Kashmir''' ([[Urdu]]: '''آزاد کشمیر'''), is part of the [[Pakistan]]i-administered part of the former princely state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]], along with the [[Northern Areas, Pakistan|Northern Areas]]. The name Azad Kashmir means "Free Kashmir" in [[Urdu]]. [[India]] does not recognize Azad Kashmir as a part of [[Pakistan]] and refers to the region encompassing Azad Kashmir and the [[Northern Areas, Pakistan|Northern Areas]] as [[Pakistan Occupied Kashmir]](POK). It covers an area of 13,300 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (5,135 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]), with its capital at [[Muzaffarabad]], and has an estimated population of over three million people.
==General Information and Recent History==
The region is extremely mountainous and includes a significant part of the [[Himalaya]]s, but does not include [[Nanga Parbat]], the world's seventh highest mountain peak, which falls within the "[[Northern Areas, Pakistan|Northern Areas]]".
After the partition of India in 1947 and the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]], Pakistan gained administrative rights to a portion of Kashmir as per a cease-fire agreement. Pakistan divided the region into three administrative sub-regions:
#Azad Kashmir, 250 miles (400 km) in length with the width varying from 10 to 40 miles (15 to 65 km), 13,300 km&sup2; (5,135 mi&sup2;),
# [[Northern_Areas, Pakistan|Northern Areas]], a much larger area, 72,496 km&sup2; (27,991 mi&sup2;), incorporated into Pakistan and administered as a de facto dependency, and
#A small part, the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]], of the Northern Areas that was ceded to [[China]] by Pakistan in 1963.
Parts of Azad Kashmir wer lost to Indian forces in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]] before were returned by India as part of the [[Simla Accord]], in 1972.
Azad Kashmir is nominally [[autonomous]], with its own elected [[President]], [[Prime Minister]], Legislature, High Court etc.
==Demography==
Although a proper [[census]] has not been taken in recent years, the best estimates conclude that the Azad Kashmir region has approximately 3.1 million inhabitants.
The population of Azad Kashmir includes [[Kashmiri]]s and also comprises [[Hindko]]-speaking [[Pathans]], the [[Potwari]] (whose language includes the Mirpuri dialect) and the nomadic [[Gujjars]], who largely inhabit the upper hills and slopes. Tribes or clans (biraderi) are important for some groups in the region and include: the [[Sudhan]]([[Sadozai]]) , [[Rajput]]s, Mirpuri [[Jat (people)|Jats]], and [[Gujjars]].
The Hindko and Potwari languages are both related to Punjabi, but have distinct separate features. Potwari is spoken in the [[United Kingdom]] by the Mirpuri community; Mirpuri is a local dialect of Potwari spoken in and around the [[Mirpur]] and [[Kotli]] districts. About 700,000 Mirpuris live in the United Kingdom today.
Azad Kashmir is predominantly [[Muslim]], although over 100,000 Hindus and Sikhs lived there until 1947.
== Geography ==
Azad Kashmir is a more mountainous and cold region than the rest of Kashmir. It boasts some of the most scenic mountain tops and river valleys. {{sect-stub}}
==See also==
* [[Pakistan]]
* [[Muzaffarabad]]
* [[Jammu and Kashmir]]
* [[Kashmiri]]
* [[Indo-Pakistan Wars]]
==External links==
* [http://www.klc.org.pk/ Official website of the Government of Azad Kashmir]
* [http://www.tourism.gov.pk/d_kashmir.html Official tourism site]
* [http://www.ikashmir.org/Temples/sharda.html Hindu sites in the region] [http://www.kplink.com/gallery/categories.php?cat_id=102]
{{Territorial_Capitals_in_Pakistan}}
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[[lt:Laisvasis Kašmyras]]
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[[sv:Azad Kashmir]]</text>
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<title>Anthropological classification of homosexuality</title>
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<page>
<title>Arabian Sea</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arabian Sea map.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of the Arabian Sea.]]
[[Image:Kannurfort1.JPG|thumb|top|300px|A view of [[Arabian Sea]] from [[St. Angelo's Fort]] in [[Kannur]] district of [[Kerala]], [[south India]]]]
The '''Arabian [[Sea]]''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: بحر العرب; [[Arabic transliteration|transliterated]]: Bahr al-'Arab, [[Latin]]: ''Mare Erythraeum'') is the part of the [[Indian Ocean]] bounded on the east by [[India]], on the north by [[Baluchistan]] and [[Sind]] provinces of [[Pakistan]] and part of the southern Persian littoral, on the west by [[Arabian Peninsula]], on the south, approximately, by a line between [[Cape Guardafui]], the north-east point of [[Somalia]], and [[Kanyakumari]] (Cape Comorin) in [[India]]. It was known as the ''Sindhu Sagar'' to Indians in the [[Vedic period]] of their history.
It has two important branches &mdash; the Gulf of Aden in the southwest, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of [[Bab-el-Mandeb]]; and the [[Gulf of Oman]] to the northwest, connecting with the [[Persian Gulf]]. Besides these larger ramifications, there are the gulfs of [[Gulf of Cambay|Cambay]] and [[Gulf of Kutch|Kutch]] on the Indian coast. Its islands are few, the chief being [[Socotra]], off the African, and the [[Laccadives]], off the Indian coast.
Ocean trade routes have crossed the Arabian Sea since ancient times, linking the [[Near East]] with [[East Africa]], [[India]], [[Southeast Asia]], and [[China]]. Historically, sailors in a type of ship called a [[dhow]] used the seasonal [[Monsoon]] winds to cross the sea. The sea forms part of the chief shipping route between Europe and India via the [[Suez Canal]], which links the Red Sea with the [[Mediterranean Sea]].
The maximum width of the Arabian Sea is approximately 2,400 km, and its maximum depth is 4,652 metres, in the Arabian Basin approximately at the same latitude as the southernmost tip of India. The [[Indus River]], also known as the Sindhu river, is the largest river flowing directly into this sea; others include the [[Narmada River|Narmada]], [[Tapti River|Tapti]], [[Mahi River|Mahi]], and the numerous [[List of rivers in Kerala|rivers of Kerala]] in India. The Arabian Sea coast of central India is known as the [[Konkan Coast]], and that of southern India is known as the [[Malabar Coast]].
The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are [[India]], [[Iran]], [[Oman]], [[Pakistan]], [[Yemen]], [[Somalia]] and the [[Maldives]].
Cities on the coast include [[Mumbai]] (Bombay), [[Surat]], [[Mangalore]], and [[Kochi, India|Kochi]] in India, [[Karachi]] and [[Gwadar]] in Pakistan, and [[Aden]] in Yemen.
Famous beaches on the coast include
* beaches of [[Karachi]], [[Main Khye]]
* the beaches of [[Goa]]
* [[Juhu#Juhu_Beach|Juhu]] Beach, [[Mumbai]]
* [[Kovalam]] beach in [[Kerala]]
== References ==
* ''This article incorporates text from the'' [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|''1911'' Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', a publication in the [[public domain]].''[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
==External links==
*[http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/arabian_sea.cfm Arabian Sea (World Wildlife Fund)]
[[Category:Arabia]]
[[Category:Seas]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Global 200 ecoregions]]
[[ar:بحر العرب]]
[[ca:Mar d'Aràbia]]
[[cv:Арави тинĕсĕ]]
[[da:Arabiske Hav]]
[[de:Arabisches Meer]]
[[et:Araabia meri]]
[[es:Mar Arábigo]]
[[eo:Araba Maro]]
[[fa:دریای عرب]]
[[fr:Mer d'Oman]]
[[ko:아라비아 해]]
[[hr:Arapsko more]]
[[is:Arabíuhaf]]
[[he:הים הערבי]]
[[lt:Arabijos jūra]]
[[nl:Arabische Zee]]
[[ja:アラビア海]]
[[no:Arabiahavet]]
[[pl:Morze Arabskie]]
[[pt:Mar Arábico]]
[[ru:Аравийское море]]
[[sk:Arabské more]]
[[sl:Arabsko morje]]
[[sv:Arabiska havet]]
[[ta:அரபிக்கடல்]]
[[uk:Аравійське море]]
[[ur:بحيرہ عرب]]
[[zh:阿拉伯海]]</text>
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<title>Alls Well That Ends Well</title>
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early [[20th century|1900s]], aluminium recycling is not new. It was, however, a low-profile activity until the late 1960s when the exploding popularity of aluminium [[beverage can]]s finally placed recycling into the public consciousness. Other sources for recycled aluminium include automobile parts, windows and doors, appliances, containers and other products.
Aluminium is a reactive metal and it is hard to extract it from its ore, [[aluminium oxide]] (Al<sub>2</sub>[[oxygen|O]]<sub>3</sub>). Direct reduction, with [[carbon]] for example, is not economically viable since aluminium oxide has a melting point of about 2000 °C. Therefore, it is extracted by [[electrolysis]] &mdash; the aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten [[cryolite]] and then reduced to the pure metal. By this process, the actual operational temperature of the reduction cells is around 950 to 980 °C. Cryolite was originally found as a mineral on Greenland, but has been replaced by a synthetic cryolite. Cryolite is a mixture of aluminium, [[sodium]], and [[calcium]] [[fluoride]]s: (Na<sub>3</sub>AlF<sub>6</sub>). The aluminium oxide (a white powder) is obtained by refining [[bauxite]], which is red since it contains 30 to 40% iron oxide. This is done using the so-called [[Bayer process]]. Previously, the [[Deville process]] was the predominant refining technology.
The electrolytic process replaced the [[Wöhler process]], which involved the reduction of anhydrous [[aluminium chloride]] with [[potassium]]. Both of the [[electrode]]s used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are [[carbon]]. Once the ore is in the molten state, its ions are free to move around. The reaction at the negative [[cathode]] is
:Al<sup>3+</sup> + 3 e<sup>-</sup> &rarr; Al
Here the aluminium ion is being reduced (electrons are added). The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off.
At the positive electrode ([[anode]]) oxygen gas is formed:
:2 O<sup>2-</sup> &rarr; O<sub>2</sub> + 4 e<sup>-</sup>
This carbon [[anode]] is then oxidised by the oxygen. The anodes in a reduction must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process:
:O<sub>2</sub> + C &rarr; CO<sub>2</sub>
Contrary to the anodes, the cathodes are not consumed during the operation, since there is no oxygen present at the cathode. The carbon cathode is protected by the liquid aluminium inside the cells. Cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes. After 5 to 10 years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be reconstructed completely, because the cathodes are completely worn.
Aluminium [[electrolysis]] with the [[Hall-Héroult]] process consumes a lot of energy, but alternative processes were always found to be less viable economically and/or ecologically. The world-wide average specific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 [[kilowatt-hour]]s per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 [[megajoule|MJ]]/kg). The most modern smelters reach approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). Reduction line current for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kA. State-of-the-art smelters operate with about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.
Electric power represents about 20 to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the aluminium smelter. Smelters tend to be located where electric power is plentiful and inexpensive, such as [[South Africa]], the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], [[China]], [[Middle-East]], [[Russia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Quebec]] in [[Canada]].
In 2004, [[China]] was the top world producer of aluminium. [[Suriname]] depends on aluminium exports for 70% of its export earnings.[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ns.html#Econ]
; see also [[:category:Aluminium minerals]]
==Isotopes==
Aluminium has nine [[isotope]]s, whose mass numbers range from 23 to 30. Only <sup>27</sup>Al ([[stable isotope]]) and <sup>26</sup>Al ([[radioactive_decay|radioactive]] isotope, [[half life|''t''<sub>1/2</sub>]] = 7.2 &times; 10<sup>5</sup> [[year|y]]) occur naturally, however <sup>27</sup>Al has a natural abundance of 100%. <sup>26</sup>Al is produced from [[argon]] in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] by [[spallation]] caused by [[cosmic-ray]] [[proton]]s. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating [[ocean|marine]] sediments, [[manganese]] nodules, glacial ice, [[quartz]] in [[Rock (geology)|rock]] exposures, and [[meteorite]]s. The ratio of <sup>26</sup>Al to <sup>10</sup>[[beryllium|Be]] has been used to study the role of transport, deposition, [[sediment]] storage, burial times, and erosion on 10<sup>5</sup> to 10<sup>6</sup> year time scales.
[[Cosmogenic]] <sup>26</sup>Al was first applied in studies of the [[Moon]] and meteorites. Meteorite fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial <sup>26</sup>Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further <sup>26</sup>Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that <sup>26</sup>Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Possibly, the energy released by the decay of <sup>26</sup>Al was responsible for the remelting and [[planetary differentiation|differentiation]] of some [[asteroids]] after their formation 4.6 billion years ago.
===Clusters===
In the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' of [[14 January]] [[2005]] it was reported that clusters of 13 aluminium atoms (Al<sub>13</sub>) had been made to behave like an [[iodine]] atom; and, 14 aluminium atoms (Al<sub>14</sub>) behaved like an [[alkaline earth]] atom. The researchers also bound 12 iodine atoms to an Al<sub>13</sub> cluster to form a new class of polyiodide. This discovery is reported to give rise to the possibility of a new characterisation of the [[periodic table]]: [[superatom]]s. The research teams were led by Shiv N. Khanna ([[Virginia Commonwealth University]]) and A. Welford Castleman Jr ([[Penn State University]]). [http://www.science.psu.edu/alert/Castleman1-2005.htm]
==Precautions==
Aluminium is one of the few abundant elements that appears to have no beneficial function in living cells, but a few percent of people are allergic to it &mdash; they experience [[contact dermatitis]] from any form of it: an itchy [[rash]] from using [[styptic]] or antiperspirant products, digestive disorders and inability to absorb nutrients from eating food cooked in aluminium pans, and vomiting and other symptoms of poisoning from ingesting such products as [[Rolaids]] , Amphojel, and [[Maalox]] ([[antacid]]s). In other people, aluminium is not considered as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts, although the use of aluminium cookware, popular because of its corrosion resistance and good [[heat conduction]], has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general. Excessive consumption of [[antacid]]s containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing [[antiperspirant]]s are more likely causes of [[toxicity]]. It has been suggested that aluminium may be linked to [[Alzheimer's disease]], although that research has recently been refuted; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the Alzheimer's damage, not the cause. In any event, if there is any toxicity of aluminium it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime.
Care must be taken to prevent aluminium from coming into contact with certain chemicals that can cause it to [[corrode]] quickly. For example, just a small amount of [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] applied to the surface of a piece of aluminium can break up the aluminium oxide barrier usually present. Within a few hours, even a heavy structural beam can be significantly weakened. For this reason, mercury [[thermometer]]s are not allowed on many [[airliner]]s, as aluminium is a common structural component in aircraft.
==Spelling==
===Etymology/Nomenclature history===
In [[1808]], [[Humphry Davy]] originally proposed the name ''alumium'' while trying to isolate the new metal electrolytically from the mineral ''[[alumina]]''. In [[1812]] he changed the name to ''aluminum'' to match its [[Latin]] root. The same year, an anonymous contributor to the ''Quarterly Review'' objected to ''aluminum'', and proposed the name ''aluminium''.
<blockquote>
Aluminium, for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound. (Q. Review VIII. 72, 1812)
</blockquote>
This had the advantage of conforming to the -ium suffix precedent set by other newly discovered elements of the period: [[potassium]], [[sodium]], [[magnesium]], [[calcium]], and [[strontium]] (all of which Davy had isolated himself). Nevertheless, -um spellings for elements were not unknown at the time: [[platinum]], which had been known to Europeans since the 16th century, [[molybdenum]], which was discovered in 1778, and [[tantalum]], which was discovered in 1802, all have spellings ending in -um.
The United States adopted the -ium for most of the [[19th century]] with ''aluminium'' appearing in [[Noah Webster|Webster]]'s Dictionary of 1828. However in 1892 [[Charles Martin Hall]] used the -um spelling in an advertising handbill for hi |
onary mechanisms. Behe's claim that there is no scientific literature on the evolution of biochemical systems is demonstrably false.
While testifying at the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial]] Behe conceded that there are no peer-reviewed papers supporting his claims that complex molecular systems, like the bacterial flagellum, the blood-clotting cascade, and the immune system, were intelligently designed nor are there any peer-reviewed articles supporting his argument that certain complex molecular structures are "irreducibly complex." [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District_4:_whether_ID_is_science#Page_88_of_139]
Irreducible complexity is at root an argument against evolution. If truly irreducible systems were found, the implication is that [[intelligent design]] is the correct explanation for their existence. However, this conclusion is based on the assumption that that current [[evolution]]ary theory and intelligent design are the only two valid models to explain life.
==See also==
* [[Intelligent design]]
* [[Specified complexity]]
==External links==
* Himma, Kenneth Einar. [http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/design.htm Design Arguments for the Existence of God]. ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''.
=== In support ===
*[http://www.arn.org/authors/behe.html Michael J. Behe home page]
*[http://www.icr.org/newsletters/afdec03.html Institute for Creation Research]
*[http://www.iscid.org/papers/Dembski_IrreducibleComplexityRevisited_011404.pdf Irreducible Complexity Revisited]
*[http://www.iscid.org/papers/Behe_ReplyToCritics_121201.pdf Behe's Reply to his Critics]
*[http://www.amasci.com/freenrg/newidea1.html Dr. Thomas Gold] opines about new scientific ideas.
*[http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/re2/chapter10.asp Argument: 'Irreducible complexity']
*[http://www.origins.org/menus/design.html Origins - Intelligent Design]
=== In opposition ===
*[http://www.epicidiot.com/evo_cre/vr_unlocking_the_mystery_of_life.htm, "Unlocking the Mystery of Life" - The bacterial motor video review]
*[http://www.philoonline.org/library/shanks_4_1.htm Behe, Biochemistry, and the Invisible Hand]
*[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=0300108656 Facilitated Variation]
*[http://www.bostonreview.net/br21.6/orr.html Darwin vs. Intelligent Design (again), by H. Allen Orr (review of Darwin's Black Box)]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org Talk.origins archive] (see [[talk.origins]])
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/behe.html Irreducible Complexity and Michael Behe: Do Biochemical Machines Show Intelligent Design?]
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/behe/review.html Darwin's Black Box: Irreducible Complexity or Irreproducible Irreducibility?] by Keith Robinson
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/behe/icsic.html Is the Complement System Irreducibly Complex?] by Mike Coon
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/genalg/genalg.html Genetic Algorithms] (Genetic algorithms have produced irreducibly complex solutions to real problems.)
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/bombardier.html Discussion of the Bombardier Beetle] at Talk.origins
*[http://www.talkdesign.org TalkDesign.org] (sister site to talk.origins archive on [[intelligent design]])
**[http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/icdmyst/ICDmyst.html Irreducible complexity demystified] by Pete Dunkelberg.
*[http://www.millerandlevine.com Professor Kenneth R. Miller's textbook website]
**[http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/DI/clot/Clotting.html A Darwinian explanation of the blood clotting cascade]
*[http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/design2/article.html "The Flagellum Unspun: The Collapse of "Irreducible Complexity"] by Professor Miller
*[http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mousetrap.html A reducibly complex mousetrap] (graphics-intensive, requires [[JavaScript]])
*[http://www.berteig.org/mishkin/IrreducibleComplexity.html A rigorous mathematical analysis of the concept of irreducible complexity] by Mishkin Berteig.
*[http://www.pamd.uscourts.gov/kitzmiller/kitzmiller_342.pdf PDF. 139 page in-depth analysis of Intelligent Design, Irreducible Complexity, and the book "Of Pandas and People" by a judge and based on expert testimony]
*[http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution: Why intelligent design isn't] ([[The New Yorker]])
*[http://www.chicagotribune.com/technology/chi-0602130210feb13,1,1538105.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true Unlocking cell secrets bolsters evolutionists] ([[Chicago Tribune]])
== References ==
# {{note|behe_reply}} Behe, Michael (2001). [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/biph/2001/00000016/00000005/00353967 Reply to My Critics]. See also [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day12am2.html Behe's testimonial in Kitzmiller v. Dover]
#{{note|Bertalanffy}} Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1952). ''Problems of Life: An Evaluation of Modern Biological and Scientific Thought, pg 148'' ISBN 1131792424.
# {{note|whale_clotting}} Semba U, Shibuya Y, Okabe H, Yamamoto T., 1998. "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9678675 Whale Hageman factor (factor XII): prevented production due to pseudogene conversion]." ''Thromb Res.'' 1998 [[1 April]];90(1):31-7.
# {{note|matzke_flag}} Nic J. Matzke, 2003. "[http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/flagellum_background.html Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum]." In ''TalkDesign.org''.
# {{note|mcdonald_mousetrap}} John H. McDonald [http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mousetrap.html A reducibly complex mousetrap].
# {{note|shanks_joplin}} Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin. Redundant Complexity:A Critical Analysis of Intelligent Design in Biochemistry. East Tennessee State University. [http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/Apologetics/POS6-99ShenksJoplin.html]
# {{note|nature_complex}} Lenski RE, Ofria C, Pennock RT, Adami C., 2003. "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12736677&dopt=Abstract The evolutionary origin of complex features]." ''Nature''. [[May 8]] [[2003]];423(6936):139-44.
# {{note|flag_not}} [http://www.chicagotribune.com/technology/chi-0602130210feb13,1,1538105.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true Unlocking cell secrets bolsters evolutionists]
# {{note|evolving_immunity}} Matt Inlay, 2002. "[http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/Evolving_Immunity.html Evolving Immunity]." In ''TalkDesign.org''.
* Behe, Michael (1996). ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]''. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0684834936
* Denton, Michael (1996). ''Evolution: A Theory in Crisis''. Adler &amp; Adler.
* Mcnab, Robert M. (2004). ''Type III flagellar protein export and flagellar assembly'' Biochim Biophys Acta. '''1694'''(1-3):207-17. Review. PMID: 15546667
* Ruben, J.A.; Jones, T.D.; Geist, N.R.; &amp; Hillenius, W.J. ([[November 14]], [[1997]]). Lung Structure and Ventilation in Theropod Dinosaurs and Early Birds. ''Science'' '''278''' (5341) 1267&ndash;1270.
* Sunderland, Luther D. (March 1976). Miraculous Design in Woodpeckers. ''Creation Research Society Quarterly''.
* [http://www.carlzimmer.com/articles/2005/articles_2005_Avida.html Testing Darwin] [[Discover Magazine]] [http://www.discover.com/issues/feb-05/cover/ Vol. 26 No. 02] | February 2005
[[de:Nichtreduzierbare Komplexität]]
[[Category:Creationism]]
[[Category:Intelligent design]]
[[Category:Intelligent design movement]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Arabian mythology</title>
<id>15388</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-18T00:14:44Z</timestamp>
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<comment>The garamantes were not Arabs.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Fertile Crescent myth (Arabian)}}
'''Arabian mythology''' is the ancient beliefs of the [[Arab]]s. Prior to the arrival and initial codification of [[Islam]] on the [[Arabian Peninsula]] in [[622]] CE, year one of the [[Islamic calendar]], the physical centre of Islam, the [[Kaaba]] of [[Mecca]], did not hold only the single symbol of "the [[God]]" as it does now. The Kaaba was instead covered in symbols representing the myriad [[demon]]s, [[Genie|djinn]], [[demigod]]s and other assorted creatures which represented the profoundly [[polytheistic]] environment of pre-Islamic Arabia. We can infer from this [[plurality]] an exceptionally broad context in which [[mythology]] could flourish.
==See also==
*[[Babylonian mythology]]
==Sources==
*''Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia'' by Jeremy Black and Anthony Green (ISBN 0292707940)
{{Asia-myth-stub}}
{{MEast-hist-stub}}
[[pt:Mitologia Islâmica]]
[[Category:Islamic mythology]]
[[Category:Mythology by culture]]
[[Category:Arabic culture]]</text>
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<title>Irish Mythology</title>
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<page>
<title>Imperial Conferences</title>
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<timestamp>2006-01-22T08:07:01Z</timestamp>
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<username>Hu</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Direct link for [[Commonwealth of Nations]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Imperial Conferences''' were gatherings of [[British Empire]] government leaders in [[London]] in [[1887]], [[1897]], [[1902]], [[1907]], [[1911]], [[1921]], [[1923]], [[1926]], [[1930]] and [[1937]]. The 1907 conference changed the name from "Colonial Confer |
06-03-04T03:07:22Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Symmetric-key cryptography */ fixed links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">
[[Image:SZ42-6-wheels.jpg|thumbnail|320px|The German Lorenz cipher machine]]'''Cryptography''' or '''cryptology''' is a field of [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]] concerned with [[information security]] and related issues, particularly [[encryption]]. Technically, "cryptography" refers to the techniques and "cryptology" refers to the study of them; despite this, the term "cryptography" is often used to refer to the field.
Cryptography is an [[interdisciplinary]] subject, drawing from several fields. Older forms of cryptography were chiefly concerned with patterns in [[language]]. More recently, the emphasis has shifted, and cryptography makes extensive use of [[mathematics]], particularly [[discrete mathematics]], including topics from [[number theory]], [[information theory]], [[computational complexity]], [[statistics]] and [[combinatorics]]. Cryptography is also considered a branch of [[engineering]], but it is considered to be an unusual one as it deals with active, intelligent and malevolent opposition (see [[cryptographic engineering]] and [[security engineering]]). Cryptography is a tool used within [[computer security|computer]] and [[network security]].
{{portal}}
==Terminology==
The term ''cryptography'' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kryptós'', "hidden", and ''gráphein'', "to write") is often used to refer to the field as a whole, as is ''cryptology'' ("the study of secrets"). The study of how to circumvent the use of cryptography is called ''[[cryptanalysis]]'' or, loosely, ''codebreaking''. The first recorded usage of the word 'cryptography' occurs in Sir [[Thomas Browne]]'s Discourse of [[1658]] entitled [[The Garden of Cyrus]]: ''"the strange Cryptography of [[Gaffarel]] in his Starrie Booke of Heaven"''.
Classically, "cryptography" referred almost exclusively to ''[[encryption]]'' (sometimes also called ''encipherment'' or ''encoding''), the process of converting ordinary information (''[[plaintext]]'') into an unreadable ''[[ciphertext]]'' (sometimes ''codetext'').
''[[Decryption]]'' (again, sometimes called ''decipherment'' or ''decoding''), is the reverse process, recovering the plaintext back from the ciphertext.
A ''cipher'' is a set of [[algorithm]]s for encryption and decryption. The exact operation of a cipher is normally controlled by a [[key (cryptography)|''key'']] &mdash; a secret piece of information that customizes how the cipher algorithm works.
The term ''[[cryptosystem]]'' is often used to refer to a cipher, along with a method for generating the key, particularly for public-key techniques (see below). The term ''cypher'' is sometimes used instead of ''cipher,'' and similarly ''encypher,'' ''cyphertext'', and so on, though this usage has become infrequent in technical literature in the last two decades.
In ordinary parlance, a (secret) "[[code (cryptography)|code]]" is often used synonymously with "[[cipher]]". In cryptography, however, the term has a specifict meaning. A "[[code]]" is a method which involves substituting a unit of plaintext, typically meaningful words or phrases with a code word (for example, "<tt>apple pie</tt>" replaces "<tt>attack at dawn</tt>"). Codes are no longer used in serious cryptosystems since the best ciphers are more practical and secure, but codes are important in the modern study of [[error correction and detection|error correction]].
==History of cryptography and cryptanalysis==
''Main article'': [[History of cryptography]]
[[Image:Skytala&EmptyStrip-Shaded.png|thumbnail|The Ancient Greek [[scytale]] may have been one of the earliest devices used to implement a cipher.]]
Historically, cryptography was concerned solely with ''[[encryption]]''; that is, means of converting [[information]] from its normal, comprehensible form into an incomprehensible format, rendering it unreadable without secret knowledge. Encryption was used primarily to ensure [[secrecy]] in important communications, such as those of [[spy|spies]], military leaders, and [[diplomat]]s.
In recent decades, the field has expanded beyond secrecy to include techniques for [[authentication]], [[signature]]s, [[interactive proof]]s, [[secure multiparty computation|secure computation]], [[steganography]], and others.
Cryptography has had a long and colourful history. Generally, the earliest forms of secret writing (now collectively termed ''classical'' cryptography) required little more than pen and paper. The two main categories of classical ciphers are [[transposition cipher]]s, which rearrange the order of letters in a message, and [[substitution cipher]]s, which systematically replace letters or groups of letters with other letters or groups of letters. One of the earliest and simplest substitution ciphers was the [[Caesar cipher]], used by [[Julius Caesar]] during his military campaigns. Cryptography was used primarily for military communications, but also had religious applications. Early Christians used cryptography to help guard their religious writings to preserve them in the face of persecution. Cryptography is also advocated in the [[Kama Sutra]] as a way for lovers to communicate without being discovered. In addition to encryption, [[steganography]] was also developed in the ancient times. While encryption attempts to render a message unreadable, steganography attempts to make a message ''undetectable.'' One example of such a technique, from [[Herodotus]], was to write a message as a tattoo on a slave's head, concealed by regrown hair.
Ciphertexts produced by these classical ciphers reveal statistical information about the plaintext, which is usable to break them. After the Arab discovery of [[frequency analysis]] (circa 1000), nearly all such ciphers were more or less readily readable by an informed attacker. Classical ciphers still enjoy popularity today, though mostly as [[puzzle]]s (see [[cryptogram]]). Ciphers remained vulnerable to cryptanalysis by this technique until the invention of the [[polyalphabetic cipher]] by [[Leon Battista Alberti]], in 1467, in which different parts of the message would be encrypted differently. In the polyalphabetic [[Vigenère cipher]], for instance, encryption is performed by using a ''key word'', and different letters are encoded differently depending on which letter of the key word it aligns with. Despite this improvement, polyalphabetic ciphers were still partially vulnerable to frequency analysis techniques.
Although frequency analysis was a very powerful technique, cryptography was still effective in practice, as in many cases, the holder of an enciphered message would be unaware of the technique used to create it. Although this may work, it was recognized in the [[19th century]] that this was not the ideal state of affairs: in principle, a good cipher should still be secure if the adversary knows the cipher itself; the [[key (cryptography)]] should represent all the information unknown to the adversary. This is called [[Kerchoff's law]].
[[Image:Nsa-enigma.jpg|240px|thumbnail|left|The [[Enigma machine]], used by Germany in [[World War II]], implemented a complex [[cipher]] to protect sensitive communications.]]
Various physical devices and aids have been used for encryption in order to assist in the computation of the ciphers. One of the earliest may have been the [[scytale]], a rod used in [[ancient Greece]] as an aid for a transposition cipher. In medieval times, other aids were invented such as the [[Cardan grille]] for steganography. With the invention of polyalphabetic ciphers came more sophisticated aids such as Alberti's [[cipher disk]] and [[Johannes Trithemius]]' [[tabula recta]]. Early in the 20th century, several mechanical devices were invented for performing encryption, including [[rotor machine]]s &mdash; most famously the [[Enigma machine]] used by Germany in [[World War II]]. The ciphers these machines implemented brought about a significant increase cryptanalytic difficulty.
With the advent of digital computers and [[electronics]], much more complex ciphers could be implemented. A characteristic of computer ciphers is that they operate on [[Binary numeral system|binary]] strings, unlike classical and mechanical schemes, which use more traditional alphabets. However, with these advantages came certain disadvantages, as computers could also be used for cryptanalysis. Nonetheless, modern ciphers have stayed ahead of cryptanalysis: it is usually the case that using a cipher is very efficient, while breaking it takes expontial effort.
Extensive academic research into modern cryptography is relatively recent &mdash; it began in the open community only as recently as the 1970s with the public release of the specifications for the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES) and the invention of [[RSA]]. Since then, cryptography has become a widely-used tool in communications, computer networks, and computer security generally. The security of many modern cryptographic techniques is based on the hardness of certain computational problems, such as the [[integer factorization]] problem or the [[discrete logarithm]] problem. In many cases, there are proofs that cryptographic techniques are secure ''if'' a certain computational problem cannot be solved efficiently. In this way, the security of many modern cryptographic techniques are tied to the [[P=NP]] problem.
As well as noting lessons from its history, cryptographers must also be careful to consider the future. [[Moore's law]] is normally taken into account when specifying [[key length]]s, and th |
most popular algorithms for lossless storage. [[DEFLATE (algorithm)|DEFLATE]] is a variation on LZ which is optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, although compression can be slow. DEFLATE is used in [[PKZIP]], [[gzip]] and [[PNG]]. [[LZW|LZW]] (Lempel-Ziv-Welch) was patented by [[Unisys Corporation|Unisys]] until June of [[2003]], and is used in GIF images. Also noteworthy are the LZR (LZ-Renau) methods, which serve as the basis of the Zip method. LZ methods utilize a table based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data. For most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded (e.g. SHRI, LZX).
A current LZ based coding scheme that performs well is [[LZX (algorithm)|LZX]], used in Microsoft's [[cabinet (file format)|CAB]] format.
The very best compressors use probabilistic models whose predictions are coupled to an algorithm called [[arithmetic coding]]. Arithmetic coding, invented by Jorma Rissanen, and turned into a practical method by Witten, Neal, and Cleary, achieves superior compression to the better-known Huffman algorithm, and lends itself especially well to adaptive data compression tasks where the predictions are strongly context-dependent. Arithmetic coding is used in the bilevel image-compression standard [[JBIG]], and the document-compression standard, [[DejaVu]]. The text ''entry'' system, [[Dasher]], is an inverse-arithmetic-coder.
==See also==
=== Data compression topics===
* [[algorithmic complexity theory]]
* [[information entropy]]
* [[self-extraction]]
* [[image compression]]
* [[multimedia compression]]
* [[minimum description length]]
* [[minimum message length]] (two-part lossless compression designed for inference)
* [[universal code (data compression)|universal code]]s
** [[Elias gamma coding]]
** [[Fibonacci coding]]
** [[Golomb coding]]
** [[Adaptive Huffman coding]]
=== Compression algorithms ===
==== [[Lossless data compression]] ====
* [[run-length encoding]]
* [[dictionary coder]]s
** [[LZ77|LZ77 & LZ78]]
** [[LZW]]
* [[Burrows-Wheeler transform]]
* [[prediction by partial matching]] (also known as PPM)
* [[context mixing]]
* [[entropy encoding]]
** [[Huffman coding]] (simple entropy coding; commonly used as the final stage of compression)
** [[arithmetic coding]] (more advanced)
** [[range encoding]] (simple, intended to approach the performance of arithmetic coding without being patent-encumbered)
==== [[Lossy data compression]] ====
* [[discrete cosine transform]]
* [[fractal compression]]
** [[fractal transform]]
* [[wavelet compression]]
* [[vector quantization]]
* [[linear predictive coding]]
==== Example Implementations ====
* [[DEFLATE (algorithm)|DEFLATE]] (a combination of LZ77 and Huffman coding) &ndash; used by [[ZIP file format|ZIP]], [[gzip]] and [[PNG]] files
* [[LZMA]] used by [[7-Zip]] and [[StuffitX]]
* [[LZO]] (very fast LZ variation, speed oriented)
* [[Unix]] ''[[compress]]'' utility (the .Z file format), and [[GIF]] use [[LZW]]
* [[bzip2]] (a combination of the Burrows-Wheeler transform and Huffman coding)
* [[PAQ]] (very high compression based on [[context mixing]], but extremely slow; competing in the top of the highest compression competitions)
* [[JPEG]] (image compression using a discrete cosine transform, then quantization, then Huffman coding)
* [[MPEG]] (audio and video compression standards family in wide use, using [[Discrete cosine transform|DCT]] and motion-compensated prediction for video)
** [[MP3]] (a part of the [[MPEG-1]] standard for sound and music compression, using subbanding and [[MDCT]], perceptual modeling, quantization, and Huffman coding)
** [[Advanced Audio Coding|AAC]] (part of the [[MPEG-2]] and [[MPEG-4]] audio coding specifications, using MDCT, perceptual modeling, quantization, and Huffman coding)
* [[Ogg Vorbis]] (DCT based AAC-alike audio codec, designed with a focus on avoiding patent encumbrance)
* [[JPEG 2000]] (image compression using wavelets, then quantization, then entropy coding)
* [[TTA]] (uses [[linear predictive coding]] for lossless audio compression)
* [[FLAC]] ([[linear predictive coding]] for lossless audio compression)
==References==
* Doyle, J. & Carlson, J. M. (2000) ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''84,''' 5656–5659.
* Timothy C. Bell, Ian Witten, John Cleary (1990) ''Text Compression'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0139119914
==External links==
*[http://www.fileinfo.net/filetype/compressed Compressed File Types]
*[http://www.maximumcompression.com/ Data Compression Benchmarks and Tests]
*[http://www-nt.e-technik.uni-rostock.de/~ts/Datacompression/compression.html Data Compression - Systematisation by T.Strutz]
*[http://www.vectorsite.net/ttdcmp1.html Public domain article on data compression]
*[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/file-compression.htm/printable How Compression Works]
*[http://uclc.info/ Ultimate Command Line Compressors]
*[http://www.compression-links.info/ Compression Resources catalog] (currenly the biggest)
*[http://www.c10n.info/ The Data Compression News Blog]
*[http://www.elis.ugent.be/~wheirman/compression/ Practical Compressor Test] (Compares speed and efficiency for commonly used compression programs)
*[http://www.c10n.info/newsletter/ The Monthly Data Compression Newsletter]
[[Category:Data compression]]
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[[fr:Compression de données]]
[[ko:데이터 압축]]
[[id:Kompresi data]]
[[it:Compressione dei dati]]
[[he:דחיסת נתונים]]
[[hu:Adattömörítés]]
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[[pl:Kompresja (informatyka)]]
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[[zh:数据压缩]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Digitizing tablet</title>
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<page>
<title>Define and Describe Talk</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia talk:Guide to writing better articles/Define and describe]]</text>
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<title>Diallelus</title>
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<title>Durango Boot</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}'''Durango Boot''' (also called Boot) is a competitive, non-contact [[sport]] that makes use of a flying disc (or [[Frisbee]]), and is similar to [[Ultimate (sport)|ultimate]].
The flow of Boot is much like Ultimate, but even more fluid with no stoppage of play, even after scores. There's full-on running, lots of give-and-go action, smooth zone defenses, and the whole globe is your playing field. It's very competitive and we have yet to master the game after years of play.
==History==
'''Durango Boot''' is so named because the first time it was played, none of the players had cones to mark the field, so boots were used instead. The game was originally called '''Boot''', but '''Durango''' was added to the name because it was first played in Durango, CO.
==Rules==
===Field of Play===
Refer to the accompanying diagram for the basic configuration and dimensions. As in Ultimate, the field can easily be altered to fit the space available. Eight cones are used to define the field. Four cones (star dots) are the goals. If your team hits one with the disc, you score. The other four cones (black dots) are used to mark the 'take-back" zone, which is actually a belt that extends all the way around the world. There is no out of bounds.
[[Image:bootfield.jpg]]
===Object of the game===
The object is simply to hit any of the 4 score cones (star dots) with the disc. The cones may be hit by a thrown disc, or if you are in possession of the disc right next to a cone, you may hit the cone without releasing the disc (the 'Slam Dunk').
If the cone is hit by Slam Dunk or a throw from within the zone in front of the "take-back" zone, it counts as 1 point. If the cone is hit by a throw from within the "take-back" cones, it counts as 2 points. If the cone is hit by a throw from beyond of the "take-back" cones, it counts as 3 points. See diagram for examples of throws.
Games are generally played to 3 points. Win by one point. Best 2 out of 3 games.
===The Play===
Each team fields 3 players. A disc is flipped at midfield, heads or tails is called, and the winner of the flip immediately picks up the disc and takes the offensive. They then work the disc trying to get into position to hit one of the score cones. As in Ultimate, if they fail to complete a pass or if the stall count is reached, it's a turnover. The stall count only goes up to 6 and may be counted by any defensive player no matter where on the field he is. No one needs to mark the thrower.
On a turnover, the defensive team immediately bec |
ven heavier emphasis than his superheroic alter-ego in the 1990s series ''[[Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman]]'' and the 2000s series ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'' where Clark has not yet adopted the identity of Superman. In ''Lois and Clark'', Clark is portrayed by [[Dean Cain]]; in ''Smallville'', Clark (as a [[teenager]]) is portrayed by [[Tom Welling]].
==Notes==
#{{note|jerome}} Note that some sources claim that Kent's middle name is in fact "Jerome", and that he was given this name in honor of creator [[Jerry Siegel]]. The name "Jerome" was used in the "Season's Greetings" episode of the television series ''[[Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman]]''. It was also featured in several episodes of the 2000s television series ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]''.
[[Category:Superman]]
[[Category:Fictional reporters]]
[[Category:Superman supporting characters]]</text>
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<title>Comic Fantasy</title>
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<title>Christian Mythology</title>
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<title>Classification of finite simple groups</title>
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<comment>/* The classification */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''classification of the finite simple groups''', also called "the enormous theorem", is a vast body of work in [[mathematics]], mostly published between around [[1955]] and [[1983]], which is thought to classify all of the [[finite set|finite]] [[simple group]]s. In all, the work comprises tens of thousands of pages in 500 journal articles by some 100 authors.
==The classification==
If correct, the classification shows [[list of finite simple groups|every finite simple group]] to be one of the following types:
* A [[cyclic group]] with [[prime number|prime]] order
* An [[alternating group]] of degree at least 5
* A "classical group" ([[projective special linear group|projective special linear]], [[symplectic group|symplectic]], [[orthogonal group|orthogonal]] or [[unitary group|unitary]] group over a [[finite field]])
* An exceptional or twisted [[group of Lie type]] (including the [[Tits group]])
* One of 26 left-over groups known as the '''sporadic groups''' (listed below)
The theorem has widespread applications in many branches of [[mathematics]], as questions about finite groups can often be reduced to questions about
finite simple groups, which by the classification can be reduced to
an enumeration of cases.
Sometimes the [[Tits group]] is regarded as a sporadic group (in which case there are 27 sporadic groups) because it is not strictly a group of Lie type.
== The sporadic groups ==
Five of the sporadic groups were discovered by Mathieu in the [[1860s]] and the other 21 were found between [[1965]] and [[1975]]. Several of these groups were predicted to exist before they were constructed. Most of the groups are named after the mathematician(s) who first predicted their existence. The full list is:
* [[Mathieu group]]s ''M''<sub>11</sub>, ''M''<sub>12</sub>, ''M''<sub>22</sub>, ''M''<sub>23</sub>, ''M''<sub>24</sub>
* [[Janko group]]s ''J''<sub>1</sub>, ''J''<sub>2</sub> or ''HJ'', ''J''<sub>3</sub> or ''HJM'', ''J''<sub>4</sub>
* [[Conway group]]s ''Co''<sub>1</sub>, ''Co''<sub>2</sub>, ''Co''<sub>3</sub>
* [[Fischer group]]s ''Fi''<sub>22</sub>, ''Fi''<sub>23</sub>, ''Fi''<sub>24</sub> or ''Fi''<sub>24</sub>&prime;
* [[Higman-Sims group]] ''HS''
* [[Conway group#Other sporadic groups|McLaughlin group]] ''McL''
* [[Held group]] ''He'' or ''F''<sub>7</sub>
* [[Rudvalis group]] ''Ru''
* [[Conway group#Other sporadic groups|Suzuki sporadic group]] ''Suz''
* [[O'Nan group]] ''O'N''
* [[Harada-Norton group]] ''HN'' or ''F''<sub>5</sub>
* [[Lyons group]] ''Ly''
* [[Thompson group (finite)|Thompson group]] ''Th'' or ''F''<sub>3</sub>
* [[Baby Monster group]] ''B'' or ''F''<sub>2</sub>
* Fischer-Griess [[Monster group]] ''M'' or ''F''<sub>1</sub>
Matrix [[group representation|representations]] over finite fields for all the sporadic groups have been computed.
Of the 26 sporadic groups, 20 of them can be seen inside the [[Monster group]] as [[subgroup|subgroups]] or [[quotient group|quotients]] of subgroups. The 6 exceptions are ''J''<sub>1</sub>, ''J''<sub>3</sub>, ''J''<sub>4</sub>, ''O'N'', ''Ru'' and ''Ly''. These 6 groups are sometimes known as the '''pariahs'''.
So far, there has been little progress in providing a convincing unification for
the sporadic groups.
==Remaining skepticism on the proof==
Some doubts remain on whether these articles provide a complete and correct proof, due to the sheer length and complexity of the published work and the fact that parts of the supposed proof remain unpublished. [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] is a notable skeptic of the claim of a proof. Such doubts were justified to an extent as gaps were later found and eventually fixed.
For over a decade, experts have known of a "serious gap" (according to [[Michael Aschbacher]]) in the (unpublished) classification of [[quasithin group]]s due to Geoff Mason. Gorenstein announced the classification of finite simple groups in 1983, based partly on the impression that the quasithin case was finished. Aschbacher filled this gap in the early [[1990s|90s]], also unpublished. Aschbacher and Steve Smith have published a different proof comprising two volumes of about 1300 pages.
== A second-generation classification ==
Because of the extreme length of the proof of the classification of finite
simple groups, there has been a lot of work, called "revisionism", originally led by [[Daniel Gorenstein]], in finding a simpler proof. This is the so-called '''second-generation classification proof'''.
Six volumes have been published [[as of 2005]], and manuscripts exist for most of the rest. The two Aschbacher and Smith volumes were written to provide a proof for the quasithin case that would work with both the first- and second-generation proof. It is estimated that the new proof will be approximately 5,000 pages when complete. (It should be noted that the newer proofs are being written in a more generous style.)
Gorenstein and his collaborators have given several reasons why a simpler proof is possible. The most important is that the correct, final statement is now known. Techniques can be applied that will suffice for the actual groups.
In contrast, during the original proof, nobody knew how many sporadic groups there were, and in fact some of the sporadic groups (for example, the [[Janko group]]s) were discovered in the process of trying to prove cases of the classification theorem. As a result, overly general techniques were applied.
Again, because the conclusion was unknown, and for a long time not even conceivable, the original proof consisted of many separate complete theorems, classifying important special cases. These proofs, in order to reach their own final statements, had to analyze numerous special cases. Often, most of the work was in these exceptions. As part of a larger, orchestrated proof, many of these special cases can be bypassed, to be handled when the most powerful assumptions can be applied. The price paid is that these original theorems, in the revised strategy, no longer have comparatively short proofs, but depend on the complete classification.
Nor were these separate theorems efficient regarding the subdivision of cases. Numerous target groups were identified multiple times as a result. The revised proof relies on a different subdivision of cases, eliminating these redundancies.
Finally, finite group theorists have more experience and new techniques.
== References ==
* Michael Aschbacher, ''[http://www.ams.org/notices/200407/fea-aschbacher.pdf The Status of the Classification of the Finite Simple Groups]'', Notices of the [[American Mathematical Society]], August [[2004]]
* Daniel Gorenstein, Richard Lyons, Ronald Solomon ''The Classification of the Finite Simple Groups'' [http://www.ams.org/online_bks/surv401/ (volume 1)], AMS, 1994 [http://www.ams.org/online_bks/surv402/ (volume 2)], AMS,
* Ron Solomon: ''[http://www.ams.org/notices/199502/solomon.pdf On Finite Simple Groups and their Classification]'', Notices of the American Mathematical Society, February 1995
* Conway, J. H.; Curtis, R. T.; Norton, S. P.; Parker, R. A.; and Wilson, R. A.: "''Atlas of Finite Groups: Maximal Subgroups and Ordinary Characters for Simple Groups.''" Oxford, England [[1985]].
* [http://www.eleves.ens.fr:8080/home/madore/math/simplegroups.html Orders of non abelian simple groups]: includes a list of all non-abelian simple groups up to order 10,000,000,000.
* [http://web.mat.bham.ac.uk/atlas/v2.0/ Atlas of Finite Group Representations]: contains [[Group representation|representations]] and other dat |
avelers, who used a sort of commercial Latin or [[lingua franca]] (''latín ginobisco'' for Spaniards). He suggests that Columbus learned Spanish in Portugal through its use in Portugal as or "adopted language of culture" from 1450. This same Spanish is used by poets like [[Fernán Silveira]] and [[Joan Manuel]]. The first testimony of his use of Spanish is from the 1480s. Menendez Pidal and many others detect a lot of Portuguese in his Spanish, where he mixes, for example, ''falar'' and ''hablar''. But Menendez Pidal does not accept the hypothesis of a Galician origin for Columbus by noting that where Portuguese and Galician diverged, Columbus always used the Portuguese form.
Latin, on the other hand, was the language of scholarship, and here Columbus excelled. He also kept his journal in Latin, and a "secret" journal in Greek.
According to historian [[Charles Merrill]], analysis of his handwriting indicates that it is typical of someone who was a native Catalan, and Columbus' phonetic mistakes in Spanish are "most likely" those of a Catalan. Also, that he married a Portuguese noblewoman is presented as evidence that his origin was of nobility rather than the Italian merchant class, since it was unheard of during his time for nobility to marry outside their class. This same theory suggests he was the illegitimate son of a prominent Catalan sea-faring family, which had served as mercenaries in a sea battle against Castilian forces. Fighting against Ferdinand and being illegitimate were two excellent reasons for keeping his origins obscure. Furthermore, the disinterment of his brother's body shows him to be a different age, by nearly a decade, than the "Bartolome Colombo" of the Genoese family.
After 15 years of research, Manuel Rosa accepts the theory that ''Cristóbal Colón'' was the spy name of a Portuguese secret agent sent to Spain to mislead the Spanish away from the real India. This is why he knew Portuguese so well and why the navigator changed his name only when entering Spain in 1484. Cristóbal Colón was called ''our special friend in Seville'' by Portugal's King John II in 1488 and Colon continously lied to the Spanish. His lies benefited only the kingdom of Portugal and helped protect the way for Vasco da Gama to reach the real India. This explains why he headed for Lisbon on the return from the first voyage and had a meeting with the King of Portugal, why he knew Portuguese so well, why he kept in constant contact with Portuguese territory as well as why he was involved in the debriefing in Lisbon of the secret discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartolomeu Dias.
In a little accepted, but not overly unknown theory expanding upon the "Chios theory" of Columbus' origin, he was the son of a Genoese noble family in Greece—which accounts for his penchant for the Greek language—who migrated at an early age to Castillo & Leon near a large Portuguese city, where he adopted Latin, Portuguese, and Spanish (Castellano) for their potential uses in his journey. As such, this theory explains how he was an accomplished linguist and how his theories and plans could have been conceived much ahead of time than what is normally accepted.
== Perceptions of Columbus ==
Christopher Columbus has had a cultural significance beyond his actual achievements and actions as an individual; he also became a symbol, a figure of legend. The mythology of Columbus has cast him as an archetype for both good and for evil.
The casting of Columbus as a figure of "good" or of "evil" often depends on people's perspectives as to whether the arrival of Europeans to the New World and the introduction of [[Christianity]] (particularly the [[Catholicism|Catholic]] faith) is seen as positive or negative.
In addition, the nascent countries of the New World, particularly the newly independent [[USA]], seemed to need a historical narrative to give them roots. This narrative was supplied in part by [[Washington Irving]] in 1828 with ''The life and voyages of Christopher Columbus'', which may be the true source of much of the modern mythology about the explorer.
Columbus' struggles to civilize the Americas, and the subsequent effects on the native peoples, were dramatised in [[1492: Conquest of Paradise]] to commemorate the 500th anniversary of his landing in the Americas.
=== Columbus as hero ===
[[image:Tomb-of-columbus.jpg|right|thumb|Columbus' tomb in the cathedral of Seville. It is borne by four statues of kings representing the Kingdoms of [[Castile]], [[Leon]], [[Aragon]], and [[Navarre]].]]
Traditionally, Columbus is viewed as a man of heroic stature by the European-descended population of the New World. He has often been hailed as a man of heroism and bravery, and also of faith: he sailed westward into mostly unknown waters, and his unique scheme is often viewed as ingenious. He "set an example for us all by showing what monumental feats can be accomplished through perseverance and faith" ([[George H. W. Bush]], [[June 8]], [[1989]]).
Hero worship of Columbus perhaps reached a zenith around 1892, the 400th anniversary of his first arrival in the [[Americas]]. Monuments to Columbus (including the [[World's Columbian Exposition|Columbian Exposition]] in Chicago) were erected throughout the [[United States]] and [[Latin America]], extolling him as a hero. The [[Knights of Columbus]], a Catholic men's fraternal benefit society, had been chartered ten years earlier by the State of [[Connecticut]]. The story that Columbus thought the world was round while his contemporaries believed in a flat earth was often repeated. This tale was used to show that Columbus was enlightened and forward looking. Columbus' apparent defiance of convention in sailing west to get to the far east was hailed as a model of "American"-style can-do inventiveness.
In the United States, the admiration of Columbus was particularly embraced by some members of the Italian American, Hispanic, and Catholic communities. These groups point to Columbus as one of their own to show that Mediterranean Catholics could and did make great contributions to the USA. The modern vilification of Columbus is seen by his supporters and by many scholars as being politically motivated and non-historical.
=== Columbus as villain ===
Criticism focuses on the continuing positive Columbus myths and celebrations (such as Columbus Day) and their effects on American thought towards present-day [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. Official celebrations of the 500th [[anniversary]] of Columbus' first voyage in 1492 were muted, and demonstrators protested marking the anniversary at all. It was in this spirit that Venezuelan President [[Hugo Chávez]] signed, in October, 2002, a decree changing the name of Venezuela's "Columbus Day" to "The Day of Indigenous Resistance" in honor of the nation's indigenous groups. On [[October 12]] [[2004]], supporters of Chávez destroyed a 100-year old statue of Columbus in [[Caracas]]. They did this because they found Columbus guilty of 'imperialist [[genocide]]'. (''For more, see [[Columbus Day]]''.) The genocide and atrocious acts committed by the Spanish against the natives (the Tainos in particular) are well documented in terrifying detail by [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] in his letters and book ''[[A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies]].'' See [[Genocides in history#The Americas|Native American Genocide]] for more details.
The view of Columbus as a villain received mass exposure in the United States when an episode of the TV show "[[The Sopranos]]" included a shot of ''[[A People's History of the United States]]'' by [[Howard Zinn]] and demonstrated a common reaction to [[critical pedagogy]] in U.S. classrooms.
Columbus is also viewed as a villain for transporting Native Americans to Europe for sale as slaves. There is no evidence of any previous trans-Atlantic voyages that transported slaves for sale. Thus, he was the first known European to transport slaves eastward across the Atlantic, and so is seen by some as the founder of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] in which millions of Africans were transported westward across the Atlantic for sale as slaves in the atrocity of the [[Middle Passage]].
===Physical appearance===
[[Image:Hw-columbus.jpg|thumb|165px|No authentic contemporary portrait of Columbus has been found; this late 19th-century engraving is one of many conjectural images]]
[[Image:CristobalColon.jpg|left|thumb|155px|Christopher Columbus (conjectural image by [[Sebastiano del Piombo]]).]]
Nobody has ever found an authentic contemporary portrait of Christopher Columbus. Over the years historians have presented many images that reconstruct his appearance from written descriptions. They depict him variously with long or short hair, heavy or thin, bearded or cleanshaven, stern or at ease. The image at the beginning of this article and the image to the left both date from close to Columbus' time, but historians do not know whether the artists painted them from personal knowledge of his appearance.
Despite the uncertainty, textbooks in the United States have used the image on the left so often that it has become the face of Columbus in popular culture. The image on the right is yet another idea. However, it is widely accepted that this image actually represents [[Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli]] (1397-10 May,1482).
==See also==
* [[1421 hypothesis]]
* [[1492: Conquest of Paradise]]
* [[Egg of Columbus]]
* [[Exploration]]
* [[Explorers]]
* [[Genocide]]
* [[Guanahani]] (a discussion of candidates for site of first landing)
* [[Knights of Columbus]]
* [[Indian slavery]]
* [[List of places named for Christopher Columbus]]
* [[Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli]]
* [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Christophorus Columbus|Christopher Columbus}}
* A reconstruc |
n further phenomena in the future
* Conservatism - the degree of "fit" with existing recognised knowledge-systems
== Quotes ==
* ''"[[Gravity#Newton's reservations|Hypotheses non fingo]]"'' : "I feign no hypotheses" -- Isaac Newton{{fn|1}}
*"... a hypothesis is a statement whose ''truth'' is temporarily assumed, ''whose meaning is beyond all doubt''. ..." -- Albert Einstein{{fn|2}}
== See also ==
* [[Causality]]
* [[Ecological fallacy]]
* [[Learning]]
* [[Logic]]
* [[Null hypothesis]]
* [[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]] for Newton's position on hypotheses
* [[Reductionism]]
* [[Research design]]
* [[Scientific method]]
* [[Statistical hypothesis testing]]
* [[Theory]]
* [[Null Hypothesis - The Journal of Unlikely Science]]
== Notes ==
{{fnb|1}}[[Isaac Newton]], ''Principia Mathematica''. A New Translation by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, translators. University of California Press [[1999]] ISBN 0-520-08817-4
{{fnb|2}} Letter to Eduard Study from [[Albert Einstein]], [[September 25]],[[1918]] ''Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', J.J. Stachel and Robert Schulmann, eds. Princeton University Press [[1987]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.nuevoweb.com/tutorial/glossary.html Research and Evaluation Glossary]
*[http://www.null-hypothesis.co.uk Null Hypothesis - The Journal of Unlikely Science]. A monthly satirical science journal which casts a wry eye over the world of science and technology. It caters for anyone who has ever laughed at, or felt amazement at, the world around us.
[[Category:Scientific method]]
== References ==
Schick, Theodore and Vaughn, Lewis: ''How to think about weird things: Critical thinking for a New Age'' Boston, 2002
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<page>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hubris''' or '''hybris''' ([[greek language|Greek]] ‛′Υβρις) referred in Ancient Greece to a reckless and violent disregard for the personal space of another person resulting in some kind of social degradation for the victim. According to its popular modern definition hubris is exaggerated [[pride]] or self-confidence often resulting in fatal retribution.
==Hubris in ancient times==
Hubris is a common theme in [[Greek tragedy|Greek tragedies]] and [[Greek mythology|mythology]], whose stories often featured characters suffering from hubris and subsequently being punished for it. In [[Ancient Greece|Greek law]], it most often refers to violent outrage wreaked by the powerful upon the weak.
There was also a goddess called '''Hubris''' (‛′Υβρις), or Hybris, the embodiment of the above concept: insolence and lack of restraint.
The original "hubristic" characters in Greek literature are [[Penelope]]'s suitors in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]''. They are eventually made to pay for their presumptuous encroachments on the household of [[Odysseus]].
Hubris has in the past been cited as the "hamártia" ("error") of characters in Greek tragedy. The "[[Nemesis (mythology)|nemesis]]" (''némesis''), or destruction, which befalls these characters, however, generally comes from the [[Twelve Olympians|gods]], whereas hubris refers for the most part to infractions by mortals against other mortals!
==Hubris in modern times==
Modern negative consequences of actions stemming from hubris appear to be associated with a lack of knowledge, interest in, and exploration of [[history]], combined with overconfidence and a lack of [[humility]]. The common reference is 'The false pride that comes before the fall'.
Hubris as a pejorative term is often applied in the political realm. As hubris is associated with power, it is often used by persons associated with political parties that are out of power against those who are in power, specifically with regard to a perceived abuse of power.
Hubris has been suggested as one of the three virtues of successful programmers, according to [[Larry Wall]]. It is ''"the quality that makes you write (and maintain) programs that other people won't want to say bad things about."'' The other two virtues are [[laziness]] and [[impatience]].
==References==
{{wiktionary}}
* {{cite book | first = Nick | last = Fisher | title = Hybris: a study in the values of honour and shame in Ancient Greece | location = [[Warminster]], UK | publisher = Aris & Phillips | year = 1992 }} A book-length discussion of the meaning and implications of hybristic behavior in ancient Greece.
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<page>
<title>Heavy water</title>
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'''Heavy water''' is '''deuterium oxide''', or D<sub>2</sub>O or <sup>2</sup>H<sub>2</sub>O. Its physical and chemical properties are similar to those of [[light water]], H<sub>2</sub>O, but the [[hydrogen]] atoms are of the heavy [[isotope]] [[deuterium]], in which the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] contains a [[neutron]] in addition to the [[proton]] found in the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. This isotopic substitution alters the [[bond energy]] of the hydrogen-oxygen bond in water, altering the physical and chemical properties of the substance. [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] isolated the first sample of pure heavy water in 1933.
'''Semiheavy water''', HDO, also exists whenever there is water with hydrogen-1 (or [[Hydrogen atom|protium]]) and deuterium present in the mixture. This is because hydrogen atoms (hydrogen-1 and deuterium) are rapidly exchanged between water molecules. Water containing 50 % H and 50 % D actually contains about 50 % HDO and 25 % each of H<sub>2</sub>O and D<sub>2</sub>O, in [[dynamic equilibrium]].
Heavy water should not be confused with [[hard water]] or [[Tritiated water|tritiated water]].
==Uses==
===Nuclear magnetic resonance===
Deuterium oxide is used in [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) spectroscopy when the solvent of interest is water and the [[nuclide]] of interest is hydrogen. This is because the signal from the water solvent would interfere with the signal from the molecule of interest. Deuterium has a different [[magnetic moment]] from [[hydrogen]] and therefore does not contribute to the NMR signal at the hydrogen resonance frequency.
===Neutron moderator===
Heavy water is used in certain types of [[nuclear reactors]] where it acts as a [[neutron moderator]] to slow down neutrons so that they can react with the [[uranium]] in the reactor.
The [[CANDU reactor]] uses this design. Light water also acts as a moderator but because light water absorbs [[neutrons]], reactors using light water must use [[enriched uranium]] rather than natural uranium, otherwise [[Critical mass (nuclear)|criticality]] is impossible. In effect to achieve criticality in a reactor, one must enrich either the moderator or the fuel.
Because [[heavy water reactor]]s can use natural uranium, it is of concern in efforts to prevent [[nuclear proliferation]]. Heavy water production reactors can be designed to turn uranium into bomb-usable [[plutonium]] without requiring enrichment facilities. Heavy water production reactors have been used for this purpose by [[India]], [[Israel]], [[Pakistan]], [[North Korea]], [[Russia]] and [[USA]]. There is no evidence that heavy water power reactors, such as the CANDU design, have been used for military plutonium production.
Due to its potential for use in [[nuclear weapons]] programs, heavy water is subject to government control in several countries. Suppliers of heavy water and heavy water production technology typically apply [[IAEA]] administered safeguards and material accounting to heavy water. (In [[Australia]], the ''Nuclear Non-Proliferation (Safeguards) Act 1987'').
===Neutrino detector===
The [[Sudbury Neutrino Observatory]] (SNO) in [[Sudbury, Ontario]] uses 1000 tonnes of heavy water on loan from [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]]. The [[neutrino detector]] is 6800 feet underground in an old mine to shield it from [[cosmic rays]]. SNO detects the [[Cherenkov effect|Cherenkov radiation]] as [[neutrino]]s pass through the heavy water.
==Toxicity==
To perform their tasks, [[enzyme]]s rely on their finely tuned networks of [[hydrogen bond]]s, both in the active center with their substrates, and outside the active centre, to stabilize their [[tertiary structure]]s. As a hydrogen bond with deuterium is slightly stronger than one involving ordinary hydrogen, in a highly deuterated environment, normal reactions in cells are disrupted. Experiments in mice, rats, and dogs [http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/cgi-bin/rp/rp2_abst_e?cjpp_y99-005_77_ns_nf_c |
[Télévision de Radio-Canada|SRC]] networks. People who live in the downtown area can also receive channels from [[Toledo, Ohio]], and from other Michigan cities such as [[Flint, Michigan|Flint]], [[Bay City, Michigan|Bay City]], and [[Midland, Michigan|Midland]]. [[Comcast]] has the one cable [[franchise]] so far granted by the city.
Detroit is also served by a variety of [[radio station]]s. The primary [[amplitude modulation|AM]] stations are [[WJR (AM)|WJR]] 760 (news-talk), [[WWJ (AM)|WWJ]] 950 (news), [[CKLW]] (Canadian general talk) and [[WDFN (AM)|WDFN]] 1130 (sports). Several [[frequency modulation|FM]] stations include [[100.3 WNIC|WNIC]] 100.3 (mix-genre), 101.1 [[WRIF]] (Rock), [[WJLB]] 97.9 (urban contemporary), [[WMXD]] (urban adult contemporary), and [[WOMC]] 104.3 (oldies). [[WDET]] 101.9 is the city's [[National Public Radio|NPR]] station. [[WUOM]] 91.7 and [[WEMU]] 89.1 are also regional NPR affiliates. [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]] radio stations [[CIMX-FM|CIMX]] 88.7 and [[CBE-FM|CBC 89.9]] can also be heard in the Detroit area.
In the [[1960s]], before widespread rock music exposure in national media, Detroit-area radio stations, especially [[CKLW]] with its powerful signal, were instrumental in propelling many musical acts, both local and out-of-town, to national stardom.
=== Sites of interest ===
[[Image:DIAfront Detroit USA.jpg|275px|thumb|Front of the Detroit Institute of Art located in Midtown]]
The [[Detroit Institute of Arts]] houses what is considered to be one of the most prominent American collections outside New York City, and features showcase pieces by [[Diego Rivera]], [[Picasso]] and [[Van Gogh]] along with such hometown artists as [[Charles McGee]]. The Detroit Institute of Arts is located in an area near [[Wayne State University]] known as the Cultural Center, which is also the site of the Detroit Historical Museum, Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, Detroit Science Center, and the main branch of the Detroit Public Library. Other cultural highlights include the [[Hitsville U.S.A.|Motown Historical Museum]], [[Tuskegee Airmen]] Museum, Historic [[Fort Wayne (Detroit)]], Dossin Great Lakes Museum, and the Belle Isle Conservatory.
Major parks include [[Belle Isle (Michigan)|Belle Isle]] (the largest island park within a city in the U.S.), Palmer Park, River Rouge Park, Chene Park and [[Campus Martius Park]]. [[Hart Plaza]], located between the Renaissance Center and [[Cobo Hall]] on the riverfront, is the site of many events, notably various music festivals. Other city recreational facilities include municipal golf courses (William Rogell, Rouge, Belle Isle, Palmer Park), Northwest Activities Center, [[Detroit Zoo]], the [[Anna Scripps Whitcomb Conservatory]], and the [[Belle Isle Aquarium]]. As of April 2005 the Aquarium and Zoo at Belle Isle are closed, though there is a movement to reopen them.
The most important civic sculpture in Detroit is the "[[Spirit of Detroit]]", which when it was installed in [[1958]] was the largest cast sculpture made since the Renaissance. The 16 foot (4&nbsp;m) tall bronze kneeling man holds a gold orb in one hand and a golden family in the other. The image is often used as a symbol of Detroit and the statue itself is occasionally dressed in sports uniforms to celebrate when a Detroit team is doing well. A memorial to [[Joe Louis]] at the intersection of Jefferson and Woodward Avenues was dedicated on [[October 16]], [[1986]]. The sculpture, commissioned by [[Sports Illustrated magazine|''Sports Illustrated'']] and executed by [[Robert Graham (sculptor)|Robert Graham]], is a 24&nbsp;foot (7.3 m) long arm with a fisted hand suspended by a 24 foot high pyramidal framework.
=== Sports ===
Detroit is home to professional teams representing the four major sports in North America. All but two play within the city of Detroit ([[basketball|basketball's]] [[Detroit Pistons]] and [[Detroit Shock]] play in suburban [[Auburn Hills]]). There are three active major sports venues in the city: [[Comerica Park]] for [[baseball]], [[Ford Field]] for [[American football|football]], and [[Joe Louis Arena]] for [[ice hockey]].
{| style="border: 1px solid #ADADAD; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-bottom: 5px;"
|- bgcolor=#ADADAD align=left
! width=150px | Club
! width=100px | Sport
! width=270px | League
! width=120px | Stadium
! width=50px | Logo
|-
|[[Detroit Tigers]]
|[[Baseball]]
|[[Major League Baseball|MLB]]
|[[Comerica Park]]
|[[Image:DetroitTigers 100.png|20px|Detroit Tigers logo]]
|-
|[[Detroit Lions]]
|[[Football]]
|[[National Football League|NFL]]
|[[Ford Field]]
|[[Image:Lions100.png|20px|Detroit Lions logo]]
|-
|[[Detroit Pistons]]
|[[Basketball]]
|[[National Basketball Association|NBA]]
|[[Palace of Auburn Hills]]
|[[Image:DET 3079.gif|20px|Detroit Pistons logo]]
|-
|[[Detroit Red Wings]]
|[[Ice Hockey]]
|[[National Hockey League|NHL]]
|[[Joe Louis Arena]]
|[[Image:DetroitRedWings 100.png|20px|Detroit Red Wings logo]]
|-
|[[Detroit Shock]]
|[[Basketball]] (Women's)
|[[Women's National Basketball Association|WNBA]]
|[[Palace of Auburn Hills]]
|[[Image:DetroitShock 100.png|20px|Detroit Shock logo]]
|}
Like many industrial cities, Detroit is known for its avid fans, particularly in such blue-collar sports as football ([[Detroit Lions]]) and hockey ([[Detroit Red Wings]]). Detroit is perhaps the most fervent hockey hotbed in the United States. A Red Wings marketing campaign in the late [[1990s]] launched the nickname ''[[Hockeytown]]'', a city moniker subsequently embraced by local fans and national media.
In college sports, the [[University of Detroit Mercy]] has a [[NCAA]] [[Division I]] program, and [[Wayne State University]] has both [[NCAA]] Division I and [[Division II|II]] programs. The NCAA football [[Motor City Bowl]] is held here each December.
Detroit is home to the [[Detroit International Marathon]], which crosses the border into Canada via the [[Ambassador Bridge]] and returns to the United States through the [[Detroit-Windsor Tunnel]]. It is the world's only cross-national marathon. The city is also home to the APBA Gold Cup unlimited hydroplane boat race, which is held in Detroit each year since 1990. The race occurs on the Detroit River near Belle Isle.
Detroit was also the former home of a round of the [[Formula One]] World Championship, holding a race on the [[Detroit street circuit|streets of downtown Detroit]] from 1985 until 1988, after which the sanction moved from Formula One to [[Indycars]]. [[CART]] continued downtown until 1992, when the race was moved to another temporary course on [[Belle Isle (Michigan)|Belle Isle]] where the race remained through 2001.
Detroit was a finalist in bidding for the [[1944 Summer Olympics|1944]], [[1952 Summer Olympics|1952]], [[1956 Summer Olympics|1956]], [[1960 Summer Olympics|1960]], [[1964 Summer Olympics|1964]], [[1968 Summer Olympics|1968]], and [[1972 Summer Olympics|1972]] [[Summer Olympic Games]]. No other city has made it to the final [[IOC]] Olympic host city elections as often without eventually being selected. [http://www.gamesbids.com/english/archives/past.shtml]
Comerica Park hosted the 2005 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|MLB All Star Game]] on [[July 12]], [[2005]], and [[Ford Field]] hosted [[Super Bowl XL]] on [[February 5]], [[2006]]. A world record was set on [[December 13]], [[2003]], when the largest crowd in basketball history &mdash; 78,129 &mdash; packed Ford Field to watch the [[University of Kentucky]] defeat [[Michigan State University]], 79&ndash;74.
{{seealso|U.S. cities with teams from four major sports}}
==Infrastructure==
===Medicine===
Detroit is home to three major medical systems: the [[Detroit Medical Center]], Henry Ford Health System, and the St. John's Health System. Detroit Receiving Hospital and [[Henry Ford Hospital]] are both [[Level I trauma center]]s. Detroit is considered to have some of the busiest emergency rooms in the United States.
The Detroit Medical Center consists of Detroit Receiving Hospital and University Health Center, Children's Hospital of Michigan, Harper University Hospital, Hutzel Women's Hospital, Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan, and the Karmanos Cancer Institute. It is staffed by physicians from the [[Wayne State University]] School of Medicine, which is the largest single-campus medical school in the United States. Henry Ford Hospital, Children's Hospital of Michigan, and Harper University Hospital are consistently ranked by ''[[US News and World Report]]'' as some of the best [[hospital]]s in the United States.
===Transportation===
[[Image:800px-Eight_Mile_Road-fixed.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Exit onto 8 Mile Road from I-94]]
Because of its gateway between the United States and Canada and its major industrial status &mdash; along with its major highways, rail connections and international airport &mdash; Detroit has been an important transportation hub.
Detroit is the crossroads for three mainline [[Interstate Highway]]s: [[I-94]] ([[Edsel Ford]] Freeway), [[I-96]] ([[Edward Jeffries|Jeffries]] Freeway) and [[I-75]] (Fisher and [[Walter P. Chrysler|Chrysler]] Freeways). [[I-696]] ([[Walter Reuther]] Freeway) serves the northern suburbs, while [[Interstate 275 (Michigan)|I-275]] serves the western suburbs and [[Interstate 375 (Michigan)|I-375]] is a short extension of the Chrysler Freeway. Other major routes are the [[John C. Lodge]] Freeway ([[Michigan State Highway 10|M-10]]), the [[Michigan State Highway 39|Southfield Freeway]] (M-39) and the [[Davison Freeway]] (M-8). All freeways except I-696 and I-275 were traditionally referred to by name (e.g. "The Ford") rather than route number by Detroiters; this remains true for the non-Interstates. The city also has two international border crossings at the [[Ambassador Bridge]] and the [[Detroit-Windsor Tunnel]], linking Detroit to [[Windsor, Ontario]] to Canadian [[Highway 401]]. The Am |
|church}} [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].
# {{note|church-castigation}} [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].
# {{note|infiltration}} As an example of infiltration of organizations, Bill Wilkinson, the leader of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was an FBI informant.
# {{note|psychological-warfare}} An example of COINTELPRO's work in the media is a series of articles run in the San Francisco Examiner purporting to be interviews with radical Marxist [[H. Bruce Franklin]]. A subsequent libel suit showed that right-wing columnist Ed Montgomery had cooperated closely with the FBI in writing the story, and that J. Edgar Hoover had signed off on the articles before publication. [http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]]. In another example, the FBI also carried out a smear campaign against civil rights activist [[Viola Liuzzo]] after she was murdered by four [[Ku Klux Klan]] members, of whom one was a paid FBI informant. [http://www.detnews.com/2004/metro/0409/30/c01-289311.htm http://www.detnews.com/2004/metro/0409/30/c01-289311.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].
# {{note|black-bag}} [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIf.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIf.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].
# {{note|extralegal-force-and-violence}} Brian Glick, ''War at Home'' (South End Press). An example of a burglary is discussed at [http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]]. An example of involvement in violent acts is the 1965 murder of civil rights activist [[Viola Liuzzo]] by four Klansmen, of whom one was FBI informant Gary Rowe. The Church Committee also found that, "while performing duties paid for by the Government, [Rowe] had ... 'beaten people severely, had boarded buses and kicked people, had [gone] into restaurants and beaten them [blacks] with blackjacks, chains, pistols.'" [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]]. Another example noted by the Church Committee was "Sending an anonymous letter to the leader of a Chicago street gang (described as 'violence-prone') stating that the Black Panthers were supposed to have 'a hit out for you'. The letter was suggested because it 'may intensify . . . animosity' and cause the street gang leader to 'take retaliatory action'" [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].
==External links==
===Documentary===
* [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=03/04/07/0259253&mode=thread&tid=5 ''"Me and My Shadow": A History of the FBI's Covert Operations and COINTELPRO - Part 1'']. 34:21 minute Real Audio. Produced by Adi Gevins, Pacifica Radio. 1976. Rebroadcast by '''[[Democracy Now!]]''' Wednesday, [[June 5]] [[2002]]. Retrieved [[May 12]] [[2005]].
* [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=03/04/07/0259257&mode=thread&tid=5 ''"Me and My Shadow": A History of the FBI's Covert Operations and COINTELPRO - Part 2'']. 13:43 minute Real Audio. Produced by Adi Gevins, Pacifica Radio. 1976. Rebroadcast by '''Democracy Now!''' Thursday, [[June 6]] [[2002]]. Retrieved [[May 12]] [[2005]].
===Websites===
*[http://www.oilempire.us/cointelpro.html COINTELPRO now]
* [http://www.cointel.org Paul Wolf's COINTELPRO website, a detailed reference site]. Retrieved [[April 19]] [[2005]].
* [http://www.sonic.net/~doretk/Issues/98-09%20FALL/coint.html COINTELPRO STILL LIVES by Sista Shiriki Unganisha]
* [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/coinwcar3.htm COINTELPRO: The Untold American Story - presented to U.N. World Conference Against Racism 2001 by the U.S. Congressional Black Caucus]
* [http://www.judibari.org The Judi Bari case, COINTELPRO in the 1990s]. Retrieved [[April 19]] [[2005]].
* [http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/RANCHO/POLITICS/COINTELPRO/cointelpro.html COINTELPRO: the Sabotage of Legitimate Dissent], ''What Really Happened'', [[June 5]] [[1998]].
* [http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/RANCHO/POLITICS/COINTELPRO/coloring.html Fake ''Black Panther Party'' coloring book distributed by the FBI]
===U.S Government reports===
'''Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities'''. United States Senate, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, [[April 26]] (legislative day, [[April 14]]), 1976. [AKA "Church Committee Report"]. Archived on [http://www.cointel.org COINTELPRO sources website]. Transcription and html by Paul Wolf. Retrieved [[April 19]] [[2005]].
* '''Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans, Book II'''
: I. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm Introduction and Summary]
: II. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIb.htm The Growth of Domestic Intelligence: 1936 to 1976]
: III. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportfindings.htm Findings]
:: (A) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIca.htm Violating and Ignoring the Law]
:: (B) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcb.htm Overbreadth of Domestic Intelligence Activity]
:: (C) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcc.htm Excessive Use of Intrusive Techniques]
:: (D) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcd.htm Using Covert Action to Disrupt and Discredit Domestic Groups]
:: (E) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIce.htm Political Abuse of Intelligence Information]
:: (F) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcf.htm Inadequate Controls on Dissemination and Retention]
:: (G) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcg.htm Deficiencies in Control and Accountability]
: IV. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIId.htm Conclusions and Recommendations]
* '''Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports, Book III'''
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm COINTELPRO: The FBI's Covert Action Programs Against American Citizens]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIb.htm Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIc.htm The FBI's Covert Action Program to Destroy the Black Panther Party]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIId.htm The Use of Informants in FBI Intelligence Investigations]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIe.htm Warrantless FBI Electronic Surveillance]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIf.htm Warrantless Surreptitious Entries: FBI "Black Bag" Break-ins And Microphone Installations]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIg.htm The Development of FBI Domestic Intelligence Investigations]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIh.htm Domestic CIA and FBI Mail Opening]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIi.htm CIA Intelligence Collection About Americans: CHAOS Program And The Office of Security]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIj.htm National Security Agency Surveillance Affecting Americans]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIk.htm Improper Surveillance of Private Citizens By The Military]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIl.htm The Internal Revenue Service: An Intelligence Resource and Collector]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIm.htm National Security, Civil Liberties, And The Collection of Intelligence: A Report On The Huston Plan ]
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<page>
<title>Cruise missile</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Tomahawk_cruise_missile.jpg|thumb|300px|A Tomahawk cruise missile]]
A '''cruise missile''' is a [[guided missile|guided]] [[missile]] which uses a lifting wing and most often a [[jet]] propulsion system to allow sustained flight. Cruise missiles are, in essence, unmanned [[aircraft]]. They are generally designed to carry a large conventional or [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] warhead many hundreds of miles with excellent accuracy. Modern cruise missiles normally travel at high [[subsonic]] speeds, are self-navigating, and fly low in order to avoid [[radar]] detection.
==Concise history==
The first cruise missile developed was the Kettering Bug, developed in 1917 for use in [[World War I]]. This used a biplane configuration, and flew in a straight line for a predetermined time, at which point the wings were detached and the fuselage, containing the warhead, fell to the ground. |
hi] article on [[h2g2]].
* [http://www.championtrees.org/yarrow/phi/phi1.htm PHI: The Divine Ratio]
* [http://www.beautyanalysis.com/index2_mba.htm Stephen Marquardt's Beauty Mask based on Golden Ratio]
* [http://www.research.att.com/~njas/sequences/ The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences]
* [http://www.contracosta.cc.ca.us/math/pentagrm.htm The Pentagram & The Golden Ratio - with many problems to consider]
* [http://www.umcs.maine.edu/~markov/GoldenRatio.pdf Misconceptions about the golden ratio]
===Aesthetics===
* [http://www.golden-section.de.vu English Bibliography of The Golden Section, esp. in Music]
* [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:kld_rfG2wvQJ:www.tlc.discovery.com/convergence/humanface/articles/mask.html+&hl=en&client=firefox-a A Discovery Channel Presentation on the Human Face and applying the Human Mask "beautiful" to your own face]
* The Russian emigrée cubist painter [[Marie Vorobieff]] (Marevna) used "The[http://kwc.org/blog/archives/2004/2004-03-09.book_the_golden_ratio.html [[Golden Ratio]]"] to layout paintings.
* George Markowsky, [http://www.umcs.maine.edu/~markov/GoldenRatio.pdf Misconceptions about the Golden Ratio]
* Bruce Rawles has a section on the golden ratio and related topics on his Sacred Geometry tutorial page (http://www.intent.com/sg) and numerous links to both mathematical and mystical sites on his links page (http://www.intent.com/bruce/links.html).
===Tools===
* [http://www.spyrock.com/nadafarm/html/gmtool.html Easy golden section tool]
* [http://www.goldenmeangauge.co.uk/ Golden Mean Gauge, usable tool]
* [http://www.phimatrix.com/ PhiMatrix, phi-based graphic analysis and design software tool]
* [http://www.atrise.com/golden-section/ Atrise Golden Section, design software tool]
* [http://powerretouche.com/Divine_proportion_introduction.htm Power Retouche Photoshop plugin, software tool]
* [http://goldennumber.net/color.htm Color selection tool]
[[Category:Irrational numbers]]
[[Category:Mathematical constants]]
[[Category:Famous numbers]]
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<page>
<title>Genome</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
In [[biology]] the '''genome''' of an organism is the whole hereditary information of an organism that is encoded in the [[DNA]] (or, for some viruses, [[RNA]]). This includes both the [[gene|genes]] and the [[Junk DNA|non-coding sequences]]. The term was coined in [[1920]] by [[Hans Winkler]], Professor of [[Botany]] at the [[University of Hamburg]], [[Germany]]. {{unsolved|biology|Other than the structural genes, which is the simpler part of the system? What is the complete structure and function of the proteome proteins expressed by a cell or organ at a particular time and under specific conditions? What is the complete function of the regulator genes?}}
More precisely, the '''genome''' of an [[organism]] is a complete [[DNA sequence]] of one set of [[chromosome]]s; for example, one of the two sets that a [[diploid]] individual carries in every [[somatic cell]]. The term '''genome''' can be applied specifically to mean the complete set of ''[[cell nucleus|nuclear]] DNA'' (i.e., the '''nuclear genome''') but can also be applied to [[organelles]] that contain their own DNA, as with the '''[[mitochondria|mitochondrial]] genome''' or the '''[[chloroplast]] genome'''. When people say that the genome of a [[sexual reproduction|sexually reproducing]] [[species]] has been "[[sequencing|sequenced]]," typically they are referring to a determination of the sequences of one set of [[autosome]]s and one of each type of [[sex chromosome]], which together represent both of the possible sexes. Even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as "a genome sequence" may be a composite from the chromosomes of various individuals. In general use, the phrase '''genetic makeup''' is sometimes used conversationally to mean the genome of a particular individual or organism. The study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as [[genomics]], which distinguishes it from [[genetics]] which generally studies the properties of single [[gene]]s or groups of genes.
==Types of genomes==
Most biological entities more complex than a [[virus (biology)|virus]] sometimes or always carry additional genetic material besides that which resides in their chromosomes. In some contexts, such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe, "genome" is meant to include this auxiliary material, which is carried in [[plasmid]]s. In such circumstances then, "genome" describes all of the genes and non-coding DNA that have the potential to be present.
In [[vertebrate]]s such as humans, however, "genome" carries the typical connotation of only chromosomal DNA. So although human [[mitochondria]] contain genes, these genes are not considered part of the genome. In fact, mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome, often referred to as the "[[mitochondrial genome]]".
==Genomes and genetic variation==
Note that a genome does not capture the genetic diversity or the genetic [[polymorphism (biology)|polymorphism]] of a species. For example, the human genome sequence in principle could be determined from just half the DNA of one cell from one individual. To learn what variations in DNA underlie particular traits or diseases requires comparisons across individuals. This point explains the common usage of "genome" (which parallels a common usage of "gene") to refer not to any particular DNA sequence, but to a whole family of sequences that share a biological context.
Although this concept may seem counter intuitive, it is the same concept that says there is no particular shape that is the shape of a [[cheetah]]. Cheetahs vary, and so do the sequences of their genomes. Yet both the individual animals and their sequences share commonalities, so one can learn something about cheetahs and "cheetah-ness" from a single example of either.
==Minimal genomes==
Since genomes and their organisms are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multicellular organisms (see [[Developmental biology]]). The work is both ''[[in vivo]]'' and ''[[in silico]]''. By understanding the functioning of minimal organisms one hopes to add complexity incrementally leading to the understanding of multicellular diseases such as [[Cancer]].(see [[#References]])
==Genome projects==
''Main article:'' [[Genome project]]
The [[Human Genome Project]] was organized to [[physical map|map]] and to [[sequencing|sequence]] the human genome. Other genome projects include [[mus musculus|mouse]], [[rice]], the plant [[Arabidopsis thaliana]], the [[puffer fish]], bacteria like [[E. coli]], etc.
Many genomes have been sequenced by various genome projects. The cost of sequencing continues to drop, and it is possible that eventually an individual's genome could be [[sequenced]] for around several thousand dollars (US).
''Compare:'' [[proteome]]
==Comparison of different [[genome size|genome sizes]]==
For an updated list of sequenced genomes and their sizes, visit [http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/databases/DOGS/index.php DOGS]
<table border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2>
<tr>
<th>Organism</th>
<th>Genome size ([[base pair]]s)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Virus]], [[Phi-X174 phage|Phage &Phi;-X174;]]</td>
<td>5386 - First sequenced genome</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Virus]], [[lambda phage|Phage &lambda;]]</td>
<td>5&times;10<sup>4</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Bacterium]], ''[[Escherichia coli]]''</td>
<td>4&times;10<sup>6</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Amoeba]], ''[[Amoeba dubia]]''</td>
<td>67&times;10<sup>10</sup> - Largest known genome Dec, 2005</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Plant]], ''[[Fritillary]] [[Fritillary assyriaca| assyrica]]''</td>
<td>13&times;10<sup>10</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Fungus]],''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]''</td>
<td>2&times;10<sup>7</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Nematoda| Nematode]], ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]''</td>
<td>8&times;10<sup>7</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Insect]], ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''</td>
<td>2&times;10<sup>8</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Mammal]], ''[[Homo sapiens]]''</td>
<td>3&times;10<sup>9</sup></td>
</tr>
</table>
''Note:'' The DNA from a single human cell has a length of ~1.8m.
==Genome evolution==
Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be [[measure]]d and studied without |
in the government which, according to many observers and later analysis, eventually resulted in some increase in corruption and legal relaxation. The current 1991 constitution does not have that requirement, but subsequent administrations have tended to include members of opposition parties.
==Post-National Front years==
From [[1974]] until [[1982]], different presidential administrations chose to focus on ending the persistent [[insurgent|insurgencies]] that sought to undermine Colombia's traditional political system. Both groups claimed to represent the poor and weak against the rich and powerful classes of the country, demaning the completion of true land and political reform, from an openly [[Communist]] perspective.
By [[1974]], another challenge to the state's authority and legitimacy had come from the [[19th of April Movement]] (M-19), a mostly urban guerrilla group founded allegedly in response to an electoral fraud during the final National Front election of [[Misael Pastrana Borrero]] ([[1970]] -[[1974]]) and the defeat of former dictator [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]]. Initially, the M-19 attracted a degree of attention and sympathy from mainstream Colombians that the FARC and ELN had found largely elusive earlier due to extravagant and daring operations, such as stealing a sword that had belong to Colombia's Independence hero [[Simon Bolívar]]. At the same time, its larger profile soon made it the focus of the state's counterinsurgency efforts.
The ELN guerrilla had been seriously crippled by military operations in the region of Anorí by 1974, but it managed to reconstitute itself and escape destruction, in part due to the administration of [[Alfonso López Michelsen]] ([[1974]]-[[1978]]) allowing it to escape encirclement, hoping to initiate a peace process with the group.
By [[1982]], the perceived passivity of the FARC, together with the relative success of the government's efforts against the M-19 and ELN, enabled the administration of the Liberal Party's [[Julio César Turbay Ayala]] ([[1978]]-[[1982]]) to lift a state-of-siege decree that had been in effect, on and off, for most of the previous 30 years. Under the latest such decree, president Turbay had implemented security policies that, though of some military value against the M-19 in particular, were considered highly questionable both inside and outside Colombian circles due to numerous accusations of military [[human rights abuse]]s against suspects and captured guerrillas.
Citizen exhaustion due to the conflict's newfound intensity led to the election of president [[Belisario Betancur]] ([[1982]]-[[1986]]), a Conservative who won 47% of the popular vote, directed peace feelers at all the insurgents, and negotiated a [[1984]] cease-fire with the FARC and [[M-19]] after a 1982 release of many guerrillas imprisoned during the previous effort to overpower them. The [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|ELN]] rejected entering any negotiation and continued to recover itself through the use of extortions and threats, in particular against foreign oil companies of European and U.S. origin.
As these events were developing, the growing [[illegal drug trade]] and its consequences were also increasingly becoming a matter of widespread importance to all participants in the Colombian conflict. Guerrillas and newly wealthy druglords had mutually uneven relations and thus numerous incidents occurred between them. Eventually the kidnapping of drug cartel family members by guerrillas led to the creation of the [[1981]] ''Muerte a Secuestradores'' (MAS) death squad ("Death to Kidnappers"). Pressure from the U.S. government and critical sectors of Colombian society was met with further violence, as the [[Medellín Cartel]] and its hitmen, bribed or murdered numerous public officials, politicians and others who stood in its way by supporting the implementation of [[extradition]] of Colombian nationals to the U.S. Victims of cartel violence included Justice Minister [[Rodrigo Lara Bonilla]], assassinated in [[1984]], an event which made the Betancur administration begin to directly oppose the druglords.
The first negotiated cease-fire with the [[M-19]] ended when the guerrillas resumed fighting in [[1985]], claiming that the cease-fire had not been fully respected by official security forces, saying that several of its members had suffered threats and assaults, and also questioning the government's real willingness to implement any accords. The Betancur administration in turn questioned the M-19's actions and its commitment to the peace process, as it continued to advance high profile negotiations with the FARC, which led to the creation of the [[Patriotic Union (Colombia)]] (UP), a legal and non-clandestine political organization.
On [[November 6]][[1985]], the M-19 [[Palace of Justice siege|stormed the Colombian Palace of Justice]] and held the Supreme Court magistrates hostage, intending to put president Betancur on trial. In the ensuing crossfire that followed the military's reaction, scores of people lost their lives, as did most of the guerrillas, including several high-ranking operatives. Both sides blamed each other for the outcome.
Meanwhile, individual FARC members initially joined the UP leadership in representation of the guerrilla command, though most of the guerrilla's chiefs and militiamen did not demobilize nor disarm, as that was not a requirement of the process at that point in time. Tension soon significantly increased, as both sides began to accuse each other of not respecting the cease-fire. Political violence against FARC and UP members (including presidential candidate [[Jaime Pardo Leal]]) was blamed on druglords and also on members of the security forces (to a much lesser degree on the argued inaction of Betancur administration). Members of the government and security authorities increasingly accused the FARC of continuing to recruit guerrillas, as well as kidnapping, extorting and politicallyt intimidating voters even as the UP was already participating in politics.
The [[Virgilio Barco Vargas]] ([[1986]]-[[1990]]) administration, in addition to continuing to handle the difficulties of the complex negotiations with the guerrillas, also inherited a particularly chaotic confrontation against the druglords, who were engaged in a campaign of [[terrorism]] and murder in response to government moves in favor of their extradition overseas. The UP also suffered an increasing number of losses during this term (including the assassination of presidential candidate [[Bernardo Jaramillo Ossa]]), which stemmed both from private proto-[[paramilitary]] organizations, increasingly powerful druglords and a number of would-be paramilitary-sympathizers within the armed forces.
==Post 1990==
Following administrations had to contend with the guerrillas, paramilitaries, narcotics traffickers and the violence and corruption that they all perpetuated, both through force and negotiation. Narcoterrorists assassinated three presidential candidates before [[César Gaviria Trujillo]] was elected in 1990. Since the death of [[Medellín]] cartel leader [[Pablo Escobar]] in a police shootout during December [[1993]], indiscriminate acts of violence associated with that organization have abated as the "cartels" have broken up into multiple, smaller and often-competing trafficking organizations. Nevertheless, violence continues as these drug organizations resort to violence as part of their operations but also to protest against government policies, including extradition.
The M-19 and several smaller guerrilla groups were successfully incorporated into a peace process as the 1980s ended and the 90s began, which culminated in the elections for a [[Constituent Assembly of Colombia]] that would write a new constitution, which took effect in [[1991]]. The new Constitution, brought about a considerable number of institutional and legal reforms based on principles that the delegates considered as more modern, humanist, democratic and politically open than those existent under the previous [[1886]] constitution. Practical results were mixed and controversies emerged (such as the debate surrounding the constitutional prohibition of extradition, which later was reversed), but together with the reincorporation of some of the guerrilla groups to the legal political framework, the new Constitution inaugurated an era that was both a continuation and a gradual, but significant, departure from what had come before.
Contacts with the FARC, which had irregularly continued despite the generalized [[de facto]] interruptions of the ceasefire and the official 1987 break from negotiations, were temporarily cut off in [[1990]] under the presidency of [[César Gaviria Trujillo]] ([[1990]]-[[1994]]). The Colombian Army's assault on the FARC's ''Casa Verde'' sanctuary at [[La Uribe]], [[Meta Department|Meta]], followed by a FARC offensive that sought to undermine the deliberations of the Constitutional Assembly, began to highlight a significant break in the uneven negotiations carried over from the previous decade.
President [[Ernesto Samper Pizano]] assumed office in August [[1994]]. However, a political crisis relating to large-scale contributions from drug traffickers to Samper's presidential campaign diverted attention from governance programs, thus slowing, and in many cases, halting progress on the nation's domestic reform agenda. The military also suffered several setbacks in its fight against the guerrillas, when several of its rural bases began to be overun and a record number of soldiers and officers were taken prisoner by the FARC (which since 1982 was attempting to implement a more "conventional" style of warfare, seeking to eventually defeat the military in the field).
On [[August 7]], [[1998]], [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]] was sworn in as the President of Colombia. A member of the Conservative Party, Pastrana defeated Liberal Party |
/ Bowl Championship Series]
*[http://www.geocities.com/football_graveyard/ A site devoted to schools which no longer play football]
*[http://www.mikedesimone.com/top25.htm Mike DeSimone's Division 1-A College Football Ratings]
*[http://collegefootball.org/news.php?id=592 College Football Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.gridmarks.com/college.html College Football Rankings and Picks]
*[http://college.realfootball365.com/ Div. 1 College Football]
{{Bowl Games}}
[[Category:American football]]
[[Category:College football|*]]
[[Category:Intercollegiate athletics in the United States]]
[[de:College Football]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ciprofloxacin</title>
<id>6773</id>
<revision>
<id>41648163</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:58:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wiserd911</username>
<id>268904</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Contraindications */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="250px" align="right" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"
|-
| bgcolor="#ffffff" align="center" colspan="2" |
[[Image:Ciprofloxacin.png|Ciprofloxacin chemical structure]]<br/>
''Ciprofloxacin''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | ''1,4-dihydro-1-cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-<BR>4-oxo-7-(1-piperazinyl)-<BR>3-quinolinecarboxylic acid''
|- align="center" style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray"
| '''[[CAS number]]''' <br/> 85721-33-1
| '''[[ATC code]]''' <br/> J01MA02, S01AX13, S03AA07
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>18</sub>FN<sub>3</sub>O<sub>3</sub>
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | 331.345
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | 69%{{ref|1}}
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Metabolism
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | Hepatic, including [[CYP1A2]]
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Elimination half-life]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | 4 hours
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | Renal
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | B3 (Australia)
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Legal status]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | Schedule 4 (Australia)
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Routes of administration
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | Oral, topical (ear drops, eye drops)
|-
|}
'''Ciprofloxacin''' is the generic international name for the synthetic [[antibiotic]] manufactured and sold by [[Bayer Pharmaceutical]] under the brand names '''Cipro'''® and '''Ciproxin'''® (and other brand names in other markets, e.g. [[veterinary drugs]]), belonging to a group called [[Quinolones|fluoroquinolone]]s.
Ciprofloxacin is [[bactericidal]] and its [[mode of action]] depends on blocking of bacterial [[DNA]] [[DNA replication|replication]] by binding itself to an
[[enzyme]] called [[DNA gyrase]], which allows the untwisting required to replicate one [[DNA]] [[double helix]] into two. Notably the drug has 100 times higher affinity for bacterial [[DNA gyrase]] than for mammalian.
==Activity==
Ciprofloxacin is a [[broad-spectrum antibiotic]] that is active against both
[[Gram-positive]] and [[Gram-negative]] bacteria.
* [[Enterobacteriaceae]]
* ''[[Vibrio]]''
* ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]''
* ''[[Neisseria gonorrhoeae]]''
* ''[[Neisseria menigitidis]]''
* ''[[Moraxella catarrhalis]]''
* ''[[Brucella]]''
* ''[[Campylobacter]]''
* ''[[Mycobacterium intracellulare]]''
* ''[[Legionella]]'' sp.
* ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]''
* ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]'' - that causes [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]]
Weak activity against:
* ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]''
* ''[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]''
* ''[[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]''
No activity against:
* ''[[Bacteroides]]''
* ''[[Burkholderia cepacia]]''
* ''[[Enterococcus faecium]]''
* ''[[Ureaplasma urealyticum]]''
* and others
The major [[adverse effect]] seen with use of is [[gastrointestinal irritation]], common with many [[antibiotics]]. Because of its general safety, potency and [[broad spectrum]] activity, ciprofloxacin was initially reserved as a "last-resort" drug for use on difficult and [[drug-resistant infections]]. As with any [[antibiotic]], however, increasing time and usage has led to an increase in ciprofloxacin-resistant infections, mainly in the [[hospital]] setting. Also implicated in the rise of [[resistant bacteria]] is the use of lower-cost, less potent [[fluoroquinolones]], and the widespread addition of ciprofloxacin and other antibiotics to the feed of [[farm animals]], which leads to greater and more rapid weight gain, for reasons which are not clear.
==Label information==
The drug is available for oral and [[parenteral]] use. It is used in [[lower respiratory infections]] ([[pneumonia]]s), [[urinary tract infection]]s, [[Sexually Transmitted Disease|STD]]s, [[septicemia]]s, [[Legionellosis]] and atypical [[Mycobacterioses]]. Dosage in [[respiratory infections]] is 500-1500 mg a day in 2 doses.
It is contraindicated in children, [[pregnancy]], and in patients with [[epilepsy]]. Dose adjustment or avoidance may be necessary with [[liver failure|liver]] or [[renal failure]].
Ciprofloxacin can cause [[photosensitivity]] reactions and can elevate plasma
[[theophylline]] levels to toxic values. It can also cause [[constipation]] and sensitivity to [[caffeine]].
==Interactions==
[[Quercetin]], a [[flavonoid]] occasionally used as a [[dietary supplement]] may interact with fluroquinolones, as quercetin competitively binds to bacterial DNA gyrase. Some foods such as garlic and apples contain high levels of quercetin. Whether this inhibits or enhances the effect of Fluoroquinolones is not immediately clear{{ref|2}}.
==Contraindications==
Metal cations such as [[aluminium]], [[magnesium]], [[calcium]], [[ferrous sulfate]], and [[zinc]] are thought to form chelation complexes with fluoroquinolone antibiotics and prevent the drugs from being absorbed. Because of this, avoid taking [[antacid]]s which contain aluminium, magnesium or calcium with ciprofloxacin. [[Sucralfate]], which has a high aluminium content, also reduces the bioavailability of ciprofloxacin to approximately 4%{{ref|3}}. Ciprofloxacin may be taken with meals or on an empty stomach. Ciprofloxacin should NOT be taken with dairy products or calcium-fortified juices alone, but may be taken with a meal that contains these products[http://www.drugs.com/cons/Cipro_I_V_.html].
Heavy exercise is discouraged, as [[achilles tendon rupture]] has been reported in patients taking ciprofloxacin. Achilles tendon rupture due to Ciprofloxacin use is typically associated with [[renal]] failure.
The toxicity of drugs that are metabolised by the cytochrome P450 system is enhanced by concomitant use of some quinolones. They may also interact with the [[GABA A receptor]] and cause neurological symptoms; this is further augmented by certain [[non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug]]s{{ref|4}}.
==Business aspects==
The discovery and development of ciprofloxacin is that rare case of an actual groundbreaking [[new drug development]], opening up an entire new class of antibiotics for further research, development, and marketing. Even more remarkable, it seems to be a case where the first drug discovered of this class remains the 'gold standard' in terms of efficacy, with the other drugs developed by other [[pharmaceutical companies]] relegated to 'me-too' status and forced to compete on the basis of lower cost.
Encouraged by the magnitude of this success, as well as the influx of cash, [[Bayer Pharmaceutical]] embarked on a plan to remake itself from a minor [[pharmaceutical manufacturer]] into a major player in the [[international pharmaceutical business]], with a lock on the [[antibiotic]] field. Unfortunately, a combination of the tendency for [[antibiotics]] to be viewed as a commodity and prescribed on the basis of lowest cost, [[Bayer]]'s inability to follow up with another 'blockbuster' discovery, and a general downturn in the international pharmaceutical business forced [[Bayer]] into a major downsizing in 2000-2001. Faced with the imminent expiration of its [[patent rights]] to ciprofloxacin in the early 2000's and the predictable loss of market share to generic ciprofloxacin, [[Bayer]] has resorted to the usual strategy of [[pharmaceutical companies]] in such a situation; focus on the development and patenting of new variations of the old drug (i.e. pediatric ciprofloxacin, intravenous ciprofloxacin, once-a-day ciprofloxacin, etc.), which will have the side effect of extending the patent on the original drug.
"''Cipro''" became a household word during the [[anthrax]] mail attacks after the destruction of the [[World Trade Center]]. [[Bayer]] took a severe financial blow from the costs involved in rapidly increasing production of the drug to be sold to the government at far below market price.
==References==
* {{note|1}} Drusano GL, Standiford HC, Plaisance K, Forrest A, Leslie J, Caldwell J. ''Absolute oral bioavailability of ciprofloxacin.'' Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1986;30:444-6. PMID 3777908.
* {{note|2}} Hilliard JJ, Krause HM, Bernstein JI, Fernandez JA, Nguyen V, Ohemeng KA, Barrett JF. 'A comparison of active site binding of 4-quinolones and novel flavone gyrase inhibitors to DNA gyrase.'' Adv Exp Med Biol. 1995;390:59-69. PMID 8718602.
* {{note|3}} Spivey JM, Cummings DM, Pierson NR. ''Failure of prostatitis treatment secondary to probable ciprofloxacin-sucralfate drug interaction.'' Pharmacotherapy 1996;16:314-6. PMID 8820479. |
.
The fundamental building blocks of most data structures are [[array]]s, [[record (computer science)|record]]s, [[discriminated union]]s, and [[reference (computer science)|reference]]s. For example, the nullable reference, a reference which can be null, is a combination of references and discriminated unions, and the simplest linked data structure, the [[linked list]], is built from records and nullable references.
There is some debate about whether data structures represent implementations or interfaces. How they are seen may be a matter of perspective. A data structure can be viewed as an interface between two functions or as an implementation of methods to access storage that is organized according to the associated [[Datatype|data type]].
==See also==
* [[List of data structures]] - A catalog of common data structures
* [[Persistent data structure]]
* [[Unstructured data]]
==External links==
There are many good course notes online: google them using "data structures site:.edu".
* http://www.cs.fiu.edu/~weiss/ A famous data structure educator and his text books
*[http://nist.gov/dads/ Descriptions] from the [[Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures]]
*[http://hal9k.com/cug/links/subject39.htm Links from the C/C++ User&#8217;s Group Page]
* http://www.cse.unr.edu/~bebis/CS308/
* [http://www.site.uottawa.ca/~holte/T26/top.realTop.html data structure course notes]
[[Category:Data_structures]]
[[ast:Estructura de datos]]
[[bs:Struktura podataka]]
[[da:Datastruktur]]
[[de:Datenstruktur]]
[[es:Estructura de datos]]
[[fr:Structure de données]]
[[ko:자료구조]]
[[id:Struktur data]]
[[he:מבנה נתונים]]
[[hu:Adatszerkezet]]
[[nl:Datastructuur]]
[[ja:データ構造]]
[[no:Datastruktur]]
[[pl:Struktura danych]]
[[pt:Estrutura de dados]]
[[sk:Údajová štruktúra]]
[[sl:Podatkovna struktura]]
[[fi:Tietorakenne]]
[[sv:Datastruktur]]
[[th:โครงสร้างข้อมูล]]
[[uk:Структури даних]]
[[zh:数据结构]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dmitri Shostakovich</title>
<id>8520</id>
<revision>
<id>42107116</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:47:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.63.83.54</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Joining the Party */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Shostakovichportraitphoto.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dmitri Shostakovich]]'''Dmitri Dmitrievich Shostakovich''' {{Audio|Ru-Dmitri Dmitrievich Shostakovich.ogg|listen}} ([[Russian language|Russian]]: {{lang|ru|Дмитрий Дмитриевич Шостакович}}, ''Dmitrij Dmitrievič Šostakovič'') ({{OldStyleDate|September 25|1906|September 12}}&ndash;[[August 9]], [[1975]]) was a [[Russia]]n [[composer]] of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] period. He had a troubled relationship with the government, which included two official denunciations of his music in 1936 and 1948; in public however he remained loyal, joining the party in 1960 and serving in the [[Supreme Soviet]]. Since his death, his response to life in the [[Soviet Union]] has been the subject of political and musical controversy, with debate over the extent to which he may have been a secret [[dissident]].
After an initial [[avant-garde]] period, Shostakovich wrote primarily in the [[romantic music|romantic]] idiom, drawing heavily on the influence of [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]. However he combined this with [[atonality]] and on occasion even [[tone row]]s. His music frequently includes sharp contrasts and elements of the [[grotesque]]. His greatest works are generally considered to be his cycles of [[symphony|symphonies]] and [[string quartet|string quartets]], fifteen of each; other works include [[opera]]s, six [[concerto]]s and a large quantity of [[film score|film music]]. Laurel Fay concludes in [[Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians|Grove]] that;
<blockquote>"Amid the conflicting pressures of official requirements, the mass suffering of his fellow countrymen, and his personal ideals of humanitarian and public service, he succeeded in forging a musical language of colossal emotional power."<ref>Grove p. 280.</ref></blockquote>
==Life==
===Early life===
Born in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]], Shostakovich was a [[child prodigy]] as both a [[pianist]] and composer. His family was politically [[liberalism|liberal]] and tolerant (one of his uncles was a [[Bolshevik]], but the family also sheltered far-right extremists). In [[1918]], he wrote a funeral march in memory of two leaders of the [[Constitutional Democratic party|Kadet party]], murdered by [[Bolshevik]] sailors. In 1919, he was allowed to enter the [[Saint Petersburg Conservatory|Petrograd Conservatory]], then headed by [[Alexander Glazunov]]. However, he suffered for his perceived lack of political zeal, and initially failed his exam in [[Marxist]] methodology in 1926. His first major musical achievement was the [[Symphony No. 1 (Shostakovich)|First Symphony]] (premiered [[1926 in music|1926]]), written as his graduation piece.
After graduation, he initially embarked on a dual career as a concert pianist and composer, but his dry style of playing (Fay comments on his "emotional restraint" and "riveting rhythmic drive") was often unappreciated. He nevertheless won an "honorable mention" at the 1927 Warsaw International Piano Competition; after the competition, Shostakovich met the conductor [[Bruno Walter]], who was so impressed by the composer's [[Symphony No. 1 (Shostakovich)|First Symphony]] that he conducted the Berlin premiere later that year. Thereafter Shostakovich concentrated on composition and soon limited performances primarily to those of his own works. In [[1927 in music|1927]] he wrote his [[Symphony No. 2 (Shostakovich)|Second Symphony]] (subtitled ''To October''). While writing the symphony, he also began his [[satire|satirical]] [[opera]] ''[[The Nose (opera)|The Nose]]'', based on the story by [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]]. In 1929, the opera was criticised as "[[Russian formalism|formalist]]" by [[RAPM]], the Stalinist musicians' organisation, and it opened to generally poor reviews in [[1930 in music|1930]].
1927 also marked the beginning of the composer's relationship with [[Ivan Sollertinsky]], who remained his closest friend until the latter's death in [[1944]]. Sollertinsky introduced Shostakovich to the music of [[Gustav Mahler]], which had a strong influence on his music from the [[Symphony No. 4 (Shostakovich)|Fourth Symphony]] onwards. 1932 saw his [[open marriage]] to his first wife, Nina Varzar. Initial difficulties led to divorce proceedings in 1935, but the couple soon reunited.
[[Image:1929 Shostakovich Meyerhold Mayakovsky Rodchenko rehearsing Klop.jpg|thumb|1929. Shostakovich, [[Meyerhold]], [[Mayakovsky]] and [[Rodchenko]] rehearsing Mayakovsky's play ''The Bedbug'']]
In the late 1920s and early 1930s he worked at [[TRAM]], a proletarian youth theatre. Although he did little work in this post, it shielded him from ideological attack. Much of this period was spent writing his opera ''[[Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera)|Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District]]''; it was first performed in [[1934 in music|1934]] and was immediately successful, both on a popular and official level. It was said to be “the result of the general success of Socialist construction, of the correct policy of the Party" and that such an opera “could have been written only by a Soviet composer brought up in the best tradition of Soviet culture.”<ref>Dmitrii Shostakovich, Shostakovich: About Himself and His Times, compiled by L. Grigoryev and Ya. Platek, trans. Angus and Neilian Roxburgh (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1981), 33.</ref>
===First denunciation ===
In [[1936]] Shostakovich fell from grace. The year began with a series of attacks on him in [[Pravda]], in particular a famous article entitled ''Muddle Instead of Music''. The campaign was instigated by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] and condemned ''Lady Macbeth'' as formalist; consequently, commissions began to dry up, and his income fell by about three quarters. The [[Symphony No. 4 (Shostakovich)|Fourth Symphony]] entered rehearsals, but the political climate made performance impossible. It was not performed until [[1961]], but Shostakovich did not repudiate the work: it retained its designation as his fourth symphony. A piano reduction was published in 1946.
More widely, 1936 marked the beginning of the [[History of the Soviet Union (1927-1953)#The Great Purges|Great Terror]], in which many of the composer's friends and relatives were imprisoned or killed. His only consolation in this period was the birth of his daughter Galina in 1936; his son [[Maxim Shostakovich|Maxim]] was born two years later.
The composer's response to his denunciation was the [[Symphony No. 5 (Shostakovich)|Fifth Symphony]] of [[1937 in music|1937]], which was musically more conservative than his earlier works, and lacked overtly political content. It was a success, and is still one of his most popular works. It was also at this time that Shostakovich composed the first of his [[string quartet]]s. His [[Chamber music|chamber]] works allowed him to experiment and express ideas which would have been unacceptable in his more public symphonic pieces. In September 1937, he began to teach composition at the Conservatory, which provided some financial security but interfered with his own creative work.
===War===
[[Image:Shostakovichtimecover.jpg|thumb|right|Wartime propaganda images of Shostakovich as a fire warden reached as far as the American [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]].]]On the outbreak of [[Eastern Front (WWII)|war between Russia and Germany]] in [[1941]], Shostakovich initially remained in Leningrad during the [[Siege of Leningrad|siege]], when he wrote the first three movements of his [[Symphony No. 7 (Shostakovich)|Seventh Symphony]] (nicknamed "Leningrad"). He also contributed to propagand |
ntributor>
<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
<id>101935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sp (2): apparant→apparent, noticable→noticeable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
'''Book of Judges''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ספר שופטים) is a [[Books of the Bible|book of the Bible]] originally written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. It appears in the [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Judaism]]'s [[Tanakh]]) and in the Christian [[Old Testament]]. Its title refers to its contents; it contains the history of [[Biblical judges]] (not to be confused with modern [[judge]]s), and of their times. who helped rule and guide the ancient [[Israelites]].
As it stands today, the last judge mentioned in Judges is [[Samson]], and although there are two further stories, the traditional view is that Samson's exploits probably synchronise with the period immediately preceding [[Eli]], who was both high priest and judge. Both academic views and traditional thought hence views the narrative of the judges as ending at Samson and picking up again at [[1 Samuel]] 1:1 to consider Eli, and continuing through to 1 Samuel 7:2. As for the stories at the end of the Book, which are set in the same time period as the the judges, but discuss people other than the judges, there is much affinity between these and the [[Book of Ruth]], and many people believe Ruth originally belonged amongst them.
==Structure and content==
Academics treat the text of Judges as having three distinct sections:
*The ''Introduction'' (1:1-3:10 and 3:12) giving a summary of the book of Joshua
*The ''Main Text'' (3:11-16:31), discussing the five ''Great Judges'', Abimelech, and providing glosses for a few minor Judges
*The ''Appendices'' (17:1-21:25), giving two stories set in the time of the Judges, but not discussing the Judges themselves.
;The introduction
The introduction summarises much of the material discussed in Joshua, in some cases giving additional details:
*The choosing of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] to lead the attack (Judges 1:1-3)
*The capture of [[Adonibezek]], and destruction of Jerusalem, (Judges 1:4-8) differing materially from the account of Adonibezek in Joshua (Joshua 10)
*The story of [[Othniel]] (Judges 1:11-15) almost identical to its mention in Joshua (Joshua 15:15-19)
*A [[list of destroyed and surviving Canaanite cities|list of the successes and failures of Judah and Simeon's campaigns]] (1:17-20)
*The descendants of [[Moses]]' father-in-law (either [[Hobab]] or [[Raguel]]/[[Reuel]]/[[Jesse]] - this is unclear) move to the [[Negev]] (Judges 1:16)
*[[Caleb]] driving away the sons of [[Anak]] from [[Hebron]] (Judges 1:10 and 1:20) as mentioned in Joshua (Joshua 15:14)
*The destruction of [[Luz]] and sparing of an individual who aided the Israelite spies (1:22-26)
*A [[list of destroyed and surviving Canaanite cities|list of the failures of the campaigns by the northern tribes]] (1:21-36)
*A threat by an angel at [[Bochim]] (2:1-5)
*The death of Joshua (Judges 2:6-9) similar to the account in Joshua (Joshua 24:28-31)
*An introduction to the role of [[Biblical judges]] (2:10-3:6)
**The falling of the Israelites into heathen practices (2:10-14)
**A very brief overview of the main part of the Book of Judges (2:15-19)
**An explanation of why God allowed some Canaanites to remain (2:20-3:4)
**A recap of the Israelites falling into heathen practices, as the start of the main part of the book (3:5-6)
*The story of [[Othniel]] (Judges 3:7-10) again, presented differently to the earlier mention (Judges 1:11-15)
;The main text
The main text mostly consists of six stories each concerning a major judge and their struggles against an oppresive foreign overlord:
*[[Ehud]] (3:11-29) vs. [[Eglon]] of [[Moab]]
*[[Deborah]] the prophetess and [[Barak]] the army leader (4-5) vs. [[Jabin]] of [[Hazor]] (in [[Canaan]]) and [[Siserah]], his captain
*[[Gideon]] (6-8) vs. [[Midian]], [[Amalek]], and the ''children of the East''
*[[Abimelech]] (9) (who is traditionally counted as a king not a judge, and is considered evil) vs. all the Israelites who opposed him
*[[Jephthah]] (11-12:7) vs. the [[Ammonites]]
*[[Samson]] (13-16) vs. the [[Philistines]]
There are also brief glosses of the rule of lesser judges, often only giving their name and the number of their sons.
*[[Shamgar]] (3:31)
*[[Tola]] (10:1-2)
*[[Jair]] (10:3-5)
*[[Izban]] (12:8-10)
*[[Elon]] (12:11-12)
*[[Abdon]] (12:13-15)
;The appendices
There are two appendices, with no apparent narrative connection to each other, or the remainder of the text:
*[[Dan and the Idols of Micah]] (17-18)
*[[Gibeah and the Levite Concubine]] (19-21)
==Authorship==
While the authorship of Judges has traditionally been ascribed to [[Samuel]], the great majority of modern scholars have come to a much more complex conclusion, regarding the work as having hardly any literary unity at all. Many suspect the brief [[Book of Ruth]] to have originally been part of the ''Appendices'' of Judges, owing to its style, linguistic features and the time period in which its contents are set, it somehow becoming disconnected and misplaced at a later date.
According to [[textual criticism]], the majority of Judges was originally part of a continuous work known as the [[Deuteronomic History]] stretching from [[Deuteronomy]] to [[2 Kings]], which was later broken up, in accordance with the [[documentary hypothesis]], when the Torah was constructed by [[torah redactor|its redactor]] from the early parts of the Deuteronomic History and other writings such as [[JE]] and the [[Priestly source]]. It is for this reason that many textual critics also treat [[1 Samuel]] 1:1-7:2, which discuss [[Eli]] and [[Samuel]], as having originally been part of the Judges section of the Deuteronomic History narrative.
===The introduction===
Some passages (1:12-15, 2:6-9 and 3:7-11) of the introduction are almost identical to ones in the Book of Joshua. On the other hand, part of the text which surrounds them (1:1-11, 1:16-2:5) instead presents a summarised overview of the events in Joshua, recording differing traditions, such as that concerning Adonibezek (c.f. Joshua 10), or those concerning the continuing presence of Jebusites in Jerusalem ''to this day'' (1:21) or not (1:8). For those who support [[Hexateuch]]-like theories, where the sources that the documentary hypothesis ascribes to the Torah extend through the Book of Joshua, these passages are often seen as deriving from such sources parallel to the corresponding ones of Joshua.
The majority of critical scholars believe that that first part of the introduction (1:1-2:5) was a late addition to the text, added after the [[Deuteronomist]] version of Judges was constructed. Hence 2:6-3:7 is viewed as the original introduction by the Deuteronomist to the Judges period, spinning the later stories to imply that the history of the period involved the Israelites repeatedly turning to worship of other gods, suffering for it, and being alleviated of their suffering by five great leaders, and Abimelech; whereas the original source texts were independent and without the Deuteronomist's alterations, some could be regarded as parallel local events rather than sequential national ones.
===The main text===
The text is believed under textual criticism to contain further compositional structure. The Deuteronomist here is believed to have combined together six earlier separate texts, one for each of the five ''Great Judges'' and one for Abimelech - Ehud (3:11, and 3:13-29), Deborah (4:1b-5:31), Gideon (6-8), Abimelech (9:1-57), Jephthah (11:1-12:7), and Samson (13:2-16), adding passages to join them together (4:1a, 8:29-31, 10:17-18, and 13:1), sometimes interrupting the narrative to do so.
The text is believed to have been further altered by the (possibly later) addition of passages concerning ''Minor Judges'' (10:1-5 and 12:8-15) in order to make the total number of Judges a more religiously significant number, harmonizing them chronologically so that the total number of years of their reign (71) is close to the number of years of oppression under the ''Great Judges'' (70). The presence of 3:31, placing Shamgar in the list of Judges, is believed to be a later recension, created in order to remove Abimelech from being counted amongst the Judges without disturbing the total number, in order that someone so apparently wicked not taint the role, the name coming from 5:6.
Three of these six earlier texts each contain partly duplicate accounts:
*Judges 4 is believed to be based on two separate stories, one based on the ancient [[Song of Deborah]] (Judges 5) concerning Sisera, the other a story concerning Jabin, which had merged together when Barak of Issachar (identified at 5:15 as the one who defeats Sisera) was confused with Barak of Naphtali (identified at 4:5 as the one who defeats Jabin), and consequently Sisera is reinterpreted in Judges 4 as Jabin's general rather than as the chief of a confederation (as in Judges 5)
*Although difficult, to a degree, to separate, there are considered to be two distinct interwoven narratives about Gideon; the first narrative (which includes at least 6:2-6, 6:11-24, 6:33-35, 7:1, and 7:9-25) describing a surprise assault on the Midianites on Mount Gilboa with the fugitive Kings Oreb and Zeeb being killed, and the second narrative (which includes at least 6:7-10, 6:25-32, and 6:36-40, and 8:4-27) discussing Gideon capturing the fugitive Kings Zebah and Zalmunna.
*The narrative of Judges 9, concerning Abimelech, is thought not to have originally contained the parable of Jotham (9:7b-20), it being inserted into the story at a later date. However, the parable itself is believed to be earlier than the rest of the narrative, which is thought to be at least partly based upon it.
In addition, the Samson narrative (13-16) contains two distinct cycles; the first a series of tableaux concerning his romance of a |
royed by successive plunderers; enough remained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies, a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled with great jars of wine, perfumed ointment and other supplies, and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record of the yearly annals of the reigns. The sealings of the various officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an insight into the public arrangements (Petrie, ''Royal Tombs'', i. and ii.).
The cemetery of private persons begins in the 1st dynasty with some pit-tombs in the town. It was extensive in the 12th and 13th dynasties and contained many rich tombs. A large number of fine tombs were made in the 18th to 20th dynasties, and later ages continued to bury here till Roman times. Many hundred funeral steles were removed by Mariette's workmen, without any record of the burials (Mariette, ''Abydos'', ii. and iii.). Later excavations have been recorded by [[Ayrton]], Abydos, iii.; [[Maclver]], ''El Amrah and Abydos''; and [[Garstang]], ''El Arabah''.
=="Forts"==
The structures referred to as "forts" lay behind the town. Known as [[Shunet ez Zebib]] is about 450 x 250 ft. over all, and still stands 30 ft. high. It was built by [[Khasekhemwy]], the last king of the 2nd dynasty. Another nearly as large adjoined it, and is probably rather older. A third fort of a squarer form is now occupied by the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] convent; its age cannot be ascertained (Ayrton, Abydos, iii.).
==Other==
* In the TV series Stargate SG-1 Abydos is the name of a planet that is very similar to Ancient Egypt which also features a large pyramid/spaceship landing pad and a temple to the alien who posed as the sun god Ra.
*Some of the heiroglyphics onsite depict objects which are debated to be a helicopter, submarine, and U.F.O. [http://www.enigmas.org/aef/lib/archeo/abydosm.shtml]
==See also==
* [[Abydos offering formula]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{Ancient Egypt}}
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[ar:أبيدوس]]
[[ca:Abidos]]
[[da:Abydos]]
[[de:Abydos (Ägypten)]]
[[es:Abidos]]
[[fr:Abydos]]
[[gl:Abidos]]
[[he:אבידוס (מצרים)]]
[[lt:Abydosas]]
[[nl:Abydos]]
[[pl:Abydos]]
[[ru:Абидос]]
[[sv:Abydos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abydos, Hellespont</title>
<id>1441</id>
<revision>
<id>30101947</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-04T10:34:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.16.181.166</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abydos''', an ancient city of [[Mysia]], in [[Asia Minor]], situated at [[Nagara Point]] on the [[Hellespont]], which is here scarcely a mile broad.
It probably was originally a [[Thrace|Thracian]] town, but was afterwards colonized by [[Miletus|Milesians]]. Here [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] crossed the strait on his bridge of boats in 480 B.C. when he invaded [[Greece]].
Abydos is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against [[Philip V of Macedon]] ([[200 BC]]), and is famed in story for the loves of [[Hero and Leander]].
The town remained till late Byzantine times the toll station of the Hellespont, its importance being transferred to the [[Dardanelles]], after the building of the "Old Castles" by Sultan [[Mahommed II]] (c. 1456).
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Thrace]]
[[de:Abydos (Kleinasien)]]
[[he:אבידוס (יוון)]]
[[sv:Abydos, Mindre Asien]]
[[el:Άβυδος]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 15</title>
<id>1442</id>
<revision>
<id>41893238</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:27:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shanes</username>
<id>94147</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv to Rklawton</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=15}}
|}
'''[[August 15]]''' is the 227th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (228th in [[leap year]]s), with 138 days remaining.
==Events==
* [[778]] - The [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass]], in which [[Roland]] is killed
* [[927]] - The [[Saracen]]s conquered and destroyed [[Taranto]]
* [[1057]] - [[Macbeth of Scotland|King MacBeth]] of Scotland is killed during the [[Battle of Lumphanan]] by the forces of [[Malcolm III of Scotland|King Malcolm III]].
* [[1185]] - The cave city of [[Vardzia]] was consecrated by Queen [[Tamar of Georgia]]
* [[1309]] - [[The city of Rhodes]] surrenders to the forces of the [[Knights of St. John]], completing their conquest of [[Rhodes]]. The knights establish their headquartes on the island, and rename themselves as the [[Knights of Rhodes]].
* [[1517]] - Seven [[Portugal|Portuguese]] armed vessels led by [[Fernao Pires de Andrade]] meet [[China|Chinese]] officials at the [[Pearl River estuary]].
* [[1519]] - [[Panama City, Panama]] is founded
* [[1534]] - The [[Society of Jesus]] is founded by [[Ignatius of Loyola]] with [[Francis Xavier]] and other students
* [[1535]] - [[Asuncion, Paraguay]] is founded
* [[1540]] - [[Arequipa, Peru]] is founded
* [[1549]] - [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest [[Francis Xavier]] comes ashore at [[Kagoshima]] (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 22, 1549).
* [[1620]] - The ''[[Mayflower]]'' departs [[Southampton, England]].
* [[1824]] - Freed American slaves form [[Liberia]].
* [[1843]] - The [[Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace]] in [[Honolulu, Hawaii]] is dedicated. Now the cathedral of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu]], it is the oldest [[Roman Catholic]] [[cathedral]] in continuous use in the [[United States]].
* 1843 - [[Tivoli Gardens]], one of the oldest still intact [[amusement park]]s in the world, opens in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]].
* [[1863]] - The [[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]] war begins between the Satsuma clan and the [[United Kingdom]] (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 2, 1863).
* [[1877]] - [[Thomas Edison]] makes the first-ever recording - "Mary Had a Little Lamb"
* [[1894]] - [[Sante Jeronimo Caserio]] executed for the [[Marie Francois Sadi Carnot]] assesination
* [[1914]] - The [[Panama Canal]] opens to traffic
* [[1920]] - [[Polish-Soviet War]]: [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]] - [[Poland|Poles]] defeat the [[Red Army]].
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Pedestal]] - The [[SS Ohio|SS ''Ohio'']] reaches the island of [[Malta]] barely afloat carrying vital fuel supplies for the island defenses.
* [[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Anvil]] - Allied forces land in southern [[France]].
* [[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Victory over Japan Day]] - [[Japan]] surrenders.
* 1945 - [[World War II]]: [[Korea]]n Liberation Day
* [[1947]] - [[India]] gains independence from the United Kingdom. [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] takes office as the first [[Prime Minister of India]]
* [[1948]] - The [[South Korea|Republic of Korea]] is established south of 38th Parallel
* [[1960]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] ([[Brazzaville]]) declares its independence from [[France]]
* [[1961]] - Construction begins on the [[Berlin Wall]], [[Conrad Schumann]] flees from [[East Germany]].
* [[1965]] - [[John Coltrane]] plays in [[Chicago, Illinois]] for the [[Downbeat]] [[Jazz Festival]] with [[Elvin Jones]] and [[McCoy Tyner]].
* [[1969]] - The [[Woodstock Music and Art Festival]] opens.
* [[1971]] - President [[Richard Nixon]] ends convertibility of U.S. [[Dollar|dollar]] into gold
* [[1973]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[United States]] bombing of [[Cambodia]] ends
* [[1974]] - [[Yook Young-soo]], [[First Lady]] of [[South Korea]] is killed amid an apparent assassination attempt upon [[President]] of the [[South Korea]], [[Park Chung-hee]], during the anniversarial ceremony of the Liberation day.
* [[1975]] - Military coup in [[Bangladesh]]
* 1975 - [[Miki Takeo]] makes the first official pilgrimage to [[Yasukuni Shrine]] by a sitting [[Prime Minister of Japan|prime minister]] on the anniversary of the end of [[World War II]].
* [[1977]] - [[The Big Ear]], a [[radio telescope]] operated by The [[Ohio State University]] as part of the [[SETI]] project, receives a radio signal from deep space; the event is named the "[[Wow! signal]]" for notation made by a volunteer on the project.
* [[1978]] - Foundation of [[Mirapuri]] - The City of Peace and Future Man
* [[1995]] - In [[South Carolina]], [[Shannon Faulkner]] becomes the first female cadet matriculated at [[The Citadel (Military College)|The Citadel]], but drops out in less than a week.
* [[1998]] - [[Omagh]] bomb in [[Northern Ireland]], becoming the worst [[terrorism|terrorist]] incident of [[The Troubles]]
* [[1999]] - [[Beni Ounif massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; some 29 people killed at a false roadblock near the Moroccan border, leading to temporary tensions with [[Morocco]].
* [[2004]] - World famous Jam band [[Phish]] plays their last show in [[Coventry, Vermont]] after more than 20 active years.
==Births==
*[[1001]] - King [[Duncan I of Scotland]] (d. [[1040]])
*[[1171]] - King [[Alfonso IX of Leon]] (d. [[1230]])
*[[1195]] - [[Anthony of Padua]], Portuguese saint (d. [[1231]])
*[[1432]] - [[Luigi Pulci]], Italian poet (d. [[1484]])
*[[1613]] - [[Gilles Ménage]], French scholar (d. [[1692]])
*[[1717]] - [[Blind Jack]], English roadbuilder (d. [[1810]])
*[[1769]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Emperor of France (d. [[1821]])
*[[1785]] - [[Thomas De Quincey]], English author (d. [[1859]])
*[[1813]] - [[Jules Grévy]], President of France (d. [[1891]])
*[[1856]] - [[Ivan Franko]], Ukrainian writer (d. [[1916]])
*[[1858]] - [[E. Nesbit]], English author (d. [[1924]])
*[[1872]] - [[Sri Aurobindo]], Indian writer, nationalist, philosopher, and guru (d. [[1950]])
*[[1875]] - [[Samuel Coleridge-Taylor]], English composer (d. [[1912]])
*[[1879]] - [[Ethel Barrymore]], American actress (d. [[1959]])
*[[1887]] - [[Edn |
ia from the Iraqi army. But from the strategic viewpoint, were Iraqi forces to be ejected from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia provided the only possible land-bridge whereby international troops could assemble in order that the Iraqi invasion could be repulsed.
After some deliberation the Saudi Monarch refused bin Laden's offer and instead opted to allow United States and allied forces to deploy on his territory. Bin Laden considered this a treacherous deed. He believed that the presence of foreign troops in the "land of the two mosques" ([[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]) profaned sacred soil. After speaking publicly against the Saudi government for harboring American troops he was quickly forced into exile to Sudan and his Saudi citizenship was revoked.
Shortly afterwards the movement which came to be known as al-Qaeda was formed.
===Sudan===
In 1991, Sudan's [[National Islamic Front]], an Islamist group that had recently gained power, invited al-Qaeda to move operations to their country. For several years, al-Qaeda ran several businesses (including an import/export business, farms, and a construction firm) in what might be considered a period of financial consolidation. The group was responsible for the construction of a major 1200km (845mi) highway connecting the capital Khartoum with Port Sudan. But they also ran a number of camps where they trained aspirants in the use of firearms and explosives.
In 1996, Osama bin Laden was asked to leave Sudan after the US put the regime under extreme pressure to expel him, citing possible connections to the 1994 attempted assassination of [[Egypt|Egyptian]] President [[Hosni Mubarak]] while his motorcade was in [[Addis Ababa, Ethiopia]]. A controversy exists regarding whether Sudan offered to turn bin Laden over to the U.S. prior to the expulsion. The Sudanese government never indeed made such an offer but were prepared to turn him over to Saudi Arabia who declined to take him.
Osama bin Laden finally left Sudan in a well planned and executed operation accompanied by some 200 of his supporters and their families travelling directly to Jalalabad, Afghanistan by air in late 1996.
===Bosnia===
The secession of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] from the multicultural [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian Federation]] and the subsequent declaration of Bosnia-Herzegovinan independence in October 1991 opened up a new ethnic and quasi-religious conflict at the heart of Europe.
[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] was ethnically diverse, with a nominal Muslim majority but with significant numbers of ethnic ([[Orthodox Christian]]) [[Serbs]] and ([[Roman Catholic]]) [[Croats]] distributed across its territory. It comprised a large, but militarily weak component of the former Yugoslavia and Yugoslavian disintegration saw some ethnic Serbs and some ethnic Croats within Bosnia, supported by their rump adjacent states (Serbia and Croatia), engage in a three way conflict against the [[Bosniaks]] dominated core.
Radical Arab veterans of the war against the Soviets in [[Afghanistan]] seized on Bosnia as a new opportunity to "defend Islam". Besieged on two fronts and seemingly abandoned by the West, the Bosnian regime was willing to accept any help it could get, military or financial, including that of a number of Islamic organisations, of which al-Qaeda was one<ref>{{cite book | author = Kohlmann, Evan F. | title = Al-Qaida's Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network | publisher = Berg | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 1859738079}}</ref>.
Several close associates of Osama bin Laden (most notably, Saudi [[Khalid bin Udah bin Muhammad al-Harbi]], alias Abu Sulaiman al-Makki) joined the conflict in Bosnia<ref>{{cite book | author=Kohlmann, Evan F. | title = Al-Qaida's Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network | publisher=Berg | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1859738079}}</ref>, but while al-Qaeda might initially have seen Bosnia as a possible bridgehead enabling the radicalisation of European Muslims for operations against other European states and America, [[Bosniaks]] had been secularised for generations and their interest in fighting was largely limited to securing the survival of their nascent state.
The "Bosnian Mujahidin" (comprising largely Arab veterans of the Afghan war and not ''necessarily'' members of al-Qaeda) thus operated as a largely autonomous force within central Bosnia. While their bravery in the fray initially attracted a small number of native Bosnians to join them, their brutality and a rising number of atrocites committed against civilians came to appall many native Bosnians and repelled new recruits. At the same time, their vigorous attempts to Islamicize the local population with rules on appropriate dress and behaviour were widely resented and largely went unheeded. In his book ''Al-Qaida’s Jihad in Europe: the Afghan-Bosnian network'', Evan Kohlmann sums up: ‘In spite of vigorous efforts to ‘Islamicise’ the nominally Muslim Bosnian populace, the locals could not be convinced to abandon pork, alcohol, or public displays of affection. Bosnian women persistently refused to wear the [[hijab]] or follow the other mandates for female behaviour prescribed by extreme fundamentalist Islam.’
The signing of the [[Washington Agreement]] in March 1994 brought to an end the Bosnian-Croatian conflict. While the "Bosnian Mujahidin" remained to fight on in the war against the Serbs, the [[Dayton Peace Accord]] of November 1995 brought that conflict to an end and required that foreign fighters disband and leave the country, with aid being conditional on this taking place. With Bosnian government support, [[NATO]] forces took effective action to close their bases and deport them. A limited number of former Mujahidin who had either married native Bosnians or who could not be found a country to go to were permitted to stay in Bosnia and granted Bosnian citizenship, but with the war in Bosnia over, many committed battle-hardened veterans had already returned to familiar territory.
===Return to Afghanistan===
After the Soviet withdrawal, Afghanistan was effectively ungoverned for seven years and plagued by constant infighting between the former allies, the various Mujahidin groups and their leaders.
Throughout the 1990s a new force began to emerge. The origins of the [[Taliban]] (literally "students") lay in children of Afghanis, many of them orphaned by the war, and many of whom had had been educated in the rapidly expanding network of Islamic schools (madrassas) either in Kandahar or in the refugee camps on the Afghan-Pakistani border.
According to Ahmad Rashid's well-regarded book ''Taliban'', five leaders of the Taliban were graduates of a single madrassa, Darul Uloom Haqqania, Akora Khattak, near Peshawar which is situated in Pakistan but which was largely attended by Afghan refugees. This institution reflected Salafi beliefs in its teachings and much of its funding came from private donations from wealthy Arabs for which bin Laden provided conduit. A further four more leading figures (including the perceived Taliban leader Mullah [[Mohammed Omar]] Mujahed) attended a similarly funded and influenced madrassa in Kandahar, Afghanistan.
The ties between the Afghan Arabs and Taliban ran deep. Many of the mujahidin who later joined the Taliban fought alongside Afghan warlord Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi's Harkat i Inqilabi grouping at the time of the Russian invasion. This grouping had also enjoyed the loyalty of most Afghan Arab fighters.
The continuing internecine strife between various factions and accompanying lawlessness following the Soviet withdrawal enabled the growing and well-disciplined [[Taliban]] to expand their control over territory in Afghanistan and they came to establish an enclave which it called the [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]]. In 1994, they captured the regional centre of Kandahar and making rapid territorial gains thereafter, went on to conquer the capital, Kabul, in September 1996.
After Sudan made it clear bin Laden and his group were no longer welcome in that year, Taliban-controlled Afghanistan -- with previously established connections between the groups, a similar outlook on world affairs and largely isolated from American political influence and military power -- provided a perfect location for al Qaeda to headquarter.
Some 200 bin Laden supporters and their families departed Khartoum for Jalalabad by air in 1996. Thereafter al-Qaeda enjoyed the Taliban's protection and a measure of legitimacy as part of their Ministry of Defense, although only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the [[United Arab Emirates]] recognized the Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan.
Al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan and the Pakistan border regions are alleged to have trained militant Muslims from around the world. Despite the perception of some people, al-Qaeda members are ethnically diverse and are connected by their radical version of Islam.
An ever-expanding network of supporters thus enjoyed a safe haven in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan until the Taliban were defeated by a combination of local forces and US troops in 2001. Osama Bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders are still believed to be located in areas where the population is sympathetic to the Taliban in Afghanistan or the border Tribal Areas of Pakistan.
===Start of militant operations against civilians===
On [[February 23]], [[1998]], Osama bin Laden and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] of [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] issued a [[fatwa]] under the banner of the '''World Islamic Front for Jihad Against the Jews and Crusaders''' saying that "to kill Americans and their allies, civilians, and military is an individual duty of every Muslim who is able." Although neither man possessed the Islamic credentials, education or stature to issue a fatwa of any kind, this seems to have been overlooked in the enthusiasm of the moment. This was also the year of |
Five-Points MARTA station which would link MARTA bus and rail, intercity bus service, proposed commuter rail service to other Georgia cities, and Amtrak in a single facility.
[[Greyhound Lines]] provides intercity bus service between Atlanta and many locations throughout the United States and Canada. The Greyhound terminal is situated at 232 Forsyth Street, on the southern edge of the downtown area and directly beneath MARTA's Garnett rail station.
The proposed [[Beltline (Atlanta)|Beltline]] would create a greenway and public transit system in a circle around the city from a series of mostly abandoned rail lines. This rail [[Right-of-way (railroad)|right-of-way]] would also accommodate multi-use [[trails]] connecting a string of existing and new parks. In addition, there is a proposed [[streetcar]] project that would create a streetcar line along Peachtree from downtown to Buckhead as well as possibly another East-West line. [http://www.atlantastreetcar.com/]
===Education===
====Public schools====
The public school system ([[Atlanta Public Schools]]) is run by the Atlanta Board of Education. Currently, the system has an active enrollment of 51,000 students, attending a total of 85 schools: 59 elementary schools (three of which operate on a year-round calendar), 16 middle schools, 10 high schools, and 7 charter schools. The school system also supports two alternative schools for middle and/or high school students, two community schools, and an adult learning center. The school system also owns and operates radio station [[WABE-FM]] 90.1 (the [[National Public Radio]] affiliate) and PBS television station WPBA 30.
====Private schools====
Notable private schools in Atlanta include [[The Paideia Schoool]], [[The Galloway School]], [[Holy Spirit Preparatory School]], [[Pace Academy]] ([[Buckhead]]), [[The Lovett School]] (Buckhead), [[Blessed Trinity Catholic High School]], [[The Westminster Schools]] (Buckhead). The Atlanta International School (Buckhead).
====Colleges and universities====
Some of the prominent institutions of [[higher education]] in Atlanta include [[Emory University]], [[Georgia Institute of Technology|Georgia Tech]], [[Georgia State University]], [[Mercer University]], and [[Oglethorpe University]]. [[Atlanta University Center]], a consortium of historically-black colleges and universities, is also located in the city. Schools that are part of this consortium include [[Clark Atlanta University]], [[Morehouse College]], [[Morris Brown College]],[[Spelman College]] and [[Morehouse School of Medicine]]. Other schools in the city include the [[Reformed Theological Seminary]] and the [[Savannah College of Art and Design]] which opened a Midtown campus in 2005 and acquired the [[Atlanta College of Art]] shortly thereafter.
Institutions in the surrounding metro area include [[Agnes Scott College]] ([[Decatur, Georgia|Decatur]]), [[DeVry University System|DeVry University]] ([[Decatur, Georgia|Decatur]]), [[Clayton State University]] ([[Morrow, Georgia|Morrow]]), [[Kennesaw State University]] ([[Kennesaw, Georgia|Kennesaw]]), [[Georgia Perimeter College]],
[[Gwinnett University Center]] (soon to be known as [[Georgia Gwinnett College]], in [[Lawrenceville, Georgia|Lawrenceville]]), The [[University of West Georgia]] ([[Carrollton, Georgia|Carrollton]]), and [[Southern Polytechnic State University]] ([[Marietta, Georgia|Marietta]]).
==Sister cities==
Atlanta has eighteen [[town twinning|sister cities]], as designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org/ Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI)]: [[Olympia, Greece|Ancient Olympia]] ([[Greece]]), [[Brussels]] ({{BEL}}), [[Daegu]] ([[South Korea]]), [[Tbilisi]] ({{GEO}}), [[Toulouse]] ({{FRA}}), [[Ra'annana]] ([[Israel]]), [[Taipei]] ([[Taiwan]]), [[Port of Spain]] ([[Trinidad and Tobago]]), [[Lagos Island]] ([[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]]), [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]] ([[Japan]]), [[Bucharest]] ([[Romania]]), [[Cotonou]] ([[Benin]]), [[Montego Bay]] ([[Jamaica]]), [[Newcastle-upon-Tyne]] ([[England]]), [[Nuremberg|Nürnberg]] ([[Germany]]), [[Rio de Janeiro]] ([[Brazil]]), [[Salcedo]] ([[Dominican Republic]]), and [[Salzburg]] ([[Austria]]).
==See also==
*[[Atlanta in fiction]]
*[[architecture of Atlanta]]
*[[list of famous Atlantans]]
*[[list of major companies in Atlanta]]
*[[list of mayors of Atlanta]]
*[[list of Atlanta neighborhoods]]
*[[Atlanta metropolitan area]]
*[[I-85 Corridor]]
== References ==
* Frederick Allen. ''Atlanta Rising''. Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 1996. A detailed history of Atlanta from 1946 to 1996, with much about City Councilman, later Mayor, William B. Hartsfield's work in making Atlanta a major air transport hub, and about the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]] as it affected (and was affected by) Atlanta.
* Darlene R. Roth and Andy Ambrose. ''Metropolitan Frontiers: A short history of Atlanta''. Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 1996. An overview of the city's history with an emphasis on its growth.
* Elise Reid Boylston. ''Atlanta: Its Lore, Legends and Laughter''. Doraville: privately printed, 1968. Lots of neat anecdotes about the history of the city.
* ''Atlanta, Then and Now''. Part of the Then and Now book series.
* [http://fotw.vexillum.com/flags/us-ga-at.html Atlanta, GA] (Source for Atlanta Flag)
* Atlanta and Environs: A Chronicle of Its People and Events : Years of Change and Challenge, 1940-1976 by Franklin M. Garrett, Harold H. Martin
* Georgia Humanities Council. ''The New Georgia Encyclopedia.'' [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Home.jsp]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Atlanta}}
{{wikitravelpar|Atlanta}}
*[http://www.atlantaga.gov/ Official Website]
*[http://www.atlanta.net Atlanta Convention and Visitors Bureau]
*[http://www.accessatlanta.com/ Access Atlanta]
*[http://www.atlhist.org/ Atlanta History Center]
*[http://www.roadsidegeorgia.com/city/atlanta01.html History of Atlanta, Georgia] Two articles that cover the history of Atlanta until 1868.
*[http://www.atlwiki.org/ AtlWiki - A wiki just starting for Atlanta]
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|33.759506|-84.403176}}
{{United_States_state_capitals}}
{{Georgia}}
{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}
[[Category:1845 establishments]]
[[Category:1847 incorporations]]
[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Atlanta, Georgia| Atlanta, Georgia]]
[[Category:Cities in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apostles</title>
<id>3139</id>
<revision>
<id>34523442</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T19:49:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
<id>55814</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Twelve Apostles]]</comment>
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<page>
<title>Avogadros number</title>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T23:32:07Z</timestamp>
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<username>Maveric149</username>
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<page>
<title>ANZUS</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:35:26Z</timestamp>
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<username>Lacrimosus</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/139.168.150.113|139.168.150.113]] ([[User talk:139.168.150.113|talk]]) to last version by Wallie</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty''' ('''ANZUS''' or '''ANZUS Treaty''') is the [[military alliance]] which binds [[Australia]] and the [[United States]], and separately Australia and [[New Zealand]] to cooperate on [[Defense (military)|defense]] matters in the Pacific Ocean area, though today the treaty is understood to relate to attacks in any area.
{{wikisource|Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty}}
==Treaty structure==
The treaty was previously a full three-way defence pact, but following a dispute between New Zealand and the United States in [[1984]] over visiting rights for nuclear-armed or nuclear-powered ships of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] in New Zealand ports, the treaty no longer applies between the United States and New Zealand, but is still in force between either country and Australia, separately.
The US-Australia alliance under the ANZUS Treaty remains in full force. Heads of defence of one or both nations often have joined the annual ministerial meetings, which are supplemented by consultations between the U.S. Commander in Chief Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defence Force. There also are regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels. Annual meetings to discuss ANZUS defence matters take place between the [[United States Secretary of State]] and the [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Australia)|Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs]] (AUSMIN). The 17th AUSMIN meeting took place in [[Adelaide]] in November 2005.
Unlike [[NATO]], ANZUS has no integrated defence structure or dedicated forces. However, in fulfillment of ANZUS obligations, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-g |
[[animated cartoon]] and [[comic book|comic-book]] [[fictional character|character]] from [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Productions]]. Donald is a white [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] [[duck]] with yellow-orange bill, legs, and feet. He usually wears a [[sailor]] [[shirt]] and [[cap]] &mdash; but no [[pants]] (except when he goes swimming). Some people believe that [[Finland]] banned him because he has no trousers, but this is an [[urban legend]], [http://www.snopes.com/disney/films/finland.htm].
Donald's famous voice, one of the most identifiable voices in all of animation, was until [[1985]] performed by [[voice actor]] [[Clarence Nash|Clarence "Ducky" Nash]]. Nash came from the rural community of [[Watonga, Oklahoma|Watonga]], [[Oklahoma]], and due to his voice acting rose far above his economic milieu. It was largely this semi-intelligible speech that would cement Donald's image into audiences' minds and help fuel both Donald's and Clarence's rise to stardom.
According to the cartoon ''[[Donald Gets Drafted]]'' ([[1942]]), Donald's full name is '''Donald Fauntleroy Duck''' (his middle name appears to be a reference to his sailor hat, which was a common accessory for [[Little Lord Fauntleroy|Fauntleroy]] suits). (To find Donald's name in other countries, please see [[List of Disney characters' names in various languages#Donald Duck|Disney characters' names in various languages]].) Disney's website also states his name as Donald Fauntleroy Duck.[http://disney.go.com/vault/archives/characterstandard/donald/donald.html] Donald's birthday is generally represented as [[June 9]], [[1934]], the day his debut film was released, but in ''[[The Three Caballeros]]'', his birthday is given as simply "Friday the Thirteenth."
Donald's most famous personality trait is his explosive, short temper when frustrated, which often gets him into various situations in his theatrical shorts. Despite this, however, Donald is usually shown as content and easygoing when not frustrated by a problem.
== Donald in animation ==
===Early appearances===
[[Image:Donald duck debut.PNG|thumb|right|Donald Duck's debut in the ''Wise Little Hen''.]]
*For a list of Donald's cartoons, consult [[Donald Duck cartoons]]
Donald first appeared in the ''[[Silly Symphonies]]'' cartoon ''[[The Wise Little Hen]]'' on [[June 9]], [[1934]] (though he is mentioned in a [[1931]] Disney storybook). Donald's appearance in the cartoon, as created by [[animator]] [[Dick Lundy (animator)|Dick Lundy]], is similar to his modern look &mdash; the colors are the same, as is the blue sailor shirt and hat &mdash; but his features are more elongated, his body plumper, and his feet bigger. Donald's personality is not developed either; in the short, he only fills the role of the unhelpful friend from the original story.
[[Bert Gillett]], [[film director|director]] of ''The Wise Little Hen'', brought Donald back in his [[Mickey Mouse]] cartoon, ''[[The Orphan's Benefit]]'' on [[August 11]], 1934. Donald is one of a number of characters who are giving performances in a benefit for [[Mickey's Orphans]]. Donald's act is to recite the poems ''[[Mary had a little lamb|Mary Had a Little Lamb]]'' and ''[[Little Boy Blue]]'', but every time he tries, the mischievous orphans eat his specially made pie, leading the duck to fly into a squawking fit of anger. This explosive personality would remain with Donald for decades to come.
Donald continued to be a hit with audiences. The character began appearing in most Mickey Mouse cartoons as a regular member of the ensemble with Mickey, [[Minnie Mouse|Minnie]], [[Goofy]], and [[Pluto (dog)|Pluto]]. Cartoons from this period, such as the [[1935]] cartoon ''[[The Band Concert]]'' &mdash; in which Donald repeatedly disrupts the Mickey Mouse Orchestra's rendition of ''[[William Tell (opera)#William Tell Overture|The William Tell Overture]]'' by playing ''[[Turkey in the Straw]]'' &mdash; are regularly hailed by critics as exemplary films and classics of animation. Animator [[Ben Sharpsteen]] also minted the classic ''Mickey, Donald, and Goofy'' comedy in 1935, with the cartoon ''[[Mickey's Service Station]]''.
Donald was redesigned in [[1936]] to be a bit fuller, rounder, and cuter. He also began starring in solo cartoons, the first of which was the [[January 9]], 1937 Ben Sharpsteen cartoon, ''[[Don Donald]]''. This short also introduced Donald's long-time love interest, [[Daisy Duck]] (here called ''Donna Duck''). Donald's nephews, [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]], would make their first animated appearance a year later in the [[April 15]], [[1938]] film, ''[[Donald's Nephews]]'', directed by [[Jack King]] (they had been earlier introduced in the Donald Duck [[comic strip]] by [[Al Taliaferro]], see below).
===Wartime Donald===
[[Image:Der Fuehrer's Face.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Frame from ''Der Fuehrer's Face''.]]
During [[World War II]], film audiences were looking for brasher, edgier cartoon characters. It is no coincidence that the same era that saw the birth and rise of [[Bugs Bunny]] also saw Donald Duck's popularity soar. By [[1949]], Donald had surpassed Mickey Mouse as Disney's most popular character. Before [[1941]], Donald Duck had appeared in about 50 cartoons. Between 1941 and [[1965]], Donald would ''star'' in over 100.
Several of Donald's shorts during the war were [[propaganda]] films, most notably ''[[Der Fuehrer's Face]]'', released on [[January 1]], [[1943]]. In it, Donald plays a worker in an artillery factory in "Nutzi Land" ([[Nazi Germany]]). He struggles with long working hours, very small food rations, and having to [[salute]] every time he sees a picture of the [[Führer]] ([[Adolf Hitler]]). These pictures appear in many places, such as on the assembly line in which he is screwing in the detonators of various sizes of shells. In the end he becomes little more than a small part in a faceless machine with no choice but to obey till he falls, suffering a nervous breakdown. Then Donald wakes up to find that his experience was in fact a nightmare. At the end of the short Donald looks to the [[Statue of Liberty]] and the [[United States|American]] flag with renewed appreciation. ''Der Fuehrer's Face'' won the 1943 [[Academy Award for Animated Short Film]].
Other notable shorts from this period include the so-called Army shorts, six films that follow Donald's life in the [[United States Army|US Army]] from his drafting to his life at boot camp under sergeant [[Black Pete|Pete]] to his first actual mission as a [[commando]] having to sabotage a [[Japan|Japanese]] air base. Titles in the series include:
* ''[[Donald Gets Drafted]]'' - ([[May 1]], [[1942]]).
* ''[[The Vanishing Private]]'' - ([[September 25]], [[1942]]).
* ''[[Sky Trooper]]'' - ([[November 6]], [[1942]]).
* ''[[Fall Out Fall In]]'' - ([[April 23]], [[1943]]).
* ''[[The Old Army Game]]'' - ([[November 5]], [[1943]]).
* ''[[Commando Duck]]'' - ([[June 2]], [[1944]]).
''[[Donald Gets Drafted]]'' also featured Donald having a physical examination before joining the army. According to it Donald has flat feet and is unable to distinguish between the colors green and blue, which is a type of [[color blindness]]. Also in this cartoon sergeant Pete comments on Donald's lack of discipline.
It is also noteworthy that thanks to these films, Donald graced the nose artwork of virtually every type of [[World War II|WWII]] [[Allied]] combat aircraft, from the [[L-4 Grasshopper]] to the [[B-29 Superfortress]].
===Post-war animation===
Many of Donald's films made after the war recast the duck as the brunt of some other character's pestering. Donald is repeatedly attacked, harassed, and ridiculed by his nephews, by the [[chipmunk]]s [[Chip 'n Dale]], or by other one-shot characters such as [[Humphrey the Bear]], [[Buzz the Bee]], ''Bootle Beetle'', the [[Aracuan Bird]], ''Louie the Mountain Lion'' or a colony of ants. In effect, the Disney artists had reversed the classic ''screwball'' scenario perfected by [[Walter Lantz]] and others in which the main character is the ''instigator'' of these harassing behaviors, rather than the butt of them. However, by turning the tables, Donald's aggressors come off to some as sadistic or cruel, and some critics have found the films unfunny as a result.
The post-war Donald also starred in [[educational film]]s, such as ''[[Donald in Mathmagic Land]]'' ([[1959]]), and made cameos in various Disney projects, such as ''[[The Reluctant Dragon]]'' ([[1941]]) and the ''[[Disneyland]]'' [[television]] show (1959).
Since [[Clarence Nash]]'s death in 1985, Donald's voice has been provided by [[Tony Anselmo]], who was mentored by Nash.
== Donald in comics==
:''Main article: [[Donald Duck in comics]]
[[Image:Lostintheandes.jpg|right|thumb|Cover of a [[1949]] comic book containing the famous story ''[[Lost in the Andes]]''. Cover and story by [[Carl Barks]].]]
While Donald's cartoons enjoy vast popularity in the [[United States]] and around the world, his weekly and monthly comic books enjoy their greatest popularity in many [[Europe|European]] countries, most in [[Norway]] and [[Finland]], but many other countries are right behind - most notably [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Sweden]]. Most of them are produced and published by the Italian branch of the [[Walt Disney Company]] in Italy and by [[Egmont (media group)|Egmont]] in Denmark, Norway, Finland and Sweden.
According to the Inducks, which is a database about Disney comics worldwide, American, Italian and Danish stories have been reprinted in the following countries. In most of them, publications continue: [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Bulgaria]], [[China]], [[Colombia]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]] ([[Faroe Islands]]), [[Egypt]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Guyana]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [ |
he UK. Tin Machine launched its first world tour, featuring a now unshaven David Bowie, that year. Despite the success of the Tin Machine venture, Bowie was mildly frustrated that many of his ideas were either rejected or changed by the band.
Bowie began the 1990s with a stadium tour, in which he played mostly his biggest hits. The "Sound + Vision Tour" (named after the ''Low'' single) drew large crowds, perhaps in part because he had declared that this would be the last time he would play the hits. Though he surprised no one when he later reneged on that promise (and also on the promise that his set in each country would be focused on the favourite hits voted by phone poll in that country... an idea quickly jettisoned when a puckish campaign by the British magazine ''[[NME]]'' resulted in a landslide in favour of ''The Laughing Gnome''!), it is true that his later tours generally featured few of those hits, and when they appeared, they were often radically reworked in their arrangement and delivery.
After the less successful second album ''[[Tin Machine II]]'' and the complete failure of live album ''[[Oy Vey, Baby]]'', Bowie tired of having to work in a group setting where his creativity was limited, and finally disbanded Tin Machine to work on his own. But the Tin Machine venture did show that Bowie had learned some harsh lessons from the previous decade, and was determined to get serious about concentrating on music more than commercial success.
===1992 to 1999: Bowie's solo career in the 90's===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:dbowie3.jpg|frame|left|David Bowie, 2002.]] -->
1993 saw the release of the soul, [[jazz]] and [[hip-hop]] influenced ''[[Black Tie White Noise]]'', which reunited Bowie with ''Let's Dance'' producer [[Nile Rodgers]]. Though considered by some critics to be musically far superior to ''Let's Dance'', the public was still unsure whether or not it was ready to be receptive to Bowie again. The album, however, met the number one spot on the UK charts with singles such as "Jump They Say" and "Miracle Goodnight". However, until re-releases later in the 1990s, the album was extraordinarily rare after the fledgling [[Savage Records]] on which it had been released suddenly went belly-up. The album is often considered Bowie's oddest departure.
Undaunted, Bowie explored new directions on albums such as 1993's ''[[The Buddha of Suburbia (soundtrack)|The Buddha of Suburbia]]'' (built on incidental music composed for a TV series). The album still contained some of the new elements introduced in ''Black Tie White Noise'', except with more of a twist in the direction of [[alternative rock]]. The album's odd success later led to a 1994 re-release in the United States, and Bowie hails it as being an album of entirely his own, original, and newly created work.
1995's ambitious, quasi-[[industrial music|industrial]] ''[[1.OUTSIDE| 1. Outside]]'', supposed to be the first volume in a subsequently abandoned nonlinear narrative of art and murder, reunited him with Eno. The album introduced the characters of one of Bowie's short stories, and was quite an interesting success. The album put Bowie back into the mainstream scene of rock music with its singles such as "Hallo Spaceboy" and "The Heart's Filthy Lesson". In September of 1995 Bowie began his the [[Outside Tour]] with Gabrels again joining Bowie as his live band's guitarist. In a move that was equally lauded and ridiculed by Bowie fans and critics, Bowie chose [[Trent Reznor]]'s [[Nine Inch Nails]] as the tour partner. NIN & Bowie toured as a co-headlining act. Although initially successful, the tour was cancelled early due to poor sales. However, Reznor has gone on record numerous times as being heavily influenced by Bowie, and further collaborated with him by [[remix]]ing "The Heart's Filthy Lesson".
1997's ''[[Earthling (album)|Earthling]]'' incorporated experiments in jungle and drum and bass and included a single released over the [[Internet]], called "Telling Lies." There was ultra-sustained energy in this album, along with experiments in [[Techno music|techno]] drum rhythms, while still holding to Bowie's own musical concepts. Singles such as "Little Wonder" and "[[I'm Afraid of Americans]]" (also remixed by Reznor) were the forefront of the album. There was a corresponding world tour, which was fairly successful.
On [[9 January]], [[1997]], Bowie played a concert at [[Madison Square Garden]] to celebrate his 50th birthday (although his birthday was the previous day). Guest performers included [[Billy Corgan]], [[Frank Black]], [[Sonic Youth]], [[Robert Smith (musician)|Robert Smith]] of [[The Cure]], [[Brian Molko]], and [[Lou Reed]] whose 1972 album ''[[Transformer (album)|Transformer]]'' Bowie co-produced.
The 1998 [[Todd Haynes]] film ''[[Velvet Goldmine]]'' drew its title from a Ziggy-era Bowie song and contained many events paralleling Bowie's life on and off stage; the relationship between the two main characters, Curt Wild (played by [[Ewan McGregor]]) and Brian Slade (played by [[Jonathan Rhys-Meyers]]) was loosely based on that of Iggy Pop and David Bowie (respectively) during the 1970s. The tagline "The rise of a star... the fall of a legend" obviously recalls the name the '''Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust''', and the film contains numerous references to Bowie's career.
In an interview with the band [[Placebo (band)|Placebo]], Bowie noted that he liked the story, but the movie felt more like the early 1980s than the early 1970s. He did not permit his own songs to be used in the film when requested, and soon he combatted it in a lengthy court case, where Bowie sued to try to stop the film's release due to his offense at the depiction of the Slade character as being vile and opportunistic.
1999's ''[['hours...' (album)|'hours...']]'' featured "What's Really Happening", the [[lyrics]] for which were written by the winner of an Internet competition. This album was also featured as the soundtrack of a computer game called "[[Omikron - The Nomad Soul]]." In which David Bowie and his wife, Iman, also made appearances as characters. Bowie also performed live again extensively throughout the '90s. The decade also saw him launch a branded [[internet service provider]] (BowieNet) as well as a novel and quite successful fundraising scheme to raise cash on the strength of future [[copyright|royalties]], called '''Bowie Bonds'''.
===2000 to today: Contemporary Bowie===
Bowie opened the "Concert for New York City" at Madison Square Garden on [[20 October]], [[2001]], to aid [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] victims' families. He performed two carefully chosen songs, ''America'' and ''"Heroes"'', striking a deep emotional chord in the audience of firefighters, police, other rescue workers, and bereaved families.
The 2002 album ''[[Heathen (album)|Heathen]]'' reunited him with [[Tony Visconti]], producer of many of his best 1970s efforts, and won critical acclaim for his best chart performance in years. It also included a cover of the [[Pixies]] song 'Cactus', which was another off-shoot of Bowie's consistent interest in the band. Earlier in 1998, he had also reunited with Visconti to record a song for ''The [[Rugrats]] Movie'' called '''Sky Life'''.
Surprisingly, it was edited out of the final cut, and did not feature on the film's [[soundtrack]] album. A bootleg remix of his '[[Hunky Dory]]' classic 'The Bewlay Brothers' surfaced on white label vinyl and the internet, courtesy of the heavily Bowie influenced [[Steve Haw]] under the guise of 'DJ Spaceboy' - a name inspired by the Bowie track 'Hallo Spaceboy'.
In 2003, a report in the [[Express (newspaper)|Sunday Express]] named Bowie as the second-richest entertainer in the U.K. (behind Sir [[Paul McCartney]]), with an estimated fortune of £510 million. Later that year, Bowie released a new album, ''[[Reality (album)|Reality]]'', and announced a world tour.
In 2004, taking the market by surprise, "[[A Reality Tour]]" was the best selling tour of the year. However, it was cut short after Bowie suffered chest discomfort while performing on stage in the northwestern German town of Scheesel, on [[June 25]]. Originally thought to be a pinched nerve in his shoulder, and later diagnosed as an acutely blocked [[artery]], an emergency [[angioplasty]] was performed at a hospital in the region. He was then released in early July and continues to spend time recovering. The tour was cancelled for the time being, with hopes that he would go back on tour by August. Although these hopes, as time has shown, did not materialise into more live shows, Bowie released a live DVD of the tour, entitled [['David Bowie - A Reality Tour']], in [[October]] [[2004]], which included songs spanning the full length of Bowie's career, although mostly focusing on his more recent albums.
Also in 2004, he duetted his classic song "Changes" with [[Butterfly Boucher]]. This recording was released on the soundtrack to ''[[Shrek 2]]''.
On June 25th 2004 Bowie was still on tour and complained of pain in his shoulder. Soon the pain became far too excrutiating for Bowie, leading him to abruptly end a performance. It was discovered that he had an acutely pinched nerve which was then diagnosed as an acutely blocked artery which required emergency surgery. He underwent heart surgery in Germany and recovered back in New York, however, he had to cut his tour short, and retire from performance for the latter part of the year.
The soundtrack for the film [[The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou]] featured David Bowie songs performed in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] by cast member [[Seu Jorge]] (who adapted some lyrics to make them relevant to the film's story). Most of the David Bowie songs featured in the film were originally from either ''[[ |
ult" divorce; the right to keep children from their fathers, the right to obtain contraception and safe abortions; the right to prevent a man from facing a woman who accuses them of rape; and the right to be allowed admittance into any [[university]] in the U.S..
Feminism is largely a [[pro-choice]] movement, although there are some exceptions. The national organization [http://www.feministsforlife.org Feminists for Life], for instance, condemns the act of abortion, claiming that the reason that abortion is so common is because women do not have access to alternate resources and information. Feminists for Life also suggest that what they refer to as the "abortion industry" is part of a system which allows the abuse of women and women's rights.
===Effect on language===
[[English language|English]]-speaking feminists are often proponents of what they consider to be [[non-sexist language]], using "[[Ms.]]" to refer to both married and unmarried women, for example, or the ironic use of the term "herstory" instead of "history". Feminists are also often proponents of using ''gender-inclusive'' language, such as "humanity" instead of "mankind", or "he or she" (or other [[gender-neutral pronouns]]) in place of "he" where the gender is unknown. Feminists in most cases advance their desired use of language either to promote what they claim is an equal and respectful treatment of women or to affect the tone of political discourse. This can be seen as a move to change language which has been viewed by some feminists as imbued with sexism, providing for example the case in the [[English language]] in which the word for the general pronoun is "he" or "his" (''The child should have his paper and pencils''), which is the same as the masculine pronoun (''The boy and his truck''). These feminists argue that language then directly affects perception of reality (compare [[Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]]). However, to take a postcolonial analysis of this point, many languages ''other'' than English may not have such a gendered pronoun instance and thus changing language may not be as important to some feminists as others. Yet, English is becoming more and more universal, and the issue of language may be seen to be of growing importance.
On the other hand quite a different tendency can be seen in [[French language|French]]. Gender, as a grammatical concept, is much more pervasive in French than in English, and as a result, it has been virtually impossible to create inclusive language. Instead, nouns that originally had only a masculine form have had feminine counterparts created for them. "''Professeur''" ("teacher"), once always masculine regardless of the teacher's sex, now has a parallel feminine form "''Professeure''". In cases where separate masculine and feminine forms have always existed, it was once standard practice for a group containing both men and women to be referred to using the masculine plural. Nowadays, forms such as "''Tous les Canadiens et Canadiennes''" ("all Canadians", or literally "all the male Canadians and female Canadians") are becoming more common. Such phrasing is quite common in [[Canada]], but practically unknown in European and African French-speaking countries.
===Effect on heterosexual relationships===
The feminist movements have altered the nature of [[heterosexual]] relationships in Western and other societies affected by feminism. In some of these relationships, there has been a change in the power relationship between men and women. In these circumstances, women and men have had to adapt to relatively new situations, sometimes causing confusions about [[role]] and [[identity]]. Women can now avail themselves more to new opportunities, but some have suffered with the demands of trying to live up to the so-called "superwomen" identity, and have struggled to 'have it all', i.e. manage to happily balance a career and family. In response to the family issue, many socialist feminists blame this on the lack of state-provided child-care facilities. Others have advocated instead that the onus of child-care not rest solely on the female, but rather that men also partake in the responsibility of managing family matters.
Some men counter that this expectation is unrealistic, claiming that a de-emphasis on breadwinning would be injurious to their ability to attract mates; while many women have the choice to try to "have it all", they claim that societal expectations placed on men preclude them from devoting themselves further to domestic chores and childrearing. Several studies support the view that, although men are derided for not devoting enough time to childrearing and domestic tasks, few women seem attracted to men who engage in these activities to the detriment of their careers. ([http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/aseb/1997/00000026/00000003/00423348 "The Perception of Sexual Attractiveness: Sex Differences in Variability"] by Townsend J.M.; Wasserman T., Archives of Sexual Behavior, Volume 26, Number 3, June 1997, pp. 243-268(26) McGraw, Kevin J. (2002) [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/servlet/useragent?func=synergy&synergyAction=showAbstract&doi=10.1046/j.1439-0310.2002.00757.x "Environmental Predictors of Geographic Variation in Human Mating Preferences."] Ethology 108 (4), 303-317.
''In Defense of Working Fathers'' <u>Sacks, Glenn</u>. [http://www.hisside.com/7_10_05.htm].)
Some argue that the fact men devote less time to household chores is due to the fact that they devote more time to work outside the home. (finding, "According to the International Labor Organization, the average American father works 51 hours a week, whereas those mothers of young children who do work full time (themselves a minority) work a 41-hour week." [http://www.glennsacks.com/is_pay_a.htm].
As a counter to these arguments, [[sociologist]] [[Arlie Russell Hochschild]]'s books ''The Second Shift'' and ''The Time Bind'' present evidence that married men contribute much less time towards child care and housework than their wives do. However, Hochschild presented statistical evidence that this was not the case for two-career couples: according to the studies she cites, in two-career couples, men and women on the average spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework. Hochschild's work mainly centers around two-career couples, but most disputes about the role of men in child care and domestic work center around two-career couples: feminist critiques of men's contribution to child care and domestic labor are typically centered around the idea that it is unfair for the woman to be expected to perform more than half of a household's domestic work and child care when both members of a couple also work outside the home. In general, in couples where one or both partners do not work outside the home, gender-based [[division of labor]] is less of a point of contention for feminists. (For more discussion of this point, see Joyce Jacobson's ''The Economics of Gender''). In addition, a number of studies provide statistical evidence for the claim that married men do not contribute an equal share of housework, regardless of they or their wives' paid work loads: for example, Scott J. South and Glenna Spitze, "Housework in Marital and Nonmarital Households," ''American Sociological Review'' 59, no. 3 (1994):327-348 (which noted that divorced and widowed men spend significantly more time doing housework than married men do), and Sarah Fenstermaker Berk and Anthony Shih, "Contributions to Household Labor: Comparing Wives' and Husbands' Reports,", in Berk, ed., ''Women and Household Labor''. These studies suggest that married men may actually create more domestic work for women, by virtue of their presence in the house, than the amount of work they perform themselves.
The preceding arguments mainly apply to [[middle-class]] women. In her 1996 book ''Dubious Conceptions'', [[Kristin Luker]] discusses the effect of feminism on teenage women's choices to bear a child, both within and outside of marriage. She argues that as bearing a child without being married has become more socially acceptable for women, young women -- while not bearing children at a higher rate than in the 1950s -- have come to see less of a reason to get married before having a child, especially poor young women. As reasons for this, she argues that the economic prospects for poor men are slim, meaning that poor women have a low chance of finding a husband who will provide reliable financial support, and that husbands tend to create more domestic work than they contribute. Though the feminist movement has had minimal impact on those two factors, it may have contributed to the increasing social acceptability of bearing children outside of marriage.
There have been changes also in attitudes towards sexual morality and behavior with the onset of second wave feminism and "[[Oral contraceptive|the Pill]]": women are then more in control of their bodies, and are able to experience sex with more freedom than was previously socially accepted for them. This [[sexual revolution]] that women were then able to experience was seen as positive (especially by [[Sexually liberal feminism|sex-positive feminists]]) as it enabled women and men to experience sex in a free and equal manner. However, some feminists felt that the results of the sexual revolution were beneficial only to men. Feminists have debated whether [[marriage]] is an institution that oppresses women and men. Those who do view it as oppressive sometimes opt for [[cohabitation]] or more recently to live independently reverting to [[casual sex]] to fulfill their sexual needs.
[[Evangelical Feminism|Evan |
uced into the Russian marketplace shortly after 1990, so they've been in business for some 12 years now, whereas we only started franchising Irn-Bru in Russia towards the end of 1998."{{fact}}
Another well known Scottish myth is that a glass bottle of Irn-Bru, when wedged between the meter and the window of a [[Hackney carriage|Hackney Cab]], causes the meter to speed up, resulting in a higher fare.{{fact}}
Another such urban legend, thought to be started by FHM, is that Irn-Bru severley lowers the sperm count.{{fact}}
==External links==
*[http://www.irn-bru.co.uk/ Zany official Irn-Bru web site]
*[http://www.agbarr.co.uk/ A.G. Barr corporate website]
*[http://www.iota-consulting.co.uk/~kcampbell/Bru/homepage.htm An unofficial Irn-Bru website]
*[http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=519669 Irn-Bru] at [[everything2]]
*[http://www.ofcom.org.uk/tv/obb/adv_comp/a14/a14.pdf A14 Advertising Report]
==References==
[http://business.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=639&id=661832002 Caps off to Irn-Bru for Russian revelation] (Jun 17, 2002). "The Edinburgh Evening News".
[[Category:Soft drinks]]
[[Category:Scottish cuisine]]
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[[Category:Scottish cultural icons]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Internet standard</title>
<id>14742</id>
<revision>
<id>36996918</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T21:35:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kdz</username>
<id>809558</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Add RFC editor links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''Internet standard''' is a [[specification]] for an innovative [[internetworking]] technology or methodology, which the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF) ratified as an [[open standard]] after the innovation underwent [[peer review]].
An Internet standard begins as an [[Internet Draft]], which may then be published (usually after several revisions) as a [[Request for Comments]] (RFC) [[memorandum]]. RFCs that are intended to become Internet standards evolve through a series of three maturation stages: '''proposed standard''', '''draft standard''', and '''standard'''. Collectively, these stages of evolution are known as the '''standards track'''.
Note that not all RFCs are on the standards track.
== Proposed standard ==
A ''proposed standard'' specification is generally stable, has resolved known design choices, is believed to be well-understood, has received significant community review, and appears to enjoy enough community interest to be considered valuable. However, further experience might result in a change or even retraction of the specification before it advances. Usually, neither implementation nor operational experience is required.
== Draft standard ==
A specification from which at least two independent and interoperable implementations from different code bases have been developed, and for which sufficient successful operational experience has been obtained, may be elevated to the ''draft standard'' level.
A Draft Standard is normally considered to be a final specification, and changes are likely to be made only to solve specific problems encountered. In most circumstances, it is reasonable for vendors to deploy implementations of Draft Standards into a disruption sensitive environment.
== Standard ==
A specification for which significant implementation and successful operational experience has been obtained may be elevated to the ''Internet standard'' level. An Internet standard, which may simply be referred to as a ''standard'', is characterized by a high degree of technical maturity and by a generally held belief that the specified protocol or service provides significant benefit to the Internet community.
Generally Internet standards cover interoperability of systems on the internet through defining protocols, messages formats, schemas, and languages. The most fundamental of the standards are the ones defining the [[Internet Protocol]].
All Internet standards are given a number in the STD series - The first document in this series, STD 1, describes the remaining documents in the series, and has a list of proposed standards. Often, documents in the STD series are copies of RFCs or are a few RFCs collected together. For example, STD 8 defines the core of the [[telnet]] protocol and comprises RFCs 854 and 855.
==See also==
*[[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC)
*[[Standardization]]
==Reference==
The Internet Standards Process is defined in a "Best Current Practice" document [http://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/bcp/bcp9.txt BCP 9] ([[as of 2005|currently]] RFC 2026).
==External links==
*[http://www.iab.org/ Internet Architecture Board]
*[http://www.ietf.org/iesg.html Internet Engineering Steering Group]
*[http://www.ietf.org/ Internet Engineering Task Force]
*[http://www.rfc-editor.org/ RFC Editor]
*[http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfcxx00.html Official Internet Protocol Standards]
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<title>ISOC</title>
<id>14743</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2003-08-19T18:36:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LouI</username>
<id>9680</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT Internet Society (dup pages)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Internet Society]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector</title>
<id>14744</id>
<revision>
<id>40203548</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:03:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deville</username>
<id>364144</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[signal]] to [[Signalling (telecommunication)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''ITU Telecommunication [[Standardization]] Sector''' ('''ITU-T''') coordinates standards for telecommunications on behalf of the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) and is based in Geneva, Switzerland. Prior to [[1992]], it was known as the '''International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee''' ('''CCITT''', from the French name "'''Comité consultatif international téléphonique et télégraphique'''").
=== Primary function ===
The international standards that are produced by the ITU-T are referred to as "''Recommendations''" (with the word ordinarily capitalized to distinguish its meaning from the ordinary sense of the word "recommendation"). Since the ITU-T is part of the ITU, which is a [[United Nations]] Organization (UNO), its standards carry more formal international recognition than those of most other organizations that publish technical specifications of a similar form.
The sector divides its work into categories that are each identified by a single letter, referred to as the "series" (see below), and Recommendations are numbered within each series, for example "V.90".
=== History ===
Historically from [[1960]] until the formation of ITU-T in 1992, the Recommendations of the CCITT were presented to four-yearly "plenary assemblies" for endorsement, and the full set of Recommendations were published after each plenary assembly, in a set of volumes titled collectively for the colour of their covers. For example the publication after the [[1980]] plenary session was the ''Yellow Book'' while that after [[1984]] was the ''Red Book''. These publications were divided into "fascicles" of several hundred pages that could be bought separately. The four-year approval cycle made the CCITT a rather slow and deliberate organization.
=== ITU reorganization 1970s-1990s ===
The rise of the [[personal computer]] industry in the early [[1980s]] created a new common practice among both consumers and businesses of adopting "[[bleeding edge]]" communications technology even if it was not yet standardized. Thus, standards organizations had to put forth standards much faster, or find themselves ratifying ''de facto'' standards after the fact. Unfortunately, like the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), CCITT was slow to adapt.
In some cases, a hopeless hodgepodge of proprietary standards resulted, with no clear winner; this was and still is the case with color fax technology. Another phenomenon was that the general public sought standards from organizations which it perceived as more responsive or inclusive; these included informal non-governmental organizations like the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF) or private consortia like the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C).
=== ITU's "real time" standardization: 2000-Present ===
In response to the mess that previous ITU practices had created, the ITU-T now operates under much more streamlined processes. The time between an initial proposal of a draft document by a member company and the final approval of a full-status ITU-T Recommendation can now be as short as a few months (or less in some cases). This makes the standardization approval process in the ITU-T much more responsive to the needs of rapid technology development than in the ITU's historical past, but also means that the standards organization's classical functions of quality control and public review have far less time to be effective.
=== Changes in ITU-T compliance practices ===
A standard that has been amended can (if desired) retain its designation so that, for example, in the mid-1980s, terminal equipment for connection to an X.25 (packet switched) network might need alternative modes of operation depending on whether the network implemented the 1980 (''Yellow Book'') or the 1984 (''Red Book'') version of the standard. However, it is now more common for older versions o |
e same time that Afonso IV's heir, Peter, was promised to another Castilian princess, [[Constance of Penafiel]]. These arrangements were imperiled by the ill will of Alfonso XI of Castile, who was, at the time, publicly mistreating his wife. Afonso IV was not happy to see his daughter abused, and started a war against Castile. Peace arrived four years later, with the intervention of princess Maria herself. A peace treaty was signed in [[Seville]] in [[1339]] and, in the next year, Portuguese troops played an important role in the victory of the [[Battle of Rio Salado]] over the Marinids [[Moors]] in October [[1340]].
The last part of Afonso IV's reign is marked not by open warfare against Castile, but by political intrigue. Civil war between King [[Peter I of Castile]] and his half-brother [[Henry of Trastamara]] led to the exile of many Castilian [[nobility|noble]]s to [[Portugal]]. These immigrants immediately created a faction among the Portuguese court, aiming at privileges and power that, somehow, could compensate what they lost at home. The faction grew in power, especially after [[Ines de Castro]], daughter of an important nobleman and maid of the [[Constance of Penafiel|Crown Princess Constance]], became the lover of her lady's husband: [[Peter I of Portugal|Peter]], the heir of Portugal. Afonso IV was displeased with his son's choice of lovers, and hoped that the relationship would be a futile one. Unfortunately for internal politics, it was not. Peter was openly in love with Ines, recognized all the children she bore, and, worst of all, favoured the Castilians that surrounded her. Moreover, after his wife's death in [[1349]], Peter refused the idea of marrying anyone other than Ines herself.
The situation became worse as the years passed and the aging Afonso lost control over his court. Peter's only male heir, future king [[Fernando of Portugal]], was a sickly child, while the illegitimate children sired with Ines thrived. Worried about his legitimate grandson's life, and the growing power of Castile within Portugal's borders, Afonso ordered the murder of [[Ines de Castro]] in [[1355]]. He expected his son to act reasonably, but the heir was not able to forgive him for the act. Enraged at the barbaric act, Peter put himself at the head of an army and devastated the country between the [[Douro]] and the [[Minho]] rivers before he was reconciled to his father in early [[1357]]. Afonso died almost immediately after, in Lisbon in May.
As king, Afonso IV is remembered as a soldier and a valiant general, hence the nickname ''the Brave''. But perhaps his most important contribution was the importance he gave to the Portuguese [[navy]]. Afonso IV granted public funding to raise a proper [[trade|commercial]] fleet and ordered the first maritime explorations. The [[Canary Islands]] (today a part of [[Spain]]) were discovered during his reign.
===Afonso's descendants===
Afonso married Beatrice of [[Castile]] ([[1293]]-[[1359]]) in [[1309]], daughter of [[Sancho IV of Castile|Sancho IV]], [[King of Castile]], and Maria de Molia and had four sons and three daughters.
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Beatrice of Castile]]''' ([[1293]]-[[1359]]; married in [[1309]])
|-
|[[Maria of Portugal (1313-1357)|Princess Maria]]||[[1313]]||[[1357]]||Married to [[Alfonso XI of Castile]]
|-
|Prince Afonso||[[1315]]||[[1315]]||&nbsp;
|-
|Prince Denis||[[1317]]||[[1318]]||&nbsp;
|-
|[[Peter I of Portugal|Peter I]]||[[April 8]] [[1320]]||[[January 18]] [[1367]]||Succeeded him as 8th [[King of Portugal]]
|-
|Princess Isabel||[[December 21]] [[1324]]||[[July 11]] [[1326]]||&nbsp;
|-
|Prince John||[[September 23]] [[1326]]||[[June 21]] [[1327]]||&nbsp;
|-
|[[Leonor of Portugal (1328-1348)|Princess Leonor]]||[[1328]]||[[1348]]||Married to [[Peter IV of Aragon|Peter IV]], [[King of Aragon]]
|-
|colspan=4|'''Illegitimate offspring'''
|-
|[[Maria Afonso]]||[[1316]]||[[1384]]||Natural daughter
|}
===See also===
[[Kings of Portugal family tree]]
{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Denis of Portugal|Denis]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1325]]&ndash;[[1457]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Peter I of Portugal|Peter I]]}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:Portuguese monarchs]]
[[Category:1291 births|Afonso IV of Portugal]]
[[Category:1357 deaths|Afonso IV of Portugal]]
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[[fr:Alphonse IV de Portugal]]
[[pl:Alfons IV (król Portugalii)]]
[[pt:Afonso IV de Portugal]]
[[zh:阿方索四世 (葡萄牙)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Afonso V of Portugal</title>
<id>1661</id>
<revision>
<id>37706610</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T18:16:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cyrruss</username>
<id>755021</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{House of Aviz}}
[[Image:AfonsoV-P.jpg|left|Afonso V of Portugal]]
'''Afonso V of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''the African'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Africano''), 12th [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]] was born in [[Sintra]] in [[January 15]] [[1432]] and died in the same city in [[August 28]] [[1481]]. He was the oldest son of king [[Duarte of Portugal]] by his wife, princess Eleanor of [[Aragon]]. Afonso V was onlly six years old when he succeeded his father in [[1438]].
During his minority, Afonso V was placed under the regency of his mother, according to a late will of his father. As both a foreigner and a woman, the queen was not a popular choice for regent. Opposition rose and the queen's only ally was [[Afonso, Duke of Braganza|Afonso]], the illegitimate half brother of Duarte I and count of Barcelos. In the following year, the ''Cortes'' (assembly of the kingdom) decide to replace the queen with [[Pedro, Duke of Coimbra]], the young king's oldest uncle. His main policies were concerned with avoiding the development of great noble houses, kingdoms inside the kingdom, and concentrating power in the person of the king. The country prospered under his rule, but not peacefully, as his laws interfered with the ambition of powerful nobles. The count of Barcelos, a personal enemy of the duke of Coimbra (despite being half-brothers) eventually became the king's favourite uncle and began a constant struggle for power. In [[1442]], the king made Afonso the first [[Duke of Braganza]]. With this title and its lands, he became the most powerful man in Portugal and one of the richest men in Europe. To secure his position as regent, in [[1445]] Pedro married his daughter, Isabel of Coimbra, princess of Portugal, to Afonso V.
But in [[June 9]] [[1448]], when the king came of age, Pedro had to surrender his power to Afonso V. The years of conspiracy by the duke of Braganza finally came to a head. In [[September 15]] of the same year, Afonso V nullified all the laws and edicts approved under the regency. The situation became unstable and, in the following year, being led by what he afterwards discovered to be false representations, Afonso declared Pedro a rebel and defeated his army in the [[battle of Alfarrobeira]], in which both his uncle and father in law was killed. After this battle and the loss of one of Portugal's most remarkable princes, the duke of Braganza became the ''de facto'' ruler of the country.
Afonso V then turned his attentions to the North of Africa. In his grandfather's ([[John I of Portugal]]) reign, [[Ceuta]] had been conquered to the king of [[Morocco]], now the new king wanted to expand the conquests. The king's army conquered Alcacer Ceguer ([[1458]]), [[Tangiers]] (won and lost several times between [[1460]] and [[1464]]) and [[Arzila]] ([[1470]]). This achievements granted the king the nickname of ''African''. The king also supported the exploration of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] led by prince [[Henry the Navigator]] but, after Henry's death in [[1460]] he did nothing to pursue this course of action. Administratively, Afonso V was an absent king, since he did not pursue development of laws or commerce, preferring to stand with the legacy of his father and grandfather.
[[Image:Domafonsov.jpg|left|200px|Afonso V of Portugal, Conqueror of African strongholds]]
When the campaigns in Africa were over, Afonso V found new grounds to battle in the Iberian Peninsula. In neighbouring [[Castile]], a huge scandal with political and dynastic implications was rising. King [[Henry IV of Castile]] was dying without heirs. From his two marriages, only a daughter, [[Joan, princess of Castile]] had been born. But her paternity was questioned, as rumour said the king was impotent and the queen, princess Joana of Portugal, had a notorious affair with a nobleman called Beltrán de La Cueva. The birth of princess Joan in [[1462]], openly called ''the Beltraneja'', caused the divorce of her parents. She was never consider legitimate and, now that the king was dying, no one took her as a serious contender for the crown. Her aunt, [[Isabella I of Castile]] that was due to inherit the crown. But Afonso V was keen to interfere with the succession in Castile. In [[1475]] he married his niece Joan, the Beltraneja, who he considered the legitimate heir to the crown. Since her adulteress mother was his own sister, Afonso V had not only ambition, but the family honour to protect. He proclaimed himself king of Castile and [[Kingdom of León|León]] and prepared to defend his wife's rights. But in the following year he was defeated at the [[battle of Toro]] by king [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], the husband of Isabella of Castile. He went to [[France]] to obtain the assistance of [[Louis XI of France|Louis XI]], but finding himself deceived by the French monarch, he |
vering Killing Joke's "Requiem" during the late 1990s, and were even joined by Killing Joke singer [[Jaz Coleman]] for a performance of the song at a show in [[New Zealand]] in 2003.
Grohl lent his drumming skills to other artists during the early 2000s. In 2002, Grohl performed on [[Tenacious D]]'s debut album, and appeared in the video for lead single "[[Tribute (song)|Tribute]]" as the [[Devil|devil]]. A year later, Grohl helped [[Chan Marshall]] of [[Cat Power]] on the album ''[[You Are Free]]''. In [[2004]], Grohl drummed on several tracks for [[Nine Inch Nails]]' 2005 album ''[[With Teeth]]''. He also drummed on the song "Bad Boyfriend" on [[Garbage (band)|Garbage]]'s 2005 album ''[[Bleed Like Me]]''. Beyond drumming, Grohl contributed guitar to a cover of [[Neil Young]]'s "I've Been Waiting For You" on [[David Bowie]]'s 2002 album ''[[Heathen (album)|Heathen]]''.
==References==
#{{note|early}}Azerrad, Michael. ''Come As You Are: The Story of Nirvana''. Doubleday, 1993. ISBN 0385471998, p. 149
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0342970|name=Dave Grohl}}
*[http://www.foofighters.com Foo Fighters official website]
*[http://www.fooarchive.com FooArchive - An archive of Dave interviews 95-present]
{{Nirvana (band)}}
[[Category:1969 births|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:Living people|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:American male singers|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:American drummers|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:Foo Fighters members]]
[[Category:Grunge musicians|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:Multi-instrumentalists|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:Nirvana|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:People from Virginia|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic musicians|Grohl, Dave]]
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[[nl:Dave Grohl]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dollar</title>
<id>8100</id>
<revision>
<id>41778819</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:10:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.129.91.158</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Synonyms and slang */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This page is about the '''dollar currency'''. For information about the Scottish town of Dollar, see [[Dollar, Clackmannanshire]]''
The '''dollar''' (represented by the [[dollar sign]]: "$") is the name of the official [[currency]] in several countries, dependencies and other regions. The [[United States dollar]] is the world's most widely circulated currency.
==History==
The name is related to the historic currencies Tolar in [[Bohemia]], [[Thaler]] or Taler in [[Germany]], [[Dutch gulden|daalder]] in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Riksdaler|daler]] in [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]], and [[Norway]]. The name ''Thaler'' (from ''Thal,'' or nowadays usually ''Tal,'' "valley") originally came from the German ''Guldengroschen'' ("great gulden", being of [[silver]] but equal in value to a [[gold]] gulden) coin, minted from the silver from a rich mine at [[Joachimsthal]] (St. Joachim's Valley) in [[Bohemia]] (then part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]).
The name "[[Spanish dollar]]" was used for a Spanish silver coin, the [[peso]], worth eight reals (hence the nickname "pieces of eight"), which was widely circulated during the [[18th century]] in the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonies in the New World]]. The use of the Spanish dollar and the [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] thaler as legal tender for the early [[United States]] is the reason for the name of the nation's currency. However, the word ''dollar'' was in use in the [[English language]] for the thaler for about 200 years before the [[American Revolution]]. Spanish dollars were in circulation in the [[Thirteen Colonies]] that became the United States, and were [[legal tender]] in [[Virginia]].
Coins known as dollars were also in use in [[Scotland]] during the [[17th century]], and there is a claim that the use of the English word, and perhaps even the use of the coin, began at the [[University of St Andrews]]. This explains why the sum of 'Ten thousand dollars' mentioned in [[Macbeth]] (Act I, Scene II) is not an anachronism.
In the early 19th century, a British five shilling piece, or [[Crown (British coin)|Crown]], was sometimes called a dollar, probably because its appearance was similar to the Spanish dollar. This expression appeared again in the 1940s, when U.S. troops came to the UK during [[World War II]]. At the time a U.S. dollar was worth exactly 5s., so some of the U.S. soldiers started calling it a dollar. Consequently, they called the [[half crown]] "half a dollar", and the expression caught on among some locals and could be heard into the 1960s.
==Synonyms and slang==
* The word ''buck'', possibly an abbreviation from ''buckskin,'' an intrinsic 'currency' for trade with American Indians known since [[1746]], has been recorded since [[1856]] and is widely used as a synonym for the dollars of many countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States. The latter term, ''skin'', is also used as a synonym as is the possibly related term ''squaw money.''
* ''Greenback'', a nickname originally applied to a 19th-century United States [[Federal Reserve]] note, is now a common specific reference to the [[U.S. dollar]] (bills of which are now green on both sides); it is not used for coins or dollars of other countries.
==Symbol==
The [[dollar sign]] ($) is a stylization of the heraldic depiction of the [[Pillars of Hercules]] (representing the Straits of [[Gibraltar]]) on Spanish pieces of eight. The notion that it originated as a crossed "U" and "S", for "United States", and that the bottom of the "U" somehow ceased to appear, is entirely fanciful, as the symbol was in use before the term "United States" was coined.
==Related names in modern currencies==
*The name of the currency of [[Samoa]], the ''[[Samoan tala|tala]]'' is based on the [[Samoan language|Samoan]] pronunciation of the word "dollar". Likewise, the name of the smaller unit, ''seneiti'', equates to "cent".
*The word for the [[Slovenian tolar]] has the same origin as dollar, i.e. [[thaler]].
==National currencies called "dollar"==
*[[Australian dollar]]
*[[Barbados dollar]]
*[[Bahamian dollar]]
*[[Belize dollar]]
*[[Bermuda dollar]]
*[[Brunei dollar]]
*[[Canadian dollar]]
*[[Cayman Islands dollar]]
*[[East Caribbean dollar]]
*[[Fijian dollar]]
*[[Guyanese dollar]]
*[[Hong Kong dollar]]
*[[Jamaican dollar]]
*[[Liberian dollar]]
*[[Namibian dollar]]
*[[New Zealand dollar]]
*[[Singapore dollar]]
*[[Solomon Islands dollar]]
*[[Suriname dollar]]
*[[New Taiwan dollar]]
*[[Trinidad and Tobago dollar]]
*[[United States dollar]]
*[[Zimbabwean dollar]] (see also [[Rhodesian dollar]])
The name has also been applied to the [[international dollar]], a hypothetical unit of currency that has the same purchasing power that the U.S. dollar has in the United States at a given point in time.
==See also==
[[U.S. one dollar bill]]<br>
[[List of circulating currencies]]
==Sources and references==
* [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=buck&searchmode=none Etymonline (word history)] and [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=dollar&searchmode=none Etymonline (word history)]
* [http://thesaurus.reference.com/search?q=dollar Thesaurus (synonyms)]
* [http://www.thesource4ym.com/teenlingo/ The Source: Slang Dictionary]
[[Category:Currency]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:Numismatics]]
[[ca:Dòlar]]
[[cs:Dolar]]
[[da:Dollar]]
[[de:Dollar]]
[[et:Dollar]]
[[es:Dólar]]
[[eo:Dolaro (monunuo)]]
[[fa:دلار]]
[[fr:Dollar]]
[[gl:Dólar]]
[[ko:달러]]
[[hr:Dolar]]
[[id:Dolar]]
[[it:Dollaro]]
[[he:דולר]]
[[lt:Doleris]]
[[nl:Dollar (munt)]]
[[nds:Dollar]]
[[ja:ドル]]
[[no:Dollar]]
[[nn:Dollar]]
[[pl:Dolar]]
[[pt:Dólar]]
[[ru:Доллар]]
[[sq:Dollari]]
[[simple:Dollar]]
[[sk:Dolár]]
[[sv:Dollar]]
[[vi:Đô la]]
[[zh:銀圓]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dutch</title>
<id>8101</id>
<revision>
<id>41107511</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T02:21:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Westfall</username>
<id>965234</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dutch''' can refer to:
* people and things from the [[Netherlands (disambiguation)|Netherlands]]
* [[Dutch language]]
* [[Dutch people]]
* [[Dutch Masters]] cigars, often referred to as a Dutch in drug culture
* [[Pennsylvania Dutch]], a name for the Plain sects Amish communities
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dysprosium</title>
<id>8102</id>
<revision>
<id>40009446</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T13:38:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
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{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 8.540 } |
g the Convention===
The Convention has been amended several times by means of protocols attached thereto. These amendments have affected only the Convention machinery, not the substantive content of the rights it protects. Unlike the substantive protocols, these protocols have achieved universal ratification among parties to the original Convention. The protocols themselves required universal ratification to enter into force, in order to maintain the institutional unity of the Convention machinery.
These protocols were:
*Protocol 3 (ETS 45, adopted [[1963-05-06]])
*Protocol 5 (ETS 55, adopted [[1966-01-20]])
*Protocol 8 (ETS 118, adopted [[1985-03-19]])
*Protocol 9 (ETS 140, adopted [[1990-11-06]])
*Protocol 10 (ETS 146, adopted [[1992-03-25]])
*Protocol 11 (ETS 155, adopted [[1994-05-11]])
*Protocol 14 (CETS 194, adopted [[2004-05-13]])
Protocol 2 (ETS 44, adopted [[1963-05-06]]), although it does not amend the text of the Convention as such, stipulates that it is to be treated as an integral part of the Convention, and has been consolidated into the Convention by Protocol 11.
Protocol 11 established a fundamental change in the machinery of the Convention. As noted above, the Commission was abolished, and individuals were permitted to apply directly to the court. This also necessitated changing the structure of the Court, to support its new, expanded role. Protocol 11 also abolished all the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers. Protocol 11 also made necessary consequential amendments to those protocols extending its substantive protections.
Protocol 14 follows on from Protocol 11 in further improving the efficiency of operation of the Court. It seeks to 'filter' out cases that have less chance of succeeding along with those that are broadly similar to cases brought previously against the same member state. Furthermore a case will not be considered admissible where:
:''... the applicant has not suffered a significant disadvantage, unless respect for human rights as defined in the Convention and the Protocols thereto requires an examination of the application on the merits and provided that no case may be rejected on this ground which has not been duly considered by a domestic tribunal.'' (Article 12 of the Protocol)
A new mechanism is introduced with Protocol 14 to assist enforcement of judgements by the Committee of Ministers. The Committee can ask the Court for an interpretation of a judgement and can even bring a member state before the Court for non-compliance of a previous judgement against that state.
Protocol 14 will come into force only when it has been ratified by all signatories of the Convention.
The other protocols (Protocols 1, 4, 6, 7, 12 and 13) add substantive rights to those protected by the Convention, and will be discussed below, after the discussion of those contained in the Convention itself.
==Substantive contents==
The Convention has five main sections. The main right and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Originally, Section II (Article 19) set up the Commission and the Court, Sections III (Articles 20 to 37) and IV (Aricles 38 to 59) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the Commission and the Court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions.
Many of the Articles in Section I are structured in two paragraphs: the first sets out a basic right or freedom (such as Article 2(1) - the right to life) but the second contains various exclusions, exceptions or limitations on the basic right (such as Article 2(2) - which excepts certain uses of force leading to death).
===Article 1 - Obligation to respect human rights===
Article 1 simply binds the signatory parties to secure the rights under the other Articles of the Convention "within their jurisdiction". In exceptional cases, "jurisdiction" may not be confined to a Contracting State's own national territory; the obligation to secure Convention rights then also extends to foreign territory, such as occupied land in which the State exercises effective control.
===Article 2 - right to life===
Article 2 protects the right of every person to their life. The article contains exceptions for the cases of [[death penalty|lawful execution]]s, and deaths as a result of "the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary" in defending one's self or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, and suppressing riots or insurrections.
The exemption for the case of lawful executions is further restricted by Protocols 6 and 13 (see below), for those parties who are also parties to those protocols.
===Article 3 - prohibition of torture===
Article 3 prohibits [[torture]], and "inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment". There are no exceptions or limitations on this right.
This provision usually applies, apart from torture, to cases of severe police violence and poor conditions in detention. The European Court of Human Rights has further held that this provision prohibits the [[extradition]] of a person to a foreign state if they are likely to be subjected there to torture. This article has been interpreted as prohibiting a state from extraditing an individual to another state if they are likely to suffer the [[death penalty]]. This article does not, however, on its own forbid a state from imposing the death penalty within its own territory.
===Article 4 - prohibition of slavery===
Article 4 prohibits [[slavery]] and [[forced labour]], but excepted from this prohibitions are [[conscription]], national service, prison labour, service exacted in cases of emergency or calamity, and "normal civic obligations".
===Article 5 - right to liberty and security===
Article 5 provides that everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. Liberty and security of the person are taken as a "compound" concept - security of the person has not been subject to separate intepretation by the Court.
Article 5 provides the right to [[liberty]], subject only to lawful arrest or detention under certain other circumstances, such as arrest on suspicion of a crime or imprisonment in fulfilment of a sentence. The article also provides the right to be informed in a language one understands of the reasons for the arrest and any charge against them, the right of prompt access to judicial proceedings to determine the legality of one's arrest or detention and to trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial, and the right to compensation in the case of arrest or detention in violation of this article.
===Article 6 - right to a fair trial===
Article 6 provides a detailed [[right to a fair trial]], including the right to a public hearing before an independent and impartial tribunal within reasonable time, the [[presumption of innocence]], and other minimum rights (adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence, access to legal representation, the ability to examine witnesess, free assistance of an interpreter).
The majority of Convention violations that the Court finds today are excessive delays, in violation of the "reasonable time" requirement, in civil and criminal proceedings before national courts, mostly in Italy and France. Under the "independent tribunal" requirement, the Court has ruled that military judges in Turkish state security courts are incompatible with Article 6.
===Article 7 - No punishment without law===
On the face of it, Article 7 provides for a prohibition on retrospective criminality. However, its short title is taken as being a substantive part of the Article.
====No punishment without law====
Article 7 is taken to incorporate the principle of ''[[nulla poena sine lege]]'', that is, that there can be no punishment for behaviour that is not defined as a criminal offence. This requires that the law be certain and ascertainable.
====Prohibition on retrospective criminal offences====
Article 7 prohibits the retrospective criminalisation of acts. No person may be punished for an act that was not a criminal offence at the time of its admission. The article states that a criminal offence is one under either national or international law, which would permit a party to prosecute someone for a crime which was not illegal under their domestic law at the time, so long as it was prohibited by (possibly [[customary international law|customary]]) [[international law]]. Article 7 also prohibits a heavier penalty being imposed than was applicable at the time when the criminal act was committed.
===Article 8 - right to respect for private life===
Article 8 provides a right to respect for one's "private and family life, his home and his correspondence", subject to certain restrictions that are "in accordance with law" and "necessary in a democratic society". This article clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the Court has given the protection for "private and family life" this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article. This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of the right to privacy. Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprises [[positive obligations]]: whereas classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a State from interfering with rights, and thus ''not'' to do something (e.g. not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the State to become active, and to ''do'' something (e.g. to enforce access for a divorced father to his child).
===Article 9 - right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion===
Article 9 provides a right to [[freedom of thought]], conscience and [[freedom of religion|religion]]. This includes the |
ually die out quickly, so they don't interfere with the process of beneficial mutations accumulating.
Nor is [[abiogenesis]] (the origin of the first life) due purely to chance. Atoms and molecules arrange themselves not purely randomly, but according to their chemical properties. In the case of [[carbon]] atoms especially, this means complex molecules are sure to form spontaneously, and these [[Molecule|complex molecules]] can influence each other to create even more complex molecules. Once a molecule forms that is approximately self-replicating, natural selection will guide the formation of ever more efficient replicators. The first self-replicating object didn't need to be as complex as a modern cell or even a strand of DNA. Some self-replicating molecules are not really all that complex (as organic molecules go).
Some people still argue that it is wildly improbable for a given self-replicating molecule to form at a given point (although they usually don't state the "givens," but leave them implicit in their calculations). This is true, but there were oceans of molecules working on the problem, and no one knows how many possible self-replicating molecules could have served as the first one. A calculation of the odds of abiogenesis is worthless unless it recognizes the immense range of starting materials that the first replicator might have formed from, the probably innumerable different forms that the first replicator might have taken, and the fact that much of the construction of the replicating molecule would have been non-random to start with.
Finally, one should also note that the theory of evolution doesn't depend on how the first life began. The truth or falsity of any theory of abiogenesis wouldn't affect evolution in the least.{{ref|chance}}
===Many scientists view Intelligent Design as a viable scientific theory===
While the above argument has been offered as a means to establish intelligent design as science, it is clearly untrue.
An overwhelming majority{{ref|overwhelming}} of the scientific community views intelligent design not as a valid scientific theory but as pseudoscience or [[junk science]]{{ref|junk}}. The U.S. National Academy of Sciences has stated that intelligent design "and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life" are not science because they cannot be tested by experiment, do not generate any predictions and propose no new hypotheses of their own.{{ref|NAS}}
In fact the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS) stated the following in its ''Resolution on Intelligent Design Theory'':
''Recognizing that the "intelligent design theory" represents a challenge to the quality of science education, the Board of Directors of the AAAS unanimously adopts the following resolution:''
''Whereas, ID proponents claim that contemporary evolutionary theory is incapable of explaining the origin of the diversity of living organisms;
''Whereas, to date, the ID movement has failed to offer credible scientific evidence to support their claim that ID undermines the current scientifically accepted theory of evolution;''
''Whereas, the ID movement has not proposed a scientific means of testing its claims;''
''Therefore Be It Resolved, that the lack of scientific warrant for so-called "intelligent design theory" makes it improper to include as a part of science education;''
''Therefore Be Further It Resolved, that AAAS urges citizens across the nation to oppose the establishment of policies that would permit the teaching of "intelligent design theory" as a part of the science curricula of the public schools;''
''Therefore Be It Further Resolved, that AAAS calls upon its members to assist those engaged in overseeing science education policy to understand the nature of science, the content of contemporary evolutionary theory and the inappropriateness of "intelligent design theory" as subject matter for science education;''
''Therefore Be Further It Resolved, that AAAS encourages its affiliated societies to endorse this resolution and to communicate their support to appropriate parties at the federal, state and local levels of the government.''{{ref|AAAS}}
Additionally, a coalition representing more than 70,000 Australian scientists and science teachers called on all schools not to teach Intelligent Design (ID) as science, because it fails to qualify on every count as a scientific theory. In fact, the opening sentence of their resolution was, "Intelligent design is not science".{{ref|aust}}
Finally, a parody by the National Center for Science Education (NCSE) of creationist lists of scientists who "doubt evolution", [[Project Steve]], was created and named in honor of the paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. The NCSE's list only contains scientists named Stephen or variations thereof (Stephanie, Stefan, Esteban, etc.), thus representing about 1% of the total population. Despite this restriction, it is longer and contains more eminent scientists than any creationist list, including [[Stephen Hawking]] as well as both [[Nobel Prize]] winning Steves in science, [[Steven Chu]] and [[Steven Weinberg]]. There are 696 Steves as of 30 January 2006, while the [[Discovery Institute|DI]] poll has 481 signatures.
==Conclusion from evolutionary arguments==
The pimary difficulty with intelligent design is that its goals are to oppose evolution by taking the guise of offering a new scientific theory, and to clearly replace what IDists refer to as "materialism" with theology.{{ref|conc1}}
However, ID and evolution are not truly comparable as they exist as two distinct views on the explanation of nature. Evolution deals with science, and ID with supernaturalism. They are not compatible, and are, in fact, polar opposites, thus ID's attempt to supplant evolution is not likely to deceive an average "objective" observer.{{ref|kitz2}}
==Notes==
# {{note|openA}} [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution&mdash;Why intelligent design isn't.] H. Allen Orr. Annals of Science. New Yorker May 2005. Also, [[Robert T. Pennock]] ''Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism'' ISBN 026216180X, ISBN 0262661659.
# {{note|openB}} "ID's rejection of naturalism in any form logically entails its appeal to the only alternative, supernaturalism, as a putatively scientific explanation for natural phenomena. This makes ID a religious belief. In addition, my research reveals that ID is not science, but the newest variant of traditional American creationism. With only a few exceptions, it continues the usual complaints of creationists against the theory of evolution and comprises virtually all the elements of traditional creationism." [[Barbara Forrest]] April 2005 Expert Witness Report. ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]''. [http://www2.ncseweb.org/kvd/experts/FORREST_EXPERT_REPORT.pdf]
# {{note|openC}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/cosmo.html ''Evolution is Not the Whole Story'']
# {{note|openC}} [[Intelligent design#endnote id consistency|consistency]]
# {{note|open1}} [http://talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-god.html see question 2]
# {{note|open2}} [http://talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-god.html see ''Evolution and God'']
# {{note|ov_myer}} Stephen C. Meyer, 2005. ''The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design: The Methodological Equivalence of Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic Origins Theories''. Ignatius Press. [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=1780]. See also [[Darwin's Black Box]].
# {{note|ov_over}} See [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 83 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83]]. A [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6884904/site/newsweek Newsweek article] reported The Discovery Institute's petition being signed by about 350 scientists. The AAAS, the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml firmly rejects ID]. More than 70,000 Australian scientists and educators [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html condemn teaching of intelligent design in school science classes]. [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8408_statements_from_scientific_and_12_19_2002.asp List of statements from scientific professional organizations] on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism.
# {{note|ov_kitz}} [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District_et._al. Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District_et._al.]
# {{note|idnot_SM1}} [http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/sci_meth.htm uc.edu]
# {{ref|idnot_SM2}} [http://www.talkreason.org/articles/Blogging.cfm ''Blogging the Dover Trial'']
# {{ref|idnot_SM3}} [http://www.freeinquiry.com/intro-to-sci.html ''Scientific Thinking and the Scientific Method'']
# {{note|theory_wedge1}} [[Wedge strategy#Analysis of the wedge strategy|analysis of Wedge Strategy]]
# {{note|theory_def}} [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=theory Definition of theory]
# {{note|theory_behe}} Claudia Wallis. Evolution Wars. Time Magazine, [[15 August]] [[2005]] edition, page 32 [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html Behe admits premise]
# {{note|theory_def2}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Definition of evolution]
# {{note|no_1}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Misconceptions]
# {{note|no_2}} [http://www.pbs.org/cgi-registry/2wgbh/evolution/library/search.cgi PBS]
# {{note|no_3}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Misconceptions]
# {{note|2LOTA}} Atkins, P. W. 1984. The Second Law. New York: Scientific American Books, pg. 25 -- ISBN 071675004X
# {{note|2LOT}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Misconceptions 2LOT]
# {{note|tf1}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misco |
book was turned into an Oscar-winning [[Film|movie]] of the same name, directed by [[Lewis Milestone]]. In a usage unrelated to the novel, the phrase "all quiet on the western front" has become popular slang for a lack of action (in reference to the [[Phony War]] in [[World War II]]'s [[Western Front (WWII)|Western Front]]).
== Plot ==
{{spoiler}}
The story follows the experiences of Paul Bäumer: a [[soldier]] who joined the [[Reichswehr|German army]] shortly after the start of the war. He arrives on the western front with his friends (Tjaden, Müller, and a number of other characters) and meets Stanislaus Katczinsky. Kat soon becomes Paul's [[mentor]] and teaches him about the realities of war. Paul and Kat swiftly became almost brothers, bonded by the hardships of the war.
Paul and his friends have to endure day after day of non-stop [[bombardment]]. Eventually it all becomes clear to him: war is entirely pointless. All his friends say that they are fighting the war for a few persons whom they have never met and most likely never will. They are the only people that can gain anything from this war, not Paul and his friends.
The book focuses not on [[hero|heroic]] stories of [[bravery]] as do so many other war stories, but rather gives a realistic view of the hell in which the soldiers found themselves. The [[monotony]], the constant [[artillery]] fire, the struggle to find food, and the overarching role of chance in the lives and deaths of the soldiers, all are described in detail. Remarque often refers to the living soldiers as old and dead, emotionally depleted and hardened. "We are not youth any longer. We don't want to take the world by storm. We are fleeing from ourselves, from our life. We were eighteen and had begun to love life and the world; and we had to shoot it to pieces."
Paul receives a period of leave from the army, and returns home temporarily. He finds it difficult to understand people at home anymore. While all the soldiers at the front wish for nothing more than peace, knowing that they are losing the war, people back home talk about marching on [[Paris]]. He is also indifferent to the significance of any of the battles. Battles have no names. Rather, one after another they offer a chance for him to be killed. Battle seems to be waged only to gain pitifully small pieces of land.
== Themes ==
There are many central themes in the book. Among them is that war is total nonsense. For example, none of the characters have ever seen a Frenchman before the war, much less have reason to kill them, but that is now what they are doing. Some of the soldiers ponder how the war was started, what is it for, and who it benefits. Nobody has any answers.
=== The horror of war ===
The main theme in ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' is the brutality of war. The archetypical war novel romanticizes war and extolls the heroes of the story, however this book shows a vivid, realistic, and horrible portrait of war. [[World War I]] saw the development of many new horrible innovations such as [[poison gas]], [[machine guns]], and [[tanks]]; all of which made killing easier and even more impersonal. The novel shows these weapons being used for butchery on a grand scale; for instance, battles lasting for four months.
Paul describes the horrors of war throughout the book. The trenches and fortifications are shelled continually, poison gas blankets the [[battlefield]], [[snipers]] shoot at anyone with their head above ground. Finally, the French troops come and the German lines disintegrate. Vivid descriptions are presented throughout the book. Nothing short of being there could show the sheer numbers of dead and wounded every day in the war.
The day Paul is killed was otherwise militarily uneventful, with the German army despatches merely noting ''Im Westen nichts Neues'' - "All Quiet on the Western Front" in the original, evocative translation (by A. W. Wheen in 1929). However, a literal translation reveals a different kind of irony - the dispatches on the day of Paul's death read "Nothing New on the Western Front".
=== Effect on soldiers ===
Another of the central themes is how war completely ruins soldiers. Physically, they are in constant danger of being shot and bombed. The never-ending attacks and counter-attacks destroy their nerves. They live in unending fear and in atrocious conditions: inhabiting muddy earthen dug-outs infested with rats, alongside rotting corpses, having no food or water for days on end. They are forced to deal with the emotional shock of watching the violent deaths of their friends. If war does not actually kill the soldiers fighting it, the physical and mental anguish of war destroys them. Paul finds much to his horror when he returns home that he can no longer feel [[joy]], even in simple acts of pleasure like reading. The soldiers metaphorically change from humans into animals.
=== Nature ===
The landscape on the front is barren, but when Paul goes on leave, he sees nature. Nature represents escape, it is beautiful and pure. When traveling by train, Paul describes the beautiful mountains and plains of Germany. He wonders why this nature is being destroyed on the front, he wants to preserve this beauty not destroy it. Also, when he sees the French countryside, he sees it is not different from the German countryside, why should he destroy this either? When wanting to change the tone of the book to a nice tone, the author uses nature as a tool to achieve that.
Paul and his comrades from the trenches cross a river to get together with some young French women who live in a farm house away from the front. For a short period of time, the soldiers are taken away from the war, the trenches, and the destruction and death that has been part of their lives for many months.
==Adaptations==
=== Film ===
In [[1930]], an [[United States|American]] film of the novel was made, directed by [[Lewis Milestone]]. The screenplay was by [[Maxwell Anderson]], [[George Abbott]], [[Del Andrews]], [[C. Gardner Sullivan]], with uncredited work by [[Walter Anthony]] and Milestone. It stars [[Louis Wolheim]], [[Lew Ayres]], [[John Wray (actor)|John Wray]], [[Arnold Lucy]] and [[Ben Alexander]].
The film won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] in [[1930]] for its producer [[Carl Laemmle Jr.]], and an [[Academy Award for Directing]] for [[Lewis Milestone]]. It also received two further nominations: [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]], for [[Arthur Edeson]], and [[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Best Writing Achievement]] for Abbott, Anderson and Andrews.
For many viewers, the film remains harrowing today, and its battle scenes are often considered extremely realistic even by contemporary standards.
The film has been selected for preservation by the United States [[National Film Registry]]. In the late 20th Century and early 21st the United States Library of Congress undertook an exhaustive restoration of the film, which is vastly superior in sound and picture quality to most other extant prints.
===TV film===
In [[1979]], the film was remade for television by [[Delbert Mann]]. The remake is generally considered less successful than the original and received little acclaim.
===Stage===
A 2 hour stage adaptation by [[Robin Kingsland]] was at the [[Nottingham Playhouse]] 11th to 25th [[February]] [[2006]] [http://www.bbc.co.uk/nottingham/content/articles/2006/02/15/all_quiet_playhouse_review_event_feature.shtml].
== Sequel ==
{{main|The Road Back}}
''[[The Road Back]]'', another book written by Erich Maria Remarque, is about a different group of soldiers trying to cope with postwar Germany: dealing with the defeated German society after the war, trying to go to school, and trying to live a normal life.
The book and film were both banned during [[Nazi]] rule, and Remarque was stripped of his German citizenship in 1938.
== See also ==
* [[Paths of Glory]]
==External links==
*[http://www.randomhouse.com/highschool/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780449213940&view=tg Teacher's Guide] at Random House
*[http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-6.html CliffsNotes]
*{{imdb title|id=0020629|title=All Quiet on the Western Front}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Academy Award for Best Picture]]
| years=1929-30
| before=''[[The Broadway Melody]]''
| after=''[[Cimarron]]''
}}
{{end}}
{{Template:AcademyAwardBestPicture}}
[[Category:1928 books]]
[[Category:1930 films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]
[[Category:World War I films]]
[[Category:World War I novels]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[de:Im Westen nichts Neues]]
[[es:Sin novedad en el frente]]
[[fr:À l'Ouest, rien de nouveau]]
[[ko:서부전선 이상없다]]
[[he:במערב אין כל חדש]]
[[hu:Nyugaton a helyzet változatlan (film)]]
[[no:Intet nytt fra vestfronten]]
[[pl:Na Zachodzie bez zmian]]
[[ru:На западном фронте без перемен]]
[[sk:Na západe nič nového]]
[[sv:På västfronten intet nytt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Academic elitism</title>
<id>2153</id>
<revision>
<id>42011564</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:13:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sperril</username>
<id>359191</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix spelling that may have been vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
[[Academic]] institutions often face the charge of '''academic elitism''', sometimes called the [[Ivory Tower]]. It is often used in parallel with [[Ivy League]] institutions.
== Description ==
'''Academic elitism''' suggests that in highly competitive academic environments only those individuals who have engaged in [[scholarly method|scholarship]] are deemed to have anything worthwhile to say, or do.
It suggests that individuals who have not engaged in such scholarship are [[Crank (person)|crank |
ough coercion and invasion, usually at the hands of the state. Any such interest and profit, Tucker called "[[usury]]" and he saw it as the basis for the oppression of the workers. He asserted that anarchism is meaningless "unless it includes the liberty of the individual to control his product or whatever his product has brought him through exchange in a free market&#8212;that is, private property." In this Tucker followed Proudhon in rejecting modern conceptions of private property, in which claims of ownership are independent of use or production of that property. As Gary Elkin {{verify credibility}} writes in ''Benjamin Tucker - Anarchist or capitalist?'', "Tucker advocated *possession* but not private property, believing that empty land, houses, etc. should be squatted. He considered private property in land use (which he called the "land monopoly") as one of the four great evils of capitalism." [http://www.spunk.org/library/otherpol/critique/sp001281.txt]
Tucker hoped to raise wages by deregulating the banking industry. He reasoned that competition in banking would drive down interest rates and stimulate entrepreneurship. This in turn, he believed would decrease the proportion of individuals seeking employment, and hence, wages would be driven up by competing employers. "Thus, the same blow that strikes interest down will send wages up." [http://praxeology.net/BT-SSA.htm]
He was the first to translate into English Proudhon's ''What is Property?'' and [[Max Stirner]]'s ''The Ego and Its Own'' &mdash; which Tucker claimed was his proudest accomplishment.
''Liberty'' published the original work of [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Auberon Herbert]], [[Victor Yarros]], and [[Lillian Harman]], daughter of the free love anarchist, [[Moses Harman]].
''Liberty'' also published such items as [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s first original article to appear in the United States and the first American translated excerpts of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].
Tucker's periodical also served as the main conduit of Stirnerite [[Egoism]], of which Tucker became a proponent. This led to a split in American Individualism -- between the growing number of Egoists and the contemporary [[Lysander Spooner|Spoonerian]] "[[Natural law|Natural Lawyers]]". Both Egoists and Natural Law theorists rejected coercive authority, involuntary legislation, and the notion of a "[[social contract]]." However, they differed over the philosophical basis for their individualism: Natural Law theory derived it from a conception of a natural individual right to be free from coercion, whereas Egoism defended anarchism as a pragmatic compromise in a system where each individual sought only self-interest. As a result of Tucker's egoist foundation, he began to favor utilitarian outcomes over axiomatic absolutes. He believed that it was wrong to enforce contract on those faced with death and suffering. He says:
<blockquote>"the ultimate end of human endeavor is the minimum of pain. We aim to decrease invasion only because, as a rule, invasion increases the total of pain (meaning, of course, pain suffered by the ego, whether directly or through sympathy with others). But it is precisely my contention that this rule, despite the immense importance which I place upon it, is not absolute; that, on the contrary, there are exceptional cases where invasion -that is, coercion of the non-invasive lessens the aggre- gate pain. Therefore coercion of the non-invasive, when justifiable at all, is to be justified on the ground that it secures, not a minimum of ' invasion, but a minimum of pain. . . . [T]o me [it is] axiomatic -that the ultimate end is the minimum of pain."</blockquote>
Having rejected the moral philosophy of Lysander Spooner, ''Liberty'' also abandoned the remaining advocates of natural rights, now considering their moral philosophy to be old-fashioned and superstitious.
==Dates, Places and Events==
Born April 17, [[1854]] in South Dartmouth, Massachusetts.
*[[1872]] &mdash; While a student at M.I.T., Tucker attended a convention of the New England Labor Reform League in Boston, chaired by [[William B. Greene]], author of [[Mutual Banking]] (1850). At the convention, Tucker purchased ''Mutual Banking'', ''True Civilization'', and a set of Ezra Heywood's pamphlets. Furthermore, [[Free-love]] anarchist, [[Ezra Heywood]] introduced Tucker to [[William B. Greene]] and [[Josiah Warren]], author of ''True Civilization'' (1869).
*[[1876]] &mdash; Tucker's debut into radical circles: Heywood published Tucker's English translation of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]]'s classic work ''What is Property?''.
*[[1877]]-[[1878]] &mdash; Published his original journal, ''Radical Review'', which lasted four issues.
August [[1881]] to April [[1908]] &mdash; published the periodical, ''Liberty'', "widely considered to be the finest individualist-anarchist periodical ever issued in the English language."
*[[1892]] &mdash; moved ''Liberty'' from Boston to New York
*[[1906]] &mdash; Opened '''Tucker's Unique Book Shop''' in New York City &mdash; promoting "Egoism in Philosophy, Anarchism in Politics, Iconoclasm in Art".
*[[1908]] &mdash; A fire destroyed Tucker's uninsured printing equipment and his 30-year stock of books and pamphlets. Tucker's lover, Pearl Johnson &mdash; 25 years his junior &mdash; was pregnant with their daughter, Oriole Tucker. Six weeks after Oriole's birth, Tucker closed both ''Liberty'' and the book shop and moved his family to France.
*[[1913]] &mdash; Tucker comes out of retirement for two years to contribute articles and letters to ''[[The New Freewoman]]'' which he called "the most important publication in existence"
*[[1939]] &mdash; Tucker died in [[Monaco]], in the company of his lover Pearl Johnson and their daughter, Oriole, who reported, "Father's attitude towards communism never changed one whit, nor about religion.... In his last months he called in the French housekeeper. 'I want her,' he said, 'to be a witness that on my death bed I'm not recanting. I do not believe in God!" J. William Lloyd [http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=697&fs=memories+of+benjamin+tucker wrote that] "There was nothing he hated more than communism, and the Communist-Anarchists used to call him 'the Pope'."
==See also==
* [[American individualist anarchism]]
* [[Liberty (1881-1908)]] ''Liberty'', Tucker's periodical
==External links==
* [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/append11.html#app4] Tucker on Property, Communism and Socialism
* [http://www.BlackCrayon.com/people/tucker/ BlackCrayon.com: People: Benjamin Tucker]
* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/tucker/ Benjamin Tucker] Anarchy Archives
* [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/tir1.htm ''Benjamin Tucker, Liberty, and Individualist Anarchism'' by Wendy McElroy]
* [http://classicalliberalism.blogspot.com/2005_04_01_classicalliberalism_archive.html ''Benjamin Ricketson Tucker''] from "CLASSicalLiberalism" archive
* [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=1&url=http%3A//www.mises.org/journals/jls/1_4/1_4_4.pdf ''Benjamin Tucker and His Periodical, Liberty''] by Carl Watner
* [http://www.panarchy.org/tucker/taxation.html Benjamin Tucker, Liberty and Taxation]
* [http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=697 ''Memories of Benjamin Tucker''] by [[J. William Lloyd]] (1935)
* [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/blog/00000949.html ''An Interview With Oriole Tucker''] Tucker's daughter reveals biographical information, by Paul Avrich
[[Category:1854 births|Tucker, Benjamin]]
[[Category:1939 deaths|Tucker, Benjamin]]
[[Category:American anarchists|Tucker, Benjamin]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berkeley DB</title>
<id>4706</id>
<revision>
<id>42074930</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:27:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Intgr</username>
<id>246230</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Oops, typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Berkeley DB''' (DB) is a high-performance, embedded [[database]] library with bindings in [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]], [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Tcl]] and many other programming languages. DB stores arbitrary key/data pairs, and supports multiple data items for a single key. DB can support thousands of simultaneous threads of control manipulating databases as large as 256 terabytes, on a wide variety of systems including most [[UNIX-like]] and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] systems as well as [[real-time operating system|real-time operating systems]].
Berkeley DB is developed by [[Sleepycat Software]] (owned by [[Oracle Corporation]]). It is available with source code under a [[free software license]]. Developers who want to redistribute DB with proprietary applications must license it from Sleepycat.
Berkeley DB includes compatibility interfaces for some historic UNIX database libraries: [[dbm]], [[ndbm]] and [[hsearch]].
==Architecture==
Berkeley DB is notable for having a simple architecture compared with other database systems like [[Microsoft SQL Server]] and [[Oracle database|Oracle]]. For example, it does not provide support for network access &mdash; programs access the database using in-process [[Application programming interface|API]] calls. It does not support [[SQL]] or any other [[query language]], nor does it support table schema or table columns. A program accessing the database is free to decide how the data is to be stored in a record; DB puts no constraints on the record's data. The record and its key can both be up to four gigabytes long.
Despite h |
a]]
*[[2003]] — Sweden, held in Switzerland
*[[2005]] — [[Switzerland]], held in Singapore
===Men's world champions===
*[[1996]] — Sweden, held in Sweden
*[[1998]] — Sweden, held in the [[Czech Republic]]
*[[2000]] — Sweden, held in Norway
*[[2002]] — Sweden, held in Finland
*[[2004]] — Sweden, held in Switzerland
===European championship===
Before playing world championships, the European championship was held twice. In [[1994]] Sweden's men were crowned European champions in Finland; in [[1995]] Finland's men and Sweden's women were victorious in Switzerland.
===North American Floorball Championship===
Contested each year, currently based on an aggreagte scoring system played over two tournaments - East Coast Tournament (Raleigh, NC) and the Canada Cup (Toronto, Canada).
*[[2005]] Champion - [http://www.BostonPuukadet.com/ Boston Puukadet]
*[[2004]] Champion - [http://www.BostonPuukadet.com/ Boston Puukadet]
===European Cup===
The European Cup is organized every year in order to establish the best team in Europe. The championship was adjusted to the sports year which runs across two calendar years in [[2000]].
The women's champions so far:
*1993 [[VK Rasket]], Sweden (held in [[Helsinki]], Finland)
*1994 [[Sjöstad IF]], Sweden (held in [[Chur]], Switzerland)
*1995 Sjöstad IF, Sweden (held in [[Karlstad]], Sweden)
*1996 [[Högdalens AIS]], Sweden (held in [[Stockholm]], Sweden)
*1997 Högdalens AIS, Sweden (held in Stockholm, Sweden)
*1998 Högdalens AIS, Sweden (held in Helsinki & [[Vantaa]], Finland)
*1999 Tapanilan Erä [http://www.tapanilanera.fi/], Finland (held in [[Bern]] & [[Winterthur]], Switzerland)
*2000-2001 Balrog IK [http://www.balrog.com/], Sweden (held in [[Gothenburg]], Sweden)
*2001-2002 Balrog IK, Sweden (held in [[Botkyrka]] & [[Solna]], Sweden)
*2002-2003 Balrog IK, Sweden (held in [[Prague]] & [[Liberec]], Czech Republic)
*2003-2004 SC Classic [http://www.scclassic.com/], Finland (held in [[Weissenfels]], [[Merseburg]] & [[Hohenmölsen]], Germany)
*2004-2005 Red Ants Rychenberg [http://www.redants.ch/ ], Switzerland (held in [[Zurich]] & [[Adliswil]], Switzerland)
*2005-2006 IKSU, Sweden (held in [[Ostrava]], [[Czech Republic]])
The men's champions so far:
*1993 Balrog IK, Sweden (held in Stockholm, Sweden)
*1994 Balrog IK, Sweden (held in Chur, Switzerland)
*1995 [[Kista IBK]], Sweden (held in Karlstad, Sweden)
*1996 Balrog IK, Sweden (held in Stockholm, Sweden)
*1997 [[Fornudden IB]], Sweden (held in Stockholm, Sweden)
*1998 Warbergs IC-85 [http://www.wic-85.se/], Sweden (held in Helsinki, Finland)
*1999 Warbergs IC-85, Sweden (held in Bern, [[Sarnen]] & [[Zuchwil]], Switzerland)
*2000-2001 [[Helsingfors IFK]], Finland (held in Gothenburg, Sweden)
*2001-2002 [[Haninge IBK]], Sweden (held in Solna & Botkyrka, Sweden)
*2002-2003 Haninge IBK, Sweden (held in Prague, Czech Republic)
*2003-2004 Pixbo Wallenstam IBK [http://www.pixbo.se/ ], Sweden (held in Weissenfels, Hohenmölsen, Germany)
*2004-2005 SV Wiler-Ersingen [http://www.svwe.ch/], Switzerland (held in Zurich & Adliswil, Switzerland)
*2005-2006 Warbergs IC-85, Sweden (held in Ostrava, Czech Republic)
== External links ==
{{commonscat|Floorball}}
=== Federations ===
* [http://www.floorball.org/ International Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.swissunihockey.ch/ Swiss Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.innebandy.se/ Swedish Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.salibandyliiga.fi/ Finnish Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.gbff.co.uk/ Great Britain Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.nefub.nl/ Netherlands Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.floorball.dk/ Danish Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.canadafloorball.ca/ Canadian Unihockey Floorball Federation]
=== Equipment manufacturers ===
* [http://www.exelsports.net/ Exel]
* [http://www.unihoc.se/ Unihoc]
* [http://www.zone.se/ Zone]
* [http://www.canadien.se/ Canadien]
* [http://www.handofdoom.net/ Karhu]
* [http://www.fatpipe.fi/ Fat Pipe]
* [http://www.salmingsports.com/ Salming]
* [http://www.jolly.se/ Jolly]
=== Others ===
* [http://www.ultimatefloorball.com/ Ultimate Floorball Store]
* [http://www.floorball-linkpage.com/ International Floorball Linkpage]
* [http://www.afacorp.com/floorball_usa/down_loads/Floorball%20High%20Lights.mpg Floorball movie (150MB)]
* [http://www.floorballauthority.com/ Floorball Equipment]
* [http://www.floorballamerica.com/ Floorball Initiative]
* [http://www.powerinside.ch/ Powerinside.ch - Floorball Portal with a lot of news and movies]
* [http://www.floorball.org.uk/ British Northern League]
* [http://www.balweariefloorball.co.uk/ Balwearie Floorball Club, Scotland]
[[Category:Team sports]]
[[Category:Indoor sports]]
[[Category:Hockey]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
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[[is:Bandý]]
[[nl:Unihockey]]
[[no:Innebandy]]
[[fi:Salibandy]]
[[sv:Innebandy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FA Premier League</title>
<id>11250</id>
<revision>
<id>42123416</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:49:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Starfighter Pilot</username>
<id>490133</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Worldwide reach */ Gerrard was listed twice!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">::''"Premier League" redirects here. See [[List of professional sports leagues]]. for other sports leagues which (maybe unofficially) are referred to by this name.''
[[Image:BEPL.jpg|thumb|Current international logo of Barclays English Premier League]]
[[Image:FA Premier League.png|thumb|Original FA Premier League logo]]
The '''FA Premier League''' (which, for [[English football sponsorship|sponsorship]]/legal reasons, is often referred to as the '''Barclays Premiership''' in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and the '''Barclays English Premier League''' internationally) is a league competiton for [[England|English]] [[football (soccer)|Football]] clubs located at the top of the [[English football league system]] (above [[The Football League]]), making it England's primary football competition.
==Overview==
The FA Premier League comprises the top 20 [[football (soccer)|football]] clubs in the [[English football league system|league system]] of [[Football in England|English football]]. It was created in [[1992]], when the [[Football League First Division|First Division]] football clubs broke away from [[the Football League]] after securing a greatly improved TV rights deal with the then fledgling [[satellite television]] company [[British Sky Broadcasting|BSkyB]]. The new name was simply a commercial restructuring and a rebranding exercise as there was no innovation in competitive terms; an identical first tier league had existed the previous season. The Premiership boasts some of the best players in the world, including many from outside England.
The Premier League is the most lucrative football league in the world, with total club revenues of over £1.3 billion in 2003&ndash;04 according to [[Deloitte]], more than 50 percent above its nearest competitor, Italy's [[Serie A]] {{ref|revenue}}. It is currently second in the [[UEFA]] rankings of European leagues based on their performances in European competitions over a five year period, behind Spain's [[La Liga]], and was the best performing league in 2004&ndash;05{{ref|performance}}.
Based on [[December 2005]] [[exchange rate]]s, £1.3 billion converts to annual league revenue of about [[US Dollar|US$]]2.2 billion. This figure is comparable with the annual revenues of [[United States|American]] [[major sports league]]s.
The 2004-05 average attendance of 33,893 for league matches is the [[sports attendances|fourth highest]] of any domestic professional sports league in the world. The only leagues ahead of the Premier League are:
*The runaway leader in average game attendance, the [[National Football League]] in the [[United States]] ([[American football]]).
*The leader in football, the [[Bundesliga (football)|First Bundesliga]] in [[Germany]]. Note that the total season attendance is higher in England, as the German league has only 18 teams to the Premiership's 20.
*The [[Australian Football League]], the highest-level competition in [[Australian rules football]].
===The competition===
There are 20 clubs in the Premier League. During the course of a season each club plays the others twice, once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents for a total of 38 games for each club, and a total of 380 games in a Premier League season. At the end of each season the three lowest placed teams are [[relegation|relegated]] into the [[Football League Championship]] and the top two teams from the Championship, together with the winner of a play-off involving the 3rd to 6th placed clubs, are promoted in their place.
The top four teams in the Premiership qualify for the [[UEFA Champions League]], with the top two teams directly entering the group phase. The third and fourth placed teams enter the competition at the third qualifying round and must win a two-legged knockout tie in order to enter the group phase. The fifth placed team automatically qualifies for the [[UEFA Cup]], and the sixth and seventh placed teams can also qualify, depending on what happens in the two domestic cup competitions. If the [[FA Cup]] champions and runners-up both finish in the top 5 of the Premier League, the FA Cup's UEFA Cup spot goes to the sixth placed team in the League. If the League Cup is won by a team that has already qualified for Europe, the League Cup's UEFA Cup spot also goes to the next highest placed team in the League (unlike the FA Cup spot, it is never transferred to the losing finalist).
===Sponsorship===
Since [[1993]], the FA Premier League has been sponsored. The sponsor has been able to determine the league's sponsorship name. So far, all the sponsors have referred to the competition as the 'Premiership'. The list belo |
ww.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] 10 volumes in all; written by Lincoln's top aides
*''The Real Abraham Lincoln'' by Reinhard H Luthin (1960), well regarded by reviewers
*''The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia'' by [[Mark E. Neely]] (1984), detailed articles on many men and movements associated with AL
* ''The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America'' by Mark E. Neely (1993), Pulitzer prize winning author
* ''With Malice Toward None: The Life of Abraham Lincoln'' by Stephen B. Oates (1994).
*''Lincoln the President'' by James G. Randall (4 vol., 1945–55; reprint 2000.) by prize winning scholar
**''Mr. Lincoln'' excerpts ed. by Richard N. Current (1957)
*''Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years'' (2 vol 1926); ''The War Years'' (4 vol 1939) biography by [[Carl Sandburg]]. Pulitzer Prize winner by famous poet
*''Abraham Lincoln: A Biography'' by Benjamin P. Thomas; (1952)
===Specialty topics===
*Baker, Jean H. ''Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography'' (1987)
*Belz, Herman. ''Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era'' (1998)
*Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream'' (1994). Lincoln's economic theory and policies
*Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln the War President'' (1994).
*Boritt, Gabor S., ed. ''The Historian's Lincoln.'' Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, historiography
*Bruce, Robert V. ''Lincoln and the Tools of War'' (1956) on weapons development during the war
*Donald, David Herbert. ''Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era'' (1960).
*Foner, Eric. ''Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War'' (1970) intellectual history of different prewar faction's in AL's party
*Harris, William C. ''With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union'' (1997). AL's plans for Reconstruction
*Hendrick, Burton J. ''Lincoln's War Cabinet'' (1946)
*Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition: And the Men Who Made It'' (1948) ch 5: "Abraham Lincoln and the Self-MAde Myth".
*Holzer, Harold. ''Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President'' (2004).
*McPherson, James M. ''Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution'' (1992)
*McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988). Pulitzer Prize winner surveys all aspects of the war
*Morgenthau, Hans J., and David Hein. ''Essays on Lincoln's Faith and Politics''. Lanham, MD: University Press of America for the White Burkett Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia, 1983.
*Neely, Mark E. ''The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties'' (1992). Pulitzer Prize winner.
* Philip S. Paludan ''The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln'' (1994), reviewers call it the most thorough treatment of AL's administration
*''Lincoln in American Memory'' by Merrill D. Peterson, (1994). how Lincoln was remembered after 1865
*Randall, James G. ''Lincoln the Liberal Statesman'' (1947).
* Richardson, Heather Cox. ''The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War'' (1997)
* Shenk, Joshua Wolf. ''Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness'' (2005). Named one of the best books of 2005 by The Washington Post, The New York Times, and The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. *''Lincoln'' by [[Gore Vidal]] ISBN 0375708766, a novel.
*''Lincoln and His Generals'' by T. Harry Williams (1967).
*''Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America'' by Garry Wills ISBN 0671867423
*''Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln'' by Douglas L. Wilson (1999).
===Lincoln in art and popular culture===
* Bullard. F. Lauriston, ''Lincoln in Marble and Bronze'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey 1952
* Mead, Fanklin B., ''Heroic Statues in Bronze of Abraham Lincoln: Introducing The Hoosier Youth by [[Paul Manship]]'', The Lincoln National Life Foundation, Fort Wayne, Indiana 1932
* Moffatt, Frederick C., ''Errant Bronzes: [[George Grey Barnard]]'s Statues of Abraham Lincoln'', University of Deleware Press, Newark, DE 1998
* Murry, Freeman Henry Morris, ''Emancipation anf the Freed in American Sculpture'', Books For Libraries Press, the Black Heritage Library Collection, Freeport, NY 1972 - originally published in 1916
* Petz, Weldon, ''Michigan's Monumental Tributes to Abraham Lincoln'', Historical Society of Michigan 1987
* Redway, Maurine Whorton and Dorothy Kendall Bracken, ''Marks of Lincoln on Our Land''. Hastings House, Publishers, New York 1957
* Savage, Kirk, ''Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race War and Monument in Nineteenth Century America'', Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey 1997
* Tice, George, ''Lincoln'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey 1984
*''The Real Lincoln'' by [[Thomas DiLorenzo]] ISBN 0761526463, a stinging neo-Confederate attack on Lincoln as evil 2002
===Primary Sources===
* Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln'' 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1953-55)
* Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings'' (1946)
* Lincoln, Abraham. ''Lincoln: Speeches and Writings'' 2 vol Library of America edition, (1989).
* Lincoln, Abraham. ''The Life and Writings of Abraham Lincoln'' (Modern Library Classics ed by Philip Van Doren Stern) (2000).
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Abraham Lincoln}}
*{{CongBio|L000313}}
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/al16.html White House Biography]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress] (1850-1865)
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Lincolnatpeace2.jpg The Controversial photograph of Lincoln in death]
*[http://www.abrahamlincoln.org/ The Lincoln Institute]
*[http://www.rootdig.com/abraham_lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln in United States Census Records]
*[http://home.att.net/~rjnorton/Lincoln77.html Especially for Students: An Overview of Abraham Lincoln's Life]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/alhome.html Mr. Lincoln's Virtual Library]
*[http://www.quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Lincoln__Abraham Speeches and Quotes by Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/prespoetry/al.html Poetry written by Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://www.mybigadventure.com/index.php?action=Stats&stat=Memorials&date=20041027.3&page=5 Lincoln Memorial Tour] - My Big Adventure (33 Images)
*[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln2.html Abraham Lincoln Research Site]
*[http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org Abraham Lincoln Online]
*[http://www.hti.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://deptorg.knox.edu/lincolnstudies/ Lincoln Studies Center at Knox College]
*[http://lenbernstein.com/Pages/EgoJustice.html Discussion of John Drinkwater's play ''Abraham Lincoln'']
*[http://www.sonofthesouth.net/prod01.htm Original 1860's Harper's Weekly Images and News on Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://dev.stg.brown.edu/projects/lincoln/ The Lincoln Log: A Daily Chronology of the Life of Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://www.nps.gov/linc/ Lincoln Memorial] Washington, DC
*[http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org The Lincoln Museum] Fort Wayne, Indiana
*[http://www.gilderlehrman.org/historians/fellowship2.html The Lincoln Prize] A national book award sponsored by The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History and the Civil War Institute at Gettysburg College
*[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln's Assassination]
*[http://www.lincolnherald.com/1970articleSubstitute.html John Summerfield Staples, President Lincoln's "Substitute"]
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=6469.WKU.&OS=PN/6469&RS=PN/6469 US6469] Patent -- ''Manner of Buoying Vessels'' -- A. Lincoln -- 1849
*[http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig2/lincoln-arch.html King Lincoln] (an archive of articles on Lincoln)
*[http://www.nps.gov/abli/ National Park Service Abraham Lincoln birthplace] (includes good early history)
*Hoard Historical Museum [http://www.hoardmuseum.org/] in [[Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin]] with Lincoln Library
*[http://www.williamapercy.com/pub-LincolnIntimate.htm On the Question of Lincoln's Sexuality]
*[http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g16.htm Medical and Health history of Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://www.worldofbiography.com/9052%2DAbraham%20Lincoln/ Biography] (World of Biography)
===Project Gutenberg eTexts===
*List of {{gutenberg author| id=Abraham+Lincoln | name=Abraham Lincoln}}
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12462 A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: Volume 6, part 1: Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2517 Lincoln's Yarns and Stories]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] of ''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890) by [[John Hay]] (1835 to 1905) & [[John George Nicolay]] (1832 to 1901)
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1815 ''The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1907) by Nicolay, Helen (1866 to 1954)
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6811 ''The Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1901) by Henry Ketcham
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12800 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12801 Volume 2] of ''Abraham Lincoln'' (1899) by John T. Morse
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14004 ''The Every-day Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1913) by Francis Fisher Browne
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11728 ''Abraham Lincoln: The People's Leader in the Struggle for National Existence''] (1909) by George Haven Putnam, Litt. D.
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1713 ''Lincoln's Personal Life''] (1922) by Nathaniel W. Stephenson
{{start box}}
{{succession box
| title={{ushr|Illinois|7|Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Illinois's 7th District}}
| before=[[John Henry (Illinois politician)|John Henry]]
| after=[[Thomas Langrel |
or most of philosophical history, "knowledge" was taken to mean belief that was justified as true to an absolute certainty. Any less justified beliefs were called mere "probable opinion." This viewpoint still prevailed at least as late as [[Bertrand Russell]]'s early 20th century book ''The Problems of Philosophy''. In the decades that followed, however, the notion that the belief had to be justified ''to a certainty'' lost favour.
=== Gettier cases and contemporary definitions of knowledge===
{{main|Gettier problem}}
In the [[1960s]], [[Edmund Gettier]] argued that there are situations in which a belief may be justified and true, and yet would not count as knowledge - overturning in a few short pages a theory that had been dominant for thousands of years. Although being a justified, true belief is ''necessary'' for a statement to count as knowledge, it is not, Gettier demonstrated, ''sufficient''. Gettier says that formulations of the following form are flawed:
S knows that P if and only if:
* P
* S believes that P, and
* S is justified in believing that P.
This is because we can conceive of circumstances in which a person might have a good reason to believe a general proposition true, be correct, but not be correct for the reasons which she takes herself to be. Gettier gives the example of two persons, Smith and Jones, who are awaiting the results of their applications for the same job, both of whom have ten coins in their pockets. Smith has excellent reasons to believe that Jones will get the job and is furthermore correct in his belief that Jones has 10 coins in his pocket (he saw them counted just a moment before). From this he infers that ‘a person with ten coins in his pocket will get the job’. However, Smith doesn’t know that he himself also has 10 coins in his pocket. In fact, Smith is to get the job – his reasons to believe otherwise were excellent, but wrong. His belief that ‘a person with ten coins in his pocket will get the job’ satisfies all the above conditions, but still we would be hesitant to say that he knew what he thought he knew, because the reasons he took to justify his belief, while strong, were not the reasons which would have correctly justified his belief. (Which might have included the knowledge of ‘I have ten coins in my pocket’ and an overriding reason to believe that he would get the job).
Someone might want to say that, in fact, as far as they are concerned in the example given, Smith really does ‘know’ that ‘someone with ten coins in their pocket’ will get the job, but many people find this hard to accept.
====Responses to Gettier====
Gettier's article was published in 1963. Since then, there have been an enormous number of articles trying to provide an adequate definition of knowledge, several of which have been an attempt to supply a further fourth condition. Robert Nozick offers this formulation:
S knows that P if and only if:
* P
* S believes that P
* If not P, S would not believe that P
* If P, S will believe that P
[[Simon Blackburn]] offers a critique of this formulation, in which he suggests that we do not want to accept as knowledge beliefs which, while they 'track the truth' (as Nozick's account requires), are not held for appropriate reasons. He says that 'we do not want to award the title of knowing something to someone who is only meeting the conditions through a defect, flaw, or failure, compared with someone else who is not meeting the conditions.'
In another response to Gettier, [[Richard Kirkham]] has argued that the failures to find an account of knowledge immune from counterexamples is because the only definition that could ever be immune to all such counterexamples is the original one that prevailed from ancient times through Russell: to qualify as an item of knowledge, a belief must not only be true and justified, the evidence for the belief must ''necessitate'' its truth. Though this seems to set a very high hurdle for truth, Kirkham notes that it doesn't exclude the possibility of rational belief altogether.
Some of the proposed solutions involve factors external to the agent. These responses are known as theories of [[externalism]]. For example, one externalist response to the Gettier problem is to say that the justified, true belief must be caused (in the right sort of way) by the relevant facts.
=== Contemporary approaches ===
Much contemporary work in epistemology depends on the two categories: [[foundationalism]] and [[coherentism]].
Recently, [[Susan Haack]] has attempted to fuse these two approaches into her doctrine of [[Foundherentism]], which accrues degrees of relative confidence to beliefs by mediating between the two approaches. She covers this in her book [[Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology]]. [[Timothy Williamson]], in his book [[Knowledge and its Limits]], seeks to revert the traditional conceptual priority of belief to knowledge, instead seeing belief as dependent on knowledge
=== Defining 'belief' in Epistemology ===
[[Image:Classical-Definition-of-Kno.gif|frame|Knowledge is true and believed and ...]]
Sometimes, when people say they 'believe in' something, what they mean is that they predict that it will prove to be useful or successful in some sense - perhaps someone might 'believe in' his or her favourite football team. This is not what Epistemologists mean.
In the second sense of belief, to believe something just means to think that it is true. That is, to believe P is to do no more than to think, for whatever reason, that P is the case. The reason is that in order to ''know'' something, one must ''think that it is true'' - one must believe (in the second sense) it to be the case.
Consider someone saying "I know that P, but I don't think P is true". The person making this utterance has, in a profound sense, contradicted himself. If one knows that P, then, amongst other things, one thinks that P is indeed true. If one thinks that P is true, then one believes P. (''See: [[Moore's paradox]]''.)
Knowledge is distinct from [[belief]] and [[opinion]]. If someone claims to believe something,he is claiming that he thinks that it is the [[truth]]. But of course, it ''might'' turn out that he was mistaken, and that what he thought was true was actually false. This is not the case with knowledge. For example, suppose that Jeff thinks that a particular bridge is safe, and attempts to cross it; unfortunately the bridge collapses under his weight. We might say that Jeff ''believed'' that the bridge was safe, but that his belief was mistaken. We would ''not'' say that he ''knew'' that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. For something to count as ''knowledge'', it must be true.
Similarly, two people can ''believe'' things that are mutually contradictory, but they cannot ''know'' (unequivocally) things that are mutually contradictory. For example, Jeff can ''believe'' the bridge safe, while Jenny believes it unsafe. But Jeff cannot ''know'' the bridge is safe and Jenny cannot ''know'' that the bridge is unsafe simultaneously. Two people cannot ''know'' contradictory things.
=== '''Distinguishing''' ''knowing that'' from ''knowing how'' ===
Suppose that [[Metasyntactic variable|Fred]] says to you: "The fastest [[swimming]] stroke is the [[front crawl]]. One performs the front crawl by oscillating the legs at the hip, and moving the arms in an approximately circular motion". Here, Fred has [[propositional knowledge]] of swimming and how to perform the front crawl.
However, if Fred acquired this propositional knowledge from an [[encyclopedia]], he will not have acquired the [[skill]] of swimming: he has some propositional knowledge, but does not have any [[procedural knowledge]] or "know-how". In general, one can demonstrate know-how by performing the task in question, but it is harder to demonstrate propositional knowledge. [[Michael Polanyi]] popularised the term [[tacit knowledge]] to distinguish the ability to do something from the ability to describe how to do something. [[Gilbert Ryle]] had previously made a similar point in discussing the characteristics of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]. His ideas are summed up in the [[aphorism]] "efficient practice precedes the theory of it". Someone with the ability to perform the appropriate moves is said to be able to swim, even if that person cannot precisely identify what it is he does in order to swim. This distinction is often traced back to [[Plato]], who used the term ''[[techne]]'' or ''skill'' for ''knowledge how'', and the term ''[[episteme]]'' for a more robust kind of knowledge in which claims can be true or false.
== A priori versus a posteriori knowledge ==
Western [[Philosophy|philosophers]] for centuries have distinguished between two kinds of knowledge: [[a priori]] and [[a posteriori]] knowledge.
*'''A priori''' knowledge is knowledge gained or justified by [[reason]] alone, without the direct or indirect influence of any particular experience (here, ''experience'' usually means observation of the world through sense perception. See ''[[#Rationalism|Rationalism]]'', below, for clarification.)
*'''A posteriori''' knowledge is any other sort of knowledge; that is, knowledge the attainment or justification of which requires reference to experience. This is also called [[empirical knowledge]].
One of the fundamental questions in [[epistemology]] is whether there is any non-trivial a priori knowledge. Generally speaking [[continental rationalism|rationalists]] believe that there is, while [[empiricism|empiricists]] believe that all knowledge is ultimately derived from some kind of external experience.
The fields of knowledge most often suggested as having a priori status are [[logic]] and [[mathematics]], which deal primarily with abstract, formal objects.
Empiricists have traditionally denied that even these fields could be a priori knowl |
is'' (HD 209458 b)]] || [[HD 209458]] || || Has a radius 1.32 R<sub>Jupiter</sub><br/>
:''Note: only radii of [[transit (astronomy)|transiting]] planets are known''
|-
||Smallest planet|| || || ||
|-
||Most distant planet|| [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]] || [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390L]] || || 21,500 ± 3,300 [[light year]]s
:''Note: A microlensing event of lobe A ([[Q0957+561 A]]) of the gravitational lens doubled [[Twin Quasar]] suggests that there is a planet in the lensing galaxy [[Q0957+561 G1]] of three Earth masses ([[Q0957+561 A G1 a]]), lying at redshift 0.355 (7.8 Gly)''
|-
||Least distant planet|| [[Epsilon Eridani|&epsilon; Eridani b]] || [[Epsilon Eridani|&epsilon; Eridani]] || || 10.4 light years
|-
||Most dense planet|| [[HD 149026b]] || [[HD 149026]] || || 1.4 g/cm^3
|-
||Least dense planet|| [[HD 209458b]] (Osiris) || [[HD 209458]] || || 0.33 g/cm^3
|-
||Longest period planet|| [[2M1207 b]] || [[2M1207]] || || 2450+ years
|-
||Shortest period planet|| [[OGLE-TR-56 b]] || [[OGLE-TR-56]] || || 1.2 days
|-
||Most eccentric orbit planet|| [[HD 80606 b]] || [[HD 80606]] || || eccentricity of 0.927
|-
||Least eccentric orbit planet|| [[PSR 1257+12 A]] || [[PSR 1257+12]] || || eccentricity of 0.0
|-
||Most inclined orbit planet|| || || ||
|-
||Least inclined planet|| || || ||
|-
|rowspan=2|Fastest orbital velocity planet
|| || || instantenous ||
|-
|| || || average ||
|-
|rowspan=2|Slowest orbital velocity planet
|| || || instantenous ||
|-
|| || || average ||
|-
|rowspan=3|Largest orbit planet
|| || || periapsis ||
|-
|| [[2M1207 b]] || [[2M1207]] || average || 55+ AU
|-
|| || || apoapsis ||
|-
|rowspan=3|Smallest orbit planet
|| || || periapsis ||
|-
|| [[OGLE-TR-56 b]] || [[OGLE-TR-56]] || average || 0.0225 AU
|-
|| || || apoapsis ||
|-
!colspan=5 align=left|Firsts
|-
|rowspan=9|First planet discovered
|| [[PSR 1257+12#The planets|PSR 1257+12 B, C]] || [[PSR 1257+12]] || [[1992]] || first extrasolar planets discovered
:''Note 1: The planet around [[Alrai]] was already suspected in [[1988]]''
:''Note 2: [[HD 114762|HD 114762 b]] was discovered in [[1989]], but was not confirmed as a planet before 1996''
first [[pulsar planet]]s<br/>
first planets discovered by [[pulsar timing]] method
|-
|| [[51 Pegasi b|''Bellerophon'' (51 Pegasi b)]] || [[51 Pegasi]] || [[1995]] || first [[main sequence|Sun-like star]] planet<br/>
first planet discovered by [[radial velocity]] method
|-
|| [[Gliese 876#Gliese 876 b|Gliese 876 b]] || [[Gliese 876]] || [[1998]] || first [[red dwarf]] planet
|-
|| [[HD 209458b|''Osiris'' (HD 209458 b)]] || [[HD 209458]] || [[1999]] || First [[transit (astronomy)|transiting]] planet
:''Note: [[OGLE-TR-56 b]] is the first planet found by transit method''
|-
|| [[Iota Draconis|&iota; Draconis b]] || [[Iota Draconis|&iota; Draconis]] || [[2002]] || first [[giant star]] planet
|-
|| [[OGLE 2003-BLG-235]] || [[OGLE 2003-BLG-235]] || [[2004]] || first planet found by [[gravitational lens]]ing method
|-
|| [[PSR B1620-26c|''Methuselah'' (PSR B1620-26c)]] || [[PSR B1620-26]] || [[1993]] || first [[white dwarf]] planet (confirmed [[2003]])
|-
|| [[2M1207 b]] || [[2M1207]] || [[2004]] || first [[brown dwarf]] planet<br/>first directly imaged planet
|-
|| [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]] || [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390L]] || [[2006]] || first cool rocky/icy planet around main-sequence star
|-
||First free-floating planet discovered|| [[S Ori 70]] || ''n/a'' || [[2004]] || Has mass of 3 M<sub>Jupiter</sub>, needs confirmation
:''Note: Free-floating objects are not usually defined as planets''
|-
||First planet in a multiple star system discovered|| [[55 Cancri#55 Cancri b|55 Cancri b]] || [[55 Cancri]] || [[1996]] || 55 Cnc has distant red dwarf companion
:''Note: [[Alrai]] is the first relatively close binary with a planet''
|-
||First planet orbiting multiple stars discovered|| [[PSR B1620-26c|''Methuselah'' (PSR B1620-26c)]] || [[PSR B1620-26]] || [[1993]] || orbits pulsar - white dwarf pair
|-
||First multiple planet system discovered|| PSR 1257+12 A, B, C || [[PSR 1257+12]] || [[1992]] || a [[pulsar]] [[pulsar planet|planetary]] [[planetary system|system]]
|-
||First planet in star cluster|| [[PSR B1620-26c|''Methuselah'' (PSR B1620-26c)]] || [[PSR B1620-26]] || [[1993]] || located in [[Globular Cluster M4]]
|-
!colspan=5 align=left|Most Earthlike
|-
||Closest planet to 1 M<sub>Earth</sub>|| [[PSR 1257+12 C]] || [[PSR 1257+12]] || || 3.9 M<sub>Earth</sub>
|-
||Closest planet to 1 AU orbital|| [[HD 142 b]]<br>[[HD 28185 b]]<br>[[HD 128311 b]] || [[HD 142]]<br>[[HD 28185]]<br>[[HD 128311]] || || 0.980 AU<br>1.0 AU<br>1.02 AU
|-
||Closest planet to 365-day orbit|| [[HD 92788 b]]<br>[[HD 28185 b]]<br>[[HD 73526 b]]|| [[HD 92788]]<br>[[HD 28185]]<br>[[HD 73526]] || || 340 days<br>385 days<br>376 days
|-
||Closest in type|| [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]]|| [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390L]] || || around main-sequence star, cool, rocky/icy
|}
==See also==
'''People:'''
* [[Aleksander Wolszczan]] &mdash; discovered first extrasolar planets, pulsar planets, 'solar system', pulsar planetary system.
* [[Steinn Sigurdsson]] &mdash; discovered oldest planet, and first circumbinary planet.
* [[Michel Mayor]] &mdash; with Queloz, discovered first planet around a main-sequence star.
* [[Didier Queloz]] &mdash; with Mayor, discovered first planet around a main-sequence star.
* [[Geoffrey Marcy]] &mdash; discovered more extrasolar planets than anyone else
* [[R. Paul Butler]] &mdash; co-discoverer with Marcy
'''Planets and their Stars:'''
* [[PSR B1620-26c]], the oldest planet, also known as ''[[Methuselah (planet)|Methuselah]]'', around neutron star [[PSR B1620-26]], and white dwarf binary companion [[PSR B1620-26b]].
* [[51 Pegasi B]], a hot Jupiter, and the first planet found around a main-sequence star ([[51 Pegasi]]).
* [[PSR 1257+12]]'s first extra-solar planets, planetary system, pulsar planets ever found.
'''Other:'''
* [[Appearance of extrasolar planets]]
* [[Asteroid belt]]
* [[Astrometric binary]]
* [[Hypothetical planet]]
* [[Interstellar planet]]
* [[List of stars with confirmed extrasolar planets]]
* [[Planetary habitability]]
* [[Planetary system]]
* [[Pulsar planets]]
* [[Solar twin]]
* [[PlanetQuest]]
==External links==
Search projects:
* [http://exoplanets.org/ University of California Planet Search Project]
* [http://obswww.unige.ch/~udry/planet/planet.html The Geneva Extrasolar Planet Search Programmes]
* [http://www.planetquest.org/ PlanetQuest]
;Resources:
* [http://www.exoplanet.de/ German Center for Exo-Planet Research Jena/Tautenburg]
* [http://www.astro.uni-jena.de/ Astrophysical Institute & University Observatory Jena (AIU)]
* [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/planets/ The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~willman/planetary_systems/ Table of known planetary systems]
* [http://astro.nickshanks.com/library/extrasolar.xml Extrasolar Planet XML Database]
* Andrew Collier Cameron, ''Extrasolar planets'', Physics World (January 2001). (See the [http://physicsweb.org/article/world/14/1/7/2 online version].)
* [http://astro.estec.esa.nl/SA-general/Projects/Staff/perryman/planet-figure.pdf Diagram of planet detection methods - PDF]
* [http://www.exoplanets.info searchable dynamic database of extrasolar planets and their parent stars]
* [http://jumk.de/astronomie/exoplanets/index.shtml List of important exoplanets]
* [http://www.ucm.es/info/Astrof/recopilaciones/planetas_ext.html Extrasolar Planets] - [[D. Montes]], UCM
;News:
* [http://exoplanets.org/index_gl.html 6-8 Earth-Mass Planet Discovered orbiting Gliese 876]
* [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/exoplanet_new_0404015.html Newfound World Shatters Distance Record] from space.com
* [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/oldest_planet_030710-1.html Oldest Known World] from space.com
* [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/aas_earthsize_020329.html Earth Sized Planets Confirmed] from space.com
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3856401.stm Hubble telescope "discovers 100 new planets"]: BBC news story
;Planet discovery papers
* ''[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0404309 A planetary microlensing event]'' and ''[http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0505451 A Jovian-mass Planet in Microlensing Event OGLE-2005-BLG-071]'' , the first extrasolar planet detections using [[gravitational lens|gravitational microlensing]].
[[Category:Dark matter]]
[[Category:Extrasolar planets|*]]
[[Category:Lists of planets]]
[[Category:SETI]]
[[da:Exoplanet]]
[[de:Exoplanet]]
[[es:Planetas extrasolares]]
[[fr:Exoplanète]]
[[ko:외계 행성]]
[[hr:Planeti izvan Sunčevog sustava]]
[[io:Exoplaneto]]
[[nl:Exoplaneet]]
[[ja:太陽系外惑星]]
[[pl:Planety pozasłoneczne]]
[[pt:Exoplaneta]]
[[ru:Экзопланета]]
[[sk:Extrasolárna planéta]]
[[sl:Izvenosončni planet]]
[[fi:Eksoplaneetta]]
[[sv:Exoplanet]]
[[tl:Planetang extrasolar]]
[[th:ดาวเคราะห์นอกระบบ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emma Goldman</title>
<id>9764</id>
<revision>
<id>42050813</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:32:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>151.205.68.207</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name = Emma Goldman |
image_name = Portrait Emma Goldman.jpg |
image_caption = |
date_of_birth = [[27 June]] [[1869]] |
place_of_birth = [[Kaunas]], [[Lithuania]] |
dead=dead|
date_of_death = [[14 May]] [[1940]] |
place_of_death = [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
}}
'''Emma Goldman''' ([[June 27]], [[1869]] &ndash; [[May 14]], [[1940]]) was a [[Lithuanians|Lithuanian-born]] [[Anarchist communism|anarcho-communist]] known for her [[Anarchism|anarchist]] writings and speeches. Adopted by [[First-wave feminism|First-wave feminists]], she has been lionized as an iconic "rebe |
opposed to toprock, '''downrock''' encompasses all moves performed with hands, arms, or a part of the [[torso]] in contact with the floor. '''Footwork''' is nearly synonymous with downrock, but is a more restrictive term usually applied to any downrock moves which are not [[power moves]]. Downrock is generally much more athletic, acrobatic, and akin to [[gymnastics]]. Toprock and downrock are often discussed independently, but good breakers can combine them seamlessly, especially once they master some basic transitions.
Breakers usually begin by toprocking, and then [[Drop (breakdancing move)|drop]] down to the floor, typically into some variation of the foundational [[6-step]]. The 6-step can be combined with, or transitioned into, most other breakdancing moves, including some of the most recognizable power moves such as the [[Swipe (breakdancing move)|swipe]], [[Windmill (breakdancing move)|windmill]], and [[Flare (breakdancing move)|flare]]. After performing the techniques, the breakdancer will often end the dance on his feet, contorted into a [[List of breakdance moves#Freezes|freeze]], or apparently injuring himself with a [[List of breakdance moves#Basic Downrock##Suicides|suicide]].
===Style vs technique===
One of the greatest divides in breakdancing is the give-and-take between style and technique (or ''power''). Devotees of each aspect are commonly known as styleheads and powerheads. Styleheads focus on the dancing side of breakdance. They may look down on powerheads as hack gymnasts who have eschewed the fundamental dance aspect for flashy acrobatics. Powerheads would respond that styleheads are little different than dancers from other styles because they neglect the difficult athletic moves that make breakdancing so unique.
Others argue that style and techinque are two equally important facets of a single unified art, so looking down on either is nonsense. For some b-boys/crews, there is no such thing as a 'power set' or a 'style set', as the two are freely intermixed. Obviously this requires a fluent ease with at least some fragment of one's powermove vocabulary. Interestingly, style vs. power is somewhat mirrored in the dichotomy of [[Capoeira]], Angola and Regional.
Much of being a successful breakdancer is about having style, broadly defined. The constant debate between b-boys is a debate of who has the most style. Since, in theory, anyone can learn the basics of breakdance, the dancers must deviate from the set dances to use their own style. In this way they can show-up other breakdancers during battles, thus winning the battle.
===Battles===
Battles are breakdancing events in which breakers form a circle and take turns trying to show each other up through either better style, more difficult moves, and/or combinations of both. Battles can pit individuals against one another, but often take place between two opposing [[List of breakdance crews|breakdance crews]].
Today serious battles are usually held at organized b-boy events. The battles are usually part of a [[tournament]]-style competition with cash prizes, or they are featured [[each crew is paid to dance. It's not uncommon that spontaneous battles will happen at events as well, when rival crews show up with most of their members. These events are called "jams," and generally consist of several hours of "cyphering" (open circles), followed by the main battle event.
The largest competition each year is probably [[Battle of the Year]] (BOTY), held in [[Germany]] since [[1990]], and featuring crews from around the world. Despite its name, BOTY focuses on [[choreography|choreographed]] routines. After judges rate the routines, the final winner, and de facto world champion crew, is decided in a final battle (along with 2nd, 3rd, and 4th places). Recent winners have been from [[France]], [[Korea]], [[Germany]], and [[Hungary]]. While crews from the [[United States|USA]] have won in the past, the claim is that they are not often winners of BOTY because competitions in the USA are almost exclusively battles and hip hop dances, whereas in the rest of the world, dance routine competitions are more common. Additionally, until recently (August 21 [[2005]]), the USA has not held a BOTY USA national event and thus has not had a crew to send to the finals in Germany. BOTY USA 2005 was the first; at this event, Knucklehead Zoo defeated Renegades in the finals and won Best Show to secure their victory and entry in the BOTY finals. Nonetheless, this is a good indicator of how widespread the practice and high ability level of this [[United States|American]] [[folk art]] form has become.
Another few competitions gaining much popularity is BC One, sponsored by Red Bull. This tournament invites many of the best b-boys from around the world to compete one-on-one in single-elimination. This is somewhat unique, as most battle events pit entire crews or crew fragments of 3 or more people. Most other instances of one-on-one matchups are one-time main event attractions for entire jams, not comprising the entire event.
===Breakdancing as a Folk Dance===
There is some academic interest in whether breakdance can be considered a [[folk dance]]. In particular, street dances are living and evolving dance forms, while folk dances are to a significant degree bound by [[tradition]]. Breakdance was in the beginning a [[social dance]] but in the later years, mostly because of media and television, its goal has become more of a [[performance dance]].
==Music==
Contrary to popular belief, b-boys do not only break to hip hop. It is very common to see b-boys breaking to [[jazz]],[[funk]] and [[Soul music|soul]] tracks. Whatever genre it is, most of the songs popular for breaking are from the [[Timeline_of_trends_in_music_(1980-1989)|1980s]]. Modern mainstream hip hop, through its changes, is generally not as good for breaking as tunes from when breaking had its peak popularity. Generally, a common feature of bboy music is the presence of a [[Break (music)|break]] which is looped several times by the dj. In order to do so, the b-girl DJ usually acquires two copies of the record containing the break. The history credits [[Kool_Herc|Kool Dj Herc]] for the invention of this concept and technique. The resulting piece of music created by continuous looping of a musical phrase is termed a breakbeat. The most traditional understanding of what b-boy music should be like states that "b-girls break to the beat". This definition is however flexible and many b-boy classics do not follow this format. The typical b-girl tune has a beat ranging between 120 and 135 beats-per-minute with [[shuffle note|shuffled]] [[Sixteenth_note|16th]] and [[Quarter_note|quarter]] beats in the percussive pattern.
Music is a very important thing to a b-boy. One could argue that the knowledge of music is almost as important as the ability to dance to it. Skilled b-girls are expected to have almost a [[Trainspotter (music)|trainspotter]]-esque detailed knowledge of breaking songs. They show this through hitting certain interesting focal points in each song, perhaps with a freeze, and also somewhat '[[Narrator|narrating]]' with their motions, which is often humorous as well as impressive.
The concept of breakbeats was later developed in non b-boy related types of music. Also, the term [[breakbeat]] is nowadays mostly used to refer to certain genres in [[electronica]].
== Culture ==
Since its first inception breakdancing has provided a [[youth culture]], originating from violent urban street gangs. Today however, breakdancing culture is remarkably constructive with a character somewhere in between those of [[dancers]] and [[athletes]]. Since acceptance and involvement centers around dance skills, breakdancing culture is unusually free of the common race, gender and age boundaries of a [[subculture]]. Social interaction centers around practice and performance, which are occasionally intertwined because of its improvisational style. While featured at dance schools, breaking is typically taught to newbies by more experienced b-boys and passed on to new generations in an informal word-of-mouth way.
In contrast to this social breakdancing culture there are ''internet b-boys'', also known as ''e-boys'', or as they call them in Japan: ''[[Otaku]] b-boys''. These have learned much of what they know of the dance purely from the internet and from watching videoclips, not by instruction or by the passing of knowledge from one generation to another. The reason for this might be that they do not have access to competent instructors or social circles that can provide them with teaching and inspiration. Such b-boys are by some groups looked-down upon as not having their heart in hip hop culture.
Because of its functional demands on music and clothing, breakdance culture has become largely separated from popular hip hop since the 1980s.
== Fashion ==
[[Image:Breakdance_oldschool.jpg|left|200px]]
For the breakdancer, [[fashion]] is an important aspect of their identity. Many breakdancers in the 1980s dressed wearing [[Adidas]] shoes with thick laces. Some b-boys that are extremely serious match their hat, shirt, and shoes. This style is to show uniform, and is supposedly a threat to the competitor. They also wore [[nylon]] [[Tracksuit|tracksuits]] which were functional as well as fashionable. The slick surface allowed the breakdancer to slide on the floor much easier than if she or he had been wearing a cotton shirt. Also, the popular image of the original breakdancer always involved a public performance on the street, accompanied by the proverbial [[boombox]].
B-boys today dress differently from b-boys in the 80s, but one thing remains, and that is dressing "fresh". Due to the spread of b-boying as an artform from the inner cities out into the suburbs and to different social groups, different senses of "fresh" have arisen. Generally the rule that one's gea |
h-you''' [sg]
|-
|un urzhiataer zo '''gantañ'''
|mae '''ganddo fe''' gyfrifiadur
|tá ríomhaire '''aige'''
|tha rìomhaire '''aige'''
|he has a computer
|a computer is '''with-him'''
|-
|ur bugel zo '''ganti'''
|mae '''ganddi hi''' plentyn
|tá páiste '''aici'''
|tha pàisde '''aice'''
|she has a child
|a child is '''with-her'''
|-
|ur c'harr zo '''ganimp'''
|mae '''ganddon ni''' gar
|tá carr '''againn'''
|tha càr '''againn'''
|we have a car
|a car is '''with-us'''
|-
|un ti zo '''ganeoc'h'''
|mae '''ganddoch chi''' dŷ
|tá teach '''agaibh'''
|tha taigh '''agaibh'''
|you [pl] have a house
|a house is '''with-you''' [pl]
|-
|arc'hant zo '''ganto'''
|mae '''ganddyn nhw''' arian
|tá airgead '''acu'''
|tha airgead '''aca'''
|they have money
|money is '''with-them'''
|}
=== Initial consonant mutations ===
Breton has four initial [[consonant mutation]]s: though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of [[Welsh language|Welsh]], it also has a 'hard' mutation, in which voiced stops become voiceless, and a 'mixed' mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Consonant Mutation in Breton
! Unmutated Consonant !! Soft Mutation !! Aspirant Mutation !! Hard Mutation !! Mixed Mutation
|-
|p||b||f||||
|-
|t||d||z||||
|-
|k||g||c'h||||
|-
|b||v||||p||v
|-
|d||z||||t||t
|-
|g||c'h||||k||c'h
|-
|gw||w||||kw||w
|-
|m||v||||||v
|}
==Vocabulary==
<!-- This section should contain a discussion of any special features of the vocabulary (or lexicon) of the language, like if it contains a large number of borrowed words or a different set of words for different politeness levels, taboo groups, etc. -->
<!-- This paragraph underneath doesn't deal with Breton vocabulary but English vocabulary. This paragraph belongs on a page about English borrowings, not on a page about the Breton language. -->
The English words ''[[dolmen]]'' and ''[[menhir]]'' have been borrowed from French, which supposedly took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance, ''menhir'' is ''peulvan'', ''maen-hir'', ''maen-sav'' in Breton, and ''dolmen'' is a misconstructed word (it should be ''taol-vaen''). Some studies state that these words were borrowed from [[Cornish language|Cornish]].
==Orthography==
The first Breton texts, contained in the [[Leyde manuscript]], were written at the end of the [[8th century]]: fifty years prior to the [[Strasbourg Oaths]], considered to be the earliest example of [[French language|French]]. After centuries of orthography [[calque]]d on the French model, in the 1830s Le Gonidec created a modern phonetic system.
During the early years of the [[20th century]], a group of writers known as ''Emglev ar Skrivanerien'' elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system, making it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of [[Cornouaille]], [[Léon (diocese)|Leon]] and [[Trégor]]. This '''KLT''' (from ''Kernev, Leon'' and ''Treger'', the Breton names for Cornouaille, Leon and Trégor) orthography was established in [[1911]]. At the same time writers using the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a system also based on that of Le Gonidec to represent their dialect.
Following proposals made during the [[1920s]], the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in [[1941]] to create an orthographic system which could represent all four dialects. One of the most salient features of this '''Peurunvan''' ''wholly unified'' orthography was the inclusion of the [[grapheme]] <zh>, which represents a /h/ in Vannetais which corresponds to a /z/ in the KLT dialects. This [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] also provides an alternate name for the orthography: '''Zedacheg''' i.e. ''ZH-ish''
In [[1955]] a new orthography was proposed by [[François Falc'hun]] and the group Emgleo Breiz, which had the aim of using a set of graphemes closer to the conventions of French. This ''Orthographie Universitaire'' ("University Orthography", known in Breton as ''Skolveurieg'') was given official recognition by the French authorities as the "official orthography of Breton in French education". This orthography was met with strong opposition and is largely only used by the magazine ''Brud Nevez'' and the publishing house Emgléo Breiz.
Between 1971 and 1974 has been fixed a new standard orthography. The ''etrerannyezhel'' or ''interdialectale''. This system is based on derivation of the words.
Today the majority of writers continue to use the Peurunvan orthography, including most Breton-language schools.
===Differences between OU and Peurunvan===
Both orthographies make use of the [[Latin alphabet]], with the supplemental signs ''â, ê, î, ñ, ô, û, ù, ü'', and ''é'' which is used only in OU.
Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan final [[obstruent|obstruents]] which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in [[sandhi]] before voiced sounds are represented by a grapheme indicating a voiceless sound. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: '''braz''' ''big'', '''brasoh''' ''bigger''.
In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs with nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one (there is, however, no distinction in pronunciation), e.g. '''brezhoneg''' ''Breton language'' vs. '''brezhonek''' ''Breton (adj)''
Some examples of words in both orthographies:
{|
| '''Etrerannyezhel (1975)''' || '''Peurunvan (1941)''' || '''Skolveureg (1956)'''
|-
| ''glaw''|| ''glav'' || ''glao''
|-
| ''piw''|| ''piv'' || ''piou''
|-
| ''levr''|| ''levr'' || ''leor''
|-
| ''ewid''|| ''evit'' || ''evid''
|-
| ''gant''|| ''gant'' || ''gand''
|-
| ''anezhi''|| ''anezhi'' || ''anezi''
|-
| ''ouzhpenn''|| ''ouzhpenn'' || ''ouspenn''
|-
| ''brawañ''|| ''bravañ'' || ''brava''
|-
| ''pelec'h''|| ''pelec'h'' || ''peleh''
|}
==Examples==
[[Image:Road signs bilingual Breton in Quimper.jpg|thumb|Bilingual signage in [[Quimper]]. Note the use of the word ''ti'' in the Breton for ''police station'' and ''tourist office'', plus the variant ''da bep lec'h'' for ''all directions''.]]
<!-- Some short examples of the language in the writing system(s) used to write the language. You might also include sound samples of the language being spoken. -->
Visitors to Brittany may encounter words and phrases (especially on signs and posters) such as the following:
<table cellspacing="7px">
<tr><td>'''BRETON'''</td> <td>'''ENGLISH'''</td></tr>
<tr><td>degemer mat</td> <td>welcome</td></tr>
<tr><td>deuet mat oc'h</td> <td>you're welcome</td></tr>
<tr><td>Breizh</td> <td>Brittany</td></tr>
<tr><td>brezhoneg</td> <td>Breton ''(language)''</td></tr>
<tr><td>ti, "ty"</td> <td>house</td></tr>
<tr><td>ti-kêr</td> <td>town hall</td></tr>
<tr><td>kreiz-kêr</td> <td>town centre</td></tr>
<tr><td>da bep tu</td> <td>all directions</td></tr>
<tr><td>skol</td> <td>school</td></tr>
<tr><td>skol-veur</td> <td>university</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[bagad]]</td> <td>pipe band ''(nearly)''</td></tr>
<tr><td>fest-noz</td> <td>[[ceilidh]], traditional concert/dance</td></tr>
<tr><td>kenavo</td> <td>goodbye</td></tr>
<tr><td>krampouezh</td> <td>pancakes</td></tr>
<tr><td>chistr</td> <td>cider</td></tr>
<tr><td>war vor atao</td> <td>always at sea</td></tr>
</table>
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=br}}
{{commons|Category:Breton language|Breton language}}
*[http://www.kervarker.org/ Breton site including online lessons]
*[http://skol.keravon.com/ Breton site with learners' forum and lessons (mostly in French with some English)]
*[http://www.frenchentree.com/france-brittany-culture-traditions/DisplayArticle.asp?ID=6980 The Breton Language]
*[http://www.breizh.net/saozneg/mahtmls.php 100 Words relating to the internet in Breton]
*[http://www.cuab.org/ Bretagne Réunie ]
[[Category:Brittany]]
[[Category:Brythonic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Minority languages]]
[[af:Bretons (taal)]]
[[als:Bretonisch]]
[[ast:Bretón]]
[[br:Brezhoneg]]
[[ca:Bretó]]
[[cs:Bretonština]]
[[cy:Llydaweg]]
[[da:Bretonsk]]
[[de:Bretonische Sprache]]
[[eo:Bretona lingvo]]
[[es:Idioma bretón]]
[[eu:Bretoiera]]
[[fi:Bretoni]]
[[fr:Breton]]
[[ga:Briotáinis]]
[[gl:Lingua bretoa]]
[[he:ברטונית]]
[[id:Bahasa Breton]]
[[it:Lingua bretone]]
[[ja:ブルトン語]]
[[kw:Bretonek]]
[[la:Lingua Armoricana (breton)]]
[[li:Bretoens]]
[[nl:Bretons]]
[[oc:Breton]]
[[pl:Język bretoński]]
[[ro:Limba bretonă]]
[[ru:Бретонский язык]]
[[sl:Bretonščina]]
[[sv:Bretonska]]
[[wa:Burton]]
[[zh:布列塔尼语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Broch</title>
<id>4648</id>
<revision>
<id>36284968</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T00:07:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.56.118.28</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>no patronizing, please</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dun Carloway.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Dun Carloway]] broch, [[Lewis]], Scotland]]
The '''Broch''' is an [[Iron Age]] [[round tower]] fortification type unique to [[Scotland]].
The origin of brochs remains a mystery. Some archaeologists believed the brochs were built by an influx of broch builders who had been displaced and pushed northward during the Roman invasion of Britain. How |
opaparlamentet]]
[[pl:Parlament Europejski]]
[[pt:Parlamento Europeu]]
[[ro:Parlamentul European]]
[[ru:Европейский парламент]]
[[sl:Evropski parlament]]
[[sr:Европски парламент]]
[[fi:Euroopan parlamentti]]
[[sv:Europaparlamentet]]
[[tr:Avrupa Parlamentosu]]
[[zh:欧洲议会]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Council</title>
<id>9582</id>
<revision>
<id>41908187</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:12:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthonyfrederic</username>
<id>798999</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Current composition of the European Council */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''European Council''', informally called the '''European summit''', is a meeting of the heads of state or government of the [[European Union]], and the President of the [[European Commission]].
The establishment of the Council was agreed at the December [[1974]] [[Paris]] summit of the [[European Economic Community]] Heads of Government following a proposal from [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]. The inaugural Council was held in [[Dublin]] on 10-11 March, [[1975]] during [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]'s first Presidency of the [[Council of the European Union]]. Approximately three annual meetings were held, there are now on average four European Councils each year. Discussion and decisions take place on the matters of key issues and direction of the EU. This institution is different from the [[Council of the European Union]] (which includes the ministers with the relevant portfolios) and the [[Council of Europe]] (which is an unrelated international organization).
== Council venues ==
Traditionally the summits of the European Councils have been held in the country currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]. However, in late 2000 it was agreed at the [[Treaty of Nice|Nice European Council]] that in the future half the European Councils would be held in [[Brussels]] and eventually all would be held there.
Two factors prompted this decision. Firstly, with the impending enlargement of the European Union to 25 or more members, rotating the site of the Council meeting between member states was going to become more difficult. Secondly, [[Belgium]] was threatening to hold up the [[Treaty of Nice]], unhappy with the way larger states were going to hold more power in European institutions. Holding the summits in Brussels was meant to encourage Belgium to accept the deal.
The decision was further justified by the increasing violence at European Council meetings, which culminated in the shooting of a protester at the [[Gothenburg]] European Council in [[Sweden]] in June 2001. It was felt that the Belgian government had more experience at dealing with anti-EU protests, and that putting them in one location would enable increased security.
The proposal has since been strongly criticised by many European Union member states, principally the smaller states and those furthest from Brussels, who have argued that it would in practice be impossible for their leaders to fulfill all the functions of the presidency in Brussels ''and'' govern effectively in their own states, the suspicion being that the idea was designed to reduce the practical control exercised by the state nominally holding the presidency, with the day-to-day running of the presidency resting permanently in Brussels among Eurocrats. New members of the EU were particularly opposed and were seeking to overturn the Nice decision.
The proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] proposed to switch the rotating presidency to a 2½-year chair (see below) and all member states' governments have supported the proposal, this issue now seems to be off the political agenda - even though the Treaty itself has failed to gain ratification.
== Council presidents ==
The role of President of the assembled European Council is performed by the [[head of government]] or [[head of state]] of the member state currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]. The role as president is in no sense equivalent to a head of stateship, merely a ''primus inter pares'' (first among equals) role with other European heads of government. The President is primarily responsible for preparing and chairing Council meetings, and has no executive powers.
The current President is [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] of [[Austria]], whose term expires in June 2006. For information on upcoming Presidents see [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]].
Under the provisions contained in the proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]], which has yet to be ratified by all member states, the rotating Presidency will be replaced by a permanent 2½-year chair, chosen by the heads of government themselves. The role and responsibilities of the President will be the same as at present, i.e. administrative and non-executive.
==Current composition of the European Council==
:''Main article: [[Parties in the Council of the European Union]]''
<div align = "center">
{| class ="wikitable"
|-
|'''State'''
|'''Head of State and/or Government'''
|'''Title'''
|'''Political Party'''
|-
|[[Belgium]]
|[[Guy Verhofstadt]]
|Prime minister
|[[Flemish Liberals and Democrats]] (ALDE)
|-
|[[Czech Republic|Czechia]]
|[[Jiří Paroubek]]
|Prime minister
|[[Czech Social Democratic Party]] (PES)
|-
|[[Denmark]]
|[[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]]
|Prime minister
|[[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]] (ALDE)
|-
|[[Spain]]
|[[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]]
|Prime minister
|[[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] (PES)
|-
|[[Estonia]]
|[[Andrus Ansip]]
|Prime minister
|[[Estonian Reform Party]] (ALDE)
|-
|[[Germany]]
|[[Angela Merkel]]
|Chancellor
|[[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Greece]]
|[[Kostas Karamanlis]]
|Prime minister
|[[New Democracy (Greece)|New Democracy]] (EPP)
|-
|[[France]]
|[[Jacques Chirac]]
|President
|[[Union for a Popular Movement]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
|[[Bertie Ahern]]
|Prime minister
|[[Fianna Fáil]] (UEN)
|-
|[[Italy]]
|[[Silvio Berlusconi]]
|Prime minister
|[[Forza Italia]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Cyprus]]
|[[Tassos Papadopoulos]]
|President
|[[Democratic Party (Cyprus)|Democratic Party]] (ALDE)
|-
|[[Latvia]]
|[[Aigars Kalvītis]]
|Prime minister
|[[People's Party (Latvia)|People's Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Lithuania]]
|[[Algirdas Brazauskas]]
|Prime minister
|[[Social Democratic Party of Lithuania]] (PES)
|-
|[[Luxembourg]]
|[[Jean-Claude Juncker]]
|Prime minister
|[[Christian Social People's Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Malta]]
|[[Lawrence Gonzi]]
|Prime minister
|[[Nationalist Party (Malta)|Nationalist Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Hungary]]
|[[Ferenc Gyurcsány]]
|Prime minister
|[[Hungarian Socialist Party]] (PES)
|-
|[[Netherlands]]
|[[Jan Peter Balkenende]]
|Prime minister
|[[Christian Democratic Appeal]] (EPP)
|-
|'''[[Austria]]<sup>*</sup>
|'''[[Wolfgang Schüssel]]
|'''Chancellor
|'''[[Austrian People's Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Poland]]
|[[Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz]]
|Prime minister
|[[Law and Justice]] (UEN)
|-
|[[Portugal]]
|[[José Sócrates]]
|Prime minister
|[[Socialist Party (Portugal)|Socialist Party]] (PES)
|-
|[[Slovakia]]
|[[Mikuláš Dzurinda]]
|Prime minister
|[[Slovak Democratic and Christian Union - Democratic Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Slovenia]]
|[[Janez Janša]]
|Prime minister
|[[Slovenian Democratic Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Sweden]]
|[[Göran Persson]]
|Prime minister
|[[Swedish Social Democratic Party]] (PES)
|-
|[[Finland]]
|[[Matti Vanhanen]]
|Prime minister
|[[Centre Party (Finland)|Centre Party]] (ALDE)
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]
|[[Tony Blair]]
|Prime minister
|[[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] (PES)
|}
</div>
<sup>*</sup> Current President
===Summary by political leanings ===
* [[European People's Party]] (EPP): 11 members
* [[Party of European Socialists]] (PES): 7 members
* [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] (ALDE): 5 members
* [[Union for Europe of the Nations]] (UEN): 2 members
== List of councils ==
{| cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 border=1 style="border-collapse:collapse; border:#555;"
|-
!colspan=1 bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Year
!colspan=1 width=100 bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Date
!colspan=1 bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Venue
!colspan=1 width=210 bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|President
!colspan=1 bgcolor="#CCCCCC"|Details
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|-
|1975||[[March 1975|10-11 March]]||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Dublin]]||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Liam Cosgrave]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001921
|-
|||[[July 1975|16-17 July]]||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Brussels]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Aldo Moro]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001427
|-
|||[[December 1975|1-2 December]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Rome]]||{{flag|Italy}} Aldo Moro||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001407
|-
|1976||[[April 1976|1-2 April]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} [[Luxembourg (city)|Luxembourg]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} [[Gaston Thorn]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001412/
|-
|||[[July 1976|12-13 July]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Joop den Uyl]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001428/
|-
|||[[November 1976|29-30 November]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[The Hague]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} Joop den Uyl||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001450/
|-
|1977||[[March 1977|25-27? March]]||{{flag|Italy}} Rome||{{flag|UK}} [[James Callaghan]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001405/
|-
|||[[June 1977|29-30 June]]||{{flag|UK}} [[London]]||{{flag|UK}} James Callaghan||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001410/
|-
|||[[December 1977|5-6 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Leo Tindemans]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001423/
|-
|1978||[[April 1978|7-8 April]]||{{flag|Denmark}} [[Copenhagen]]||{{flag|Denmark}} [[Anker Jørgensen]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001440/
|-
|||[[July 1978|6-7 July]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Helmut Schmidt]]||ht |
rds facts)
Actually there are two methods to make conclusions.
{| border=1
! Method name || short explanation || use || example systems
|-
| [[Forward chaining]]
| facts driven
| can find new ideas
| [[CLIPS]], [[Jess_programming_language|Jess]]
|-
| [[Backward chaining]]
| hypothesis driven
| usually used for diagnosis
| [[Prolog]], [[Mycin]]
|}
[http://www.expertise2go.com/webesie/tutorials/Inference/ Nice & simple tutorial about backward and forward chaining]
==Prominent expert systems==
*[[Dendral]]
*[[Dipmeter Advisor]]
*[[Mycin]]
*[[CADUCEUS (expert system)]]
*[[R1 (expert system)]]
*[[CLIPS]], [[Jess programming language|Jess]] (java adopted CLIPS syntax)
*[[Prolog]]
== See also ==
* [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Artificial neural network]]
* [[Fuzzy logic]]
* [[Heuristic (computer science)]]
* [[Machine learning]]
* [[Clinical decision support system]]
* [[Connectionist expert system]]
== Bibliography ==
* James '''Ignizio,''' ''Introduction to Expert Systems'' (1991), ISBN 0-07-909785-5
* Joseph C. '''Giarratano,''' Gary '''Riley''' ''Expert Systems, Principles and Programming'' (2005), ISBN 0-534-38447-1
* Peter '''Jackson''' ''Introduction to Expert Systems'' (1998), ISBN 0-20-187686-8
==External links==
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9220/expert.htm What Is An Expert System?]
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Artificial_Intelligence Artificial Intelligence Directory]
* [http://www.visual-prolog.com/vip6/community/esta/esta.htm ESTA (Expert System Shell for Text Animation)]developed in [http://www.visual-prolog.com/default.htm Visual Prolog]
* [http://www.ruleworks.co.uk RuleWorks Knowledge Based Systems] - Expert System Programming by the Rules
* [http://www.vanguardsw.com/decisionscript/ DecisionScript] - Tool for building Web-based Expert Systems
[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Decision theory]]
[[Category:Information systems]]
[[Category:Systems]]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[cs:Expertní systém]]
[[de:Expertensystem]]
[[es:Sistema experto]]
[[fr:Système expert]]
[[hr:Ekspertni sustavi]]
[[it:Sistema esperto (informatica)]]
[[ja:エキスパートシステム]]
[[pl:System ekspertowy]]
[[uk:&#1045;&#1082;&#1089;&#1087;&#1077;&#1088;&#1090;&#1085;&#1072; &#1089;&#1080;&#1089;&#1090;&#1077;&#1084;&#1072;]]
[[zh:&#19987;&#23478;&#31995;&#32479;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolution of an idea</title>
<id>10137</id>
<revision>
<id>15907970</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-12T20:37:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brighterorange</username>
<id>219031</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cleanup (via [[User:brighterorange#PeriodBot|pb]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The concept of [[evolution]] has been applied, not only to biology, but to numerous other fields as well. In various disciplines, both the study of the history of [[technology]] and the history of [[philosophy]], the concept is invoked to structure the successive changes in a technology, a concept, or the thinking of an individual philosopher over the course of his work. Selective Evolution has also been proposed as a means by which ideas propagate, spread and change (See [[Meme]], [[History of philosophy]], [[History of technology]], [[Philosophy of science]]).
In general use, evolution in this context refers to theories which identify, and then connect, the discrete steps involved in the process of change from original idea, to its stable form, for example, the first [[telephone]] used a different process for converting sound into electricity than the first commercial phone, this step would be part of the telephone's evolution.
The evolution of an idea or concepts should be further analyzed. Changes occur due to specifiable types of stimulus or input during the analytical process; these changes occur along specifiable dementions.
Types of input may include outside information supplied by another thinker external to one's mind, or the realization of a flaw on one's own due to an inherent contradiction or paradox. Changes can also occur seemingly spontaneously, during the evolution of an idea one can receive "inspiration" from various sources that are often seemingly unspecifiable.
Changes can happen to the overall way an idea is structured. One may realize that a simple rearrangement can shed light that seems to fill an invisible void. Changes can occur to specific elements of the idea, some specific componant of a conceptual construct can sometimes be altered to be more specific or more broad, or even completely different without disturbing the overall structure, but changing the understanding that the pattern conveys in a beneficial or detrimental way.
Key thinkers in the use of evolution of ideas include [[Hegel]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Richard Dawkins]] and [[Thomas Kuhn]].
{{philo-stub}}
[[Category:Evolution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earl of Abercorn</title>
<id>10138</id>
<revision>
<id>42081032</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:19:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Choess</username>
<id>245519</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Duke of Abercorn]]
[[Category:Earldoms|Abercorn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford</title>
<id>10139</id>
<revision>
<id>39858773</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T09:49:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.110.9.62</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford - Project Gutenberg eText 13403.png|thumbnail|250px|right|'''The Earl of Oxford''', from the 1914 publication ''English Travellers of the Renaissance'' by Clare Howard]]
'''Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford''' ([[April 12]], [[1550]] &ndash; [[June 24]], [[1604]]), Elizabethan literary figure, was born at [[Castle Hedingham]] to the [[John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford|16th Earl of Oxford]]. He is most famous today as the alleged author of the works of [[William Shakespeare]], a claim which a large majority of academic Shakespeare scholars reject but which is supported by such figures as [[Sigmund Freud]], diplomat and Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient [[Paul Nitze]], [[Supreme Court]] Justices [[Harry Blackmun]] and [[John Paul Stevens]], former British judge [[Christmas Humphreys]], biographer and historian [[David McCullough]], as well as actors [[Orson Welles]], [[John Gielgud|Sir John Gielgud]], [[Derek Jacobi|Sir Derek Jacobi]], [[Kenneth Branagh|Kenneth Branagh]], [[Michael York]], [[Jeremy Irons]], and [[Mark Rylance]] (former Artistic Director of the [[Globe Theatre]]). Amateur historians [[J. Thomas Looney]] and [[Charlton Ogburn]] authored two of the most seminal Oxford-as-Shakespeare studies.
During his lifetime de Vere was lauded by other English poets, mostly in regard to his patronage; see especially one of the introductory sonnets to [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[Faerie Queene]]''. As a poet himself, he wrote a small corpus of poems and songs, whose dates (and, in some cases, authorship) are uncertain; he signed nearly all of these "Earle of Oxenforde" or "E of O" [http://www.shakespeare-oxford.com/poemslny.htm]. His voluminous catalogue of letters are all similarly signed in his own name; none of them mention a dramatic career or literary matters, but focus on business affairs concerning such matters as the Cornish tin monopoly and his ongoing desire for several royal stewardships [http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~ahnelson/oxlets.html]. His status as a dramatist is indeed uncertain, as not a single play or line written under his name survives. Nevertheless, [[Francis Meres]], in his discussion of dramatists in his ''[[Palladis Tamia]]'' lists Oxford among "the best for comedy," albeit as an entirely separate person from Shakespeare himself, who appears further down the list due to his middle-class rank (Shakespeare held the title of "gent."):
''so the best for comedy amongst us bee, '''Edward Earle of Oxenforde''', Doctor Gager of Oxforde, Maister Rowley once a rare Scholar of learned Pembroke Hall in Cambridge, Maister Edwardes one of her Majesty's Chapel, eloquent and witty John Lilly, Lodge, Gascoyne, Greene, '''Shakespeare''', Thomas Nash, Thomas Heywood, Anthony Munday our best plotter, Chapman, Porter, Wilson, Hathway, and Henry Chettle.''
Believers in the Oxford-as-Shakespeare hypothesis, or Oxfordians, maintain that a set of "missing" poems and plays from de Vere's adulthood were eventually published under the pseudonym William Shakespeare, both because of what they perceive as a great literary reputation and due to alleged political reasons that would necessitate such a pseudonym.
De Vere's father died in [[1562]], when de Vere was twelve years old, making him [[Earl of Oxford]] and [[Lord Great Chamberlain]] of England. As a minor, Oxford was made a royal ward and was placed in the household of [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|Lord Burghley]], the [[Lord High Treasurer]], a member of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]'s [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]], and her closest and most trusted advisor. There Oxford was trained in such aristocratic pursuits as horse riding, combat, hunting, music, and dance, as well as [[French language|French]] and [[Latin]]. His known tutors included the classical scholar and diplomat Sir [[Thomas Smith]], and [[Laurence Nowell]], one of the founding fathers of [[Anglo-Saxon]] studies. Nowell was hired to tutor the young earl in 1563, the same year that Nowell signed his name on the only known copy of the "[[Beowulf]]" manuscri |
Bond]]
[[it:James Bond]]
[[he:ג'יימס בונד]]
[[lb:James Bond]]
[[hu:James Bond]]
[[nl:James Bond]]
[[ja:ジェームズ・ボンド]]
[[no:James Bond]]
[[pl:James Bond]]
[[pt:James Bond]]
[[sq:James Bond]]
[[simple:James Bond]]
[[sr:Џејмс Бонд]]
[[fi:James Bond]]
[[sv:James Bond]]
[[zh:占士邦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Japanese language</title>
<id>15606</id>
<revision>
<id>42068843</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:29:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eirikr</username>
<id>188626</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Classification */ Rewording somewhat as Polynesian - J convergence more than just "seemingly", and revising examples</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Japanese
|nativename=日本語 ''Nihongo''
|familycolor=Isolate
|states=[[Japan]], [[Hawaii]], [[Brazil]], [[Guam]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Palau]], [[Taiwan]]
|speakers=127 million
|rank=9
|fam1=[[Altaic languages|Altaic]] (disputed)
|fam2=[[Japonic languages|Japonic]]
|nation=[[Angaur]] ([[Palau]])<br>''De facto'' in [[Japan]]
|agency=None<br>[[Government of Japan|Japanese government]] plays major role
|iso1=ja|iso2=jpn|iso3=jpn}}
'''Japanese''' (日本語, {{Audio|ja-nihongo.ogg|''Nihongo''}}) is a language spoken by over 127 million people, mainly in [[Japan]], but also by Japanese emigrant communities around the world. It is considered an [[agglutinative language]] and is distinguished by a complex system of [[Japanese honorifics|honorifics]] reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. The sound inventory of Japanese is relatively small, and it has a lexically-distinctive [[Japanese pitch accent|pitch accent]] system.
Japanese has been heavily influenced by [[Chinese language|Chinese]] over a period of at least 1,500 years. Japanese is written with a mix of [[Chinese character]]s ([[kanji]]) and a modified [[syllabary]], [[kana]], also originally based on Chinese characters. Much vocabulary has been imported from Chinese, or created on Chinese models.
==Classification==
[[historical linguistics|Historical linguists]] who specialize in Japanese agree that it is one of the two members of the [[Japonic language|Japonic]] language family, but remain divided as to the origins of the Japonic languages. An older view, still widely held by some linguists and many non-linguists, is that Japanese is a [[language isolate]].
As for its relation to other languages, there are several theories (presented roughly in descending order of certainty):
* Japanese is a member of the [[Altaic languages|Altaic language]] family. Other languages in this group include [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], and (according to most proponents) [[Korean language|Korean]]. Evidence for this theory lies in the fact that like [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Korean language|Korean]], Japanese is an [[agglutinative language]]. Additionally, there are a suggestive number of apparently regular correspondences in basic vocabulary, such as ''ishi'' "stone" to Turkic ''daş'', ''yon'' "four" to Turkic ''dört'', ''kura'' "saddle" to Turkic ''kürtün'', ''kiru'' "to cut" to Turkic ''kir-'', ''inu'' "dog" to Turkic ''it'', ''kuro'' "black" and ''kurai'' "dark" to Turkic ''köl'' "shadow", etc. These examples originate from [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?root=config&basename=\data\alt\altet this database], which contains a comprehensive list of comparisons and theoretical Altaic etymologies.
* Japanese is a relative of extinct languages spoken by historic cultures of [[Korea]] and [[Manchuria]]. The best attested of these is the language of [[Goguryeo]] (a.k.a. Koguryo), with the more poorly-attested languages of [[Baekje]] (a.k.a. Paekche) and [[Fuyu|Buyeo]] (a.k.a Puyo) hypothesized to also be related. <!-- COMMENTING OUT - SEE TALK PAGE Japanese is related to modern [[Korean language|Korean]] based primarily on near-identical grammar, but there is scarce lexical similarity between the two; supporters of the Buyeo languages theory generally do not include modern Korean as part of that family. -->Supporters of the Buyeo languages theory generally do not include modern [[Korean language|Korean]] as part of that family because it is thought to have derived from the ancient language of [[Silla]].The limited data on these languages, as well as these cultures' historic ties, are the primary evidence. This has been largely subsumed into the Altaic theory.
* Japanese is a relative of [[Korean language|Korean]]. This theory is based on the high degree of similarity between Japanese and Korean grammar. Proponents of this theory have also proposed Japanese-Korean cognates. The idea of a Japanese-Korean relationship has been largely subsumed into the Altaic theory.
* Japanese is a [[creole language]]. Phonological similarities and geographical proximity to [[Austronesian languages]] have led to the theory that Japanese may be a kind of creole, with an [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] [[substratum]] and an Austronesian [[superstratum]], or vice versa.
* Japanese is a ''purely'' Austronesian language. This theory enjoys little currency, since the grammar and lexis of Japanese are vastly different from those of any known Austronesian language. Proponents of this theory point out examples of convergent lexis such as Japanese ''hina'' "doll" and ''hime'' "girl" or "princess" as cognate with the [[Maori language|Māori]] word ''hine'' "girl", or Japanese ''kaku'' "to write, to scratch" with the [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ''kākau'' "to write, to tattoo". However, it is important to note that many totally unrelated languages exhibit chance occurences of convergent lexis.
* Susumu Ohno and other linguists including R. Caidwell, Susumu Shiba and Fujiwara Akira have suggested a possible relationship between Japanese and [[Tamil language|Tamil]], a member of the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian language]] family spoken in [[South India]]. Evidence for this theory is that Japanese and Tamil are both [[agglutinative language]]s and also have similar [[phonetics]], [[vocabulary|vocabularies]], and [[retroflex consonant]]s.
Specialists in Japanese [[historical linguistics]] all agree that Japanese is related to the [[Ryukyuan languages]] (including [[Okinawan language|Okinawan]]); together, Japanese and Ryukyuan are grouped in the [[Japonic languages]]. Among these specialists, the possibility of a genetic relation to [[Goguryeo]] has the most evidence; relationship to [[Korean language|Korean]] is considered plausible but is still up to debate; the Altaic hypothesis has somewhat less currency, though it has grown significantly more respectable in recent years, primarily due to the work of [[Sergei Starostin]], et al. Almost all specialists reject the idea that Japanese could be genetically related to [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]/[[Malayo-Polynesian languages]] or [[Sino-Tibetan languages]], and the idea that Japanese could be related to [[Tamil language|Tamil]] is almost entirely excluded.
It should be noted that linguistic studies, like all fields, can be strongly affected by national politics and other non-academic factors. For example, most linguists would say that [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Moldovan language|Moldovan]] are essentially the same language, and that they are known as two different languages for political reasons. Japan's long-standing rivalries and enmities with virtually all of its neighbours make the study of linguistic connection particularly fraught with such political tensions. However, these tensions are less prevalent among non-Japanese researchers.
==Geographic distribution==
Although Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, it has been and is still sometimes spoken in countries besides Japan. When Japan occupied [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], parts of [[China]], and various Pacific islands, locals in [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|those countries]] were forced to learn Japanese in empire-building programmes. As a result, there are still many people in these countries who speak Japanese instead of or as well as the local languages. In addition, emigrants from Japan, the majority of whom are found in [[Brazil]], where the biggest Japanese community outside Japan is found, [[Australia]] (especially [[Sydney]], [[Brisbane]], and [[Melbourne]]), and the [[United States]] (notably [[California]] and [[Hawaii]]), also frequently speak Japanese. There is also a small community in [[Davao]], [[Philippines]]. Their descendants (known as ''nikkei'' 日系, literally Japanese descendants), however, rarely speak Japanese fluently. There are estimated to be several million non-Japanese studying the language as well.
=== Official status ===
Japanese is the official language of Japan, and Japan is the only country to have Japanese as an official working language. There are two forms of the language considered standard: {{nihongo|''hyōjungo''|標準語|}} or standard Japanese, and {{nihongo|''kyōtsūgo''|共通語|}} or the common language. As government policy has modernized Japanese, many of the distinctions between the two have blurred. ''Hyōjungo'' is taught in schools and used on television and in official communications, and is the version of Japanese discussed in this article.
Standard Japanese can also be divided into {{nihongo|''bungo''|文語|}} or "literary language," and {{nihongo|''kōgo''|口語|}} or "oral language," which have different rules of grammar and some variance in vocabulary. ''Bungo'' was the main method of writing Japanese until the late 1940s, and still has relevance for historians, literary scholars, and l |
kipedia]]
==[[Literature]]==
* [[Constructed languages]] (''conlanging'')
* [[Learning foreign languages]]
* [[Reading (activity)|Reading]]
* [[Writing]]
==[[Machining]]==
* [[Model engineering]]
==[[Model (physical)|Model]] ([[scale model]]) building==
* [[Live steam]] models
* [[Matchstick models]]
* [[Military model]]s
* [[Model aircraft]] -- civil and military
* [[Model car]]s, including [[radio-controlled car]]s
* [[Model commercial vehicle]]s
* [[Model engineering]]
* [[Model house]]s
* [[Model figure]]s -- historical and military
* [[Model military vehicle]]s -- including armored vehicles
* [[Micronationalism|Model nation]]s
* [[Model railway|Model railways/railroads]]
** [[Backyard railroad]]s
* [[Model rocket]]s
* [[Ship model|Model ships]] -- civil and military
==Motor vehicles==
* [[Antique car]]s
* [[Car washing techniques|Car washing]]
* [[Kit car]]s
* [[Motorcycle]]s
* [[Off-roading]]
* [[Truck]]s
==[[Music]]==
* [[Musical composition]] and [[MIDI composition]]
* [[Singing]] and playing [[musical instrument]]s
==[[Observation]]==
* [[Amateur astronomy]]
* [[Geyser|Geyser gazing]]
* [[Metrophile|Metrophilia]]
* Transport [[spotting]]
** [[Aircraft spotting]]
** [[Bus spotting]]
** [[Train spotting]]
==Outdoor nature activities==
* [[Backpacking (wilderness)|Backpacking]]
* [[Birdfeeding]], [[birding]], and [[birdwatching]]
* [[Butterfly watching]]
* [[Camping]]
* [[Caving]]
* [[Canoeing]] and [[kayaking]]
* [[Gardening]], including [[forest gardening]], [[organic gardening]], [[wildlife gardening]], and [[permaculture]]
* [[Hiking]]
* [[Geocaching]]
* [[Kite flying]]
* [[Mountain climbing]]
* [[Rafting]]
* [[Rock climbing]]
* [[Rockhounding]] (rock and mineral hunting/collecting)
* [[Skiing]]
* [[Stone skipping]]
* [[SCUBA diving]]
* [[Walking]]
==[[Performing arts]]==
* Amateur [[theater]]
* [[Dancing]]
* [[Magic (illusion)|Magic]] tricks
* [[Singing]]
==[[Photography]]==
* [[Darkroom]] work, i.e developing films and enlarging photos in [[black-and-white]] or color
* [[Kite aerial photography]]
==[[Physics]] demos or experiments==
==[[Puzzle]]s==
* [[Crossword puzzle]]s
* [[Jigsaw puzzle]]
* [[Word seek puzzle]]s
==Research-related==
* [[Genealogy]]
* [[Hagiography]]
==[[Refurbishment|Restoration (refurbishing)]]==
* [[Antiques|antique]] machinery
* Early [[computer]]s
* [[House]]s
* [[Sailboat]]s, early motorized boats
==[[Sports]] or other physical activities==
* [[Archery]]
* [[Baseball]], [[softball]], and [[rounders]]
* [[Basketball]]
* [[Bowling]]
* [[Cycling]]
* [[Dance]]
* [[Fantasy sports]]
* Freshwater and [[ocean|saltwater]] [[Sport fishing|fishing]], including [[fly fishing]]
* [[Football]]
* [[Football (soccer)]]
* [[Gliding]]
* [[Golf]]
* [[Hunting]]
* [[Martial Arts]]
* [[Racquetball]]
* [[Sailing]]
* [[Shooting]] [[rifle]]s, [[pistol]]s, and [[shotgun]]s
* [[Table tennis]] where the level of play isn't really hindered by advanced age
* [[Tennis]]
* [[Ultimate (sport)|Ultimate]]
* [[Volleyball]]
==[[Toy]]s of some sophistication==
* [[LEGO]], including [[Brikwars]], and [[Lego Mindstorms]]
* [[Radio control]] toys
[[Category:Hobbies|*]]
[[mk:Листа на хобија]]
[[ja:趣味の一覧]]
[[simple:List of hobbies]]
[[fi:Luettelo harrastuksista]]
[[ta:பொழுதுபோக்குகளின் பட்டியல்]]
[[tr:Hobiler]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hour</title>
<id>14004</id>
<revision>
<id>35973111</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T17:02:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snaxe920</username>
<id>404763</id>
</contributor>
<comment>took off disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''hour''' (symbol: h) is a unit of [[time]]. It is not an [[SI]] unit but is accepted for use with the SI.
==Definition==
In modern usage, an '''hour''' is a [[Unit of measurement|unit]] of [[time]] 60 [[minute]]s, or 3,600 [[second]]s in length. It is approximately 1/24 of a median [[Earth]] [[day]].
There is also the '''hour of [[right ascension]]''', a unit of both time and [[angle]].
==History==
The hour was originally defined in ancient civilisations (including those of Egypt, Sumeria, India and China) as either one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset or one twenty-fourth of a full day. In either case the division reflected the widespread use of a [[duodecimal]] numbering system (counting with each thumb the spaces between the joints of the other finger on the same hand, i.e. 3 x 4 = 12) and the equally widespread tendency to make analogies among sets of data (12 months, 12 zodiacal signs, 12 main compass points, 12 hours, a dozen).
Earlier definitions of the hour varied within these parameters:
* One twelfth of the time from sunrise to sunset. As a consequence, hours on summer days were longer than on winter days, their length varying with [[latitude]] and even, to a small extent, with the local weather (since it affects the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]'s index of [[refraction]]). For this reason, these hours are sometimes called ''temporal'' or ''unequal hours''. [[Rome|Romans]] and [[Greece|Greeks]] used this definition; so did the ancient Chinese and Japanese.
<!-- Please, explain why is relevant and recast it in English:
When Old Testment was wrote we can read in chapter of Isaiah 38:8 :"Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees, which is gone down in the sundial of Ahaz, ten degrees backward. So the sun returned ten degrees, by which degrees it was gone down." -->
The Romans and Greeks also divided the night into three or four night watches, but later the night (the time between sunset and sunrise) was also divided into twelve hours. When, in post-classical times, a [[clock]] showed these hours its period had to be changed every morning and evening (for example by changing the length of its pendulum), or it had to keep to the position of the Sun on the ecliptic (see [[Prague Astronomical Clock]]).
* One twenty-fourth of the [[solar time|apparent solar day]] (between one noon and the next, or between one sunset and the next). As a consequence hours varied a little, as the length of an apparent solar day varies throughout the year. When a clock showed these hours it had to be adjusted a few times in a month.
* One twenty-fourth of the mean solar day. See [[solar time|mean sun]] for more information on the difference to the apparent solar day. When an exact clock showed these hours it virtually never had to be adjusted. However, as the Earth's rotation slows down, this definition has been abandoned. See [[UTC]].
== Counting hours ==
The definition of the hour arose with its own starting point for counting the hours.
* In ancient and medieval cultures, in which the division between night and day mattered far more than in societies with widespread use of artificial light, the counting of hours started with sunrise. So sunrise was always exactly at the ''beginning'' of the first hour, noon at the end of the sixth hour and sunset exactly at the end of the twelfth hour. This meant that the length of hours varied with the season.
* In so-called ''Italian time'' the first hour started at sunset (or the end of dusk, i. e., half an hour after sunset, depending on local custom). The hours were numbered from 0 to 23. So the Sun rose at, for instance, Lugano in December around 14:46 and noon was around 19:23; in June the Sun rose at 7:51 and noon was around 15:55. Sunset was always at 24:00. This manner of counting hours had the advantage that everyone could easily read the clock to see how much time they had to finish their day's work without artificial light. It was introduced in [[Italy]] during the [[14th century]] and lasted until the mid-[[18th century]], or in some regions until the mid-[[19th century]]. It was also used in [[Poland]] and [[Bohemia]] until the [[17th century]].
* In the modern [[12-hour clock]] counting the hours starts at midnight and restarts at noon. Hours are numbered 12, 1, 2, ..., 11. [[solar time|Solar noon]] is always close to 12 noon, differing according to the [[equation of time]] (by up to about fifteen minutes either way). At the [[equinox]]es sunrise is around 6 [[A.M.]] (''ante meridiem'', ''before noon''), and sunset around 6 [[P.M.]] (''post meridiem'', ''after noon'').
* In the modern [[24-hour clock]] counting the hours starts at midnight and hours are numbered from 0 to 23. Solar noon is always close to 12:00 (again differing according to the equation of time). At the equinoxes sunrise is around 06:00 and sunset around 18:00.
Sunrise and sunset are much more conspicuous points in the day than noon or midnight; starting to count then was, for most people in most societies, much easier than starting at noon or midnight. However, with modern astronomical equipment (and the telegraph or similar means to transfer a time signal in a split-second), this issue is much less relevant.
[[Sundial]]s often show the hour length and count according to some of the older definitions and countings.
== See also ==
*[[Prague Astronomical Clock]]
*[[canonical hours]]
*[[1 E3 s|times from 1 kilosecond to 10 kiloseconds]]
[[Category:Units of time]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[ar:ساعة]]
[[bg:Час]]
[[ca:Hora]]
[[cs:Hodina]]
[[da:Time (enhed)]]
[[de:Stunde]]
[[el:Ώρα]]
[[es:Hora]]
[[eo:Horo]]
[[eu:Ordu]]
[[fr:Heure (temps)]]
[[fy:Oere]]
[[gl:Hora]]
[[ko:시간 (단위)]]
[[hr:Sat]]
[[it:Ora (unità di misura)]]
[[he:שעה]]
[[la:Hora]]
[[nl:Uur]]
[[ja:時間 (単位)]]
[[no:Time (tidsenhet)]]
[[nn:Time]]
[[pl:Godzina]]
[[pt:Hora]]
[[simple:Hour]]
[[sk:Hodina]]
[[sl:Ura]]
[[sr:Сат]]
[[fi:Tunti]]
[[sv:Timme]]
[[th:ชั่วโมง]]
[[vi:Giờ]]
[[tr:Saat]]
[[zh:小时]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hezekiah</title>
<id>14005</id>
<revision>
<id>41692279</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:26:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.10.49.120</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Religious reforms */</comment>
<text xml:sp |
he [[British two pound coin|£2 coin]] in the UK to commemorate the same anniversary.<ref>British Royal Mint [http://www.royalmint.com/RoyalMint/web/site/PackedSets/UKIB2BP.asp?pg=1&orderby=release 2006 Brunel £2 Two-Coin] Retrieved Feb. 21, 2006.</ref>
==Early Life==
The son of noted engineer [[Sir]] [[Marc Isambard Brunel]] and Sophia Brunel ''née'' Kingdom, Isambard K. Brunel was born in [[Portsmouth]], [[England]], on [[April 9]], [[1806]].<ref>Brunel University [http://www.brunel.ac.uk/about/history/ikb History : Isambard Kingdom Brunel] Retrieved Feb. 20, 2006.</ref> His father was working there on the block-making machinery for the [[Portsmouth Block Mills]]. At 14 the young Brunel was sent to [[France]] to be educated at the the [[Lycée Henri-Quatre]] in [[Paris]] and later, the [[University of Caen]] in [[Normandy]].<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>
Isambard rose to prominence when, aged 20, he was appointed as the chief engineer of his father's greatest achievement, the [[Thames Tunnel]], which runs beneath the river between [[Rotherhithe]] and [[Wapping]]. The first major sub-river tunnel ever built, it succeeded where other attempts had failed thanks to Marc Brunel's ingenious [[tunnelling shield]] – the human-powered forerunner of today's mighty tunnelling machines – which protected workers from cave-in by placing them within a protective casing. Marc Brunel had been inspired to create the shield after observing the habits and anatomy of the [[shipworm]] (''Teredo navalis''). Most modern tunnels are cut in this way, notably the [[Channel Tunnel]] between England and France.<ref>West, Graham. ''Innovation and the Rise of the Tunnelling Industry'', Cambridge University Press, 1988. ISBN 0521335124</ref>
Brunel established his Design Offices at 17-18 Duke Street, London, and he lived with his family in the rooms above.<ref>Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix; Mendelssohn, Cecille; Ward, Jones. ''The 1837 Diary of Felix and Cecille Mendelssohn Bartholdy'', Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0198165978</ref> [[R.P. Brereton]], who became his chief assistant in 1845, was in charge of the office in Brunel's absence, and also took direct responsibility for major construction activities such as the Royal Albert Bridge as Brunel's health declined.
==The Thames Tunnel==
[[Image:ThamesTunnelFromWapping.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Thames Tunnel]] in 2005, now part of the [[London Underground]] [[East London Line]] between [[Rotherhithe]] and [[Wapping]].]]
{{main|Thames Tunnel|the Thames Tunnel}}
Isambard worked for nearly two years to create a tunnel under [[London|London's]] [[River Thames]], with operatives driving a horizontal shaft from one side of the river to the other under the most difficult and dangerous conditions. Brunel's father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the Thames river bed at Rotherhithe was often little more than waterlogged sediment and loose gravel, and although the extreme conditions proved the ingenuity of Brunel's tunnelling machine, the work was hard and hazardous. <ref>Aaseng, Nathan. ''Construction : Building The Impossible'', The Oliver Press, Inc., 1999. ISBN 1881508595</ref>
The tunnel was often in imminent danger of collapse due to the instability of the river bed, yet the management decided to allow spectators to be lowered down to observe the diggings at a [[shilling]] a time. For the workers the building of the tunnel was particularly unpleasant because the Thames at that time was still little better than an open sewer, so the tunnel was usually awash with foul-smelling, contaminated water. Further complications occurred because the [[superstition|superstitious]] Irish [[navvies]] would frequently extinguish the lights if they feared that a breach was going to occur, believing that the leaking water could not find them in the darkness.<ref>Shelton Kirby, Richard. ''Engineering in History'', Courier Dover Publications, 1990. ISBN 0486264122</ref>
Two severe incidents of flooding halted work for long periods, killing several workers and badly injuring the younger Brunel. The latter incident, in 1828, killed Collins and Ball, the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death; a water break-in hurled him from a tunnelling platform, knocking him unconscious, and he was washed up to the other end of the tunnel by the surge. As the water rose, by luck he was carried up a service stairway, where he was plucked from almost certain death by an assistant moments before the surge receded. Brunel was seriously hurt (and never fully recovered from his injuries), and the event ended work on the tunnel for several years.<ref name=3ships>Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004</ref>
Nonetheless, the first underwater tunnel had been built, and is still in operation on the [[London Underground]] [[East London Line]] between [[Rotherhithe]] and [[Wapping]].<ref>UK Government - Transport for London [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tube/company/history/early-years.asp London Underground History - The Early Years] Retrieved Feb. 18, 2006.</ref>
==Bridges==
[[Image:Clifton.bridge.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Clifton Suspension Bridge]] spans the [[Avon Gorge]], linking [[Clifton]] in [[Bristol]] to [[Leigh Woods]] in North [[Somerset]].]][[Image:Saltashrab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Royal Albert Bridge]], seen from [[Saltash railway station]].]]
Brunel's earliest solo engineering feats started with bridges – the [[Royal Albert Bridge]] spanning the [[River Tamar]] at [[Saltash]] near [[Plymouth]], and an unusual timber-framed bridge near [[Bridgwater]].<ref>Billington, David P. ''Tower and the Bridge'', Princeton University Press, 1985. ISBN 069102393X</ref>
Built in 1838, the Maidenhead Railway Bridge over the Thames in [[Berkshire]] remains the flattest, widest brick arch bridge in the world and is still carrying main line trains to the south west. There are two arches, with each span totalling 128&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] (39&nbsp;[[metre|m]]), having a rise of only 24&nbsp;ft (7&nbsp;m), and a width that carries four tracks. There remains an older bridge nearby which is not to be confused with Brunel's bridge - the Maidenhead Road Bridge. Built in 1280 and rebuilt in 1777, it spans the same section of river but relies on twelve arches.
The Royal Albert bridge was designed in 1855 for the [[Cornwall Railway]] Company after [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] rejected his original plan for a train [[ferry]] across the [[Hamoaze]] - the estuary of the tidal [[River Tamar|Tamar]], [[River Tavy|Tavy]] and [[River Lynher|Lynher]]. The bridge consists of two main spans of 455&nbsp;ft (139&nbsp;m), 100&nbsp;ft (30&nbsp;m) above mean high spring [[tide]], plus seventeen much shorter approach spans. Opened by [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]] on [[May 2]], [[1859]], it was completed the year of the great engineer's death.
However, he is perhaps best remembered for the [[Clifton Suspension Bridge]] in Bristol. Spanning over 700&nbsp;ft (213&nbsp;m) in width, and nominally 200&nbsp;ft (61&nbsp;m) over the [[River Avon]] below, it was the longest bridge in the world at the time of conception. Brunel submitted four designs to a committee headed by [[Thomas Telford]] and gained approval to commence with the project. Afterwards, Brunel wrote to his brother-in-law, the politician [[Benjamin Hawes]]: "Of all the wonderful feats I have performed, since I have been in this part of the world, I think yesterday I performed the most wonderful. I produced unanimity among 15 men who were all quarrelling about that most ticklish subject – taste." He did not live to see it built, although his colleagues and admirers at the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]] felt the bridge would be a fitting memorial, and started to raise new funds and to amend the design. Work started in 1862 and was complete in 1864, five years after Brunel's death.<ref>BBC History [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/brunel_isambard_01.shtml Brunel: 'The Practical Prophet of Technological Innovation' by Professor G Ross Peters] Retrieved Feb. 17, 2006.</ref>
As of 2006, there is the possibility that several of Brunel's bridges on the Great Western Raiway may be demolished, because newer rail lines that travel beneath the arches are set to be electrified. South Buckinghamshire County Council is petitioning to have further options pursued, in order that all nine of the historic remaining bridges on the line can remain.<ref>Bucks CC [http://www.buckscc.gov.uk/archaeology/brunel_bridges_news.htm Brunel’s Bridges under threat] Retrieved Feb. 22, 2006.</ref><ref>UK Govt. Dept. for Culture, Media and Sport [http://www.culture.gov.uk/global/publications/archive_1999/World_Heritage_Sites+.htm World Heritage Sites: The Tentative List of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland] Retrieved Feb. 22, 2006.</ref>
== The Great Western Railway ==
[[Image:Paddington Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Paddington Station]], still a mainline station, was the [[London]] [[terminus]] of the [[Great Western Railway]].]]
{{main|Great Western Railway|the Great Western Railway}}
In 1833 before the Thames Tunnel was complete, Brunel was appointed chief engineer of the [[Great Western Railway]], one of the wonders of [[Victorian era|Victorian]] Britain, running from [[London]] to [[Bristol]] (and finally [[Exeter, England|Exeter]]).<ref>Garrison, Ervan G. ''A History of Engineering and Technology'', CRC Press, 1998. ISBN 084939810X</ref> The Company was founded a |
gships of the Jet Age in the West, while the [[Soviet Union]] bloc countered with the [[Tupolev Tu-104]] and [[Tupolev Tu-124]] in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as [[Aeroflot]] and [[Interflug]]. The [[Vickers Viscount]] and [[Lockheed L-188 Electra]] inaugurated turboprop transport.
The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the [[Boeing 747]], [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]], and [[Lockheed L-1011]] inaugurated widebody ("jumbo jet") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The [[Tupolev Tu-144]] and its Western counterpart, [[Concorde]], made supersonic travel a reality. In 1972, [[Airbus]] began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range.
With deregulation in the U.S. beginning in 1978, barriers to entry were lowered for new entrants. Typically, a new wave of start-ups would enter during downturns in the normal 8-10 year business cycle. At that time, they find aircraft, financing, hangar and maintenance services, training all relatively inexpensive, and laid off staff from other companies eager and willing to take a job with the new company.
Alas, as the business cycle returned to normalcy, major airlines were able to dominate their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping the new startup. Only [[America West Airlines]] (now known as USAirways) has remained as a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.
In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Indeed, the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel, as many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining [[frequent flyer]] loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, for almost any points in the country. Air travel's advantages put intercity bus lines under pressure, and most have withered away.
By the 1980's, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.
Toward the end of the century, a new style of [[low-cost carrier|low cost airline]] was seen, offering a consistent, often high-quality product, using new aircraft models, at a price that was well-received. [[JetBlue]], [[AirTran Airways]], and other companies represented a serious challenge to legacy carriers, as their counterparts in Europe, Canada, and Asia did to legacy carriers in those regions. Their commercial viability also represented a serious cost threat to employees at legacy airlines, as they set the standard for wage rates in the industry that were a fraction of the prevailing wage.
Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. Today, airlines representing approximately one-half of total U.S. seat capacity are operating under Chapter 11 bankruptcy provisions.
==Regulatory considerations==
===Government regulation===
[[image:airindia.longshot.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Air India]] [[Boeing 747-400]]]]
Many countries have [[national airline]]s that are owned and operated by the government. Even fully privatized airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. Airline labor actions, for instance, are often halted by government intervention in order to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.
The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, the European Union, and Japan have "deregulated" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand.
The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets, and average fares tend to drop 20% or more, spurring new sources of demand. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.
As a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.
===International regulation===
[[image:singapore.b747.london.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Singapore Airlines]] [[Boeing 747]].]]
Groups such as the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the [[Bermuda Agreement]] between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.
Bilateral agreements are based on the "[[freedoms of the air]]," a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as [[cabotage]]). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.
In the 1990s, "[[open skies]]" agreements became more common, which take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the [[European Union]], whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.
==Economic considerations==
Although many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, most large airlines today are privately-owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles in order to maximize shareholder profit.
===Financing===
Airline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airline bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare [[Southwest Airlines]] and their reliance on a single airplane type (the [[Boeing]] 737 and derivatives), with the now bankrupt [[Eastern Airlines]] which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.
A second financial issue is that of hedging [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[fuel]] purchases, usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company but with the fuel price touching $70/barrel it has become biggest part of total airlines expenses.While [[hedging instruments]] can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000-2005 period.
===Operating costs===
In a mature industry with low fare new entrants and tiny operating margins, it is imperative that airline managers identify controllable costs.
Full-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs in order to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, insurance, and other costs. Thus all but a few cents on the dollar in ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.
Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed however due to a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes, and surcharges they have little or no control over, and these are passed through to various providers. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the originating country.
Analysis of the 1992-1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002)
In contrast, [[Southwest Airlines]] has been the most profitable of airline companie |
m by doing the Ickey Shuffle. After the Steelers beat the Bengals in the 1st round of playoffs the Steelers were noted chanting "Who-Dey!" followed by a "We dey!"
[[Paul Brown Stadium]] was built for the 2000 season using private and public money. In tribute to his father, Mike Brown refused corporate offers to have the stadium renamed for their company which became a trend in the NFL and other sports team around that time.
====Early 2000's Coaches====
[[Dick Lebeau]] lost his job as head coach after winning just two games throughout the 2002 season. Lebeau went 12-33 as head coach. His last season was a franchise worst 2-14 and had the worst winning percentage of all non-interim Bengal coaches of 26.67%. He returned to Pittsburgh as the defensive coordinator.
Current head coach [[Marvin Lewis]] won 8 and lost 8 in both the 2003 and the 2004 season. He secured the 1st winning season for the Bengal's franchise since 1991-92 playoff. Has not had a losing season since taking over. He has introduced season "themes", from "Do Your Job" in 2004-05 to "Keep on Digging" 2003-04.
:Defensive coordinators under Lewis were Leslie Frazier then followed by Chuck Bresnahan. Frazier, who was hired by Lewis in his first year, left the club citing personality differences and left to become a successful defensive coordinator for Chicago Bears. Bresnahan was brought in and the Bengal's turnover differential in his 1st year was a huge turnaround amounting to a +24 differential after the 12th game.
:Offensive coordinator Bob Bratkowski was held over from Dick Lebeau's coaching staff. In the years following Cincinnati has regained it's franchise-characteristic high-potency offense.
====Memorable players from the early 2000s====
*[[Carson Palmer]], 2002 [[Heisman Trophy]] Award winner. First Bengal's QB to have a 100+ passer rating for the season, and broke several team passing records in his 2nd year as a starter (attempts, completions, and touchdowns)
* '''The Johnsons''', wide receiver: [[Chad Johnson]], tailback: [[Rudi Johnson]], and fullback/lead blocker: [[Jeremi Johnson]] formed an offensive trio that propelled the Bengals' offense into it's high-standing.
:* Chad Johnson broke the team record for reception yards in consecutive years ('04 & '05 season, 1400+ yards)
:* Rudi Johnson broke the team record for rushing yards in consecutive years ('04 & '05 season)
*[[Willie Anderson (NFL)|Willie Anderson]] and [[Levi Jones]] are the left and right tackles. Willie Anderson has started a franchise record amount of consecutive games.
*[[Deltha O'Neal]] and [[Tory James]] alternated leading the Bengals in interceptions where one or both gained yearly recognition by making it into the Pro Bowl.
*[[Shayne Graham]] signed by the Bengals after being cut from 2 other teams, Graham set a Bengals record by making 88% (22 of 25) of his field goals in his first season with them. He made the [[pro bowl]] in 2005, and has not yet missed an extra point in his career.
====Early 2000s Games of Note====
*[[December 8]], [[2002]] - The [[Carolina Panthers]] drop 52 points on the lowly Bengals, the most ever relinquished by any Bengal team. The final score was 52-31.
*[[November 16]], [[2003]] - By week 11 of the 2003 regular season the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] were the only remaining undefeated team in the league, at 9-0. The Bengals had the worst record of any [[NFL]] team between 1991 and 2002, and at the time had a record of only 4-5 under rookie head coach [[Marvin Lewis]]. [[Chad Johnson]], Cincinnati's 2nd-year wide receiver, made headlines with a pre-game guarantee that the Bengals would win the game [http://cbs.sportsline.com/nfl/story/6820988]. The Bengals went on to beat the Chiefs, 24-19. After the game, [[Marvin Lewis]] declared, "The [[NFL]] is back in [[Cincinnati]]."
*[[October 25]], [[2004]] - With much fanfare from Cincinnati residents, [[Monday Night Football]] returned to Cincinnati after a fifteen-year absence. In their first MNF appearance in twelve years, the Bengals (1-4) were matched against the [[Denver Broncos]] (5-1), whose defense was ranked number one in the NFL. Considered a long shot, the Bengals defeated the Broncos, 23-10.
*[[November 28]], [[2004]] - The [[Cleveland Browns]] once again find themselves on the losing end of the [[Battle of Ohio]], losing 58-48 to the Bengals in the second-highest scoring game in [[NFL]] history (106 total points).
*[[December 5]], [[2004]] - In another hopeful sign for fans that the Bengals were truly shedding their losing ways, they beat the [[Baltimore Ravens]], 27-26. More importantly than the divisional win was the fact that it marked the first time since 1990 the Bengals had won a game on the road when facing a team with a winning record (an NFL record 42 straight losses).
*[[September 24]], [[2005]] - After forcing five [[interceptions]] the previous week against the Vikings, the Bengals intercepted five more this game against the Bears. In doing so, the team accomplished a feat that had not been done in 34 years. The last team to have back-to-back games with 5 or more interceptions was the 1971 [[Browns]]. Later in the season, they faced the [[Green Bay Packers]], another NFC North team, and also intercepted 5 passes on their way to victory.
*[[December 4]], [[2005]] - With a 38-31 win over the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], the Bengals assured themselves of the team's first winning season since 1990. Additionally, the team moved ahead of the Steelers by 2 games, taking a major step towards securing a playoff berth, and just as important, gained respect for the Bengals after years of futility.
*[[December 18]], [[2005]] - The Bengals clinch the AFC North title and their first playoff appearance in fifteen years with a 41-17 rout of the [[Detroit Lions]]. [[Carson Palmer]] (QB) sets a franchise record with 30 touchdown passes in a single season, [[Deltha O'Neal]] (CB) even sets a franchise record for most interceptions in a season with 10.
'''AFC Wild-Card Round'''
*[[January 8]], [[2006]] - The Bengals hosted their first ever playoff game at [[Paul Brown Stadium]], against the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]. Star quarterback [[Carson Palmer]] was injured on his second play from scrimmage, his first postseason pass attempt, (which was completed to rookie wide receiver [[Chris Henry]] for a Bengals postseason record play of 66 yards; Henry was also injured on that very play) with a torn ACL, and the team failed to rally around [[Jon Kitna]]. Multiple injuries and many fights marred the game demonstrating the intense friction due to familiarity and tension between the teams. The almost incestuous relationship between management and players (due to trades, mentoring, even players growing up in the same neighborhood) bind the teams closely together and are a great source of bitterness as well. Many predict that this game will escalate the rivalry between the Steelers and Bengals.
:This year neither team's home field advantage proved advantageous. In the series the home team lost every game. The Steelers defeated the Bengals in the wild-card playoff game, 31-17.
==Contributions to NFL Culture==
===The Ickey Shuffle===
The most commonly recognized contribution comes from the "'''Ickey Shuffle'''", a celebratory dance created by Bengals running back [[Ickey Woods]] in his rookie season of 1988 during the Bengals' Super Bowl run. This dance, done after Woods would score a touchdown, was the catalyst for the NFL instituting penalties against excessive celebratory performances (resulting in the [[backronym]] "No Fun League"), and before the 1989 season was over it was relegated to the sidelines. (although not before [[Darrell Waltrip]] used it in Victory Lane celebrations after winning the [[1989]] [[Daytona 500]])
===No Huddle Offense===
A '''[[No-Huddle Offense]]''' was commonly used by all teams when time in the game was running low. However, [[Sam Wyche]], the head coach of the Bengals in 1988, along with offensive coordinator [[Bruce Coslet]], made the high-paced offense the standard modality for the ball club regardless of time remaining. By quickly setting up for the next play (often within 5-10 seconds after the last play despite being afforded 45 seconds) this hindered the other teams' defense from substituting situational players, regrouping for tactics, and, some suggest, increased the defenses' rate of fatigue (This is attributed to the belief that the offense dictates when a play starts so they tend to be more mentally relaxed and prepared for the start of a play where the defense must remain on a different level of alert before the play starts). In response to this tactic the NFL instituted several rules related to this tactic:
* Allowing the defense ample time for substitutions
* If a player's injury causes the play-clock to stop, the player must sit out at least one play
* Charging a time-out to a team when a player is injured within a certain time period of the game
The tactic was used by the franchise from the late 80s while Sam Wyche was the coach. The main rivals for AFC supremacy were the [[Buffalo Bills]], coached by [[Marv Levy]]. Most of the high-profile games (the various games for AFC Conference titles and regular season games) between the two led to these changes in NFL rules.
Wyche recalled that before the '88 AFC title game the Buffalo Bills had seemingly convinced league officials to penalize the Bengals for running a no-huddle offense. In a statement made to the Bengals' press in 2005, he relayed "The NFL was nice enough to come to us an hour and 55 minutes before the game and tell us we would be given a 15-yard penalty every time we used it. Of course we had practiced it all week. We told them if they wanted to answer to the public for changing the competitive balance of the AFC championship game, that was up to them, but we were using it. They never d |
ment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IRC networks}}
The '''Undernet''' is one of the largest [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] networks. It was established in [[October]] [[1992]] as an experimental network running a modified version of the [[EFnet]] irc2.7 IRC server software, created in an attempt to make it less bandwidth consumptive and less chaotic, as [[netsplit|netsplits]] and takeovers were starting to plague EFnet.
Undernet was formed at a time when many small IRC networks were being started and subsequently disappearing; however, it managed to grow into one of the largest and oldest IRC networks despite some initial in-fighting and setbacks. It is notable as being the first network to utilize '''[[Internet relay chat#Abuse_prevention:_timestamping_vs._nick.2Fchannel_delay_protocol|timestamping]]''' in the IRC server protocol as a means to curb abuse.
Perhaps as a backlash against its "breakway" from EFnet, during the mid [[1990s]] Undernet managed to develop a reputation — which its members vehemently state was undeserved — as a haven for online criminals, pedophiles, and child molesters. For a period in [[1994]], Undernet was wracked by an ongoing series of flame wars and slanderous attacks by members of the infamous [[Westboro Baptist Church]]. Undernet survived this period relatively intact, however, and its popularity continues to the present day.
Undernet is one of the largest realtime chat networks in the world, with approximately 17 servers accepting client connections and serving more than 1 000 000 people weekly. The userbase spans all ages, nationalities and interests, providing a tremendous variety of channels, with many staff and volunteers to help out new users.
Undernet provides several support channels for those new to IRC and Undernet, for example '''#beginner''', '''#newbies''' or '''#help'''.
IRC clients can connect to Undernet via continental aliases such as <code>us.undernet.org</code> or <code>eu.undernet.org</code>, or any of a number of other servers.
== External links ==
* [http://www.undernet.org/ Undernet Homepage]
* [http://cservice.undernet.org/ Undernet Channel Service]
* [http://coder-com.undernet.org/ Undernet Coder Committee]
* [http://routing-com.undernet.org/ Undernet Routing Committee]
* [http://user-com.undernet.org/ Undernet User Committee]
* [http://www.undernet.org/servers.php Current Undernet servers]
* [http://www.user-com.undernet.org/documents/uhistory.php Undernet history]
* [http://help.undernet.org/ General IRC Help]
* [http://dmsetup.org/ Free Malware Assistance]
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<page>
<title>IRC/IRCNet</title>
<id>14714</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2004-03-05T02:30:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-> IRCnet</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[IRCnet]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>DALnet</title>
<id>14715</id>
<revision>
<id>39857446</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T09:27:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bbx</username>
<id>35341</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Dalvenjah -> dalvenjah (source ftp://ftp.dal.net/dalnet/document/official-help/history.txt)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings, see [[DALNET]].}}
{{IRC networks}}
'''DALnet''' is an [[Internet relay chat]] (IRC) [[Computer network|network]] founded in July [[1994]] by members of the [[EFNet]] [[Star Trek|#startrek]] channel. This new network was known as "dal's net", after the nickname used by the administrator of the first IRC server on the network, "dalvenjah", taken from the [[European dragon|dragon]] "Dalvenjah Foxfire", in a [[fantasy]] novel by [[Thorarinn Gunnarsson]]. The network was soon renamed from dal's net to DALnet.
At one point DALnet was one of the five biggest IRC networks. It is accessible by connecting with an [[IRC client]] to an active DALnet server on ports 6000 through 6669 and 7000.
From 25 users in July [[1994]], the number of users grew to 1,000 by November [[1995]], 5000 by June [[1996]], 10,000 by December [[1996]], 50,000 by October [[1999]], 100,000 in November [[2001]], and peaked around 142,000 in April [[2002]]. The number of servers grew from 2&ndash;4 when started, peaking at 44 in April [[2002]]. The network is currently populated by a stable population of around 40,000 users (neither growing nor shrinking appreciably) in about 18,000 channels, with 40 servers making up the network.
In contrast to other IRC networks of the time, in 1995 DALnet implemented "services", a system that enforced IRC nickname and channel registrations. Traditionally, on IRC, nobody can own a channel or a nickname; if no one is using it, it can be used by anyone who chooses to do so. On DALnet, however, this was no longer the case. This service—which many users saw as a way of firmly establishing their online identities—was a significant factor in DALnet's popularity and afforded the network a distinctive reputation among IRCers. While attempts to implement a similar system had been made before and other networks have since developed registration services of their own, at the time DALnet's successful decision to allow and enforce nickname and channel registration was considered to be unique and even controversial, as it went against established practice.
The network operation was severely disrupted in late [[2002]] and early [[2003]] due to [[distributed denial of service]] attacks. Added to the DDoS issues was the fact that the owner of tsunami.dal.net (the world's largest single IRC server, hosting more than 30,000 clients most of the time) delinked his servers (for personal reasons). The other servers on the network could not absorb the extra client load, leading to users' complete inability to connect to DALnet. The network was first crushed by attacks, and then by its own userbase. About 60% of DALnet's population moved to other IRC networks due to these extended connectivity issues.
In [[2003]], DALnet put up their first [[anycast]] servers under the name "The IX Concept", and made irc.dal.net resolve to the anycast IP. Since then, most new client servers linked are anycast.
DALnet has since recovered and remains functional, though it no longer tops the list of the most populated IRC networks. [[As of 2004]], DALnet is the seventh largest publicly monitored IRC network by average monthly user count.
==DALnet Recommended Help Channels==
* [http://help.dal.net/ An online centralized Help resource for the DALnetIRC Network]
* [http://help.dal.net/dnh/ #DALnetHelp - For DALnet Services Help]
* [http://help.dal.net/help/ #Help - For DALnet Basic IRC Commands for newbies]
* [http://help.dal.net/irchelp/ #IRCHelp - For all round help]
* [http://help.dal.net/operhelp/ #OPERHelp - For IRC Operator Assistance]
* [http://help.dal.net/helpdesk/ #helpdesk - For mIRC Scripting Help]
==External links==
* [http://www.dal.net/ DALnet web site]
* [http://www.internetnews.com/dev-news/article.php/1573551 Impact of the DDoS attacks on DALnet]
* [http://irc.netsplit.de/networks/details.php?net=DALnet&point=years DALnet stats] from [http://irc.netsplit.de/ irc.netsplit.de]
* [ftp://ftp.dal.net/dalnet/document/official-help/history.txt DALnet History]
* [http://www.weks.net/wiki/DALnet_IX_Concept IX Concept information]
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<page>
<title>BitchX</title>
<id>14716</id>
<revision>
<id>39589460</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T14:15:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.37.79.247</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[SSL]] to [[Secure Sockets Layer]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:BitchX logo - ACiD.png|right|thumb|180px|BitchX [[ANSI art|ANSI]] [[splash screen]] (one of several in rotation).]]
'''BitchX''' is a popular [[open source]] [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] [[Client (computing)|client]]. The initial implementation, written by "Trench" and "HappyCrappy", was a [[script (computer programming)|script]] for the [[IrcII]] chat client. It was converted to a program on its own right by panasync (Colten Edwards). BitchX 1.1 final was released in [[2004]]. It is written in [[C programming language|C]], and is a [[computer console|console]] application. A graphical interface is also available, which uses the [[GTK+]] toolkit. It works on most [[Unix]]-like operating systems, and is distributed under a [[BSD license]]. It is originally based on ircII and eventually it was merged into the [[Enhanced Programmable ircII Client|EPIC IRC client]]. It supports [[IPv6]], multiple servers and [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]], but not [[UTF-8]]. BitchX (often called just "BX" by fans) is well known for its remarkable (and often gross) random quit messages.
BitchX2 is the current project. While there is no current release to the public on the new code base, the project is leaning towards merging back to the current base version of Epic. For more information about this project please visit the links included in this article.
==See also==
*[[List of IRC clients]]
*[[Comparison of IRC clients]]
==External links==
[[image:Screenshot-6.png|right|thumb|180px|A typical [[Debian]] desktop, showing BitchX in the foreground.]]
* [http://www.bitchx.org/ BitchX website]
[[Category:IRC clients for Unix-like systems]]
[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Linux software]]
[[es:BitchX]]
[[fr:BitchX]]
[[hu:BitchX]]
[[pl:BitchX]]
[[fi:BitchX]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>MIRC</title>
<id>14717</id>
<r |
that terrorists could trade on the market and directly profit from their activities.
==Opinions==
Although there have been instances of massive losses, most notably by [[Long-Term Capital Management]], these have not had repercussions. [[Federal Reserve Board]] chairman [[Alan Greenspan]] commented in 2003 that he believed that the use of derivatives has softened the impact of the [[economic downturn]] at the beginning of the 21st century.
Because derivatives offer the possibility of large rewards, many individuals have the strong desire to invest in derivatives. Most financial planners caution against this, pointing out that an investor in derivatives often assumes a great deal of risk, and therefore investments in derivatives must be made with caution, especially for the small investor ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2817995.stm]). One should keep in mind that one purpose of derivatives is as a form of [[insurance]], to move risk from someone who cannot afford a major loss to someone who could absorb the loss, or is able to hedge against the risk by buying some other derivative.
[[Economist]]s generally believe that derivatives have a positive impact on the [[economic system]] by allowing the buying and selling of risk. However, many economists are worried that derivatives may cause an economic crisis at some point in the future. Since someone loses money while someone else gains money with a derivative, under normal circumstances, trading in derivatives should not adversely affect the economic system.
There is the danger, however, that someone would lose so much money that they would be unable to pay for their losses. This might cause chain reactions which could create an economic crisis. In 2002, legendary investor [[Warren Buffett]] commented in an interview with the ''[[New York Times]]'' that he had accumulated his wealth without the use of derivatives and that he regarded them as 'financial weapons of mass destruction', an allusion to the phrase '[[weapons of mass destruction]]' relating to physical weapons which had wide currency at the time.
==Glossary==
''From: [http://www.occ.treas.gov/deriv/deriv.htm Quarterly Derivatives Fact Sheet]''
*[[Bilateral Netting]]: A legally enforceable arrangement between a bank and a counterparty that creates a single legal obligation covering all included individual contracts. This means that a bank&#8217;s obligation, in the event of the default or insolvency of one of the parties, would be the net sum of all positive and negative fair values of contracts included in the bilateral netting arrangement.
*[[Credit derivative]]: A contract which transfers [[credit risk]] from a protection buyer to a credit protection seller. Credit derivative products can take many forms, such as credit default options, credit limited notes and total return swaps.
*'''Derivative''': A financial contract whose value is derived from the performance of assets, interest rates, currency exchange rates, or indexes. Derivative transactions include a wide assortment of financial contracts including structured debt obligations and deposits, swaps, futures, options, caps, floors, collars, forwards and various combinations thereof.
*[[Exchange-traded derivative contracts]]: Standardized derivative contracts (e.g. [[futures contract]]s and [[options]]) that are transacted on an organized futures exchange.
*[[Gross negative fair value]]: The sum of the fair values of contracts where the bank owes money to its counterparties, without taking into account netting. This represents the maximum losses the bank&#8217;s counterparties would incur if the bank defaults and there is no netting of contracts, and no bank collateral was held by the counterparties.
*[[Gross positive fair value]]: The sum total of the fair values of contracts where the bank is owed money by its counterparties, without taking into account netting. This represents the maximum losses a bank could incur if all its counterparties default and there is no netting of contracts, and the bank holds no counterparty collateral.
*[[High-risk mortgage security|High-risk mortgage securities]]: Securities where the price or expected average life is highly sensitive to interest rate changes, as determined by the [[FFIEC]] policy statement on high-risk mortgage securities.
*[[Notional amount]]: The nominal or [[face amount]] that is used to calculate payments made on swaps and other risk management products. This amount generally does not change hands and is thus referred to as notional.
*'''[[over-the-counter (finance)|Over-the-counter]] derivative contracts''' : Privately negotiated derivative contracts that are transacted off organized futures exchanges.
*[[Structured notes]]: Non-mortgage-backed [[debt securities]], whose cash flow characteristics depend on one or more indices and/or have embedded forwards or options.
*[[Total risk-based capital]]: The sum of [[tier 1]] plus [[tier 2]] capital. Tier 1 capital consists of [[common shareholders equity]], [[perpetual preferred shareholders equity]] with [[noncumulative dividends]], [[retained earnings]], and [[minority interest]]s in the equity accounts of [[consolidated subsidiaries]]. Tier 2 capital consists of [[subordinated (debt)|subordinated debt]], intermediate-term [[preferred stock]], cumulative and long-term preferred stock, and a portion of a bank&#8217;s [[allowance for loan and lease losses]].
==See also==
*[[Derivatives market]]s
*[[Financial engineering]]
*[[Financial mathematics]]
*[[Herfindahl index]]
*[[Leverage (finance)|Financial Leverage]]
===Associations===
*[[International Swaps and Derivatives Association]]
===Lists===
*[[List of finance topics]]
==Footnote==
*{{mnb|afgh|1}}'''BIS survey''': The [[Bank for International Settlements]], in their semi-annual [http://www.bis.org/publ/otc_hy0505.htm OTC derivatives market activity] report from May 2005 that, at the end of December 2004, the total notional amounts outstanding of OTC derivatives was $248 trillion with a [[gross market value]] of $9.1 trillion. ''See also [http://www.bis.org/press/p050520.htm OTC derivatives markets activity in the second half of 2004]''.)
*{{mnb|foweek|2}}'''Futures and Options Week''': According to figures published in F&O Week [[10 October]] [[2005]]. See also [http://www.fow.com FOW Website].
==External links==
===Associations===
*[http://www.futuresindustry.org/ FIA: Futures Industry Association]
*[http://www.isda.org/ ISDA: Website of International Swaps and Derivatives Association]
*[http://www.occ.treas.gov/ OCC - Comptroller of the Currency, Administrator of National Banks]
*[http://www.bis.org/ Bank for International Settlements]
===Risk===
*[http://www.quantnotes.com/fundamentals/ Quantnotes.com] - introductory articles covering mathematical finance
*[http://www.riskglossary.com/ Riskglossary.com] - an online glossary, encyclopedia, and resource locator
*[http://www.derivativeone.com Option Valuation and Calculators], DerivativeOne.com Derivatives Valuation
*[http://www.riskworx.com/res_inst.php Riskworx.com] - discussion of the application and theory of derivatives
===Software===
* [http://www.orcsoftware.com Orc Software] - Software for derivatives trading
===Articles===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2817995.stm BBC NEWS | Business | Buffett warns on investment 'time bomb']
*[http://www.fenews.com/fen41/teach_notes/teaching-notes.html A Brief History of Derivatives]
===Forums===
*[http://www.wilmott.com wilmott.com] - Popular forum for practitioners, researchers and students in quantitative finance. Also research articles and jobs.
*[http://www.deriboard.com DeriBoard.com] - Discussion board for specialists, researchers and students of financial derivatives.
*[http://www.derivativesportal.org derivativesportal.org] - The portal has a forum and lists all relevant studies and papers written about financial derivatives and risk management and is funded by the IMC Foundation for derivatves, a not for profit organisation promoting the knowledge of derivatives in the academic world and financial industry.
[[Category:Derivatives| ]]
[[de:Derivat (Wirtschaft)]]
[[fr:Dérivé]]
[[nl:Afgeleide producten]]
[[ru:Производный финансовый инструмент]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disney</title>
<id>9136</id>
<revision>
<id>41333125</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T17:32:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Good vs. Bad</username>
<id>993504</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Disney''' may refer to:
*[[The Walt Disney Company]] and its divisions
**[[Walt Disney Pictures]]
**[[Walt Disney Feature Animation]]
**[[The Disney Channel]]
**[[Walt Disney Theatrical]]
**[[Walt Disney Television]]
**[[Walt Disney Television Animation]]
The '''Disney family''':
*The [[Disney family]], family members of the Disney empire:
* [[Walt Disney]], co-founder of The Walt Disney Company.
* [[Roy Oliver Disney]], Walt's brother and co-founder of The Walt Disney Company
*[[Roy Edward Disney]], son of Roy Oliver and leader of the Save Disney campaign
*[[Lillian Disney]], Walt's wife.
*[[Elias Disney]], Walt's father.
'''Locations''':
*[[Disney, Oklahoma]].
*Disney Street, a street in [[London]].
{{disambig}}
[[es:Disney]]
[[eo:Disney]]
[[id:Disney]]
[[it:Disney (disambigua)]]
[[nl:Disney]]
[[simple:Disney]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Divine Right of Kings</title>
<id>9137</id>
<revision>
<id>41640312</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:52:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.168.151.235</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Added link to german article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:<span class="dablink">''For other uses of this term, see [[{{PAGENAME}} (disambiguation)]].''</span>
The '''Divine Right of Kings''' is a [[Europe]]an [[politics|political]] and [[religion|religious]] doct |
n trees, again, linked in a transitive trust hierarchy. Domains are identified by their [[Domain Name System|DNS]] name structure, the namespace. A domain has a single DNS name.
The objects held within a domain can be grouped into containers called Organizational Units (OUs). OUs give a domain a hierarchy, ease its administration, and can give a semblence of the structure of the AD's company in organisational or geographical terms. OUs can contain OUs - indeed, domains are containers in this sense - and can hold multiple nested OUs. Microsoft recommends as few domains as possible in AD and a reliance on OUs to produce structure and improve the implementation of policies and administration. The OU is the common level at which to apply [[group policies]], which are AD objects themselves called Group Policy Objects (GPOs), although policies can also be applied to domains or sites (see below). The OU is the lowest level at which administrative powers can be delegated.
As a further subdivision AD supports the creation of ''Sites'', which are physical, rather than logical, groupings defined by one or more IP subnets. Sites distinguish between locations connected by low-speed (e.g. [[Wide area network|WAN]], [[Virtual private network|VPN]]) and high-speed (e.g. [[local area network|LAN]]) connections. Sites can contain one or more domains and domains can contain one or more sites. This is important to control network traffic generated by replication.
The actual division of the company's information infrastructure into a hierarchy of one or more domains and top-level OUs is a key decision. Common models are by business, by geographical location, or by IT roles. These models are also often used in combination.
===Physical structure and Replication===
Physically the AD information is held on one or more equal peer [[domain controller]]s (DCs), replacing the [[Windows NT|NT]] PDC/BDC format (although there is a 'more equal' ''[[flexible single master operation]]'' (FSMO) server for some operations, which can simulate a PDC). Each DC holds a single domain partition and a read-and-write copy of the AD, changes on one computer being synchronized (converged) between all the DC computers by ''[[multi-master replication]]''. Servers without AD are called Member Servers.
Unlike earlier versions of Windows which used [[NetBIOS]] to communicate, Active Directory is fully integrated with DNS and [[TCPIP|TCP/IP]] - indeed DNS is ''required''. To be fully functional, the DNS server must support [[SRV record|SRV resource records]] or service records.
AD replication is 'pull' rather than 'push'. The AD creates a replication topology that uses the defined ''sites'' to manage traffic. Intrasite replication is frequent and automatic through the ''Knowledge Consistency Checker'' (KCC), while intersite replication is configurable depending on the quality of each site link - a different 'cost' can be given to each link (e.g. [[DS3]], [[T1]], [[ISDN]] etc.) and replication traffic limited, scheduled, and routed accordingly. Replication data may be transitively passed through several sites on same-protocol ''site link bridges'', if the 'cost' is low, although AD automatically costs a direct site-to-site link lower than transitive connections. Site-to-site replication is between a ''bridgehead server'' in each site, which then replicate the changes to other DCs within the site.
With more than one domain the AD is not replicated across the forest; a global catalog (GC) is created, containing all the objects in the forest but only a subset of their attributes, a partial replica. The catalog is held on defined global catalog servers, to deal with inter-domain queries or pass requests across. Intra-domain convergence is by [[Remote procedure call|RPC]] over [[Internet Protocol|IP]], forestwide convergence is by [[SMTP]].
[[Flexible single master operation|FSMO]] handles situations where multimaster replication would be inadequate. There are five FSMO tasks - the previously noted PDC emulation, relative ID master, and infrastructure master are domainwide roles; schema master and domain naming master are forestwide roles. In any domain there can be only one server handling a specific FSMO task.
The AD is split into three different stores or ''partitions''. The ''Schema'' which is the template for the entire AD, defining all object types, their classes, attributes, and attribute syntax (all trees are together in the forest because they share an identical schema). The ''Configuration'', which is the structure of the AD forest and trees. The ''Domain'', which holds all the information on the object created in that domain. The first two stores replicate to all domain controllers, while only a portion of each domain store is shared - as the global catalog with other domain controllers - as the domain boundaries are the limits for full domain object replication.
The AD [[database]], the ''directory store'', in Windows 2000 uses the [[Microsoft JET Blue|JET Blue-based]] [[Extensible Storage Engine]] (ESE98), limited to 16 terabytes and 1 billion objects in each domain controller's database (a theoretical limit, only 100 million or so have been tested. NT4's [[Security Account Manager]] could support no more that 40,000 objects). Called NTDS.DIT, it has two main tables: the ''data table'' and the ''link table''. In Windows 2003 a third main table was added for security descriptor single instancing.
==Naming==
AD supports [[Universal Naming Convention|UNC]] (\), [[Uniform resource locator|URL]] (/), and LDAP URL names for object access. AD internally uses the LDAP version of the [[X.500]] naming structure.
Every object has a '''''Distinguished name''''' (DN), so a printer object called HPLaser3 in the OU Marketing and the domain foo.org, would have the DN: ''CN=HPLaser3,OU=Marketing,DC=foo,DC=org'' where ''CN'' is common name and ''DC'' is domain object class, DNs can have many more than four parts. The object can also have a '''''Canonical name''''', essentially the DN in reverse, without identifiers, and using slashes: ''foo.org/Marketing/HPLaser3''. To identify the object within its container the '''''Relative distinguished name''''' (RDN) is used: ''CN=HPLaser3''. Each object also has a '''''Globally unique identifier''''' (GUID) an unique and unchanging 128-bit string which is used by AD for search and replication. Certain objects also have a '''''User principal name''''' (UPN), an ''objectname''@''domain name'' form.
<!-- Trust doesn't belong in the middle of the chapter about Structure. This is temporary here. -->
==Trust==
<div id="trust"> </div>To allow users in one domain to access resources in another, AD uses trust. Trust is automatically produced when domains are created. The forest sets the default boundaries of trust, not the domain, and implicit trust is automatic. As well as two-way transitive trust, AD trusts can be ''shortcut'' (joins two domains in different trees, transitive, one- or two-way), ''forest'' (transitive, one- or two-way), ''realm'' (transitive or nontransitive, one- or two-way), or ''external'' (nontransitive, one- or two-way) in order to connect to other forests or non-AD domains. AD uses the [[Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos]] V5 protocol, although [[NTLM]] is also supported and web clients use SSL/TLS.
=== Trusts in Windows 2000 (native mode) ===
Simply speaking, AD uses trust to allow users in one domain to have access to files in another. The AD trust relationship is a mechanism by which users in one domain can be authenticated by another domain and then be allowed (or disallowed) access to resources within it. Each Windows domain has implicit, two-way, transitive trust relationships with other domains. Such trusts are automatically maintained between domains. For example, if domain A trusts domain B, and B trusts C, then:
* Domain A trusts domain C because trusts are transitive. Users from domain A can access files from domain C.
* Domain C trusts domain A because trusts are two-way. Users from domain C can access files from domain A.
Domains can also have explicit, manually created trust relationships. Explicit trusts can be:
* Shortcut trusts - joins any two domains within the same forest, in order to reduce access time to resource. The shortcut trust is transitive and one-way.
* External trusts – joins two domains in different forests, allows users from one forest to have access to resources from another forest. The external trust is non-transitive, non-Kerberos and one-way.
==ADAM==
'''Active Directory Application Mode''' (ADAM) is a light-weight implementation of Active Directory. ADAM is capable of running as a simple user service. Due to its small resource requirements, multiple ADAM instances are able to run on the same server. The API is identical to that of a full-blown Active Directory implementation, so developers do not need to learn new skills to utilize it.
==See also==
*[[Active Directory Service Interfaces]]
*[[Windows Open Services Architecture]]
*[[Directory Enabled Networks]]
*[[Microsoft Directory Synchronization Services]]
*[[Group Policy]]
==Notes==
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<div style="font-size: 75%">
# {{note|SchemaObjects}} "Windows Server 2003: A |
. It made first mention of the organisation treating "the armed forces of the enemy &mdash; whether soldiers or policemen &mdash; exactly as a ''national army'' would treat the members of an invading army".{{ref|mac2}}
An article in ''An tÓglách'' stated that
''"The Irish Government claims the same power and authority as any other lawfully constituted Government; it sanctions the employment by the Irish Volunteers of the most drastic measures against the enemies of Ireland . . . England must be given the choice of evacuating the country or holding it by foreign garrison, with a perpetual state of war in existence."''{{ref|mac3}}
In the statement the new relationship between the Aireacht and the IRA was defined clearly.
* The Government was defined as possessing the same power and authority as a normal government.
* ''It'', and not the IRA, sanctions the IRA campaign;
* It explicitly spoke of a ''state of war''.
[[Image:Eamondv.jpg|left|thumb|The Príomh Aire (later President of the Republic, Eamon de Valera<br><small>He battled to bring the IRA under government control.</small>]]
As part of the ongoing strategy to take control of the IRA, Brugha proposed to [[Dáil Éireann]] on [[20 August]] [[1919]] that the Volunteers were to be asked, at this next convention, to swear allegiance to the Dáil. He further proposed that members of the Dáil themselves should swear the same oath. On the [[25 August]] Collins wrote to the Príomh Aire, Eamon de Valera, to inform him "the Volunteer affair is now fixed".{{ref|mac3}}
However, a power struggle continued between Brugha and Collins, both cabinet ministers, over who had the greater influence. Brugha was nominally the superior as Minister for Defence, but Collins's powerbase came from his position as Director of Organisation of the IRA and as his key powerbase as a member of the Supreme Council of the IRB. De Valera too resented Collins's clear power and influence, which he saw as coming from the secretive IRB than from his position as a [[Teachta Dála]] (TD) and minister in the Aireacht. Brugha and de Valera both urged the IRA to undertake larger, more conventional military actions for the propaganda effect, but were ignored by Collins and Mulcahy. Brugha at one stage proposed the assassination of the entire British cabinet. This was also discounted due to its presumed negative effect on British public opinion. Moreover, many members of the Dail, notably [[Arthur Griffith]] did not approve of IRA violence and would have preferred a campaign of passive resistance to British rule. The Dail belatedly accepted responsability for IRA actions in April 1921, just three months before the end of the [[Irish War of Independence]].
In practice, the IRA was comander by Collins, with [[Richard Mulcahy]] as second in command. These men were able to issue orders and directives to IRA guerrilla units around the country and at times to send arms and organisers to specific areas. However, because of the localised and irregular character of he war, they were only able to exert limited control over local IRA commanders such as [[Tom Barry]], [[Liam Lynch (general)|Liam Lynch]] in Cork and [[Sean McEoin]] in Longford.
==The War of Independence==
{{main article|[[Anglo-Irish War]]}}
===IRA campaign and organisation===
The IRA fought a guerrilla war against the Crown forces in Ireland from 1919 to July 1921. The most intense period of the war was from November 1920 to July 1921, when over thee quarters of the 1,500 or who died in the war were killed. The IRA campaign can broadly be split into thee phases. The first, in 1919 involved the re-organisation of the [[Irish Volunteers]] as a guerrilla army. Organisers such as [[Ernie O'Malley]] were sent around ht country to set up viable guerrilla units. On paper, there were 100,000 or so Volunteers enrolled after the conscription crisis of 1918. However, only about 15,000 of these participated in the guerrilla war. In 1919, Collins, the IRA's Director of Intelligence, organised the "Squad" - an assassination unit based in [[Dublin]] which killed Police involved in Intelligence work. In addition, ther were some arms raids on [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] barracks for arms. By the end of 1919, four [[Dublin Metropolitan Police]] and 11 RIC men had been killed. The RIC abandoned most of their smaller rural barracks in late 1919. Around 400 of these were burned in a co-ordinated IRA operation around the country in April 1920.
The second phase of the IRA campaign, roughly from January to July 1920, involved attacks on the fortified Police barracks located in the towns. Between January and June 1920, sixteen of these were destroyed and twenty nine badly damaged. Several events of late 1920 greatly escalated the conflict. Firstly, the British declared [[martial law]] in parts of the country -allowing for [[internment]] and executions of IRA men. Secondly they deployed paramilitary forces the [[Black and Tans]] and [[Auxiliary Division]] and more [[British Army]] personell into the country. Thus, the third phase of the war (roughly August 1920 - July 1921) involved the IRA taking on a greatly expanded British force, moving away from attacking well defended barracks and instead using [[ambush]] tactics. To this end the IRA was re-organised into "flying columns" - permanent guerrilla units, usually about 20 stong, though sometimes bigger. In rural areas, the flying columns usually had bases in remote mountainous areas.
While most areas of the country saw some violence in 1919-1921, the brunt of the war was fought in Dublin and the southern province of [[Munster]]. In Munster, the IRA carried out a significant number of successfull actions against British troops, for instance the ambushing and killing of 18 Auxilliaries by [[Tom Barry]]'s column at Kilmicheal in west Cork in November 1920, or [[Liam Lynch (general)|Liam Lynch]]'s men killing 13 British soldiers near [[Millstreet]] early in the next year. At [[Crossbarry]] in 1921, 200 or so of Barry's men fought a sizeable engagement with a British column of 1,200, escaping from the British encircling manouvre. In Dublin, the "Squad" and elements of the IRA Dublin Brigade were amalgamated into the "Active Service Unit", under [[Oscar Traynor]], which tried to carry out at least three attacks on British troops a day. Usually, these consisted of shooting or grenade atacks on British patrols. Outside of Dublin and Munster, there were only isolated areas of intense activity. For instance, the [[county Longford]] IRA under [[Sean MacEoin]] carried out a number of well planned ambushes and successfully defended the village of [[Ballinalee]] in a three hour gun battle against Black and Tan reprisals. In [[Mayo]], large scale guerrilla action did break out until spring 1921, when two British forces were ambushed and mauled at [[Carrowkennedy ambush|Carrowkennedy]] and [[Tourmakeady]]. Elsewhere, fighting was more sporadic and less intense.
In [[Belfast]], the war had a character all of it own. The area had a Protestant and Unionist majority and IRA actions were responded to with ferocious reprisals agaisnt the Catholic population, including killings and the burning of many homes. The IRA in Belfast and the north generally, was therefore mostly involved in protecting the Catholic community from [[loyalists]] and state forces. The violence in Belfast alone, which continued long after the truce in the rest of the country, killed around 450 people, mostly civilians.
In April 1921, the IRA was again re-organised, in line with the [[Dail]]'s endorsement of its actions, along the lines of a regular army. [[Divisions]] were created based on region, with commanders being given responsability, in theory, for large geographical areas. In practice,this had little effect on the localised nature of the [[guerrilla warfare]].
By the end of the war, in July 1921, the IRA was very hard pressed by the deployment of more British troops into the most active areas and a chronic shortage of arms and ammunition. It has been estimated that the IRA had only about 3000 rifles (mostly captured from the British) during the war, with a larger number of [[shotguns]] and pistols. An ambitious plan to arms from [[Italy]] in 1921 collapsed when the money did not reach the arms dealers. Towards the end of the war, some [[Thompson submachine gun]]s were imported from the [[USA]], however 450 of these were intercepted by the American authorities and the remainder only reached Irleand shortly before th Truce.
By June 1921, Collins's assessment was that the IRA was within weeks, possibly even days, of collapse. It had few weapons or ammunition left. Moreover, alomst 5000 IRA men had been imprisoned or interned and over 500 killed. Collins and Mulcahy estimated that the number of effective guerrilla fighters was down to 2-3000. However in the summer of 1921, the war was abruptly ended.
===Atrocities on both sides===
The [[Anglo-Irish War|Irish War of Independence]] was a brutal and bloody affair, with violence and acts of extreme brutality on both sides. The British sent hundreds of [[World War I]] veterans to assist the RIC. The veterans at first wore a combination of black police uniforms and tan army uniforms (because of shortages), which, according to one [[etymology]], inspired the nickname ''[[Black and Tans]]''. The brutality of the '[[Black and Tans]]' is now legendary, although the most excessive repression attributed to the Crown's forces was often that of the [[Auxiliary Division]] of the Constabulary. One of the strongest critics of the Black and Tans was King [[George V of the United Kingdom]]. When the [[Lord Mayor of Cork]] [[Terence MacSwiney]] lay dying on [[hunger strike]] the King personally intervened to try to get MacSwiney's release from gaol.
[[Image:Blacktans.jpg|300px|thumb|The Black and Tans]]
Other critics of B |
ny]] launched an attack on the Netherlands and Belgium and overran most of the country quickly, fighting against a poorly-equipped Dutch army. By [[May 14]], fighting was only occurring in a few isolated locations. However, on that very day, the [[Luftwaffe]] bombed [[Rotterdam]], the second largest city of the Netherlands, killing about 800 people and destroying large parts of the city, leaving 78,000 homeless. Following the bombardment and German threats of the same for [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], the Netherlands capitulated on [[May 15]] (except the province of [[Zeeland]]). The royal family and some military forces fled to [[Britain]]. Some members of the royal family eventually moved to [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]] until the Netherlands was liberated, and [[Princess Margriet of the Netherlands|Princess Margriet]] was born during this Canadian exile.
Persecution of [[Jew]]s, of which about 140,000 lived in the Netherlands at the beginning of the war, started shortly after the invasion. At the end of the war, only 40,000 Jews were still alive. Of the 100,000 Jews that didn't hide, only 1000 survived the war. [[Anne Frank]], who later gained world-wide fame when her diary, written in the ''Achterhuis'' (''backhouse''), while hiding from the Nazis, was found and published, died shortly before the liberation of her camp on [[May 5]], [[1945]].
Japanese forces invaded the [[Dutch East Indies]] on [[January 11]], [[1942]]. The Dutch surrendered on [[March 8]], after Japanese troops landed on [[Java island|Java]]. Dutch citizens were captured and put to work in labour camps. However, many Dutch ships and military personnel managed to reach [[Australia]], from where they were able to fight against the Japanese.
In Europe, after the [[Allies of WWII|Allies]] landed in [[Normandy]] in June 1944, they proceeded quickly towards the Dutch border. On [[17 September]] a daring operation, [[Operation Market Garden]], was staged to make a quick incursion into the southern Netherlands and capture bridges across the three main rivers. The bridge at [[Arnhem]], across the [[Rhine]], could however not be captured. The part south of the rivers was liberated in the period September&ndash;November 1944. However, the rest of the country, with a major part of the population, wasn't liberated until May 1945. The winter 1944&ndash;1945 was very harsh, and many Dutch starved, giving the winter the name ''[[Hongerwinter]]'' (Hunger winter). On [[May 5]], [[1945]], following Allied victories in Nazi Germany, Nazi Germany finally surrendered, signing the surrender to the Dutch at [[Wageningen]]. To this day, [[Canada]]'s role in the nation's liberation, as well as its role in providing a safe haven for the royal family during the war, has led to a warm relationship between the nations that is deeply honoured.
===Post-war years===
[[Image:Id-map.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Indonesia]], the former [[Dutch East Indies]], had been a very valuable resource, and the Dutch feared its independence would lead to an economic downfall.]]
Two days after the surrender of Japan, most of the Dutch East Indies declared its independence as [[Indonesia]]. A confusing phase followed, known as the [[Indonesian National Revolution]], with the Netherlands recognising the new country on the one hand, while fighting the Indonesian nationalists in two wars, named ''politionele acties'' ("police actions"). Increasing international pressure led the Netherlands to eventually withdraw. Indonesia formally gained independence on [[December 27]], [[1949]]. Part of the former Dutch East Indies, namely the western part of [[New Guinea]], remained under Dutch control as [[Netherlands New Guinea]] until 1961 when Indonesia invaded the region.
Although it was originally expected that the loss of the [[Indies]] would lead to an economic downfall, the reverse proved to be true, and in the 1950s and [[1960s|60s]] the Dutch economy experienced a near unprecedented growth. In fact, the demand for labour was so strong, that immigration was actively encouraged, first from [[Italy]] and [[Spain]]; then later on, in larger numbers, from [[Turkey]] and [[Morocco]]. Combined with the immigration from (former) colonies like [[Indonesia]], [[Surinam]] and [[Netherlands Antilles]], this meant that the Netherlands was becoming a [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] country.
The [[1960s|60s]] and [[1970s|70s]] were a time of great social and cultural changes. Such as rapid ''[[pillarization|ontzuiling]]'' (literally: depillarisation), a term that describes the decay of the old divisions along class and religious lines (which had lead to things like separate education and separate TV broadcasts for Catholics, Protestants, socialists and liberals). Youths, and students in particular, rejected the traditional morale, and pushed for change in matters like [[women's rights]], [[sexuality]] and [[environmental issues]]. Today, the Netherlands is regarded as a very [[liberalism|liberal]] country, considering [[drug policy of the Netherlands|its drugs policy]] and [[Euthanasia#The Netherlands|its legalisation of euthanasia]]. [[same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|Same-sex marriage]] became permitted on [[1 April]] [[2001]].
In 1952 the Netherlands were among the founders of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]], which would over time evolve into the [[European Union]]. The Netherlands is an industrialised nation but also a large exporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding member of [[NATO]] and participated in the introduction of the [[euro]] in 1999. In recent years the Dutch have often been a driving force behind the integration of European countries in the European Union.
On [[6 May]] [[2002]], the murder on [[Pim Fortuyn]], a right-wing [[populism|populist]] calling for a very strict policy on immigration, shocked the country. His party became a major political force after the elections, significantly changing the political landscape. However, infighting within the party caused them to lose much of their following in elections the next year. Another murder that drew much attention took place on [[2 November]] [[2004]], when film director and publicist [[Theo van Gogh]] was assassinated by a Dutch-Moroccan youth with radical Islamic beliefs. This sparked debate on the existence of [[radical Islam]] in the Netherlands, and on immigration and integration (or lack thereof) as well.
See also: [[Netherlands/2000]], [[Netherlands/2001]]
==See also==
*[[Netherlands]]
*[[Provinces of the Netherlands]]
*[[Politics of the Netherlands]]
*[[History of religion in the Netherlands]]
*[[Geography of the Netherlands]]
*[[Economy of the Netherlands]]
*[[Demographics of the Netherlands]]
*[[Culture of the Netherlands]]
*[[Battle of the Netherlands]]
*[[Dutch monarchy]]
*[[Dutch golden age]]
*[[Dutch East Indies]]
*[[Dutch Empire]]
==References==
*[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World'' vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' 1984.
*[[Jonathan Israel|Israel, Jonathan]], ''The Dutch Republic. Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806''
*[[Simon Schama|Schama, Simon]], ''The Embarrassment of Riches''
*[http://home.zonnet.nl/van.duijvenbode/en/geschnl-o.htm Short survey of the Dutch history]
*[http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/Nederlands/default.htm De Tachtigjarige Oorlog (in Dutch)]
*[http://www.geschiedenis.com/index3.html Hoofdstukken uit de Nederlandse geschiedenis (in Dutch)]
*[http://www.20eeuwennederland.nl/periodes/ Chronologisch overzicht van de Nederlandse geschiedenis (in Dutch)]
==External links==
*[http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/ Het geheugen van Nederland (in Dutch)]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1043528.stm Timeline from 1914]
*[http://www.niod.nl/ Netherlands Institute for War Documentation]
*[http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/index2.html The Netherlands in prehistory]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14971 History of Holland, George Edmundson, 1922, Project Gutenberg EBook.]
[[Category:History of the Netherlands|*]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Netherlands]]
{{Link FA|nl}}
[[bg:История на Холандия]]
[[ca:Història dels Països Baixos]]
[[de:Geschichte der Niederlande]]
[[es:Historia de los Países Bajos]]
[[fr:Histoire des Pays-Bas]]
[[fy:Skiednis fan Nederlân]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Nederland]]
[[ja:オランダの歴史]]
[[pt:História dos Países Baixos]]
[[fi:Alankomaiden historia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harold and Maude</title>
<id>13290</id>
<revision>
<id>41711603</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:48:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ummit</username>
<id>328950</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Harold and Maude|
image = Harold&Maude.jpg |
director = [[Hal Ashby]] |
writer = [[Colin Higgins]] |
starring = [[Ruth Gordon]]<br>[[Bud Cort]] |
producer = [[Colin Higgins]]<br>[[Charles B. Mulvehill]] |
movie_music = [[Cat Stevens]] |
distributor = [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]] |
released = [[December 20]], [[1971]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
runtime = 91 min. |
language = [[English language|English]] |
imdb_id = 0067185 |
music = [[Cat Stevens]]|
awards = |
budget = $1,200,000 (estimated)|
}}
'''''Harold and Maude''''' is a [[1971]] [[film|movie]], directed by [[Hal Ashby]]. The film features both dark and light humor, social satire (including anti-[[war]]), promotes the notion of living life to its fullest, and has long had a [[cult film|cult]] following. The film is number 45 on the [[American Film Institute]]'s [[AFI 100 Funniest Movies|list of 100 Funniest Movies]] and in [[1997]], it was selected for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]] of the [[Library of Congress]].
The film was a comme |
the date of Easter]] was introduced.
Lilius originally proposed that the 10 day correction should be implemented by deleting the Julian leap day on each of its ten occurrences during a period of 40 years, thereby providing for a gradual return of the equinox to [[21 March]]. However, Clavius's opinion was that the correction should take place in one move and it was this advice which prevailed with Gregory. Accordingly, when the new calendar was put in use, the error accumulated in the 13 centuries since the Council of Nicaea was corrected by a deletion of ten days. The last day of the Julian calendar was [[4 October]] [[1582]] and this was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar [[15 October]] [[1582]]. Nevertheless, the dates "[[5 October]] [[1582]]" to "[[14 October]] [[1582]]" (inclusive) are still valid in virtually all countries because even most Roman Catholic countries did not adopt the new calendar on the date specified by the bull, but months or even years later (the last in 1587).
===Beginning of the year===
During the [[Middle Ages]] [[1 January]] was given the name ''[[New Year's Day]]'' (or an equivalent name) in all [[Western Europe]]an countries (those with predominantly Catholic populations), even while most of those countries began their numbered year on [[25 December]] (the Nativity of [[Jesus]]), then [[25 March]] (the Incarnation of Jesus), and even [[Easter]], as in [[France]]. This name was the result of always displaying the months of the medieval calendar from [[January]] to [[December]] (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days each), just like the Romans did. Furthermore, all Western European countries (except for a few [[Italy|Italian]] states) shifted the first day of their numbered year to [[1 January]] while they were still using the Julian calendar, ''before'' they adopted the Gregorian calendar, many during the sixteenth century. Eastern European countries (most of them with populations showing allegiance to the [[orthodoxy|Orthodox Church]]) began their numbered year on [[1 September]] (since about [[988]]). The following list is partially based on [http://www.genfair.com/dates.htm Old Style and New Style Dates] and [http://homepages.tesco.net/~jk.calisto/calisto/calendars/change_dates_ny.htm The Change of New Year's Day].
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Adoption of [[January 1]] as beginning of numbered year <br> versus Gregorian Calendar adoption year'''
! Country || [[1 January]] NY || Greg Cal
|-
| [[Venice]] || 1522 || 1582
|-
| [[Germany]] || 1544 || from 1583
|-
| [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], and Roman Catholic [[Netherlands]] || 1556 || from 1582
|-
| [[Prussia]] || 1559 || 1700
|-
| [[Denmark]] || Early 14th century || 1700
|-
| [[Sweden]] || 1559 || 1753
|-
| [[France]] || 1564 || 1582
|-
| [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] || 1579 || 1682
|-
| Protestant Netherlands || 1583 || from 1700
|-
| [[Scotland]] || 1600 || 1752
|-
| [[Russia]] || 1700 || 1918
|-
| [[Tuscany]] || 1721 || 1750
|-
| [[England]] || 1752 || 1752
|}
Neither the papal bull nor its attached canons explicitly state that the year of the Gregorian calendar is to begin on [[1 January]], contrary to popular opinion. However, it does imply such a year by including two tables of [[saint]]'s days, one labeled 1582 which ends on [[31 December]], and another for any full year that begins on [[1 January]]. It also specifies its [[epact]] relative to [[1 January]], in contrast with the Julian calendar, which specified it relative to [[22 March]]. These would have been the inevitable result of the above shift in the beginning of the Julian year.
Note: The [[papal bull]] ''[[Inter gravissimas]]'' was dated in the year 1581 for unknown reasons, but printed on [[1 March]], [[1582]]. Although the use of the date 1581 is often attributed to the supposed adoption by the papacy of a reckoning by which the year began on [[25 March]], other contemporaneous papal bulls have years that do not agree with March years, let alone years since a pope was named or other types of years.)
During the period between 1582, when the first countries adopted the Gregorian calendar, and 1923, when the last European country adopted it, it was often necessary to indicate the date of some event in both the Julian calendar and in the Gregorian calendar, for example, "10/21&nbsp;February 1751/52", where the dual year accounts for some countries already beginning their numbered year on [[1 January]] while others were still using some other date. Even before 1582, the year sometimes had to be double dated because of the different beginnings of the year in various countries.
===Adoption outside of Roman Catholic nations===
Very few countries implemented the new calendar on [[15 October]] [[1582]] &mdash; only [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and most of [[Italy]]. Non-Catholic countries objected to adopting a Catholic invention. [[England]], [[Scotland]] and thereby the rest of the [[British Empire]] (including the eastern part of what is now the [[United States]]) did not adopt it until 1752, by which time it was necessary to correct by ''eleven'' days ([[2 September]] [[1752]] being followed by [[14 September]] [[1752]]) to account for [[29 February]] [[1700]] (Julian). Four years later, someone running for a seat in [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] used the campaign slogan "Give us back our eleven days!", which created false stories of riots at the change-over. Britain legislated special provisions to make sure that monthly or yearly payments would not become due until the dates that they originally would have in the Julian calendar. From 1753 until 1799, the tax year in [[Britain]] began on [[5 April]], which was the "old style" new year of [[25 March]]. A 12th skipped Julian leap day in 1800 changed its start to [[6 April]]. It was not changed when a 13th Julian leap day was skipped in 1900, so the tax year in Britain is still [[6 April]]. [[Old Style and New Style dates|"Old Style"]] (OS) and [[Old Style and New Style dates|"New Style"]] (NS) are sometimes added to dates to identify which system is used in the [[British Empire]] and other countries that did not immediately change.
In [[Alaska]], the change took place when Friday [[6 October]] [[1867]] was followed again by Friday [[18 October]] after the US purchase of Alaska from Russia, which was still on the Julian calendar. The day of the week was repeated on successive days because the [[International Date Line]] was shifted from east of to west of Alaska along with the change to the Gregorian calendar.
[[Denmark]], [[Norway]] and the Protestant states of [[Germany]] adopted the solar portion of the new calendar in 1700, due to the influence of [[Ole R&oslash;mer]], but did not adopt the lunar portion. Instead, they decided to calculate the date of Easter astronomically using the instant of the vernal equinox and the full moon according to [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]'s ''Rudolphine Tables'' of 1627. They finally adopted the lunar portion of the Gregorian calendar in 1776.
[[Sweden]]'s relationship with the Gregorian Calendar had a difficult birth. Sweden started to make the change from the OS calendar and towards the NS calendar in 1700, but it was decided to make the (now 11 day) adjustment gradually, by excluding the leap days ([[29 February]]) from each of 11 successive leap years, 1700 to 1740. In the meantime, not only would the Swedish calendar be out of step with both the Julian calendar '''and''' the Gregorian calendar for 40 years, but also the difference would not be static but would change every 4 years. This strange system clearly had great potential for endless confusion when working out the dates of Swedish events in this 40 year period. To make matters worse, the system was poorly administered and the leap days that should have been excluded from 1704 and 1708 were not excluded. The Swedish calendar should by now have been 8 days behind the Gregorian, but it was still in fact 10 days behind. King [[Charles XII of Sweden|Charles XII]] wisely recognised that the gradual change to the new system was not working and he abandoned it. However, rather than now proceeding directly to the Gregorian calendar (as in hindsight seems to have been the sensible and obvious thing to do), it was decided to revert to the Julian calendar. This was achieved by introducing the unique date [[30 February]] in the year 1712, adjusting the discrepancy in the calendars from 10 back to 11 days. Sweden finally adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753, when [[17 February]] was followed by [[1 March]].
In [[Russia]] the Gregorian calendar was accepted after the [[October Revolution]] (so named because it took place in October 1917 in the Julian calendar). On [[24 January]] [[1918]] the [[Sovnarkom|Council of People's Commissars]] decreed that [[31 January]] [[1918]] was to be followed by [[14 February]] [[1918]].
The last country of Eastern Europe to adopt the Gregorian calendar was [[Greece]] in 1923. However, these were all civil adoptions &mdash; none of the national churches accepted it. Instead, a [[Revised Julian calendar]] was proposed in May 1923 which dropped 13 days in 1923 and adopted a different leap year rule that resulted in no difference between the two calendars until 2800. The Orthodox churches of Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, and a few others around the Eastern Mediterranean (Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Cyprus) adopted the Revised Julian calendar, so these [[New calendarists]] will celebrate the Nativity along with the Western churches on [[25 December]] in the Gregorian calendar until 2800. The Orthodox churches of Russia, Serbia, Jerusalem, and a few bishops in Greece did not accept the Revised Julian calendar. These [[Old Calendarists]] continue to celebrate the Nativity on [[25 December]] in the J |
[[stupor]] is that a patient with coma cannot give a suitable response to either noxious or verbal stimuli, whereas a patient in a stupor can give a crude response, such as screaming, to an unpleasant stimulus.
Some psychiatric diseases appear similar to coma. Some forms of [[schizophrenia]], [[catatonia]], and extremely severe [[major depression]] are responsibile for behaviour that appears comatose.
Coma is also to be distinguished from the [[persistent vegetative state]] which may follow it. This is a condition in which the individual has lost cognitive neurological function and awareness of the environment but does have noncognitive function and a preserved sleep-wake cycle. Spontaneous movements may occur and the [[eye]]s may open in response to external stimuli, but the patient does not speak or obey commands. Patients in a vegetative state may appear somewhat normal and may occasionally grimace, cry, or laugh.
Likewise, coma is not the same as [[brain death]], which is the irreversible cessation of ''all'' brain activity. One can be in a coma but still exhibit spontaneous [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]]; one who is brain-dead, by definition, cannot.
Coma is different from [[sleep]]; sleep is always reversible.
==Outcome==
There are several levels of coma, through which patients may or may not progress. As coma deepens, responsiveness of the brain lessens, normal reflexes are lost, and the patient no longer responds to pain. The chances of recovery depend on the severity of the underlying cause. A deeper coma alone does not necessarily mean a slimmer chance of recovery, because some people in deep coma recover well while others in a so-called milder coma sometimes fail to improve.
The outcome for coma and vegetative state depends on the cause, location, severity and extent of neurological damage: outcomes range from recovery to [[death]]. People may emerge from a coma with a combination of physical, intellectual and psychological difficulties that need special attention. Recovery usually occurs gradually, with patients acquiring more and more ability to respond. Some patients never progress beyond very basic responses, but many recover full awareness. Gaining consciousness again is not instant: in the first days, patients are only awake for a few minutes, and duration of time awake gradually increases.
Coma generally lasts a few days to a few weeks, and rarely lasts more than 2 to 4 weeks. After this time, some patients gradually come out of the coma, some progress to a [[vegetative state]], and others die. Many patients who have gone into a vegetative state go on to regain a degree of awareness. Others may remain in a vegetative state for years or even decades. Predicted chances of recovery are variable due to different techniques used to measure the extent of neurological damage. All the predictions are [[statistical]] rates with some level of chance for recovery present: a person with a low chance of recovery may still awaken. Time is the best general predictor of a chance for recovery, with the chances for recovery after 3 months of [[brain damage]] induced coma being low (less than 10%), and full recovery being very low. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15118882&query_hl=5] [http://www.braininjury.com/coma.html]
The most common cause of death for a person in a vegetative state is secondary [[infection]] such as [[pneumonia]] which can occur in patients who lie still for extended periods.
==Controversy==
There have been controversies and legal cases over whether to keep comatose patients alive for long periods using [[life support|life support equipment]]. Two such cases are those of [[Karen Ann Quinlan]] and [[Terri Schiavo]]. However, these individuals were not in a ''coma'' per se but were in a ''[[persistent vegetative state]]''.
==Diagnosis and treatment==
The [[Glasgow Coma Scale]] is used to quantify the severity of a coma. There are three components to the score: '''E'''ye opening response, '''V'''erbal response, and '''M'''otor response.
In Germany, music therapy is used to quicken the awakening traject.
In Belgium a project is set up to train dogs' and cats' "sixth sense" to warn patients and medical staff that a coma patient has awakened.
==References==
* Brain Injury Association of America (BIAUSA). [http://www.biausa.org/Pages/types_of_brain_injury.html#diffuse Types of Brain Injury].
* ''This article contains text from the NINDS public domain pages on TBI at:''
#http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/tbi_doc.htm
#http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/pubs/tbi.htm
* Some of the information in this section is from the [[public domain resource]] provided by the [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/coma_doc.htm National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke].
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Intensive care medicine]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[bs:coma]]
[[da:Koma]]
[[de:Koma (Medizin)]]
[[es:Coma (medicina)]]
[[eo:Komato]]
[[fr:Coma]]
[[it:Coma]]
[[he:תרדמת]]
[[hr:koma (medicina)]]
[[nl:Coma (geneeskunde)]]
[[no:Koma]]
[[pl:Śpiączka]]
[[pt:Coma]]
[[ru:Кома (медицина)]]
[[sk:Kóma]]
[[sv:Koma]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)</title>
<id>5722</id>
<revision>
<id>41193300</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T18:13:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Latapie</username>
<id>14285</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* d20 Call of Cthulhu */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title=Call of Cthulhu
|image=[[Image:call_of_cthulhu_rpg_6th_ed_cover.gif]]
|caption=''Call of Cthulhu'' 6th edition rulebook cover
|designer=[[Sandy Petersen]]
|publisher=[[Chaosium]]
|date=1981
|genre=Horror
|system=Basic Role Playing (BRP)<br>([[d20 system]] version also available)
}}
'''Call of Cthulhu''' is a [[horror fiction]] [[role-playing game]] based on the [[The Call of Cthulhu|story of the same name]] written by [[H. P. Lovecraft]] and the so-called [[Cthulhu Mythos]] the story inspired. The game, often abbreviated as ''CoC'', is published by [[Chaosium]].
==Setting==
"That is not dead which can eternal lie.
And with strange aeons even death may die."
The setting of Call of Cthulhu is a darker version of our world, based on H.P. Lovecraft's observation that, "The oldest and strongest emotion of mankind is fear, and the strongest kind of fear is fear of the unknown." There are three primary eras of the original (non d20) game: the 1920s, the setting of many of Lovecraft's stories; the 1890s ''Gaslight'' supplements, a blend of occult and Holmsian mystery and mostly set in England; and modern conspiracy (''Cthulhu Now''). Recent additions include 1000 AD (''Cthulhu: Dark Ages''), and Roman times (''Cthulhu Invictus''). The protagonists may also travel to places that are not of this earth, represented in the Dreamlands.
===Gameplay experience===
The players take the roles of ordinary people, drawn into the realm of the mysterious: detectives, criminals, scholars, artists, war veterans, etc. Often, happenings begin innocently enough, until more and more of the workings behind the scenes are revealed. As the characters learn more of the true horrors of the world and the irrelevance of humanity, their sanity inevitably withers away (the game actually includes a mechanism for determining how damaged a character's sanity is at any given point). To access the tools they need to defeat the horrors - mystic knowledge and magic - the characters must be willing to give up some of the their sanity for the greater good.
Call of Cthulhu has a perhaps-deserved reputation as a game in which it is quite common for a [[player character]] to die in gruesome circumstances or end up in a mental institution, and players must often start again with new characters. While arguably being more realistic, it can also make it hard for players to bond with their characters.
For as long as they stay healthy (or at least functional), characters may be developed. Call of Cthulhu does not use [[Experience point|level]]s, but is completely skill-based, arguably presenting a more realistic character-development system, as player characters get better with their skills by succeeding at them. Still, it is possible for a well-played character to last a long time, other factors permitting.
==History==
===Origins===
The original conception of Call of Cthulhu was ''Dark Worlds'', a game commissioned by the publisher [[Chaosium]] but never published. [[Sandy Petersen]], now best known for his work on the ''[[Doom]]'' [[personal computer game|computer game]], contacted them regarding writing a supplement for their popular fantasy game [[RuneQuest]] set in Lovecraft's [[Dreamlands]]. He took over the writing of Call of Cthulhu, and the game was released in 1981, using a simplified version of the [[Basic Role-Playing]] system used in ''RuneQuest''. The game won three major awards in the following year.
The game is now in its sixth edition, but the rules have changed little over the years. In 2002, the ''Call of Cthulhu 20th Anniversary Edition'' won the [[Origins Award]] for ''Best Graphic Presentation of a Book Product 2001''.
===Early releases===
Given its roots in the RPG tradition, many of the early releases for Call of Cthulhu were still based in the framework of ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]''. They often involved the characters wandering through caves and fighting different types of horrible monsters. Nonetheless, the emphasis on real-life settings, character research, and thinking one's way around trouble gave it a wide audience.
The first book of Call of Cthulhu adventures was ''Shadows of Yog-Sothoth''. In this work, the characters come upon a secret society's foul plot to destroy mankind, and |
ecause it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counterpunch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power.
* Cross - A powerful straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and travelling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated anti-clockwise as the cross is thrown. Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer is what gives the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counterpunch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross can also follow a jab, creating the classic "one-two combo." The cross is also called a "straight" or "right."
* Hook - A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (knuckles pointing forward) and the elbow bent. The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target. At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body (the classic Mexican hook to the liver) and this technique is sometimes called the "rip" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand.
* Uppercut - A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso. At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to "lift" the opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination.
===Defense===
*Slip - Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to "slip" past.
*Bob and Weave - Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer "weaves" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the outside". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the inside".
*Parry - Parrying uses the boxer's hands as defensive tools to deflect incoming attacks. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer delivers a sharp, lateral, open-handed blow to the opponent's wrist or forearm, redirecting the punch.
*The Cover-Up - Covering up is the last line of defense against an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches "roll" off the guard. When protecting the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards.
*The [[grappling position#Stand-up grappling position|Clinch]] - Clinching is a rough form of [[grappling]] and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to [[grappling hold|hold]] or "tie up" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw roundhouse punches or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee.
=== Tactics and strategy ===
'''The "Rope-a-dope" Strategy'''
*A tactic famously used by [[Muhammad Ali]] in his 1974 "[[Rumble in the Jungle]]" bout against [[George Foreman]]. The rope-a-dope method involves laying back on the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to land punches. Weathering the blows, the fighter lures the opponent into expending his energy whilst conserving his own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the fighter now exploits. However, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged in modern boxing since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault.
'''The "Peek-a-Boo" Style'''
*A method made famous by [[Mike Tyson]], the peek-a-boo involves heavy emphasis on "bobbing and weaving." Through elusive head movement, the boxer frustrates his opponent's attempts to land blows, and counters them with powerful punches of his own.
'''Stick and Move'''
*This strategy is very popular in amateur boxing where points are often more important than damage. It is also used extensively by many professional fighters. The "stick and move" method involves avoiding the opponent through elusive footwork. The boxer will land well-timed jabs, then back away again without giving the opponent opportunity to launch an attack of his own. In this way, a fighter can slowly wear down an adversary in relative safety.
'''Brawling'''
*This strategy involves attacking aggressively without backing away for rest or defense. This is a risky tactic, as defense becomes difficult for both fighters when so many punches are being thrown together. Contests tend to finish quickly when one of the fighters chooses to employ this method. Often considered the strategy of unskilled fighters, this method is often used by skilled fighters after they have gained an advantage by first injuring their opponent.
'''Ring Control'''
*A boxer can gain advantage through strategic control of the space inside the boxing ring. A fighter employing this method will position himself at the center of the ring, and allow his opponent to circle around him as they fight. He must not let his opponent push him backward too far, or he will lose control of the center. As they fight, the boxer will attempt to push his opponent backwards toward the ropes, cutting down on the amount of space available for him to maneuver as he circles the center. If possible, the boxer will trap his opponent in the corner of the ring. When this happens, the boxer will attack more aggressively, keeping his opponent trapped. The trapped fighter will not be able to move side to side for defense, and will be forced to hold his ground until he can make the attacking fighter retreat.
'''Bolo punch'''
*Occasionally seen in amateur boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver, this punch is not taught, it is on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the [[Muhammad Ali|Ali shuffle]].
==Boxing legends==
The boxing world has produced talented and world famous personalities in both the amateur and professional realms. Famous amateur boxers have usually been Olympic medallists. The Olympics have long been considered a springboard for professional entry, though some Olympic champions prefer to retain their amateur status, including two Cuban three-time gold medalists, [[Teófilo Stevenson]] and [[Félix Savón]].
It is the professional side of boxing, however, that has produced the celebrities whose activities the public have generally followed. In the period between bare-knuckle pugilism and post-Queensberry boxing, Jem Mace was important. He carried many of the traditions of the old London Prize-Ring, but promoted the use of gloves and helped to popularize the sport in the United States and Australia. In the post-Queensberry era, the first British fighter to achieve superstar status was Bob Fitzsimmons. He weighed less than 12 stone but won world titles at Middleweight (1892), Light Heavyweight (1903), and Heavyweight (1897). He fought his last bout at the age of fifty-two.
|
;Century 0".
*There is considerable disagreement about whether to count the centennial year (i.e. 2000) as the first or last year of a century. This confusion is documented for every centennial year from 1500 onward, and almost certainly arises from the introduction of [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numerals]] and the concept of [[zero]] to Western Europe in the twelfth century.
The oldest dating systems were ''regnal'', and considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. Thus, one speaks of the first year of the reign of King John for example. Obviously, the century problem does not arise in such systems. Somewhat later, systems arose dating from the founding of a dynasty, city or religion, and these continued ordinal, rather than cardinal, counting. Thus [[Ab Urbe Condita]] counts the Year 1 as the founding of Rome; [[Anno Domini]] as the first full year of Jesus Christ's life; the [[Islamic Calendar]] as the year of the [[Hejira]], so it is also latinized as Anno Hejira.
More modern systems of dating, (such as the astronomical calendar, see [[proleptic Gregorian calendar]]) begin with a year zero. In these cardinal dating systems, it is perfectly logical to use 0 to 99 as the first century, and to regard 2000 as the first year of the twenty-first century.
==See also==
* [[decade]] (ten years)
* [[eon]] (undetermined)
* [[era]] (undetermined)
* [[indictio]] (fifteen years in Roman fiscality)
* [[lustrum]] (five years)
* [[Millennium]] (ten centuries)
[[Category:Units of time]]
[[Category:Ancient military unit types]]
[[ar:قرن (زمن)]]
[[ast:Sieglu]]
[[be:Стагодзьдзі]]
[[bg:Век]]
[[ca:Segle]]
[[cs:Století]]
[[da:Århundreder]]
[[de:Jahrhundert]]
[[eo:Jarcentoj]]
[[es:Siglo]]
[[et:Sajandid]]
[[fa:قرن]]
[[fi:Vuosisadat]]
[[fr:Siècle]]
[[fy:Ieu]]
[[gl:Século]]
[[he:לוח אירועים בהיסטוריה]]
[[hr:Popis godina]]
[[hu:Évszázad]]
[[id:Abad]]
[[ja:世紀]]
[[la:Saeculum]]
[[li:Verwiestableau vaan ieuwe]]
[[lt:Amžius]]
[[nl:Eeuwen]]
[[no:Sekel]]
[[pl:Wiek]]
[[pt:Século]]
[[ro:Secole]]
[[ru:Хронологическая таблица]]
[[simple:Century]]
[[sk:Storočie]]
[[sl:Stoletja]]
[[sr:Век]]
[[sv:Sekel]]
[[th:ศตวรรษ]]
[[tr:Yüzyıl]]
[[uk:Історична вісь]]
[[ur:ٹائم لائن]]
[[zh:世纪]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sè-kí]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cardiff</title>
<id>5882</id>
<revision>
<id>41162759</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T13:06:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JamieBattenbo</username>
<id>282807</id>
</contributor>
<comment>population density 1st</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Cardiff (disambiguation)]] for other terms meaning Cardiff''
{| class="toccolours" style="border-collapse: collapse; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="260"
|+ <big>'''City of Cardiff'''</big>
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: white;"|[[Image:WalesCardiff.png]]
|-
| colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Geography
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''<br />- Total<br>- % Water
| [[List of Welsh principal areas by area|Ranked 19th]]<br />[[1 E8 m²|140]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]<br />? %
|-
! Admin HQ
| Cardiff
|-
! [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
| GB-CRF
|-
! [[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
| 00PT
|-
! [[traditional counties of Wales|Traditional county]]
| [[Glamorgan]]
|-
! [[Preserved counties of Wales|Ceremonial county]]
| Cardiff
|-
! '''Coordinates'''
|51°29N 3°11W
|-
| colspan=2 style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Demographics
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Population]]''':<br />- Total ([[2004]] est.)<br />- [[Density]]
|[[List of Welsh principal areas by population|Ranked 1st]]<br />316,800<br />[[List of Welsh principal areas by population density|Ranked 1st]]<br />2,263 / km&sup2;
|-
! Ethnicity
| 91.57% White<br /> 1.99% Mixed<br /> 3.96% S. Asian<br /> 1.28% Black<br /> 1.20% Chinese or other.
|-
! style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Welsh language]]'''<br />- Any skills
| [[List of Welsh principal areas by percentage Welsh language|Ranked 18th]]<br />16.3%
|-
| colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Politics
|-
|colspan="2" align=center|[[Image:Cardiffarms.PNG|centre|150px]]<br />Cardiff County Council<br>http://www.cardiff.gov.uk/
|-
! Control
| (No overall control)
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MPs]]
|
*[[Kevin Brennan (politician)|Kevin Brennan]]
*[[Alun Michael]]
*[[Julie Morgan]]
*[[Jenny Willott]]
|-
| colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;"|Districts
|-
| colspan="2" |
[[Adamstown]],
[[Birchgrove, Cardiff|Birchgrove]],
[[Butetown]],
[[Canton, Cardiff|Canton]],
[[Cardiff Bay]],
[[Cardiff city centre|City centre]],
[[Cathays]],
[[Cyncoed]],
[[Gabalfa]],
[[Heath, Cardiff|Heath]],
[[Llandaff]],
[[Llanedeyrn]],
[[Llanishen]],
[[Llanrumney]],
[[Maindy]],
[[Mynachdy]],
[[Pentrebane]],
[[Pentwyn]],
[[Penylan]],
[[Pontcanna]],
[[Radyr]],
[[Riverside, Cardiff|Riverside]],
[[Roath]],
[[Splott]],
[[St Mellons]],
[[Tremorfa]],
[[Trowbridge, Cardiff, Wales|Trowbridge]]
|}
[[Image:Cardiff_Castle_keep.jpg|thumb|225px|The Norman Keep, [[Cardiff Castle]].]]
[[Image:Millenium_stadium4.jpg|thumb|225px|Aerial view of the [[Millennium Stadium]].]]
[[Image:Wales_Millennium_Centre_16-08-2005.jpg|thumb|225px|The [[Wales Millennium Centre]].]] [[Image:DSCN0855.JPG|thumb|225px|Opening of Millennium Centre]]
[[Image:Cardiff Market.JPG|thumb|225px|The [[Cardiff Indoor Market]].]]
'''Cardiff''' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Caerdydd'') is the [[capital]] and largest [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] of [[Wales]]. Located on the [[South Wales]] coast it is administered as a [[unitary authority]]. It was a small town until the early nineteenth century and came to prominence following the arrival of industry in the region and the use of Cardiff as a major port for the transport of coal. Cardiff was made a [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] in [[1905]] and proclaimed capital of Wales in [[1955]]. In the [[Census 2001]] the [[population]] of Cardiff was 305,340, making it the 16th largest settlement in the [[United Kingdom]].
==Industry==
The industrial development and growth of Cardiff was initially centred on the transportation of [[coal]], where coal mined from the [[Rhondda]] Valley was sent to the port by barge along the valley of the [[River Taff]], initially by canal and later by the Taff Vale Railway. A logical extension of the coal business was the development of an iron and steel industry, based largely on the port and the coal of the [[South Wales Valleys|South Wales valleys]]. The 1980s brought closures to the industry in the entire region, and thousands of local workers were made redundant as the steel industry moved out of Cardiff, including the largest GKN steelworks in Newport Road.
Cardiff's [[port]], known as [[Tiger Bay]], was once one of the busiest ports in the world and - for some time - the world's most important [[coal]] port. Indeed, Cardiff's [[The Coal Exchange|Coal Exchange]] was reputedly the first host to a business deal for a million [[Pound Sterling|pounds Sterling]].
The Tiger Bay area also housed one of the UK's earliest [[immigrant]] communities. After a long period of neglect as ''[[Cardiff Bay]]'', it is now being [[urban regeneration|regenerated]] as a popular area for arts, entertainment and nightlife. Much of the growth has been thanks to the building of the [[Cardiff Barrage]].
The city's central region, extending from the Hayes (a name allegedly derived from ''hedge'') is now full of attractive modern buildings. This area of Cardiff will also shortly be redeveloped, as part of '''[http://www.stdavids2.com St Davids Centre - Phase 2]''' project. Highlights of this project will include a new Central Library and a [[John Lewis Partnership|John Lewis]] store. The affected area is bounded by The Hayes, Mill Lane, Mary Ann St and Bute Terrace.
The city is also host to [[S A Brain]], a [[brewery]] with premises in Cardiff since [[1882]].
==History==
The name Cardiff is an Anglicisation of [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name "Caerdydd". There is uncertainty concerning the origin of "Caerdydd"&mdash;"Caer" means "fort" or "castle," but although "Dydd" means "Day" in modern Welsh, it is unclear what was meant in this context. Some believe that "Dydd" or "Diff" was a corruption of "[[River Taff|Taff]]", the river on which [[Cardiff Castle|Cardiff castle]] stands, in which case "Cardiff" would mean "the fort on the river Taff" (in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] the ''T'' mutates to ''D'').
Others favour a link with [[Aulus Didius Gallus]], as it is known that the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] established a fort in Cardiff when he was governor of the nearby province, in which case Cardiff might mean "the Fort of Didius". A Norman [[Cardiff Castle|castle]] still exists, within the site of the earlier [[Rome|Roman]] fort, but was substantially altered and extended during the Victorian period by [[John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute|John Crichton-Stuart]], the [[Marquess of Bute|3rd Marquess of Bute]], and the [[architect]] [[William Burges]]. Original Roman work can, however, still be distinguished in the wall facings.
There is a second castle north of the city, called '''[[Castell Coch]]''' (Welsh: "the Red Castle"). The current castle is an elaborately decorated Victorian folly designed by Burges for the Marquess and built |
. This is because some operating systems use the control character ^H to delete the previous letter on a line.
** The [[file extension]] .h is used for [[C Programming Language|C]] [[header file]]s.
** H is an [[ITU-T]] series of recommendations on ''Audiovisual and multimedia systems'' and used in their names such as [[H.323]]. See [[:Category:ITU-T recommendations|ITU-T recommendations]].
* In [[electromagnetism]]:
** ''H'' or '''H''' or '''''H''''' is the symbol for magnetic field strength.
* In English [[slang]], H is a term for [[heroin]], a recreational drug that is highly addictive.
* In [[Japanese language|Japanese]], H was originally an [[abbreviation]] for "[[hentai]]" (pervert). It has come to mean sexual, as in H games (pornographic computer games) or H suru (meaning "to have sex"). Through the popularity of [[anime]] (Japanese animation), the old incorrect meaning has become known to fans in the west. See also [[Ecchi]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], H stands for [[Hungary]].
* In [[mathematics]], [[blackboard bold]] <math>\mathbb{H}</math> represents the [[quaternions]] (after [[William Rowan Hamilton]], <math>\mathbb{Q}</math> representing the [[rational number|rational]]s).
* In the [[SI]] system:
**h, [[hecto]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning hundred, 10<sup>2</sup>.
** H is the symbol for the [[SI derived unit]] for electric [[inductance]]: the [[henry (inductance)|henry]].
* In [[music]], H is a [[note]] in the [[Germany|German]] system, corresponding to B natural; for example, in the [[BACH motif]]
* In [[physics]], ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]].
* In thermodynamics, ''H'' is [[enthalpy]].
* '''H''' is the stage name of [[H from Steps|Ian Watkins]], formerly of the [[pop group]] [[Steps]].
* '''H''' is the nickname of [[Adrian Smith]], [[guitarist]] for the [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band [[Iron Maiden]].
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]]:
** In [[Canada]], H stands for the Metropolitan [[Montréal]] area.
* In [[science fiction fandom]] and [[hacker]] [[jargon]], the infix of an ''h'' is a method of "marking" common words, i.e., calling attention to the fact that they are being used in a nonstandard, [[irony|ironic]], or humorous way. It is likely to have originated in the [[science fiction fandom|fannish]] [[catch phrase]] “[[Beer|Bheer]] is the One True [[God|Ghod]]!” from the mid-[[20th Century]]. The ''h'' infix marking of "Ghod" and other words spread into the [[1960s]] [[counterculture]] via [[underground comics]], and into early [[hacker culture|hackerdom]] either from the counterculture or from [[science fiction fandom|SF fandom]] (the three communities overlapped heavily at the time). More recently, the ''h'' infix has become an expected feature of [[Benchmark (computing)|benchmark]] names (Dhrystone, Rhealstone, etc.); this is probably patterning on the original [[Whetstone]] (the name of a laboratory) but influenced by the fannish/counterculture ''h'' infix.
==See also==
* [[h-circumflex|&#293;]]
* [[h-bar|&#295;]]
* [[Eta (letter)|Eta]]
{{AZsubnav}}
[[Category:Latin letters]]
[[als:H]]
[[bs:H]]
[[ca:H]]
[[sn:H]]
[[cs:H]]
[[da:H]]
[[de:H]]
[[el:H]]
[[es:H]]
[[eo:H]]
[[fr:H]]
[[gl:H]]
[[ko:H]]
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[[id:H]]
[[it:H]]
[[he:H]]
[[kw:H]]
[[la:H]]
[[nl:H]]
[[ja:H]]
[[no:H]]
[[nn:H]]
[[pl:H]]
[[pt:H]]
[[ro:H]]
[[simple:H]]
[[sl:H]]
[[fi:H]]
[[sv:H]]
[[tl:H]]
[[th:H]]
[[vi:H]]
[[to:H]]
[[yo:H]]
[[zh:H]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HCI</title>
<id>13479</id>
<revision>
<id>34702431</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T02:57:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GTM</username>
<id>722489</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Alphabetical Order</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''HCI''' has different meanings depending on the context:
* [[Harbord Collegiate Institute]] and [[Humberside Collegiate Institute]], two schools in Toronto, Canada.
* Handgun Control Incorporated, the former name of the [[Brady Campaign|Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence]], a [[gun control]] [[advocacy group]]
* [[Home Computer Initiative]], a [[UK]] [[Government]] programme designed to increase [[home computing]].
* [[Human-Computer Interaction]], the study of the interaction between people and [[computer]]s.
* [[Human-Computer Interface]], the technical means by which a human interacts with [[hardware]] or [[software]].
* [[Hwa Chong Institution]], a school located in [[Singapore]].
* HCI is also a common [[typographical error]] for [[HCl]] (with lowercase "L"), see [[hydrogen chloride]] and [[hydrochloric acid]].
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:HCI]]
[[fr:HCI]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Horseshoe</title>
<id>13480</id>
<revision>
<id>41739158</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:43:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>OrphanBot</username>
<id>621721</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about horseshoe, as used on animals. For the game, see [[Horseshoes]]. For the home football stadium of [[Ohio State University]], see [[Ohio Stadium]].''
[[image:Horseshoe.jpg|thumb|250px|Modern horseshoes are most commonly made of [[iron]] and nailed onto the hoof.]]
A '''horseshoe''' is a U-shaped piece of [[iron]], [[rubber]], [[plastic]], rawhide or a [[laminate]] of these, [[nail (engineering)|nail]]ed or [[glue]]d to the [[hooves]] of [[horses]] and some other [[draught animal]]s--like a [[shoe]]. They are used to protect the animal's hooves from wear and tear. Early horseshoes had "calkins" or protruding tabs at the ends of the shoe to provide additional traction (these are still used on some competition horses in sports like team penning). Kept as a talisman, horseshoes are said to bring [[luck]]. Horseshoes are also used for a popular game, '''[[horseshoes]]'''.
The horseshoe seems to have been introduced to Western culture by the [[Greeks]] in the 4th Century. Horseshoes are available in a wide variety of materials and styles, developed for different types of horses and the work they do. Common materials are [[steel]], [[aluminum]] and [[plastic]], and some specialized shoes are made from [[magnesium]], [[titanium]] or [[copper]].
==Reasons for use in domestic environment==
===The traditional point of view===
Since the early history of the domestication and use of horses, many factors have contributed to the need for the bottoms of domestic horses' feet (hooves) to have additional protection over and above their natural hardness.
;Less healthy food: Live [[Poaceae|grass]]es, [[weed]]s and [[shrub]]s, which are eaten in the wild, are high in [[nutrient]]s such as [[carotene|beta carotene]]. Cultivated feeds lose a high proportion of their carotene within hours of harvesting and so do not provide this vital ingredient to the horse. The hoof is made of horn, much as the human [[fingernail]], and grows hard, tough and flexible only with optimal nutrition.
;Less varied terrain: Horseshoes are not needed in nature as the horse walks and [[graze]]s continuously over a wide variety of surfaces. The consequence of this nonstop travel on the horse's feet is to keep them worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state. The continual stimulation and irritation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard, much like a [[callus]]. However, in [[domestication]], the customary amount of ground covered by a horse on a daily basis is greatly reduced. Therefore, the hooves harden much less and are more vulnerable to injury.
;Added weight: Horses' hooves can become quite worn out when subjected to the added weight/stress of a [[human being|human]], pack loads, cart or [[wagon]] traces.
;Wetter climate: Horses have moved from the more arid steppes to the wetter climate of northern Europe. This wetter climate and heavy soils softened the hooves and made them prone to splitting, making hoof protection necessary, and consequently it was in northern Europe that the first practical horseshoe arose.
;Exposure to ammonia: The hooves of horses that are kept in stalls or small turnouts are constantly exposed to ammonia from urine. The hoof capsule is mostly made from [[keratin]], a [[protein]], and is weakened by this exposure. Wearing shoes does not prevent or reduce damage from ammonia exposure. Rather, they are meant to reduce wear on weakened hooves.
;Consequences of less healthy hooves: In captivity, absent the natural conditioning factors present in the wild, the feet of horses grow overly large, long, fragile and soft. Hence, protection from rocks, pebbles and hard, uneven surfaces is lacking. Cracks in overgrown and overly brittle hoof walls are a constant danger, as is bruising of the soft tissues within the foot because of inadequately thick and hard sole material.
;Corrective shoeing: The shape, weight, and thickness of a horseshoe can significantly affect the horse's gait. [[Farrier]]s trained in [[hot shoeing]] can make custom shoes to help horses with bone or musculature problems in their legs.
;Traction: Traction devices such as [[borium]] for ice, studs for muddy or slick conditions, calks, and rims are useful for performance horses such as [[eventing|eventers]], [[show jumping|show jumpers]], [[polo|polo ponies]], and other horses that perform at high speeds, over changing terrain, or in less-than-ideal footing.
;Gait Manipulation: Some breeds such as the [[Saddlebred]], [[Tennessee Walker| Tennessee Walking Horse]], and other gaited horses are judged on their high-stepping movement. Special shoeing can help enhance their natural movement.
===New ideas about horseshoeing===
The traditional point of view on hor |
onal, especially at long distances, beyond the range of echolocation. Their senses of smell and hearing, however, are excellent. By emitting high-pitched sounds and listening to the echoes, the [[microbat]]s locate prey and other nearby objects. This is the process of [[animal echolocation|echolocation]], a skill they share with [[dolphin]]s and [[whale]]s.
The teeth of microbats resemble those of the [[Insectivora|insectivoran]]s. They are very sharp in order to bite through the [[chitin]] armour of insects or the skin of fruits.
Megabats are primarily fruit- or nectar-eating. They have, however, probably evolved for some time in New Guinea without microbat concurrention. This has resulted in some smaller megabats of the genus ''[[Nyctimene]]'' becoming (partly) insectivorous to fill the vacant microbat ecological niche. Furthermore, there is some evidence that the fruit bat genus ''[[Pteralopex]]'', which occurs in the [[Solomon Islands]], and its close relative ''[[Mirimiri]]'' from [[Fiji]], have evolved to fill some niches that were open because there are no nonvolant mammals in those islands.
While other mammals have one-way valves only in their [[vein]]s to prevent the blood from flowing backwards, bats also have the same mechanism in their [[artery|arteries]].
The finger bones of a bat are much more flexible than those of other mammals. One reason is that the cartilage in their fingers lacks calcium and other minerals nearer the tips, increasing their ability to bend without splintering. The cross section of the finger bone is also flattened instead of circular as is the bone in a human finger, making it even more flexible. The skin on their wing membranes is much more elastic and can stretch much more than what is usually seen among mammals.
Because their wings are much thinner than those of birds, bats can maneuver more quickly and more precisely than birds.
[http://www.fladdermus.net/thesis.htm More about microbat vision]
== Reproduction ==
[[Image:Myotis myotis, nursery roost.jpg|thumb|Colony of [[Mouse-eared Bat]]s, ''Myotis myotis''.]]
Mother bats usually have only one offspring per year. A baby bat is referred to as a pup. Pups are usually left in the roost when they are not nursing. However, a newborn bat can cling to the fur of the mother and be transported, although they soon grow too large for this. It would be difficult for an adult bat to carry more than one young, but normally only one young is born. Bats often form [[nursery roost]]s, with many females giving birth in the same area, be it a cave, a tree hole, or a cavity in a building. Mother bats are able to find their young in huge colonies of millions of other pups. Pups have even been seen to feed on other mothers' milk if their mother is dry. Only the mother cares for the young, and there is no continuous partnership with male bats.
The ability to fly is congenital, but after birth the wings are too small to fly. Young [[microbat]]s become independent at the age of 6 to 8 weeks, [[megabat]]s not until they are four months old. At the age of two years bats are sexually mature.
==Habits and behavior==
[[Image:Yaxchilan_labyrinth_bats.jpg|thumb|Bats in a cave at the [[Yaxchilan]] ruins in Chiapas, Mexico.]]
Bats vary in social structure, with some bats leading a solitary life and others living in caves colonized by more than a million bats.
The fission-fusion social structure is seen among several species of bats. The fusion part is all the individuals in a roosting area. The fission part is the breaking apart and mixing of subgroups by switching roosts with bats, ending up with bats in different trees and often with different roostmates.
Studies also show that bats make all kinds of sounds to communicate with each other. Scientists in the field have listened to bats and have been able to identify some sounds with some behavior bats will make right after the sounds are made.
== Vector for rabies ==
[[image:bat-capture-moth1nov2000_hi.jpg|thumb|A [[big brown bat]] (''Eptesicus fuscus'') approaches a [[wax moth]] (''Galleria mellonella''), which serves as the control species for the studies of the [[tiger moth]]s. The moth is only "semi-tethered," allowing it the mobility to fly evasively.]]
''The following advice is only relevant to areas with endemic rabies.''
Only 0.5% of bats carry rabies. However, of the very few cases of [[rabies]] reported in the United States every year, most are caused by bat [[bite (medicine)|bites]]. Although most bats do not have rabies, those that do may be clumsy, disoriented, and unable to fly, which makes it more likely that they will come into contact with humans. Although one should not have an unreasonable fear of bats, one should avoid handling them or having them in one's living space, as with any wild animal. If a bat is found in living quarters near a child, mentally handicapped person, intoxicated person, sleeping person, or pet, the person or pet should receive immediate medical attention for rabies. Bats have very small teeth and can bite a sleeping person without necessarily being felt.
If a bat is found in a house and the possibility of exposure cannot be ruled out, the bat should be sequestered and an animal control officer called immediately, so that the bat can be analyzed. This also applies if the bat is found dead. If it is certain that nobody has been exposed to the bat, it should be removed from the house. The best way to do this is to close all the doors and windows to the room except one to the outside. The bat should soon leave.
Due to the risk of rabies and also due to health problems related to their [[guano]], bats should be excluded from inhabited parts of houses. For full detailed information on all aspects of bat management, including how to capture a bat, what to do in case of exposure, and how to bat-proof a house humanely, see [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/rabies/Bats_&_Rabies/bats&.htm the Centers for Disease Control's website on bats and rabies]. In certain countries, such as the UK, it is illegal to handle bats without a license.
Where rabies is not endemic, as throughout most of western Europe, small bats can be considered as harmless. Larger bats can give a nasty bite. Treat them with the respect due to any wild animal.
==Cultural aspects==
The bat is sacred in [[Tonga]] and [[West Africa]] and is often considered the physical manifestation of a separable [[soul]]. Bats are closely associated with [[vampire]]s, who are said to be able to [[shapeshifting|shapeshift]] into bats, [[fog]] or [[wolf|wolves]]. Bats are also a symbol of [[ghost]]s, [[death]] and [[disease]]. Among some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s, such as the [[Creek (people)|Creek]], [[Cherokee]] and [[Apache Tribe|Apache]], the bat is a [[trickster]] spirit. [[China|Chinese]] lore claims the bat is a symbol of longevity and happiness, and is similarly lucky in [[Poland]] and geographical [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and among the [[Kwakiutl]] and [[Arab]]s.
In Western Culture, the bat is often a symbol of the night and its foreboding nature. The bat is a primary animal associated with fictional characters of the night such as both [[villain]]s like [[Dracula]] and [[hero]]es like [[Batman]]. The association of the fear of the night with the animal was treated as a literary challenge by [[Kenneth Oppel]], who created a best selling series of novels, beginning with ''[[Silverwing]]'', which feature bats as the central heroic figures much in a similar manner as the classic [[novel]] ''[[Watership Down]]'' did for [[rabbit]]s. An old wives' tale has it that bats will entangle themselves in people's hair. A likely root to this myth is that insect-eating bats seeking prey may dive erratically toward people, who attract mosquitoes and gnats, leading the squeamish to believe that the bats are trying to get in their hair.
In the [[United Kingdom]] all bats are protected under the [[Wildlife and Countryside Act]]s, and even disturbing a bat or its roost can be punished with a heavy fine.
[[Austin, Texas]] is the summer home to North America's largest urban bat colony, an estimated 1,500,000 [[Mexican free-tailed bat]]s, who eat an estimated 10,000 to 30,000 pounds of insects each night and attract 100,000 tourists each year.
===References===
*Greenhall, Arthur H. 1961. ''Bats in Agriculture''. A Ministry of Agriculture Publication. Trinidad and Tobago.
*Nowak, Ronald M. 1994. " Walker's BATS of the World". The John Hopikins University Press, Baltimore and London.
*[http://www.uq.edu.au/nuq/jack/consensus.htm John D. Pettigrew's summary on Flying Primate Hypothesis]
== See also ==
*[[European Bat Night]]
*[[Bat bomb]]
*[[Batman]]
*[[Bat World Sanctuary]]
*[[:Category:Fictional bats|Fictional bats]]
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|bat}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Chiroptera}}
*[http://www.abrn.blogspot.com Arkansas Bat Rescue Network]
*[http://www.batworld.org/local_rescue/local_rescue.html United States Bat Rescue]
*[http://www.batcon.org Bat Conservation International website]
*[http://www.batworld.org Bat World Sanctuary]
*[http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/ordchiro.htm Texas Parks and Wildlife Bat Page]
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/chordata/mammalia/chiroptera.html University of Michigan Museum of Zoology]
*[http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chiroptera&contgroup=Eutheria Tree of Life]
*[http://flyingfur.typepad.com/ Flying Fur]
*[http://seekmybowl.com/bat.php Seek My Bowl on bat as symbol.]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4213495.stm Bats make up 20% of mammals]
*[http://www.bats.org.uk The Bat Conservation Trust]
*[http://www.batworld.org/adopt_a_bat/adopt_a_bat.html Adopt-a-Bat]
*[http://www.batconservation.org Organization for Bat Conservation]
*[http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/tierphys/Kontakt/mitarbeiter_seiten/dietz.htm Illustrated Identification key to the (micro)bats of Europe] (''see & |
have an additional manner of articulation, the ''[[retroflex]]'', which was present in proto-Inuit language. Retroflexes have disappeared in all the Canadian and Greenlandic dialects, except for the phoneme /{{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]}}/ in Natsilingmiutut, which derives from a former retroflex.
Almost all Inuit language variants have only three basic vowels and make a phonological distinction between short and long forms of all vowels. The only exceptions are at the extreme edges of the Inuit world - parts of Greenland, and in western Alaska.
==Morphology and syntax==
''See ''[[Inuit language morphology and syntax]]'' for a more detailed description specific to Nunavut Inuktitut.''
The Inuit language, like other [[Eskimo-Aleut]] languages, has a very rich morphological system, in which a succession of different [[morpheme]]s are added to root words (like verb endings in foreign European languages) to indicate things that, in languages like English, would require serveral words to express. (See also: [[Agglutinative language]] and [[Polysynthetic language]]) All Inuit language words begin with a root morpheme to which other morphemes are suffixed. The language has hundreds of distinct suffixes, in some dialects as many as 700. Fortunately for the learners, the language has a highly regular morphology. Although the rules are sometimes very complicated, they do not have exceptions in the sense that English and other [[Indo-European languages]] do.
This system makes words very long, and potentially unique. For example in central [[Nunavut]] [[Inuktitut]]:
:'''tusaatsiarunnanngittualuujunga'''
:''I can't hear very well.''
This long word is composed of a root word '''tusaa-''' - ''to hear'' - followed by five suffixes:
:<table><tr><th>-tsiaq-</th><td>well</td></tr><tr><th>-junnaq-</th><td>be able to</td></tr><tr><th>-nngit-</th><td>not<td></tr><tr><th>-tualuu-</th><td>very much</td></tr><tr><th>-junga</th><td>1st pers. singular present indicative non-specific</td></tr></table>
This sort of word construction is pervasive in Inuit language and makes it very unlike English, In one large Canadian corpus - the ''[[Nunavut]] [[Hansard]]'' - 92% of all words appear only once, in contrast to a small percentage in most English corpora of similar size. This makes the application of [[Zipf's law]] quite difficult in the Inuit language. Furthermore, the notion of a [[part of speech]] can be somewhat complicated in the Inuit language. Fully inflected verbs can be interpreted as nouns. The word '''ilisaijuq''' can be interpreted as a fully inflected verb - "he studies" - but can also be interpreted as a noun: "student". That said, the meaning is probably obvious to a fluent speaker, when put in context.
The morphology and syntax of the Inuit language vary to some degree between dialects, and the article ''[[Inuit language morphology and syntax]]'' describes primarily central [[Nunavut]] dialects, but the basic principles will generally apply to all of them and to some degree to [[Yupik]] as well.
==Vocabulary==
===Toponymy and Names===
Exotic as traditional Inuit names sound, both the names of places and people tend to be highly prosaic when translated. ''[[Iqaluit]]'', for example, is simply the plural of the noun ''iqaluk'' - "fish". ''[[Iglulik]]'' simply means ''place with houses'', a word that could be interpreted as simply ''town''; ''[[Inuvik]]'' is ''place of people''; ''[[Baffin Island]]'' - ''Qikiqtaaluk'' in Inuit language - approximately translates to "big island".
Although practically all Inuit have legal names based on southern naming traditions, at home and among themselves they still use native naming traditions. There too, names tend to consist of highly prosaic words. The Inuit traditionally believed that by adopting the name of a dead person or a class of things, they could take some of their characteristics or powers, and enjoy a part of their identity. (This is why they were always very willing to accept European names - they believed that this made them equal to the Europeans.)
Common native names in Canada include "Ujaraq" (rock), "Nuvuk" (headland), "Nasak" (hat, or hood), "Tupiq" (tent), and "Qajaq" ([[kayak]]). Inuit also use animal names, traditionally believing that by using those names, they took on some of the characteristics of that animal: "Nanuq" (polar-bear), "Uqalik" (Arctic hare), and "Tiriaq" (ermine) are favourites. In other cases, Inuit are named after dead people or people in traditional tales, by naming them after anatomical traits those people are believed to have had. Examples include "Itigaituk" (has no feet), "Usuiituk" (has no penis), and "Tulimak" (rib). Inuit may have any number of names, given by parents and other community members.
===Words for snow===
''See a more thorough discussion at ''[[Eskimo words for snow]]''.''
A [[urban myth|popular belief]] exists that the Inuit have an unusually large number of words for [[snow]]. This is not accurate, and results from a misunderstanding of the nature of polysynthetic languages. In fact, The Inuit have only a few base roots for snow: 'qanniq-' ('qanik-' in some dialects), which is used most often like the verb ''to snow'', and 'aput', which means ''snow'' as a substance. Parts of speech work very differently in the Inuit language than in English, so these definitions are somewhat misleading.
The Inuit language can form very long words by adding more and more descriptive affixes to words. Those affixes may modify the syntactic and semantic properties of the base word, or may add qualifiers to it in much the same way that [[English language|English]] uses adjectives or prepositional phrases to qualify nouns (eg. "falling snow", "blowing snow", "snow on the ground", "snow drift", etc.)
The "fact" that there are many Inuit words for snow has been put forward so often it is somewhat of a journalistic [[cliché]] (as evidenced by [http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~pullum/eskimo_quotes.html a collection of quotes from linguist Mark Liberman]).
==Writing==
Because the Inuit language is spread over such a large area, divided between different nations and political units and originally reached by Europeans of different origins at different times, there is no uniform way of writing the Inuit language. Most Inuktitut in Nunavut and Nunavik is written using a scheme called [[Inuktitut syllabics]], based on [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]]. The western part of Nunavut and the [[Northwest Territories]] use a Roman alphabet scheme usually identified as [[Inuinnaqtun]]. In [[Alaska]], another Roman scheme is used. [[Nunatsiavut]] uses another variant devised by German-speaking [[Moravian]] missionaries, which included the letter [[Kra (letter)|''kra'']]. Greenland's Roman scheme was originally much like the one used in Nunatsiavut, but has been reformed and modified in recent years. <!-- more to follow -->
===The Canadian syllabary===
''See [[Inuktitut syllabics]] for more information.''
[[Image:Inuktitut.png|framed|right|The syllabary used to write Inuktitut (titirausiq nutaaq). The extra characters with the dots represent long vowels; in the Latin transcription, the vowel would be doubled.]]The Inuktitut syllabary used in Canada is based on the [[Cree]] syllabary devised by the missionary [[James Evans]]. The present form of the syllabary for Canadian Inuktitut was adopted by the [[Inuit Cultural Institute]] in Canada in the [[1970s]]. The Inuit in Alaska, the [[Inuvialuit]], Inuinnaqtun speakers, and Inuit in [[Greenland]] and [[Labrador]] use the Roman alphabet, although it has been adapted for their use in different ways.
Though conventionally called a [[syllabary]], the writing system has been classified by some observers as an [[abugida]], since syllables starting with the same consonant have related [[glyph]]s rather than unrelated ones.
All of the characters needed for the Inuktitut syllabary are available in the [[Unicode]] character repertoire. (See [[Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics character table]].)
==See also==
* [[Eskimo-Aleut languages]]
* [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]]
* [[Yupik language]]
==References==
*[http://inuktitutcomputing.ca/Technocrats/ Inuktitut Linguistics for Technocrats], Mick Mallon.
*'''Introductory Inukitut''' and '''Introductory Inuktitut Refernce Grammar''', Mick Mallon, 1991. ISBN 0771702302 and ISBN 0771702353
*'''Inuktitut: A multi-dialectal outline dictionary (with an Aivilingmiutaq base)''', Alex Spalding, 1998. ISBN 1896204295
*'''Inuktitut: a Grammar of North Baffin Dialects''', Alex Spalding, 1992. ISBN 0920063438
*'''Arctic Languages: An Awakening''', ed: Dirmid R. F. Collis. ISBN 92-3-102661-5 [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf Available in PDF via the UNESCO website].
==External links==
===Dictionaries and lexica===
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Inuktitut-english/ Inuktitut - English Dictionary]
*[http://www.livingdictionary.com/ Nunavut Living Dictionary]
*[http://www.alaskool.org/Language/dictionaries/inupiaq/dictionary.htm Interactive IñupiaQ Dictionary]
*[http://www.oqaasileriffik.gl/cgi-bin/katersat.cgi?lang=eng Oqaasileriffik Language database]
*[http://web.uni-frankfurt.de/fb08/IHE/download/InukMorphList.pdf Inuktitut Morphology List] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
===Webpages===
* [http://www.aipainunavik.com/about/e_brief_history.html A Brief History of Inuktitut Writing Culture]
* [http://www.languagegeek.com/inu/inu_syllabarium.html Inuktitut Syllabarium]
* [http://www.nunavut.com |
ra|zebra]]
| A herd of zebra
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[zebra|zebra]]
| A zeal of zebra
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|}
==Notes==
* The phrase "A court of kangaroos" is frequently thought to be legitimate, given the (quite unrelated) expression "a [[kangaroo court]]". There is no known evidence of its legitimacy as a collective noun, however.
* A "complaint of camels" was formerly common in Australia due to the poem "The Plaint of the Camel" by Charles Edward Carryl, which was part of the primary school syllabus for many years.
==See also ==
* [[Collective noun]]
[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Mammals]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of collective nouns for people</title>
<id>7152</id>
<revision>
<id>41970373</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:26:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.56.22.126</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a ''' list of collective nouns for people'''.
<table border = 0>
<tr><td> '''SUBJECT''' </td><td>'''COLLECTIVE TERM'''</td><td> <center>'''STATUS'''</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[academic]]s''' </td><td>A faculty of academics</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[actor]]s''' </td><td>A cast of actors</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[actor]]s''' </td><td>A company of actors</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[beauty|beauties]]''' </td><td>A bevy of beauties</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bishop]]s''' </td><td>A bench of bishops</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[employee]]s''' </td><td>A staff of employees</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[expert]]s''' </td><td>A panel of experts</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[geek|geeks]]''' </td><td>A bunch of geeks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[hoodlum]]s''' </td><td>A gang of hoodlums</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[horse|horsemen]]''' </td><td>A cavalcade of horsemen</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[knight]]s''' </td><td>A banner of knights</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[knight]]s''' </td><td>A rout of knights</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[logician|logicians]]''' </td><td>A [[Non_sequitur_%28logic%29 | sequitur]] of logicians</td><td> <center>Attributed to [[Bertrand Russell]]</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[man|men]]''' </td><td>A band of men</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[mourning|mourners]]''' </td><td>A cortege of mourners</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[indigenous people|native]]s''' </td><td>A tribe of natives</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[performing arts|performers]]''' </td><td>A troupe of performers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[player]]s''' </td><td>A team of players</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[politician]]s''' </td><td>A senate of politicians</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[priest]]s''' </td><td>A pontification of priests</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[psychologist]]s''' </td><td>A madness of psychologists</td><td> <center>Proposed by [[User:JTBurman | J.T. Burman]]</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[sailor]]s''' </td><td>A crew of sailors</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[soldier]]s''' </td><td>A brigade of soldiers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[soldier]]s''' </td><td>A company of soldiers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[soldier]]s''' </td><td>A division of soldiers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[soldier]]s''' </td><td>A platoon of soldiers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[soldier]]s''' </td><td>A squad of soldiers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[soldier]]s''' </td><td>A regiment of soldiers</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[student]]s''' </td><td>A class of students</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[student]]s''' </td><td>A cohort of students</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[thief|thieves]]''' </td><td>A den of thieves</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[vampire]]s''' </td><td>A kiss of vampires</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[witch]]es''' </td><td>A coven of witches</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[worship]]ers''' </td><td>A congregation of worshipers</td><td>
</table>
==See also==
* [[Collective noun]]
[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|People]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of collective nouns for birds</title>
<id>7153</id>
<revision>
<id>40362168</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:40:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">See also [[Collective noun]].
<table border = 0>
<tr><td> '''SUBJECT''' </td><td>'''COLLECTIVE TERM'''</td><td> <center>'''STATUS'''</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[auk|auks]]''' </td><td>A raft of auks</td><td> Uncertain </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bird|birds]]''' </td><td>A dissimulation of birds</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bird|birds]]''' </td><td>A volery of birds</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bird|birds]]''' </td><td>A covey of birds</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bittern|bitterns]]''' </td><td>A sedge of bitterns</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bittern|bitterns]]''' </td><td>A siege of bitterns</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[bullfinch|bullfinches]]''' </td><td>A bellowing of bullfinches</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[buzzard|buzzards]]''' </td><td>A wake of buzzards</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[capon|capons]]''' </td><td>A mews of capons</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[chicken|chickens]]''' </td><td>A peep of chickens</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[chicken|chicks]]''' </td><td>A clutch of chicks</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[chicken|hens]]''' </td><td>A brood of hens</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td></tr>
<tr><td> '''[[chicken|poultry]]''' </td><td>A run of poultry</td><td> <center>&radic;</center> </td> |
umulation of points that more flamboyant players were unable to match.
Although Hank Aaron is still the all time home run hitter in [[Major League Baseball]], he is second under former [[Japanese person|Japanese]] baseball player [[Sadaharu Oh]] (868) as the all time home run hitter in recorded baseball history ([[Negro League]] player [[Josh Gibson]] was said to have also hit well over 800 home runs, but recordkeeping in the Negro Leagues was fragmentary).
For 50 years, from [[1954]] to [[2004]], Henry Aaron was baseball's premiere player.... from an alphabetical standpoint. (In an uncategorizable oddity, [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] still holds the same position in the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]]. The odds are lengthy that baseball's all-time HR and RBI leader would also happen to be its all-time #1 alphabetical player; that the NBA's points leader held the same distinction is astronomically unlikely.)
Incidentally, Aaron's brother Tommie was #2 in this esoteric category. Both Aarons were bumped down one notch in baseball's player register in April [[2004]], when [[San Francisco Giants]] relief pitcher [[David Aardsma]] made his debut.
It is jokingly said that Hank Aaron has an [[Erdős number]] of 1 because he and [[Paul Erdős]] both autographed the same baseball when [[Emory University]] awarded them honorary degrees on the same day.
In [[2002]], Aaron played himself in an episode of ''[[Futurama]]'' called, [[Futurama (TV series - season 4)#A Leela of Her Own|A Leela of Her Own]].
== See also ==
* [[List of lifetime home run leaders through history]]
* [[List of major league players with 2,000 hits]]
* Hank Aaron has been featured in several video games, including [[Baseball Stars]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/aaron_hank.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]
* {{baseball-reference|id=a/aaronha01}}
* [http://www.thebaseballpage.com/past/pp/aaronhenry/default.htm Baseball Page]
* [http://www.baseballlibrary.com/baseballlibrary/ballplayers/A/Aaron_Hank.stm Baseball Library]
* [http://www.hickoksports.com/biograph/aaronhen.shtml Hickok Sports]
* [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-739 New Georgia Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.hank-aaron.info/ Hank Aaron stats, biography and information.]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Don Newcombe]] | title = [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|National League Most Valuable Player]]| years = [[1957]] | after = [[Ernie Banks]]}}
{{Incumbent succession box | before = [[Babe Ruth]] | title = [[List of lifetime home run leaders through history|Career home run record holders]]| start = [[1974]]| after = }}
{{end box}}
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<page>
<title>Holy Grail</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:46:38Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the Christian artifact|other uses|Grail (disambiguation)}}
In [[Christian mythology]], the '''Holy Grail''' was the [[dishware|dish]], [[plate (dishware)|plate]], [[drinkware|cup]] or vessel used by [[Jesus]] at the [[Last Supper]], said to possess miraculous powers. According to many versions of the story, [[Joseph of Arimathea]] used the Grail to catch [[Christ]]'s blood while interring him and then took the object to [[Britain]], where he founded a line of guardians to keep it safe. The quest for the Holy Grail makes up an important segment of the [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] cycle, appearing first in works by [[Chrétien de Troyes]] (Loomis 1991). The legend may combine [[Christian lore]] with a [[Celtic mythology|Celtic myth]] of a [[cauldron]] endowed with special powers.
The development of the Grail legend has been traced in detail by cultural historians: It is a [[Gothic literature|gothic]] legend, which first came together in the form of written romances, deriving perhaps from some pre-Christian folklore hints, in the later [[12th century|12th]] and early [[13th century|13th]] centuries. The early Grail romances centered on [[Percival]] and were woven into the more general Arthurian fabric. The Grail romances started in [[France]] and were translated into other European vernaculars; only a handful of non-French romances added any essential new elements.
Some of the Grail legend is interwoven with legends of the [[Holy Chalice]].
[[Image:Sangreal.jpg|thumb|200px|''How at the Castle of Corbin a Maiden Bare in the Sangreal and Foretold the Achievements of Galahad'': illustration by [[Arthur Rackham]], 1917]]
==Origins of the Grail==
===The Grail===
The Grail plays a different role everywhere it appears, but in most versions of the legend the hero must prove himself worthy to be in its presence. In the early tales, [[Percival]]'s immaturity prevents him from fulfilling his destiny when he first encounters the Grail, and he must grow spiritually and mentally before he can locate it again. In later tellings the Grail is a symbol of God's grace, available to all but only fully realized by those who prepare themselves spiritually, like the saintly [[Galahad]].
===Early forms of the Grail===
There are two schools of thought concerning the Grail's origin. The first, championed by [[Roger Sherman Loomis]], [[Alfred Nutt]], and [[Jessie Weston]], holds that it derived from early [[Celtic mythology|Celtic myth]] and folklore. Loomis traced a number of parallels between [[Medieval Welsh literature]] and [[Irish literature|Irish]] material and the Grail romances, including similarities between the ''[[Mabinogion]]'''s [[Bran the Blessed]] and the Arthurian [[Fisher King]], and between Bran's life-restoring cauldron and the Grail. Other legends featured magical platters or dishes that symbolize otherworldly power or test the hero's worth. Sometimes the items generate a never-ending supply of food, sometimes they can raise the dead. Sometimes they decide who the next king should be, as only the true sovereign could hold them.
On the other hand, some scholars believe the Grail began as a purely Christian symbol. For example, Joseph Goering of the [[University of Toronto]] (Goering 2005) has identified sources for Grail imagery in 12th-century wall paintings from churches in the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Pyrenees]] (now mostly removed to the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, [[Barcelona]]), which present unique iconic images of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] holding a bowl that radiates tongues of fire, images that predate the first literary account by [[Chrétien de Troyes]]. Goering argues that they were the original inspiration for the Grail legend.[http://www.news.utoronto.ca/bin6/051020-1720.asp]
Another recent theory holds that the earliest stories that cast the Grail in a Christian light were meant to promote the [[Roman Catholic]] [[sacrament]] of the [[Holy Communion]]. Although the practice of Holy Communion was first alluded to in the Christian [[Bible]] and defined by [[theologians]] in the first centuries A.D., around the time of the appearance of the first Christianized Grail literature, the Roman church was beginning to add more ceremony and [[mysticism]] around this particular sacrament. Thus, the first Grail stories may have been celebrations of a renewal in this traditional sacrament (Barber, 2004).[http://www.holygrail.ws] This theory has some backing by the fact that Grail legends are almost entirely a phenomenon of the Western church (see below).
Most scholars today accept that both Christian and Celtic traditions contributed to the le |
of [[Wichita, Kansas]], builder of the Learjet business aircraft. The aerospace arm, [[Bombardier Aerospace]], accounts for over half of the company's revenue and is reportedly the third-largest aircraft manufacturer in the world behind the giants [[Boeing]] and [[Airbus]]. In [[2003]] it spun off as a separate company the [[Bombardier Recreational Products]] division, whose [[snowcat]]s and [[snowmobile]]s had been the origin of the company.
In [[1970]], Bombardier acquired the Viennese company Lohner-[[Rotax]], a manufacturer of snowmobile engines and tramways, and thus became involved in [[Rail transport|rail business]]. This section started to grow important in the mid-1990s in the renaissance of [[tram]]ways or '[[light rail|light-rail transit]]'. Bombardier acquired the assets and designs of [[American Locomotive Company]]/[[Montreal Locomotive Works]], who continued in the [[locomotive]] business until [[1985]]. They built the [[British Rail Class 170|Class 170]] Turbostar and Class [[British Rail Class 357|357]]/[[British Rail Class 375|375]]/[[British Rail Class 376|376]]/[[British Rail Class 377|377]] Electrostar trains which are widely used throughout [[Great Britain|Britain]]. They also built the Croydon [[Tramlink]] and [[Nottingham Express Transit]] trams and parts of [[Alstom]]'s [[Eurostar train]]s. They are one of the companies which took over [[British Rail]]'s R&D facilities after [[Privatisation of British Rail|privatisation]] (the remainder largely being absorbed into [[AEA Technology]] and Alstom). They were part of a major consortium in the construction of the [[Eurotunnel]] railway cars, and also built new [[metro]] trains for a wide range of customers including the [[Toronto Transit Commission]], the [[Société de transport de Montréal|Commission de transport de la Communauté urbaine de Montréal]], and the [[New York City Transit Authority]] ([[R62A]], [[R142]]), and developed the [[Las Vegas Monorail]] system.
Bombardier is a [[UK Notified Body]], under The Railways (Interoperability) (Notified Bodies) Regulations 2000, in one TSI area: rolling stock.
[[Bombardier Transportation]] also leads the development and production of the [[Acela Express]] train in a 75%&ndash;25% arrangement with Alstom. The train runs between [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[New York, New York|New York City]] and [[Washington, DC]]. Bombardier provided carbody design and tilting mechanisms from its LRC ("Light Rapid Comfortable") line of passenger trainsets, and integrated a variant of Alstom's [[TGV]] propulsion system. This is the first high-speed rail line in [[North America]], running at a top speed of 240 km/h (150 mi/h). To meet [[U.S. government]] "Buy American" regulations, final assembly of these trains was performed at Bombardier's U.S. rail car assembly facility in [[Barre (city), Vermont|Barre, Vermont]]. Bombardier also provided seller-arranged financing to allow [[Amtrak]] to lease the trainsets rather than purchasing them outright as the railroad had previously done.
They were, until recently, a major [[Canada|Canadian]] [[defence contractor]]. With the latest restructuring the company sold off nearly all of its military related work in Canada. However it continues to participate in military contracts in other countries, such as in the [[United Kingdom]], with the [[ASTOR]] (Airborne Stand-Off Radar) conversion of the long range Challenger [[Bombardier Global Express|Global Express]] jet. The actual conversion is carried out by [[Raytheon]].
In 2001 Bombardier Transportation acquired [[Adtranz]], making it the second largest manufacturer of railway rolling stock in the world. Depending on how one defines industrial activities, it is sometimes considered the largest in the world in this category.
== Criticisms ==
Bombardier has been criticised in Canada and abroad over the [[subsidy|subsidies]] it receives from various levels of government. They have been described as [[corporate welfare]] and accused of violating [[free trade]] agreements, especially by [[Brazil]]. Canada and Bombardier have countered by citing Brazil's direct and indirect subsidies to [[Embraer]], its own major aircraft manufacturer and one of Bombardier's principal competitors in the [[regional jet]] market.
The government of Canada provided a large interest rate subsidy for the financing that made possible Bombardier's sale of metro trains to the [[New York City Subway]]. Some Canadians object to such amounts of money being given to a private for-profit company, but the government argues that the subsidies create many jobs. Recently Bombardier opened an engineering design agreement with an [[India]]n company which subsidy critics argue may result in a loss of jobs in Canada.
Bombardier's reputation may have been tarnished in the western [[United States]] by its association with the privately-funded [[Las Vegas Monorail]] system, which has been operational since [[December 24]], [[2004]] but was plagued by delays due mechanical problems. The system reportedly lost [[United States dollar|US$]]85,000 per day while closed over a period of four months.
Recently, some human rights and Tibet support groups in [http://sftcanada.blogspot.com/2005/10/exposing-bombardier.html Canada], the [http://sftuk.blogspot.com/2005/09/tibet-activists-confront-bombardier.html U.K.], and the U.S. have put pressure on Bombardier over its sale of passenger carriages to the [[People's Republic of China]] for projects including the controversial [[Qingzang Railway]] line into [[Tibet]].
Also Bombardier has been criticized for the yearly procedure of moving assets (such as aircraft) from one Bombardier entity to another Bombardier entity and recording the transaction as revenue for the sole purpose of increasing annual bonuses of senior executives. The procedure was criticized as not being in the best interest of the shareholders although it received very little negative publicity.
==Corporate governance==
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of Bombardier Inc. are: [[Laurent Beaudoin]], [[Pierre Beaudoin]], [[André Berard]], [[J.R. André Bombardier]], [[Janine Bombardier]], [[L. Denis Desauutels]], [[Michael Durham (businessman)|Michael Durham]], [[Jean-Louis Fontaine]], [[Daniel Johnson, Jr.]], [[Jean Monty]], [[André Navarri]], [[James Perrella]], [[Carols Represas]], [[Federico Sada]], and Heinrich Weiss.
==See also==
* [[Bombardier Transportation]]
* [[Bombardier Aerospace]]
* [[Bombardier Recreational Products]]
==External links==
*[http://www.bombardier.com/ Company website]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/42/42381.html Yahoo! - Bombardier Inc. Company Profile]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Break key</title>
<id>4636</id>
<revision>
<id>42038353</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:54:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ixfd64</username>
<id>6284</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[BASIC]] to [[BASIC programming language]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''break key''' is a special key on [[computer keyboard]]s that no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to telegraph practices.
A standard [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] key has a built-in [[knife switch]] that can be used to short the key's contacts. When the key was not in use, that switch was kept closed, so that a signal was continually sent. If that steady-state signal was interrupted, it indicated one of two things: either the operator was about to start transmitting, or something else had happened to break the connection — such as hostiles cutting the telegraph line.
As the [[teletype]] came into use, a key was created that would temporarily interrupt the communications line, allowing this practice to continue. When this occurred, the receiving teletype mechanism would activate but not print characters (it was typing the non-printing "DEL" character repeatedly). The noise got the operator's attention.
[[Time-sharing]] computers connected to [[modem]]s could recognize the break because the "DEL" characters received had "bad [[parity]]". This was usually used to generate an [[interrupt]] and allow login or stop a running program.
On personal computers, the break key is used in different ways by different programs, but usually involves some sense of changing the interaction with the computer, such as switching between multiple login sessions, terminating a program, or interrupting a modem connection.
On many modern [[Personal computer|PCs]], '''Pause''' interrupts screen output by [[BIOS]]. This is effective during [[boot]] in [[text mode]] and in a [[DOS]] box in [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] safe mode with 50 lines.
In programming, especially old DOS-style [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]], [[Pascal]] and [[C++]], '''Break''' is used (in conjunction with [[Control key]]) to stop program execution. In addition to this, [[Linux]] and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as ''Ctrl+C''. Finally, the combination can be used to stop a batch file, which is highly useful on older DOS machines that ran batch scripts on boot up.
On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled '''Pause/Break'''. On many games this is the key to pause the game. In most Windows environments, the key combination ''[[Windows key]]+Pause'' brings up the system properties.
Compact and notebook keyboards often have the Pause/Break key mapped to a function command. As a result, pressing ''Ctrl+Pause'' in a notebook computer may require the user to press something else, such as ''Ctrl+Fn+F11''.
= |
o Aegon's Landing, using negative numbers for events before Aegon's Landing.
; Dawn Age (before -12,000)
: In the Dawn Age, Westeros is inhabited by the fairy-like Children of the Forest, and possibly by Giants in the far North.
; ca. -12,000
: About 12,000 years ago, the First Men come to Westeros from the Eastern Continent, via a land bridge then connecting the two land masses. The First Men introduce bronze, leather shields, and horses. After initial fights, which include the destruction of the land bridge, they reconcile with the Children.
; The Long Night, ca. -8000
:At the time of a terrible winter that seems to last for a generation a demonic race called the ''Others'' invade from the north and nearly destroy all men in Westeros. The Others are finally defeated at the ''Battle of the Dawn'' by the men of the Night's Watch. Perhaps this is the time when [[Westeros#The Wall|the Wall]] is built, a giant fortification in the north of the continent protecting the continent from the menaces of the north.
; ca. -6,000
: Another tribe of men, the Andals, invade Westeros with steel weapons and a new religion, the ''Seven''. They fight both the First Men and the Children of the Forest, finally extinguishing the latter everywhere south of the Wall. After centuries of fighting, the Andals establish six kingdoms in the south, while the north remains in the hands of the First Men.
; ca. -700
: The Rhoynar, led by Queen [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Nymeria|Nymeria]], land in [[#Dorne|Dorne]], the southern part of Westeros, and mix with the Dornish. The Rhoynar bring no greater political turmoil, though the southernmost kingdoms are heavily influenced by their customs, including equal [[primogeniture]].
; 1
: Two centuries after the Doom of [[Westeros#Valyria|Valyria]], Aegon of the [[House Targaryen]], an ancient Valyrian family, invades, subdues, and unites Westeros.
; 284
: [[House Baratheon#Robert|Robert Baratheon]] starts a [[Wars in A Song of Ice and Fire#War of the Usurper|rebellion]] against the "Mad King" [[House Targaryen|Aerys II Targaryen]]. and with the help of other houses defeats the Targaryen army and crowns himself king.
; 297
: The events of ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' begin.
==Specific places==
===The Citadel===
The Citadel is the place the order of maesters call home, where they forge their chains with years of study. The Citadel is located in the Reach, in Oldtown, the oldest city in Westeros.
===King's Landing===
King's Landing is the capital of Westeros and the Seven Kingdoms, and the seat of the Iron Throne, held (at the onset of ''A Game of Thrones'') by House Baratheon.
King's Landing is surrounded by a wall, manned by a city watch known as the Gold Cloaks, led (as of the beginning of the series) by Janos Slynt. The city has seven gates:
*Dragon Gate
*Gate of the Gods
*Iron Gate
*King's Gate
*Lion Gate
*River Gate (Mud Gate)
*Old Gate
The interior of the city is dominated by three hills, named after the Targaryen conquerors:
*Aegon's High Hill
*Rhaenys's Hill
*Visenya's Hill
Other significant places within the city include:
*The Blackwater Rush, the river to the south
*Chataya's, a brothel
*Flea Bottom
*The Great Sept of Baelor
*The Red Keep
===Dragonstone===
[[Image:Dragonstone-location.jpg|thumb|Location of Dragonstone]]
Dragonstone is one of a group of islands in the Narrow Sea, close to the Westerosi shore. It used to be the westernmost outpost of the freehold of Valyria, and is the ancient seat of House Targaryen. On the nearby island of Driftmark, house Velaryon is another Valyrian house to survive the Doom.
The island is dominated by a huge fortress, its towers shaped like dragons and decorated with a thousand gargoyles, and an active volcano, the Dragonmont. Beneath the mountain there are rich deposits of obsidian.
Some Targaryen crown princes held the title Prince of Dragonstone, and the holder of Dragonstone was generally viewed as heir to the throne.
===Harrenhal===
{{spoiler}}
Located on the northern shore of God's Eye, a lake in the central part of [[Westeros]], Harrenhal was built by Harren the Black from the Iron Islands. Harren's grandfather, Hardhand, had gained the Riverlands in conquest, defeating Arrec the Storm King.
Harren built the castle to be the greatest in the world: made out of black stone, it was built out of proportion, which, since it was situated on the relatively flat plains, made for an awe inspiring sight. The castle towers were massive and numerous, the great hall larger than most any in Westeros; all of it was built to impress.
Harren had scarcely finished his work when Aegon the Conqueror came with an army. Hearing of the Reach King's army burnt to dust by massive dragons on the field, he hid behind his walls--only to have them be attacked by the dragons, whose fires were so hot they cracked and melted the stone. Harren and his sons did not survive, and his kingdom capitulated.
After three hundred years of relative disuse, the castle has been occupied by numerous houses. At the start of the War of the Five Kings, the owner was House Whent. When the castle was taken by [[House Lannister#Tywin|Tywin Lannister]], it was first awarded to Janos Slynt. [[House Lannister#Tyrion|Tyrion Lannister]] revoked the award and sent Slynt to the Wall. Harrenhal was given to [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Petyr Baelish|Petyr Baelish]] instead, though he has never set foot in the castle. After several months of Lannister occupation, [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Roose Bolton|Roose Bolton]] conspired with the Brave Companions (a mercenary company in Lord Tywin's service) to take the castle, after which he occupied it in the name of [[House Stark#Robb|Robb Stark]].
The castle's towers have long since lost their original names, now they are known as the Tower of Dread, The Widow's Tower, The Wailing Tower (so named for the blowing of wind through cracks in its wall, making a ghostly wail--some of the superstitious believe it to be haunted by ghosts), The Tower of Ghosts, The Kingspyre Tower (where Harren died with his sons; the largest of the towers). Harrenhal has been rumored to be cursed, with many of its masters coming to bad ends.
===The Wall===
The Wall is a huge fortification built primarily of ice, located in the far north of Westeros. It extends from the Bay of Seals in the east to the Frostfang mountains in the west, and is extremely hard to cross due to its size. It is 300 miles long and over 700 feet high. It serves as a defense against the Others and wildlings, men and women who do not bow to the King on the Iron Throne to the south. There are nineteen castles along the Wall, although most are not true castles. Only three are manned at the beginning of A Song of Ice and Fire: Castle Black, at the end of the Kingsroad, has the largest garrison, but the easternmost castle, Eastwatch-by-the-Sea, and a far western one, the Shadow Tower, are also manned. No more than 15 have ever been manned at one time. The largest and the oldest is The Nightfort.
The Wall is manned by the Night's Watch, referred to disparagingly as "crows" because of their black uniform. The strength of the Night's Watch has waxed and waned throughout the history of Westeros. During the events of "A Song of Ice and Fire" the watch is much weaker and more disregarded than it has been in many generations.
====Castles Along the Wall====
*Westwatch-by-the-Bridge
*The Shadow Tower
*Sentinel Stand
*Greyguard
*Stonedoor
*Hoarfrost Hill
*Icemark
*The Nightfort
*Deep Lake
*Queensgate, formerly known as Snowgate
*Castle Black
*Oakenshield
*Woodswatch-by-the-Pool
*Sable Hall
*Rimegate
*The Long Barrow
*The Torches
*Greenguard
*Eastwatch-by-the-Sea
===Winterfell===
Winterfell (possibly related to German for "winter pelt") is the name given to both the ancient castle where the Starks live, and the surrounding town. Winterfell possesses a godswood of three square miles, with an ancient weirwood tree marking its center. It is also surrounded by a moat. As such a large castle, it also has several abandoned towers and sections, where few are known to go. The castle has deep catacombs where the bodies of Starks are burried, with statues to mark the crypts of the former lords of Winterfell and the old Kings of the North.
At the beginning of A Game of Thrones, Lord Eddard Stark was the Lord of Winterfell, and Warden of the North. Robb Stark, his oldest son, was the heir to Winterfell. Maester Luwin was a trusted counsellor, healer and tutor. Ser Rodrik Cassel was the master-at-arms, Jory Cassel was the captain of the guard.
{{spoiler}}
Winterfell has been attacked, captured, and burned, and now is an abandoned ruin, though its godswood still stands.
==Places on the Eastern Continent==
===Narrow Sea===
The Narrow Sea separates Westeros and the eastern continent. It is the main trade route between Westeros and the rest of the world.
Asshai borders the Jade Sea rather than the Narrow Sea but trading ships can pass between the two seas via the straits at Qarth.
===Valyria===
'''Valyria''' is a dead nation that was located on a peninsula of the Eastern Continent, and is the ancestral home of the [[House Targaryen]]. Valyria was destroyed when some as-yet undescribed "doom" was visited upon it several hundred years prior to the events of ''A Song of Ice and Fire''. It is described as "demon-haunted." What is left of Valyria has been fragmented into numerous smaller islands is surrounded by the forbidding Smoking Sea.
Valyria is also known for their blades of exceptional quality, specifically for the "Valyrian steel" the blades are made from. The secret to the forging of such steel was apparently lost when Valyria "fell." As such, blades made from such steel are highly treasured and extremely rare. Many of these blades are the heirlooms of nob |
apoeira that are clearly distinct. ''Angola'' is characterized by slow, low play with particular attention to the rituals and tradition of capoeira. The other style, ''Regional'' (pronounced 'heh-jeeh-oh-nahl' or 'heh-jeeh-oh-now'), is known for its fluid acrobatic play, where technique and strategy are the key points. Both styles are marked by the use of feints and subterfuge, and use groundwork extensively, as well as sweeps, kicks, and headbutts.
Recently, the art has been popularized by the addition of Capoeira performed in various computer games and movies, and capoeira music has featured in modern pop music (see ''[[#Capoeira in popular culture|Capoeira in popular culture]]'').
== History ==
During the 1500s, [[Portugal]] shipped slaves into [[South America]] from Western [[Africa]]. Brazil was the largest contributor to slave migration with 42% of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic. The following peoples were the most commonly sold into Brazil: The Sudanese group, composed largely of [[Yoruba]]a and [[Dahomey|Dahomean]] people, the Islamised Guinea-Sudanese group of Malesian and Hausa people and the [[Bantu]] group (among them [[Kongo language|Kongos]], Kimbundas and Kasanjes) from [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] and [[Mozambique]].
There are engravings and writings that describe a now-lost fighting dance in [[Cuba]] that reminds us of capoeira with two Bantu men moving to the [[yuka]] drums. It is called the ''[[baile del maní]]''. [[Batuque]] and [[Maculele (dance)|Maculele]] are other fight-dances closely connected to capoeira.
These people brought their cultural traditions and [[religion]] with them to the [[New World]]. The homogenization of the African people under the [[oppression]] of [[slavery]] was the catalyst for capoeira. Capoeira was developed by the slaves of Brazil as a way to resist their oppressors, secretly practice their art, transmit their culture, and lift their spirits. Some historians believe that the indigenous peoples of Brazil also played an important role in the development of capoeira.
After slavery was abolished, the slaves moved to the cities of Brazil, and with no employment to be found, many joined or formed criminal gangs. They continued to practice capoeira, and it became associated with anti-government or criminal activities. As a result, capoeira was outlawed in Brazil in 1892. The punishment for practicing it was extreme (practitioners would have the tendons on the back of their feet cut), and the police were vicious in their attempt to stamp out the art. Capoeira continued to be practiced, but it moved further underground. [[Roda]]s were often held in areas with plenty of escape routes, and a special rhythm called ''cavalaria'' were added to the music to warn players that the police were coming. To avoid being persecuted, capoeira practitioners (''capoeiristas'') also gave themselves an ''apelido'' or [[nickname|nicknames]], often more than one. This made it much harder for the police to discover their true identities. This tradition continues to this day. When a person is baptized into Capoeira at the batizado ceremony, they may be given their ''apelido.''
Persecution of the art petered out eventually, and was entirely gone by 1918. <!-- implication from Mestre Bimba article -->
In 1937, [[Mestre Bimba]] was invited to demonstrate his art in front of the president. After this performance, he was given permission to open the first capoeira school in Brazil. Since that time, capoeira has been officially recognized as a national sport, and has spread around the world. Mestre Bimba's systematization and teaching of capoeira made a tremendous contribution to the capoeira community.
In 1942, [[Mestre Pastinha]] opened the first ''Capoeira Angola'' school, the ''Centro Esportivo de Capoeira Angola'', located in Bahia. He had his students wear black pants and yellow t-shirts, the same color of the "Ypiranga Futebol Clube," his favorite soccer team. Most Angola schools since then follow in this tradition, having their students wear yellow capoeira t-shirts.
Together, [[Mestre Bimba]] and [[Mestre Pastinha]] are generally seen as the fathers of modern ''Capoeira Regional'' and ''Capoeira Angola'' respectively.
=== Etymology ===
The derivation of the word ''capoeira'' is under dispute. One possible meaning is that it refers to an area of forest or jungle that has been cleared by burning or cutting down. [[Afro-Brazilian]] scholar Carlos Eugenio believes it refers to a large round basket called a ''capa'' commonly worn on the head by urban slaves selling wares (a ''capoeira'' being one who wears the basket). Alternatively, [[Kongo language|Kongo]] scholar K. Kia Bunseki Fu-Kiau thinks that capoeira could be a deformation of the [[Kikongo]] word ''kipura'', which means to flutter, to flit from place to place; to struggle, to fight, to flog. In particular, the term is used to describe rooster's movements in a fight.
== Music ==
[[Image:Capoeira-three-berimbau-one-pandeiro.jpg|thumb|300px|A capoeira bateria led by [[Mestre Cobra Mansa]] featuring three [[berimbau]]s and a [[pandeiro]].]]
:''See also: [[Capoeira music]]; [[Capoeira toques]]''
Music is integral to Capoeira. It sets the tempo and style of game that is to be played within the ''[[Roda]]'' (pronounced Ho'da). The music is comprised of [[Musical instruments|instruments]] and [[song]]. The tempos differ from very slow (Angola) to very fast (São Bento Regional). Many of the songs are sung in a call and response format while others are in the form of a narrative. Capoeiristas sing about a wide variety of subjects. Some songs are about history or stories of famous capoeiristas. Other songs attempt to inspire players to play better. Some songs are about what is going on within the roda. Sometimes the songs are about life, or love lost. Others are lighthearted or even silly things, sung just for fun. Capoeiristas change their playing style significantly as the songs or [[capoeira toques|rhythm]] from the [[berimbau]] (right) commands. In this manner, it is truly the music that drives capoeira.
There are three basic kinds of songs in capoeira. A ''ladainha'' (litany) is a narrative solo usually sung at the beginning of a roda, often by the ''Mestre'' (Master). These ladainhas will often be famous songs previously written by a Mestre, or they may be improvised on the spot. A ladainha is usually followed by a ''chula'' or ''louvação'', following a call and response pattern that usually thanks God and one's teacher, among other things. Each call is usually repeated word-for-word by the responders. The ladainha and chula are often omitted in Regional games. Finally, ''corridos'' are songs that are sung while a game is being played, again following the call and response pattern. The responses to each call do not simply repeat what was said, however, but change depending on the song. For the words to many of the songs, see [[Capoeira songs]].
The instruments are played in a row called the [[bateria]]. three instruments are [[berimbau]]s, which look like an archer's bow using a steel string and a gourd for resonation. It is played by striking the string with a stick, and the pitch is regulated by a stone. Legend has it that, in the old times, knives or other sharp objects were attached to the top of the berimbau for protection and in case a large fight broke out. These three bows are the [[Berraboi]] (also called the [[bass (musical term)|bass]] or [[Gunga]]), [[Medio]], & [[Viola (berimbau)|Viola]], and lead the rhythm. Other instruments in the bateria are: two ''[[pandeiro]]s'' ([[tambourine]]s), a ''Reco-Reco'' ([[rasp]]), and an ''[[Agogo]]'' (double [[gong]] [[bell (instrument)|bell]]). The [[Atabaque]] ([[conga]]-like [[drum]]), a common feature in most capoeira baterias, is considered an optional instrument, and is not required for a full bateria in some groups.
== Roda and philosophy ==
[[Image:Capoeira-in-the-street-2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Two men playing in a Capoeira Regional roda in [[Amsterdam]].]]
The "[[roda]]" is the circle of people within which capoeira is played. People who make up the roda's circular shape clap and sing along to the music being played for the two partners engaged in a capoeira match or rather a "game" ("jogo"). In some capoeira [[school]]s an individual in the audience can jump in to engage one of the two players and begin another game.
The minimum roda size is usually a circle where the radius is the length of a [[berimbau]], or about 3 metres (10 feet) in diameter. They are often larger, up to 10 metres in diameter (30 feet). The rhythm being played on the [[berimbau]] sets the pace of the game being played in the roda. Slow music limits the game to slow yet complex ground moves and handstands.
Hits usually aren't made but feigned or just shown. The players often turn away from each other's hits just to throw their own. Slow games are often seen as ''finesse'' games, less impressive for the casual viewer. Faster music allows for more circular momentum which is key to gaining "big air" in the roda.
Capoeiristas can take up a lot of space while playing, so the roda is rarely small, especially if the players are playing quickly. In the fast game, acrobatics and big, circular kicks abound to the delight of onlookers. Sometimes actual hits are registered, but only between higher-level competing capoeiristas.
The roda is a [[microcosm]] which reflects the [[macrocosm]] of life and the world around us. Most often in the roda, your greatest opponent is yourself. Philosophy plays a large part in capoeira and the best teachers strive to teach Respeito (Respect), Responsabilidade (Responsibility), Segurança (Safety/Security), Malícia (Cleverness/Street-smarts), and Liberdade (Liberty/Freedom).
Modern capoeira is often criticized by more traditional practitioners of cap |
0th century. The [[Nation of Islam]] under [[Louis Farrakhan]] claimed that Jews were responsible for slavery, economic exploitation of black labor, selling alcohol and drugs in their communities, and unfair domination of the economy. Jesse Jackson issued his infamous "Hymietown" remarks during the 1984 Presidential primary campaign.
According to ADL surveys begun in 1964, African-Americans are "significantly more likely" than white Americans to hold anti-Semitic beliefs, although there is a strong correlation between education level and the rejection of anti-Semitic stereotypes. [http://www.adl.org/antisemitism_survey/survey_print.asp].
=== Europe ===
The summary of a 2004 poll by the ''Pew Global Attitudes Project'' noted that "Despite concerns about rising anti-Semitism in Europe, there are no indications that anti-Jewish sentiment has increased over the past decade. Favorable ratings of Jews are actually higher now in France, Germany and Russia than they were in 1991. Nonetheless, Jews are better liked in the U.S. than in Germany and Russia."[http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=206]
However, according to 2005 survey results by the ADL [http://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASInt_13/4726_13.htm], anti-Semitic attitudes remain common in Europe. Over 30% of those surveyed indicated that Jews have too much power in business, with responses ranging from lows of 11% in Denmark and 14% in England to highs of 66% in Hungary, and over 40% in Poland and Spain. The results of religious anti-Semitism also linger and over 20% of European respondents agreed that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus, with France having the lowest percentage at 13% and Poland having the highest number of those agreeing, at 39%. [http://www.philosophistry.com/specials/europe/question_1.html]
The Vienna-based European Union Monitoring Center (EUMC), for 2002 and 2003, identified France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and The Netherlands as EU member countries with notable increases in incidents. As these nations keep reliable and comprehensive statistics on anti-Semitic acts, and are engaged in combating anti-Semitism, their data was readily available to the EUMC. Governments and leading public figures condemned the violence, passed new legislation, and mounted positive law enforcement and educational efforts.
In Western Europe, traditional far-right groups still account for a significant proportion of the attacks against Jews and Jewish properties; disadvantaged and disaffected Muslim youths increasingly were responsible for most of the other incidents. In Eastern Europe, with a much smaller Muslim population, skinheads and others members of the radical political fringe were responsible for most anti-Semitic incidents. Anti-Semitism remained a serious problem in Russia and Belarus, and elsewhere in the former Soviet Union, with most incidents carried out by ultra-nationalist and other far-right elements. The stereotype of Jews as manipulators of the global economy continues to provide fertile ground for anti-Semitic aggression.
==== France ====
[[Image:FrenchCemetery103004-01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Defacement of a Jewish cemetery in France, 2004.]]
{{main|History of the Jews in France}}
Anti-semitism was particularly virulent in [[Vichy France]] during [[World War II|WWII]] (1939 - 1945). The Vichy government openly collaborated with the Nazi occupiers to identify Jews for deportation and transportation to the death camps.
Today, despite a steady trend of decreasing antisemitism among the population[http://www.tns-sofres.com/etudes/pol/080605_antisemitisme_r.htm], acts of antisemitism are a serious cause for concern [http://www.lexpress.fr/info/societe/dossier/juifsfr/dossier.asp], as is tension between the Jewish and Muslim populations of France, both the largest in Europe. According to the National Advisory Committee on human rights, antisemitic acts account for a majority (72% of all in 2003) of racist acts in France. (''See also the official statement of the French ministry of interior about antisemitic acts''[http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/rubriques/a/a5_communiques/2005_07_25_antisemite].)
In 2005 the Israeli newspaper the [[Maariv]] found that 82% of French people questioned had favourable attitudes towards Jews, the second highest percentage of the countries questioned. The Netherlands was highest at 85%. [http://superfrenchie.com/?p=125#comments]
==== Poland ====
''see [[History of the Jews in Poland]]''
In 1264, King [[Boleslaus V of Poland]] legislated a charter for Jewish residence and protection, hoping that Jewish settlement would contribute to the development of the Polish economy. This charter, which encouraged money-lending, was a slight variation of the 1244 charter granted by the King of [[Austria]] to the Jews. By the sixteenth century, Poland had become the center of European Jewry and the most tolerant of all European countries regarding the matters of faith, although there were still occasionally violent anti-Semitic incidents.
At the onset of the seventeenth century, however, the tolerance began to give way to increased anti-Semitism. Elected to the Polish throne King [[Sigismund III]] of the Swedish [[House of Vasa]], a strong supporter of the [[counter-reformation]], began to undermine the principles of the [[Warsaw Confederation]] and the religious tolerance in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], revoking and limiting privileges of all non-Catholic faiths. In 1628 he banned publication of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] books, including the [[Talmud]] [http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/staff/Polcen16c.html]. Acclaimed twentieth century historian [[Simon Dubnow]], in his ''[[magnum opus]]'' ''History of the Jews in Poland and Russia'', detailed:
:"''At the end of the 16th century and thereafter, not one year passed without a blood libel trial against Jews in Poland, trials which always ended with the execution of Jewish victims in a heinous manner..."'' (ibid., volume 6, chapter 4).
In the 1650s the Swedish invasion of the Commonwealth ([[The Deluge]]) and the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] of the [[Cossack]]s resulted in vast depopulation of the Commonwealth, as over 30% of the ~10 million population has perished or emigrated. In the related 1648-55 pogroms led by the Ukrainian [[Haidamak]]s uprising against Polish nobility ([[szlachta]]), during which approximately 100,000 Jews were slaughtered, Polish and [[Ruthenian]] peasants often participated in killing Jews (''The Jews in Poland'', Ken Spiro, 2001). The besieged szlachta, who were also decimated in the territories where the uprising happened, typically abandoned the loyal peasantry, townsfolk, and the Jews renting their land, in violation of "rental" contracts.
In the aftermath of the Deluge and Chmielnicki Uprising, many Jews fled to the less turbulent [[Netherlands]], which had granted the Jews a protective charter in 1619. From then until the [[Nazi]] deportations in 1942, the Netherlands remained a remarkably tolerant haven for Jews in Europe, excedeeing the tolerance extant in all other European countries at the time, and becoming one of the few Jewish havens until nineteenth century social and political reforms throughout much of Europe. Many Jews also fled to England, open to Jews since the mid-seventeenth century, in which Jews were fundamentally ignored and not typically persecuted.
Historian Berel Wein notes:
:"''In a reversal of roles that is common in Jewish history, the victorious Poles now vented their wrath upon the hapless Jews of the area, accusing them of collaborating with the [[Cossack]] invader!... The Jews, reeling from almost five years of constant hell, abandoned their Polish communities and institutions..."'' (''Triumph of Survival'', 1990).
Throughout the sixteenth to eighteenth century, many of the szlachta mistreated peasantry, townsfolk and Jews. Threat of mob violence was a specter over the Jewish communities in [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] at the time. On one occasion in 1696, a mob threatened to massacre the Jewish community of Posin, [[Vitebsk]]. The mob accused the Jews of murdering a Pole. At the last moment, a peasant woman emerged with the victim's clothes and confessed to the murder. One notable example of actualized riots against Polish Jews is the rioting of 1716, during which many Jews lost their lives. Later, in 1723, the Bishop of [[Gdańsk]] instigated the massacre of hundreds of Jews.
The legendary [[Abraham ben Abraham|Walentyn Potocki]], a Polish nobleman who converted to Judaism, is said to have been burned by [[auto da fe]] on May 24, 1749. In 1757, at the instigation of [[Jacob Frank]] and his followers, the Bishop of [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] forced the Jewish rabbis to participate in a religious dispute with the quasi-Christian Frankists. Among the other charges, the Frankists claimed that the [[Talmud]] was full of heresy against Catholicism. The [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] judges determined that the Frankists had won the debate, whereupon the Bishop levied heavy fines against the Jewish community and confiscated and burned all Jewish Talmuds. Polish anti-Semitism during the seventeenth and eighteenth century was summed up by Issac de Pinto as follows: "''Polish Jews... who are deprived of all the privileges of society... who are despised and reviled on all sides, who are often persecuted, always insulted.... That contempt which is heaped on them chokes up all the seeds of virtue and honour....''" ([[Issac de Pinto]], philosopher and economist, in a 1762 letter to [[Voltaire]]).
On the other hand, it should be noted that despite the mentioned incidents, the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was a relative haven for Jews when compared to the period of the [[partitions of Poland]] and the PLC's destruction in 1795 (see [[Anti-Semitism#Russia and the Soviet Union|Imperial Russia and the |
.com/artchive/D/durer.html
* [http://www.aiwaz.net/durer/ Alternative Albrecht Durer]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Albrecht+Dürer | name=Albrecht Dürer}}
* [http://www.museen-sh.de/ml/digicult.php?digiID=200.6885331&s=2 Works by Albrecht Dürer] at Museumsportal Schleswig-Holstein
[[Category:1471 births|Dürer, Albrecht]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Australian rules football</title>
<id>2403</id>
<revision>
<id>41979664</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:40:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>202.147.143.166</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Australian Rules and Aussie Rules redirect here. For the movie, see [[Australian Rules (film)|Australian Rules (film)]].'' <!--[[Image:AFL,_MCG.jpg|Aussie Rules at the MCG|260px|thumb|right|''Australian football'' at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]].]]-->
[[Image:aussie_rules_wikipedia.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Australian football at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]. [[Alastair Lynch]], ([[Brisbane Lions]], seen here in maroon and blue jumpers), is attempting to take a [[mark (Australian football)|mark]]. A [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]] (black and white jumpers) opponent trying to stop him.]]
'''Australian football''', which is also known as '''Australian rules football''', or less formally as "'''Aussie rules'''" or simply as "'''footy'''" is a code of [[football]] which originated in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]].
The game is played between two teams of 18 players (plus ''[[interchange (Australian rules football)|interchange]]'' players), on [[cricket]] ''[[oval]]s'' or similar-sized grassed arenas which vary in size and may be up to 185 [[metre]]s (200 [[yard]]s) long; these are much larger than those used by other codes of football. The game is also distinguished from other games by the fast, relatively free movement of the ball (partly due to the absence of an [[Offside law (football)|offside rule]]) and the awarding of a ''free kick'' for any clean catch – known as a ''[[Mark (Australian football) | mark]]'' – of a ball which has been kicked more than 15 metres. Spectacular high ''marks'', or "[[specky|speccies]]", tackles and fast, fluid play are the game's main attributes as a spectator sport. Despite the game's sometimes rough physical nature players do not usually wear protective clothing. Although it is a [[winter]] sport, pre-season competitions usually begin in late February (that is, in the Australian summer); the ''football season'' proper is from March to August, with finals being held in September.
==Structure and competitions ==
The most powerful organisation and competition within the game is the elite, [[professional sport|professional]], [[Australian Football League]] (AFL). There are also seven state (and/or territory)-based organisations: [[AFL NSW/ACT]], [[Football Tasmania]], the [[Northern Territory Football League]], the [[South Australian National Football League]] (SANFL), the [[Queensland Australian Football League]], the [[Victorian Football League]] (VFL), and the [[West Australian Football League]] (WAFL). Most of these hold annual semi-professional club competitions, while the others oversee more than one league. Local semi-professional or amateur organisations and competitions are also affiliated to these state leagues.
Unlike most [[Football (soccer)|soccer]] competitions, there are usually no separate "league" and "cup" trophies. In the [[Australian Football League|AFL]], The McClelland Trophy is awarded to the team that finishes the league in first position (sometimes called the minor premiership), but this is not afforded a high level of prestige as the major objective is the Premiership. The teams that occupy the highest positions (usually four in most amateur leagues, but eight in the AFL) play off in a "semi-knockout" finals series (in the AFL, the top four sides get a second chance if they lose their first final), with the two successful teams meeting in the [[Grand Final]] to contest the ''premiership''. The winner is awarded the ''premiership cup''.
==Rules of the game==
{{main|Laws of Australian Football}}
[[Image:Sherrin.png|thumb|right|150px|An Australian [[football (ball)|football]]. The [[Sherrin]] brand is used for all official AFL matches, whilst the [[Burley football|Burley]] brand is endorsed by many state leagues and other countries.]]
Both the ball and the field of play are [[ellipsoid|oval]] in shape. No more than 18 players of each team are permitted to be on the field at any time. Up to four ''interchange'' (reserve) players may be swapped for those on the field at any time during the game. There is no offside rule nor are there set positions in the rules - unlike many other forms of football, players from both teams disperse across the whole field before the start of play. The ball can be propelled in any direction by way of a foot, clenched fist (called a [[handball (Australian Rules Football) | handball]] or ''handpass'') or open hand tap, but it cannot be thrown under any circumstances. (Throwing is defined in the rules quite broadly.)
A player may run with the ball but it must be bounced or touched on the ground at least every 15 metres. Opposition players may [[bump (football)|bump]] or [[tackle (football)|tackle]] the player to obtain the ball, and when tackled, the player must dispose of the ball cleanly or risk being penalised for ''holding the ball''.
If a player takes possession of the ball that has travelled more than 15 metres from another player's kick (there are different styles of kicking, mainly revolving around how the ball is held in the hand, of which [[punt (football)|punt]] or [[drop punt]] are two) by way of a catch, it is claimed as a ''[[mark (Australian football)|mark]]'' and that player may then have a ''free kick'' (meaning that that the game stops while he prepares to kick from the point at which he marked). Apart from free kicks, or when the ball is in the possession of umpires for a ball up or throw in, the ball is always in dispute and any player from either side can take possession of the ball.
===Scoring===
At each end of the field are four vertical posts. The middle two are the ''goal posts'', and the two on either side, which are shorter, are the ''behind posts''. A goal is scored when the football is propelled through the goal posts at any height (including above the height of the posts) by way of a kick from the attacking team. It may fly through on the full or bounce through, as long as it is not touched by any player from either team. A goal cannot be scored from the foot of an opposition (defending) player. A behind is scored when the ball goes across the line between a goal post and a behind post, or if the ball hits a goal post or is touched (a ''rushed behind'') before passing between the goalposts. A goal is worth 6 points, whereas a behind is worth one.
The team that scores the most points at the end of play wins the game. Thus a score of 10 goals and 10 behinds equals 70 points. A score of 9 goals and 18 behinds equals 72 points. The latter score would win the game despite the fact that that team scored one goal less. The result would usually be written as
'''Team A 9.18 (72)''' def Team B 10.10 (70).
==History==
===Origins of the game===
[[Tom Wills]] began to devise Australian rules in [[Melbourne]], in 1858. (Although [[H.C.A. Harrison]], Wills' cousin, was also named much later as an official "father of the game", his role does not now seem to have been significant at this very early stage.) A letter by Wills was published in ''Bell's Life in Victoria & Sporting Chronicle'' on [[July 10]], [[1858]],[http://www.mcg.org.au/default.asp?pg=footballdisplay&articleid=37] calling for a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during winter. An experimental match, played by Wills and others at the Richmond Paddock (later known as [[Yarra Park]], next to the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]]) on [[July 31]], [[1858]], was probably the first game of Australian football. However, few details of the match have survived.
On [[August 7]], [[1858]], two significant events in the development of the game occurred: the [[Melbourne Football Club]] was founded, one of the world's [[first football club]]s in any code, and a famous match between [[Melbourne Grammar School]] and [[Scotch College, Melbourne|Scotch College]] began, umpired by Wills. A second day of play took place on August 21, and a third and final day on September 4. The two schools have competed annually ever since. However, the rules used by the two teams in 1858 could not have had much in common with the eventual form of Australian football, since Wills had not yet begun to write them..
[[Image:Australianfootball1866.jpg|thumb|290px|A game at the [[Yarra Park|Richmond Paddock]] in the [[1860s]]. A pavilion at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]] is on the left in the background |
t this time, with different ambitions and degrees of power. In some areas, parts of British West Africa for example, colonial control was tenuous and intended for simple economic extraction, strategic power, or as part of a long term development plan.
In other areas Europeans were encouraged to settle, creating settler states in which a European minority came to dominate society. Settlers only came to a few colonies in sufficient numbers to have a strong impact. British settler colonies included [[British East Africa]], now Kenya, North and South [[Rhodesia]], later Zambia and Zimbabwe, and [[South Africa]], which already had a significant population of European settlers, the [[Boer]]s.
In the [[Second Boer War]], between the British Empire and the two Boer republics of the [[Orange Free State]] and the ''South African Republic'' ([[Transvaal Republic]]), the Boers unsuccsefully resisted absorption in to the British Empire.
France planned to settle Algeria and eventually incorporate it into the French state as an equal to the European provinces. Its proximity across the Meditterranean allowed plans of this scale.
In most areas colonial administrations did not have the manpower or resources to fully administer the territory and had to rely on local power structures to help them. Various factions and groups within the societies exploited this European requirement for their own purposes, attempting to gain a position of power within their own communities by cooperating with Europeans. One aspect of this struggle included what [[Terence Ranger]] has termed the "invention of [[tradition]]." In order to legitimize their own claims to power in the eyes of both the colonial administrators, and their own people, people would essentially manufacture "traditional" claims to power, or ceremonies. As a result many societies were thrown into disarray by the new order.
During [[World War I]], there were several battles between the United Kingdom and Germany, the most notable being the [[Battle of Tanga]], and a sustained [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign by the German General [[Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck]].
=== Interbellum ===
After World War I, the formerly German colonies in Africa were taken over by France and the United Kingdom.
During this era a sense of local patriotism or [[nationalism]] took deeper root among African intellectuals and politicians. Some of the inspiration for this movement came from the First World War in which European countries had relied on colonial troops for their own defence. Many in Africa realized their own strength with regard to the colonizer for the first time. At the same time, some of the mystique of the "invincible" European was shattered by the barbarities of the war. However, in most areas European control remained relatively strong during this period.
In 1935 [[Benito Mussolini]] had [[Italy|Italian]] troops invade [[Ethiopia]], the last African nation not dominated by a foreign power
=== World War II ===
1940s. Pre-WW2 and [[World War II]] in Africa.
:North African campaign. ''[[Deutsches Afrika Korps]]'' under [[Erwin Rommel]]. Definitive defeat of the Germans in the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]].
:Importance of Egypt to the UK.
:US invasion of Algeria.
==Postcolonial era:1945-present==
===Decolonization===
''Main articles: [[Decolonization]], [[Decolonization of Africa]]''
The [[Decolonization]] in Africa started with [[Libya]] in 1951. Many countries followed in the 50s and 60s, with a peak in 1960 with independence of a large part of [[French West Africa]]. Most of the remaining countries gained independence throughout the 1960s, although some colonizers ([[Portugal]] in particular) were reluctant to relinquish sovereignty, resulting in bitter wars of independence which lasted for a decade or more. The last African countries to gain formal independence were [[Guinea-Bissau]] from Portugal in 1974, [[Mozambique]] from Portugal in 1975, [[Angola]] from Portugal in 1975, [[Djibouti]] from [[France]] in 1977, [[Zimbabwe]] from [[Britain]] in 1980, and [[Namibia]] from [[South Africa]] in 1990.
Because many cities were founded, enlarged and renamed by the Europeans, after [[independence]] many place names (for example [[Stanleyville]], [[Léopoldville]], [[Rhodesia]]) were renamed: see [[historical African place names]] for these.
===Postcolonial Relationship with Europe===
:paternalism
:development help
:weapon deliveries
===The Cold War in Africa===
:[[Angola]]
:[[Congo-Brazzaville]]
:[[United States|U.S.]] policy of supporting certain regimes (for instance [[Mobutu]])
:Soviet interests in Africa
===Pan-Africanism===
''Main article: [[Pan-Africanism]]''
===Central Africa===
''See also: [[Central Africa]]''
===East Africa===
''See also: [[East Africa]]''
The [[Mau Mau]] Rebellion took place in [[Kenya]] from 1952 until 1956, but was put down by British and local forces. A State of Emergency remained in place until 1960. Kenya became independent in 1963. [[Jomo Kenyatta]] became the first president of independent Kenya.
The early 1990s also signaled the start of major clashes between the [[Hutu]]s and the [[Tutsi]]s in [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]]. In 1994 this resulted in the [[Rwandan Genocide]], a conflict in which over a million died.
=== North Africa ===
''See also: [[North Africa]]''
In 1954 a government came to power in Egypt that was opposed to the [[United States]]. The same occurred in [[Libya]] in 1969. Egypt was under [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and Libya under [[Moammar al-Qadhafi]]. As of 2004, al-Qadhafi is still in power.
Egypt was involved several wars against [[Israel]], and was allied with other [[Arab]] countries. The first was right after the Israel was founded, in 1947. Egypt went to war again in 1967 and lost the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to Israel. They went to war yet again in 1973. In 1979, [[Anwar Sadat]] and [[Menachem Begin]] signed the [[Camp David Accords]], which gave back the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for the recognition of Israel. The accords are still in effect today. In 1981, Anwar Sadat was [[assassin]]ated by an [[Islamism|Islamist]] for signing the accords.
===Southern Africa===
''See also: [[Southern Africa]]''
<!-- Relationships between South Africa, Rhodesia and Botswana -->
In 1948, the [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era|apartheid]] laws were started in [[South Africa]] by the dominant party.
:Conflict between Afrikaans-speakers and English-speakers.
:Establishment of "homelands".
:South African military efforts in Angola.
:International trade sanctions.
:Conflict between ANC and Zulu factions.
:End of Apartheid and establishment of new constitution.
In 1994, the [[Apartheid]] had ended in South Africa, and [[Nelson Mandela]] of the [[African National Congress]] was elected president of South Africa in the country's first multiracial elections.
===West Africa===
''See also: [[History of West Africa]]''
Following [[World War II]], nationalist movements arose across West Africa, most notably in Ghana under [[Kwame Nkrumah]]. In 1957, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan colony to achieve its independence, followed the next year by France's colonies; by 1974, West Africa's nations were entirely autonomous. Since independence, many West African nations have been plagued by [[political corruption|corruption]] and instability, with notable civil wars in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Côte d'Ivoire, and a succession of military coups in Ghana and Burkina Faso. Many states have failed to develop their economies despite enviable natural resources, and political instability is often accompanied by undemocratic government. [[AIDS]] is also a growing problem for the region, particularly in Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Nigeria. [[Famine]] has been a problem in parts of northern Mali and Niger, the latter of which is currently undergoing [[2005 Niger food crisis|a food crisis]].
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
==See also==
*[[Economic history of Africa]]
*[[History of the Middle East]]
*[[African archaeology]]
<!--Templates-->
{{Africafooter}}
{{History by continent footer}}
<!--Categories-->
<!--Interlangauge links-->
[[Category:Africa|History]]
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:History by continent|Africa]]
[[Category:History of Africa]]
[[ar:تاريخ أفريقيا]]
[[de:Geschichte Afrikas]]
[[es:Historia de África]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Afrique]]
[[ja:アフリカ史]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Afrika]]
[[pl:Historia Afryki]]
[[pt:História da África]]
[[sr:Историја Африке]]
[[sv:Afrikas historia]]
[[sw:Historia ya Afrika]]
[[zh:非洲史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson</title>
<id>14101</id>
<revision>
<id>41622515</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:13:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dabbler</username>
<id>139032</id>
</contributor>
<comment>RV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Nelson redirects here. For other meanings see [[Nelson (disambiguation)]].''
[[image:Horatio Nelson.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Lord Nelson]]
[[Vice Admiral]] [[The Right Honourable]] '''Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson''', [[Knight of the Bath|KB]]<!--NB: not KCB--> ([[29 September]] [[1758]] &ndash; [[21 October]] [[1805]]) - [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[admiral]] from England who won fame as a leading naval commander. He is famous for his participation in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], most notably in the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], where he lost his life. He became the greatest naval hero in the history of the United Kingdom, eclipsing Admiral [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]] in fame, and is one of the most famous naval commanders in world history. His biography by the poet [[Robert Southey]] appeared in 1813, while the wars were still being fought. His love affair with [[Emma Hamilton]], the wife of the British [[Ambassador (dipl |
32494466</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-23T16:26:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Misza13</username>
<id>330574</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trench warfare */ Re-wikified</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the military tactic of crossfire. For alternate meanings, see [[Crossfire (disambiguation)]].''
A '''crossfire''' is a military term for the siting of weapons (often automatic weapons such as machine guns) so that their arcs of fire overlap. This tactic came to prominence in [[World War I]].
\ /
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==Mutual support==
Siting weapons this way is an example of the application of the defensive principle of ''mutual support''. The advantage of siting weapons that mutually support one another is that it is difficult for an attacker to find a covered approach to any one defensive position.
Use of armour, air support, indirect fire support, and stealth are tactics that may be used to assault a defensive position. However when combined with land-mines, snipers, barbed wire, and air cover, crossfire became a difficult tactic to counter in the early 20th century.
==Trench warfare==
The tactic of using overlapping arcs of fire came to prominence during [[World War I]] where it was a feature of [[trench warfare]]. [[Machine gun]]s were placed in groups, called machine gun nests, and they protected the front of the trenches. Many lives were lost in futile attempts to charge across the [[no man's land]] where these crossfires were set up.
The significance of crossfires is that they rendered useless what had been the most effective weapon of warfare since the Greek [[phalanx]]: massed infantry. Though [[World War II]] had more casualties overall, the relative number of deaths compared to the number of soldiers was more than twice as high in WWI, and the soldiers died much more quickly in the battles of World War I as they went "over the top" into the meat grinder known as no man's land.
Three things changed between WWI and WWII rendered the crossfire obsolete: the advance of armored vehicles (especially tanks), the advent of aerial bombardment, and the invention of the proximity fuze.
[[Tank]]s were invented in WWI specifically because they were immune to machine gun fire, and could thus cross no man's land to destroy the [[machine gun]] nests. Their armored hulls also provided cover for the infantry to advance around the tanks. The tanks in WWI were ponderously slow and prone to stalling, however, so they tipped the balance in the favor of the [[Great Britain|British]], but not decisively. In WWII, the tanks improved greatly in speed and reliability, and could reach a machine gun nest at reduced risk since it spent less time exposed.
[[Airplane]]s were present in WWI, but they were used primarily for recon and the outcome of the battle in the air didn't have a lot of effect on the ground battle. The pilots often experimented with carrying things like hand grenades to drop on the enemy, but they were largely ineffective. In WWII airplanes could bomb enemy lines, rendering any large stationary target vulnerable to destruction. Fighters also strafed enemy lines with machine gun fire.
The [[proximity fuze]] allowed bombs and munitions to detonate when an object passed within a certain range (usually about 50 feet (15 m)) rather than using an impact or timed fuze. Timed fuzes are tricky because the range has to be pre-set correctly. Impact fuzes are bad against flying targets because they have a very small targeting silhouette, and they're bad against ground targets because the projectile has time to embed in the ground before it explodes, deflecting the explosive power upward. Proximity fuzes were developed by the [[U.S. Navy]] during WWII, and they proved instrumental in defending the fleets from aerial attack since a gunner using bullets with proximity fuzes only had to get close to hitting the enemy to knock him from the sky. Proximity fuzes were also instrumental in the battle for Britain because, after the gunners changed to proximity fuzes, not a single [[Germany|German]] bomb made it past the guns. The fuze also permitted the heavy [[artillery]] to detonate above ground, permitting the explosive power to be fully utilized against targets on the ground. The trenches of WWI, for instance, wouldn't have been effective protection against a bombardment using proximity fuzes.
Any of the above three technologies would have rendered the crossfire useless. Modern warfare has not returned to big blocks of infantry because the above inventions also kill massed infantry well, and with the perfection of shoulder launched rockets and precision bombing, stationary targets are too vulnerable to be as deadly as the crossfire was in WWI.
[[Category:Military tactics]]
[[de:Kreuzfeuer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CNO</title>
<id>7805</id>
<revision>
<id>15905853</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chief of Naval Operations]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cruising (maritime)</title>
<id>7806</id>
<revision>
<id>41460586</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:15:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gnusmas</username>
<id>991516</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Add dinghy cruising</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
[[Image:Cruiser at Green Island Panama.jpg|thumb|right|A cruising sailboat anchored in the [[San Blas Islands]], in [[Panama]]. The islands are an idyllic destination enjoyed by many cruisers.]]
'''Cruising''' by boat is a lifestyle that involves living full-time on a boat while traveling from place to place. Cruising generally refers to trips of a few days or more, and can extend to round-the-world voyages. Cruising is done on both [[sailboat|sail]] and [[motorboat|power]] boats, although sail predominates over longer distances, as ocean-worthy power boats are considerably more expensive.
Many cruisers are "long term" and travel for many years, the most adventurous circling the globe over a period of three to ten years. Many others take a year or two off from work and school for short trips and the chance to experience the cruising lifestyle.
[[Dinghy sailing|Dinghy sailors]] may also be "cruisers", and in this case the word refers to someone who sails just for fun, maybe to go from A to B, but equally likely just to sail around for a few hours - in fact, any sailing activity that does not involve [[Dinghy racing|racing]].
"Cruising" may also refers to trips on [[cruise ship]]s, and those who take frequent cruise ships vacations (multiples times per year) may be called "cruisers".
== History ==
[[Image:Dugout in San Blas Islands.jpg|thumb|right|Cruisers can see traditional life in remote areas of the world; here, a [[Kuna (people)|Kuna]] local paddles a dugout canoe in the [[San Blas Islands]].]]
One of the first people to carry out a long-distance voyage for pleasure, and who inspired many others to follow in his path, was [[Joshua Slocum]], who [[circumnavigation|circumnavigated]] the world between [[1895]] and [[1898]]. Despite widespread opinion that such a voyage was impossible, Slocum, a retired sea captain, built a 37-foot sloop, ''Spray'', and sailed her [[single-handed sailing|single-handed]] around the world. His book ''Sailing Alone Around the World'' is still considered a classic adventure, and inspired many others to take to the seas.<ref>''Sailing Alone Around the World'', Captain Joshua Slocum; Sheridan House, 1954. ISBN 0911378200</ref>
Other cruising authors have provided both inspiration and useful instruction to would-be cruisers. Key among these are Lin and Larry Pardey, who in [[1969]] set off on a short cruise from the USA to Mexico, which turned into a circumnavigation of the world. They wrote a series of books about their voyage, as well as several reference books on cruising.
== Techniques ==
As well as normal sailing and seamanship skills, cruisers use a variety of equipment and tehniques to make their voyages possible, or simply more comfortable.
[[Image:Solar_panels_on_yacht_at_sea.jpg|thumb|right|The solar panels on this 28-foot yacht can keep her self-sufficient in electrical power.]]
One of the key areas is providing the electrical power to keep the boat's systems (lights, communications gear, etc.) running. Although most boats can generate power from their inboard engines, and some carry generators, carrying sufficient fuel for these over a long voyage con be a problem; and so many cruising boats are equipped with generating devices such as [[solar panel]]s, [[wind turbine]]s, etc.
While it is quite possible (and, until relatively recently, normal) to cruise without long-distance communications equipment, such gear is becoming more common on cruising boats. Many boats are now equipped with [[satellite telephone]] systems; however, these systems can be expensive to use, and may operate only in restricted areas. Many cruisers still rely on the older [[short wave]] maritime [[single-sideband modulation|SSB]] radio stadard, which has no running costs, and can (with suitable equipment) allow sending and receving of email.
== Further reading ==
* Elbert Maloney, "Dutton's Navigation and Piloting"- a classic, professional reference, continuously updated.
* Nathaniel Bowditch, "The American Practical Navigator"- A classic, prefessional reference, continuously updated.
* U.S. Naval Institute, "The Bluejackets' Manual"- the nav |
Australia.
== Criticism ==
In 1995, Sir [[Robert May]], the chief scientific advisor to the British government, requested that the organizers no longer award Ig Nobel prizes to British scientists, claiming that the awards risked bringing "genuine" experiments into ridicule.
==Prize categories==
Prizes have been awarded annually since 1991 for achievements in many categories. They include the Nobel Prize areas of physics, chemistry, physiology/medicine, literature, and peace but also other categories such as public health, engineering, biology, and interdisciplinary research.
==Trivia==
*Throwing paper airplanes onto the stage has been a long-standing tradition at the Ig Nobels. In past years, physics professor [[Roy Glauber]] has been the official "Keeper of the Broom," sweeping the stage clean of the airplanes. In 2005, he became a genuine [[Nobel Prize|Nobel prize]] laureate.
*Broadcasting a recording of the ceremony on the Friday after U.S. [[Thanksgiving]] is a tradition on the radio program ''[[Science Friday]]''.
==See also==
* [[List of Ig Nobel Prize winners]]
==External links==
* [http://www.improb.com/ig/ig-top.html Ig Nobel home page]
* [http://www.improb.com/ig/ig-pastwinners.html List of past winners, with reasons for prize]
[[Category:Humor]]
[[Category:Prizes]]
[[de:Ig-Nobelpreis]]
[[es:Premio Ig Nobel]]
[[eo:Ig-Nobel-Premio]]
[[fr:Prix Ig Nobel]]
[[ko:이그노벨상]]
[[it:Premio Ig Nobel]]
[[he:פרס איג נובל]]
[[nl:Ig Nobelprijs]]
[[ja:イグノーベル賞]]
[[pl:Nagroda Ig Nobla]]
[[ru:Шнобелевская премия]]
[[uk:Іґнобелівська премія]]
[[zh:搞笑諾貝爾獎]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isaac Albéniz</title>
<id>15208</id>
<revision>
<id>40462677</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T19:08:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GCarty</username>
<id>10379</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] recategorize as a classical pianist</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:albeniz.jpg|thumb|135px|Isaac Albéniz]]
'''Isaac Manuel Francisco Albéniz''' ([[May 29]], [[1860]] &ndash; [[May 18]], [[1909]]) was a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[pianist]] and [[composer]], best known for his [[piano]] works that are based on [[Spanish folk music]].
Born in [[Camprodon]], [[Catalonia]], Albéniz was a [[child prodigy]] who first performed at the age of four. At age seven he passed the entrance examination for piano at the [[Paris Conservatoire]], but he was refused admission because after passing, he took out a ball from his pocket and broke a glass while playing with it. After going to the [[Madrid Conservatory]], he ran away and became a [[vagabond]], making a living by playing. By age fifteen, he had already given concerts worldwide. After a short stay at the [[Leipzig Conservatory]], in [[1876]] he went to study in [[Brussels]]. In [[1880]], he went to [[Budapest]] to study with [[Franz Liszt]], only to find out that Liszt was in [[Weimar, Germany]].
In [[1883]] he met the teacher and composer [[Felipe Pedrell]], who inspired him to write Spanish music such as the ''Suite Española'', Op. 47. The fifth movement of that suite, called ''Asturias'' ([[Leyenda]]) is probably most famous these days in the classical guitar world, even though it was originally composed for piano and only later transcribed to guitar by [[Francisco Tárrega]]. Many of his other compositions were also later transcribed to guitar - Albéniz himself preferred Tárrega's guitar transcriptions to his original piano works.
During the [[1890s]] Albéniz lived in [[London]] and [[Paris]] and wrote mainly theatrical works. In [[1900]] he started to suffer from kidney disease and returned to the writing of piano music. Between [[1905]] and [[1909]] he composed his most famous work, [[Iberia (Albéniz)|''Iberia'']] (1908), a suite of twelve piano "impressions".
His orchestral works include ''Spanish Rhapsody'' (1887) and ''Catalonia'' (1899).
Albéniz died in [[1909]] at age 48 in [[Cambo-les-Bains]] and is buried in the ''Cementiri del Sudoest'', [[Barcelona]].
C&eacute;cilia Sarkozy, the wife of French politician [[Nicolas Sarkozy]], is the great-granddaughter of Isaac Alb&eacute;niz.
==External links==
*[http://www.lib.umd.edu/PAL/YALE/albeniz1.html The Life and Music of Isaac Albéniz]
*[http://www.sheetmusicarchive.net/single_listing.cfm?composer_id=1 Albeniz's Scores by SheetMusicArchive]
*[http://www.bookmine.org/music/asturiaz.mp3 An electronic version of the famous piece Asturias]
*[http://www.pianopublicdomain.com/index.php?dir=library/Albeniz Piano Sheet Music of Albeniz] in PDF.
*{{IckingArchive|idx=Albeniz|name=Isaac Albéniz}}
[[Category:1860 births|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:1909 deaths|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Catalan composers|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Spanish composers|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Spanish classical pianists|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[ca:Isaac Albéniz i Pascual]]
[[da:Isaac Albéniz]]
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[[es:Isaac Albéniz]]
[[eo:Isaac ALBÉNIZ]]
[[fr:Isaac Albéniz]]
[[gl:Isaac Albéniz]]
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[[nl:Isaac Albéniz]]
[[ja:イサーク・アルベニス]]
[[pl:Isaac Albéniz]]
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[[uk:Альбеніс Ісаак]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ITU-R</title>
<id>15210</id>
<revision>
<id>26441196</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-25T13:18:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lindosland</username>
<id>522516</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''ITU Radiocommunication Sector''' ('''ITU-R''') is a standards body subcommittee of the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) relating to [[radio]] communication. Its role is to regulate the allocation of [[radio frequencies]] and so reduce the [[interference]] between radio stations in various countries. It also has responsibility for regulating [[orbit]]al positions of [[satellite]]s relating to radio communications. In addition, it publishes international engineering standard documents in its area of responsibility.
=== History ===
In 1927, the CCIR - ''Comité consultatif international pour la radio'', "Consultative Committee on International Radio" or "International Radio Consultative Committee" - was founded.
In 1932, the CCIR, and several other organizations (including the original ITU, which had been founded as the [[International Telegraph Union]] in 1865) merged to form what would become known as the [[International Telecommunication Union]] in 1934. In 1992, the CCIR became the ITU-R.
==See also==
* [[ITU-T]]
* [[ITU-R 468 noise weighting]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.itu.int/ ITU official website]
* [http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/ ITU-R official website]
[[ca:Comité Consultiu Internacional de Radiocomunicació]]
[[da:International Telecommunication Union, ITU Radiocommunication Sector]]
[[de:CCIR]]
[[es:CCIR]]
[[nl:ITU-R]]
[[pl:CCIR]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irish Civil War</title>
<id>15214</id>
<revision>
<id>42012263</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:19:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.231.128.211</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>grammar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=[[Irish Civil War]]
|date=[[June 28]], [[1922]]&#8211;[[May 24]], [[1923]]
|place=[[Ireland]]
|casus=acceptance of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]
|result=Creation of [[Irish Free State]] and defeat of anti-Treaty IRA forces
|combatant1=[[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)]]
|combatant2=[[Irish Army]] of the [[Irish Free State]]
|strength1= c.15,000
|strength2= [[Irish Army]] c.55,000 men, 3000 officers
|casualties1= unknown number of anti-treaty [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|IRA]], C.2-3000 (incl 77 official executions) ,12,000 taken prisoner
|casualties2= c. 800 Irish Army killed (unknown no. of civilians, c.250 killed in Dublin fighting alone)
}}
The '''Irish Civil War''' (June 28th [[1922]]–May 24th [[1923]]) was a conflict between supporters and opponents of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] of [[December 6]], [[1921]], which established the [[Irish Free State]], precursor of today's [[Republic of Ireland]]. Opponents of the Treaty objected to the fact that it retained constitutional links between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]], and that the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]] would not be included in the Free State. The Civil War cost the lives of more than had died in the [[Anglo-Irish War|War of Independence]] that preceded it. It left Irish society deeply divided and its influence in Irish politics can still be seen to this day.
==Background==
[[Image:firstdail.jpg|frame|[[First Dáil]]: [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] (second from left, front row), [[Arthur Griffith]] (fourth from left, front row) [[Eamon de Valera]] (centre, front row), [[W.T. Cosgrave]] (second from right, front row).]]
===The Treaty===
The Anglo-Irish Treaty arose from the [[Anglo-Irish War]] (or "Irish War of Independence"), fought between Irish separatists (organised as the extra-legal [[Irish Republic]]) and the [[British government]], from [[1919]]-1921. The treaty provided for a fully self-governing Irish state, controlling most of Ireland's population and area, and having its own army and police. However, rather than creating the independent [[republic]] favoured by many nationalists, it provided that the state would be a dominion of the [[British Empire]] with the [[British monarchy|British monarch]] as [[head of state]]. The treaty also stipulated that members of the new Irish [[Oireachtas of the Irish Free State|Oireachtas]] (parliament) would have to take an "[[Oath of Allegiance (Ireland)|Oath of Allegiance]]" to the Free State con |
[Jersey]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.jm]] || [[Jamaica]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.jo]] || [[Jordan]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.jp]] || [[Japan]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.ke]] || [[Kenya]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.kg]] || [[Kyrgyzstan]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.kh]] || [[Cambodia]] (Khmer) || &nbsp;
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| [[.ki]] || [[Kiribati]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.km]] || [[Comoros]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.kn]] || [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.kr]] || [[South Korea]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.kw]] || [[Kuwait]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.ky]] || [[Cayman Islands]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.kz]] || [[Kazakhstan]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.la]] || [[Laos]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.lb]] || [[Lebanon]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.lc]] || [[Saint Lucia]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.li]] || [[Liechtenstein]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.lk]] || [[Sri Lanka]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.lr]] || [[Liberia]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.ls]] || [[Lesotho]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.lt]] || [[Lithuania]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.lu]] || [[Luxembourg]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.lv]] || [[Latvia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ly]] || [[Libya]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ma]] || [[Morocco]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mc]] || [[Monaco]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.md]] || [[Moldova]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.mg]] || [[Madagascar]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mh]] || [[Marshall Islands]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.mk]] || [[Republic of Macedonia]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.ml]] || [[Mali]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mm]] || [[Myanmar]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mn]] || [[Mongolia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mo]] || [[Macau]] || Macau is a [[special administrative region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]. It uses a separate internet top-level domain from the rest of China.
|-
| [[.mp]] || [[Northern Mariana Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mq]] || [[Martinique]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mr]] || [[Mauritania]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.ms]] || [[Montserrat]] || &nbsp;
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| [[.mt]] || [[Malta]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mu]] || [[Mauritius]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mv]] || [[Maldives]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mw]] || [[Malawi]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mx]] || [[Mexico]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.my]] || [[Malaysia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.mz]] || [[Mozambique]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.na]] || [[Namibia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.nc]] || [[New Caledonia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ne]] || [[Niger]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.nf]] || [[Norfolk Island]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ng]] || [[Nigeria]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ni]] || [[Nicaragua]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.nl]] || [[Netherlands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.no]] || [[Norway]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.np]] || [[Nepal]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.nr]] || [[Nauru]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.nu]] || [[Niue]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.nz]] || [[New Zealand]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.om]] || [[Oman]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.pa]] || [[Panama]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.pe]] || [[Peru]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.pf]] || [[French Polynesia]] || With [[Clipperton Island]]
|-
| [[.pg]] || [[Papua New Guinea]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ph]] || [[Philippines]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.pk]] || [[Pakistan]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.pl]] || [[Poland]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.pm]] || [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.pn]] || [[Pitcairn Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.pr]] || [[Puerto Rico]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ps]] || [[Palestinian territories]] || [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]
|-
| [[.pt]] || [[Portugal]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.pw]] || [[Palau]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.py]] || [[Paraguay]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.qa]] || [[Qatar]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.re]] || [[Réunion]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ro]] || [[Romania]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ru]] || [[Russia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.rw]] || [[Rwanda]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sa]] || [[Saudi Arabia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sb]] || [[Solomon Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sc]] || [[Seychelles]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sd]] || [[Sudan]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.se]] || [[Sweden]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sg]] || [[Singapore]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sh]] || [[Saint Helena]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.si]] || [[Slovenia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sj]] || [[Svalbard]] and [[Jan Mayen]] Islands || Not in use
|-
| [[.sk]] || [[Slovakia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sl]] || [[Sierra Leone]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sm]] || [[San Marino]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sn]] || [[Senegal]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.so (domain name)|.so]] || [[Somalia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sr]] || [[Suriname]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.st]] || [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.su]] || former [[Soviet Union]] || Still in use
|-
| [[.sv]] || [[El Salvador]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sy]] || [[Syria]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.sz]] || [[Swaziland]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.tc]] || [[Turks and Caicos Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.td]] || [[Chad]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.tf]] || [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.tg]] || [[Togo]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.th]] || [[Thailand]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.tj]] || [[Tajikistan]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.tk]] || [[Tokelau]] || Also used as a free domain service to the public
|-
| [[.tl]] || [[East Timor]] || Old code .tp is still in use
|-
| [[.tm]] || [[Turkmenistan]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.tn]] || [[Tunisia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.to]] || [[Tonga]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.tp]] || [[East Timor]] || ISO code has changed to TL; .tl is now assigned but .tp is still in use
|-
| [[.tr]] || [[Turkey]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.tt]] || [[Trinidad and Tobago]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.tv]] || [[Tuvalu]] || Also sold as advertising domains
|-
| [[.tw]] || [[Republic of China]] ([[Free Area of the Republic of China|Taiwan area]] only) || This is only used in the area under the effective control of the Government of the [[Republic of China|Republic of China on Taiwan]], such as the islands of [[Taiwan]], [[Quemoy]], [[Matsu]] and [[Penghu]].
|-
| [[.tz]] || [[Tanzania]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ua]] || [[Ukraine]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ug]] || [[Uganda]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.uk]] || [[United Kingdom]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.um]] || [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.us]] || [[United States|United States of America]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.uy]] || [[Uruguay]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.uz]] || [[Uzbekistan]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.va]] || [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.vc]] || [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ve]] || [[Venezuela]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.vg]] || [[British Virgin Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.vi]] || [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.vn]] || [[Vietnam]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.vu]] || [[Vanuatu]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.wf]] || [[Wallis and Futuna]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.ws]] || [[Samoa]] || Formerly Western Samoa
|-
| [[.ye]] || [[Yemen]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.yt]] || [[Mayotte]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.yu]] || [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] || Now [[Serbia and Montenegro]]; ISO code has changed to CS; [[.cs]] is reserved, but has not yet been put into use.
|-
| [[.za]] || [[South Africa]] (Zuid Afrika) || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.zm]] || [[Zambia]] || &nbsp;
|-
| [[.zw]] || [[Zimbabwe]] || &nbsp;
|}
==External links==
*[http://www.iana.org/domain-names.htm IANA's information on TLDs]
*[http://www.isc.org/ops/ds/reports/2004-01/dist-bynum.php The Internet Domain Survey]
[[Category:Top-level domains]]
[[cs:Seznam internetových TL domén]]
[[et:Tippdomeenide loend]]
[[es:Lista de dominios de Internet]]
[[fr:Liste des Internet TLD]]
[[id:TLD]]
[[nl:Lijst van top-level-domeinnamen op het Internet]]
[[ja:トップレベルドメイン一覧]]
[[no:Landskoder (internett)]]
[[pl:Lista domen najwyższego poziomu]]
[[pt:Lista de TLDs]]
[[ro:Listă de domenii internet]]
[[ru:Национальный домен верхнего уровня]]
[[sr:Списак највиших Интернет домена]]
[[tr:İnternet üst seviye alan adları listesi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irgun gang</title>
<id>15423</id>
<revision>
<id>15912897</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Irgun]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Industrial property organizations</title>
<id>15424</id>
<revision>
<id>15912898</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intellectual property organization]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intellectual property organization</title>
<id>15425</id>
<revision>
<id>39559641</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T07:40:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edcolins</username>
<id>51336</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Specialized organisations */ fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Intellectual property organizations''' encompass international intergovernmental organizations that involve cooperation in the area of [[copyright|copyrights]], [[trademark|trademarks]] and [[patent|patents]], and non-governmental, non-profit organizations, lobbying organizations, think thanks, as well as professional associations.
== General organisations ==
* [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO)
* [[African Regional Intellectual Property Organization]] (ARIPO)
* ''[[Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle]]'' (OAPI) or African Intellectual Property Organization
== Specialized organisations ==
=== Patent offices ===
{{main article | '''[[Patent office]]'''}}
=== Patent-related organisations ===
*[[European Patent Organisation]] (EPO or EPOrg)
*[[Eurasian Patent Organization]] (EAPO)
*[[GCC Patent Office|Patent Office of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf]] (GCC)
=== Trademark-related organisations ===
*[[Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market]] (OHIM)
*[[Benelux Trademarks Office]]
*[[European Trademark Office]] (''?different from OHIM?'')
=== D |
d early 1700s. As well, bassists in [[rockabilly]], traditional [[blues]] bands, and [[bluegrass]] groups often use gut strings, because they have a "thumpy", darker tone when they are played pizzicato (plucked), which better approximates the sound heard on 1940's and 1950's recordings. As well, rockabilly and bluegrass bassists prefer gut because it is much easier to perform the "slapping" upright bass style (in which the strings are percussively slapped and clicked against the fingerboard) with gut strings than with steel strings (for more information on slapping, see the sections above on Playing styles, or below on Double bass in bluegrass music).
Gut strings are more vulnerable to changes of humidity and temperature, and they break much more easily than steel strings. The change from gut to steel has also affected to the instrument's playing technique over the last hundred years, because playing with steel strings allows the strings to be set up closer to the fingerboard, and as well, steel strings can be played in higher positions on the lower strings and still produce clear tone. The classic 19th century Franz Simandl method does not utilize the low E string in higher positions because with older gut strings set up high over the fingerboard, the tone was not clear in these higher positions. However, with modern steel strings, bassists can play with clear tone in higher positions on the low E and A strings, particularly when modern lighter-gauge, lower-tension steel strings (e.g. Corelli/Savarez strings) are used.
== Classical double bass repertoire ==
In [[European classical music]], the double bass has been primarily used to provide a solid but more or less simple bass line. Bass soloists are rare but not unheard of. [[Domenico Dragonetti]] was perhaps the first soloist of note. He was a friend of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] and together they presented a number of 'cello sonatas with the composer on piano; in addition, Dragonetti often performed the 'cello solos in Beethoven's pieces in performances.
[[Giovanni Bottesini]], a 19th century virtuoso on the instrument, was sometimes called the [[Niccolo Paganini|Paganini]] of the double bass. He wrote a number of concert pieces for the instrument, including [[concerto]]s, and also pedagogical works.
Few solo works have been written for the instrument by better known composers, though there are several examples and exceptions; one of these is the [[Mozart]] aria [[Ludwig von Köchel|KV]] 612 "Per questa bella mano" (By this beautiful hand).
It is known that [[Joseph Haydn]] wrote a concerto for double bass, Hob. VIIc 1, which has now been lost. It was written for Johann Georg Schwenda, an outstanding double bassist at Esteháza. Remaining evidence of his regard for the instrument can be found in solo passages he wrote for it in the trios of the [[minuet]]s in his symphonies numbers [[Symphony No. 6 (Haydn)|6]], [[Symphony No. 7 (Haydn)|7]] and [[Symphony No. 8 (Haydn)|8]] (''Le Matin'', ''Le Midi'' and ''Le Soir''). All were probably written for the player Friedrich Pichelberger. Also around this time [[Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf]] wrote a number of works for the double bass, including a number of concertos and a Sinfonia concertante for viola, double bass, and orchestra.
Later pieces with solo parts for the bass include a duo for [[cello|'cello]] and double bass by [[Gioacchino Rossini]]. Popular with bassists is [[Niccolo Paganini]]'s ''Fantasy on a Theme by Rossini'', a 20th-century trancription of the violin original. The famous ''[[Trout Quintet]]'' by [[Franz Schubert]] added the double bass to the traditional piano quartet, creating an ensemble consisting of all four members of the bowed string family plus piano. [[Antonin Dvorak]] wrote a much less well known quintet in which the standard string quartet is augmented by adding a double bass. Probably the most famous classical piece featuring double bass is "The Elephant" from [[Camille Saint-Saëns]]' ''The Carnival of the Animals''. Also worthy of note is the passage which begins the third movement of [[Gustav Mahler]]'s [[Symphony No. 1 (Mahler)|1st symphony]] where a solo double bass quotes a minor key version of the children's song "Frere Jacques."
In the [[20th century]] the bass has been somewhat better served in classical music, although it is still only rarely used as a solo instrument. One of the very few double bass [[concerto]]s is by [[Serge Koussevitzky]] (better known as a [[Conducting|conductor]]), a piece written in 1905. The [[Estonia]]n composer [[Eduard Tubin]] wrote a concerto for double bass in 1948 which is regarded as one of the finest compositions for the instrument. Other works for double bass and orchestra include [[Gunther Schuller]]'s Concerto (1962), [[Hans Werner Henze]]'s Concerto (1966), [[Einojuhani Rautavaara]]'s ''Angel Of Dusk'' (1980), and [[Gian-Carlo Menotti]]'s Concerto (1983). Other pieces to feature the instrument include [[Luciano Berio]]'s ''Psy'' (1989), for solo bass; ''Composition II'' (1973) by [[Galina Ustvolskaya]], for eight double basses, [[drum]] and [[piano]]; and a [[sonata (music)|sonata]] for double bass and piano by [[Paul Hindemith]] (who also wrote a number of other pieces for unusual solo instruments). Additionally, in recent years there has been a rise in works for solo double bass. From 1975-1976, ''Theraps'' for solo double bass was composed by [[Iannis Xenakis]]. Other composers that have written for solo double bass include [[Christian Wolff]], [[Hans Werner Henze]], Emil Tabakov, Henrik Hellstenius, Hans Fryba, Ase Hedstrom, Tom Johnson, [[Arne Nordheim]], and Asmund Feidje.
Over the last thirty years or so players such as [[Bertram Turetzky]] and [[Gary Karr]] have commissioned a large number of new works. Player and composer [[Edgar Meyer]] has written three [[concertos]] for the instrument and arrangements of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]'s [[Cello Suites (Bach)|unaccompanied 'cello suites]]. Meyer also includes the double bass in the majority of his [[Chamber music|chamber music]] compositions. Player and teacher [[Rodney Slatford]], via his company ''Yorke Edition'', has done much to publish both old and new music for the double bass.
==Double bass in jazz==
The bass is one of the most prominent instruments in [[jazz]]. The early jazz ensemble (from about 1890) was initially a marching band with [[tuba]] (or occasionally [[bass saxophone]]) supplying the bass line. As the music moved into bars, clubs, and brothels, the double bass gradually replaced these wind instruments. Initially playing 2 or 4 beats to a bar, the walking bass line was an early melodic, harmonic invention that is still evolving today. Because an unamplified double bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players of the 1920s and 1930s used the ''slap style'', slapping and pulling the strings so that they make a rhythmic "slap" sound against the fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the sound of a band better than simply plucking the strings.
With nearly every major change in the evolution of jazz, double bass players have contributed in an important way. Examples include swing era players such as [[Ray Brown]] and [[Jimmy Blanton]], who played with [[Duke Ellington]] and [[Oscar Peterson]]. All were famous for their ability to swing and drive a big band along, often without amplification, in addition to being great small ensemble players.
The "cool" style of jazz has been influenced and extended by players such as [[Scott LaFaro]], a refined and stunning technical and musical virtuosity, and [[Percy Heath]], who played in an unforgettably solid but swinging manner and whose solos were melodically graceful and poetic. One must not forget the great [[Paul Chambers]] who worked on the [[Kind of Blue]] album with [[Miles Davis]], one of the most influential albums in the history of jazz.
[[Free jazz]] was embraced and extended by composer/bassists such as [[Charles Mingus]] and [[Charlie Haden]].
Jazz-rock was the style of players such as [[Stanley Clarke]] and [[Miroslav Vitouš]], and, although both of these players used electric bass, they did not neglect the double bass, incorporating bowed and pizzicato solos that showed Spanish and classical influence. These players also continued to raise the bar of technical virtuosity on the double bass, performing extended solos that fused complex rhythms, intricate rapid lines, and fluid melodic expression.
== Double bass in bluegrass music ==
The string bass is the most commonly-used bass instrument in [[bluegrass music]]. Most bluegrass bassists use the 3/4 size bass. The [[Englehardt]] or [[Kay]] brands of basses have long been popular choices for bluegrass bassists. Less frequently, the full and 5/8 size basses are used. The upright bass is almost always plucked in bluegrass music, though some modern bluegrass bassists have also used a bow.
The bluegrass bass is responsible for keeping time in the [[polyrhythmic]] conditions of the bluegrass tune, enhancing the flow of the music with tasteful fills and runs. Most important is the steady beat, whether fast, slow, in 4/4 time, 2/4 or 3/4 time.
Early pre-bluegrass music was often accompanied by the [[cello]], which was bowed as often as plucked. Some contemporary bluegrass bands favor the [[electric bass]], but it has a different musical quality than the plucked upright bass. The upright bass gives energy and drive to the music with its percussive, woody tone.
"Slapping" is a widely-used bluegrass playing technique. When upright players play in the "slapping" style, they combine regular plucking with slapping or pulling the strings so that they percussively hit the fingerboard. To the uninitiated, it sounds like the bass player is simultaneously playing a bassline and playing a snare drum. In the simplest uses of slappi |
sile, proved impossible to intercept using [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]]s and similar craft. Instead, the Allies launched [[Operation Crossbow]] to find and destroy V-2s before launch. The operation was largely ineffective, as was a similar operation during the first [[Persian_gulf|Persian]] [[Gulf War]] nearly fifty years later against the V-2's direct descendant, the Iraqi [[Scud]] missile.
The American armed forces began experimenting with anti-missile missiles shortly after World War II, as the extent of German research into rocketry became clear. But defenses against Soviet long-range bombers took priority until the later 1950s, when the Soviets began to test their missiles (most notably via the [[Sputnik program|Sputnik]] launch in October 1957). The first experimental ABM system was [[Project Nike|Nike Zeus]], a modification of existing air defense systems. Nike Zeus proved unworkable, and so work proceeded with [[Project Nike|Nike X]].
[[Image:NIKE Zeus.jpg|thumb|right|Launch of a Nike Zeus missile]]
Another avenue of research by the U.S. was the test explosions of several [[hydrogen bomb]]s at very high altitudes over the southern Atlantic ocean, launched from ships. When such an explosion takes place a burst of [[X-ray]]s are released that strike the Earth's atmosphere, causing secondary showers of charged particles over an area hundreds of miles across. The movement of these charged particles in the Earth's magnetic field causes a powerful [[electromagnetic pulse|EMP]] which induces very large currents in any conductive material. The idea was to destroy any electronics on the warheads. The project was found to be unworkable, although the exact reasons are not given.
Other countries were also involved in early ABM research. A more advanced project was at [[DRE Valcartier|CARDE]] in [[Canada]], which rearched the main problems of ABM systems. This included developing several advanced [[infrared]] detectors for terminal guidance, a number of missile airframe designs, a new and much more powerful solid rocket fuel, and numerous systems for testing it all. After a series of drastic budget cuts in the late 1950s the research wound down. One offshoot of the project was [[Gerald Bull]]'s system for inexpensive high-speed testing, consisting of missile airframes fired from a [[sabot]] round, which would later form the basis of [[Project HARP]].
==Developments in the 1960s and 1970s==
===Nike-X, Sentinel and Safeguard===
[[Image:meck6.jpg|thumb|185px|Dual launch of Sprint missiles during a salvo test at [[Meck|Meck island]] ]]
Nike X was a US system of two missiles, radars and their associated control systems. The original Nike Zeus (later called Spartan) was upgraded for longer range and a much larger 5 megatonne warhead intended to destroy warheads with a burst of x-rays outside the atmosphere. A second shorter-range missile called [[Sprint (missile)|Sprint]] with very high acceleration was added to handle warheads that evaded longer-ranged Spartan. Sprint was a very fast missile (some sources claimed it accelerated to 8,000 mph within 4 seconds of flight--an average acceleration of ''100 [[g]]''!) and had a smaller W66 [[Neutron bomb|enhanced radiation]] warhead in the 1-3 kiloton range for in-atmosphere interceptions.
The new Spartan changed the deployment plans as well. Previously the Nike systems were to have been clustered near cities as a last-ditch defense, but the Spartan allowed for interceptions at hundreds of miles range. Therefore the basing changed to provide almost complete coverage of the United States in a system known as [[Safeguard (nuke)|Sentinel]]. Later Sentinel was restructured to a more limited defense of ICBM sites against incoming warheads. That system used the same Spartan/Sprint missiles and radar, and was called [[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard]].
===Moscow ABM system===
The only other ICBM ABM system to reach production was the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] A-35 system. It was initially a single-layer exoatmospheric (outside the atmosphere) design, using the Galosh (SH-01/ABM-1) interceptor. It was deployed at four sites around [[Moscow]] in the early 1970s.
Originally intended to be a larger deployment, the system was downsized to the two sites allowed under the 1972 ABM treaty. It was upgraded in the 1980s to a two-layer system. The Gorgon (SH-11/ABM-4) long-range missile was designed to handle intercepts outside the atmosphere, and the Gazelle (SH-08/ABM-3) short-range missile endoatmospheric intercepts that eluded Gorgon. In general the system is thought to have capabilities similar to that of the former U.S. Safeguard system.
===The problem of defense against MIRVs===
[[Image:Peacekeeper-missile-testing.jpg|thumb|right|Testing of the [[LGM-118A Peacekeeper]] re-entry vehicles, all eight fired from only one missile. Each line represents the path of a warhead which, were it live, would detonate with the explosive power of twenty-five [[Little Boy|Hiroshima-style]] weapons.]]
ABM systems were initially developed to counter single warheads from large [[Intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBMs). The economics seemed simple enough: since rocket costs increase rapidly with size, interceptor cost should be less than the attacking ICBMs (which had much longer range and heavier payloads). In an arms race the defense would always win.
Things changed dramatically with the introduction of [[Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]] (MIRV) warheads. Suddenly each launcher was throwing not one warhead, but several. The defense would still require a rocket for every warhead, as they would be re-entering over a wide space and could not be attacked by several warheads from a single antimissile rocket. Suddenly the defense was more expensive than offense: it was much less expensive to add more warheads, or even decoys, than it was to build the interceptor needed to shoot them down.
The experimental success of Nike X persuaded the [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] administration to propose a thin ABM defense. In a September 1967 speech, Defense Secretary [[Robert McNamara]] described it as [[Safeguard (nuke)| Sentinel]]. McNamara, a private ABM opponent because of cost and feasibility (see [[cost-exchange ratio]]), claimed that Sentinel would be directed not against the Soviet Union's missiles (since the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] had more than enough missiles to overwhelm any American defense), but rather against the potential nuclear threat of the [[People's Republic of China]].
In the meantime a public debate over the merit of ABMs broke out. Even before the MIRV problem made ABM effectiveness non-workable in the late [[1960s]], some technical difficulties had already made an ABM system questionable for a large sophisticated attack. One problem was the [[Fractional Orbital Bombardment System]] (FOBS) that would give little warning to the defense. Another problem was high altitude EMP (whether from offensive or defensive nuclear warheads) which could degrade defensive radar systems.
Technical difficulties aside, the debate turned to an odd position: that no defense at all was better than any defense. Namely, a false sense of security might encourage ABM-defended nations to escalate against minor threats, believing they would be protected against any response. By this reasoning simply starting to deploy such a system could prompt a full-scale attack before it could become operational and thereby render such an attack useless. This curious set of arguments thus put the system in a terrible position: it couldn't possibly work, but if it did that would be even worse.
===The ABM Treaty of 1972===
Various technical, economic and political problems led to the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty|ABM treaty]] of 1972, which restricted the deployment of strategic (not tactical) antiballistic missiles.
Under the ABM treaty and a 1974 revision, each country was allowed to deploy a single ABM system with only 100 interceptors to protect a single target. The Soviets deployed a system named A-35 (using Galosh interceptors), designed to protect Moscow. The U.S. deployed [[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard ]] (using Spartan/Sprint interceptors) to defend ballistic missile sites at Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota, in 1975. The U.S. Safeguard system was only briefly operational. The Russian system (now called A-135) has been improved and is still active around Moscow. On June 13, 2002, the US withdrew from the treaty.
Why did the Soviets and Americans accept the treaty?
* Deployment of even a limited defensive system might well invite a pre-emptive nuclear attack before it could be implemented
* Soviet leaders suspected that the United States, with its mammoth resources and technological superiority, might well be able to create a leakproof defense.
* Deploying ABM systems would likely invite another expensive arms race for defensive systems, in addition to maintaining existing offensive expenditures
* Then-current technology did not permit a thorough defense against a sophisticated attack
* Concerns that use of nuclear warheads on antimissile interceptors would degrade capability of defensive radar, thus possibly rendering defense ineffective after the first few intercepts
* In the U.S, political and public concern of detonating defensive nuclear warheads over friendly territory
* An ICBM defense could jeopardize the [[Mutual assured destruction|Mutually Assured Destruction]] concept, thus being a destabilizing influence
In an ironic twist, this limitation of defensive arms eventually led to treaties limiting the construction of offensive arms, known as the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks|SALT I]] treaties.
Although designed and ratified under Republican President Nixon and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, conservatives in the United States generally remained opposed to the ABM Treaty.
==ABM developments in the 1980s and Persian Gulf War==
The [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]]-era [[Strategic D |
o the increased exploitation of [[petroleum]] in the nearby [[Timor Sea]], to the completion of the railway link and continued expansion of trade with Asia.
During 2005, a number of major construction projects broke soil in Darwin. One is the redevelopment of the Wharf Precinct which includes a large convention and exhibition centre, apartment housing, retail and entertainment outlets including a large wave pool and safe swimming lagoon. The Chinatown project has also broken soil with plans to construct multi-level carparks, Chinese-themed retail and dining outlets.
<!--==Demographics==-->
==Education==
As of the [[2001]] census, there were 6,441 students attending primary schools within the area covered by the Darwin City Council. There were also 3,943 students engaged in secondary education; 2,825 in government schools and 1,118 in independent schools. There are currently 35 primary and pre-schools, and 12 secondary schools (including both government and non-government). Most schools in the city are secular, but there are a small number of [[Christianity|Christian]], [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] institutions. Students intending to complete their secondary education work towards the [[Northern Territory Certificate of Education]], which is recognised in all states and territories. Currently a lot of the schools are undergoing much-needed renovations and reconstruction.
The central provider of tertiary education in the Northern Territory is [[Charles Darwin University]]. It covers both vocational and academic courses, acting as both a university and an Institute of [[Technical and Further Education|TAFE]]. While it has a number of campuses across the Northern Territory, its primary campus, where a large portion of the university's 19,000 students attend, is located in the Darwin suburb of [[Casuarina, Northern Territory|Casuarina]].
==Culture==
[[Image:DarwinStreet.jpeg|thumb|250px|Central Darwin, circa 1986]]
Darwin is known as the "Gateway to Asia", and the city's population is very [[multiculturalism|multicultural]]. Seventy-five nationalities are represented in Darwin, and nearly a quarter of the population self-identifies as [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] or [[Torres Strait Islander]]. Darwin's Mitchell Street is lined with nightclubs, takeaways, and restaurants, many with al fresco-style dining.
The [[Darwin Festival]][http://www.darwinfestival.org.au/] held annually includes comedy, dance, theatre, music, film and visual art and the [[NT Indigenous Music Awards]].
The Beer Can [[Regatta]][http://whatsonwhen.com/events/~99620.jml], held in August, celebrates Darwin's love affair with [[beer]] and contestants race boats made exclusively of beer cans. Also in Darwin during the month of August, are the Darwin Cup horse race, and the [[Rodeo]] and [[Mud crab|Mud Crab]] Tying Competition.
In the past Darwin enjoyed a reputation as an unsophisticated hard-drinking town, backed-up by some of the highest per-capita alcohol consumption rates in Australia. These days with a less transient population, Darwin is better known for it's asian influenced cuisine and as an adventure tourism destination.
Darwin is also home to Indo-Pacific Marine & Australian [[pearl|Pearling]] Exhibition which houses an [[aquarium]] complete with living [[coral]], and its complementary sea life.
The Museum of the Northern Territory in Darwin gives an excellent overview of the history of the area, including exhibits on Cyclone Tracy and the boats of the Pacific Islands.
The Darwin Free Beach has nude sunbathing.
===Media===
Darwin has only two commercial television channels, [[Southern Cross Broadcasting|Southern Cross Darwin]] and the [[Nine Network]], with the possibility of [[Network Ten]] coming from mid-2005, it has been confirmed that the two Commercial broadcasters (Southern Cross and Channel Nine) are now eligible to apply for the new TV licence. [[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]] and the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] broadcast in Darwin as well. Darwin has two commercial radio stations, [http://www.hot100fm.com.au Hot 100] and [http://www.mix1049.com.au Mix 104.9] along with other stations, including a uni-based [[TerritoryFM 104.1]] that is relayed throughout the Territory, dance music station [http://www.kikfm.com.au KIK FM], and ABC Radio.
Darwin has several newspapers. ''[[Northern Territory News]]'', produced by [[News Corporation]] is the only daily news paper in Darwin. Community Newspaper, The Darwin and Palmerston Sun, The Territory Times, ''[[The Southeast Asian Times]]'' and the ''[[Top End Review]]'' are produced weekly.
===Sports===
Every two years since [[1991]], (excluding [[2003]] due to the [[SARS]] outbreak), Darwin has played host to the [[Arafura Games]], a major regional [[Sport|sporting event]].
In July [[2003]] and [[2004]], Darwin had the first [[cricket]] match as part of the 3 Mobile cricket tour. [[Australian Rules Football]] and [[Rugby league]] are played all year round. [[Melbourne]]'s [[Western Bulldogs]] [[Australian Football League]] side plays several 'home' games at [[Marrara Oval]] each year. The ATSIC [[Aboriginal All-Stars]] also participate in the [[Australian Football League|AFL]] pre-season competition. In 2003, a record crowd of 17,500 attended a pre-season game between the All-Stars and [[Carlton Football Club]] at [[Mararra Stadium]].
One of the major events that occurs in Darwin is the [[V8 Supercars]]. This event attracts thousands of locals, interstaters and international tourists. This event occurs in the mid year period and lasts 3 days.
Darwin also has a horse racing cup carnival that starts in the last week of June and goes through to August. While it isn't as popular as the [[Melbourne Cup]], it does draw a crowd and in [[2003]], [[Sky Racing]] began televising most of the races.
==Sister cities==
{|
| valign="top" |
*{{flagicon|Greece}} - [[Kalymnos]], [[Greece]]
*{{flagicon|USA}} - [[Anchorage, Alaska]], [[United States]]
*{{flagicon|Indonesia}} - [[Ambon City|Ambon]], [[Indonesia]]
*{{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Haikou]], [[China]]
| valign="top" |
*{{flagicon|Australia}} - [[Milikapiti]], [[Tiwi Islands]]
*{{flagicon|East Timor}} - [[Dili]], [[East Timor]]
*{{flagicon|USA}} - [[Honolulu, Hawaii]], [[United States]]
|}
==External links==
*[http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@census.nsf/4079a1bbd2a04b80ca256b9d00208f92/e98d5018d0218f32ca256bbf0001c120!OpenDocument Darwin] at the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] (2001 Census).
*[http://www.darcity.nt.gov.au/ Darwin City Council]
*[http://www.darcity.nt.gov.au/Publications/welcome%20to%20darwin%202003.pdf "''About Darwin''" (.pdf file)]
*[http://www.nt.gov.au/ Northern Territory Government Portal]
*[http://www.darwinfestival.org.au/ Darwin Festival]
{{AustralianCapitalCities}}
[[Category:Australian capital cities]]
[[Category:Cities in the Northern Territory]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Australia]]
[[Category:Darwin|*]]
[[Category:Local Government Areas of the Northern Territory]]
[[da:Darwin (Australien)]]
[[de:Darwin (Stadt)]]
[[eo:Darwin (Aŭstralio)]]
[[fr:Darwin (Australie)]]
[[he:דרווין (הטריטוריה הצפונית)]]
[[is:Darwin]]
[[ja:ダーウィン (オーストラリア)]]
[[nl:Darwin (Australië)]]
[[pl:Darwin]]
[[pt:Darwin (Austrália)]]
[[sv:Darwin]]
[[zh:达尔文港]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dictator</title>
<id>8409</id>
<revision>
<id>41138994</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T07:44:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fabricationary</username>
<id>289480</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv mention of US as dictatorship - unverifiable, certainly not NPOV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge to|Dictatorship}}
In modern usage, '''''dictator''''' refers to an [[political absolutism|absolutist]] or [[autocratic]] ruler who governs outside the normal constitutional [[rule of law]] through a continuous [[state of exception]]. However unlike the original Roman dictators, modern dictators do not give themselves the title "dictator"; it is generally used by their opponents as a term of abuse for totalitarian rule, just like [[despot]] and [[tyrant]] (also unlike their counterparts in antiquity). However, in several modern republican states, the title has been used officially, usually as an "extraordinary" officer, e.g. revolutionary or to cope with a grave national emergency, generally combing the capacities of [[head of state]] (formal highest rank and supreme command) and [[head of government]] (day to day political power).
Dictators often acquire power in a [[coup d'état]], or by suspending the existing [[constitution]]. Ordinarily democratic nations may temporarily give dictatorial power to leaders during a [[state of emergency]]. The term is normally not applied to [[absolute monarch]]s although they generally have the powers of a dictator.
States without democratic institutions are often ruled by a series of dictators, taking power from each other in [[coup]]s or [[civil war]]s. Latin American and African nations have undergone many dictatorships, usually by military leaders at the head of a [[junta]]. In states with established democratic institutions, dictators frequently emerge in times of war, or during an economic or social crisis. Most notably, [[Benito Mussolini]] in [[Italy]] and [[Adolf Hitler]] in [[Germany]], gained power within the framework of democratic politics, and once in power gradually eroded constitutional restraints. In Germany this process started with Hitler's [[Reichstag Fire Decree]] of [[February 28]] [[1933]], and came near to completion with the death of [[Hindenburg]]. Under [[Joseph Stalin]], the concentration of power in the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] in the [[Soviet Union]] developed into a personal dictatorship, denounced by [[Nikita Khrushchev|K |
akes and rivers, before finally reaching the East China Sea at [[Shanghai]]. Actually, four of China's five main freshwater lakes contribute their waters to the Yangtze River. Traditionally, the upstream part of the Yangtze River refers to the section from [[Yibin]] to [[Yichang]]; the middle part refers to the section from [[Yichang]] to [[Hukou]], where Boyang Lake meets the river; the downstream part is from [[Hukou]] to [[Shanghai]].
==Characteristics==
[[Image:Yangzi_river_shrines_on_hill_top.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Tombs on a hill facing the Yangtze as it flows by]]
The Yangtze flows into the East China Sea and was navigable by ocean-going vessels up to a thousand miles from its mouth even before the [[Three Gorges Dam]] was built. As of [[June 2003]], the [[Three Gorges Dam]] now spans the river, flooding [[Fengjie]], the first of a number of towns affected by the massive flood control and power generation project. The project is the largest comprehensive [[irrigation]] project in the world. Proponents of the dam argue that it will free people living along the river from [[floods]] that have repeatedly threatened them in the past, and will also offer them [[electricity]] and [[water transport]] - though at the expense of permanently flooding many existing towns (including numerous ancient cultural relics) and causing large-scale changes in the local [[ecology]].
Opponents of the dam point out that there are three different kinds of floods on the Yangtze River: floods which originate in the upper reaches, floods which originate in the lower reaches, and floods along the entire length of the river. They argue that the Three Gorges dam will actually make flooding in the upper reaches of the river worse and have little or no impact on floods which originate in the lower reaches.
The river is the sole habitat of the critically [[endangered]] [[Chinese River Dolphin]] and [[Chinese paddlefish]].
Yangtze River is flanked with metallurgical, power, chemical, auto, building materials and machinery industrial belts, and high-tech development zones. It is playing an increasingly crucial role in the river valley's economic growth and has become a vital link for international shipping to the inland provinces. The river is a major transportation artery for China connecting the interior with the coast. The Yangtze River is one of the world's busiest waterways. River traffic includes commercial traffic transporting bulk goods such as coal as well as manufactured goods and passengers. Cargo transportation on the Yangtze River reached 795 million tons in 2005 [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-01/23/content_4089542.htm] [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-02/04/content_4133140.htm]. River cruises of several days duration especially through the beautiful and scenic [[Three Gorges]] area are becoming popular as the tourism industry grows in China.
Flooding along the river has been a major problem. The rainy season in China is May and June in areas south of Yangtze River, and July and August in areas north of river. The huge river system receives water both from southern and northern flanks, which causes its flood season to extend from May to August. Meanwhile, the relatively dense population and rich cities along the river make the floods more deadly and costly. The most recent major floods were the [[1998 Yangtze River Floods]], but more disastrous were the [[1954 Yangtze river floods]], killing around 30,000 people. Other severe floods included those of [[1911 Yangtze river floods|1911]] which killed around 100,000, [[1931 Yangtze river floods|1931]] (145,000 dead), and [[1935 Yangtze river floods|1935]] (142,000 dead).
== History ==
The Yangtze river occupies an important place in the cultural origins of southern China. Human activity was found in the Three Gorges area as far back as 2 million years ago, initiating debate over the origin of the Chinese people.[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378275a0.html] In the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], [[Ba (state)|Ba]] and [[Shu (state)|Shu]] were located in the western part of the river, covering modern Sichuan, Chongqing, and western Hubei; [[Chu (state)|Chu]] was located in the central part of river, corresponding to [[Hubei]], [[Hunan]], [[Jiangxi]], and southern [[Anhui]]. [[Wu (state)|Wu]] and [[Yue (state)|Yue]] were located in the eastern part of the river, now [[Jiangsu]], [[Zhejiang]], and [[Shanghai]]. Although the Yellow River region was richer and more developed at that time, the milder climate and more peaceful environment made the Yangtze river area more suitable for agriculture. From the [[Han]] dynasty, the region of the Yangtze river became more and more important in China's economy. The establishment of irritation systems (the most famous one is [[Dujiangyan]], northwest of Chengdu, built during the [[Warring States]] period) made agriculture very stable and productive. Early in the Qing dynasty, the region called "[[Jiangnan]]" (includes the southern part of [[Jiangsu]], the northern part of [[Zhejiang]], and the southeastern part of [[Anhui]]) provided 1/3-1/2 of the nation's revenues.
Historically, the mighty Yangtze river became the political boundary between north China and south China several times (see [[History of China]]) because of the difficulty of crossing the river. A lot of battles took place along the river, the most famous being the [[Battle of Red Cliffs]] in 208 AD during the [[Three Kingdoms]] period.
Politically, [[Nanjing]] was the capital of China several times, although most of the time its territory only covered the southeastern part of China, such as the [[Wu]] kingdom in the Three Kingdoms period, the [[Eastern Jin Dynasty]], and smaller countries in the [[Northern and Southern Dynasties]] and [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms]] periods. Only the [[Ming]] occupied most parts of China from their capital at [[Nanjing]]. The [[ROC]] capital was located in [[Nanjing]] in the periods 1911-1912, 1927-1937, 1945-1949.
== Major cities along the river ==
[[image:Lower_yangtze_3.png|thumb|550px|right|Cities along the Chang Jiang, between Wuhan and Shanghai]]
[[Image:Yangzi_river_coal_barge_loading_point.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A loading point for coal barges on the Yangtze River]]
*[[Panzhihua]]
*[[Yibin]]
*[[Luzhou]]
*[[Chongqing]]
*[[Yichang]]
*[[Jingzhou]]
*[[Shishou]]
*[[Yueyang]]
*[[Xianning]]
*[[Wuhan]]
*[[Ezhou]]
*[[Huangshi]]
*[[Huanggang]]
*[[Chaohu]]
*[[Chizhou]]
*[[Jiujiang]]
*[[Anqing]]
*[[Tongling]]
*[[Wuhu]]
*[[Hefei]]
*[[Chuzhou]]
*[[Maanshan]]
*[[Taizhou, Jiangsu|Taizhou]]
*[[Yangzhou]]
*[[Zhenjiang]]
*[[Nanjing]]
*[[Nantong]]
*[[Shanghai]]
==Tributaries==
[[Image:Yangzi_river_ship_yard_on_river_bank.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A shipyard on the banks of the Yangtze building commercial river freight boats]]
* [[Ya-Lung River]]
* [[Minjiang River]]
* [[Daduhe River]]
* [[Tuojiang River]]
* [[Jialing River]]
* [[Wujiang River]]
* [[Qingjiang]] <!-- I suspect the other tributaries are already in the right order... -->
* [[Xiang River|Xiangjiang]]
* [[Lishui River|Lishui]] (Li)
* [[Zijiang River|Zijiang]] ([[Zi River|Zi]])
* [[Yuanjiang River|Yuanjiang]] ([[Yuan River|Yuan]])
* [[Han River (Hanshui)|Han River]]
* [[Ganjiang River]]
* [[Huangpu River]]
==Trivia==
*[[Cheung Kong Holdings]], from the [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese language]] form of ''Chang Jiang'' and named after the river, is the name of the [[holding company]] controlled by [[Li Ka-Shing]], one of Asia's richest [[tycoon]]s.
*In [[2004]] [[Martin Strel]] from [[Slovenia]] swam the river from the Tiger Leaping Gorge to [[Shanghai]] (4600 km, 2860 miles).
* The Yangtze is home to (at least) two critically endangered species: The [[Chinese River Dolphin]] and the [[Chinese Alligator]].
== See also ==
*[[Yangtze River Delta]]
*[[List of rivers in China]]
*[[Three Gorges Dam]]
*[[Geography of China]]
*[[Yangtze Service Medal]]
*[[Dragon Boat]]
*[[Ship lifts in China]]
[[Image:YangtzeCruise.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Cruising through the [[Three Gorges]] along the Yangtze River]]
==Further reading==
*Van Slyke, Lyman P. 1988. ''Yangtze: nature, history, and the river''. A Portable Stanford Book. ISBN 0-201-08894-0
*Winchester, Simon. 1996. ''The River at the Center of the World:A Journey up the Yangtze & Back in Chinese Time'', Holt, Henry & Company, 1996, hardcover, ISBN 0805038884; trade paperback, Owl Publishing, 1997, ISBN 0805055088; trade paperback, St. Martins, 2004, 432 pages, ISBN 0312423373
[[Category:Rivers of China]]
[[ar:يانغتسي]]
[[cs:Jang-c'-ťiang]]
[[da:Yangtze]]
[[de:Jangtse]]
[[et:Jangtse]]
[[es:Yangzi]]
[[eo:Jangzio]]
[[fr:Yangzi Jiang]]
[[ko:양쯔 강]]
[[id:Sungai Panjang]]
[[it:Chang Jiang]]
[[he:יאנגטסה]]
[[lt:Jangdzė]]
[[nl:Jangtsekiang]]
[[ja:長江]]
[[no:Chang Jiang]]
[[pl:Jangcy]]
[[ru:Янцзы (река)]]
[[sa:चांग जियांग]]
[[sk:Jang-c'-ťiang]]
[[fi:Jangtse]]
[[sv:Chang Jiang]]
[[vi:Dương Tử]]
[[uk:Янцзи]]
[[zh:长江]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chrono Trigger</title>
<id>6614</id>
<revision>
<id>42090565</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:39:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.223.121.197</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Chrono Trigger
|image = [[Image:Chrono Trigger Front Cover.jpg|250px|center|''Chrono Trigger's'' US cover art shows the party casting the triple tech "Arc Impulse."]]
|developer = [[Square Co., Ltd.]]
|publisher = [[Square Co., Ltd.]]<br />[[Square Electronic Arts|Square EA]] <small>(''Final Fantasy Chronicles'')</small>
|designer = [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]]<br />[[Yuji Horii]]
|composer = <!--[[Yasunori Mitsuda]]-->
|engine =
|released = <span style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: smaller;">[[March 11]], [[1995]] ''(SNES, Japan)'' <br> [[August 22]], [[1995]] ''(SNES, N. America)'' <br> [[November 2]], |
perature-dependent changes in entropy to volume-dependent changes in entropy.]
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[Category:Heat]]
[[Category:Thermodynamic cycles]]
[[cs:Carnotův cyklus]]
[[de:Carnot-Prozess]]
[[es:Máquina de Carnot]]
[[eo:Ciklo de Carnot]]
[[fr:Cycle de Carnot]]
[[he:מנוע קרנו]]
[[nl:Carnotcyclus]]
[[ja:カルノーサイクル]]
[[pl:Cykl Carnota]]
[[sk:Carnotov cyklus]]
[[sl:Carnotov izrek]]
[[th:เครื่องจักรความร้อนการ์โนต์]]
[[zh:卡诺循环]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Context-sensitive</title>
<id>6119</id>
<revision>
<id>25756556</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-17T18:14:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Helix84</username>
<id>111631</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{disambig}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Context-sensitive''' is an adjective meaning "depending on context" or "depending on circumstances".
See:
* [[Context-sensitive grammar]]
* [[Context-sensitive help]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical Architecture</title>
<id>6120</id>
<revision>
<id>15904281</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-20T22:07:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Classical architecture]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Classical architecture]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central America</title>
<id>6121</id>
<revision>
<id>41906764</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:58:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>E Pluribus Anthony</username>
<id>266462</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv horrid table additions</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:CentAmerica.jpg|right|360px|thumb|Map of Central America]]
'''Central America''' is the southern region of [[North America]], beginning south of the [[Gulf of Mexico]] (the exact location is defined variously) and ending at the border between [[Panama]] and [[Colombia]]. In the most common definition, it consists of the nations between [[Mexico]] and [[Colombia]]:
*[[Belize]]
*[[Costa Rica]]
*[[El Salvador]]
*[[Guatemala]]
*[[Honduras]]
*[[Nicaragua]]
*[[Panama]]
It may also be defined [[geography|geographically]] as a large [[isthmus]] and, in this sense, it includes the portion of Mexico east of the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]] – namely the Mexican states of [[Campeche (state)|Campeche]], [[Chiapas]], [[Quintana Roo]], [[Tabasco]], and [[Yucatán]]. The [[United Nations|UN]] [[subregion]] of Central America includes all mainland states of North America south of the [[United States]], including Mexico, while the [[European Union]] sees the region as including Panama but excluding Belize and Mexico.
== Geography ==
Central America thus has an area of about 540,000 km&sup2; (208,500 mi&sup2;), and a width between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Caribbean Sea]] ranging from about 560 km to about 50 km (350 to 30 mi).
[[Image:Tectonic plates Caribbean.png|thumb|right|[[Central America]] and the [[Caribbean Plate]].]]
The geology of Central America is active, with [[volcanic eruption]]s and [[earthquake]]s occurring from time to time. In [[1931]] and [[1972]] earthquakes devastated [[Managua]], the capital of [[Nicaragua]]. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas. The [[Caribbean Plate]] is a tectonic plate upon which Central America rests.
The narrowest part of [[The Americas]], Central America is the site of the [[Panama Canal]] as well as the proposed, but never-completed [[Nicaragua Canal]].
== History ==
{{main|History of Central America}}
There was a nation of '''Central America''' in the early [[19th century]], consisting of the present day nations of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (and a portion of the modern Mexican state of Chiapas). This was sometimes known as the '''United Provinces of Central America''' or the '''[[United States of Central America]]'''.
==See also==
* [[Americas (terminology)]]
* The related term [[Mesoamerica]] (occasionally also called [[Middle America (disambiguation)|Middle America]]) is used in [[English language|English]] mostly restricted to referring to the [[Pre-Columbian]] [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] cultures of this region, which extended from central Mexico to northern [[Costa Rica]].
* [[Central American Parliament]]
*[[Amputee Soccer Championship, Central America]]
==External links==
* [http://www.fssca.net/ Foundation for Self-Sufficiency in Central America]
{{Region}}
[[Category:Americas]]
[[Category:North America]]
[[Category:Central America| ]]
[[ast:América Central]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiong Bí-chiu]]
[[ca:Amèrica Central]]
[[da:Mellemamerika]]
[[de:Mittelamerika]]
[[el:Κεντρική Αμερική]]
[[es:América Central]]
[[eo:Centra Ameriko]]
[[fa:آمریکای مرکزی]]
[[fr:Amérique centrale]]
[[ko:중앙아메리카]]
[[id:Amerika Tengah]]
[[it:America Centrale]]
[[he:אמריקה המרכזית]]
[[lt:Centrinė Amerika]]
[[nl:Midden-Amerika]]
[[nds:Middelamerika]]
[[ja:中央アメリカ]]
[[no:Mellom-Amerika]]
[[pl:Ameryka Środkowa]]
[[pt:América Central]]
[[ru:Центральная Америка]]
[[simple:Central America]]
[[sl:Srednja Amerika]]
[[sr:Централна Америка]]
[[th:อเมริกากลาง]]
[[fi:Keski-Amerikka]]
[[zh:中美洲]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Continuous function</title>
<id>6122</id>
<revision>
<id>41270413</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:59:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bloodshedder</username>
<id>20963</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>main template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''continuous function''' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] in which arbitrarily small [[change]]s in the [[input]] produce arbitrarily small changes in the [[output]]. If small changes in the input can produce a broken jump in the changes of the output (or the value of the output is not defined), the function is said to be '''discontinuous''' (or to have a '''discontinuity'''). The context in this entry is real-valued functions on the real domain or on topological or metric spaces other than the complex numbers; for complex-valued functions see [[complex analysis]]. The notable difference in approach is that in the present context, the points in the [[domain]] that would be regarded as singularities (points of discontinuity) in the complex domain are usually assumed to be absent, or they are explicitly excluded, so as to leave a function that is continuous on a disconnected real domain.
As an example, consider the function ''h''(''t'') which describes the [[height]] of a growing flower at time ''t''. This function is continuous (unless the flower is cut). As another example, if ''T''(''x'') denotes the air temperature at height ''x'', then this function is also continuous. In fact, there is a dictum of [[classical physics]] which states that ''in nature everything is continuous''. By contrast, if ''M''(''t'') denotes the amount of money in a bank account at time ''t'', then the function jumps whenever money is deposited or withdrawn, so the function ''M''(''t'') is discontinuous.
There are also some more special usages of continuity in some mathematical disciplines. Probably the most common one, found in [[topology]], is described in the article on [[continuity (topology)]]. In [[order theory]], especially in [[domain theory]], one considers a notion derived from this basic definition, which is known as [[Scott continuity]].
== Real-valued continuous functions ==
Suppose we have a function that maps [[real number]]s to real numbers and whose [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] is some [[interval (mathematics)|interval]], like the three functions ''h'', ''T'' and ''M'' from above. Such a function can be represented by a [[graph of a function|graph]] in the [[Cartesian coordinate system|Cartesian plane]]; the function is continuous if, roughly speaking, the graph is a single unbroken [[curve]] with no "holes" or "jumps": if it can be drawn by hand without lifting the pencil from the paper.
To be more precise, we say that the function ''f'' is continuous at some [[point (geometry)|point]] ''c'' when the following two requirements are satisfied:
* ''f''(''c'') must be defined (i.e. ''c'' must be an element of the [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] of ''f'').
* The [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of ''f''(''x'') as ''x'' approaches ''c'' must exist and be equal to ''f''(''c''). (If the point ''c'' in the domain of ''f'' is not an [[accumulation point]] of the domain, then this condition is [[vacuous truth|vacuously true]], since ''x'' cannot approach ''c''. Thus, for example, every function whose domain is the set of all integers is continuous, merely for lack of opportunity to be otherwise.)
We call the function '''everywhere continuous''', or simply '''continuous''', if it is continuous at every point of its [[domain (mathematics)|domain]]. More generally, we say that a function is continuous on some [[subset]] of its domain if it is continuous at every point of that subset.
=== Epsilon-delta definition ===
Without resorting to limits, one can define continuity of real functions as follows.
Again consider a function ''f'' that maps a set of [[real numbers]] to another set of real numbers, and suppose ''c'' is an element of the domain of ''f''. The function ''f'' is said to be continuous at the point ''c'' if (and only if) the following holds: For any number ε > 0 however small, there exists some number δ > 0 such that for all ''x'' in the domain with ''c''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;δ < ''x'' < ''c''&nbsp;+&nbsp;δ, the value of ''f''(''x'') will satisfy ''f''(''c'')&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;ε < '' |
ntention and mutinied at the town of [[Opis]], refusing to be sent away and bitterly criticizing his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. Alexander executed the ringleaders of the mutiny, but forgave the rank and file. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, he held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Opis, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.
His attempts to merge Persian culture with his Greek soldiers also included training a regiment of Persian boys in the ways of Macedonians. It is not certain that Alexander adopted the Persian royal title of ''[[shah|shahanshah]]'' ("great king" or
"king of kings"). However, most historians believe that he did.
Alexander let it be known that he intended to launch a campaign against the tribes of Arabia. After they were subjugated, it was assumed that Alexander would turn westwards and attack [[Carthage]] and [[Italy]].
After traveling to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure, his closest friend and possible lover [[Hephaestion]] died of an illness. Alexander was distraught and on his return to Babylon, he fell ill and died.
==Alexander's marriages and sexuality==
Alexander's greatest emotional attachment is generally considered to have been to his companion, cavalry commander (''chiliarchos'') and probable lover, [[Hephaestion]]. They had most likely been best friends since childhood for Hephaestion too received his education at the court of Alexander's father. Hephaestion makes his appearance in history at the point when Alexander reaches [[Troy]]. There the two friends made sacrifices at the shrines of the two heroes [[Achilles]] and [[Patroclus]]; Alexander honoring Achilles, and Hephaestion honoring Patroclus. As [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] in his ''Varia Historia'' (12.7) claims, "He thus intimated that he was the object of Alexander's love, as Patroclus was of Achilles." Following Hephaestion's death, Alexander mourned him greatly, and did not eat for days.
Many have discussed Alexander's ambiguous sexuality. [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]] reports that, "He scorned [feminine] sensual pleasures to such an extent that his mother was anxious lest he be unable to beget offspring." To encourage a relationship with a woman, King Philip and Olympias brought in a high-priced [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] [[hetaira|courtesan]] named Callixena.
Later in life, Alexander married several princesses of former Persian territories, [[Roxana]] of [[Bactria]], [[Statira]], daughter of Darius III, and [[Parysatis]], daughter of [[Ochus]]. He fathered two children, ([[Heracles (Macedon)|Heracles]]), born by his concubine [[Barsine]] (the daughter of satrap [[Artabazus of Phrygia]]) in [[327 BC]], and [[Alexander IV of Macedon]], born by Roxana shortly after his death in [[323 BC]].
Curtius maintains that Alexander also took as a lover "[[Bagoas (courtier)|Bagoas]], a [[eunuch]] exceptional in beauty and in the very flower of boyhood, with whom Darius was intimate and with whom Alexander would later be intimate," (VI.5.23). Bagoas is the only one who is actually named as the ''eromenos'' &mdash; the beloved &mdash; of Alexander. Their relationship seems to have been well known among the troops, as [[Plutarch]] recounts an episode (also mentioned by [[Dicaearchus]]) during some festivities on the way back from India) in which his men clamor for him to openly kiss the young man: "Bagoas [...] sat down close by him, which so pleased the Macedonians, that they made loud acclamations for him to kiss Bagoas, and never stopped clapping their hands and shouting till Alexander put his arms round him and kissed him." At this point in time, the troops present were all survivors of the crossing of the desert. Bagoas must have endeared himself to them by his courage and fortitude during that harrowing episode. Whatever Alexander's relationship with Bagoas, it was no impediment to relations with his queen: six months after Alexander's death Roxana gave birth to his son and heir, Alexander IV. Besides Bagoas, Curtius mentions yet another possible lover of Alexander, Euxenippus, "whose youthful grace filled him with enthusiasm" (VII.9.19).
Allegations concerning Alexander's sexuality remain highly controversial and excite passions in some quarters. People of various national, ethnic and cultural origins regard him as their hero. Some argue that historical accounts describing Alexander's love for Hephaestion and Bagoas as sexual were written centuries after the fact, and thus it can never be established what the historical relationship between Alexander and his male companions were. Others argue that the same can be said about much of our information regarding Alexander. Such debates, however, are generally considered anachronistic by scholars of the period, who point out that the concept of homosexuality as understood today did not exist in [[Greco-Roman]] [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]. Sexual attraction between males was seen as a normal and universal part of [[human nature]] since it was believed that men were attracted to [[beauty]], an attribute of the young, regardless of gender. If Alexander's love life was transgressive, it was not for his love of beautiful youths but for his probable involvement with a man his own age, in a time when the standard model of male love was [[pederasty|pederastic]]. See [[Pederasty in ancient Greece]] for more information.
==The army of Alexander the Great before the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]==
{{main|Ancient Macedonian military}}
The army of Alexander was, for the most part, that of his father Philip. It was composed of light and heavy troops and some engineers, medical and staff units. About one third of the army was composed of his Greek allies from the Hellenic League.
===Infantry===
[[Image:Macedonian battle formation.gif|right|thumb|330px|Macedonian battle formation, courtesy of The Department of History, United States Military Academy.]]
The main infantry corps was the [[Macedonian phalanx|phalanx]], composed of six regiments (''taxies'') numbering about 2000 phalangites each. Each soldier had a long [[pike]] called a ''[[sarissa]]'', which was up to 21 feet long, and a short [[sword]]. For protection, the soldier wore a [[Phrygian cap|Phrygian-style]] [[helmet]] and a [[shield]]. [[Arrian]] mentions large shields (the ''[[aspis]]''), but this is disputed, as it is difficult to wield both a large pike and a large shield at the same time. Many modern historians claim the [[phalanx]] used a smaller shield, called a ''[[pelta]]'', the shield used by [[peltast]]s. It is unclear whether the phalanx used body armor, but heavy body armor is mentioned in Arrian (1.28.7) and other ancient sources. Modern historians believe most of the phalangites did not wear heavy body armor at the time of Alexander.
Another important unit were the [[hypaspist]]s (shield bearers), arranged into three battalions (''[[lochoi]]'') of 1000 men each. One of the battalions was named the ''[[Agema]]'' and served as the King's bodyguards. Their armament is unknown and it is difficult to get a clear picture from ancient sources. Sometimes hypaspists are mentioned in the front line of the battle just between the phalanx and the heavy [[cavalry]]. Moreover, they seem to have acted as an extension of the phalanx fighting as heavy infantry while keeping a link between the heavily clad phalangites and the companion cavalry. They also accompanied Alexander on flanking marches and were capable of fighting on rough terrain like light troops so it seems they could perform dual functions.
In addition to the units mentioned above, the army included some 6000 Greek allied and mercenary [[hoplite]]s, also arranged in phalanxes. They carried a shorter [[spear]], a ''[[dora]]'', which was six or seven feet long and a large ''aspis''.
Alexander also had light infantry units composed of [[peltast]]s, [[psiloi]] and others. Peltasts are considered to be light infantry, although they had a helmet and a small shield and were heavier than the ''psiloi''. The best peltasts were the [[Agrianians]] from [[Thrace]].
===Cavalry===
The heavy cavalry included the [[Companion cavalry]] raised from the Macedonian nobility, and the Thessalian cavalry. The Companion cavalry (''hetairoi'', friends) was divided into eight squadrons called ''ile'', 200 strong, except the Royal Squadron of 300. They were equipped with a 12 foot lance, the ''xyston'', and heavy body armor. The horses were partially clad in armor as well. The riders did not carry shields, as the xyston required both hands to wield. The organization of the Thessalian cavalry was similar to the Companion Cavalry, but they had a shorter spear and fought in a looser formation.
Of light cavalry, the ''prodromoi'' (forerunners) secured the wings of the army during battle and went on [[reconnaissance]] missions. Several hundred allied horses rounded out the cavalry.
==Death==
[[Image:Alexander the great 1.jpg|thumb|left|Contemporary [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Alexander the Great.]]
On the afternoon of [[June 10]] - [[June 11|11]], [[323 BC]], Alexander died of a mysterious illness in the palace of [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon]]. He was just one month shy of attaining 33 years of age. Various theories have been proposed for the cause of his death which include [[poisoning]] by the sons of [[Antipater]] or others, sickness that followed a drinking party, or a relapse of the [[malaria]] he had contracted in [[336 BC]].
What is certain is that on May 29, Alexander participated in a banquet organized by his friend [[Medius of Larissa]]. After some heavy drinking, immediately or after a bath, he was forced to bed badly ill. The troops started rumor |
number''' associated with a numerical problem is a measure of
that quantity's amenability to digital computation, that is, how
[[well-posed problem|well-posed]] the problem is. A problem with a low condition number is said to be '''well-conditioned''', while a problem with a high condition number is said to be '''ill-conditioned'''.
==The condition number of a matrix==
For example, the condition number associated with the linear equation
<math>Ax = b</math> gives a bound on how inaccurate the solution <math>x</math> will be after numerical solution.
The condition number also amplifies the error present in <math>b</math>. The extent of this amplification can render a low condition number system (normally a good thing) inaccurate and a high condition number system (normally a bad thing) accurate, depending on how well the data in <math>b</math> are known. For this problem, the condition number is defined by
:<math>\Vert A^{-1}\Vert \cdot \Vert A\Vert</math>,
in any consistent [[matrix norm|norm]]. This number arises so often in numerical [[linear algebra]] that it is given a name, the '''condition number of a matrix''':
:<math>\kappa (A) = \Vert A^{-1}\Vert \cdot \Vert A\Vert.</math>
Of course, this definition depends on the choice of norm.
* If <math>\|\cdot\|</math> is <math> l_2</math> [[matrix norm|norm]] then
:<math>\kappa(A) = \frac{\sigma_{max}(A)}{\sigma_{min}(A)}</math> where <math>\sigma_{max}(A)</math> and <math>\sigma_{min}(A)</math> are maximal and minimal [[singular value]]s of <math>A</math> respectively. Hence
:* If <math>A</math> is [[normal matrix|normal]] then
::<math>\kappa(A) = \left|\frac{\lambda_{max}(A)}{\lambda_{min}(A)}\right|</math> (<math>\lambda_{max}(A),\ \lambda_{min}(A)</math> are maximal and minimal (by moduli) [[eigenvalue]]s of <math>A</math> respectively)
:* If <math>A</math> is [[unitary matrix|unitary]] then
::<math>\kappa(A) = 1</math>
* If <math>\|\cdot\|</math> is <math> l_{\infty}</math> [[matrix norm|norm]] and <math>A</math> is [[triangular matrix|lower triangular]] non-singular (i.e., <math> a_{ii} \ne 0 \; \forall i</math>) then
:<math>\kappa(A) \geq \frac{\max_i(|a_{ii}|)}{\min_i(|a_{ii}|)}</math>
==The condition number in other contexts==
Condition numbers for [[singular-value decomposition]]s, polynomial root finding, [[eigenvalue]] and many other problems may be defined.
Generally, if a numerical problem is well-posed, it can be expressed as
a function <math>f</math> mapping its data, which is an <math>m</math>-tuple
of real numbers <math>x</math>, into its solution, an <math>n</math>-tuple of
real numbers <math>y</math>.
Its condition number is then defined to be the maximum value of the ratio
of the [[Approximation error|relative errors]] in the solution to the [[relative error]] in the data,
over the problem domain:
:<math>\max \left\{ \left| \frac{f(x) - f(x^*)}{f(x)} \right| \left/ \left| \frac{x - x^*}{x} \right| \right. : |x - x^*| < \epsilon \right\}</math>
where <math>\epsilon</math> is some reasonably small value in the variation
of data for the problem.
If <math>f</math> is also differentiable, this is approximately
:<math>\left| \frac{ f'(x) }{ f(x) } \right|. \left| x \right| </math>.
[[Category:Numerical analysis]]
[[de:Kondition (Mathematik)]]
[[ru:Число обусловленности]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cheddar cheese</title>
<id>6936</id>
<revision>
<id>40875299</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T16:21:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thryduulf</username>
<id>157530</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.142.82.34|72.142.82.34]] ([[User talk:72.142.82.34|talk]]) to last version by 211.30.94.67</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cheese|Cheddar
| [[Image:MidSomerset_Show_170803.jpg|300px]]
| [[England]]
| [[Somerset]], [[Cheddar]]
| [[Cow]]s
| Frequently
| hard/semi-hard
| 3-4 months depending on variety
| No}}
'''Cheddar cheese''' is a pale yellow, sharp-tasting [[cheese]] originally made in the [[England|English]] village of [[Cheddar]], in [[Somerset]]. Cheddar-style cheeses are produced in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]], [[South Africa]], [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]] (where it is often called ''Tasty cheese'') and [[Sweden]]. Much of this cheese is mass-produced and quality varies enormously. The strong flavor develops over time, with a taste diverse enough that food packaging will usually indicate a strength ("mild" to "strong/sharp/mature"), or the maturation period.
Cheddar has perhaps always been the most popular cheese in England. A [[pipe roll]] of [[Henry II of England|King Henry II]] records the purchase of 10,420 [[Pound (mass)|pound]]s (avoirdupois pounds and troy pounds did not exist then, probably tower pounds or about 3650 kg) at a [[History of the farthing|farthing]] per pound ([[Pound sterling|£]]3 per tonne).
[[Making Cheddar Cheese|Cheddaring]] refers to an additional step in the production of cheddar-style cheese where, after heating, the [[curd]] is cut into cubes to drain the whey, then stacked and turned.
Cheddar cheese has become too widely produced to have a 'protected designated origin'. However, the [[European Union]] recognises 'West Country Farmhouse Cheddar' as a [[protected designation of origin]]. To meet this standard the cheese must be made in the traditional manner using local ingredients in four designated counties of south-west [[England]].
Like many cheeses, the [[color]] of cheddar is often modified by the use of food colorings. [[Annatto]], extracted from the tropical [[Achiote|achiote tree]], is frequently used to give cheddar an orange color. The origins of this practice are clouded, but the three leading theories appear to be to allow the cheese to have a consistent color from [[batch]] to batch, to assist the purchaser in identifying the type of cheese when it is unlabelled, or to identify the cheese's region of origin.
In the United States, cheddar cheese comes in several varieties, including mild, medium, sharp, New York Style, Colby/Longhorn, white, and Vermont. '''New York Style Cheddar cheese''' is a particularly sharp cheddar cheese, sometimes with a hint of smoke. It is usually slightly softer than milder cheddar cheese. '''Colby/Longhorn Cheddar cheese''' has a mild to medium flavor. The curds are still distinct, often marbled in color, varying from cream to yellow. Cheddar that has not been coloured is frequently labelled as "white cheddar" or "Vermont cheddar", regardless of whether it was produced in the state of [[Vermont]].
[[Image:Cheese curds 2.jpg|thumb|left|125px|A bowl of [[cheese curds]] ]]
Cheddar is one of several products used by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] to track the [[dairy industry]]; reports are issued weekly detailing prices and production quantities. The state of [[Wisconsin]] produces the most cheddar in the United States; other centers of production include [[upstate New York]], [[Vermont]], and [[Tillamook, Oregon]].
Cheddar is also a good source of vitamin B12 and therefore recommendable for vegetarians. A slice of vegetarian cheddar cheese (40g) contains about 0.5 µg of vitamin B12 (required daily intake for a grown man is 2.4 µg).
== Biggest cheddar cheeses ==
[[White House]] [[historian]]s assert that U.S. [[president]] [[Andrew Jackson]] held an open house party where a 1,400 pound (635 kg) block of cheddar cheese was served as refreshment. A cheese of 7,000 pounds (3,175 kg) was produced in [[Ingersoll, Ontario|Ingersoll]], [[Ontario]] in [[1866]] and exhibited in [[New York]] and Britain; it was immortalised in the famous [[poem]] "Ode on the Mammoth Cheese Weighing over 7,000 Pounds" by [[James McIntyre]], a [[Canada|Canadian]] poet. A still larger [[Wisconsin]] Cheddar cheese of 34,951 pounds (15,853 kg) was produced for the [[New York World's Fair]] in [[1964]]. It required the equivalent of the daily milk production of 16,000 [[cattle|cow]]s.
== External links ==
* [http://www.fda.gov Food and Drug Administration]
* [http://www.ilovecheese.com/ ILoveCheese.com]
* [http://clinton3.nara.gov/WH/glimpse/presidents/html/aj7.html Andrew Jackson's 1,400 lb Cheddar]
* "[http://eir.library.utoronto.ca/rpo/display/poem1367.html Ode on the Mammoth Cheese Weighing over 7,000 Pounds]" - full text of the poem, with notes
* [http://www.needcheese.com NeedCheese.com] Wisconsin Cheese
[[Category:english cheeses]]
[[Category:British Protected designation of origin]]
[[de:Cheddar]]
[[gl:Cheddar (queixo)]]
[[ja:チェダーチーズ]]
[[pt:Cheddar]]
[[he:צ'דר]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Containment hierarchy</title>
<id>6937</id>
<revision>
<id>41236171</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T23:52:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shadow1</username>
<id>690159</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''containment hierarchy''' is a [[hierarchical]] collection of strictly nested sets. Each entry in the hierarchy designates a set such that the previous entry is a strict superset, and the next entry is a strict subset. For example, all rectangles are quadrilaterals, but not all quadrilaterals are rectangles, and all squares are rectangles, but not all rectangles are squares.
A [[taxonomy]] is a classic example of a containment hierarchy:
* In geometry: [[shape]], [[polygon]], |
llanpää]]
[[fi:Frans Eemil Sillanpää]]
[[sv:Frans Eemil Sillanpää]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F-15</title>
<id>11308</id>
<revision>
<id>15909064</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[F-15 Eagle]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 27</title>
<id>11310</id>
<revision>
<id>42130682</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:47:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv nop-noteable</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=27}}
|}
'''February 27''' is the 58th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 307 days remaining, 308 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
*[[1560]] - The [[Treaty of Berwick]], which would expel the [[French]] from [[Scotland]], is signed by [[England]] and the Congregation of [[Scotland]].
*[[1594]] - [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] is crowned [[King]] of [[France]].
*[[1617]] - [[Sweden]] and [[Russia]] sign the [[Treaty of Stolbovo]], ending the [[Ingrian War]] and shutting [[Russia]] out of the [[Baltic Sea]].
*[[1700]] - The island of [[New Britain]] is discovered.
*[[1703]] - The first [[Mardi Gras]] is celebrated in [[Mobile, Alabama]].
*[[1793]] - The [[Giles resolutions]] are introduced to the [[United States House of Representatives]] asking the House to condemn [[Alexander Hamilton]]'s handling of loans.
*[[1801]] - [[Washington, DC]] is placed under the jurisdiction of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]].
*[[1812]] - Poet [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]] gives his first address as a member of the [[House of Lords]], in defense of [[Luddite]] violence against [[Industrialism]] in his home county of [[Nottinghamshire]].
*[[1827]] - The first Mardi Gras is celebrated in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].
*[[1844]] - The [[Dominican Republic]] gains independence from [[Haiti]].
*[[1860]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]] makes a speech at [[Cooper Union]] in the city of [[New York City|New York]] that was largely responsible for his election to the [[United States President | Presidency]].
*[[1861]] - A crowd in [[Warsaw]] protesting [[Russia]]n rule over [[Poland]] is fired upon by [[Russian]] troops, killing five protesters.
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: The first [[Northern]] prisoners arrive at the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] prison at [[Andersonville, Georgia]].
*[[1879]] - Announcement of the discovery of artificial sweetener [[saccharin]].
*[[1900]] - [[Second Boer War]]: In [[South Africa]], [[United Kingdom|British]] military leaders receive an unconditional notice of surrender from [[Boer]] [[General]] [[Piet Cronje]] at the [[Battle of Paardeberg]].
*1900 - The [[Labour Party (UK)|British Labour Party]] is founded.
*1900 - The [[FC Bayern München]] ([[Munich]]) is founded.
*[[1921]] - The [[International Working Union of Socialist Parties]] is founded in [[Vienna]].
*[[1922]] - A challenge to the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], allowing women the right to [[vote]], is rebuffed by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]].
*[[1933]] - [[Reichstag fire]]: [[Germany]]'s parliament building in [[Berlin]], the [[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag]], is set on fire.
*[[1939]] - [[American Civil Rights Movement]]: Sit-down [[Strike action|strike]]s are outlawed by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]].
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: the [[USS Langley|USS Langley]], the first [[United States]] [[aircraft carrier]], is sunk by [[Japan]]ese warplanes.
*[[1943]] - The [[Smith Mine disaster|Smith Mine #3]] in [[Bearcreek, Montana|Bearcreek]], [[Montana]], [[United States]] explodes, killing 74 men.
*[[1948]] - The [[Communist Party]] takes control of government in [[Czechoslovakia]].
*[[1951]] - The [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution]], limiting [[President of the United States|Presidents]] to two terms, is ratified.
*[[1961]] - The first congress of the [[Spanish Trade Union Organisation]] is inaugurated.
*[[1963]] - The [[Dominican Republic]] receives its first democratically elected [[president]], [[Juan Bosch]], since the end of the dictatorship led by [[Rafael Trujillo]].
*[[1964]] - The government of [[Italy]] asks for help to keep the [[Leaning Tower of Pisa]] from toppling over.
*[[1967]] - [[Dominica]] gains independence from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1971]] - Doctors in the first [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] [[abortion clinic]] (the [[Mildredhuis]] in [[Arnhem]]) start to perform [[abortus provocatus ]].
*[[1973]] - The [[American Indian Movement]] occupies [[Wounded Knee, South Dakota]].
*[[1974]] - [[People (magazine)|People]] [[magazine]] is published for the first time.
*[[1976]] - The formerly [[Spanish]] territory of [[Western Sahara]], under the auspices of the [[Polisario Front]] declares independence as the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]].
*[[1986]] - The [[United States Senate]] allows its debates to be [[television|televised]] on a trial basis.
*[[1989]] - [[Venezuela]] is rocked by the [[Caracazo]].
*[[1990]] - [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]]: [[Exxon]] and its shipping company are indicted on five criminal counts.
*[[1991]] - [[Gulf War]]: [[U.S.]] [[President]] [[George H. W. Bush]] announces that "[[Kuwait]] is liberated."
*[[1999]] - While trying to circumnavigate the world in a [[hot air balloon]], [[Colin Prescot]] and [[Andy Elson]] set a new endurance record after being in a hot air balloon for 233 hours and 55 minutes.
*1999 - [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] becomes [[Nigeria]]'s first elected president since mid-[[1983]].
*[[2002]] - [[Ryanair Flight 296]] catches fire in [[London Stansted Airport]]. Subsequent investigations criticize [[Ryanair]]'s handling of the evacuation.
*2002 - [[2002 Gujarat violence]]: a train catches fire a few minutes after it leaves the [[Godhra]] railway station, killing an estimated 58 [[Hindu]] pilgrims returning from [[Ayodhya]] and triggering riots that lead to the death of 1000 people, mostly [[Muslim]]s.
*[[2003]] - [[Rowan Williams]] is enthroned as the 104th [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in the [[Anglican]] [[church]].
*[[2004]] - A bombing of a [[Superferry 14|Superferry]] by [[Abu Sayyaf]] in the [[Philippines]] kills 116, its worst terrorist attack.
*2004 - Former [[Barbuda People's Movement for Change|BPMC]] general secretary [[Ordrick Samuel]] launches a new party in [[Barbuda]], [[Barbudans for a Better Barbuda]].
*[[2005]] - Pre-pay price capping on the [[Transport for London]] [[Oyster card]] is introduced.
==Births==
* [[272]] - [[Constantine I]], Roman emperor
*[[1691]] - [[Edward Cave]], English editor and publisher (d. [[1754]])
*[[1807]] - [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]], American poet (d. [[1882]])
*[[1861]] - [[Rudolf Steiner]], Austrian philosopher (d. [[1925]])
*[[1886]] - [[Hugo Black]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. [[1971]])
*[[1888]] - [[Lotte Lehmann]], German singer (d. [[1976]])
*1888 - [[Roberto Assagioli]], Italian psychiatrist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1890]] - [[Freddie Keppard]], American jazz musician (d. [[1933]])
*[[1891]] - [[David Sarnoff]], Russian-born broadcasting pioneer (d. [[1971]])
*[[1892]] - [[William Demarest]], American actor (d. [[1983]])
*[[1897]] - [[Marian Anderson]], American contralto (d. [[1993]])
*[[1899]] - [[Charles Best]], American medical scientist (d. [[1978]])
*[[1902]] - [[Gene Sarazen]], American golfer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1902]] - [[John Steinbeck]], American writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1968]])
*[[1903]] - [[Grethe Weiser]], actress (d. [[1970]])
*[[1904]] - [[James T. Farrell]], American writer (d. [[1979]])
*[[1904]] - [[Yulii Borisovich Khariton]], Russian physicist (d. [[1996]])
*[[1905]] - [[Franchot Tone]], American actor (d. [[1968]])
*[[1907]] - [[Mildred Bailey]], American singer (d. [[1951]])
*[[1910]] - [[Joan Bennett]], American actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1910]] - [[Peter De Vries]], American writer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1910]] - [[Kelly Johnson]], American aircraft engineer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1912]] - [[Lawrence Durrell]], British writer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1913]] - [[Irwin Shaw]], American writer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1917]] - [[John Connally]], Governor of Texas (d. [[1993]])
*[[1922]] - [[Hans Rookmaaker]], Dutch professor and art historian (d. [[1977]])
*[[1923]] - [[Dexter Gordon]], American jazz saxophonist (d. [[1990]])
*[[1925]] - [[Samuel Dash]], American Congressional counsel (d. [[2004]])
*[[1926]] - [[David H. Hubel]], Canadian neuroscientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1927]] - [[Lynn Cartwright]], American actress (d. [[2004]])
*[[1927]] - [[Guy Mitchell]], American singer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1929]] - [[Djalma Santos]], Brazilian football player
*[[1930]] - [[Peter Stone]], American writer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1930]] - [[Joanne Woodward]], American actress
*[[1932]] - [[Elizabeth Taylor]], British-American actress
*[[1933]] - [[Raymond Berry]], American football player
*[[1934]] - [[N. Scott Momaday]], American writer
*1934 - [[Ralph Nader]], American consumer activist
*1934 - [[Van Williams]], American actor
*[[1935]] - [[Mirella Freni]], Italian soprano
*[[1937]] - [[Barbara Babcock]], American actress
*[[1940]] - [[Howard Hesseman]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Paddy Ashdown]], British politician
*[[1942]] - [[Robert H. Grubbs]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1942 - [[Charlayne Hunter-Gault]], American journalist
*[[1943]] - [[Mary Frann]], American actress (d. [[1998]])
*1943 - [[Morten Lauridsen]], American composer
*[[1945]] - [[Carl Anderson]], American singer a |
Worms]], where he headed the opposition to [[Martin Luther|Luther]], advocating the most extreme measures to repress the doctrines of the reformer. His conduct evoked the fiercest denunciations of Luther, but it also displeased more moderate men and especially Erasmus. The edict against the reformer, which was finally adopted by the emperor and the diet, was drawn up and proposed by Aleandro.
After the close of the diet the papal nuncio went to the Netherlands; where he kindled the flames of persecution, two monks of [[Antwerp]], the first martyrs of the Reformation, being burnt in [[Brussels]] at his instigation. In 1523 [[Pope Clement VII]], having appointed him archbishop of [[Brindisi]] and [[Oria]], sent him as nuncio to the court of [[Francis I of France|Francis I]]. He was taken prisoner along with that monarch at the [[battle of Pavia]] (1525), and was released only on payment of a heavy ransom. He was subsequently employed on various papal missions, especially to Germany, but was unsuccessful in preventing the German princes from making a truce with the reformers, or in checking to any extent the progress of the new doctrines. He was created cardinal in 1536 by [[Pope Paul III]] (at the same time as [[Reginald Pole]]) and died at [[Rome]] on the 1st of February 1542.
Aleandro compiled a ''Lexicon Graeco-Latinum'' (Paris, 1512), and wrote Latin verse of considerable merit inserted in the ''Carmina Illustrium Poetarum Italicorum'' of [[Joannes Matthaeus Toscanus]]. The Vatican library contains a volume of manuscript letters and other documents written by him in connection with his various missions against Luther. They were utilized by [[Pietro Sforza Pallavicino|Pallavicino]] in his ''Istoria del Concilio Tridentino'' (i. 23&#8209;28), who gives a very partial account of the Worms conference.
Aleandro, who is sometimes called "the elder," must be distinguished from his grand-nephew, also called Girolamo Aleandro (1574-1629). The younger Aleandro was a very distinguished scholar, and wrote ''Psalmi poenitentiales versibus elegiacis expressi'' (a paraphrase of the penitential psalms in elegiac verse, Trier, 1593), ''Gaii, veteris juris consulti Institutionum fragmenta, cum commentario'' (a commentary of the ''Fragmenta'' of the ancient Roman jurisconsult [[Gaius (jurist)|Gaius]], Venice, 1600), ''Explicatio veteris tabulae marmoricae solis effigie symbolisque exculptae'' (Rome, 1616).
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1480 births|Aleandro]]
[[Category:1542 deaths|Aleandro]]
[[Category:Italian cardinals|Aleandro]]
[[Category:Natives of the Veneto|Aleandro]]
[[Category:Diplomats of the Holy See|Aleandro]]
[[no:Girolamo Aleandro]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galeazzo Alessi</title>
<id>12483</id>
<revision>
<id>38884411</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T06:27:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CARAVAGGISTI</username>
<id>583904</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Galeazzo Alessi''' ([[1512]]- [[December 30]], [[1572]]), Italian architect, was born
at [[Perugia]], and was probably a pupil of [[Caporali]]. He was an
enthusiastic student of ancient architecture, and his style gained
for him a European reputation. [[Genoa]] is indebted to him for
a number of its most magnificent palaces, and specimens of his
skill may be seen in the churches of San Paolo and Santa Vittoria
at [[Milan]], in certain parts of the [[El Escorial]], and in numerous
churches and palaces throughout [[Sicily]], [[Flanders]] and [[Germany]].
See Rossi, ''Di Galeazzo Alessi memorie'' (Perugia, 1873).
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1512 births|Alessi, Galeazzo]]
[[Category:1572 deaths|Alessi, Galeazzo]]
[[Category:Italian architects|Alessi, Galeazzo]]
[[fr:Galeazzo Alessi]]
[[gl:Galeazzo Alessi]]
[[it:Galeazzo Alessi]]
[[pt:Galeazzo Alessi]]
[[sv:Galeazzo Alessi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Giulio Alenio</title>
<id>12484</id>
<revision>
<id>38730092</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T06:08:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Roland Longbow</username>
<id>428413</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Giulio Alenio''' (often spelled Giulio Aleni; [[Chinese]]: &#33406;&#20754;&#30053;; [[1582]] - [[1649]]), [[Italy|Italian]] Jesuit [[missionary]], was born at [[Brescia]].
He entered the [[Society of Jesus]] and was sent to the East. He landed at [[Macau]] in [[1610]], and while waiting a favourable opportunity to penetrate into [[China]] busied himself for three years in teaching [[mathematics]].
His thirty years' residence in China was marked by unceasing zeal and considerable
success. He adopted the dress and manners of the country, was the first Christian missionary in [[Kiangsi]], and built several churches in [[Fujian]]. He wrote in Chinese a life of [[Jesus]] (Pekin, 1635-1637, 8 vols.; often reprinted, e.g. in 1887 in 3 vols., and used even by Protestant missionaries) and a cosmography (''Iche fang wai ki Hang-chow'', 1623, 6 vols.), which was translated into [[Manchu]] under the title ''The True Origin of 10,000 Things,'' a copy of which was sent from [[Beijing]] to Paris in [[1789]]. Alenio died at [[Fuzhou]] in [[1649]].
He was called "[[Confucius]] from the West". He was known to the Chinese people as &#33406;&#20754;&#30053;.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1582 births|Alenio, Giulio]]
[[Category:1649 deaths|Alenio, Giulio]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Alenio, Giulio]]
[[Category:Jesuit China missions|Alenio]]
[[Category:Non-Chinese known by Chinese names|Alenio, Giulio]]
[[it:Giulio Aleni]]
[[zh:&#33406;&#20754;&#30053;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>German cuisine</title>
<id>12485</id>
<revision>
<id>39617036</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T18:23:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.154.5.159</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Meat */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine}}
'''German Cuisine''' varies greatly from region to region. The southern regions of [[Bavaria]] and [[Swabia]] share many dishes among them and with their neighbours to the south, [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]. In the West, [[French cuisine|French]] influences are more pronounced, while the eastern parts of the country have much in common with [[Eastern European cuisine]] and there are marked [[Scandinavia]]n influences in the northern coastal regions.
==Eating Habits==
Traditionally, the main meal of the day is lunch (''Mittagessen''), eaten around noon. Dinner (''Abendessen'' or ''Abendbrot'') is a smaller meal, sometimes only consisting of a couple of sandwiches. However, changing working habits have forced this to be changed in recent decades; today, it is not uncommon for many Germans to eat their main meal in the evening.
Breakfast ''(Frühstück)'' commonly consists of bread, toast, and/or [[bread roll]]s (''Brötchen, Semmeln, Schrippen, Wecken or Rundstücke'') with jam, marmalade or honey, eggs, and coffee or tea (cocoa for children). Deli meats, such as [[ham]] and [[salami]], are also commonly eaten on bread in the morning, as are various cheeses. A variety of meat-based spreads such as [[Leberwurst]] (literally ''liver-sausage'') can be found during breakfast as well. [[Muesli]] and cereals such as cornflakes are also popular.
==Meat==
[[Pork]], [[beef]] and [[poultry]] are the main varieties of meat consumed in Germany, with pork being the most popular by a substantial margin. Among poultry, [[chicken]] is most common, although [[duck]], [[goose]], and [[domesticated turkey|turkey]] are also well established. [[Game (food)|Game meats]], especially [[boar]], [[rabbit]], and [[venison]] are also widely available around the year. [[Lamb]] and [[goat]] are also available, but for the most part are not very popular. [[Horse]] meat is regarded as a speciality in some regions but consumption is sometimes frowned upon.
Meat is usually [[pot roast|pot-roasted]]; pan-fried dishes also exist, but these are usually imports from [[cuisine of France|France]]. Throughout Germany, meat is very often eaten in [[sausage]] form. There are more than 1500 different types of sausage in Germany.
An all-time favorite in Germany is [[Schnitzel]], which is commonly made from pork. The original variety comes from [[Vienna]] and is made from veal.
==Fish==
[[Trout]] is the most common freshwater fish on German menus, although [[pike (fish)|pike]], [[carp]], and [[perch]] are also frequently served. Seafood was traditionally restricted to the northern coastal areas &mdash; except for the once-ubiquitous pickled [[herring]]. Nowadays many seafish like fresh herring (also as [[rollmops]]), [[sardine]], [[tuna]], [[mackerel]], and [[salmon]] have become well established throughout the country. Prior to the industrial revolution and the ensuing pollution of the rivers, however, salmon was so common in the rivers Rhine, Elbe, and Oder that servants complained about being served salmon too often. Freshwater fish are often served grilled.
Other seafood is not often served, but [[mussel]]s and North Sea [[shrimp]] &mdash; which unfortunately are very expensive nowadays compared to imported shrimp &mdash; can be found sometimes.
==Vegetables==
Vegetables are often eaten in [[stew]]s or vegetable soups, but can also be served as a side dish. Carrots, turnips, spinach, peas, beans, and many types of cabbage are very common. Fried onions are a common addition to many meat dishes throughout the country, although they are almost unknown in Bavarian cuisine. [[Potato]]es are usually not counted among vegetables by Germans. [[Asparagus]], especially white asparagus, is particularly enjoyed in Germany as a side dish or as a main meal. Sometimes restaurants will even devote an entire menu to nothing but asparagus. However, |
[[butterfly|butterflies]], [[moth]]s)
::'''Incertae sedis'''
::* [[Glosselytrodea]] ''extinct''
::* [[Miomoptera]] - ''extinct''
</div>
As seen above, insects are divided into two subclasses; Apterygota and Pterygota (flying insects), but this could relatively soon change. Apterygota is made up of two orders; Archaeognatha (Bristletails) and Thysanura (Silverfish). In the suggested classification, the Archaeognatha makes up the Monocondylia while Thysanura and Pterygota are grouped together as Dicondylia. It is even possible that the Thysanura itself are not [[monophyletic]], making the family Lepidotrichidae a sister group to the Dicondylia (Pterygota + the rest of the Thysanura).
Also within the infraclass Neoptera we will probably see some re-organization in not too long. Today Neoptera is divided into the superorders Exopterygota and Endopterygota. But even if the Endopterygota are monophyletic, the Exopterygota seems to be [[paraphyletic]], and can be separated into smaller groups; Paraneoptera, Dictyoptera, Orthopteroidea and to other groups (Grylloblattodea + Mantophasmatodea and Plecoptera +
Zoraptera + Dermaptera). Phasmatodea and Embioptera has been suggested to form Eukinolabia, while Strepsiptera and Diptera are sometimes grouped together in Halteria. Paraneoptera has turned out to be more closeley related to Endopterygota than to the rest of the Exopterygota. It is not still clear how closley related the remaining Exopterygote groups are and if they belongs together in a larger unit. Only more research will give the answear.
==Evolution==
[[Image:Insect antennae.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Evolution has produced astonishing variety in insects. Pictured are some of the possible shapes of [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]].]]
{{Main|Insect evolution}}
The relationships of insects to other animal groups remain unclear.
Although more traditionally grouped with millipedes and centipedes, evidence has emerged favoring closer [[evolution]]ary ties with the crustaceans. In the [[Pancrustacea]] theory insects, together with [[Remipedia]] and [[Malacostraca]], make up a natural [[clade]].
Apart from some tantalizing [[Devonian]] fragments, insects first appear suddenly in the fossil record at the very beginning of the Late [[Carboniferous]] period, Early [[Bashkirian|Bashkirian age]], about 350 million years ago. Insect species were already diverse and highly specialized by this time, with fossil evidence reflecting the presence of more than half a dozen different orders. Thus, the first insects probably emerged earlier in the Carboniferous period, or even in the preceding Devonian. Research to discover these earliest insect ancestors in the fossil record continues.
The origin of insect flight remains obscure, since the earliest winged insects currently known appear to have been capable fliers.
Some extinct insects had an additional pair of winglets attaching to the first segment of the thorax, for a total of three pairs. So far, there is nothing that suggests that the insects were a particularly successful group of animals before they got their wings.
[[Pennsylvanian|Late Carboniferous]] and [[Cisuralian|Early Permian]] insect orders include both several current very long-lived groups and a number of Paleozoic forms. During this era, some giant dragonfly-like forms reached wingspans of 55 to 70 cm, making them far larger than any living insect. Also their nymphs must have had a very impressive size. This gigantism may have been due to higher atmospheric oxygen levels that allowed increased respiratory efficiency relative to today. The lack of flying vertebrates could have been another factor.
Most extant orders of insects developed during the [[Permian]] era that began around 270 million years ago. Many of the early groups became extinct during the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]], the largest mass extinction in the history of the Earth, around 252 million years ago.
The remarkably successful Hymenopterans appeared in the Cretaceous but achieved their diversity more recently, in the Cenozoic. A number of highly-successful insect groups evolved in conjunction with [[flowering plants]], a powerful illustration of [[co-evolution]].
Many modern insect genera developed during the [[Cenozoic]]; insects from this period on are often found preserved in [[amber]], often in perfect condition. Such specimens are easily compared with modern species. The study of fossilized insects is called [[paleoentomology]].
==References==
*{{cite book|author=Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson|title=Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects|edition=7th edition|year=[[2005-05-19]]|publisher=Thomas Brooks/Cole|id=ISBN 0030968356}} — a classic textbook in North America
*{{cite book|author=Grimaldi, David and Michael S. Engel|title=Evolution of the Insects|year=[[2005-05-16]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|id=ISBN 0521821495}} — an up to date review of the evolutionary history of the insects
==Quotes==
*"''Something in the insect seems to be alien to the habits, morals, and psychology of this world, as if it had come from some other planet: more monstrous, more energetic, more insensate, more atrocious, more infernal than our own.''"
::&mdash;[[Maurice Maeterlinck]] ([[1862]]–[[1949]])
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Adult citrus root weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus.jpg|Adult citrus root [[weevil]] (''Diaprepes abbreviatus'')
Image:Ctenomorpha chronus02.jpg|A [[stick insect]] (''Ctenomorpha chronus'')
Image:Wasserläufer bei der Paarung crop.jpg|[[Water strider]] (''Gerris najas'')
Image:Aelia acuminata.JPG|Bishop's mitre [[shield bug]] (''Aelia acuminata'')
Image:Prachtlibelle-2.jpg|[[Beautiful Demoiselle]] (''Calopteryx virgo'')
Image:Forficula auricularia.jpg|Common [[Earwig]] (''Forficula auricularia'')
Image:Termite Cathedral DSC03570.JPG|Cathedral [[termite]] mound
Image:Patanga_japonica_larva.jpg|A juvenile ''Patanga japonica''
Image:Schwebfliege.jpg|A [[flower fly]], ''Episyrphus balteatus''
Image:Osmia rufa couple (aka).jpg|Red [[Mason Bee]] (''Osmia rufa'')
Image:Guepe.jpg|Wasp, drinking
Image:Aleiodes indiscretus wasp parasitizing gypsy moth caterpillar.jpg|''Aleiodes indiscretus'' parasitising a [[gypsy moth]] (''Lymantria dispar'') larva
Image:Ant on mosshill02 crop.jpg|Ant
Image:Iphiclides podalirius.jpg|[[Scarce swallowtail]] (''Iphiclides podalirius'')
Image:LeopardMoth.jpg|[[Giant Leopard Moth]] (''Ecpantheria scribonia'')
Image:Rosy Maple Moth.png|Rosy Maple Moth (''Dryocampa rubicunda'')
</gallery>
==See also==
{{Wikispecies|Insecta}}
{{Commonscat|Insecta}}
*[[Animal]]
*[[Entomology]]
*[[Invertebrate]]
*[[Prehistoric insect]]
*[[Insect flight]]
*[[image:FilmRoll-small.gif|left|Film (Xvid/ogg)]] [[:Image:Sarcophaga carnaria (Portugal2005).ogg|Cleanly flesh-fly, 4:05 minute film]] - 8MB [[xvid]] in [[ogg]] container showing a [[flesh-fly]] using its front and back pairs of legs to clean wings and head. The film runs at half speed to enable the viewer to appreciate the fast movements of the animal.
==External links==
* [http://www.cirrusimage.com/ North American Insects] A library of 4,000+ reference quality large format insect pictures. Creative Commons licensed
* [http://cmave.usda.ufl.edu/~rmankin/soundlibrary.html Bug Bytes] A reference library of digitized insect sounds.
* [http://www.insects.org/index.html INSECTS .org] A shameless promotion of insect appreciation.
* [http://www.food-insects.com/ Insects as Food] by Gene DeFoliart. Information about insects as a food resource.
* [http://www.kendall-bioresearch.co.uk/index.htm Kendall Bioresearch] Bug Index, Featured Bugs, Classification, ID, Fossils, Body-parts, Micro Views, Life Cycles, Pesticide Safety.
* [http://www.ub.es/dpep/meganeura/meganeura.htm Meganeura] Website about insect evolution and fossil record.
* [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Insecta&contgroup=Hexapoda Tree of Life Project] &ndash; Insecta
* [http://ufbir.ifas.ufl.edu/ UF Book of Insect Records], documenting "insect champions" in different categories
* [http://bugguide.net/ BugGuide] Photographs, life history information, and identification of North American arthropods, especially insects
[[Category:Arthropods]]
[[Category:Entomology]]
[[Category:Insects|*]]
[[ar:حشرات]]
[[an:Inseuto]]
[[ast:Inseutu]]
[[bg:Насекоми]]
[[ca:Insecte]]
[[cs:Hmyz]]
[[cy:Pryf]]
[[da:Insekt]]
[[de:Insekten]]
[[et:Putukad]]
[[es:Insecta]]
[[eo:Insekto]]
[[fr:Insecta]]
[[fy:Ynsekten]]
[[ga:Feithid]]
[[gl:Insecto]]
[[ko:곤충]]
[[io:Insekto]]
[[id:Serangga]]
[[is:Skordýr]]
[[it:Insetta]]
[[he:חרקים]]
[[sw:Mdudu]]
[[lt:Vabzdžiai]]
[[li:Insekte]]
[[ms:Serangga]]
[[nl:Insecten]]
[[ja:昆虫類]]
[[no:Insekter]]
[[pl:Owady]]
[[pt:Inseto]]
[[ru:Насекомые]]
[[sh:Insekt]]
[[simple:Insect]]
[[sl:Žuželke]]
[[sr:Инсекти]]
[[fi:Hyönteiset]]
[[sv:Insekter]]
[[th:แมลง]]
[[vi:Sâu bọ]]
[[tr:Böcek]]
[[uk:Комахи]]
[[zh:昆虫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inter-stellar clouds</title>
<id>14945</id>
<revision>
<id>15912465</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interstellar cloud]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ice</title>
<id>14946</id>
<revision>
<id>42147166</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:15:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kevmitch</username>
<id>225112</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Mg-k_Eisfall.jpg|thumb|right|Frozen [[Waterfall]] in the [[Rhön]] mountains]]
[[Image:IceBlockNearJoekullsarlon.jpg|thumb|left|A natural, 4 tonne, block of ice on a beach in [[Iceland]]]]
'''Ice''' can refer any of the 14 known solid [[phases of matter|phases]] of water. However, in non-scientific contexts, it usually de |
to general relativity|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Cosmologists|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Formerly stateless people|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:German physicists|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Humanists|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Humanitarians|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Jewish-American scientists|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Jewish scientists|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Manhattan Project|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physics winners|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Patent clerks|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Refugees|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Social justice|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Socialists|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:World federalists|Einstein, Albert]]
[[Category:Agnostics|Einstein, Albert]]
{{Link FA|cs}}
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[[af:Albert Einstein]]
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[[bn:আলবার্ট আইনস্টাইন]]
[[bs:Albert Einstein]]
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[[jv:Albert Einstein]]
[[kn:ಆಲ್ಬರ್ಟ್ ಐನ್ಸ್ಟನ್]]
[[ka:აინშტაინი, ალბერტ]]
[[ku:Albert Einstein]]
[[lad:Albert Einstein]]
[[la:Albertus Einstein]]
[[lv:Alberts Einšteins]]
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[[lb:Albert Einstein]]
[[hu:Albert Einstein]]
[[mk:Алберт Ајнштајн]]
[[mr:अल्बर्ट आईन्स्टाईन]]
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[[no:Albert Einstein]]
[[nn:Albert Einstein]]
[[os:Эйнштейн, Альберт]]
[[pl:Albert Einstein]]
[[pt:Albert Einstein]]
[[ro:Albert Einstein]]
[[ru:Эйнштейн, Альберт]]
[[sco:Albert Einstein]]
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[[simple:Albert Einstein]]
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[[sr:Алберт Ајнштајн]]
[[fi:Albert Einstein]]
[[sv:Albert Einstein]]
[[tl:Albert Einstein]]
[[ta:அல்பர்ட் ஐன்ஸ்டீன்]]
[[tt:Albert Einstein]]
[[th:อัลเบิร์ต ไอน์สไตน์]]
[[vi:Albert Einstein]]
[[tpi:Albert Einstein]]
[[tr:Albert Einstein]]
[[uk:Альберт Ейнштейн]]
[[zh:阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Afghanistan</title>
<id>737</id>
<revision>
<id>42144721</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:52:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.195.129.231</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Economy */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = د افغانستان اسلامي دولت<br />دولت اسلامی افغانستان<br> Da Afghanistan Islami Dawlat<br> Dawlate Islamiye Afghanistan <br />Islamic Republic of Afghanistan |
common_name = Afghanistan |
image_flag = 2001.gif|
image_coat = Afghanistan COA.png |
image_map = LocationAfghanistan.png |
national_motto = None |
national_anthem = [[Soroud-e-Melli]] |
official_languages = [[Pashto]], [[Persian language|Persian]] ([[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]]) |
capital = [[Kabul]] |
latd=34|latm=30|latNS=N|longd=69|longm=10|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Kabul]] |
government_type = [[Islamic Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Afghanistan|President]] |
leader_names = [[Hamid Karzai]] |
area_rank = 40th |
area_magnitude = 1_E11 |
area = 647,500 |
areami² = 250,001 |<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
percent_water = 0 |
population_estimate = 29,928,987 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 38th |
population_census =|
population_census_year =|
population_density = 43 |
population_densitymi² = 111 |<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
population_density_rank= n/a |
GDP_PPP_year= 2004 |
GDP_PPP = $21.5 billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 105th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $800 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 185th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = NA |
HDI_rank = unranked |
HDI_category = <font color=gray>NA</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events = |
established_dates = (from [[United Kingdom|UK]] control over Afghan affairs)<br />1919 |
currency = [[Afghani (currency)|Afghani <small>(Af)</small>]] |
currency_code = AFN |
country_code = AFG |
time_zone = |
utc_offset = +4:30 |
time_zone_DST = |
utc_offset_DST = +4:30 |
cctld = [[.af]] |
calling_code = 93 |
footnotes =
}}
'''Afghanistan''' ([[Pashto language|Pashto]]/[[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari-Persian]]: افغانستان, Afğānistān) is a [[landlocked]] country at the crossroads of [[Asia]]. Generally considered a part of [[Central Asia]], it is sometimes ascribed to a regional bloc in either [[South Asia]] or the [[Middle East]], as it has cultural, ethno-linguistic, and geographic links with most of its neighbors. It is bordered by [[Iran]] in the west, [[Pakistan]] in the south and east, [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Tajikistan]] in the north, and [[People's Republic of China|China]] to the east. It has a population of 30 million people, although this remains an estimate, as no official census has been taken for decades.
Afghanistan literally translates to 'land of the [[Afghan people|Afghans]]', but a plethora of other names have been applied to its general location in the past. Between the fall of the [[Taliban]] after the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and the [[2003 Loya jirga]], Afghanistan was referred to by the Government of the United States as the ''Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan''. Under its new [[Constitution of Afghanistan|constitution]], the country is now officially named the '''[[Islamic republic|Islamic Republic]] of Afghanistan'''.
<!-- Orphaned information:
Population of Kabul: 1,424,400 (1988)
Land borders: 5,529 km
Coastline: Landlocked
[[National Day]]: [[18 August]]
Religions: Sunni 84%, Shi'a 15%
1 Afghani = 100 [[pul]]s
-->
==Origin and history of the name==
The name of '''Afghanistan''' derives from word ''[[Afghan people|Afghan]]''. The [[Pushtun]]s appear to have begun using the term Afghan as a name for themselves from the [[Islam |Islamic]] period onwards. According to W.K. Frazier Tyler, M.C. Gillet and several other scholars, ''"The word Afghan first appears in history in the [[Hudud ul-'alam min al-mashriq ila al-maghrib|Hudud-al-Alam]] in 982 AD."''
There are numerous views, regarding the origin of name Afghan, most of them being purely speculative as can be seen below:
Makhzan-i-Afghni by Nematullah written in 1612 CE, traces the Afghan or Pakhtun origin from the super-Patriarch [[Abraham]] down to one named King Talut or [[Saul]]. It states that Saul had a son Irmia (Jeremia), who had a son called Afghana. Upon the death of King Saul, Afghana was raised by David, and was later promoted to the chief command of the army during the reign of King [[Solomon]]. The progeny of this Afghana multiplied numerously, and came to be called ''Bani-Israel''. In the sixth century BCE, Bakhtunnasar, or [[Nebuchadnezzar]] king of [[Babul]], attacked [[Judah]] and exiled the progeny of Afghana to Ghor located in the center of what is now Afghanistan. In course of time, the exiled community came to be addressed as ''Afghan'' after the name of their ancestor, and the country got its name as Afghanistan. This traditional view has many historical discrepancies, and is therefore not accepted by modern scholarship---the last pleader for the ''Bani-Israel'' hypothesis being Mayor Raverty (The Pathans, 1958, Olaf Caroe).
Another version of Pushtun legend places Afghana, the professed eponymous ancestor of the Afghans or [[Pushtun]]s, as a contemporary of Muslim [[Prophet Mohammad]]. On hearing about the new faith of Islam, Qais from Aryana travelled to [[Medina]] to see the Muslim [[Muhammad |Prophet Muhammad]], and returned to Aryana as a Muslim. Qais Abdur Rashid purportedly had many sons, one of whom was Afghana. Afghana, in turn, had four sons who set out to the east to establish their separate lineages. The first son went to [[Swat]], the second to [[Lahore]] and [[India]], the third to [[Multan]], and the last one to [[Quetta]]. This legend is one of many traditional tales amongst the Pashtuns regarding their disparate origins. Again, it was this legendary Afghana who is stated to have given the Pushtuns their current name. It is notable that the Afghan of this legend is separated from the Afghana of [[Solomon]]'s times by at least 11 centuries.
Dr H.W. Bellew, in his book ''An Enquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan'', believes that the name ''Afghan'' derives from the [[Latin]] term ''Alban'', used by [[Armenians]] as ''Alvan'' or ''Alwan'', which refers to mountaineers, and in the case of transliterated Armenian characters, would be pronounced as ''[[Caucasian Albania|Aghvan]]'' or ''Aghwan''. To the [[Persians]], this would further be altered to ''Aoghan'', ''Avghan'', and ''Afghan'' as a reference to the highlanders or "mountaineers" of the eastern [[Iranian plateau]].
Some people hold that the name derives from "Abagan" (i.e without God) which term the [[Persians]] are stated to have coined for the [[Pushtun]]s to describe them as ''Godless or non-believers''. It is claimed that word ''Abagan'' is antonym of the word Bagan (=believer in God) just as word apolitical is [[antonym]] of political in the English language.
There are also a few people who link "Afghan" to an [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] word "''Avagan''" said to mean "origina |
omic reasons, but in [[1711]], he was offered the job again and in [[1713]] became responsible for the musical activity of the institute.
Vivaldi was promoted to ''maestro de' concerti'' in [[1716]]. It was during these years that Vivaldi wrote much of his music, including many operas and concertos. In [[1718]], Vivaldi began to travel. Despite his frequent travels, the Pietà paid him to write two concertos a month for the orchestra and to rehearse with them at least four times when in [[Venice]]. The Pietà's records show that he was paid for 140 concertos between [[1723]] and [[1729]]. Not so well known is the fact that most of his repertoire was re-discovered only in the first half of the [[20th century]] in [[Turin]] and [[Genoa]], but was published in the second half. Vivaldi's music is innovative, breaking a consolidated tradition in schemes; he gave brightness to the formal and the rhythmic structure of the concerto, repeatedly looking for [[harmonic]] contrasts, and invented innovative melodies and themes. Moreover, Vivaldi was able to compose non-academic music, particularly meant to be appreciated by the wide public, and not only by an intellectual minority. The joyful appearance of his music reveals in this regard a transmissible joy of composing. These are among the causes of the vast popularity of his music. This popularity soon made him famous also in countries like [[France]], at the time very independent in its musical taste.
Vivaldi is considered one of the composers who brought [[Baroque Music|Baroque music]] (with its typical contrast among heavy sonorities) to evolve into a classical style. [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] was deeply influenced by Vivaldi's concertos and arias (recalled in his [[Passion]]s and [[cantata]]s). Bach transcribed a number of Vivaldi's concertos for solo keyboard, along with a number for orchestra, including the famous Concerto for Four Violins and Violoncello, Strings and Continuo ([[Ryom Verzeichnis|RV]] 580). However, not all musicians have shown the same enthusiasm: [[Igor Stravinsky]] provocatively said that Vivaldi had not written hundreds of concertos, but one concerto, hundreds of times. Despite his priestly status, he is supposed to have had possible love affairs, one of which was with the [[singer]] [[Anna Giraud]], with whom he was suspected of reusing materials from old Venetian operas, which he only slightly adapted to the vocal capabilities of his protegée. This business caused him some troubles with other musicians, like [[Benedetto Marcello]], who wrote a [[pamphlet]] against him. There is no concrete evidence, however, that links Vivaldi romantically to anyone.
Vivaldi's life, like those of many composers of the time, ended in poverty. His compositions no longer held the high esteem they once did in Venice; changing musical tastes quickly made them outmoded, and Vivaldi, in response, chose to sell off sizeable numbers of his manuscripts at paltry prices to finance a migration to [[Vienna]]. Reasons for Vivaldi's departure from Venice are unclear, but it seems likely that he wished to meet [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], who adored his compositions (Vivaldi dedicated ''La Cetra'' to Charles in [[1727]]), and take up the position of royal composer in his Imperial Court. But shortly after Vivaldi's arrival at Vienna, Charles died. This tragic stroke of bad luck left the composer without royal protection and a source of income. Vivaldi had to sell off more manuscripts to make ends meet, and eventually died not long after, in [[1741]]. He was given an unmarked pauper's grave (the assumption that the young [[Joseph Haydn]] sang in the choir at Vivaldi's burial was based on the mistranscription of a primary source and has been proven wrong). Equally unfortunate, his music was to fall into obscurity until the [[20th century]]. His burial spot is next to the Karlskirche in Vienna, at the site of the Technical Institute. The house he lived in while in Vienna was torn down. In its place now stands the Hotel Sacher. Memorial plaques have been placed at both locations, as well as a Vivaldi "star" in the Viennese Musikmeile and a monument at the Rooseveltsplatz.
==Posthumous reputation==
Vivaldi remained known for his published concerti, and largely ignored, even after the resurgence of interest in Bach, pioneered by [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]]. The resurrection of Vivaldi's unpublished works in the 20th century is mostly thanks to the efforts of [[Alfredo Casella]], who in [[1939]], organised the now historic ''Vivaldi Week'', in which the rediscovered ''Gloria in excelsis'' ([[Ryom Verzeichnis|RV]] 589) was first heard again. Discoveries continue to be made: a setting of ''Nisi Dominus'' (RV 803) was discovered as recently as 2003, in a German library among manuscripts of [[Galuppi]]; it was recorded in 2005. Following World war II Vivaldi's compositions have enjoyed almost universal success, and the advent of [[historically informed performance]]s has all but catapulted him to stardom once again. In [[1947]], the Venetian businessman [[Antonio Fanna]] founded the [[Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi]], with the composer [[Gian Francesco Malipiero]] as its artistic director, with the purpose of promoting Vivaldi's music and putting out new editions of his works.
Three films about Antonio Vivaldi are in production as of [[2005]]. One of them, with the working title ''Vivaldi'', will be directed by [[Catherine Hardwicke]] for Emagine Entertainment, while the second could have [[Ashley MacIsaac]] in the title role. A third, made by French/Italian producers with Stefano Dionisi as Vivaldi and Michel Serrault in the main roles, is scheduled to be completed in [[2005]].
Vivaldi's music, together with [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s, [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]]'s and [[Arcangelo Corelli|Corelli]]'s, has been included in the theories of [[Alfred Tomatis]] on the effects of music on human behaviour, and used in [[music therapy]].
The 11-movement "Dixit Dominus" for choir and soloists, uncovered in the German city of Dresden in early [[2005]], will be played there in full in [[2006]].
He was a prolific [[composer]] and is most well-known for composing:
*over 500 [[Concerto|concertos]] (210 of which were for violin or violoncello ''solo''),
*46 [[opera]]s,
*sinfonias,
*73 sonatas,
*[[chamber music]] (even if some sonatas for [[flute]], as ''Il Pastor Fido'', have been erroneously attributed to him, but were composed by [[Chédeville]]) and
*[[sacred music]] ("oratorio" ''Juditha Triumphans'', written for Pietà, two ''Glorias'', the ''Stabat Mater'', the ''Nisi Dominus'', the ''Beatus Vir'', the ''Magnificat'', the ''Dixit Dominus'' and others);
*his most famous work is perhaps [[1723]]'s ''[[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|Le Quattro Stagioni]]'' (The Four Seasons). In essence, it resembled an early example of a [[tone poem]], where he attempted to capture all the moods of the four seasons without the use of [[percussion instrument|percussion]] to dramatize the effects he sought to portray.
==Major works==
===Published works in his lifetime===
* Opus 1, 12 Sonatas for 2 violins and basso continuo ([[1705]])
* Opus 2, 12 Sonatas for violin and basso continuo ([[1709]])
* Opus 3, L'estro armonico (Harmonic inspiration), 12 concertos for various combinations. Best known concerti are No. 6 in A minor for violin, No. 8 in A minor for two violins, and No. 10 in B minor for 4 violins ([[1711]])
* Opus 4, La stravaganza (The extraordinary), 12 violin concertos (c. [[1714]])
* Opus 5, (2nd part of Opus 2), 4 sonatas for violin and 2 sonatas for 2 violins and basso continuo ([[1716]])
* Opus 6, 6 violin concertos (1716-[[1721|21]])
* Opus 7, 2 oboe concertos and 10 violin concertos (1716-[[1721|21]])
* Opus 8, Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione (The Contest between Harmony and Invention), 12 violin concertos, the first 4, in E, G minor, F, and F minor being known as The Four Seasons ([[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|Le quattro stagioni]]) ([[1725]])
* Opus 9, La cetra (The lyre), 12 violin concertos and 1 for 2 violins ([[1727]])
* Opus 10, 6 flute concertos (c. [[1728]])
* Opus 11, 5 violin concertos, 1 oboe concerto, the second in E minor, RV 277, being known as "Il favorito" ([[1729]])
* Opus 12, 5 violin concertos and 1 without solo ([[1729]])
* Opus 13, Il pastor fido (The Faithful Sheperd), 6 sonatas for musette, viela, recorder, flute, oboe or violin, and basso continuo ([[1737]], spurious works by Nicolas Chédeville).
===Operas===
* [[Ottone in villa]] ([[1713]])
* [[Orlando finto pazzo]] ([[1714]])
* L'incoronazione di Dario ([[1716]])
* Il Teuzzone ([[1719]])
* [[Tito Manlio]] ([[1719]])
* La verità in cimento ([[1720]])
* Ercole sul Termodonte ([[1723]])
* Il Giustino ([[1724]])
* [[Dorilla in Tempe]] ([[1726]])
* [[Farnace]] ([[1727]])
* Orlando furioso ([[1727]])
* Rosilena ed Oronta ([[1728]])
* La fida ninfa ([[1732]])
* [[L'Olimpiade]] ([[1734]])
* Bajazet (Tamerlano) ([[1735]])
* [[Griselda (Vivaldi)|Griselda]] ([[1735]])
* Catone in Utica ([[1737]])
* Rosmira ([[1738]])
=== Concertos ===
Vivaldi wrote hundreds of concerti for various instruments. Concertos not published in his lifetime include:
Mandolin:
* Concerto in D major, RV 93
* [[Concerto for Mandoline]] in C major, RV 425
* Concerto for two Mandolins in G major, RV 532
Recorder:
* Concerto in D major, RV 95, "La pastorella"
* Concerto in C minor for Treble Recorder, RV 441
* Concerto in F major for Treble Recorder, RV 442
* Concerto in C major for Sopranino Recorder, RV 443
* Concerto in C major for Sopranino Recorder, RV 444
* Concerto in A minor for Sopranino Recorder, RV 445
Trumpet:
* Concerto for Two Trumpets in C Major
===Sacred Works===
* Kyrie a 8, RV 587
* Gloria, RV 588
* [http://cftp.ist.utl.pt/~gonzalez/Music/Vivaldi.htm#Anchor-Glori-7342 Gloria], RV 588, RV 589
* Credo |
l]]'. A thin layer of [[mammary tissue]] extends from the [[clavicle]] above to the seventh or eighth ribs below and from the midline to the edge of the [[latissimus dorsi]] [[Anatomical terms of location|posteriorly]].
The [[artery|arterial]] [[blood]] [[Circulatory system|supply]] to the breasts is derived from the [[internal thoracic artery]] (previously referred to as the ''internal mammary artery''), [[lateral thoracic artery]], [[thoracoacromial artery]], and [[posterior intercostal arteries]]. The [[vein|venous]] drainage of the breast is mainly to the [[axillary vein]], but there is some drainage to the [[internal thoracic vein]].
The breast is [[Peripheral nervous system|innervated]] by the anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the 4th through 6th intercostal [[nerve]]s. The nipple is supplied by the T4 [[dermatomic area|dermatome]].
Both sexes have a large concentration of [[blood vessel]]s and [[nerve]]s in their [[nipple]]s.
===Lymphatic drainage ===
About 75% of [[lymph]] from the breast travels to the [[Wiktionary:ipsilateral|ipsilateral]] axillary [[lymph node]]s. The rest travels to parasternal nodes, to the other breast, or abdominal lymph nodes. The axillary nodes include the pectoral, subscapular, and humeral groups of [[lymph]] nodes. These drain to the central axillary lymph nodes, then to the apical axillary lymph nodes. The lymphatic drainage of the breasts is particularly relevant to [[oncology]], since [[cancer]] cells can break away from a [[tumour]] ([[breast cancer]] being a common cancer), and spread to other parts of the body through the lymph system by a process known as [[metastasis|metastasis]].
==Function==
The function of the [[mammary gland]]s in female breasts is to nurture the young by producing [[milk]], which emanates from the [[nipple]]s during [[lactation]]. However, [[zoologists]] point out that no female [[mammal]] other than the human has breasts of comparable size when not lactating and that humans are the only [[primate]] that have permanently swollen breasts. This suggests that the external form of the breasts is connected to factors other than lactation alone.
The mammary glands that secrete the milk from the breasts actually make up a relatively small fraction of the overall breast tissue. It is commonly assumed by biologists that the real [[Human evolution|evolutionary]] purpose of women having breasts is to attract the male of the species; that, in other words, breasts are a sexually dimorphic, or [[secondary sex characteristic]]s. One theory is based around the fact that, unlike nearly all other primates, human females do not display clear, physical signs of [[ovulation]]. This could have plausibly resulted in human males evolving to respond to more subtle signs of ovulation. During ovulation, the increased [[estrogen]] present in the female body results in a slight swelling of the breasts, which then males could have evolved to find attractive. In response, there would be evolutionary pressures that would favor females with more swollen breasts who would, in a manner of speaking, appear to males to be the most likely to be ovulating.
Some biologists (notably [[Desmond Morris]]) believe that the shape of female breasts evolved as a frontal counterpart to that of the [[buttocks]], the reason being that whilst other primates mate in the typical piggy-back position, humans are more likely to successfully [[copulate]] mating face on. A secondary sexual characteristic on a woman's chest would have encouraged this in more primitive incarnations of the human race, and a face on encounter would have helped found a relationship between partners beyond merely a sexual one.
Others believe that the human breast evolved in order to prevent infants from suffocating while feeding<sup>[http://www.breastfeeding.com/reading_room/breasts_shaped_babies.html]</sup>. Since human infants do not have a protruding [[jaw]] like our ancestors and the other [[primate|primates]], the infant's [[nose]] might be blocked by a flat female chest while feeding. According to this theory, as the human jaw became recessed, so the breasts became larger to compensate.
==Size, shape and composition==
[[Image:Breasts4.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Human]] [[female]] breasts]]
Most of the human female breast is actually [[adipose tissue]] ([[fat]]) and [[connective tissue]], rather than the mammary glands. There is naturally a great variety in the size and shape of breasts in women (and men), with size being affected by various factors including [[genetics]].
{| width="150px" style="float: left; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
|[[Image:Breasts1205.jpg|120px]]
|-
|[[Image:Breasts1.jpg|120px|]]
|-
|[[Image:Breastsincontext.jpg|120px|]]
|-
|[[Image:Weibliche-brust.jpg|120px|]]
|}
The primary anatomical support for the breasts is thought to be provided by the [[Cooper's ligaments]], with additional support from the [[skin]] covering the breasts themselves, and it is this support which determines the shape of the breasts. The breasts naturally sag through [[ageing]], as the [[ligaments]] become elongated. This process may be accelerated by high impact [[exercise]]s, and a [[brassiere]] may reduce this effect by providing external support, although the health benefits of wearing of a brassiere are not universally accepted. Sagging breasts ([[ptosis]]) are considered undesirable by some, and some older women seek [[cosmetic surgery]] to raise their busts.
As breasts are mostly composed of adipose tissue, their size can change over time if the woman gains or loses [[human weight|weight]]. It is also typical for them to grow in size during [[pregnancy]] and whilst [[breastfeeding]], mainly due to [[hypertrophy]] of the mammary gland in response to the [[hormone]] [[prolactin]]. The size of a woman's breasts usually fluctuates during the [[menstrual cycle]], particularly with [[premenstrual water retention]]. An increase in breast size is also a common [[side effect]] of use of the [[contraceptive pill]].
There is no relationship between breast size and ability to [[breastfeed]], and it is a common misconception that human female breasts are shaped the way they are so that they can feed babies by producing milk. Their shape is thought to have [[human evolution|evolved]] due to [[sexual attraction]], as described above.
The size of a woman's breasts is typically expressed as a "[[Brassiere#Bra sizes|bra size]]". According to the results of the "Size UK" survey <sup>[http://www.sizeuk.org/]</sup>, the average bra size in the UK has increased from a 34B in the 1950s to a 36C today, and the average size for [[United States| U.S.]] women is a 34B as of [[2005]] by the [[U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|CDC]]. Women with exceptionally large breasts may experience [[back pain]], whilst in some [[Western world|Western societies]] there is a belief amongst some that small breasts make a woman less [[breast fetishism|sexually attractive]]. Some women suffer from insecurity about their breasts, and in some cultures a number of women who are unhappy with their size seek [[surgery]] either to artificially [[breast reduction|reduce]] or [[breast enlargement|enlarge]] their breasts. The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery found that 334,052 breast augmentation procedures were performed in 2004 [http://www.cosmeticplasticsurgerystatistics.com/statistics.html#2004-HIGHLIGHTS]. Some women undergo [[breast reconstruction]] after [[mastectomy]] for [[breast cancer]], a result of the high value placed on [[symmetry]] of the female human form in those cultures, and because women often identify their femininity and sense of self with their breasts.
It is typical for a woman's breasts to be unequal in size (statistically it is slightly more common for the left breast to be the larger), particularly whilst the breasts are developing during [[puberty]]. In some rare cases, one breast may be greatly larger or smaller than the other, or fail to develop entirely.
==Development==
The development of a woman's breasts, during [[puberty]], is caused by [[sex hormone]]s, chiefly [[estrogen]]. This hormone has been demonstrated to cause the development of woman-like, enlarged breasts in men, a condition called [[gynecomastia]], and is sometimes used deliberately for this effect in [[transwomen| male-to-female]] [[sex reassignment surgery]].
A vast number of medical conditions are known to cause abnormal development of the breasts during puberty. [[Virginal breast hypertrophy]] is a condition which involves excessive growth of the breasts during puberty, and in some cases the continued growth beyond the usual pubescent age. Breast [[hypoplasia]] is a condition where one or both breasts fail to develop during puberty.
The orb-like shape of breasts help limit heatloss, as a fairly high temperature is required for the production of milk.
==Terminology==
{{wiktionarypar|breast}}
:''For [[slang]] terms for the breasts, see [[Wiktionary:WikiSaurus:breasts|WikiSaurus:breasts]]''
A [[brassiere]] (from French, lit: arm-holder) or ''bra'' is an item of women's [[Undergarment|underwear]] consisting of two cups that totally or partially cover the breasts for support and [[modesty]].
Being ''[[topless]]'' is the state of having bare breasts.
==Cultural status==
[[Image:Manet, Edouard - Blonde Woman with Bare Breasts.jpg|thumb| [[Edouard Manet]], ''"Blonde Woman with Bare Breasts"'']]
Historically, breasts were regarded as [[fertility]] symbols, due to the belief that milk is life-giving. Ancient statues of goddesses&mdash;so-called [[Venus figurines]]&mdash;often emphasised the breasts, as in the example of the [[Venus of Willendorf]]. In historic times, goddesses such as [[Ishtar]] were shown with multiple breasts, alluding to their role as goddesses of childbirth.
Breasts are considered as secondary sex characteristics, and are |
=
The [[union (set theory)|union]] used in [[set theory]] is defined in terms of a logical disjunction: ''x'' ∈ ''A'' ∪ ''B'' if and only if (''x'' ∈ ''A'') ∨ (''x'' ∈ ''B''). Because of this, logical disjunction satisfies many of the same identities as set-theoretic union, such as associativity, commutativity, distributivity, and [[de Morgan's laws]].
==Note==
{{ent|1|Boole}} [[Boole]], closely following analogy with ordinary mathematics, premised, as a necessary condition to the definition of "x + y", that x and y were mutually exclusive. [[Jevons]], and practically all mathematical logicians after him, advocated, on various grounds, the definition of "logical addition" in a form which does not necessitate mutual exclusiveness.
==See also==
* [[Boolean algebra]]
*[[logical conjunction|AND]]
*[[logical nand|NAND]]
*[[logical nor|NOR]]
*[[exclusive or|XOR]]
*[[exclusive nor|XNOR]]
==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/disjunction/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Disjunction.html Eric W. Weisstein. "Disjunction." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource]
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Binary operations]]
[[bg:Дизюнкция]]
[[de:Disjunktion]]
[[es:Disyunción lógica]]
[[et:Disjunktsioon]]
[[fr:Disjonction logique]]
[[id:Logika disjungsi]]
[[he:OR לוגי]]
[[nl:Logische disjunctie]]
[[no:Inklusiv disjunksjon]]
[[ja:論理和]]
[[pl:Alternatywa]]
[[pt:Disjunção lógica]]
[[sk:Disjunkcia (logika)]]
[[sv:Logisk disjunktion]]
[[th:การเลือกเชิงตรรกศาสตร์]]
[[uk:Диз'юнкція]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disjunctive syllogism</title>
<id>7963</id>
<revision>
<id>40362423</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''disjunctive syllogism''', also known as '''modus tollendo ponens''' (literally: ''mode which, by denying, affirms'') is a [[validity|valid]], simple [[argument form]]:
: P or Q
: Not P
: Therefore, Q
In [[logical operator]] notation:
:<math> p \lor q, </math>
:¬ <math> p \quad</math>
:<math> \vdash q </math>
where <math>\vdash</math> represents the [[logical assertion]].
Roughly, we are told that it has to be one or the other that is true; then we are told that it is not the one that is true; so we infer that it has to be the other that is true. The reason this is called "disjunctive syllogism" is that, first, it is a [[syllogism]]--a three-step argument--and second, it contains a [[disjunction]], which means simply an "or" statement. "Either P or Q" is a disjunction; P and Q are called the statement's ''disjuncts''.
Here is an example:
:Either I will choose soup or I will choose salad.
:I will not choose soup.
:Therefore, I will choose salad.
Here is another example:
:Either the Browns win or the Bengals win.
:The Browns do not win.
:Therefore, the Bengals win.
==Inclusive versus exclusive disjunction==
It should be noted with importance that there are two kinds of logical disjunction:
* ''[[logical disjunction|inclusive]]'' means "and/or" where at least one term must be true or they can both be true.
* ''[[xor|exclusive]]'' ("xor") means one must be true and the other must be false. Both terms cannot be true and both cannot be false.
The popular English language concept of ''or'' is often ambiguous between these two meanings, but the difference is pivotal in evaluating disjunctive arguments.
This argument:
:Either P or Q.
:Not P.
:Therefore, Q.
is valid and indifferent between both meanings. However, only in the ''exclusive'' meaning is the following form valid:
:Either P or Q (exclusive).
:P.
:Therefore, not Q.
With the ''inclusive'' meaning you could draw no conclusion from the first two premises of that argument. See [[affirming a disjunct]].
==Related argument forms==
Unlike [[modus ponendo ponens]] and [[modus tollendo tollens]], with which it should not be confused, modus tollendo ponens is often not made an explicit rule or axiom of logical systems, as the above arguments can be proven with a (slightly devious) combination of [[reductio ad absurdum]] and [[disjunction elimination]].
Modus tollendo ponens should also not be confused with [[modus ponendo tollens]].
''Other forms of syllogism:''
*[[hypothetical syllogism]]
*[[categorical syllogism]]
==External links==
* [http://logik.phl.univie.ac.at/~chris/beispielskriptum/node7.html Proof of MTP]
[[Category:Rules of inference]]
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<title>Definition</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
A '''definition''' aims to describe or delimit the [[meaning]] of some term (a word or a phrase) by giving a statement of essential [[Property (philosophy)|properties]] or [[Characteristic|distinguishing characteristics]] of the [[concept]], [[entity]], or kind of entity, denoted by that term. The concept or (kind of) entity being defined in a definition is called (from [[Latin]]) the ''definiendum''; the expressions or words used to define it are called the ''definiens''. For example, in ''A bachelor is an unmarried man'', the definiendum is ''bachelor'', and the definiens ''unmarried man''. Often, as in this example, the statement takes the form of expressing the equivalence between the definiendum and the definiens.
==Kinds of definition==
A number of different kinds and techniques of definition can be distinguished, including:
*A dictionary definition or [[lexical definition]] reports the meaning of a word or expression as it is normally used, ''usually'' by supplying an (approximately) equivalent expression in which the original word does not occur. For example, ''bachelor'' might be defined as ''an unmarried man''; and ''fry'' as ''to cook in hot oil''. (Notice the addition of "an" and "to" in each case, so that the defining expression is not perfectly inter-substitutable with the original: You can say ''John is a bachelor'', but not ''John is '''a an''' unmarried man''. This is normal practice, and is done simply for ease of reading.) With some words, like ''the'' and ''if'', which cannot be effectively paraphrased, dictionaries will often describe their proper use without offering an equivalent expression.
*[[Contextual definition]] Some words cannot be clearly defined on their own, but it is possible to offer a schema for defining every sentence in which they occur--that is, a way of replacing every sentence containing the expression with another sentence not containing the expression. Russell's famous [[Theory of Descriptions]] was an attempt (now widely believed to be incorrect) to do this for all [[definite descriptions]]&mdash;expressions of the form ''the (unique) x''. On Russell's account, any sentence containing (for example) the expression "the present king of France" was to be rearranged like this: ''The present king of France is bald'' means ''There is exactly one thing which is currently a king of France, and that thing is bald''. Notice that the defined expression, a noun phrase, is replaced by a sentence (''There is . . . France'') '''and''' a noun phrase (''that thing'') which appears in the position of the original.
*An [[intensional definition]] specifies all and only the properties required of something in order that falls under the term defined (its [[necessary condition|necessary]] and [[sufficient condition|sufficient]] conditions). This, like the following is typically used to characterize ways of specifying [[Set theory|sets]]. For example, ''the set of primes less than 20'', or {x:x is prime and x < 20}, is an intensional definition of a set.
*An [[extensional definition]] lists everything that the defined term actually applies to (its ''extension''). Like the above, this is often used in charactizing definitions of sets: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19} is an extensional definition of the same set as mentioned there. Note that extensional definitions cannot be used to specify infinite sets (all the prime numbers, say). They are also not [[counterfactual]]ly robust: If you "define" dog by making a list of all the dogs, then you will not have any grounds for deciding whether some newly encountered animal would be a dog.
*An [[ostensive definition]] gives the meaning of a term by pointing out the thing denoted by it, or pointing out examples of the kind of thing meant by it. So you can explain who Jones is by pointing him out to me; or what a dog is by pointing at several and expecting me to "catch on."
*[[Operational definition]] "of a quantity is a specific process whereby it is measured."
*A [[theoretical definition]] "gives the meaning of a word in terms of the theories of a specific discipline."
*A [[definition by genus and difference]] "is one in which a word or concept that indicates a species -- a specific type of item, not necessarily a biological category -- is described first by a broader category, the genus, then distinguished from other items in that category by differentia."
* A [[recursive definition]] or [[inductive definition]] is one that defines a word in terms of itself, so to speak, albeit in a useful way. Normally this consists of two (or three) steps: (I) Several specific objects (a "base set") are stated to fall under the term X being described. (II) All and only the things bearing a certain relation to members of X are also stated to be mem |
ship]], dissolution of the [[States of Germany|Länder]]; the trade unions and all political parties other than the [[National Socialist|National Socialist (Nazi) Party]] were suppressed. A centralised totalitarian state was established, no longer based liberal [[weimar]] constitution. Germany left the [[League of Nations]]. The co-alition [[Parliament]] was rigged on this fateful [[23 March]] [[1933]] by defining the absence of arrested and murdered deputies as voluntary and therefore cause for their exclusion as wilful absentees. Subsequently in July the Centre Party was voluntarily dissolved in a ''quid pro quo'' with the [[Holy See]] under the ''anti-communist'' [[Pope Pius XI]] for the [[Reichskonkordat]]; and by these maneuvers Hitler achieved movement of these Catholic voters into the Nazi party, and a long-awaited international diplomatic acceptance of his regime. The Communist Party was proscribed in April 1933 .
But many leaders of the Nazi [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] were disappointed. The chief of staff of the SA, [[Ernst Röhm]], was pressing for the SA to be incorporated into the [[Wehrmacht]] under his supreme command. Hitler felt threatened by these plans. On the weekend of [[June 30]] [[1934]], he gave order to the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] to seize Röhm and his lieutenants, and to execute them without trial.
The SS became an independent organisation under the command of the ''Reichsführer SS'' [[Heinrich Himmler]]. He would become the supervisor of the ''Gestapo'' and of the concentration camps, soon also of the ordinary police. Hitler also established the [[Waffen-SS]] as a separate troop.
The regime showed particular hostility towards the [[Jew]]s. In September 1935, the Reichstag passed the so-called [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Nuremberg race laws]] directed against Jewish citizens. Jews lost their German citizenship, and were banned from marrying Germans. About 500,000 individuals were affected by the new rules.
Hitler re-established the German air force and re-introduced universal military service. The open rearmament was in flagrant breach of the Treaty of Versailles. However, neither the United Kingdom, nor France and Italy, went beyond issuing notes of protest.
In 1936 German troops marched into the demilitarised Rhineland. In this case, the [[Treaty of Locarno]] would have obliged the United Kingdom to intervene in favour of France. But despite protests by the French government, Britain chose to do nothing about it. The coup strengthened Hitler's standing in Germany. His reputation was going to increase further with the [[Olympic Games]], which were held in the same year in Berlin and in [[Garmisch-Partenkirchen]], and which proved another great propaganda success for the regime.
===Expansion and defeat===
After establishing the "Rome-Berlin axis" with [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], and signing the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]] with [[Japan]] - which was joined by [[Italy]] a year later in 1937 - Hitler felt able to take the offensive in foreign policy. On [[12 March]] [[1938]], German troops marched into [[Austria]], where an attempted Nazi coup had been unsuccessful in 1934. When Hitler entered [[Vienna]], he was greeted by loud cheers. Four weeks later, 99% of Austrians voted in favour of the annexation ([[Anschluss]]) of their country to Germany. Hitler thereby fulfilled the old idea of a German ''Reich'' with the inclusion of Austria - the "greater German" solution that Bismarck had shunned when, in 1871, he united the German lands under Prussian leadership. Although the annexation denounced the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]], which expressedly forbade the unification of Austria with Germany, the western powers once again merely protested.
After Austria, Hitler turned to [[Czechoslovakia]], where the 3.5 million-strong [[Sudetes|Sudeten]] German minority was demanding equal rights and self-government. At the [[Munich Agreement|Munich Conference]] of September 1938, Hitler, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, British Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] and French Prime Minister [[Édouard Daladier]] agreed upon the cession of Sudeten territory to Germany by the Czechoslovaks. Hitler thereupon declared that all of Germany's territorial claims had been fulfilled. But hardly six months after the Munich Agreement, in March 1939, Hitler used the smoldering quarrel between Slowaks and Czechs as a pretext for taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia as the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]]. In the same month, he secured the return of Memel from Lithuania to Germany. British Prime Minister Chamberlain was forced to acknowledge that his [[Appeasement|policy of appeasement]] towards Hitler had failed.
[[Image:Soviet Reichstag.gif|thumb|right|250px|Marking the Soviet Union's victory, a soldier raises the Soviet flag over the Reichstag in Berlin.]]
In six years, the Nazi regime prepared the country for [[World War II]]. The Nazi leadership attempted to remove or subjugate the Jewish population in Nazi Germany and later in the occupied countries through forced deportation and, ultimately, [[genocide]] now known as [[the Holocaust]]. A similar policy applied to the various ethnic and national groups considered [[subhuman]] such as [[Roma]], [[Poles]] or [[Russians]]. These groups were seen as threats to the purity of Germany's Aryan race. There were also many groups such as mentally and physically handicapped persons singled out as being detrimental to Aryan purity.
After annexing the [[Sudetenland|Sudeten]] border country of [[Czechoslovakia]] (October 1938), and taking over the rest of the Czech lands as a protectorate (March 1939), Germany and the Soviet Union in September 1939 invaded [[Poland]].
By 1945, Germany and its [[Axis Powers|Axis]] partners ([[Italy]] and [[Japan]]) were defeated &ndash; chiefly by the united forces of [[United States|USA]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. Much of [[Europe]] lay in ruins, tens of millions of people had been killed, most of them civilians, as the six million Jews murdered in the Holocaust and many millions of people in the conquered territories. World War II resulted in the destruction of Germany's political and economic infrastructures, led to its division, considerable loss of territory in the East and left a humiliating legacy.
==Germany since 1945==
''For details, see the main [[History of Germany since 1945]] article.''
[[Image:VWgermany.jpg|frame|left|thumb|In the postwar years, [[Volkswagen]] became a very important element, symbolically and economically, of West German economic recovery.]]
Germans frequently refer to 1945 as the ''Stunde Null'' (zero hour) to describe the near-total collapse of their country. At the [[Potsdam Conference]], Germany was divided into four military occupation zones by the [[Allies]], see [[Partitions of Germany]]; the three western zones would form the '''Federal Republic of Germany''' (commonly known as [[West Germany]]), while part of the Soviet zone became the '''German Democratic Republic''' (commonly known as [[East Germany]]), both founded in 1949. [[West Germany]] was established as a liberal democratic republic while [[East Germany]] became a [[Communist State]] under the influence of the [[Soviet Union]]. Also in Potsdam, the allies agreed that the provinces east of the Oder and Neisse rivers (the [[Oder-Neisse line]]) were transferred to [[Poland]] and [[Russia]] ([[Kaliningrad]]). The agreement also set forth the abolition of [[Prussia]] and the repatriation of Germans living in those territories, and formalized the [[German exodus from Eastern Europe]].
Relations between the two post-war German states remained icy until the West German Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]] launched a highly controversial rapprochement with the East European communist states (''[[Ostpolitik]]'') in the 1970s, culminating in the [[Warschauer Kniefall]] on [[7 December]] [[1970]]. Although anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt's ''Ostpolitik'' was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation." Relations improved, however, and in September 1973, East Germany and West Germany were admitted to the United Nations.
[[Image:Berlin-wall-dancing.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Berlin Wall]] that had partitioned [[Berlin]] in front of the [[Brandenburg Gate]] shortly after the opening of the wall.]]
During the summer of [[1989]], rapid changes took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to [[German reunification]]. Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via [[Hungary]] after Hungary's reformist government opened its borders. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations in several cities continued to grow.
Faced with civil unrest, East German leader [[Erich Honecker]] was forced to resign in [[October]], and on [[9 November]], East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to enter West Berlin and West Germany. Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with the [[German reunification]] that came into force on [[3 October]] [[1990]].
Together with [[France]] and other EU states, the new Germany has played the leading role in the [[European Union]]. Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a more unified and capable European political, defence and security apparatus. The German chancellor expressed an interest in a permanent seat for Germany in the [[UN Security Counci |
"In this age of Realien advancement, who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for these mechanical dolls."
Although [[Karel Capek|Karel &#268;apek]]'s robots in ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'' (1921)&mdash;the play that introduced the word "robot" to the world&mdash;were organic artificial humans, the word ''robot'' has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans, animals, and other beings. The term android can mean either one of these, while a [[cyborg]] ("cybernetic organism" or "bionic man") would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts.
== Ambiguity ==
Historically, [[science fiction]] [[authors]] have used "android" in a greater diversity of ways than the terms "robot" and "cyborg". In some fiction works, the primary difference between a robot and android is only skin-deep, with androids being made to look almost exactly like humans on the outside, but with internal mechanics exactly the same as that of robots. In other stories, authors have defined android to indicate a wholly organic, yet artificial, creation. Other definitions of android fall somewhere in between.
The character [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], from the [[television series]] ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', is described as an android. Data became [[intoxication|intoxicated]] in an early episode ("[[The Naked Now (TNG episode)|The Naked Now]]") and is later referred to having "bioplast sheeting" for skin ("[[The Most Toys (TNG episode)|The Most Toys]]"), perhaps suggesting that he was initially intended by the writers to be at least partially organic. Otherwise, Data was shown to be mechanical throughout and this often became a central plot theme.
The [[Replicant]]s from the movie ''[[Blade Runner]]'' were [[bioengineering|bioengineered]] organic beings. While they were not referred to as either robots or androids in the movie, the screenplay was originally based on a [[novel]] by [[Philip K. Dick]] called ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]''
In the video game [[Beneath a Steel Sky]], genetically engineered androids similar to Blade Runner's Replicants are a central plot theme. However, despite their organic makeup, their behavior is programmed by computer.
The robots of &#268;apek's ''R.U.R.'' were organic in nature. Today, an author writing a similar story might very well be inclined to call them androids.
The character Ash in the movie ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'', another artificial organic being, is often referred to as an android (though not in the dialogue of the movie itself). Similarly, the character Bishop in ''[[Aliens (movie)|Aliens]]'' and ''[[Alien³]]'' is a more advanced android commonly called a Synthetic, but prefers to be called an "artificial person". Much later in the series timeline, the character Call in ''[[Alien Resurrection]]'' is ashamed of being an android.
[[C-3PO]] and [[R2-D2]] from the [[Star Wars]] movies are referred to as ''droids''. While C-3PO could reasonably be called an android because he is humanoid in appearance, the squat cylinder R2-D2 is only humanoid in behavior.
In the movie ''[[A.I. (movie)|A.I.]]'', the robotic characters are called ''mechanoids'', but the film is loosely based on a short story written by [[Brian Aldiss]] called "Supertoys Last All Summer Long", in which the central character David is called an android (by which Aldiss seemed to be referring to an organic creation).
In the anime/manga Chobits, Androids are known as "Persicoms", essentially computers in a man-made body. The series does not go into their internal composition, but it is assumed to be artificial with a very realistic outside. One of the key points of this series was a special type of persicom named a "Chobit", a persicom that had free will and the ability to fall in love and have emotions.
== Androids in fiction ==
Thus far, androids have remained mostly within the domain of [[science fiction]] and, frequently, in [[film]] and [[television]]. However, some "[[humanoid robot]]s" exist.
One of the earliest android characters is Otho from the [[Captain Future]] stories of [[Edmond Hamilton]]. Otho's construction is never discussed but he is much more human-like than his companion Grag, a mechanical [[robot]].
[[Isaac Asimov]]'s robot stories are mostly about androids; many are collected in ''[[I, Robot]]'' (1950). They promulgated a set of rules of ethics for androids and robots (see [[Three Laws of Robotics]]) that greatly influenced other writers and thinkers in their treatment of the subject. Most of Asimov's robots appear too artificial to be mistaken for human beings, with the notable exceptions of R. Jander Panell, [[R. Daneel Olivaw]] and Andrew Martin.
Perhaps the most famous android is [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], played by actor [[Brent Spiner]], of the series ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' (1987&ndash;1994) and several spin-off motion pictures; this character was largely inspired by another android character created by [[Gene Roddenberry]] for ''[[The Questor Tapes]]''. Data's immediate 'family' – brothers [[Lore (Star Trek)|Lore]] and [[B-4 (Star Trek)|B-4]] et al., daughter [[Lal]], and 'mother' [[Juliana Tainer|Dr. Juliana Tainer]] – were also androids (and the fembots are properly, though rarely, referred to as [[gynoid]]s) from the same creator, [[Noonien Soong|Dr. Noonien Soong]].
Earlier in ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]'' (1979), the Ilia [[probe]] – a precisely duplicated biomechanical [[drone]] of [[Ilia|Lieutenant Ilia]], with some of her [[emotion]]s intact – was dispatched by [[V'ger]] to gather information about the crew of the [[starship]] ''[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)|Enterprise]]''.
In the TV series ''[[Gene Roddenberry's Andromeda]]'' (2000&ndash;2005), the [[gynoid]] [[Rommie]] is an extension of [[Andromeda Ascendant|the starship]]'s [[artificial intelligence|AI]] [[operating system]], represented by an [[avatar (virtual reality)|avatar]] of Rommie.
In the re-imagined series ''[[Battlestar Galactica (2003)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' (2003&ndash;), the gynoid [[Number Six (Battlestar Galactica)|Number Six]] is one of a (seductive) variant of the [[antagonist]]ic, robotic [[Cylon (Battlestar Galactica)|Cylons]] that is used to infiltrate the fleeing [[human]] [[Twelve Colonies|Colonial forces]] and, particularly, the mind of the scientist [[Gaius Baltar|Dr. Gaius Baltar]].
Androids (Jinzou Ningen in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]; meaning 'artificial human') are also a race in ''[[Dragon Ball]]'', ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'', and ''[[Dragon Ball GT]]''. The androids' names were only numbers (such as Android #13 or Android #20). They were created by Dr. Gero, Dr. Muu, and the Red Ribbon Army. Some are entirely artificial and some are created from humans and can be considered cyborgs.
Jinzo Ningen [[Kikaider]] was the first [[manga]] and [[tokusatsu]] series to feature an android protagonist.
The series [[Xenosaga]] borrows Villiers' original term Realian when referring to a race of beings created by Vector Corporation. Two playable characters are androids (MOMO and KOS-MOS). One is refered to as a Realian while the second is simply an android.
In their respective series by [[Capcom]], [[Mega Man]] was initially called a "humanoid", which was then simplified to robot. [[Mega Man X|X]], a later version, is said to be more advanced, more independent of thought, and closer to an android. Other beings, based off his design, are called [[Reploids]].
Many more examples may be found in this [[list of fictional robots]].
==References==
* Kerman, Judith B. (1991). ''Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?''. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. ISBN 0879725095
* Shelde, Per (1993). ''Androids, Humanoids, and Other Science Fiction Monsters: Science and Soul in Science Fiction Films''. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0814779301
* Sidney Perkowitz (2004) [http://fermat.nap.edu/books/0309089875/html Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids] Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0309096197
== See also ==
*[[Animatronic]]
*[[Cyborg]]
*[[Domestic robot]]
*[[Muscle wire]]
*[[Robot]]
*[[Sex doll]]
*[[Realdoll]]
*[[Statuephilia]]
*[[Gynoid]]
*[[Artificial intelligence]]
*[[Humanoid]]
*[[Humanoid robot]]
*[[Transhumanism]]
*[[Repliee Q1]]
==External links==
*[http://www.androidworld.com/ Android World]
*[http://www.androidworld.com/prod52.htm Valerie, the domestic female android].
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Robots]]
[[cs:Android]]
[[de:Android]]
[[es:Androide]]
[[fr:Androïde]]
[[it:Androide]]
[[he:אנדרואיד]]
[[nl:Androïde]]
[[pt:Andróide]]
[[ja:人造人間]]
[[pl:Android]]
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[[uk:Андроїд]]</text>
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{{Canadian province or territory |
Name = Alberta |
AlternateName = |
Fullname = Province of Alberta |
EntityAdjective = Provincial |
Flag = Flag of Alberta.svg |
CoatOfArms = AlbertaC |
t;
<td><table border=1 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0>
<tr align=center style="background: #cccccc"><th>[[Adjective]]</th><th style="background: #efefef">Subject</th><th style="background: #efefef">Object</th></tr>
<tr align=center><th style="background: #efefef">Singular</th><td>-'''a'''<td>-'''an'''</td></tr>
<tr align=center><th style="background: #efefef">Plural</th><td>-'''aj'''</td><td>-'''ajn'''</td></tr>
</table>
</td></tr>
</table>
The six verb [[inflection]]s are three tenses and three moods. They are [[present tense]] ''-as'', [[future tense]] ''-os'', [[past tense]] ''-is'', [[infinitive|infinitive mood]] ''-i'', [[conditional mood]] ''-us'', and [[jussive mood]] ''-u''. Verbs are not marked for person or number. For instance: ''kanti'' - to sing; ''mi kantas'' - I sing; ''mi kantis'' - I sang; ''mi kantos'' - I will sing.
<table border=0 align=center><tr><td>
<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
<th>Verbal Tense</th><th>Suffix</td></th>
<tr><td bgcolor="#CCCCCC">[[Present tense|Present]]</td><td>'''-as''' (kantas)</td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#CCCCCC">[[Past tense|Past]]</td><td>'''-is''' (kantis)</td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#CCCCCC">[[Future tense|Future]]</td><td>'''-os''' (kantos)</td></tr>
</table></td>
<td><table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
<th>Verbal Mood</th><th>Suffix</td></th>
<tr><td bgcolor="#CCCCCC">[[Infinitive]]</td><td>'''-i''' (kanti)</td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#CCCCCC">[[Jussive mood|Jussive]]</td><td>'''-u''' (kantu)</td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#CCCCCC">[[Conditional mood|Conditional]]</td><td>'''-us''' (kantus)</td></tr>
</table>
</td></tr>
</table>
Word order is comparatively free: adjectives may precede or follow nouns, and subjects, verbs and objects (marked by the suffix ''-n'') can occur in any order. However, the [[article (grammar)|article]] ''la'' (the) and the [[demonstrative]]s almost always come before the noun, and a [[preposition]] ''must'' come before it. Similarly, the negative ''ne'' (not) and [[conjunction]]s such as ''kaj'' (both, and) and ''ke'' (that) must precede the [[phrase]] or [[clause]] they introduce. In [[copula]]r (A = B) clauses, word order is just as important as it is in English clauses like ''people are dogs'' vs. ''dogs are people''.
=== Vocabulary ===
{{seesubarticle|Esperanto vocabulary}}
:''See the lists of [[Wiktionary:Category:Esperanto language|Esperanto words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Esperanto 1894 Universala Vortaro|Esperanto words from Universala Vortaro]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project.''
The core vocabulary of Esperanto was defined by ''Lingvo internacia'', published by Zamenhof in 1887. It comprised 900 roots, which could be expanded into the tens of thousands of words with prefixes, suffixes, and compounding. In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto [[dictionary]], ''Universala Vortaro'', with a larger set of roots. However, the rules of the language allowed speakers to borrow new roots as needed, recommending only that they look for the most international forms, and then derive related meanings from these.
Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily but not solely from the western European languages. Not all proposed borrowings catch on, but many do, especially [[technical terminology|technical]] and [[science|scientific]] terms. Terms for everyday use, on the other hand, are more likely to be derived from existing roots—for example ''komputilo'' (a computer) from ''komputi'' (to compute) plus the suffix ''-ilo'' (tool)—or to be covered by extending the meanings of existing words (for example ''muso'' (a mouse), now also means a computer input device, as in English). There are frequent debates among Esperanto speakers about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether the need can be met by deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words.
In addition to the root words and the rules for combining them, a learner of Esperanto must learn some idiomatic compounds that are not entirely straightforward. For example, ''eldoni'', literally "to give out", is used for "to publish" (a [[Calque|calque]] of words in several European languages with the same derivation), and ''vortaro'', literally "a collection of words", means "a glossary" or "a dictionary". Such forms are modeled after usage in the ethnic European languages, and speakers of other languages may find them illogical. Fossilized derivations inherited from Esperanto's source languages may be similarly obscure, such as the opaque connection the root word ''centralo'' "power station" has with ''centro'' "center". Compounds with ''-um-'' are overtly arbitrary, and must be learned individually, as ''-um-'' has no defined meaning. It turns ''dekstren'' "to the right" into ''dekstrumen'' "clockwise", and ''komuna'' "common/shared" into ''komunumo'' "community", for example.
Nevertheless, there are not nearly as many truly idiomatic or [[slang]] words in Esperanto as in ethnic languages, as these tend to make international communication difficult, working against Esperanto's main goal.
=== Writing system ===
{{seesubarticle|Esperanto orthography}}
Esperanto is written with a modified version of the [[Latin alphabet]], including six [[Letter (alphabet)|letters]] with [[diacritic]]s: [[c-circumflex|ĉ]], [[g-circumflex|ĝ]], [[h-circumflex|ĥ]], [[j-circumflex|ĵ]], [[s-circumflex|ŝ]] and [[u-breve|ŭ]] (that is, ''c, g, h, j, s'' [[circumflex]], and ''u'' [[breve]]). The alphabet does not include the letters ''q, w, x, y'' except in unassimilated foreign names.
The 28-letter alphabet is:
<big><center><b>a b c ĉ d e f g ĝ h ĥ i j ĵ k l m n o p r s ŝ t u ŭ v z</b></center></big>
All letters are pronounced approximately as their [[Minuscule|lower-case]] equivalents in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], with the exception of ''c'' and the accented letters:
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;"
! Letter
! Pronunciation
|- align="center"
! c
| {{IPA|[ʦ]}}
|- align="center"
! ĉ
| {{IPA|[ʧ]}}
|- align="center"
! ĝ
| {{IPA|[ʤ]}}
|- align="center"
! ĥ
| {{IPA|[x]}}
|- align="center"
! ĵ
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|- align="center"
! ŝ
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|- align="center"
| '''ŭ'''<br>(as ''aŭ, eŭ'')
| {{IPA|[u̯]}}
|}
Two [[ASCII]]-compatible writing conventions are in use. These substitute [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s for the accented letters. The original "h-convention" (''ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u'') is based on English 'ch' and 'sh', while a more recent "x-convention" (''cx, gx, hx, jx, sx, ux'') is useful for alphabetic word sorting on a [[computer]] (''cx'' comes correctly after ''cu'', ''sx'' after ''sv'', etc.) as well as for simple conversion back into the standard [[orthography]].
Esperanto has been a 'clear' language for [[Morse code]] communication since the [[1920s]], and [[code]]s exist for all accented Esperanto characters
=== Useful phrases ===
Here are some useful Esperanto phrases, with IPA transcriptions:
* Hello: ''Saluton'' {{IPA |[sa.ˈlu.ton]}}
* What is your name?:
::''Kiel vi nomiĝas?'' {{IPA |[ˈki.el vi no.ˈmi.ʤas]}}
::''Kio estas via nomo?'' {{IPA |[ˈki.o ˈes.tas ˈvi.a ˈno.mo]}}
* My name is ... :
::''Mi nomiĝas ...'' {{IPA |[mi no.ˈmi.ʤas ...]}}
::''Mia nomo estas ...'' {{IPA |[ˈmi.a ˈno.mo ˈes.tas ...]}}
* How much?: ''Kiom?'' {{IPA |[ˈki.om]}}
* Here you are: ''Jen'' {{IPA |[jen]}}
* Do you speak Esperanto?: ''Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton?'' {{IPA |[ˈʧu vi pa.ˈro.las es.pe.ˈran.ton]}}
* I don't understand you: ''Mi ne komprenas vin'' {{IPA|[mi ˈne kom.ˈpre.nas vin]}}
* I like <u>this</u> one:
:: ''Mi ŝatas tiun ĉi'' {{IPA |[mi ˈʃat.as ˈti.un ˈʧi]}}
:: ''Ĉi tiu plaĉas al mi'' {{IPA |[ʧi ˈti.u ˈpla.ʧas al ˈmi]}}
* Thank you: ''Dankon'' {{IPA |[ˈdaŋ.kon]}}
* You're welcome: ''Ne dankinde'' {{IPA |[ˈne daŋ.ˈkin.de]}}
* Please: ''Bonvolu'' {{IPA |[bon.ˈvo.lu]}}
* Here's to your health: ''Je via sano'' {{IPA |[je ˈvi.a ˈsa.no]}}
* Bless you!/Gesundheit!: ''Sanon!'' {{IPA |[ˈsa.non]}}
* Okay: ''Bone'' {{IPA |[ˈbo.ne]}}
* It is a nice day: ''Estas bela tago'' {{IPA |[ˈes.tas ˈbe.la ˈta.go]}}
* I love you: ''Mi amas vin'' {{IPA |[mi ˈam.as vin]}}
* Goodbye:
::''Ĝis (la) revido'' {{IPA |[ˈʤis (la) re.ˈvid.o]}}
:: ''Ĝis (la)!'' {{IPA |[ˈʤis (la)]}}
* Peace: ''Pacon'' {{IPA|[ˈpa.tson]}}
== The Esperanto speaker community ==
=== Geography and demography ===
Esperanto speakers are more numerous in Europe and East [[Asia]] than in the Americas, [[Africa]], and [[Oceania]], and more numerous in [[urban area|urban]] than in [[rural]] areas ([[#References|Sikosek 2003]]). Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and eastern countries of Europe; in China, [[Korea]], Japan, and [[Iran]] within Asia; in [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], and [[Mexico]] in the Americas; and in [[Togo]] and [[Madagascar]] in Africa.
An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was made by [[Sidney S. Culbert]], a [[retirement|retired]] |
being dropped during transimisson or storage/retrival. The calculation is done, serially, on the data using a polynomial which is selected to maximize the probability that any change in the data will be detected.
'''[[ENIAC]]''' - the '''E'''lectronic '''N'''umerical '''I'''ntegrator '''A'''nd '''C'''omputer. Arguably, the first all electronic digital computer started in 1943 and finished in 1946. Some claim that Goliath really was the first, but ENIAC has the best press agent.
'''Gesture recognition''' - interpreting body movements into text, as a command (recognizing handwriting, signlanguage, etc)
'''Facemail''' - a method of communication involving a face-to-face discussion. Becoming extinct.
'''[[FIFO]]''' - First in, first out structure. This is a [[queue]].
'''[[GIGO]]''' - Garbage in garbage out. A reply to the explanation "The computer made an error."
'''[[GOMS]]''' - '''G'''oals, '''O'''perators, '''M'''ethods, and '''S'''election rules; hard science approach to HCI developed by Card, Moran & Newell in spelled out in their book "The Psychology of Human Computer Interaction, 1983.
'''[[graphical user interface|GUI]]''' - '''G'''raphical '''U'''ser '''I'''nterface; Any interface that uses [[graphics]] to interact with the user. In modern parlance, is typically synonymous with [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]]: An interface based on the [[desktop]] [[metaphor]] that usually contains [[icons]], [[menus]] and [[Window (computer)|windows]].
'''[[Hypertext]]''' - A text organised in a nonlinear fashion, with links between pages providing possible directions in which to read on.
'''ID10T error''' - A way technical support people use to describe a less-than-competent user. The characters
resemble the word "Idiot".
'''Interface''' - parts of the computer that we work with; two different subsystems transmitting one piece of information to another;give and take of information
'''KISS''' - Keep It Simple Stupid. Rule of thumb for software designers and network administrators - to minimize dispersion and error proneness, keep your designs small.
'''[[LIFO]]''' - Last in first out structure. A [[stack]].
'''MMI''' - '''M'''an '''M'''achine '''I'''nterface.
'''[[Nanotechnology]]''' - cellular, microscopic, level of technology
'''[[Newbie]]''' - (Also n00b and newb) a newcomer to a certain computer topic or program, usually seeking out help from more experienced users. Usually, newbie/newb is neutral, where noob/n00b is derogatory.
'''[[Comp]]''' - an abreviated form of "computer".
'''Novice''' - a computer user that actually knows nothing, but boasts that they can figure it out.
'''[[PEBKAC]]''' - "Problem Exists Between Keyboard And Chair". Refers to a non-existent computer problem
that is actually just incompetence by the user. Allegedly, some users have ignorantly but helpfully told each level of technical support that the previous level "suspected a PEBKAC situation."
'''[[Provisioning]]''' - Provisioning can be defined as the process of expediting all the tasks between receiving a request for a service (for example: access to a web-enabled application from a potential customer) and making that service available to the customer.
'''[[QFP]]''' - Quoted for permanence.
'''[[RTFM]]''' - Read The Fucking Manual. Common answer to basic and often repeated questions, that could be avoided in the first place just by looking at the manual.
[[Safe semantics|Safe]] / [[Regular semantics|regular]] / [[Atomic semantics|atomic]] '''semantics''' - different guarantee levels for shared data
'''[[STFW]]''' - Search The Fucking Web. Common answer to basic and often repeated questions, that could be avoided in the first place just by searching for an answer on the web.
'''Treeware''' - paper version of something. As in, Bill Gates is reading the TreeWare version of the New York Times.
'''[[User interface|UI]]''' - User Interface, a way of controlling a computer or device. Can be graphical (see GUI) or not.
'''[[User-friendliness|User-Friendly]]''' - The degree to which a computer [[user interface]] is adapted to interaction with human usage behavior
'''Wetware''' - a sentient organic being. Usually used for humans, but with an implicit wider scope.
'''[[white box (computer hardware)]]''' - homebrew computer system
'''[[Widget]]''' - objects that make up interfaces, i.e. mouse, menus, textbox, buttons; basic tools and objects; a mini program, usually dependent on the internet, to facilitate the exchange of information. See [[DesktopX]], [[Konfabulator]] or [[Dashboard (software)]].
'''[[WYSIWYG]]''' - '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAYG (...All You Get!).
See also: [[jargon file]]
[[simple:Computer jargon]]
[[Category:Computing terminology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coronary heart disease</title>
<id>5876</id>
<revision>
<id>42086407</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:06:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>88.105.70.218</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Coronary heart disease |
ICD10 = I20-I25 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|410}}-{{ICD9|414}}, {{ICD9|429.2}} |
}}
'''Coronary heart disease''' (CHD), also called '''coronary artery disease''' (CAD) and [[atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic]] heart disease, is the end result of the accumulation of [[atheroma|atheromatous plaques]] within the walls of the [[artery|arteries]] that supply the [[myocardium]] (the muscle of the [[heart]]). While the symptoms and signs of coronary heart disease are noted in the advanced state of disease, most individuals with coronary heart disease show no evidence of disease for decades as the disease progresses before the first onset of symptoms, often a "sudden" [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]], finally arise. After decades of progression, some of these [[atheroma|atheromatous plaque]]s may rupture and (along with the activation of the [[blood clot]]ting system) start limiting [[blood flow]] to the [[cardiac muscle|heart muscle]]. The disease is the most common cause of [[cardiac arrest|sudden death]].
==Overview==
Atherosclerotic heart disease can be thought of as a wide spectrum of disease of the heart. At one end of the spectrum is the [[asymptomatic]] individual with atheromatous streaks within the walls of the coronary arteries (the arteries of the heart). These streaks represent the early stage of atherosclerotic heart disease and do not obstruct the flow of blood. A [[coronary angiogram]] performed during this stage of disease may not show any evidence of coronary artery disease, because the lumen of the coronary artery has not decreased in caliber.
Over a period of many years, these streaks increase in thickness. While the atheromatous plaques initially expand into the walls of the arteries, eventually they will expand into the lumen of the vessel, affecting the flow of blood through the arteries. While it was originally believed that the growth of atheromatous plaques was a slow, gradual process, some recent evidence suggests that the gradual buildup of plaque may be complemented by small plaque ruptures which cause the sudden increase in the plaque burden due to accumulation of thrombus material.
Atheromatous plaques that cause obstruction of less than 70 percent of the diameter of the vessel rarely cause symptoms of obstructive coronary artery disease. As the plaques grow in thickness and obstruct more than 70 percent of the diameter of the vessel, the individual develops symptoms of obstructive coronary artery disease. At this stage of the disease process, the patient can be said to have [[ischemic heart disease]]. The symptoms of ischemic heart disease are often first noted during times of increased workload of the heart. For instance, the first symptoms include exertional [[angina]] or decreased exercise tolerance.
As the degree of coronary artery disease progresses, there may be near-complete obstruction of the [[lumen]] of the coronary artery, severely restricting the flow of oxygen-carrying blood to the myocardium. Individuals with this degree of coronary heart disease typically have suffered from one or more [[myocardial infarction|myocardial infarctions]] (heart attacks), and may have signs and symptoms of chronic coronary ischemia, including symptoms of [[angina]] at rest and flash [[pulmonary edema]].
A distinction should be made between myocardial ischemia and myocardial infarction. Ischemia means that the amount of oxygen supplied to the tissue is inadequate to supply the needs of the tissue. When the myocardium becomes ischemic, it does not function optimally. When large areas of the myocardium becomes ischemic, there can be impairment in the relaxation and contraction of the myocardium. If the blood flow to the tissue is improved, myocardial ischemia can be reversed. Infarction means that the tissue has undergone irreversible death due to lack of sufficient oxygen-rich blood.
An individual may develop a rupture of an atheromatous plaque at ''any'' stage of the spectrum of coronary heart disease. The acute rupture of a plaque may lead to an acute [[myocardial infarction]] (heart attack). It is unclear at present which plaques in an individual are more likely to rupture in the future and cause a heart attack.
==Pathophysiology==
Limitation of blood flow to the heart causes [[ischemia]] (cell starvation secondary to a lack of oxygen) of the myocardial cells. When myocardial cells die from lack of [[oxygen]], this is called a [[myocardial infarction]] (commonly called a [[heart attack]]). It leads to [[cardiac muscle|heart muscle]] damage, [[cardiac muscle|heart muscle]] death and later scarring without [[cardiac muscle|heart muscle]] regrowth.
Myocardial infarction usually results from the sudden occlusio |
ng emperor [[Puyi]] to the throne. Puyi retained the title and attributes of Emperor, as a personal status, until [[1924]].
In general, an emperor would have one empress (''Huanghou'', 皇后) at one time, although posthumous entitlement to empress for a [[concubines|concubine]] was not uncommon. The earliest known usage of empress was in the [[Han Dynasty]]. The emperor would generally select the empress from his [[harem]]. In subsequent dynasties, when the distinction between wife and concubine became more accentuated, the [[crown prince]] would have chosen an empress-designate before his reign. [[Imperial China]] produced only one reigning empress, [[Empress Wu|Wu Zetian]], and she used the same Chinese title as an emperor (''Huangdi'', 皇帝).
=====Manchuria=====
The [[Khitan Empire]] was founded in this region on [[907]]. They were overthrown by the [[Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty (1115&ndash;1234)|Jin Empire]] ([[1115]]&ndash;[[1234]]) which was in turn conquered by Mongol armies. In [[1616]], [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] China's Jurchen vassal, [[Nurhaci]], rebelled and crowned himself emperor of the renamed [[Manchu]]s. His successors, the [[Qing dynasty]], conquered China in [[1644]] and reigned until [[Xinhai Revolution|revolution]] toppled them in [[1912]]. After the Japanese occupied [[Manchuria]] in [[1931]], they proclaimed it to be the Empire of [[Manchukuo]], and [[Puyi]], the last Qing emperor of China, became puppet emperor. This puppet state came to an end with the Japanese defeat in [[1945]].
====Mongol Emperors of the Yuan dynasty====
The title [[Khagan]] ([[khan]] of khans or grand khan) was held by [[Genghis Khan]], founder of the [[Mongol Empire]] in [[1206]]. When the empire, the largest the world had ever seen, was partitioned, the [[Yuan dynasty]] Great khans in the richest realm, China (where they also took the native title ''huangdi'') were nominal rulers of the whole Mongol empire, but in fact the Khans of several major hordes would remain independent. After being overthrown in China by the [[Ming dynasty]], the Yuan fled back to [[Mongolia]] and were subsequently known to historians as the [[Yuan dynasty#Northern Yuan|Northern Yuan]]. They kept their title of Grand Khan until the [[Manchu]] emperor [[Hong Taiji]] (yet another Chinese dynasty) forced them to surrender it in [[1634]].
Only the Yuan Emperors of China between [[1279]] and [[1368]] are normally referred to as Emperors in English.
====Japan====
:''See [[Emperor of Japan]]''
[[Image:Emperor Hirohito-1926.jpg|thumb|200px|Emperor Hirohito (裕仁), or the [[Shōwa Emperor]] (昭和天皇), the last Japanese Emperor having ruled with extended monarchical powers, combined with claims of divinity (photographed 1926).]]
In [[Japan]], the ruler in Yamato court was called "''Tennō''" (&#22825;&#30343;) (heavenly emperor), which in Western languages is equivalent to ''Emperor of Japan''. Like in early Western tradition, the highest position of secular power was combined with the highest religious office (comparable with the Roman Emperor also being [[pontifex maximus]]) and claims of godhood (see [[Arahitogami]]). In several eras, the high-priestly role of the Monarch has even been paramount, with a no more than formal secular role.
Japanese monarchs placed themselves from [[607]] on equal footing with Chinese emperors in titulary, but rarely was the Chinese-style "Son of Heaven" term used. In the Japanese language, the word ''tennō'' is restricted to Japan's own monarch; ''kōtei'' or koutei (皇帝) is used for foreign emperors. Historically, [[retired emperor]]s have kept power over a child-emperor as de facto Regent. Fairly long, a [[Shogun|Shōgun]] (formally the imperial generalissimo, but made hereditary) or [[Sessho and kampaku|Regent]] wielded actual political power. In fact, through much of Japanese history, the emperor has been little more than a 'constitutional' Head of state.
After [[World War II]], all claims of divinity were dropped (see [[Ningen-sengen]]). Parliamentary government has wielded the power, reducing the office of emperor again to a mere ceremonial function{{ref|Japan}}. By the end of the [[20th century]], Japan was the only country with an emperor on the throne.
In the early [[21st century]], Japan succession law prevents a female from ascending to the throne. However, with the birth of a daughter as the first child of the current [[Crown Prince]], [[Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan|Naruhito]], Japan is [[Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan#marriage and family|considering abandoning that rule]]. Historically, Japan has had eight reigning empresses who used the genderless title ''Tennō'', rather than the female consort title ''kōgō'' (皇后) or ''chūgū'' (中宮). There is ongoing discussion of the [[Japanese Imperial succession controversy]].
<!-- Emperor's highest wife is called Kogo, and the female emperor is not called Kogo but Tenno as her male counterparts. The female emperor should be called (天皇 Ten-no) but Empress is usual in Western parlances. However, how should female emperor's husband be called? It has not been provided in Japan yet, because no female emperor was married when reigning: only single women (widows, unmarrieds) have been female emperors in history - or a wife or widow of an emperor or Crown Prince was made female Tenno (That is, she was already Kogo or something like).-->
Although current Japanese law prohibits female succession, all Japanese emperors trace their lineage to the supreme deity in the [[Shinto|Shintō]] [[religion]], ''[[Amaterasu]]'' the Sun Goddess.
====Korea====
Some early legendary [[List of Korean monarchs|dynasties]] of [[Korea]] used the title ''tanje'' (''tan'' meaning "[[birch]]", ''je'' meaning "emperor"). The [[Balhae]] (669&ndash;926), which ruled parts of northern Korea and Manchuria, used ''hwangje'' (Chinese ''huangdi'', see above).
Rulers of the [[Goryeo]] kingdom (from [[Gwangjong of Goryeo|Gwangjong]] onward) took the title of emperor as a means of enhancing the prestige of the monarchy. The title was stripped in the [[13th century]], however, after the surrender to the [[Mongol]]s, when the Korean rulers were demoted to Kings and, as such, vassals of Kublai Khan's China-based Mongol [[Yuan Dynasty]] (1276 - 1368). The full style of the ruler ([[27 March]] [[1393]] - [[7 January]] [[1895]], during the Ming and (Manchu) Qing dynasties in China) was: ''Seongju Sangteon Cheonha'' {untranslatable}, ''[[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon]] Guk-wang'' (Chinese: ''Zhaoxian guowang'') "King of the Choseon State".
Following the Chinese defeat by Japan in 1895, Korea declared its total independence from China (see [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]]) and King [[Gojong of Joseon|Gojong]] took the title of ''Daehan Hwangje'', translated as 'Emperor of the Great [[Names of Korea|Han]]'. ''Yeonho=Nyonho'' ([[era name]]s, a very strong indication of sovereignty vis-à-vis imperial China), were adopted on [[1 January]] [[1896]].
The full style of the ruler ([[7 January]] [[1895]] - [[12 October]] [[1897]]) was : ''Taegunju P'yeha'' {untranslatable}, ''Joseon Guk-wang'' "King of the Choseon State";
In the Great Han Empire, since [[12 October]] [[1897]], the full imperial style was ''Daehan Hwangje'' ("Emperor of Great Han"; Chinese: ''Daihan huangdi'').
On [[17 November]] [[1905]], the empire was declared a Japanese [[protectorate]] (effective [[21 December]] [[1905]]) until it came to an end with the [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese annexation]] on
[[29 August]] [[1910]], which lasted until [[12 September]] [[1945]].
====Vietnam====
Although the Vietnamese rulers acknowledged the supremacy of China, and were known to the Chinese emperors as simply King of [[Annam]], domestically they took on a full Chinese-style imperial regalia in [[1806]], and are usually referred to as emperors in English. [[Axis Powers|Axis]]-occupied Vietnam was declared an empire by the Japanese in March [[1945]]. The line of emperors came to an end with [[Bao Dai]], who was deposed after the war, although he later served as head of state of [[South Vietnam]] from [[1949]] to [[1955]].
===Persian and Islamic traditions===
As the Arabic title [[Caliph]] is primordially that of a religious leader, it is generally not rendered as emperor. However, given the true paramountcy of their (semi-hereditary) position, politically as well, and the might of their empire, the Caliphs were no less imperial then most non-European Monarchs included on his page.
====Iran====
In [[Iran|Persia]] (or [[Iran]]), from the time of the [[Cyrus the Great]], Persian rulers used the title '''[[Shahanshah]]''' which is sometimes translated as emperor and is literally "King of Kings". Persians were founders of one of the earliest and largest empires of the world, extending from India to Greece and Libya. [[Alexander the Great]] probably crowned himself shahanshah after conquering Persia. The last [[Shahanshah]] abdicated in [[1979]], when Iran became a republic. In English, the ''Shahanshah'' title is usually translated as "King" for ancient rulers of the [[Achaemenid]], [[Arsacid]], and [[Sassanid]] dynasties, and is shortened to "Shah" for rulers since the [[Safavid]] dynasty in the 16th century.
====Ottoman Emperors====
[[Ottoman dynasty|Ottoman rulers]] held the title [[Padishah]], equivalent to the Persian shahanshah. After conquering the [[Byzantine Empire]] in [[1453]], [[Mehmed II]] also took the title of Roman emperor. Although in English the Ottoman rulers are generally known by the Turkish title ''Sultan'', their titles of Padishah and Emperor would remain among the lists of titles carried by the Ottoman sultans until the monarchy was abolished in [[1922]].
====India and Pakistan====
The [[Sanskrit]] word for ''emperor'' is '''Samrāṭ''' (word stem: ''samrāj''). This word has been used as a |
ria in the region is less than 50. South Africa could afford and did try newer alternatives to DDT but they proved less effective (Tren & Bate, 2004). [[Uganda]] also began permitting its use in anti-malarial efforts despite a threat that its agricultural products to Europe could be banned if contaminated with DDT. (EU warns Uganda over plans to use DDT to fight malaria, 2005). The country states it cannot achieve its development goals without first eliminating malaria. The GDP shows a striking co-relation between malaria and poverty, where malaria is estimated to reduce per capita growth by 1.3 percent per annum. (Lirri & Ntabadde, 2005).
Malaria cases increased in [[South America]] after stopping DDT use. Only [[Ecuador]], which has continued to use DDT, has seen a reduction in the number of malaria cases in recent years [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol3no3/roberts.htm]. Other mosquito-borne diseases are also on the rise. Until the 1970s, DDT was used to eradicate the ''[[Aedes aegypti]]'' mosquito from most tropical regions of the Americas. The reinvasion of ''Aedes aegypti'' since then has brought devastating outbreaks of [[dengue fever]], [[dengue hemorrhagic fever]], and a renewed threat of urban [[yellow fever]] (Bate, 2001).
In Mexico, however, use of a range of effective and affordable chemical and non-chemical strategies against malaria has been so successful that its DDT manufacturing plant ceased production voluntarily, due to lack of demand. [http://www.ems.org/malaria/ddt_ipen.pdf pdf] Furthermore, while the increased numbers of malaria victims since DDT usage fell out of favor would, at first glace, suggest 1:1 correlation, many other factors are known to have contributed to the rise in cases [See Below: Arguments for and against DDT]. Without detailed studies of how and why the spread of malaria has increased in some parts of the world, the claim that a DDT "ban" is to blame, amounts to [[Post hoc, ergo propter hoc|Post hoc ergo propter hoc]] .
One study that quantifies the lives saved due to banning agricultural use of DDT and thereby the spread of DDT resistance has been published in the scientific literature: "Correlating the use of DDT in El Salvador with renewed malaria transmission, it can be estimated that at current rates each kilo of insecticide added to the environment will generate 105 new cases of malaria." (''Agricultural production and malaria resurgence in Central America and India'', Chapin, Georgeanne & Robert Wasserstrom, ''Nature'', Vol. 293, 1981, page 183). [http://timlambert.org/2005/10/chapin/]
It has been claimed that international donor organizations, including [[USAID]], have refused to fund public health DDT programs[http://www.fightingmalaria.org/faq.php]. The pro-DDT advocacy group [[Africa Fighting Malaria]] claims that onor organizations have often refused to fund public health DDT programs[http://www.fightingmalaria.org/faq.php]. Similarly, [[Roger Bate]] of AFM asserts that many countries have been coming under pressure from international health and environment agencies to give up DDT or face losing aid grants, and that Belize and Bolivia are on record admitting they gave in to pressure on this issue from the US. Agency for International Development. [http://www.cid.harvard.edu/cidinthenews/articles/nr_051401.html].
However, the [http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/id/malaria/news/afrmal_ddt.html USAID website] says:
:''USAID Support for Malaria Control in Countries Using DDT
:''Contrary to popular belief, USAID does not “ban” the use of DDT in its malaria control programs. From a purely technical point of view in terms of effective methods of addressing malaria, USAID and others have not seen DDT as a high priority component of malaria programs for practical reasons. In many cases, indoor residual spraying of DDT, or any other insecticide, is not cost-effective and is very difficult to maintain. In most countries in Africa where USAID provides support to malaria control programs, it has been judged more cost-effective and appropriate to put US government funds into preventing malaria through insecticide-treated nets, which are every bit as effective in preventing malaria and more feasible in countries that do not have existing, strong indoor spraying programs.
One insecticide supply company states on its [http://www.treated-bednet.com/agro-chemical.htm website]:
:''DDT still not banned for malaria control...DDT is still one of the first and most commonly used insecticides for residual spraying, because of its low cost, high effectiveness, persistence and relative safety to humans...In the past several years, we supplied DDT 75% WDP to Madagascar, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, South Africa, Namibia, Solomon Island, Papua New Guinea, Algeria, Thailand, Myanmar for Malaria Control project, and won a good reputation from WHO and relevant countries' government.
According to a pesticide industry newsletter, DDT is obsolete for malarial prevention in India not only owing to concerns over its toxicity, but because it is losing its effectiveness. Use for agriculture was banned in India in 1989, and use for malaria has been declining. Use of DDT in urban areas in India has halted completely. Food supplies and eggshells of large predator birds still show high DDT levels. (''No Future in DDT: A case study of India''. Agarwal, Ravi. ''Pesticide Safety News'', May 2001). Parasitology journal articles confirm that malarial vector mosquitoes have become resistant to DDT and HCH in most of India. (''Current scenario of malaria in India'', Sharma, V.P., ''Parassitologia'' 41: 349-53, 1999). Nevertheless, DDT is still manufactured and used in India [http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/SP03/SP0316.pdf].
A recent editorial in the [[British Medical Journal]], argues that the campaign against malaria is failing, that funding of malaria control should therfore be increased, and the use of DDT should be considered since DDT has "a remarkable safety record when used in small quantities for indoor spraying in endemic regions".[http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/328/7448/1086]
Actual data on the cost-effectiveness of DDT versus other insecticides and/or means of fighting malaria is, in fact, lacking. One complicating factor is that the relative costs of various measures varies, depending on geographical location and ease of access, the habits of the particular mosquito vector prevalent in each area, the degrees of resistance to various pesticides exhibited by the mosquitoes, the habits and compliance of the population, among other factors.
A review of fourteen studies on the subject in sub-Saharan Africa, covering insecticide-treated nets, residual spraying, chemoprophylaxis for children, chemoprophylaxis or intermittent treatment for pregnant women, a hypothetical vaccine, and changing the first line drug for treatment, found decision making limited by the gross lack of information on the costs and effects of many interventions, the very small number of cost-effectiveness analyses available, the lack of evidence on the costs and effects of packages of measures, and the problems in generalizing or comparing studies that relate to specific settings and use different methodologies and outcome measures. The two cost-effectiveness estimates of DDT residual spraying examined were not found to provide an accurate estimate of the cost-effectiveness of DDT spraying; furthermore, the resulting estimates may not be good predictors of cost-effectiveness in current programmes. (''The evidence base on the cost-effectiveness of malaria control measures in Africa'' C. A. Goodman and A. J. Mills, ''Health Policy and Planning''; 14(4): 301–312 1999 [http://heapol.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/14/4/301.pdf pdf])
However, a study in Thailand found the cost per malaria case prevented of DDT spraying ($1.87 US), to be 21% greater than the cost per case prevented of lambdacyhalothrin-treated nets, ($1.54 US). (''Cost-effectiveness and sustainability of lambdacyhalothrin-treated mosquito nets in comparison to DDT spraying for malaria control in western Thailand'' Kamolratanakul, P., P. Butraporn, M. Prasitisuk, C. Prasittisuk, and K. Indaratna, ''American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene'' 2001, 65(4), 279-84), at very least casting some doubt on the unexamined assumption that DDT would be the most cost-effective measure to use in all cases. The director of Mexico’s malaria control program finds similar results, declaring that it is 25 percent cheaper for Mexico to spray a house with other chemicals (synthetic pyrethroids) than with DDT. ([http://www.ems.org/malaria/ddt_ipen.pdf pdf])
Furthermore, a more effective way of measuring cost effectiveness or efficacy of malarial control would not only measure the cost in dollars of the project, as well as the number of people saved, but would also take into account the negative aspects of insecticide use on human health and ecological impact. Preliminary studies as to the impact of DDT show that, it is likely that the detrimental impact on human health approaches or exceeds the beneficial reductions in malarial cases, except perhaps in malarial epidemic situations (see [http://www.jcu.edu.au/jrtph/vol/v04corin.pdf Corin, S. E & Weaver, S.A. (2005) A risk analysis model with an ecological perspective on DDT and malaria control in South Africa, ''Journal of Rural and Tropical Public Health'' '''4''': 21-32]).
== Arguments for and against DDT ==
Many supporters of DDT state that millions of malaria deaths are due to an international ban: 90,500,000 as of January, 2006, according to the ever-increasing "deathclock" at junkscience.com[http://junkscience.com/malaria_clock.htm], and hundreds of thousands according to Nicholas Kristof[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40B1EFB3F580C718DDDAA0894DD404482&n=Top%252fOpinion%252fEditorials%2520and%2520Op%252 |
this is [[altruism|altruistic]] hedonism. Whereas some hedonistic doctrines propose doing whatever makes an individual happiest (over the long run), Mill promotes actions which make ''everyone'' happy. Compare [[individualism]] and [[collectivism]].
It is true that Epicurus recommends for us to pursue our own pleasure, but he never suggests we should live a selfish life which impedes others from getting to that same objective.
Some of [[Sigmund Freud]]'s theories of human motivation have been called psychological hedonism; his "life instinct" is essentially the observation that people will pursue pleasure. However, he introduces extra complexities with various other mechanisms, such as the "death instinct". The fact that he leaves out the instinct to survive as a primary motivator, and that his hypotheses are notoriously invalidated by objective testing, casts doubt on this theory.
''[[Christian]] Hedonism'' is a term coined in 1986 for a [[theology|theological]] movement originally promoted by a [[pastor]], Dr. John Piper, in his book, ''Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist''. The tenets of this philosophy are that humans were created by (the Christian) [[God]] with the priority purpose of lavishly enjoying God through knowing, worshipping, and serving Him. This philosophy recommends pursuing one's own happiness in God as the ultimate in human pleasure. Similar to the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure is regarded as something long-term and found not in indulgence but in a life devoted to God. Serious questions have been raised within the Christian community as to whether Christian Hedonism displaces "love God" with "enjoy God" as the greatest and foremost commandment.
A typical apologetic for Christian Hedonism follows: It would seem that if you were to love something truly, then you must truly enjoy it. Thus, Christian Hedonism is exemplified in relation to Jesus Christ, who justifies God in loving a rebellious creation by providing the sacrifice of Himself as the payment allowing God to love us, and us to love Him, forever. It could be summed up in this statement: "God is most glorified in us, when we are most satisfied in Him".
Quite a few people equate hedonism with sexuality and having a very loose or liberal view of the morality of sex. As noted above, many (perhaps most) forms of hedonism actually concentrate on [[spirituality|spiritual]], [[intellectual]], or otherwise non-sexual forms of pleasure. The pursuit of sexual pleasure can certainly be a form of hedonism, but it is not the mainstream one. However, this has become the mainstream use of the word.
==See also==
* [[Morality]]
* [[Ethics]]
* [[The Hedonistic Imperative|Hedonistic imperative]]
* [[Paradox of hedonism]]
* [[Psychological hedonism]]
* [[Marquis De Sade]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hedweb.com/ The Hedonistic Imperative]
*The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on:
**[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/epicur.htm Epicurus]
**[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/milljs.htm Mill]
**[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/freud.htm Freud]
*[http://www.desiringgod.org/library/topics/christian_hedonism/ch_index.html Christian Hedonism]
*[http://www.thefaithfulword.org/cathedonism.html Articles critiquing Christian Hedonism]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
{{Philosophy navigation}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Holocene</title>
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<id>41775736</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:43:20Z</timestamp>
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<username>Siim</username>
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<comment>et:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Holocene''' [[Epoch (geology)|epoch]] is a geological period that extends from the present back about 10,000 [[radiocarbon year]]s. It has been assigned to [[Marine isotopic stage|MIS 1]], which is an interglacial. The next glacial is yet to occur.
The '''Holocene''' [[era]] refers to a proposed [[calendar reform]], see [[Holocene calendar]].
Human civilization dates entirely to the Holocene. More precise dating is provided by the [[Blytt-Sernander]] classification of climatic periods defined by the pollen in peat moss. The scheme was defined for north Europe, but the climate changes are known somewhat more widely. The periods of the scheme include a few of the final oscillations of the glacier and then go on to classify the climates of recent prehistory.
The beginning of the Holocene was punctuated by the [[Younger Dryas]] cold period, the final part of the [[Pleistocene]] epoch. The end of the Younger Dryas has been dated to about 9600 BC (11550 calendar years [[Before Present|BP]]). However, evidence for the Younger Dryas is not clear cut anywhere other than in the Northern Hemisphere.
The Holocene starts late in the retreat of the [[Pleistocene]] [[glacier]]s. The Holocene is the fourth and last epoch of the [[Neogene]] period (second epoch of the unofficial [[Quaternary]] sub-era). The name is derived from the Greek ὄλος (entire(ly)) and καινός (new). It has also been called the "Alluvium Epoch".
Paleontologists have defined no [[faunal stage]]s for Holocene. If subdivision is necessary, historical periods such as [[Palaeolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]] etc are usually used.
{{Neogene Footer}}
==Geology==
Continental motions are negligible over a span of only 10,000 years -- less than a kilometer. However, world sea levels rose about 35 meters (110 feet) in the early part of the Holocene due to ice melt. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 meters over the late Pleistocene and Holocene.
The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from [[Vermont]], [[Quebec]], [[Ontario]], and [[Michigan]]. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain, and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin.
Apart from temporary incursions, [[Post-glacial rebound]] in the [[Scandinavia]] region resulted in the evolution of the [[Baltic Sea]]. The region continues to rise, still causing weak [[earthquake]]s across Northern Europe.
==Climate==
Although geographic shifts in the Holocene were minor, climatic shifts were very large. [[Ice core]] records show that before the Holocene there were global warming and cooling periods but climate changes became more regional at the start of the [[Younger Dryas]]. However, the [[Huelmo/Mascardi Cold Reversal]] in the Southern Hemisphere began before the Younger Dryas and the maximum warmth flowed south to north from 11,000 to 7,000 years ago. There appears to be a south to north pattern, with southern latitudes displaying maximum warming a few millennia before the Northern Hemisphere regions.
The [[Holocene Climatic Optimum]] was a period of warming in which the global climate became 0.5-2°C warmer than today. However, the warming was probably not uniform across the world. It began roughly 9,000 years ago and ended about 5,000 years ago, when the earliest human civilizations in [[Asia]] were flourishing. This period of warmth ended with a cooler period with minor glaciation, which continued until about 2,000 years ago. By that time, the climate was not unlike today's, but with a slightly warmer period from the 10th-14th Centuries known as the [[Medieval Warm Period]]. The [[Little Ice Age]], which began in the 13th-14th Centuries and ended in the mid 19th Century was yet another period of cooling, though not as severe as previous periods of cooling during the Holocene.
The Holocene warming is really another interglacial period and does not represent a permanent end to the Pleistocene [[glaciation]]. It is thought that the planet will return to a new period of [[glaciation]] in as little as 3,000 years from now. However, if the human-induced [[global warming]] continues, a ''super-interglacial'' might occur, and become warmer and possibly longer than any past interglacial periods in the [[Pleistocene]]. A super-interglacial could become warmer than the [[Eemian Interglacial]], which peaked at roughly 125,000 years ago and was warmer than the Holocene.
Habitable zones expanded northwards. Large mid-latitude area such as the [[Sahara]] that were previously productive became deserts. The epoch started with large lakes in many areas of the world that are now quite arid.
Animal and plant life did not evolve much during the Holocene, but there were major shifts in the distributions of plants and animals. A number of large animals including [[mammoth]]s and [[mastodon]]s, [[saber-toothed cat]]s like ''[[Smilodon]]'' and ''[[Homotherium]]'', and [[giant sloth]]s disappeared in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene -- especially in North America where common animals that survived elsewhere (including horses and camels) became extinct.
This extinction of American [[megafauna]] has also been explained by the arrival of the ancestors of [[Amerindian]]s.
Throughout the world, cooler climate ecosystems that were previously regional have been isolated in higher altitude ecological "islands."
==Human developments==
The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the begin |
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