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Generally Hasidic dress has altered over the last hundred years and become more European in response to the Emancipation Movement. Modern Hasidim tend to wear Hasidic dress as used just prior to [[World War II]] - numerous pictures of Hasidim in the mid-19th century show a far more Levantine outfit (i.e. a kaftan lacking lapels or buttons) that differs little from the classical oriental outfit consisting of the kaftan, white undershirt, sash, knee-breeches (''Halb-Hoyzn''), white socks and slippers - this outfit allegedly had a [[Babylonia]]n origin before its later adoption by the Israelites, Persians and lastly the Turks, who brought it to Europe where it became the basis of the modern western suit (note the 16th-century European outfit of frock coat, knee-breeches, silk stockings and slippers). The Polish nobility adopted its 16th-century outfit from the Turks - hence (allegedly) the vague similarity between the Hasidic outfit and Polish nobles' clothing. (Similiarly, Hasidic dress has a vague connection with [[Shi'a Islam | Shia Muslim]] clerical dress - the Shia clergy adopted this dress from the Persians). One Hasidic belief (taught by the Klausenberger rebbe) holds that Jews originally invented this [[dress code | dress-code]] and that the Babylonians adopted it from Israelites during the [[Babylonian captivity | Jewish exile in Babylon]] of the 6th century BCE. This belief is not widely believed or known within Hasidism.
The [[Sabbath]] dress of Hasidim resembles the description of the High Priest's dress in the Bible - which provides the first written mention of the kaftan, etc. Thus many Hasidim believe that Hasidic dress reflects ancient Judaic concepts - for instance white socks tucked in short pants so one's trouser-bottoms never touch the floor (considered unholy); and slippers (''shtibblat'') without buckles or laces so one never need touch one's shoes - also considered unholy.
* Kaftans (bekishes, kapotes, chalat) serve as a sign of modesty and piety, covering the entire body.
* A sash or ''gartel'' divides one's lower parts from one's upper parts.
* [[Knee-breeches]] mean that a man's private parts remain covered when walking up stairs (according to the Talmud).
====Headwear====
Hasidim customarily wear black hats during the weekdays as do nearly all Haredim today. A variety of hats are worn depending on the sect.
Hasidim wear a variety of fur headdresses on the Sabbath:
*''[[Shtreimel]]'' is worn by Hasidim from Galicia and Hungary such as [[Bobov]] and [[Belz]].
*''[[Spodik]]'' are worn by Polish Hasidim such as [[Ger]], [[Amshinov]], [[Aleksander]].
*''Choibl'' or "Soyvl" was worn in Poland prior to the [[Holocaust]], and has fallen into disuse.
*''Kolpak'' is a traditional Slavic headdress, worn by unmarried sons and grandsons of many Rebbes on the Sabbath. The Kolpak is worn by some Rebbes on special occasions other than the Sabbath, such as Chanukah.
*''Kasket'' was a peaked cap worn during the week, prior to the Holocaust. It was worn in Poland, Belarus and the Ukraine, and was worn by poorer Hasidim on the Sabbath. Its use began as a result of the Tsarist decrees banning other traditional Jewish headdress. In these geographic areas, generally only rabbis wore black hats. Today, some Hassidic children, under the age of 13, wear a ''kasket'' on the sabbath.
*Chabad Hasidim wear black [[fedora (hat)|fedora]]s, dating back to the style of the [[1940s]] and [[1950s|50]]s
*''Samet'' or ''beaver hats'' are worn by Galician and Hungarian Chassidim during the week and by unmarried men on the Sabbath as well. There are many types of ''Samet'' hats, most notably the "high" and "flat" varieties. The "flat" type is worn by Satmar Hassidim, and some others as well. Some Rabbis wear a "round" ''samet'' hat.
*A small furry hat called a ''kutchma'', from the Hungarian "kucsma," is worn by many Hasidic laymen during weekdays in the winter. This hat is referred to as a ''shlyapka'', шляпка, by Russian Jews.
[[Image:HasidicRebbe.JPG|thumb|The Durohi Rebbe, a Hasidic [[Rebbe]] in traditional [[Shabbat]] garb]]
====Women====
Hasidic women wear clothing of less distinctive appearance than that of their male counterparts, but which answers to the principles of ''[[tzeniut]]'' (modest dress in the sense of Jewish law). Long, conservative skirts and sleeves past the elbow form the standard, but other than that, Hasidic women wear clothing like other women in the non-Jewish societies in which they live. In some Hasidic groups, such as Satmar, many married women shave their heads. In many Hasidic groups the women wear wigs. Other Hasidic groups consider it hypocritical to wear false hair, so they simply put their hair into nets (called "snoods") or kerchiefs (called ''tichels'' - a ''tichel'' often covers a ''shpitzel''). All Hasidic groups allow uncovered hair before marriage.
====Hair====
Following a Biblical commandment not to shave the sides of one's face, male members of some Hasidic groups wear long, uncut sideburns called [[payot]] ([[Ashkenazic Hebrew]] ''payos''). Not every Hasidic group requires long payot, but all groups discourage the cutting of one's beard. All Hasidic boys receive their [[first haircut]]s ceremoniously at the age of three years. Until then, Hasidic boys have long hair. Many non-Hasidic (and even non-Orthodox) Jews have adopted this custom.
====Tzitzit====
The white threads seen at the waists of Hasidim and other Orthodox Jews have the name ''[[tzitzit]]''. The requirement to wear fringes comes from the [[Book of Numbers]]: "Speak to the children of Israel, and bid them that they make them fringes on the borders of their garments throughout their generations" (Numbers 15:38). By tradition, a Hasidic boy will receive his first fringed garment on his third birthday, the same day as his first haircut.
===Ritual Bathing===
Male [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[Jew]]s customarily immerse in a ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual pool of water) before major [[Jewish holiday]]s (and particularly before [[Yom Kippur]]), in order to achieve spiritual cleanliness. Many Hasidim have extended this to a daily practice preceding [[Shacharit|morning prayers]].
Married female Orthodox Jews are required to immerse in a ''mikvah'' seven days after their menstrual cycle has ended. According to Orthodox law, there may be no contact between a husband and wife from the beginning of her period until immersion in a kosher ''mikvah''.
===Families===
Hasidic men and women, as customary in [[Haredi Judaism]], usually meet through matchmakers in a process called a ''[[shidduch]]'', but marriages involve the mutual consent of the couple and of the parents. Expectations exist that a bride and groom should be about the same age. No custom encourages an older man marrying a young woman.
Myth asserts that Hasidic couples have intercourse through a sheet with holes in it - a false assertion. In fact, in traditional Jewish law, if a husband insists, out of a sense of modesty, that he and his wife perform intercourse with a lack of physicality, the court should force the husband to give his wife a divorce.
Hasidic Jews, like many other Orthodox Jews, have a reputation for producing large families; the average Hasidic family in the United States has 7.9 children.[http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Jews_and_the_Jewish_Birthrate.asp] Many sects follow this custom out of what they consider a Biblical mandate to 'be fruitful and multiply', and to replenish a Jewish population badly decimated during the [[Holocaust]].
===Languages===
Most Hasidim speak the vernaculars of the lands in which they live, but try to use [[Yiddish]] amongst themselves as a way of keeping distinct and maintaining tradition. Thus, contrary to popular assumption, children continue to learn Yiddish and the language does not appear about to die. Yiddish newspapers continue in publication, and the Hasidic world produces a relatively healthy amount of Yiddish fiction, primarily aimed at women.
Some Hasidic groups actively oppose the everyday use of Hebrew as in [[Israel]]: they regard Hebrew as a holy language, profaned by use for anything other than prayer. Indeed, some Hasidim in [[Israel]] (such as the [[Satmar]] and [[Toldos Aaron]] groups) tend to use [[Yiddish]] as their everyday vernacular.
==See also==
*[[List of Hasidic dynasties]]
*[[Schisms among the Jews#Hasidim and Mitnagdim|Hasidim and Mitnagdim]]
*[[Neturei Karta]]
*''[[The Chosen (Chaim Potok)|The Chosen]]''; the neutrality of this book is disputed
*[[Neo Hasidism]]
*[[Lazar Gulkowitsch]]
==External links==
*[http://www.sanzusa.info/media/5765MTL.wmv Hasidim performing a Mitzah Tantz, a ritual dance] (Windows Media Audio/Video file)
*[http://www.sanzusa.info/media/5765SPurim.wmv Hasidim celebrating the holiday of Purim] (Windows Media Audio/Video file)
==Further reading==
*''The Great Mission: The life and story of Rabbi Yisrael Baal Shem Tov''. Compiled by Rabbi Eli Friedman, translated by Rabbi Elchonon Lesches. Kehot Publication Society, 2005, ISBN 0-8266-0681-4.
*''Holy Days: The World of a Hasidic Family''. Lis Harris. Simon & Schuster New York, 1985, ISBN 0-684-81366-1.
== References ==
* Boteach, Shmuel ''Wisdom, Understanding, and Knowledge: Basic Concepts of Hasidic Thought'' Jason Aronson, 1995, ISBN 0876685572
* Buber, Martin and Fetterman, Bonny V. (ed.) ''Tales of the Hasidim: Book One: The Early Masters and Book Two: The Later Masters'' (Two books in one) Schocken Books; 1961, 1991, ISBN 0805209956
* Finkel, Avraham Yaakov ''Contemporary Sages: The Great Chasidic Masters of the Twentieth Century'' Jason Aronson, 1994, ISBN 1568211554.
* Nadler, Allan ''The Faith of the Mithnagdim: Rabbinic Responses to Hasidic Rapture'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998, 1997 ISBN 0801855608
* Schochet, Elijah Judah ''The Hasidic Movement and the Gaon of Vilna'', |
actors are licensed in all jurisdictions of the United States, in addition to many other countries throughout the world.
There is some objective clinical data and peer-reviewed research that demonstrates the efficacy of certain therapeutic techniques used by chiropractors. The primary therapeutic technique used by chiropractors is joint manipulation (which they term "adjustment"), especially spinal manipulation (which is also used by some other healthcare professions). Spinal manipulation has been shown to have some value in the short-term relief of certain forms of [[back pain|back and neck pain]], [[headache]]s, and other spine-related conditions. Studies done to demonstrate the efficacy of chiropractic care have produced conflicting results. For example, a 1979 study showed manipulation of the lumbar spine to have no "superior long-term effect compared to other methods of treatment",<ref name="moritz">Moritz U (1979). Evaluation of manipulation and other manual therapy. Criteria for measuring the effect of treatment. ''Scand J Rehabil Med'' 11(4):173-9. PMID 161070 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=161070&query_hl=4&itool=pubmed_docsum Abstract]</ref> while a 2005 study stated that "the inclusion of a chiropractic benefit resulted in a reduction in the rates of surgery, advanced imaging, inpatient care, and plain-film radiographs."<ref name="nelson">Nelson CF, Metz RD, LaBrot T (2005). Effects of a Managed Chiropractic Benefit on the Use of Specific Diagnostic and Therapeutic Procedures in the Treatment of Low Back and Neck Pain. ''J Man Phys Ther'' 28(8):564-569. [http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/ymmt/article/PIIS016147540500240X/abstract Abstract]</ref>
Like traditional medical care, chiropractic offices are often seen in professional buildings as well as shopping complexes, and the locker rooms of professional and Olympic athletes. [http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/24/05/02.html (Chiropractic at the Winter Olympic Games)] Medical and chiropractic doctors are found in private practice together partnering as a team for the benefit of the patient. Some chiropractic doctors also employ massage and physiotherapists as adjuncts to chiropractic care.
Because the chiropractic profession emphasizes the importance of healthy lifestyles and does not prescribe drugs or perform surgery, chiropractic care is appealing to health-conscious Americans. Chiropractic treatment of the back, neck, extremities, and joints has become more accepted as a result of research and changing attitudes about alternative, noninvasive health care practices. [http://stats.bls.gov/oco/ocos071.htm#outlook] According to a survey released in [[2004]] by the [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]], chiropractic was the fourth most commonly used [[complementary and alternative medicine]] therapy among adults in the [[United States]] (7.5%).{{fn|3}}<sup>,</sup>{{fn|4}}
==History==
The roots of chiropractic care can be traced all the way back to the beginning of recorded time. [http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/ahcpr/chapter10.htm] Writings from China and Greece written in 2700 B.C. and 1500 B.C. mention spinal manipulation and the maneuvering of the lower extremities to ease lower back pain. [http://www.betterbacks.com/presentation.htm] As early as 400 BCE the knowledge of a patient's spine was thought to be important in the treatment of many diseases, with [[Hippocrates]], in his work ''On the Articulations'', writing ''&hellip;knowledge [of the spine] is requisite in many diseases.'' [http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/artic.45.45.html]
Chiropractic was founded by [[Daniel David Palmer]] in [[Davenport, Iowa]], [[USA]]. Originally working as a [[magnetic healing|magnetic healer]], Palmer tried to find a single cause for 100% of all diseases. He reached a point where he even claimed to have succeeded in this mission: ''A subluxated vertebrae . . . is the cause of 95 percent of all diseases. . . . The other five percent is caused by displaced joints other than those of the vertebral column.'' (From: Palmer DD. The Science, Art and Philosophy of Chiropractic. Portland, Oregon: Portland Printing House Company, 1910.)
In 1895, Palmer was investigating the [[medical history]] of a deaf janitor, Harvey Lillard. Lillard informed Palmer that while working in a cramped area seventeen years prior, he felt a pop in his back and had been nearly deaf ever since. Upon examination, Palmer found what he described as a lump that was sore to the touch. He concluded that this lump was a misalignment in the spine and a possible cause of Lillard's deafness. After Palmer supposedly corrected this misalignment, Lillard could reportedly hear the wheels of the horse-drawn carts in the street below.
(From: Palmer DD. The Science, Art and Philosophy of Chiropractic. Portland, Oregon: Portland Printing House Company, 1910.)
Palmer claimed that no other chiropractor had duplicated this feat:
:There was nothing 'accidental' about this as it was accomplished with an object in view, and the expected result was obtained. There was nothing 'crude' about this adjustment; it was specific so much so that no chiropractor has equalled it. [http://collections.ic.gc.ca/heirloom_series/volume5/130-133.htm]
Lillard's own recollection of the event differs significantly from Palmer's recollection:
:For the record, Lillard remembered the incident differently, relating that on the fateful day he had been swapping jokes with a friend in the hall outside Palmer's office. D. D. couldn't help overhearing a conversation loud enough for Harvey's ears, so he came out to join the group and was so amused by one story's punch line that he slapped the janitor on the back with a book he was carrying. A few days later, Lillard told Palmer he believed his hearing had improved, and it was then that Palmer began his experimentation with manipulative procedures. Whatever the exact course of events, Palmer's allegiance quickly shifted from magnetism to manipulation. - James C. Whorton, ''Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America''
The term '''''chiropractic''''' originated when Palmer asked a patient - Rev. Samuel Weed - to come up with a name from the [[Greek language]] to describe his practice. Of the several names submitted to him, Palmer accepted one which combined the words ''chiros'' and ''praktikos'' (meaning "done by hand") to describe his adjustment of a [[vertebrae|vertebra]] in the [[spinal column]].
Palmer's interest in [[spiritualism]] had a major role in his claims regarding the spiritual origins of chiropractic. He claimed to have received the principles of chiropractic "from the other world" (during spiritistic seances), from a "supernatural source", the long dead medical physician, Dr. Jim Atkinson. [http://www.chiro.org/Plus/History/Persons/PalmerDD/PalmerDD's_Religion-of-Chiro.pdf] [http://www.sherman.edu/research/rsch510/FaultyLogic-in-Chiro.pdf]
While D. D. Palmer founded chiropractic, it is generally recognized that his son, [[B. J. Palmer]], is credited with initiating the research, development and promotion of chiropractic.
Chiropractic has gained general acceptance in the last 40 years as an appropriate treatment for certain back, neck and other spine-related problems. Today, it is covered by many health plans including major medical insurance, car and work-related injuries as well as [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]] in the United States.
==Legal History==
For decades, the American Medical Association (AMA) conducted a boycott of chiropractic claiming the practice was "unscientific". An antitrust suit brought against the AMA in 1976 - [[Wilk v. American Medical Association]] - by a group of chiropractic doctors charged the AMA, as well as the Joint Council on Accreditation of Hospitals and the American College of Physicians, with restraint of trade. In a landmark decision, the lawsuit was decided in favor of the chiropractic doctors in the Federal Appeals Court, finding the AMA guilty of conspiracy and restraint of trade. The AMA then asked the Supreme Court to hear the case, but the request was refused and the guilty verdict was upheld. The AMA has removed its restrictions on its members, allowing them to refer to, and receive referrals from, doctors of chiropractic. [http://www.chiro.org/abstracts/amavschiro.pdf <sup>PDF of key transcripts</sup>]
Nowadays medical physicians and chiropractors look back at their animosity toward each other as a historical process. More and more, the public is demanding that professions work together for the patient's benefit. GPs, orthopedists, neurologists, radiologists and chiropractors consult with each other regarding patient care. The University of Alabama at Birmingham in association with its School of Medicine has a Chiropractic physician faculty member. They are believed to be the first academic institution to utilize chiropractic and provide services in conjunction with its more traditional medical services.
==Chiropractic subluxation==
Palmer imbued the term "[[Vertebral subluxation|subluxation]]" with a [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] meaning. He held that certain dislocations of [[bone]]s interfered with the "[[innate intelligence]]", a kind of spiritual energy or [[life force]] dependent upon [[God]] that connects the [[brain]] to the rest of the body. Palmer claimed that subluxations interfered with the proper communication of this innate intelligence with the rest of the body, and that by fixing them 100% of all diseases could be treated.
In the mid-[[1990s]] the [http://www.chirocolleges.org/ Association of Chiropractic Colleges] redefined a subluxation as follows: ''"A [ |
egrated software workbench consisting of many [[open source|free/open source]] tools described above and many others is known as [http://www.vigyaancd.org/ VigyaanCD].
[http://taverna.sourceforge.net/ Taverna] an open-source bioinformatics workbench that utilises a [[workflow]] model of experimental design. [http://taverna.sourceforge.net/ Taverna] is included as part of the [http://www.mygrid.org.uk/ myGRID] package of e-science software.
[http://www.q-pharm.com Quantum 3.1] is an example of the bioinformatics post-[[QSAR]] technology applying quantum and molecular physics instead of statistical methods.
<!-- Please do not add advertisements for commerical tools here. Objective descriptions of noteworthy commercial tools are fine, but ads are not. -->
== See also ==
* [[Biomedical informatics]]
* [[Biologically-inspired computing]]
* [[Natural computation]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Bioinformatics|List of publications in bioinformatics]]
* [[Molecular modelling]]
* [[Morphometrics]]
* [[Metabolic network]]
* [[Biocybernetics]]
* [[Computational biomodeling]]
=== Related fields ===
* [[applied mathematics]] &mdash; [[biology]] &mdash; [[computer science]] &mdash; [[informatics]] &mdash; [[mathematical biology]] &mdash; [[theoretical biology]] &mdash; [[Scientific computing]] &mdash; [[cheminformatics]] &mdash; [[computational science]]
==External links==
* [http://wikiomics.org Wikiomics.org: bioinformatics wiki] for users and developers of bioinformatics worldwide. Focused on practical questions and pointers towards both academic publications and software resources (opened November 2005). <!-- please use it instead of cluttering Wikipedia with links; that's the right place for most of the stuff below -->
* Major Societies
*[http://www.iscb.org/ The International Society for Computational Biology]
* Major Organizations
**[http://bioinformatics.org/ Bioinformatics Organization (Bioinformatics.Org): The Open-Access Institute]
**[http://www.embnet.org/ EMBnet is a science-based group of collaborating nodes throughout Europe and a number of nodes outside Europe]
**[http://www.cbse.ucsc.edu/ UCSC Center for Biomolecular Science and Engineering]
**[http://www.ebi.ac.uk/ European Bioinformatics Institute]
**[http://www.embl.org/ European Molecular Biology Laboratory]
**[http://www.girinst.org/ Genetic Information Research Institute]
**[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ National Center for Biotechnology Information]
**[http://www.open-bio.org/ Open Bioinformatics Foundation: umbrella non-profit organization supporting certain open-source projects in bioinformatics]
**[http://ncbo.us National Center for Biomedical Ontology]
**[http://www.jgi.doe.gov/ US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute]
* Software projects
**[http://amos.sourceforge.net/ AMOS: a modular, open-source genome assembler]
**[http://www.biosimgrid.org/ BioSimGrid: a distributed database for biomolecular simulations]
**[http://www.bioconductor.org/ Bioconductor]
**[http://www.cbi.cnptia.embrapa.br/SMS Diamond STING]
**[http://bioinformatics.upmc.edu/ UPMC Bioinformatics Web Tools]
**[http://www.biojava.org/ BioJava]
**[http://biomap.org/ BIOMAP Project: Creating a Unified Global Map of various Macromolecular Biological Structures]
**[http://www.bind.ca/ Biomolecular Interaction Network Database]
**[http://www.bioperl.org/ BioPerl]
**[http://www.biophp.org/ BioPHP]
**[http://www.biolinux.fac.org.ar/ BioLinux]
**[http://www.biopython.org/ BioPython]
**[http://www.bioruby.org/ BioRuby]
**[http://www.phylo.org/ CIPRES Project: The Cyber-Infrastructure for Phylogenetic Research]
**[http://emboss.sourceforge.net/ EMBOSS]
**[http://www.ensembl.org/ Ensembl]
**[http://www.gmod.org/ GMOD: The Generic Model Organism Database Project]
**[http://harvester.embl.de/ HARVESTER: bioinformatic meta search engine for proteins in human, mouse and rat]
**[http://manatee.sourceforge.net/ MANATEE: a web-based system for genome annotation and curation]
**[http://proteomeontology.org/ Proteome Ontology Project: An effort to build a Protein Ontology Specification, a part of BIOMAP Project]
**[http://bioinformatics.georgetown.edu/Sequerome.htm Sequerome]
**[http://seqhound.blueprint.org/ Seqhound]
**[http://sidhe.cs.uni.edu/marbl.html MARBL: Text Indexing & Retrieval from Bioinformatics Libraries GPL open source software package to search Genbank]
**[http://www.cs.uni.edu/~okane/source/IDF/idf.html Inverse Document Frequency Weighted Genomic Sequence Retrieval]
**[http://bio.macfast.org/bide/ BiDE - The Bioinformatics Desktop Environment - An Open Source project to develop a compact Red Hat Linux-based single CD installation, which provides all the flavours of bioinformatics to your desktop]
**[http://www.biocircle.org/bide BioCircle BiDE Page]
**[http://www.ebioinformatics.org/ eBiotools: A software package that brings most of the Bioinformatics programs to the MacOSX]
*Comprehensive, Reviewed, Third-Party Course Lists
**[http://wbiomed.curtin.edu.au/teach/biochem/resources/Bioinformatics.html A long list of courses world wide].
**[http://www.ebi.ac.uk/training/ Training courses] at the [[European Bioinformatics Institute]].
**[http://www.ensembl.org/info/courses.html Courses] given about [[Ensembl]].
*Major Journals
**[http://compbiol.plosjournals.org PLoS Computational Biology]
**[http://www.nature.com/msb/index.html Nature Molecular Systems Biology]
**[http://bioinformatics.oupjournals.org/ Bioinformatics journal]
**[http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcbioinformatics BMC Bioinformatics journal]
**[http://www.la-press.com/caninfo.htm Cancer Informatics Open Access journal]
**[http://www.embnet.org/download/embnetnews/index.html EMBnet.News Online Journal]
*Other Important Sites
**[http://www.molecularstation.com/bioinformatics/ Bioinformatics Portal to News, Online Tools, and Articles.]
**[http://www.biocircle.org/ OpenSource Bioinformatics / Computational Systems Biology portal]
**[http://www.bionews.in/ Bioinformatics News]
**[http://www.bioinfo-online.net/ Bioinfo-Online News]
**[http://bio.oreilly.com/ Books and articles on Bioinformatics from O'Reilly]
**[http://gchelpdesk.ualberta.ca/servers/servers.php Genome Canada: Canadian Bioinformatics Help Desk]
**[http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/research/informatics.html Human Genome Project and Bioinformatics]
**[http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith Barry Smith's biomedical ontology site]
**[http://www.microbesonline.org Virtual Insitute of Microbial Stress and Survival (VIMSS)]
==Notes & references==
# {{note|Beer_2004}} Beer MA, Tavazoie S. "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15084257 Predicting gene expression from sequence]." In ''Cell''. 2004 Apr 16;117(2):185-98.]
==Bibliography==
* Baxevanis, A.D. and Ouellette, B.F.F., eds., ''Bioinformatics: A Practical Guide to the Analysis of Genes and Proteins'', third edition. Wiley, 2005. ISBN 0471478784
* Claverie, J.M. and C. Notredame, ''Bioinformatics for Dummies''. Wiley, 2003. ISBN 0764516965
* Durbin, R., S. Eddy, A. Krogh and G. Mitchison, ''Biological sequence analysis''. Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0521629713
* Kohane, et al. ''Microarrays for an Integrative Genomics.'' The MIT Press, 2002. ISBN 026211271X
* Michael S. Waterman, ''Introduction to Computational Biology: Sequences, Maps and Genomes''. CRC Press, 1995. ISBN 0412993910
* Mount, David W. ''Bioinformatics: Sequence and Genome Analysis'' Spring Harbor Press, May 2002. ISBN 0879696087
* Pevzner, Pavel A. ''Computational Molecular Biology: An Algorithmic Approach'' The MIT Press, 2000. ISBN 0262161974
{{genomics-footer}}
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<comment>/* Career beginnings and highlights */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brian de Palma (director).jpg|thumb|Brian De Palma]]
'''Brian De Palma''' (born [[September 11]] [[1940]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]]) is an [[Italian-American]] [[film director]].
De Palma is often cited as a leading member of the [[Movie Brat]] generation of film directors, a distinct pedigree who either emerged from film schools or are overtly cine-literate. His contemporaries include [[Paul Schrader]], [[Martin Scorsese]], [[John Milius]], [[George Lucas]], [[Francis Ford Coppola]], and [[Steven Spielberg]]. Throughout the '70s and early '80s, De Palma worked repeatedly with actors [[Jennifer Salt]], [[Amy Irving]], [[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]] (his wife from 1979 to 1983), [[William Finley (actor)|William Finley]], [[Charles Durning]], [[Gerrit Graham]], cinematographers [[Stephen H. Burum]] and [[Vilmos Zsigmond]], set designer [[Jack Fisk]], and composers [[Bernard Herrmann]] |
alai-laama]]
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[[ko:다라이라마]]
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[[he:דלאי לאמה]]
[[hu:Dalai láma]]
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[[zh:达赖喇嘛]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Damages</title>
<id>8134</id>
<revision>
<id>41954751</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:32:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Natalinasmpf</username>
<id>107009</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fmt whitespace</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[law]], '''damages''' refers either to the harm suffered by a [[plaintiff]] in a [[lawsuit|civil action]], or to the money paid or awarded to the plaintiff in [[compensation]] for such harm.
Generally, there are three kinds of damages: special damages, general damages, and punitive damages. Special damages are the enumerable or quantifiable monetary costs or losses suffered by the plaintiff, or the compensation therefore. For example, medical costs, repair or replacement of damaged property, lost wages, lost earning potential, loss of business, loss of irreplaceable items, loss of support, etc. General damages are items of harm or loss suffered, for which only a subjective value may be attached. Examples of this include [[personal injury]], physical or emotional pain and suffering, loss of companionship, [[loss of consortium]], disfigurement, loss of reputation, loss or impairment of mental or physical capacity, loss of enjoyment of life, etc.
== Compensatory damages ==
'''Compensatory damages''' are damages awarded for [[Civil law (private law)|civil cases]]. They are awarded to the successful party, in the case of the plaintiff, as a compensation for the pain undergone, and in the case of the defendant, for legal services and all hardships undergone during the trial. This is the rule in many countries other than the United States. In the United States, you generally are not entitled to your attorney fees or for hardships undergone during trial if you win.
=== History ===
Among the [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxons]], a price called [[Weregeld|''Weregeld'']] was payed for [[homicide]] by the killer, in part to the family of the victim, in part to the local king.
== Statutory damages ==
''' Statutory damages ''' are laid down in law. Mere violation of the law can entitle the victim to a statutory award.
== Punitive damages ==
Generally, '''punitive damages''', which are termed ''exemplary damages'' in the [[United Kingdom]], are not awarded in order to compensate the plaintiff, but in order to reform or deter the defendant and similar persons from pursuing a course of action such as that which damaged the plaintiff. Punitive damages are awarded only in special cases where conduct was egregiously invidious, and are over and above the amount of compensatory damages. Great judicial restraint is expected to be exercised in their application. In the [[United States]] punitive damages awards are subject to the limitations imposed by the [[due process of law]] clauses of the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth]] and [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendments]] to the [[United States Constitution]].
In [[England]] and [[Wales]], exemplary damages are limited to the circumstances set out by [[Lord Patrick Devlin]] in the leading case of ''Rookes v. Barnard''. They are
1. Oppressive, arbitrary or unconstitutional actions by the servants of government.
2. Where the defendant's conduct was 'calculated' to make a profit for himself.
3. Where a statute expressly authorises the same.
Rookes v Barnard has been much criticised and has not been followed in [[Canada]] or [[Australia]] or by the [[Privy Council]].
== Restitutionary or disgorgement damages ==
In certain areas of the law another head of damages has long been available, whereby the defendant is made to give up the profits made through the civil wrong in [[restitution]]. The plaintiff thereby gains damages which are not measured by reference to any loss sustained. In some areas of the law this heading of damages is uncontroversial; most particularly [[intellectual property]] rights and breach of fiduciary relationship.
In England and Wales the [[House of Lords]] case of ''Attorney-General v. Blake'' opened up the possibility of restitutionary damages for breach of contract. In this case the profits made by a defecting spy, [[George Blake]], for the publication of his book, were awarded to the British Government for breach of contract. The case has been followed in English courts, but the situations in which restitutionary damages will be available remain unclear.
The basis for restitutionary damages is much debated, but can usually seen to be based on denying a wrongdoer any profit from his wrong. The really difficult question, and one which is currently unanswered, relates to what wrongs should lead to the availability of this remedy.
== Nominal damages ==
On the other hand, nominal damages are very small damages awarded to show that the loss or harm suffered was technical rather than actual. Perhaps the most famous nominal damages award in modern times has been the $1 verdict against the [[National Football League]] (NFL) in the 1986 antitrust suit prosecuted by the [[United States Football League]]. Although the verdict was automatically trebled pursuant to [[antitrust]] law in the United States, the resulting $3 judgment was regarded as a victory for the NFL. Historically, one of the best known nominal damage awards was the [[farthing]] that the [[jury]] awarded to James Whistler in his libel suit against John Ruskin.
== Economic damages ==
Economic damages in [[civil litigation]] are computed as the financial loss suffered by a person due to the wrongful actions of another person. The wrongful action may be either accidental, such as an auto accident, or deliberate, such as wrongful termination or harassment in employment situations. In a court of law, it is often useful for the lawyers for both the plaintiff and the defendant to employ economists to compute the value of the loss. The economists will not evaluate whether the action was wrongful, only how much money is required to return the plaintiff to the fiscal position he or she was in prior to the loss. In such a case, it is incumbent on both economists to fully disclose their methodology and how they reached their conclusions. The finder of fact will choose the result which is most in accord with the [[preponderance of the evidence]], including any testimony given by the economist(s).
==See also==
*[[Non-economic damages caps]]
[[Category:Judicial remedies]]
{{Link FA|cs}}
[[cs:&#352;koda (pr&#225;vo)]]
[[de:Schadensersatz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dualism</title>
<id>8135</id>
<revision>
<id>41711743</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:49:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Everyking</username>
<id>44020</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Mind-Matter Dualism in Eastern Philosophy */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Combative dualism}}
{{Portalpar|Philosophy|Socrates.png|26px}}The term '''''dualism''''' can refer to a variety of doctrines, mainly in [[theology]] and [[philosophy]], each involving the purported existence of two substances ( often opposites) of some kind. These opposites can be, among other things, opposing forces, or opposing ontological or epistemic categories.
== Theological usage ==
=== "Western" or "theistic" usage ===
''Main Article: [[Theology]]''
In [[theology]], ''dualism'' can refer to ''ditheism'': the belief that there are two basic principles, usually personified as [[deity|deities]], that work in polar opposition to each other. For example, one god is [[Goodness and value theory|good]], the other [[evil]]; or one god works for order, the other for chaos. Both the [[Zoroastrian]] religion, three millennia old and still extant, and the essentially dead [[Gnosticism|gnostic]] religion (and its variations such as, [[Manichaeism]], [[Bogomils]], [[Cathar|Catharism]], etc.) are dualistic, as is [[Mandaeanism]]. The third-century Christian [[heresy|heretic]] [[Marcion of Sinope]] held that the Old and New Testaments were the work of two opposing gods. The Christian conflict between [[God]] (the source of all good) and [[Satan]] (the source of all evil) is sometimes described in dualistic terms.
=== "Eastern" or "mystic" usage ===
''Main Article: [[Mysticism]]''
Alternatively, ''dualism'' can mean the tendency of humans to perceive and understand the world as being divided into just two [[categorization|categories]]. In this sense, it is dualistic when one perceives a tree as a thing separate from everything surrounding it, or when one perceives a "self" that is distinct from the rest of the world. In traditions such as [[Zen]], a key to enlightenment is "overcoming" this sort of dualism, without merely substituting it with [[monism]] or [[Pluralism (philosophy of mind)|pluralism]].
In [[Hinduism|orthodox Indian philosophy]], on the other hand, monism is explicitly affirmed by [[Advaita Vedanta|advaita vedanta]], while it is rejected in favor of the dualism or pluralism of [[Dvaita]]; other schools, such as [[ Vishishtadvaita]] and [[bhedabheda]] try to find routes in between.
[[Image:Yin yang.svg|right|100px|thumb|The Tai-chi symbolizes the duality in nature and all things in Taoist religion.]]The opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of [[Yin Yang|Yin and Yang]] is a large part of [[Taoism|Taoist]] religion. Some of the common associations with Yang and Yin, respe |
ter>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>&#12288;</td>
<td align=center>[[Nitrile]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C&equiv;N</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Nitrile.png|Nitrile]]</td>
<td align=center>cyano-</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>&#12288;</td>
<td align=center>[[Nitro functional group|Nitro]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;NO<sub>2</sub></td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Nitro.png|Nitro]]</td>
<td align=center>nitro-</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>&#12288;</td>
<td align=center>[[Nitroso]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;N=O</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Nitroso.png|Nitroso]]</td>
<td align=center>nitroso-</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>&#12288;</td>
<td align=center>[[Pyridyl]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Pyridyl.png|Pyridyl]]</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[Carboxylic acid]]</td>
<td align=center>[[Carboxyl]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C(=O)OH
<sup>''non-ionized''</sup><br>
R&minus;C(=O)O<sup>&minus;</sup><br>
<sup>''ionized''</sup>
</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Carboxyl.png|Carboxyl]]</td>
<td align=center>carboxy-</td>
<td align=center>-oic acid</td>
</tr>
<td align=center>[[Peroxide]]</td>
<td align=center>[[Peroxy]]</td>
<td align=center>R-O-O-R</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Peroxy.png|Peroxy]]</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td align=center rowspan="2">[[Carbonyl]]</td>
<td align=center>[[Aldehyde]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C(=O)H</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Aldehyde.png|Aldehyde]]</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
<td align=center>-al</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[Ketone]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C(=O)&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Ketone.png|Ketone|100px]]</td>
<td align=center>keto-</td>
<td align=center>-one</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center rowspan=2>[[Imine]]</td>
<td align=center>[[primary Imine]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C(=NH)&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center></td>
<td align=center>imino-</td>
<td align=center>-imine</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[secondary Imine]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C(&minus;H)=N&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Imine.png|Imine]]</td>
<td align=center>imino-</td>
<td align=center>-imine</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>Ether</td>
<td align=center>[[Ether]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;O&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Ether.png|Ether]]</td>
<td align=center>''named according to the parent alcohols, respectively:'' '''alkyl alkyl ether'''</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>Ester</td>
<td align=center>[[Ester]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C(=O)O&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Ester.png|Ester|100px]]</td>
<td align=center>''named according to the parent alcohol and acid, respectively:'' '''alkyl alkanoate'''</td>
<td align=center>-oate</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>Halogens</td>
<td align=center>[[Halogen]]</td>
<td align=center>F,Cl,Br,etc.</td>
<td align=center></td>
<td align=center>fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, or iodo- (also halo- for general)</td>
<td align=center>(hal)ide</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center rowspan=2>Isocyanates</td>
<td align=center>[[Isocyanate]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;N=C=O</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Isocyanate.png|Isocyanate]]</td>
<td align=center>'''alkyl isocyanate'''</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[Isothiocyanate]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;N=C=S</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Isothiocyanate.png|Isothiocyanate]]</td>
<td align=center>'''alkyl isothiocyanate'''</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>Phenyl</td>
<td align=center>[[Phenyl]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub></td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Phenyl.png|Phenyl]]</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>Benzyl</td>
<td align=center>[[Benzyl]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;CH<sub>2</sub>&minus;C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub></td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Benzyl.png|Benzyl]]</td>
<td align=center>benzyl</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>&#12288;</td>
<td align=center>[[Phosphodiester bonds|Phosphodiester]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;OP(=O)(&minus;OH)O&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Phosphodiester.png|Phosphodiester]]</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>[[Thiol]]</td>
<td align=center>[[Thiol|Sulfhydryl]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;SH</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Sulfhydryl.png|Sulfhydryl]]</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
<td align=center>-thiol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=center>&#12288;</td>
<td align=center>[[Thioether]]</td>
<td align=center>R&minus;S&minus;R'</td>
<td align=center>[[Image:Thioether.png|Thioether]]</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
<td align=center>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
</table>
Combining the names of functional groups with the names of the parent [[alkane]]s generates a powerful [[systematic name|systematic nomenclature]] for naming [[organic compound]]s.
The non-hydrogen atoms of functional groups are always associated with each other and with the rest of the molecule by [[covalent bond]]s. When the group of atoms is associated with the rest of the molecule primarily by ionic forces, the group is referred to more properly as a [[polyatomic ion]] or [[complex ion]]. And all of these are called [[radical (chemistry)|radical]]s, by a meaning of the term ''radical'' that predates the [[free radical]].
The first carbon after the carbon that attaches to the functional group is called the [[alpha carbon]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.iupac.org/reports/provisional/abstract04/RB-prs310804/TableVII-3.04.pdf IUPAC ligand abbreviations] (pdf)
[[Category:Functional groups| ]]
[[Category:Organic chemistry]]
[[Category:Organic compounds]]
[[ar:مجموعة فعالة]]
[[ca:Grup funcional]]
[[de:Funktionelle Gruppe]]
[[es:Grupo funcional]]
[[eo:Funkcia grupo]]
[[fr:Groupe fonctionnel]]
[[ko:작용기]]
[[it:Gruppo funzionale]]
[[he:קבוצה פונקציונלית]]
[[nl:Functionele groep]]
[[ja:基]]
[[pl:Grupa funkcyjna]]
[[pt:Grupo funcional]]
[[fi:Funktionaalinen ryhmä]]
[[th:หมู่ฟังก์ชัน]]
[[vi:Nhóm chức]]
[[zh:官能团]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FreeBSD</title>
<id>10912</id>
<revision>
<id>41982941</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:03:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zak.l</username>
<id>575303</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Derivatives */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!--
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! colspan="2" | <big>FreeBSD</big>
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| BSD
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| <span style="white-space:nowrap;">{{Latest_preview_release/{{PAGENAME}}}} <sub>[[{{SERVER}}{{localurl:Template:Latest_preview_release/{{PAGENAME}}|action=edit&preload=Template:LP |
ich appears prominently in ''The Gay Science'' and ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''. The statement suggests the impending crisis that European thought faces in the wake of the irreparable disturbances to its traditional foundations.
Nietzsche treats this phrase as more than a provocative declaration, but almost reverently, as it represents the potential of a nihilism that arrests growth and progress in the midst of an overwhelming absurdity and meaninglessness:
: The greatest recent event -- that 'God is dead', that the belief in the Christian god has become unbelievable -- is already beginning to cast its first shadows over Europe. For the few at least, whose eyes -- the suspicion in whose eyes is strong and subtle enough for this spectacle, some sun seems to have set and some ancient and profound trust has been turned into doubt; to them our old world must appear daily more like evening, more mistrustful, stranger, 'older'. But in the main one may say: The event itself is far too great, too distant, too remote from the multitude's capacity for comprehension even for the tidings of it to be thought of as having ''arrived'' as yet. Much less may one suppose that many people know as yet ''what'' this event really means -- and how much must collapse now that this faith has been undermined because it was built upon this faith, propped up by it, grown into it; for example, the whole of our European morality. This long plenitude and sequence of breakdown, destruction, ruin, and cataclysm that is now impending -- who could guess enough of it today to be compelled to play the teacher and advance proclaimer of this monstrous logic of terror, the prophet of a gloom and an eclipse of the sun whose like has probably never yet occurred on earth?
: (Gay Science, Book V, sec. 343, trans. Walter Kaufmann)
The first instance of the phrase occurs at the beginning of Book III of ''The Gay Science'' (section 108), and again prominently in section 125.
=== Amor fati and the eternal recurrence ===
The idea of ''[[eternal recurrence]]'' is central to the writings of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Nietzsche first encountered the idea in the works of [[Heinrich Heine]], who speculated that there would one day be a person born with the same thought processes as himself, and that the same was true of every other person on the planet. Nietzsche expanded on this thought to form his theory, which he put forth in ''[[The Gay Science]]'' and developed in ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''.
On a few occasions in his notebooks, Nietzsche discusses the possibility of the Eternal Recurrence as cosmological truth (see Arthur Danto, ''Nietzsche as Philosopher'' for a detailed analysis of these efforts), but in the works he prepared for publication, it is treated as the ultimate method of life affirmation. According to Nietzsche, it would require a sincere ''Amor Fati'' (Love of Fate), not simply to endure, but to ''wish for'' the eternal recurrence of all events exactly as they occurred---all of the pain and joy and the embarrassment and glory.
Nietzsche calls the idea "horrifying and paralyzing", and he also states that the burden of this idea is the "heaviest weight" imaginable (''das schwerste Gewicht''). The wish for the eternal return of all events would mark the ultimate affirmation of life:
: ''What, if some day or night a demon were to steal after you into your loneliest loneliness and say to you: 'This life as you now live it and have lived it, you will have to live once more and innumerable times more' ... Would you not throw yourself down and gnash your teeth and curse the demon who spoke thus? Or have you once experienced a tremendous moment when you would have answered him: 'You are a god and never have I heard anything more divine.<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' (''[[The Gay Science]]'')
As described by Nietzsche, the eternal return is more than merely an intellectual concept or challenge, it is akin to a [[koan]], or a psychological device that occupies one's entire consciousness stimulating a transformation of consciousness known as [[metanoia]].
Nehamas wrote in ''Nietzsche: Life as Literature'' that there are three ways of seeing the eternal recurrence. "(A) My life will recur in exactly identical fashion." This is a totally fatalistic approach to the idea. "(B) My life may recur in exactly identical fashion." This second view is a conditional assertion of cosmology, but fails to capture what Nieztsche refers to in GS, 341. Finally, "(C) If my life were to recur, then it could recur only in identical fashion." Nehemas shows that this interpretation is totally independent of physics and does not presuppose the truth of cosmology. Nehamas' interpretation is that if individuals constitute themselves through their actions the only way to maintain themselves as they are is to live in a reoccurrence of past actions (Nehamas 153).
=== Overman ===
There is some controversy over who or what Nietzsche considered an overman (or "superman"; in German, [[Übermensch]]). Not only is there some basis to think that Nietzsche was skeptical about individual identity and the notion of [[subject (philosophy)|subject]], but there was never a concrete example of the overman.
Nietzsche coined the terms ''herd instinct'' or ''slave morality'', which represents the kind of morality or ideology produced by a culture or a society. The herd instinct is the inevitable consequence of society, and it is extremely difficult for an individual to take on a value or moral system different from society's.
The overman is the individual who can overcome the herd instinct, who can take on values and morals not of the society. This is contrasted with one who wields power over others (although the overman, having overcome himself, will consequently dominate those who have not); the overman is about being "judge and avenger and victim of one's own law.", rather than that of the others or one's society. As such, the overman creates his own values.
Since Nietzsche never set out who was an overman, it is possibly an ideal or a theoretical construct designed to point out that it is difficult, if not impossible, to break free from society's ideological and moral grasp. As an intellectual exercise, contemporary thinkers have asked who or what could have been an overman. Could rulers such as Stalin or Hitler be an overman? Given that rulers represent the moralities and ideologies of their time, rather than creating new ones, the answer is "No." The concept of the overman appears to be limited to an intellectual or artist, rather than the political leaders that Nietzsche despised.
=== How Other Philosophers Have Interpreted Nietzsche's Overman ===
[[Subject (philosophy)#Nietzsche's critique of the subject|Nietzsche's critique of the subject]] makes it impossible to reduce the "overman" or any other individual person to an individual subject, thus assimilating him as a kind of [[hero]]: "''there is no doer behind the doing''", wrote Nietzsche. We attribute a subject as a [[causality|cause]] of the event, because we need this "grammatical fiction"; but in fact, there is no more subject than there is any [[substance]], because both presuppose an eternally identical world, whereas world is always in a state of flux and change. There is ''no substance'', there is ''no subject'' and there is ''no causality'' are Nietzsche's most radical thesis.
In his ''Nietzsche'', Heidegger himself, although later criticized for his membership in the [[NSDAP|Nazi Party]], criticized this more or less deliberate misunderstanding of Nietzsche's philosophy, based in a [[scientist]] conception and on a biological interpretation of Nietzsche's thought. [[Mazzino Montinari]]'s edition of the posthumous fragments and [[philological]] criticisms of the fake ''[[Will to Power]]'', as [[Gilles Deleuze]]'s particular reading of Nietzsche, would be essential moments of the revealing of this caricature.
=== Master morality and slave morality ===
Nietzsche argued that there were two types of morality, a master morality that springs actively from the 'noble man' and a slave morality that develops reactively within the weak man. These two moralities are not simple inversions of one another, they are two different value systems; master morality fits actions into a scale of 'good' or 'bad' whereas slave morality fits actions into a scale of 'good' or 'evil'.
Nietzsche defined master morality as the morality of the strong-willed. For these men the 'good' is the noble, strong and powerful, while the 'bad' is the weak, cowardly, timid and petty. Master morality begins in the 'noble man' with a spontaneous idea of the 'good', then the idea of 'bad' develops in opposition to it. (''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]'', First Essay, Section 11) He said: "The noble type of man experiences ''itself'' as determining values; it does not need approval; it judges, "what is harmful to me is harmful in itself"; it knows itself to be that which first accords honor to things; it is ''value-creating."'' (''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'')
Slave morality begins in those people who are weak, uncertain of themselves, oppressed and abused. The essence of slave morality is ''utility'': the good is what is most useful for the community as a whole. Since the powerful are few in number compared to the masses of the weak, the weak gain power vis-a-vis the strong by treating those qualities that are valued by the powerful as "evil," and those qualities that enable sufferers to endure their lot as "good." Thus patience, humility, pity, submissiveness to authority, and the like, are considered good.
Slave morality begins in a [[ressentiment]] that turns creative and gives birth to values. (Ressentiment was a term coined by Nietzsche to describe the feeling of the weak, unhealthy and ugly |
s18</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:False cognate ''is sometimes also loosely used to mean [[false friend]]
A pair of '''false cognates''' consists of two words in different [[language|languages]] that appear to be or are sometimes considered [[cognate|cognates]] (words in different languages with a common [[root (philology)|root]]) when they are in fact not. Note that even false cognates may have an indirect connection between them, even if they lack a common root.
For example, the word for "dog" in the [[Australian Aboriginal languages|Australian Aboriginal language]] [[Mbabaram language|Mbabaram]] happens to be ''dog'', although there is no common ancestor or other connection between that language and [[English language|English]] (the Mbabaram word evolved regularly from a protolinguistic form ''*guduga''). Similarly, in the [[Japanese language]] the word 'to occur' happens to be ''okoru''. Sometimes, words merge, e.g. [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''piikki'' seems like a cognate to ''spike'', but when it has the meaning "[[cusp]] of a graph", the cognate is ''peak''.
The basic kinship terms [[mama and papa]] comprise a special case of false cognates (cf. [[Xu language|!Kung]] ''ba'', [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ''bàba'', [[Persian language|Persian]] ''baba'', and [[French language|French]] ''papa'' (all "dad"); or [[Navajo language|Navajo]] ''má'', [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ''m&#257;ma'', [[Swahili language|Swahili]] ''mama'' and English "mum/mom"). The striking cross-linguistical similarities between these terms are thought to result from the nature of [[language acquisition]] ([[Roman Jakobson|Jakobson]] 1962). According to Jakobson, these words are the first word-like sounds made by babbling babies; and parents tend to associate the first sound babies make with themselves. Thus, there is no need to ascribe the similarities to common ancestry. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that these terms are built up from speech sounds that are easiest to produce ([[labial consonant|bilabial]] [[stop consonant|stops]] like ''m'' and ''b'' and the basic [[vowel]] ''a''). However, variants do occur; for example, in [[Fijian language|Fijian]], the word for "mother" is ''nana'', and in [[Old Japanese]], the word for "mother" was ''papa'' (the modern word ''haha'' "mother" is the descendant of the older word). Furthermore, the modern Japanese word for "father," ''chichi'', is from older ''titi.'' See [[Mama and papa]] for more information.
The term "false cognate" is sometimes misused to describe [[false friends]]. One difference between false cognates and false friends is that while false cognates mean roughly the same thing in two languages, false friends bear two distinct (sometimes even opposite) meanings. In fact, a pair of false friends may be true cognates (see [[false friend#Causes|false friends: causes]]).
The opposite of a false cognate is an [[expressive loan]], which looks like a native construction, but is not.
== Examples ==
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''akh'' (brother) and [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] ''akh'' (brother)
* [[Bikol language|Bikol]] ''aki'' (child) and [[Korean language|Korean]] ''agi'' (child)
* [[Blackfoot]] ''aki'' (woman) and [[Even language|Even]] ''akhi'' (woman)
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''ana'' (I) and [[Gondi language|Gondi]] ''ana'' (I)
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''anta'' (you, singular) and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''anta'' (you, singular)
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''ard'' (earth) and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''aard'' (earth)
* [[English language|English]] ''earth'' and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''erets'' (land)
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''ari'' (lion) and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ''ari'' (lion)
* [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]] ''ayal'' (woman) and [[Parji language|Parji]] ''ayal'' (woman)
* [[Ga language|Ga]] ''ba'' (come) and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''ba'' (come)
* [[English language|English]] ''bad'' and [[Persian language|Persian]] ''bad''
* [[English language|English]] ''chop'' and [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] ''chop''
* [[English language|English]] ''dog'' and [[Mbabaram language|Mbabaram]] ''dog''
* [[English language|English]] ''house'' and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] ''ház'' (house, block of flats) (the Hungarian word has corresponding counterparts in other [[Uralic languages]])
* [[English language|English]] ''it'', [[Russian language|Russian]] ''eto'' and [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] ''eto'' / ''ito'' (it, this),
* [[English language|English]] ''pan'' and [[Mandarin Chinese]] ''pan'' (pan, shallow plate)
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''kehunah'' (priesthood) and [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ''kahuna'' (priest)
* [[English language|English]] ''vagina'', and [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and [[Maori language|Maori]] ''wahine'' (woman)
* [[English language|English]] ''trawl'' (to fish by dragging a net) and [[English language|English]] ''troll'' (to fish by trailing a line)
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''arigato'' (thanks) and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''obrigado'' (thank you)
* [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]] "shítou" (stone; [[Traditional Chinese|traditional]] 石頭, [[Simplified Chinese|simplified]] 石头) and [[English language|English]] "stone"
* [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]] "tā" (他) and [[Estonian language|Estonian]] "ta" (short form of "tema") (he/she)
* [[Estonian language|Estonian]] ''mina'' and [[Zulu language|Zulu]] ''mina'' (I)
* [[Russian language|Russian]] ''baba'' and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''baba'' (disrespectful term meaning "old hag")
* [[Russian language|Russian]] ''doroga'' (road) and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''dereh'' (road)
* [[English language|English]] ''evaporate'' and [[Russian language|Russian]] ''ispar'at' '' (evaporate)
* [[English language|English]] ''hut'' and [[Russian language|Russian]] ''hata'' (hut)
* [[Russian language|Russian]] ''krest'' (cross) and [[German language|German]] ''kreuz'' (cross)
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''shesh'' (six) and [[Persian language|Persian]] ''shesh'' (six)
* [[English language|English]] ''cold'' and [[Russian language|Russian]] ''holod'' (cold)
* [[English language|English]] ''cheek'' and [[Russian language|Russian]] ''scheka'' (cheek)
* German haben / English have and Latin habere (have)
* [[Samoan language|Samoan]] ''le'' and [[French Language|French]] ''le'' (the)
* [[Pashto language|Pashto]] ''dwa'' (two) and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] ''dua'' (two)
* [[Inuit language|Inuit]] ''[[kayak]]'' and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''kaik''(rowing boat)
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Juanita'' (feminine diminutive form of "John") and [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] ''wanita'' (woman/female)
==References==
* Jakobson, R. (1962) &#8216;Why &#8220;mama&#8221; and &#8220;papa&#8221;?&#8217; In Jakobson, R. ''Selected Writings, Vol. I: Phonological Studies'', pp. 538&#8211;545. The Hague: Mouton.
* Geoff Parkes and Alan Cornell (1992), 'NTC's Dictionary of German False Cognates', National Textbook Company, NTC Publishing Group.
==External links==
* [http://members.aol.com/yahyam/coincidence.html A list of false cognates]
[[Category:Historical linguistics]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>False claims law</title>
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<revision>
<id>19127958</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-19T04:07:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Agentsoo</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[False Claims Act]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Fall (disambiguation)</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:40:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NaySay</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fall''' (and '''the fall''', which re-directs here) may mean:
* '''Fall''' is the more common [[North American English]] [[word]] for the [[season]] usually known as '''[[autumn]]''' in the [[United Kingdom]] and other [[English language|English]]-speaking countries.
* A '''[[free-fall]]''' or other downward movement, often followed by a [[collision]] with the [[ground]], due to gathering [[speed]] by [[weight]]. It is the result of [[drop]]ping something, [[jump]]ing, or an [[accident]] in which a [[person]] or [[object (philosophy)|object]] is no longer supported, [[e.g.]] something rolls or slides off a [[Furniture|table]], one loses control over one's [[Human leg|legs]] or [[bicycle]], etc. See [[falling]].
* A shortened form of the [[word]] '''[[waterfall]]''', more typically "falls" than just "fall" (such as "we're hiking up to the falls today"). These often occur around the '''[[fall line]]'''; in the eastern [[United States|US]], for example, where the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]] drops to the [[coast]]al [[plain]].
* A '''fall''' is the sudden arrival of large numbers of [[bird migration|migrating]] [[bird]]s on an [[island]] or at a [[coast]]al [[headlands and bays|headland]] due to [[drift migration]].
* [[The Fall of Man]] is a [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] [[doctrine]] of man's rebellion against his creator [[God]], bringing God's condemnation on himself, as described in the story of [[Adam and Eve]].
* ''[[Fall (EP)]]'', an EP Ride released in [[1990]]
* ''[[The Fall]]'', the third novel written by Albert Camus
* [[The Fall (band)]], a prolific post-punk band who formed in Manchester, 1977
* '''[[Falling (forestry)]]''' refers to the various methods employed for cutting down trees |
;; see Table 1, pp. 4-5.]. However, worldwide use of the term was uncommon until actively promulgated by the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] after WIPO's establishment in 1967.
The first codification of intellectual property can be traced to the Jewish laws codified in the [[Talmud]], which declared a prohibition against "Gnevat ha daat", literally the theft of ideas. The type of ideas subject to theft and further explanation may be found in the [[Shulkhan Arukh]]. Both texts precede the [[Statute of Anne]] by a few hundred years.
With the [[French Revolution]], which followed the [[American Revolution]], there was debate in Europe over the nature of protection for copyright and patents; those who supported unlimited copyrights frequently used the term ''property'' to advance that agenda, while others who supported a more limited system sometimes used the term ''[[intellectual rights]]'' (''droits intellectuels'').
The system currently used by much of the Western world is more in line with the second view, with limited copyrights that eventually expire. However, the French Civil Code notion of "moral rights" has connotations similar to natural rights that are inconsistent with the U.S. tradition.
The term "intellectual property" does not occur in the United States Copyright Statutes, except in certain footnotes citing the titles of certain Bills. The term used in the statutes and in the Constitution is "exclusive rights".
==Critique==
{{cleanup-date|July 2005}}
===Overview===
The purposes of laws dealing with exclusive rights over intangible subject matter or the product of intellectual or creative endeavor have varied, but they all share in common the appearance of granting the "owner" of the exclusive rights a monopoly on copying or distribution of a protected form of "property".
In [[common law]] jurisdictions, this was historically done to grant a boon to a king's favorite in the form of [[letters patent]] (with some positive advantages to the public, since often these grants were prerequisites before a merchant would undertake production). Jurisdictions with written constitutions generally vest the executive government with power to grant such monopolies or otherwise provide for the protection of intangible property. For example, the [[United States Constitution]] accords Congress the power to promote the progress of science and the useful arts by granting exclusive rights to authors and inventors for limited times.
The use of the term "intellectual property" is often predicated on considerations such as the "[[free rider problem]]" or rationalized by problematizing the fact that owners of computers have the ability to produce and distribute perfect copies of digital works. Proponents of the term tend to address exclusive intellectual property rights policy by valorizing the incentives afforded to authors and inventors in granting them a right to exact a fee from those who wish to manufacture their inventions or publish their expressive works. The analyses associated with the term tend to overlook or even to attempt to defeat the fact, noted by Thomas Jefferson when he took part in wording the exclusive rights clause under the USA Constitution, that published information is intrinsically free and that in fact this is the whole point of such exclusive rights -- to publish, to provide information to the public.
By an economic analysis, the incentives granted for patent rights have sometimes served the public benefit purpose (and promoted innovation) by ensuring that someone who devoted, say, ten years of penury while struggling to develop vulcanized rubber or a workable steamship, could recoup her or his investment of time and energy. Using monopoly power, the inventor could exact a fee from those who wanted to make copies of his or her invention. Set it too high, and others would simply try to make a competing invention, but set it low enough and one could make a good living from the fees.
In latter years, the public benefit idea has been downplayed in favor of the idea that the primary purpose of exclusive rights is to benefit the rights holder, even to the detriment of society at large; and this development has attracted some opponents.
In some fields, patent law has had an unintended consequence: treating abstract rules and mental products like concrete ones has stifled innovation in those fields, rather than aiding it.
Intellectual property rights have limitations, including term limits and other considerations (such as intersections with fundamental rights and the codified or statutory provisions for [[fair use]] for copyright works). Some analogize these considerations to public [[easement]]s, since they grant the public certain rights which are considered essential. It is important to appreciate that different countries may have subtle or dramatic differences in the scope or protection and permitted uses of different types of intellectual property. A fair use in one jurisdiction can easily be an infringing use elsewhere.
Authors and inventors exercise specific rights, and the "property" referred to in "intellectual property" is the rights, not the intellectual work. A patent can be bought and sold, but the invention that it covers is not owned at all. This is one of many reasons that some believe the term ''intellectual property'' to be misleading. Some use the term "intellectual monopoly" instead, because such so-called "intellectual property" is actually a government-granted monopoly on certain types of action. Others object to this usage, because this still encourages a [[natural rights]] notion rather than a recognition that the rights are purely statutory, and it only characterizes the "property" rather than eliminates the property presupposition. Others object to the negative connotation of the term "[[monopoly]]" and cite the wide availability of [[substitute good]]s. Still others prefer not to use a generic term, because of differences in the nature of copyright, patent and trademark law, and try to be specific about which they are talking about, or the term "exclusive rights", which reflects the U.S. Constitutional language.
===Arguments against the term===
The term ''intellectual property'' has been criticized on the grounds that the rights conferred by exclusive rights laws are in some ways more limited than the legal rights associated with property interests in physical goods - [[chattel]]s or land - [[real property]]. The inclusion of the word ''property'' in the term can be seen as favoring the position of proponents of the expansion of exclusive rights in intellectual products, by helping them draw on concepts associated with those older forms of property in support of their argument for removing limitations on rights when those limitations would be generally seen as inappropriate if applied to physical goods. For example, most nations grant copyrights for only limited terms. Additionally, the term is sometimes misunderstood to imply ownership of the copies themselves, or even the information contained in those copies. By contrast, physical property laws rarely restrict the sale or modification of physical copies of a work (something that many copyright laws do restrict).
A common argument against the term ''intellectual property'' is that information is fundamentally different from physical property in that a "stolen" idea or copy does not affect the original possession (see the [[tragedy of the commons]]). Another, more specific objection to the term, held by [[Richard Stallman]], is that the term is confusing [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.html#IntellectualProperty]. Stallman argues that the term implies a non-existent similarity between [[copyright]]s, [[patent]]s, [[trademark]]s, and other forms of exclusive rights, which makes clear thinking and discussion about various forms difficult. [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml] Furthermore, most legal systems, including that of the [[United States]], hold that exclusive rights are a government grant, rather than a fundamental right held by citizens.
Though it is convenient for direct incentive beneficiaries to regard exclusive rights as akin to "[[legal property|property]]", items covered by exclusive rights are, by definition, not physical objects "ownable" in the traditional sense.
[[Stephan Kinsella]], in his ''Journal of Libertarian Studies'' article "Against Intellectual Property" ([http://www.stephankinsella.com/publications.php#IP]), details his objection to ''intellectual property'' on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas.
Others point out that the law itself treats these rights differently than those involving physical property. To give three examples from US law, [[copyright infringement]] is not punishable by laws against [[theft]] or [[trespass]], but rather by an entirely different set of laws with different penalties. [[patent infringement|Patent infringement]] is not a criminal offense although it may subject the infringer to civil liability. Willfully possessing stolen physical goods is a criminal offense while mere possessing of goods which infringe on copyright is not. Furthermore, in the United States physical property laws are generally part of state law, while copyright law is in the main measure federal.
Some proponents of the term argue that the law is simply recognising the reality of a situation. In some jurisdictions a lease of land (e.g. a flat or apartment) is regarded as intangible property in the same way that copyright is. In these cases too the law accepts that the property cannot be stolen - if someone moves into a flat and prevents the original residents from living the |
le-wall, multi-wall) and other characteristics.
* April 2003, bending changes resistance [http://focus.aps.org/story/v11/st15]
* June 2004, scientists from China's [[Tsinghua University]] and [[Louisiana State University]] demonstrated the use of nanotubes in [[incandescent lamp]]s, replacing a [[tungsten]] [[filament]] in a [[lightbulb]] with a carbon nanotube one.
* 2004, Nature published [http://healthspace.ca/Websites/Staff/AJP/DanglingParticiple.nsf/d6plinks/APRE-6B5UMS a photo] of an individual 4 cm long single-wall nanotube (SWNT).
* August 2004, changing applied voltage emits light at different points along a tube [http://focus.aps.org/story/v14/st8]
* August 2005, [[General Electric|GE]] announced the development of an ideal carbon nanotube [[diode]] that operates at the "theoretical limit," or best possible performance. The company also observed a [[photovoltaic effect]] in the nanotube diode device that could lead to breakthroughs in [[solar cell]]s that make them more efficient and a more viable alternative in the mainstream energy market.[http://www.research.ge.com/04_media/news/20050819_cnd.shtml]
* August 2005, 1-meter sheets of nanotubes are made [http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/4/8/13/1]
* September 2005, Texas-based Applied Nanotech, in conjunction with six Japanese electronics firms, have created a prototype of a 25-inch TV using carbon nanotubes. The prototype TV does not suffer from "ghosting," as some types of digital TVs do.
* September 2005, researchers at [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] demonstrated that [[ignition]] by a conventional [[flashbulb]] takes place when a layer of 29% [[iron]] enriched SWNT is placed on top of a layer of [[explosive]] material such as [[PETN]]. With ordinary explosives optical ignition is only possible with high powered [[laser]]s [http://pubs3.acs.org/acs/journals/doilookup?in_doi=10.1021/ja0547127].
* September 2005, researchers demonstrated a new way to coat MWNT's with [[magnetite]] which after orientation in a [[magnetic field]] were able to attract each other over a distance of at least 10 [[micrometre]]s. [http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/CC/article.asp?doi=b506758h]. The nanotubes were functionalized with negatively charged [[carboxylic acid]] groups in an [[AIBN]] type [[free radical addition]]. Magnetite nanoparticles prepared by the [[magnetite|Massart method]] were given a positive charge by washing with [[nitric acid]] which made them stick to the nanotubes by [[electrostatic force]]s.
* 2005, industry report indicates nanotube production will increase by 10 to 100 times in the next 5 years for different types and purity of nanotubes.
* 2004 and 2005, CNI obtains 25 patents. Some of the newest describe the manufacture of high-purity SWNT in arrays and long fibers at moderately low temperatures based on research done in 2001.
* September 2005, Korean scientists lead by [[Pohang University of Science and Technology]] Professor Kim Kwang-Soo succeeded in pulling out a nested tube from a multiwalled nanotube (MWNT), extracted 1 millimeter.
* November 2005, liquid flows 5 times faster than predicted through array [http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/4/11/8/1]
* January 2006, thin films of nanotubes made by evaporation [http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/5/1/16/1]
* January 2006, another new method for growing forests of nanotubes is announced [http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/5/1/4/1]
* January 2006, elasticity increased from 20% to 280% by raising temperatures, causing diameter and conductivity to change greatly [http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/5/1/12/1]
[http://cnanotech.com/download_files/Issued_Patents/US06986876.pdf]
* February 2006, Eric Drexler writes paper calling for and describing engineering modeling, not just research modeling of nanotubes
* February 2006, CNI is manufacturing 100 pounds per day of some types of their nanotubes. High-purity <5% ash SWNT (large catalysts removed) was their most expensive (published) type at $2,000 per gram.
* February 2006, prices reduced by 1/2 in a year to $2 per gram in quantities of 1 kg as MWNT, >50nm diameter, 50 micrometers long. [http://www.cheaptubesinc.com/]
==Carbon nanotubes in electrical circuits==
Carbon nanotubes have many properties—from their unique dimensions to an unusual current [[electrical conduction|conduction]] mechanism—that make them ideal components of electrical circuits. Currently, there is no reliable way to arrange carbon nanotubes into a circuit.
The major hurdles that must be jumped for carbon nanotubes to find prominent places in circuits relate to fabrication difficulties. The production of electrical circuits with carbon nanotubes are very different from the traditional [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|IC fabrication process]]. The IC fabrication process is somewhat like [[sculpture]] - films are deposited onto a wafer and pattern-etched away. Because carbon nanotubes are fundamentally different from films, carbon nanotube circuits can so far not be mass produced.
Researchers sometimes resort to manipulating nanotubes one-by-one with the tip of an [[atomic force microscope]] in a painstaking, time-consuming process. Perhaps the best hope is that carbon nanotubes can be grown through a [[chemical vapor deposition]] process from patterned [[catalyst]] material on a wafer, which serve as growth sites and allow designers to position one end of the nanotube. During the deposition process, an [[electric field]] can be applied to direct the growth of the nanotubes, which tend to grow along the field lines from negative to positive polarity. Another way for the self assembly of the carbon nanotube transistors consist in using chemical or biological techniques to place the nanotubes from solution to determinate place on a substrate.
Even if nanotubes could be precisely positioned, there remains the problem that, to this date, engineers have been unable to control the types of nanotubes—metallic, semiconducting, single-walled, multi-walled—produced. A [[chemical engineering|chemical engineers]] solution is needed if nanotubes are to become feasible for commercial circuits.
==External links and sources==
{{Commons|Carbon nanotube}}
* [http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/NTSite/nanopage.html The Nanotube site] - This site last update: 2006.01.11 (Wednesday) 08:31:37 EST by David Tomanek.
* [http://wordsgalore.com/29x0_swnt_deflex_3x3_Ar_10eV_each.gif] Animated GIF of a (29,0) being struck by 10 sets of 9 Argon atoms at 10eV each
* [http://deaddog.duch.udel.edu/~frey/research/tubegenonline.html "TubeGen Online: Web-Accessible Nanotube Structure Generator"]
* [http://www.xnri.com/English/rd/cnri/index.html Industrial source for MWNT] CNT manufacturer in Japan
* [http://www.nanoindian.com Nanotechnology in India]
* [http://www.future-carbon.de Multi-Wall-Nanotubes, Nanofibers, metallised Nanotubes] manufacturer in Germany
* [http://www.ntp.com.cn Commercial source of carbon nanotubes] NTP-nanotube manufacturer in China
* [http://www.ahwahneetech.com Ahwahnee Technology] Silicon Valley carbon nanotube developer
* [http://students.chem.tue.nl/ifp03/Wondrous%20World%20of%20Carbon%20Nanotubes_Final.pdf The wonderous World of Carbon Nanotubes] (Good introduction to nanotubes)
* [http://www.newscientist.com/hottopics/tech/article.jsp?id=23864900&sub=Nanotechnology Jamieson V. "Open secret" ''New Scientist'']
* [http://www.nantero.com/mission.html Nantero] (developers of nanotube based non-volatile memory)
* [http://www.cheng.cam.ac.uk/research/groups/biosci/hg_research.html University of Cambridge, UK, Research group website] (Affordable methods for making carbon nanotubes and using them for gene delivery)
* [http://www.utdallas.edu/dept/chemistry/nanotech University of Texas at Dallas NanoTech Institute]
* [http://nanoDiamond.info/ NanoDiamond] (nanotubes arranged in a diamond formation yielding a very high strength-to-weight ratio material)
* [http://www.vincentherr.com/cf/ Carbon Nanotube & Fullerene Models - Vincent Herr, Houston, TX]
* [http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20030614/fob3.asp Science News - Nanotube Super Fibers] - From Science News, Vol. 163, No. 24, June 14, 2003, p. 372. No Updates.
* [http://nanotech-now.com Nanotube production surveys] Last Update September 18, 2005
* [http://www.nanosprint.com/nanotubes/newsletter/ Carbon Nanotubes Monthly Newsletter] - focuses on various applications of carbon nanotubes and surveys research papers and issued patents
* [http://smalley.rice.edu/ Columbia University Nanoscale Science and Engineering Center presents "Our Energy Challege" September 23, 2003]
* [http://www.house.gov/science/hearings/energy03/dec04/smalley.htm Review of Non-Oil and Gas Research Activities in the Houston-Galveston-Gulf Coast Area]
* [http://www.helixmaterial.com/product.html commercial sources]
* [http://www.carbondesignsinc.com/ Carbon Designs, Inc.] Only home page. No technical data as of Sept 25, 2005.
* [http://trnmag.com/Stories/2004/120104/For_pure_nanotubes_add_water_120104.html "For pure nanotubes add water" article by Eric Smalley 2004-12] "stands of single-wall carbon nanotubes as tall as 2.5 millimeters and 99.98 percent pure. Individual nanotubes range from one to three nanometers in diameter."
* [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/8976160/ Nanotubes show their strength in numbers (MSNBC, August 18, 2005)] Super-strong sheets could be used in future screens and surfaces
*[http://www.patagon.8m.com/equations/cnt.html Nanotube composites, current applications and challenges, electrical conductivity records in 2005]
*[http://nanotechweb.org nanotechweb.org: news on nanotubes and other fields of nanotechnology]
*[http://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0310067 Bose-Einstein Condensation of Helium and Hydrogen inside Bundles of Carbon Nanotubes]
*[http://carbonnanotu.be Image of a carbon nanotube]
==References==
* [http://www.personal.rdg.ac |
which a male fan goes backstage at an Eminem concert and has a one-night stand with him. Christian rapper [[KJ-52]] released "Dear Slim" and "Dear Slim pt. 2," open letters to Eminem in a similar style to "Stan."
*When Dr. Dre first heard his tape, he thought Eminem was black.[http://www.dr-dre.com/info/interview_vh1_nuthin_but_an_m_thing.php]
*Several of his songs have been parodied. The most famous incident was [["Weird Al" Yankovic]]'s parody of "Lose Yourself," entitled "Couch Potato" and featuring new lyrics about television programming. He has also been parodied twice by the Christian [[parody]] band [[ApologetiX]], with "Lose Yourself" ("Look Yourself") and "The Real Slim Shady" ("The Real Sin Savior").
*Eminem is [[left-handed]]. This can be seen in a scene in ''[[8 Mile]]'' where he is sitting on a bus with a pencil in his left hand, as well as in several of the promotional posters for the film, which depict him writing lyrics with his left hand.
*Eminem's height: 5'8" (1.73m).
*His real hair color is in fact a dark brown, he bleaches his hair with peroxide (as stated in "White America"); he did not bleach his hair in ''[[8 Mile]]'', and so his natural hair color can be seen in the movie.
*Eminem wears glasses, which can be seen in some of his interviews, as well as on the music videos for "[[Mockingbird (song)|Mockingbird]]" and "[[Stan (song)|Stan]]".
*Eminem's rap group [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]], short for "Dirty Dozen," has only six members. Many people are often confused by the number. It is "12" because each of the six members of the group has two pseudonyms or "personas." (For example, "Eminem" and "Slim Shady").
*Eminem was number 6 on [[VH1]]'s 50 greatest hip hop artists of all time.
*Eminem has been awarded nine [[Grammy]] awards. He also received nominations for Album of the Year for both ''The Marshall Mathers LP'' and ''The Eminem Show''.
* ''The Marshall Mathers LP'' was the first rap album to be nominated for Album of the Year at the Grammy Awards and "Lose Yourself" was the first rap song to be nominated for Song of the Year.
*Eminem won a [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Song Oscar]] for his song "[[Lose Yourself]]" from the movie ''[[8 Mile]]''.
*In November 2002, Eminem had the #1 album (''[[8 Mile Soundtrack]]''), movie (''[[8 Mile]]''), and song ("[[Lose Yourself]]") all at the same time, becoming the first artist/entertainer ever to do so.
*[[Human Rights Watch]] claims that Eminem's music was used to torture detainees in a secret [[Afghanistan]] prison near [[Kabul]] between 2002 and 2004. [http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2005/12/19/afghan12319.htm]
*Eminem listed his favorite rappers as [[Redman]], [[Jay-Z]], Tupac Shakur, [[The Notorious B.I.G.]], [[André 3000]] from [[OutKast]], [[Jadakiss]], [[Kurupt]], and Nas in the song "'Till I Collapse" from his 2002 release, ''The Eminem Show''.
*In acceptance of his Grammy for Best Rap Album (for ''The Eminem Show'') in 2003, he credited his rap influences, saying, "I made me a little list of MCs that I wanted to name off that inspired me to, to bring me where I am today - cause honestly, I wouldn't be here without them. So the list goes like this, and it's not in this order, but the list is this: [[Run-DMC]], the [[Beastie Boys]], [[LL Cool J]], [[Kool G. Rap]], [[Master Ace]], [[Rakim]], [[Big Daddy Kane]], Dr. Dre, all of [[N.W.A.]], [[KRS-One]], Treach from [[Naughty by Nature]], Nas, Tupac, [[The Notorious B.I.G.|Biggie]], Jay-Z. Thank you, 'cause I learned from all of you. Thank you."
*Eminem's manager, Paul Rosenberg (who is featured prominently in several skits on Eminem's solo releases), was once a rapper himself, known as "Paul Bunyan".
*Marshall and his wife [[Kim Mathers|Kim]] first met at one of his friends' houses, when Eminem was fifteen and Kim was thirteen. She came over while he was lip synching to LL Cool J songs and jumping on the furniture.
*He is a fan of the TV show "[[Crank Yankers]]"; puppets from the show were included in the video for "Ass Like That". He has also lent his voice to the show numerous times, and had one of the puppets, Special Ed, host "Eminem's Special Hits".
*He loves ''[[South Park]]'', and referred to himself as a "twenty-six-year-old skinny [[Eric Cartman|Cartman]]" in the song "Marshall Mathers".
*In the movie [[8 Mile]], an opposing MC, in reference to Rabbit, Eminem's character, said "I feel bad I gotta murder that dude from [[Leave It to Beaver]]." Interestingly, the name of the actor who played The Beaver was [[Jerry Mathers]]. Mathers is Eminem's last name.
==Awards and nominations==
'''[[Academy Award]]s'''
*2003 - [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best song]], for "Lose Yourself" from ''[[8 Mile]]''
'''[[Golden Globe Awards]]'''
*2003 - Best Original Song in a Motion Picture (Nominee), for "Lose Yourself" from ''[[8 Mile]]''
'''[[Grammy Award]]s'''
*2000 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance|Best rap solo performance]] for "[[My Name Is]]" from ''[[The Slim Shady LP]]''
*2000 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Album|Best rap album]] for ''The Slim Shady LP''
*2001 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance|Best rap solo performance]] for "[[The Real Slim Shady]]" from ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]''
*2001 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group|Best rap performance by a duo or group]] (with Dr. Dre) for "Forgot About Dre" from ''[[2001 (album)|Dr Dre 2001]]''
*2001 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Album|Best rap album]] for ''The Marshall Mathers LP''
*2003 - [[Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video|Best short form music video]], for "[[Without Me]]" from ''The Eminem Show'' (directed by [[Joseph Kahn]])
*2003 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Album|Best rap album]] for ''The Eminem Show''
*2004 - [[Grammy Award for Best Male Rap Solo Performance|Best male rap solo performance]] for "Lose Yourself" from the ''[[8 Mile Soundtrack|8 Mile O.S.T.]]''
*2004 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Song|Best rap song]] for "Lose Yourself" from the ''8 Mile O.S.T.''
'''[[Grammy Award|Grammy Award nominations]]'''
*2006 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Song|Best rap song]] for "Mockingbird" from ''Encore'' (Nominee)
*2006 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group|Best rap performance by a duo or group]] for "Encore/Curtains Down" (featuring Dr. Dre & 50 Cent) from ''Encore'' (Nominee)
*2006 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Album|Best rap album]] for ''Encore'' (Nominee)
'''[[MTV Movie Awards]]'''
*2002 - Best male performance, for ''8 Mile''
*2002 - Best breakthrough male performance, for ''8 Mile''
'''[[MTV Video Music Award]]s'''
*1999 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist|Best new artist]] for "My Name Is" from ''The Slim Shady LP''
*2000 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Video of the Year|Best video]] for "The Real Slim Shady" from ''The Marshall Mathers LP''
*2000 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Male Video|Best male video]] for "The Real Slim Shady" from ''The Marshall Mathers LP''
*2000 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video|Best rap video]] (with Dr. Dre) for "Forgot About Dre" from ''Dr Dre 2001''
*2002 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Video of the Year|Best video]] for "Without Me", from ''The Eminem Show''
*2002 - Best male video, for "Without Me", from ''The Eminem Show''
*2002 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video|Best rap video]] for "Without Me", from ''The Eminem Show''
*2002 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction|Best direction]], for "Without Me", from ''The Eminem Show''
*2003 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Video from a Film|Best video from a film]], for "Lose Yourself" from the ''8 Mile O.S.T.''
'''[[MTV Europe Music Awards]]'''
*1999 - Best hip-hop act
*2000 - Best hip-hop act
*2000 - Best album, for ''The Marshall Mathers LP''
*2001 - Best hip-hop act
*2002 - Best male act
*2002 - Best hip-hop act
*2002 - Best album, for ''The Eminem Show''
*2003 - Best hip-hop act
*2004 - Best hip-hop act (with [[D12 (band)|D12]])
'''[[American Music Award]]s'''
*2003 - Favorite pop/rock male artist
*2003 - Favorite pop/rock album, for ''The Eminem Show''
*2003 - Favorite hip-hop/R&B male artist
*2003 - Favorite hip-hop/R&B album, for ''The Eminem Show''
*2005 - Favorite hip-hop/R&B male artist
==See also==
*[[Best selling music artists]]
*[[List of best-selling albums worldwide]]
==External links==
===Official===
*[http://www.eminem.com/ Official Eminem website] (requires [[Macromedia Flash]])
*[http://www.aftermath-entertainment.com/ Official Aftermath Records website]
*[http://www.shadyrecords.com/ Official Shady Records website]
===Resources===
*[http://www.trshady.com/ Eminem fan site and community]
*[http://www.shadygallery.com/ Eminem and Shady/Aftermath picture gallery]
*{{musicbrainz artist|id=b95ce3ff-3d05-4e87-9e01-c97b66af13d4|name=Eminem}}
*[http://aftermathmusic.info/ Eminem/Aftermath fan community]
*[http://www.dubcc.com/forum/index.php?topic=65364.0 Production Credits for all Eminem albums]
*[http://launch.yahoo.com/artist/videos.asp?artistID=1037847 Eminem music videos on Yahoo's Launch.com]
*[http://www.blender.com/guide/articles.aspx?id=1623 Networth source]
*[http://www.eminem.com.au/ Australian Eminem website]
*[http://www.wikisound.com/index.php/Eminem Eminem's Listing on WikiSound]
===News===
*[http://aftermathmusic.com/ Shady/Aftermath News]
*[http://www.freep.com/eminem/index.htm Detroit Free Press Eminem News Collection]
[[Category:1972 births|Eminem]]
[[C |
la]] ([[Cameroon]])
*[[Dublin]] ([[Republic of Ireland]])
*[[Dunkirk, France|Dunkirk]] ([[France]])
*[[Edinburgh]] ([[Scotland]])
*[[Port Everglades|Everglades, Port]] ([[United States]])
*[[Fortaleza]] ([[Brazil]])
*[[Georgetown, Guyana|Georgetown]] ([[Guyana]])
*[[Glasgow]] ([[Scotland]])
*[[Gothenburg]]([[Sweden]])
*[[Hamburg]] ([[Germany]])
*[[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]] ([[United States]])
*[[Lagos]] ([[Nigeria]])
*[[Las Palmas]] ([[Spain]])
*[[Le Havre]] ([[France]])
*[[Libreville]] ([[Gabon]])
*[[Lisbon]] ([[Portugal]])
*[[Liverpool]] ([[England]])
*[[Lomé]] ([[Togo]])
*[[London]] ([[England]])
*[[Luanda]] ([[Angola]])
*[[Maceió]] ([[Brazil]])
*[[Malabo]] ([[Equatorial Guinea]])
*[[Port of Miami-Dade|Miami]] ([[United States]])
*[[Monrovia]] ([[Liberia]])
*[[Montreal|Montréal]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Morehead City, North Carolina|Morehead City]] ([[United States]])
*[[Nantes]] ([[France]])
*[[Nantucket]] ([[United States]])
*[[Narvik]] ([[Norway]])
*[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] ([[United States]])
*[[New London, Connecticut|New London]] ([[United States]])
*[[New York]] ([[United States]])
*[[Newcastle upon Tyne]] ([[England]])
*[[Newport News]] ([[United States]])
*[[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]] ([[United States]])
*[[Nouakchott]] ([[Mauritania]])
*[[Oslo]] ([[Norway]])
*[[Ostend]] ([[Belgium]])
*[[Port of Palm Beach|Palm Beach]] ([[United States]])
*[[Paramaribo]] ([[Suriname]])
*[[Peterhead]] ([[United Kingdom]])
*[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] ([[United States]])
*[[Port Harcourt]] ([[Nigeria]])
*[[Portland, Maine|Portland]] ([[United States]])
*[[Porto]] ([[Portugal]])
*[[Porto-Novo]] ([[Benin]])
*[[Portsmouth]] ([[England]])
*[[Portsmouth, New Hampshire|Portsmouth]] ([[United States]])
*[[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]] ([[United States]])
*[[Puerto Cortes]] ([[Honduras]])
*[[Quebec City, Quebec|Québec]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Rabat]] ([[Morocco]])
*[[Recife]] ([[Brazil]])
*[[Reykjavík]] ([[Iceland]])
*[[Rio de Janeiro]] ([[Brazil]])
*[[Rotterdam]] ([[Netherlands]])
*[[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]] ([[Brazil]])
*[[Saint-Nazaire]] ([[France]])
*[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] ([[Spain]])
*[[Santander, Spain|Santander]] ([[Spain]])
*[[Santos (São Paulo)|Santos]] ([[Brazil]])
*[[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]] ([[United States]])
*[[Seville]] ([[Spain]])
*[[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Sept-Îles]] ([[Canada]])
*[[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Southampton]] ([[England]])
*[[Stavanger]] ([[Norway]])
*[[Sydney, Nova Scotia|Sydney]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Tangier]] ([[Morocco]])
*[[Trois-Rivières]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Tromsø]] ([[Norway]])
*[[Trondheim]] ([[Norway]])
*[[Vigo]] ([[Spain]])
*[[Vitória]] ([[Brazil]])
*[[Walvis Bay]] ([[Namibia]])
*[[Willemstad, Netherlands Antilles|Willemstad]] ([[Netherlands Antilles]])
*[[Wilmington, North Carolina|Wilmington]] ([[United States]])
*[[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]] ([[Canada]])
=== Note on transportation ===
The [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] is an important waterway.
== References ==
<div style="font-size:85%;">
<references/>
</div>
Much of this article comes from the public domain site <nowiki>http://oceanographer.navy.mil/atlantic.html</nowiki> ([[dead link]]). It is now accessible from the [[Internet Archive]] at http://web.archive.org/web/20020221215514/http%3a//oceanographer.navy.mil/atlantic.html.
* Disclaimers for this website, including its status as a public domain resource, are recorded on the Internet Archive at http://web.archive.org/web/20020212021049/http%3a//oceanographer.navy.mil/warning.html.
==External links==
{{Commons|Atlantic Ocean}}
* [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/zh.html CIA – The World Factbook – Atlantic Ocean]
[[Category:Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Oceans]]
[[af:Atlantiese Oseaan]]
[[als:Atlantik]]
[[ar:أطلسي]]
[[an:Ozián Atlantico]]
[[ast:Océanu Atlánticu]]
[[bg:Атлантически океан]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tāi-se-iûⁿ]]
[[be:Атлянтычны акіян]]
[[bn:আটলান্টিক মহাসমুদ্র]]
[[br:Meurvor atlantel]]
[[ca:Oceà Atlàntic]]
[[cv:Атлантика океанĕ]]
[[cs:Atlantský oceán]]
[[cy:Cefnfor Iwerydd]]
[[da:Atlanterhavet]]
[[de:Atlantischer Ozean]]
[[et:Atlandi ookean]]
[[el:Ατλαντικός Ωκεανός]]
[[es:Océano Atlántico]]
[[eo:Atlantika Oceano]]
[[eu:Atlantiar ozeano]]
[[fa:اقیانوس اطلس]]
[[fr:Océan Atlantique]]
[[fy:Atlantyske Oseaan]]
[[ga:An tAigéan Atlantach]]
[[gl:Océano Atlántico]]
[[ko:대서양]]
[[hr:Atlantski ocean]]
[[io:Atlantiko]]
[[id:Samudra Atlantik]]
[[is:Atlantshaf]]
[[it:Oceano Atlantico]]
[[he:האוקיינוס האטלנטי]]
[[kw:Keynvor Iwerydh]]
[[la:Oceanus Atlanticus]]
[[lt:Atlanto vandenynas]]
[[li:Atlantische Oceaan]]
[[hu:Atlanti-óceán]]
[[mk:Атлантски Океан]]
[[nl:Atlantische Oceaan]]
[[nds:Atlantik]]
[[ja:大西洋]]
[[no:Atlanterhavet]]
[[nn:Atlanterhavet]]
[[pl:Ocean Atlantycki]]
[[pt:Oceano Atlântico]]
[[ro:Oceanul Atlantic]]
[[ru:Атлантический океан]]
[[scn:Ocèanu Atlànticu]]
[[simple:Atlantic Ocean]]
[[sk:Atlantický oceán]]
[[sl:Atlantski ocean]]
[[sr:Атлантски океан]]
[[fi:Atlantin valtameri]]
[[sv:Atlanten]]
[[ta:அட்லாண்டிக் பெருங்கடல்]]
[[th:มหาสมุทรแอตแลนติก]]
[[vi:Đại Tây Dương]]
[[tr:Atlas Okyanusu]]
[[uk:Атлантичний океан]]
[[zh:大西洋]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alveolates</title>
<id>699</id>
<revision>
<id>15899225</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-16T00:04:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josh Grosse</username>
<id>517</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>To singular</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alveolate]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur Schopenhauer</title>
<id>700</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41807323</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:57:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.131.166.198</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophers |
era = [[19th-century philosophy]] |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = Schopenhauer.jpg |
image_caption = Arthur Schopenhauer |
<!-- Information -->
name = Arthur Schopenhauer |
birth = [[February 22]], [[1788]] ([[Sztutowo]], [[Poland]]) |
death = [[September 21]], [[1860]] ([[Frankfurt-am-Main]], [[Germany]]) |
school_tradition = [[Kantianism]], [[Idealism]] |
main_interests = [[Metaphysics]], [[Aesthetics]], [[Phenomenology]], [[Morality]], [[Psychology]] |
influences = [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Plato]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Giacomo Leopardi]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Rene Descartes|Descartes]], [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]] |
influenced = [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]], [[Carl Jung|Jung]], [[Hermann Hesse]], [[Thomas Mann]] |
notable_ideas = [[Will (philosophy)|Will]], [[Fourfold root of the sufficient principle of reason|Fourfold root of reason]] |
}}
'''Arthur Schopenhauer''' ([[February 22]], [[1788]] &ndash; [[September 21]], [[1860]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[philosopher]]. He is most famous for his work ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]''. He is commonly known for having espoused a sort of philosophical [[pessimism]] that saw life as being essentially [[evil]], futile, and full of suffering. However, upon closer inspection, in accordance with [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern thought]], especially that of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], he saw [[salvation]], deliverance, or escape from suffering in [[aesthetic]] [[contemplation]], [[sympathy]] for others, and [[ascetic]] living. His ideas profoundly influenced the fields of [[philosophy]], [[psychology]], [[music]], and [[literature]].
== Life ==
Schopenhauer was born in [[1788]] in [[Sztutowo]], Poland, near [[Gdańsk]]. He was the son of Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer and [[Johanna Schopenhauer]], a middle class mercantile family of [[Netherlands|Dutch]] heritage, although they had strong feelings against any kind of nationalism. Indeed, the name Arthur was selected by his father especially because it was the same in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], and [[French language|French]]. His parents were both from the city, and Johanna was an author as well. After the city was annexed by [[Prussia]] during the second [[Partitions of Poland|partition of Poland]] in [[1793]], the Schopenhauer family fled to [[Hamburg]]; in [[1805]] Schopenhauer's father died, possibly by [[suicide]], and Johanna moved to [[Weimar]]. Because of a promise to pursue a business career, Schopenhauer remained in Hamburg. His disgust of this career, however, drove him away to join his mother in Weimar after only a year. He never got along with his mother; when the writer [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], who was a friend of Johanna Schopenhauer, told her that he thought her son was destined for great things, Johanna objected: she had never heard there could be ''two'' geniuses in a single family.
Schopenhauer studied at the [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]] and was awarded a PhD from the [[University of Jena]]. In [[1820]], Schopenhauer became a lecturer at the [[University of Berlin]]; it was there that his opposition to [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] began.
While in Berlin, Schopenhauer became involved in a consuming lawsuit from a Caroline Marquet. She asked for damages from him, a man of |
akened [[immune system]]. [[Fatigue]] and [[Depression (mood)|depression]] can follow the excitement stage. [[Erectile dysfunction]], heart problems, stroke, and liver, kidney and lung damage can result from prolonged use. When snorted, amphetamine can lead to a deterioration of the lining of the nostrils.
Short-term psychological effects can include alertness, euphoria, increased concentration, rapid talking, increased confidence, increased social responsiveness, [[nystagmus]] (eye wiggles), hallucinations, and loss of [[Rapid eye movement|REM]] sleep the night after use.
Long-term psychological effects can include insomnia, mental states resembling [[schizophrenia]], aggressiveness (not associated with schizophrenia), addiction or dependence with accompanying withdrawal symptoms, irritability, confusion, and panic. Chronic and/or extensively-continuous use can lead to [[amphetamine psychosis]], which causes delusions and paranoia, but this is uncommon when taken as prescribed. Amphetamine is highly-psychologically addictive, and, with chronic use, tolerance develops very quickly. Withdrawal is, although not physiologically threatening, an unpleasant experience (including [[paranoia]], depression, difficult breathing, [[dysphoria]], gastric fluctuations and/or pain, and [[lethargia]]). This commonly leads chronic users to re-dose amphetamine frequently, explaining tolerance and increasing the possibility of addiction.
==Addiction==
Because of the widespread ability in prescription amphetamine today, mainly in the ADD/ADHD medicines [[Adderall]] and [[Dexedrine]], there is an increased risk of abuse and addiction among persons of all ages. [[Tolerance]] is developed rapidly in amphetamine use, therefore increasing amount of the drug that is needed to satisfy the adiction. Many abusers will repeat the amphetamine cycle by taking more of the drug during the [[withdrawal]]. This leads to a very dangerous cycle and may involve the use of other drugs to get over the withdrawal process.
Anyone is able to develope tolerance to amphetamines. Children and other [[ADD]] and [[ADHD]] sufferers have been known to feel different when not taking the medication, a feeling significantly different enough from being medicated that drives the users to keep taking the drug when it is not needed, however, addiction to ADD/ADHD medication is rare if it is not abused or wrongly prescribed.
==Legal issues==
* In the United Kingdom, amphetamines are regarded as [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971|Class B]] drugs. The maximum penalty for unauthorised possession is three months' imprisonment and a £2,500 fine.
* In the United States, amphetamine and [[methamphetamine]] are [[Controlled Substances Act#Schedule II drugs|Schedule II]] controlled drugs, classified as a CNS (Central Nervous System) Stimulant. A Schedule II drug is classified as one that: has a high potential for abuse, has a currently-accepted medical use and is used under severe restrictions, and has a high possibility of severe psychological and physiological dependence.
On the international scene, amphetamine is a Schedule II drug under the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]]{{ref|www.incb.org.684}}.
==Books==
* {{cite book
| last = Seabrook | first = Jeremy
| title=In the Cities of the South:scenes from a developing world
| location = London ; New York
| publisher = Verso
| year=1996
| id=ISBN 1859849865
}}
==See also==
*[[Adderall]]
*[[Stimulants]]
*[[Phenethylamine]]s
*[[Dextroamphetamine]] (Dexedrine)
*[[Methylphenidate]] (Ritalin, Concerta)
*[[Cathinone]]
*[[Methcathinone]]
*[[Ephedrine]]
*[[Tolerance]]
*[[Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder]]
*[[Psychoactive drug]]
*[[Clandestine chemistry]]
*[[Uncle Fester (author)]]
{{Phenethylamines}}
==External links==
* {{PubChemLink|5826}} ([[D-form]] &mdash; dextroamphetamine)
* {{PubChemLink|3007}} ([[L-form]] and D,L-forms)
* {{PubChemLink|32893}} ([[L-form]] &mdash; Levamphetamine or L-amphetamine)
* [http://abcnews.go.com/sections/2020/DailyNews/2020_pilotpills021220.html USAF use of amphetamines]
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/amphetamines/amphetamines.shtml Erowid - Amphetamines]
* [http://www.thegooddrugsguide.com/amphetamines/index.htm The Good Drugs Guide - Amphetamines]
* [http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=364 Lycaeum - Amphetamines]
* Srisurapanont et al, [http://www.update-software.com/abstracts/AB003022.htm Treatment for amphetamine dependence and abuse]
* [http://www.drugs.com/Amphetamine Drugs.com - Amphetamine]
* [http://www.apaic.org Asia & Pacific Amphetamine - Type Simulant Information Centre] - a very extensive information source mangaged by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
== Notes ==
<!-- How to add a footnote:
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3. No need to re-number anything!
5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
-->
# {{note|www.incb.org.684}} {{cite web | title=List of psychotropic substances under international control
| publisher = International Narcotics Control Board
| url=http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate=November 19 | accessyear=2005
}}
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[Category:Sympathomimetic amines]]
[[Category:Phenethylamines]]
[[Category:Stimulants]]
[[Category:Amphetamines]]
[[Category:Military drugs]]
[[da:Amfetamin]]
[[de:Amphetamin]]
[[es:Anfetamina]]
[[fr:Amphétamine]]
[[it:Anfetamina]]
[[he:אמפטמין]]
[[hu:Amfetamin]]
[[ms:Amfetamina]]
[[nl:Amfetamine]]
[[ja:アンフェタミン]]
[[no:Amfetamin]]
[[pl:Amfetamina]]
[[pt:Anfetamina]]
[[ru:Амфетамин]]
[[fi:Amfetamiini]]
[[sv:Amfetamin]]
[[uk:Амфетамін]]
[[zh:苯丙胺]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asynchronous communication</title>
<id>2506</id>
<revision>
<id>36150181</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T00:21:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Igor Markov</username>
<id>794787</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Asynchronous communication''' is sending data without [[synchronization]] to an external clock.
The asynchronous communication technique is a physical layer transmission technique which is most widely used for personal computers providing connectivity to printers, modems, fax machines, etc. The most significant aspect of asynchronous communications is that the transmitter and receiver clock are independent and are not synchronised..
==See also==
* [[Asynchrony]]
* [[Asynchronous system]]
* [[Asynchronous circuit]]
* [[Asynchronous start-stop]]
* [[Asynchronous computer]]
[[Category:Communication]]
[[Category:Telecommunications_terms]]
{{Compu-network-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antibiotics</title>
<id>2507</id>
<revision>
<id>15900912</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antibiotic]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Artillery</title>
<id>2508</id>
<revision>
<id>41460486</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:14:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>138.162.0.38</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[thrash metal]] band, see [[Artillery (band)]]''
{{history of war}}
Historically, '''''artillery''''' refers to any engine used for the discharge of [[projectile]]s during [[war]]. The term also describes ground-based [[soldier|troop]]s with the primary function of manning such [[weapon]]s. Sometimes known as "The King of Battle". The word is derived from the [[Old French]] [[verb]] ''attilier'', meaning ''"to equip"''.
== History ==
The first documented record of artillery used on the battle field is on [[January 28]], [[1132]]. General [[Han Shizhong]] of the [[Song Dynasty]] used [[Escalade]] and Artillery to capture a city in [[Fujian]].
The word as used in the current context originated in the [[Middle Ages]]. It comes from the [[Old French]] ''atellier'' meaning "to arrange", and ''attillement'' meaning "equipment". From the [[13th century]] an ''artillier'' referred to a builder of any war equipment, and for the next 250 years the sense of the word "artillery" covered all forms of military weapons.
Older engines like the [[catapult]], [[onager (siege weapon)|onager]], [[trebuchet]] and [[ballista]] are artillery, but the modern term really dates from the mid [[15th century]] with [[bombard]]s and then [[cannon]].
Bombards are the earliest of gunpowder artillery, distinguished by their lack of a field carriage, immobility once emplaced, highly individual design, and noted unreliability. The use of the word cannon marks the introduction of a dedicated field carriage with axle, trail and horse-drawn limber - this produced mobile field pieces that could move and support an army in action rather than being found only in siege and static defences. Cannon were always muzzle-loaders, casting technology having standardized and removed the often dangerous breech-loading design.
[[Image:Artillery gun crew-illustration.jpeg|thumb|Continental Artillery crew from the American Revolution]]
[[Image:93RAM 155 TR F1 16082231456651583.jpg|t |
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gemini program</title>
<id>12638</id>
<revision>
<id>15910310</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-23T22:28:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Enceladus</username>
<id>29293</id>
</contributor>
<comment>All the stuff that was on this page is now at [[Project Gemini]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Project Gemini]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galilee</title>
<id>12639</id>
<revision>
<id>42154927</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:32:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.145.183.225</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Minor change for grammatical correctness.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Galilee''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-jaleel'' الجليل, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''hagalil'' הגליל), meaning "circuit", is a large area overlapping with much of the [[North District, Israel|North District]] of [[Israel]]. It is traditionally divided into three areas:
* Upper Galilee,
* Lower Galilee and
* Western Galilee.
== Geography ==
Galilee embraces more than one-third of present-day [[Israel]], extending "from Dan on the north, at the base of [[Mount Hermon]], to the ridges of Carmel and Gilboa on the south, and from the Jordan valley on the east away across the splendid plains of Jezreel and [[Akko]] to the shores of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] on the west."
The Western Galilee, also called the "Northern Coastal Plain" strays from north of Haifa up to [[Rosh Hanikra]] in the border between [[Israel]] and [[Lebanon]].
The Lower Galilee strays from [[Mount Carmel]] and [[Gilboa ridge]] in the south to the [[Beit HaKerem Valley]] in the north. Its eastern border is the [[Jordan River]].
The Upper Galilee strays from [[Beit HaKerem Valley]] in the south to the Lebanese border in the north. Its eastern border is the [[Sea of Galilee]] and the mountains of the [[Golan Heights]]. The "Finger of the Galilee" (''Etzba ha-Galil'') is a region of the upper Galilee and contains the towns [[Metula]] and [[Qiriyat Shemona]] and the rivers of [[Dan]] and [[Banias]].
Most of the Galilee consists of mountainous terrain, at heights of about 500-700 meters. There are several high mountain such as [[Mount Tabor]] and [[Mount Meiron]]. The relatively low tempartures and the large amounts of rain pouring every year made the Galilee a center of [[flora (plants)|blossom]] and wildlife. The streams and waterfalls (mainly in the upper Galilee), along with vast fields of green and colorful flowers made it a popular tourist attraction in [[Israel]].
==In Biblical Times==
At and before the time of Jesus, the region of the Galilee had been populated by Gentiles, people who were of neither Jewish nor [[Samaritan]] ancestry. Galilee was not part of [[Judea]] proper but at times was under Judean control. Galilee was separated from it by a sliver of the Gentile [[Decapolis]] and by the ethnically mixed transitional region [[Samaria]]. The cultural and fundamentalist, religious Jews (Judeans), considered the region to be lower than the half-breeds of Samaria and therefore, morally, spiritually and physically "unclean".
The Scriptures themselves had prophesied that "the Galilee of the Gentiles" would "see a great Light", the Light of the Messiah of Israel (see the book of [[Isaiah]]). In the New Testament, Jesus and his disciples were repeatedly known as from "Galilee of the Gentiles" or as "Galileans" or "Nazarenes" to emphasize that they were ethnic foreigners preaching to native Judeans.
== History ==
According to legend, [[Solomon]] rewarded Hiram for certain services rendered him by the gift of an upland plain among the mountains of [[Naphtali]]. Hiram was dissatisfied with the gift, and called it "the land of Cabul". The Jews called it ''Galil''. During the [[Hasmonean|Hasmonaean]] period, in the midst of the decline of the [[Seleucid Empire]], the region was taken over by the Jews.
In Roman times, the region was divided into [[Judea]], [[Samaria]], and Galilee, which comprised the whole northern section of the country, and was the largest of the three. [[Herod Antipas]], son of [[Herod the Great]], ruled Galilee as [[tetrarch]] during [[Jesus]]' ministry.
Galilee has been the scene of some of the most memorable events of Jewish history. Galilee also was the home of [[Jesus]] during at least thirty years of his life. The first three Gospels of the [[New Testament]] are chiefly taken up with Jesus' public ministry in this province, namely in the villages of [[Nazareth]] and [[Capernaum]].
In [[135]], following the failed [[Bar Kokhba]] revolt, the Romans renamed the province of [[Judaea]] as [[Syria Palaestina|Palaestina]], in an attempt to remove all memory of the Jews' connection to the area.
After the [[Arab]] caliphate took control of the region in [[638]], it became part of the ''jund'' of [[Urdunn]] (Jordan). The [[Shia]] [[Fatimid]]s took the region in the 900s; a breakaway sect, venerating the Fatimid caliph [[al-Hakim]], formed the [[Druze]] religion, centered in and north of the Galilee.
During the [[Crusade]]s, Galilee was organized into the [[Principality of Galilee]], one of the most important Crusader seigneuries.
In the early [[20th century]], the Galilee was inhabited by [[Arab]]s, [[Druze]]s and minorities such as [[Circassians]] and [[Jew]]s. The Jewish population was increased significantly by [[Zionist]] immigration.
After the [[1948 Arab-Israeli war]] the entire Galilee came under Israel's control. A large portion of the population fled, leaving entire villages empty; however, more [[Palestinian]]s remained than in most areas, due especially to a successful rapprochement with the [[Druze]]. The [[kibbutz]]im around the [[Sea of Galilee]] were sometimes shelled by the [[Syrian army]]'s [[artillery]]. The shelling stopped after [[Israel]] conquered the [[Golan Heights]] in [[1967]].
During the [[1970]]'s and the early [[1980]]'s, the [[PLO]] sometimes launched attacks on towns of the Upper Galilee from [[Lebanon]]. Israel initiated [[Operation Litani]] ([[1979]]) and [[Operation Peace For Galilee]] ([[1982]]) with the stated objectives of destroying the PLO infrastructure in [[Lebanon]] and protects the citizens of the Upper Galilee. Israel remained in occupation of most of Southern Lebanon until [[1985]]; in [[1985]] Israel withdrew to a narrow security "buffer zone" called "Retzuat ha-Bitachon". Until the year [[2000]], [[Hezbollah]] (and earlier [[Amal Movement|Amal]]) continued to fight the [[Israeli Defence Forces]], sometimes shelling Upper Galilee communities and towns with [[Katyusha]] [[rocket]]s). In [[2000]] [[Israeli prime-minister]] [[Ehud Barak]] unilaterally withdrew from south Lebanon and deployed Israel on the international border, recognized by the [[UN]]. However, clashes between Hezbollah and Israel continued along the border, and UN observers condemned both for their attacks. Hezbollah claims that a place on the border of the Golan Heights and Lebanon called the [[Shebaa Farms]] is Israeli-occupied Lebanon. Israel and the UN claim that the Shebaa Farms are part of the Syrian [[Golan Heights]].
== Modern Galilee ==
Modern Galilee is one of the few areas of Israel to have retained a large [[Israeli Arab|Arab]] population after [[1948]], and has a particularly large number of [[Druze]]. The "heart of the Galilee" - the districts of Carmel, Upper Nazareth, Ma'alot, Migdal Ha'emek and Afula - has an Arab majority of 78%[http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/20778/edition_id/426/format/html/displaystory.html], despite [[Jewish Agency]] efforts to change the demographic balance.
Its main cities are [[Akko]] (Acre), [[Nazareth]], [[Safed]] (Tzfat), [[Karmiel]], [[Afula]], [[Qiryat Shemona]] and [[Tiberias]]. The city of [[Haifa]], although outside the Galilee serves as an administrational and commercial center for the Galilee.
Because of its mountainous terrain most of the settlements in the Galilee are small villages. The main industries of those villages are [[agriculture]] and [[tourism]]. Many families run a "[[Bed and breakfast|Zimmer]]" (a popular name for a B&B in Israel) for rent.
==See also==
* [[North District, Israel]]
* [[Sea of Galilee]] (also known as ''Yam Kinneret'', ''Sea of [[Tiberias]]'')
* [[Golan Heights]]
* [[Mount Hermon]]
==Reference==
* Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897. Please update as needed
[[Category:Tanakh places]]
[[Category:Geography of Israel]]
[[Category:Jewish history]]
[[Category:New Testament places]]
[[ang:Galilēa]]
[[de:Galiläa]]
[[et:Galilea]]
[[es:Galilea]]
[[fr:Galilée (région)]]
[[ko:갈릴리]]
[[it:Galilea]]
[[he:הגליל]]
[[nl:Galilea]]
[[ja:ガリラヤ]]
[[pl:Galilea]]
[[pt:Galiléia (região)]]
[[fi:Galilea]]
[[sv:Galileen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gandhi</title>
<id>12640</id>
<revision>
<id>38947469</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T18:37:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gurubrahma</username>
<id>253590</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv Pizzadeliveryboy's edits - Gandhi commonly refers to Mahatma and no one else</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mahatma Gandhi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goths</title>
<id>12641</id>
<revision>
<id>41834521</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:20:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ksenon</username>
<id>541820</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>readded font info</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Germanic tribes. For the late 20th century youth subculture, see [[Goth]]. For oth |
(Mico) leucippe''
** [[Emilia's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) emiliae''
** [[Black-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) nigriceps''
** [[Marca's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) marcai''
** [[Black-tailed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) melanura''
** [[Santarem Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) humeralifera''
** [[Maués Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) mauesi''
** [[Gold-and-white Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) chrysoleuca''
** [[Hershkovitz's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) intermedia''
** [[Satéré Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) saterei''
** [[Roosmalens' Dwarf Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callibella) humilis''
** [[Pygmy Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Cebuella) pygmaea''
* Genus ''[[Leontopithecus]]''
** [[Golden Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus rosalia''
** [[Golden-headed Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus chrysomelas''
** [[Black Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus chrysopygus''
** [[Superagui Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus caissara''
* Genus ''[[Saguinus]]''
** [[Red-handed Tamarin]], ''Saguinus midas''
** [[Black Tamarin]], ''Saguinus niger''
** [[Black-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus nigricollis''
** [[Graells's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus graellsi''
** [[Brown-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus fuscicollis''
** [[White-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus melanoleucus''
** [[Golden-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus tripartitus''
** [[Moustached Tamarin]], ''Saguinus mystax''
** [[Red-capped Tamarin]], ''Saguinus pileatus''
** [[White-lipped Tamarin]], ''Saguinus labiatus''
** [[Emperor Tamarin]], ''Saguinus imperator''
** [[Pied Tamarin]], ''Saguinus bicolor''
** [[Martins's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus martinsi''
** [[Cottontop Tamarin]] or Pinché Tamarin, ''Saguinus oedipus''
** [[Geoffroy's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus geoffroyi''
** [[White-footed Tamarin]], ''Saguinus leucopus''
** [[Mottle-faced Tamarin]], ''Saguinus inustus''
* Genus ''[[Goeldi's Marmoset|Callimico]]''
** [[Goeldi's Marmoset]], ''Callimico goeldii''
==References==
*Goldizen, A. W. (1988). Tamarin and marmoset mating systems: Unusual flexibility. ''Trends in Ecology and Evolution'', 3, 36-40.
==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Callitrichinae}}
* [http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/ammammals/smlmonkeys.shtml Amazon small monkeys: photos and natural history information]
[[Category:New World monkeys]]
[[de:Krallenaffen]]
[[es:Tití]]
[[fr:Callitrichidae]]
[[nl:Klauwaapjes]]
[[pt:Callitrichidae]]
[[sv:Kloapor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cebidae</title>
<id>5230</id>
<revision>
<id>41514414</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:49:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Funky Monkey</username>
<id>681121</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cebidae
| image = White-throated Capuchin.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[White-headed Capuchin]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primates]]
| subordo = [[Haplorrhini]]
| infraordo = [[Simiiformes]]
| unranked_familia = [[Platyrrhini]]
| familia = '''Cebidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], [[1831]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision =
''[[Callithrix]]''<br/>
''[[Leontopithecus]]''<br/>
''[[Saguinus]]''<br/>
''[[Goeldi's Marmoset|Callimico]]''<br/>
''[[Cebus]]''<br/>
''[[Saimiri]]''
}}
The '''Cebidae''' form one of the four [[family (biology)|families]] of [[New World monkeys]] now recognised. It includes the [[marmoset]]s, [[tamarin]]s, [[capuchin monkey]]s and [[squirrel monkey]]s.
==Classification==
Previously, New World monkeys were divided between the [[Callitrichidae]] and this family, but modern classifications place the [[genus|genera]] from Callitrichidae as a [[subfamily]] in Cebidae (named [[Callitrichinae]]), while moving other genera into the other families. As it is most widely recognised today, Cebidae includes six genera organised into three [[subfamily|subfamilies]], though one of these genera is currently purely formal in that it contains only a single species.
* '''Family Cebidae''': marmosets, tamarins, capuchins and squirrel monkeys
** Subfamily [[Callitrichinae]]
*** Genus ''[[Callithrix]]''
**** [[Common Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) jacchus''
**** [[Black-tufted Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) penicillata''
**** [[Wied's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) kuhlii''
**** [[White-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) geoffroyi''
**** [[Buffy-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) flaviceps''
**** [[Buffy-tufted Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) aurita''
**** [[Silvery Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) argentata''
**** [[White Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) leucippe''
**** [[Emilia's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) emiliae''
**** [[Black-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) nigriceps''
**** [[Marca's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) marcai''
**** [[Black-tailed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) melanura''
**** [[Santarem Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) humeralifera''
**** [[Maués Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) mauesi''
**** [[Gold-and-white Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) chrysoleuca''
**** [[Hershkovitz's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) intermedia''
**** [[Dwarf Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callibella) humilis''
**** [[Pygmy Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Cebuella) pygmaea''
*** Genus ''[[Leontopithecus]]''
**** [[Golden Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus rosalia''
**** [[Golden-headed Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus chrysomelas''
**** [[Black Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus chrysopygus''
**** [[Superagui Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus caissara''
*** Genus ''[[Saguinus]]''
**** [[Red-handed Tamarin]], ''Saguinus midas''
**** [[Black Tamarin]], ''Saguinus niger''
**** [[Black-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus nigricollis''
**** [[Graells's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus graellsi''
**** [[Brown-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus fuscicollis''
**** [[White-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus melanoleucus''
**** [[Golden-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus tripartitus''
**** [[Moustached Tamarin]], ''Saguinus mystax''
**** [[Red-capped Tamarin]], ''Saguinus pileatus''
**** [[White-lipped Tamarin]], ''Saguinus labiatus''
**** [[Emperor Tamarin]], ''Saguinus imperator''
**** [[Pied Tamarin]], ''Saguinus bicolor''
**** [[Martins's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus martinsi''
**** [[Cottontop Tamarin]] or Pinché Tamarin, ''Saguinus oedipus''
**** [[Geoffroy's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus geoffroyi''
**** [[White-footed Tamarin]], ''Saguinus leucopus''
**** [[Mottle-faced Tamarin]], ''Saguinus inustus''
*** Genus ''[[Goeldi's Marmoset|Callimico]]''
**** [[Goeldi's Marmoset]], ''Callimico goeldii''
** Subfamily [[Cebinae]]
*** Genus ''[[Cebus]]''
**** [[White-headed Capuchin]], ''Cebus capucinus''
**** [[White-fronted Capuchin]], ''Cebus albifrons''
**** [[Weeper Capuchin]], ''Cebus olivaceus''
**** [[Kaapori Capuchin]], ''Cebus kaapori''
**** [[Tufted Capuchin]], ''Cebus apella''
**** [[Black-striped Capuchin]], ''Cebus libidinosus''
**** [[Black Capuchin]], ''Cebus nigritus''
**** [[Golden-bellied Capuchin]], ''Cebus xanthosternos''
** Subfamily [[Saimiriinae]]
*** Genus ''[[Saimiri]]''
**** [[Central American Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri oerstedi''
**** [[Common Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri sciureus''
**** [[Bare-eared Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri ustus''
**** [[Black-capped Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri boliviensis''
**** [[Black Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri vanzolini''
{{Wikispecies|Cebidae}}
[[Category:New World monkeys]]
[[de:Kapuzinerartige]]
[[fr:Cebidae]]
[[lt:Kabiauodegės beždžionės]]
[[nl:Cebidae]]
[[ja:マーモセット科]]
[[pt:Cebidae]]
[[sv:Cebusliknande brednäsor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cercopithecidae</title>
<id>5231</id>
<revision>
<id>42095205</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:16:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Old World monkey]] {{R from scientific name}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chondrichthyes</title>
<id>5232</id>
<revision>
<id>39189792</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T09:33:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gooberliberation</username>
<id>324413</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cartilaginous fish<nowiki>es</nowiki>
| image = large_white_shark.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Great White Shark]], ''Carcharodon carcharias''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrate|Vertebrata]]
| classis = '''Chondrichthyes'''
| classis_authority = [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]], 1880
| subdivision_ranks = [[Orders (biology)|Orders]]
| subdivision =
See text.
}}
The '''Chondrichthyes''' or '''cartilaginous fish<nowiki>es</nowiki>''' are jawed [[fish]] with paired fins, paired nostrils, scales, two-chambered hearts, and skeletons made of cartilage. They consist of several orders:
* Subclass [[Elasmobranchii]] (sharks, rays and skates)
** Superorder [[Batoidea]] (rays and skates), containing the orders:
**# [[Rajiformes]] (common rays and skates)
**# [[Pristiformes]] ([[Sawfish (fish)|Sawfishes]])
**# [[Torpediniformes]] ([[electric ray]]s)
** Superorder [[Selachimorpha]] ([[shark]]s), containing the orders:
**# [[Hexanchiformes]] Two families are found within this order. Species of this order are distinguished from other sharks by having additional gill slits (either six or seven). Examples from this group include the [[cow shark]]s, [[frilled shark]] and even a shark that looks on first inspection to be a marine snake.
**# [[Squaliformes]] Three families and more than 80 species are found within this order. These sharks have two dorsal fins, often with spines, and no anal fin. They have teeth designed for cutting in both the upper and lower jaws. Examples from |
ond pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up the television to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit they performed the eleven-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to 70.0 mi by 71.3 mi (112.6 km by 114.8 km).
Over the next two orbits the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass, Borman read a small [[prayer]] for his [[church]], as he was meant to lay read during the [[Midnight service]] at St. Christopher's [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]] Church near [[Seabrook, Texas]] but due to the Apollo 8 flight was unable. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control, Rod Rose, suggested that Borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service.
It was as the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front that the crew witnessed an event never before seen—Earthrise. Anders glanced out the window and saw a blue and white orb and realized it was the [[Earth]]. Instantly the crew understood that they needed to take a photograph of this. Anders took both the first photograph, which was black-and-white, and then later the more famous color photo. (After the flight, Borman and Anders both claimed they took the first earthrise photo (Lovell also did, but more as a joke than anything else) - it was determined that it was probably Anders.)
[[Image:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|250px|Earth as seen from ''Apollo 8'', December 24, 1968 (NASA)]]
Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell took the controls of the spacecraft so that Borman could get some rest. As always resting was difficult in the cramped and noisy capsule, though Borman was able to [[doze]] for two orbits. He would awaken at times to ask a question about their status, only to be told that everything was going fine.
Borman did wake up however when he started to hear his fellow crewmembers make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired having not had a good night's sleep in over three days. Taking command, he ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. At first Anders protested saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. At last Anders agreed as long as the commander would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted to crew to be alert. For the next two orbits Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm.
As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the second television transmission began. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being ''"a vast, lonely, forbidding type of existence or expanse of nothing"''. And then after talking about what they were flying over, Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 describing the Moon.ogg|title=''Apollo 8'''s describing the Moon|description=The ''Apollo 8'' crew talk about the Moon and their impressions of it|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 genesis reading.ogg|title=The crew of ''Apollo 8'' reading Genesis and wishing Merry Christmas|description=Each man reading a section of [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] 1:1-10, the story of [[Creation (theology)|creation]]. Borman closes with: "And from the crew of ''Apollo 8'', we close with, Good night, Good luck, a Merry Christmas, and God bless all of you, all of you on the good Earth"|format=[[Ogg]]}}
The only thing left for the crew now was to perform the Trans-Earth Injection or TEI, which would occur 2½ hours after the end of the television transmission. This was the most critical burn of the whole flight. If the SPS failed to ignite, then the crew would be stuck in orbit around the Moon, with only about 5 more days of oxygen and no chance of escape. And once again the burn had to be performed while the crew was out of contact with Earth, on the far side of the Moon.
The burn occurred perfectly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours, 28 minutes, and 39 seconds, the exact time predicted. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, "Please be informed, there is a [[Santa Claus]]", to which [[Ken Mattingly]], the capcom, replied, "That's affirmative, You are the best ones to know". It was [[Christmas Day]], 1968.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 on the way home.ogg|title=There is a Santa Claus|description=''Apollo 8'' appears from behind the Moon after its successful SPS engine burn|format=[[Ogg]]}}
[[Image:AS8-13-2344.jpg|thumb|250px|Rupes Cauchy in eastern Mare Tranquillitatis]]
===Unplanned manual re-alignment===
Later, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. However, an accidental entry erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the inertial measuring unit (IMU) to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift-off and fire the thrusters to "correct" the module's attitude.
Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized they would have to re-enter data that would tell the computer its real position. It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars [[Rigel]] and [[Sirius]] aligned, and another fifteen minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer.
Sixteen months later, Lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re-alignment, under more critical conditions, during the ''[[Apollo 13]]'' mission, after that module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. In his 1994 book, ''Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13'' (later re-titled ''Apollo 13'' when the movie based on it, ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'' came out), Lovell wrote, "My training [on Apollo 8] came in handy!" In that book he dismissed the incident as a 'planned experiment', requested by the ground crew. However, in subsequent interviews Lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident, caused by his mistake, as described in [[Robert Zimmerman (author)|Robert Zimmerman]]'s 1998 book ''Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8''.
===Cruise back to Earth and re-entry===
The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would re-enter 2½ days after TEI and [[splashdown]] in the Pacific.
On Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth and final television broadcast. This time they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they had finished broadcasting they found a small present from Deke Slayton in the food locker—real [[domesticated turkey|turkey]] with [[stuffing]] and three miniature bottles of [[brandy]] (which remained unopened). There were also small presents to the crew from their wives.
[[Image:Ap8-S68-56310.jpg|thumb|250px|The ''Apollo 8'' Command Module on the deck of the [[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS ''Yorktown'']].]]
After two uneventful days the crew prepared for re-entry. The computer would control the re-entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, blunt end forward. If the computer broke down, Borman would take over.
After separating from the Service Module, all the crew could do was sit and wait. Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists. As they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing [[Plasma physics|plasma]] formed around the capsule. The capsule started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at 6 g (59 m/s&sup2;). With the computer controlling the descent by changing the [[Aircraft attitude|attitude]] of the capsule, ''Apollo 8'' rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At 30,000 feet (9 km) the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at 10,000 feet (3 km) by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was estimated to be {{coor dm|8|6|N|165|1|W|}}.
When it hit the water, the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down, in what was termed Stable 2 position. As they were buffeted by a 10-foot (3 m) swell, Borman was sick, waiting for the three floatation balloons to right the capsule. It was 43 minutes after splashdown before the first [[frogman]] from the [[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS ''Yorktown'']] arrived, as the capsule had landed before sunrise. Forty-five minutes later they were on the deck of the aircraft carrier.
The command module is now displayed at the [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] [[Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago|Museum of Science and Industry]], along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and Frank Borman's spacesuit. Jim Lovell's spacesuit can be found at NASA's [[Glenn Research Center]].
==Historical importance==
''Apollo 8'' came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval around the world. [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] tanks had put a stop to the [[Prague Spring]] in [[Czechoslovakia]]; [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] and [[Robert F. Kennedy]] had been assassinated; the [[Vietnam War]] had escalated with the [[Tet Offensive]]; University campuses acr |
a kind of "[[bushwalking]] on [[ski]]s", where skiers tackle trails of various lengths and difficulties. Some skiers stay out for extended periods using [[tent]]s and equipment similar to bushwalkers/hikers, whereas others take relatively short trips from ski resorts on maintained trails.
As a [[sport]], cross-country skiing is one of the most difficult endurance sports, as its motions use every major [[muscle]] group and it (along with rowing and swimming) is one of the sports that burn the most calories per hour in execution. Modern cross-country ski competition is experiencing a revolution that is resulting in greater compatibility with audiences which began with the addition of the Sprint event to the [[Cross-country skiing World Cup medalists|World Cup]] and [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] competitions. Today more and more races are being held in audience friendly formats, such as mass start, sprint, relay and pursuit (a race that involves switching skis and styles halfway through the race). The modern events in which athletes compete in at the World Cup and Olympics are (distances presented in Female/Male format): 1km Sprint, 2X1km Team Sprint, 10km/15km Individual Start, 15km/30km Pursuit, 30km/50km Mass Start and the 4x5km/4x10km Relay.
==Sports events==
Today, there are several types of cross-country competitive events, involving [[racing|races]] of various types and lengths, as well as [[biathlon]], involving a combination of cross-country skiing and target shooting with a [[rifle]].
[[Image:Cross-country skiing Schwedentritt.jpg|thumb|300px|Cross-country skiing (skating style) in [[Einsiedeln, Switzerland]].]]
The [[Winter Olympics]], the [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] World Championships and the FIS World Cup events have long been a [[showcase]] for the world's fastest cross country skiers. There are also special distance ski races, sometimes called [[Worldloppet Ski Federation|ski marathon]]s, like [[Vasaloppet]] in [[Sweden]] and [[Birkebeinerrennet]] in Norway. The skiing styles in these races might be fixed, or, in case of the so-called "double pursuit" event, the two styles are used each in their own separate half of the race (with a change of equipment in "pit stops" half way through).
*[[Olympic medalists in cross-country skiing|XC skiing at the Winter Olympics]]
*[[Nordic skiing World Championships|Nordic skiing World Championships (including XC skiing)]]
*[[Cross-country skiing World Cup medalists|XC skiing World Cup]] (weekly races throughout the winter seasons)
==History==
[[Image:Skiing kananaskis 018.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Recreational skiing in [[Kananaskis Country]], [[Alberta]].]]
Cross-country skiing originated in [[Scandinavia]]n countries in [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times. It may have also been practiced by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] for similar lengths of time, although the [[Norway|Norwegian]] emigrants [[Snowshoe Thompson]] and [[Jackrabbit Johannsen]] are widely credited for introducing the sport to [[North America]].
This form of skiing has been used by [[explorer|explorers]] by means of [[transport]], and all Scandinavian armies have ski-trained infantry for [[winter]] operations. Traditionally, all of the equipment was made of natural materials: [[wood|wooden]] skis and [[bamboo]] poles with [[leather]] hand straps. [[Footwear]] was usually sturdy leather [[boot|boots]] with thick soles. Bindings evolved from simple straps made of twisted wood-based thread, to the so-called [[Kandahar binding]] with the fastening of both the boot’s front and back, to the ‘Rat Trap’ front-only binding, which is today known as the ''Nordic norm'', and has evolved in various modern bindings.
==Equipment: Skis and poles==
The [[ski]]s are long and thin, to distribute the [[weight]] of the skier and allow the skier to move quickly. Typical ski dimensions are 2 [[metre]]s in length, about 5 [[centimetre]]s in width and one to four centimetres in thickness, depending on the ski brand and which point of the ski is measured. Depending on the ski design and purpose, they are fit to the skier based on height or weight.
Like [[downhill skiing]], cross-country skiers carry two [[Ski pole|pole]]s, usually made of [[aluminium]] or [[Glass-reinforced plastic|fiberglass]]. More expensive poles are made of [[Graphite_reinforced_plastic|graphite or carbon fiber]] or some other strong but lightweight material. Poles have a [[spike]] at the end to provide a fixed [[pivot]] when the pole penetrates through to a hard surface, and a [[plastic]] web or disc (called the ''basket''), to provide extra purchase in snow and to ensure the pole doesn't sink too deeply.
The toe of the skier's [[ski boots|footwear]] is attached to the ski with a [[Ski binding|binding]], while the heel remains free.
Equipment differs according to skiing technique. Skating or freestyle poles are usually longer than those used for the classic technique. Typically, skating poles should be long enough to reach the skier's [[chin]] or as far as the [[eyebrow]]s, depending on the skier's preference. In contrast, classic ski poles should reach the skier's [[armpit]], similar to the fit of an [[crutch|axillary crutch]]..
==Equipment: Bindings/boots==
Three different binding systems are used in modern cross-country skiing:
*NNN (New Nordic Norm) &ndash; including the new R4 NIS variant
*SNS (Salomon Nordic System) Profil
*SNS&nbsp;&nbsp;Pilot
Older styled three-pin bindings (Nordic Norm) , with or without cables, are still used by backcountry and Telemarking enthusiasts.
===NNN===
[[NNN|New Nordic Norm]] (NNN) bindings, made by Rottefella, Rossignol, and Atomic, can range from BC (Backcountry) to the R3 Skate and R3 Classic to the NNN R4 NIS, which require a special plate on the skis to be mounted. Boots compatible with these bindings are made by [[Alpina Sports]], [[Atomic Skis]] and [[Rossignol]]. The R3 and R4 are generally the choice for World Cup Racers using NNN. These are distinguished from SNS (Salomon and Fischer) bindings in that all bindings in the NNN system have two ridges that stick out from the bottom of the binding, with corresponding slots in NNN boots. NNN is said to have better steering than Salomon because these two grooves better distribute the weight, rather than SNS's (both Profil and Pilot) single larger "bar" sticking up from the binding that fits into a slot in the boot. NNN has also been proven to be lighter than SNS bindings. Despite this, the majority of World Cup level skiers ski on the SNS binding system, but that doesn't make one better than the other. Differences between the NNN and SNS binding systems are miniscule to the average skier, and only comes down to personal preference in the ski boot used.
The ''R4 NIS'' binding, made by [[Rottefella]] and [[Rossignol]], is the top of the line NNN binding. These bindings are compatible with any NNN boot, but can only be used on Rossignol X-IUM or Madshus Hypersonic Skis&mdash;the companies' high-end pro racing skis. Madshus is part of the Rottefella/Madshus/Alpina partnership, and that is the reason for Madshus skis having NIS bindings. The reason for only two different skis being able to use these bindings is that NIS bindings require a special plate only available on these skis. The interesting thing about these bindings is that the rear part can be pivoted back and forth on the plate to match the boots' length, therefore making better power transfer between the boots and the skis. The NIS bindings made their debut to the general public in 2005.
===SNS Profil===
Salomon Nordic System (SNS) bindings, made by Salomon and Fischer, however, have their advantages too. Boots that are compatible with the SNS Profil system are made by Salomon, Fischer, Adidas, and Hartjes. SNS Profil bindings are used for both Skating and Classic. As opposed to the SNS Pilot's two axes, these boots have only one axis at the front of the sole. Pilots are used by many different racers on the World Cup Circuit. Profil bindings are the standard binding for SNS users, its only competition being the SNS Pilot system. Profil comes in "Equipe" models for racing, "Active" for recreational racing/combination, Auto Touring, and Back Country.
===SNS Pilot===
SNS Pilot bindings, compatible with Salomon, Fischer, Adidas and Hartjes boots, are only used for Skate Skiing. The idea for these bindings came from [[Bjørn Dæhlie]]. Pilots are used mostly by elite skiers at the Collegiate/Olympians/World Cup/National level, although it is common to find High School/Citizen Racers with these bindings and their counterpart boots. Pilots are more expensive than Profils at about 100 dollars for a pair, and can only be used for Skating because there are two axes. In Pilot boots, the two axes, one positioned about 1" behind the other, click into two different slots in the Pilot binding. Profil boots only have one axis and therefore, cannot fit into Pilot bindings. However, Pilot boots can fit into any Profil bindings, due to a small space behind the front of the boot for the other axis. Pilots can't be used for Classic because Classic boots need to be able to flex in all directions so that a good "kick" can be achieved. Pilots do not have the kind of flex required for Classic, but they have proven themselves as good Skate bindings due to reduced ski motion in the air.
==Waxes==
:''Main article: [[Ski wax]]''
There are a wide variety of waxes for Nordic Skiing. The waxes can be classified into three main categories: ''glide waxes'', ''kick waxes'', and ''klisters''.
=== Glide wax ===
Glide waxes are used to make a ski glide faster, and are applied by ironing onto the ski. Glide waxes range widely in price, depending on quality; racing waxes can be very expensive, over $200 per pair at the national level. They are generally in the form of blocks, though they can be fou |
rths
:Male: 107.64 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 73.52 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 48.62 years
:Male: 46.05 years
:Female: 51.27 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:4.58 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 7% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 570,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 47,000 (2003 est.)
===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne diseases: malaria, yellow fever, and others are high risks in some locations
:Water contact: schistosomiasis (2004)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Ivoirian(s)
:Adjective: Ivoirian
===Ethnic groups===
:Akan 42.1%, Voltaiques or Gur 17.6%, Northern Mandes 16.5%, Krous 11%, Southern Mandes 10%, other 2.8% (includes 130,000 Lebanese and 14,000 French) (1998)
:[[Côte d'Ivoire]] has more than 60 ethnic groups, usually classified into five principal divisions: [[Akan (ethnic group)|Akan]] (east and center, including Lagoon peoples of the southeast), [[Krou]] (southwest), [[Southern Mandé]] (west), [[Northern Mandé]] (northwest), Sénoufo/[[Lobi]] (north center and northeast). The Baoulés, in the Akan division, probably comprise the largest single subgroup with 15%-20% of the population. They are based in the central region around [[Bouaké]] and [[Yamoussoukro]]. The Bétés in the Krou division, the Sénoufos in the north, and the Malinkés in the northwest and the cities are the next largest groups, with 10%-15% of the national population. Most of the principal divisions have a significant presence in neighboring countries.
:Of the more than 5 million non-Ivorian Africans living in Côte d'Ivoire, one-third to one-half are from [[Burkina Faso]]; the rest are from [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Mali]], [[Nigeria]], [[Benin]], [[Sénégal]], [[Liberia]], and [[Mauritania]]. The non-African expatriate community includes roughly 20,000 French (this number may be inaccurate due to the evacuation of roughly 8,000 Frenchmen in November 2004) and possibly 100,000 Lebanese. The number of elementary school-aged children attending classes increased from 22% in 1960 to 67% in 1995.
===Religions===
:Christian 20-30%, Muslim 35-40%, indigenous 25-40% (2001)
:''Note'': the majority of foreigners (migratory workers) are Muslim (70%) and Christian (20%)
===[[Language]]s===
:[[French language|French]] (official), 60 native dialects with [[Dioula]] the most widely spoken. :Other languages include: [[Bété languages]], [[Dida language]], [[Gur languages]], [[Kwa languages]], [[Nyabwa language]], [[Western Krahn]]
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 50.9%
:Male: 57.9%
:Female: 43.6% (2003 est.)
==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Cote]]
[[pt:Demografia da Costa do Marfim]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Côte d'Ivoire</title>
<id>5567</id>
<revision>
<id>39374381</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:19:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Côte d'Ivoire}}
[[Côte d'Ivoire]] is a [[republic]], with a multiparty presidential regime established in [[1960]].
==Political conditions==
In a region whose political systems have otherwise been noted for lack of stability, Côte d'Ivoire showed remarkable political stability since its independence from France in [[1960]], until 2002.
''The contents of this section are outdated. See [[Civil war in Côte d'Ivoire]] for recent data.''
When many other countries in the region were undergoing repeated [[military coup]]s, experimenting with [[Marxism]], and developing ties with the [[Soviet Union]] and the People's Republic of China, Côte d'Ivoire - under [[Félix Houphouët-Boigny]], president from independence until his death in December 1993 - maintained a close political allegiance to the [[Western World]] and good relationships with France and the [[United States]]. President Bédié is very familiar with the United States, having served as Côte d'Ivoire's first [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]] to this country.
Looking toward the country's future, the fundamental issue is whether its political system will maintain the stability which is the [[sine qua non]] for investor confidence and further economic development. Côte d'Ivoire evolved, with relatively little violence or dislocation, from a single-party state, beginning in [[1990]]. Opposition parties, independent [[newspaper]]s, and independent [[trade union]]s were made legal at that time. Since those major changes occurred, the country's pace of political change has been slow. Whether further [[democracy|democratic]] reform will take place, adequate to meet future challenges, is unknown. As is generally true in the region, the business environment is one in which personal contact and connections remain important, where rule of law does not prevail with assurance, and where the legislative and judicial branches of the government remain weak. The political system remains highly centralized with the president dominating both the ruling party and the legislature and judiciary. Côte d'Ivoire's efforts to break down central state control of the economy are undermined by the state's continued central control of the political system.
Côte d'Ivoire has a high [[population growth rate]], a high [[crime]] rate (particularly in Abidjan), a high incidence of [[AIDS]], a multiplicity of [[tribe]]s, sporadic [[student]] unrest, a different rate of in-country development according to region, and a dichotomy of religion associated with region and tribe. These factors put stress on the political system and will become more of a problem if the economy-not quite as dependent today on [[cocoa]] and [[coffee]] as it was some years ago but still dependent - takes a plunge similar to that of the 1980s.
The political system in Côte d'Ivoire is president-dominated. The Prime Minister concentrates principally on coordinating and implementing economic policy. The key decisions - political, military, or economic - continue to be made by President Bédié, as they were made by President Houphouët-Boigny. However, political dialogue is much freer today than prior to 1990, especially due to the opposition press, which vocalizes its criticism of the regime. The Ivorian Constitution affords the legislature some independence, but it has not been widely exercised. Until 1990, all legislators were from the PDCI. After the most recent elections ([[1995]]-[[1996]]), the PDCI continues to hold 149 out of 175 seats. The PDCI's "core" region may be described as the terrain of the [[Baoule]] tribe in the country's center, home of both Houphouët-Boigny and Bédié; however, the PDCI is well-entrenched in all parts of Côte d'Ivoire.
The remaining 26 seats in the National Assembly are divided equally by the only two other parties of national scope-the FPI ([[Ivorian Popular Front]]) and RDR (Rally of Republicans). The oldest opposition party is the FPI, a moderate party which has a [[socialism|socialist]] coloration but which is more concerned with democratic reform than radical economic change; it is strongest in the terrain of its Bete tribe leader, Laurent Gbagbo. The non-ideological RDR was formed in September 1994 by former members of the PDCI's reformist wing who hoped that former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara would run and prevail in the 1995 presidential election (but who was disqualified by subsequent legislation requiring 5-year residency); it is strongest in the [[Islam|Muslim]] north.
The presidential election of [[October]] [[1995]] was boycotted by the FPI and RDR because of Ouattara's disqualification and the absence of an independent electoral commission (among other grievances). Their "active boycott" produced a certain amount of violence and hundreds of arrests (with a number of the arrestees not tried for 2-1/2 years). These grievances remain unaddressed, with the next round of elections coming in the year 2000.
==Political data==
'''Country name:'''
<br>''conventional long form:'' Republic of Côte d'Ivoire
<br>''conventional short form:'' Côte d'Ivoire
<br>''local long form:'' République de Côte d'Ivoire
<br>''local short form:'' Côte d'Ivoire
<br>''former:'' Ivory Coast
'''Data code:''' IV
'''Capital:''' [[Yamoussoukro]]
<br>''note:'' although Yamoussoukro has been the capital since [[1983]], [[Abidjan]] remains the administrative center; the US, like other countries, maintains its Embassy in Abidjan
'''Independence''' [[August 7]], [[1960]] (from France)
'''[[National holiday]]''' Independence Day, [[August 7]]
'''[[Suffrage]]''' 18 years of age; universal
==Administrative divisions==
''Main article: ''[[Départements of Côte d<nowiki>'</nowiki>Ivoire]]'' ''
For administrative purposes, Côte d'Ivoire is divided into 58 [[department]]s, each headed by a [[prefect]] appointed by the central government. There are 196 [[commune (subnational entity)|commune]]s, each headed by an elected [[mayor]], plus the city of [[Abidjan]] with ten mayors.
The 58 departments (''départements'', singular - ''département'') are listed in the article [[Départements of Côte d<nowiki>'</nowiki>Ivoire]].
==Constitution==
[[3 November]] [[1960]]; has been amended numerous times, last time [[July]] [[1998]]
==Legal system==
Based on [[French civil law]] system and customary law; judicial review in the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
== Government ==
[[Côte d'Ivoire]]'s 1959 [[constitution |
ternal links==
{{sisterlinks|Indonesia}}
'''Official sites (owned and operated by the government of Indonesia and its agencies)'''
* [http://www.antara.co.id/ Antara] &mdash; National News Agency
* [http://www.bi.go.id/ Bank Indonesia] &mdash; Indonesian Central Bank
* [http://www.info-ri.com/ Info-RI] &mdash; National Information Portal (in Indonesian)
* [http://www.deplu.go.id/?language=en&embassy=1& List of Indonesian embassies and consulates worldwide] (Department of Foreign Affairs)
* [http://www.indonesia.go.id/ National Portal of Republic of Indonesia] (in Indonesian)
* [http://www.rri-online.com/ RRI] &mdash; National Radio Network
* [http://www.tvri.co.id/ TVRI] &mdash; National Television Network (in Indonesian)
* [http://www.presidensby.info/ PresidenSBY] &mdash; Presidential Official Website (in Indonesian and English)
'''Other sites (''not'' owned nor operated by the government of Indonesia and its agencies)'''
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.travelblog.org/Asia/Indonesia/ Travelings Indonesia] (Travel Blogs)
* [http://www.kompas.com/ Kompas] - Indonesia's most widely circulated newspaper (in Indonesian)
* [http://www.thejakartapost.com/headlines.asp/ The Jakarta Post] - in English
* [http://www2.iisg.nl/indoc/ INDOC Database on Indonesian Labour]
* [http://www.indonesia-house.org/ Indonesia House] (in English and in Dutch)
* [http://www.indonesiamatters.com/ Indonesia Matters]
* [http://www.parasindonesia.com/ Paras Indonesia]
* [http://www.insideindonesia.org/ Inside Indonesia Journal]
* [http://www.aseannewsnetwork.com/indonesia.html News from Indonesia] (in English and in Indonesian)
* [http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah.shtml Gimonca] (History of Indonesia)
{{Southeast Asia}}
{{Asia}}
[[Category:ASEAN member states]]
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[[Category:Island nations]]
[[Category:Republics]]
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[[ar:إندونيسيا]]
[[an:Indonesia]]
[[ast:Indonesia]]
[[bg:Индонезия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ìn-nî]]
[[bs:Indonezija]]
[[ca:Indonèsia]]
[[cs:Indonésie]]
[[cy:Indonesia]]
[[da:Indonesien]]
[[de:Indonesien]]
[[et:Indoneesia]]
[[es:Indonesia]]
[[eo:Indonezio]]
[[eu:Indonesia]]
[[fa:اندونزی]]
[[fr:Indonésie]]
[[fy:Yndoneezje]]
[[gl:Indonesia]]
[[ko:인도네시아]]
[[ht:Endonezi]]
[[hi:इंडोनिशया]]
[[hr:Indonezija]]
[[io:Indonezia]]
[[ilo:Indonesia]]
[[id:Indonesia]]
[[is:Indónesía]]
[[it:Indonesia]]
[[he:אינדונזיה]]
[[jv:Indonesia]]
[[ka:ინდონეზია]]
[[la:Indonesia]]
[[lv:Indonēzija]]
[[lt:Indonezija]]
[[li:Indonesië]]
[[hu:Indonézia]]
[[mi:Initonīhia]]
[[ms:Indonesia]]
[[na:Indonesia]]
[[nl:Indonesië]]
[[nds:Indonesien]]
[[ja:インドネシア]]
[[no:Indonesia]]
[[nn:Indonesia]]
[[oc:Categoria:Indonesia]]
[[pl:Indonezja]]
[[pt:Indonésia]]
[[ro:Indonezia]]
[[ru:Индонезия]]
[[se:Indonesia]]
[[sa:इन्दोनेशिया]]
[[sq:Indonezia]]
[[scn:Indunesia]]
[[simple:Indonesia]]
[[sk:Indonézia]]
[[sl:Indonezija]]
[[sr:Индонезија]]
[[su:Indonésia]]
[[fi:Indonesia]]
[[sv:Indonesien]]
[[tl:Indonesia]]
[[tg:Индонезия]]
[[te:ఇండోనేసియా]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐอินโดนีเซีย]]
[[vi:Indonesia]]
[[tr:Endonezya]]
[[uk:Індонезія]]
[[zh:印度尼西亚]]
phurgus</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indian Ocean</title>
<id>14580</id>
<revision>
<id>41973558</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:51:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcturus</username>
<id>66675</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Restored original era format</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the water body. For the Indian fusion music band, see [[Indian Ocean (band)]].''
{{Five oceans}}
The '''Indian Ocean''' is the third largest body of water in the world, covering about 20% of the Earth's water surface. It is bounded on the north by southern [[Asia]] (the [[Indian subcontinent]]); on the west by the [[Arabia|Arabian Peninsula]] and [[Africa]]; on the east by the [[Malay Peninsula]], the [[Sunda Islands]], and [[Australia]]; and on the south by the [[Southern Ocean]]. It is separated from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by the 20° east [[Meridian (geography)|meridian]] running south from [[Cape Agulhas]],<ref>[http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/OceanTeacher2/01_GlobOcToday/03_GeopolOc/s23_1953.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'']. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953.</ref> and from the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] by the 147° east meridian. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30°north [[latitude]] in the [[Persian Gulf]]. This ocean is nearly 10,000 km (6,200 mi) wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 km² (28,400,000 mi&sup2;), including the [[Red Sea]] and the Persian Gulf. The ocean's volume is estimated to be [[1 E15 m³|292,131,000 km³]] (70,086,000 mi³). Small islands dot the continental rims. [[Island]] nations within the ocean are [[Madagascar]] (formerly Malagasy Republic), the world's fourth largest island; [[Comoros]]; [[Seychelles]]; [[Maldives]]; [[Mauritius]]; and [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Indonesia]] borders it. The ocean's importance as a transit route between Asia and Africa has made it a scene of conflict. Because of its size, however, no nation had successfully dominated until the early 1800s when [[United Kingdom|Britain]] controlled much of the surrounding land.
[[Image:Indianocean.PNG|right]]
==Environment==
The African, Indian, and Antarctic crustal plates converge in the Indian Ocean. Their junctures are marked by branches of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge forming an inverted Y, with the stem running south from the edge of the continental shelf near [[Mumbai]], [[India]]. The eastern, western, and southern basins thus formed are subdivided into smaller basins by ridges. The ocean's continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 km (125 mi) in width. An exception is found off Australia's western coast, where the shelf width exceeds 1,000 km (600 mi). The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m (12,760 ft). Its deepest point, in the [[Java Trench]], is estimated to be 7,450 m (24,442 ft). North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the main basin is covered by [[pelagic]] sediments, of which more than one-half is [[globigerina ooze]]. The remaining 14% is layered with [[terrigenous]] sediments. Glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes.
===Climate===
The climate north of the [[equator]] is affected by a [[Monsoon]] wind system. Strong northeast winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the [[Arabian Sea]] the violent monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere the winds generally are milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the [[Bay of Bengal]].
===Hydrology===
[[Image:Indian_Ocean_bathymetry_srtm.png|thumb|right|Bathymetric map of the Indian Ocean]]
Among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the [[Zambezi]], [[Shatt al-Arab|Arvandrud/Shatt-al-Arab]], [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Ganges River|Ganges]], [[Brahmaputra]], and [[Ayeyarwady River]]. Currents are largely controlled by the monsoon. Two large circular currents, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving counterclockwise, constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deepwater circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, and Antarctic currents. North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22°C (72°F), exceeding 28°C (82°F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly. Surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1,000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and southwestern Australia. Pack ice and icebergs are found throughout the year south of about 65° south latitude. The average northern limit of icebergs is 45° south latitude.
==Economy==
The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the [[Middle East]], [[Africa]], and [[East Asia]] with [[Europe]] and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iran]], [[India]], and western [[Australia]]. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy [[mineral]]s and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly [[India]], [[South Africa]], [[Indonesia]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Thailand]].
The warmth of the Indian Ocean keeps [[plankton|phytoplankton]] production low, except along the northern fringes and in a few scattered spots elsewhere; life in the ocean is thus limited. [[Fishing]] is confined to subsistence levels. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from [[Russia]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], and [[Taiwan]] also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna.
==History==
The earliest known civilizations, in the valleys of the [[Nile]], [[Euphrates]], [[Tigris]], and Indus rivers and in Southeast Asia, have developed near the Indian Ocean. During [[Egypt]]'s 1st dynasty (c. 3000 BC), sailors were sent out onto its waters, journeying to [[Punt (region)|Punt]], thought to be part of present-day [[Somalia]]. Returning ships brought gold and myrrh. [[Phoenicia]]ns of the [[3rd millennium BC]] may have entered the area, but no settlements resulted.
The Indian Ocean is far calmer and thus open to trade earlier than the [[Atlantic]] or [[Pacific]]. The powerful [[monsoon]]s also meant ships could easily sail them west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwa |
the Run]]'', while passing by ''[[Antoine and Colette]]'' (a short film in the anthology ''Love at Twenty''), ''[[Stolen Kisses]]'' and ''[[Bed & Board]]''.
In most of these movies, Léaud's partner is Truffaut's favourite actress [[Claude Jade]] as his girlfriend (and then wife), "Christine Darbon".
A keen reader, Truffaut filmed many novels:
*American detective novels
**''[[The Bride Wore Black]]'' by [[William Irish]]
**''[[Mississippi Mermaid]]'' by William Irish
**''[[The Long Saturday Night]]'' (filmed as ''[[Confidentially Yours]]'') by [[Charles Williams (U.S. author)|Charles Williams]]
**''[[Shoot the Piano Player]]'' by [[David Goodis]]
**''[[Such a Gorgeous Kid Like Me]]'' by [[Henry Farrell]]
*Novels by [[Henri-Pierre Roché]]
**''[[Jules et Jim]]''
**''[[Two English Girls]]''
*[[Henry James]]' novel ''[[The Green Room]]'', his most serious and deepest film
*[[Ray Bradbury]]'s [[science-fiction]] novel ''[[Fahrenheit 451 (film)|Fahrenheit 451]]''
Truffaut's other films result from original scenarios, often co-written by the scenario writers [[Suzanne Schiffman]] or [[Jean Gruault]], films on very diverse subjects, the somber ''[[The Story of Adele H.]]'', inspired by the life of the daughter of [[Victor Hugo]], with [[Isabelle Adjani]], or ''[[La Nuit américaine]]'', shot at the [[Studio La Victorine]] describing the ups and downs of film-making, or ''[[The Last Metro]]'', set during the [[German occupation of France]], a film rewarded by ten [[César Award]]s.
==Filmography==
<table border=1>
<caption align=left>Legend:
'''D''': Director, '''A''': Actor, '''P''': Producer</caption>
<tr>
<th>French Title</th>
<th>U.S. Title</th>
<th>Year</th>
<th>Stars</th>
<th></th>
<th></th>
<th></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Vivement dimanche!]]''</td>
<td>''[[Confidentially Yours]]''</td>
<td>[[1983]]</td>
<td>[[Fanny Ardant]], [[Jean-Louis Trintignant]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[La Femme d'à côté]]''</td>
<td>''[[The Woman Next Door]]''</td>
<td>[[1981]]</td>
<td>[[Fanny Ardant]], [[Gérard Depardieu]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td>P</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Le Dernier métro]]''</td>
<td>''[[The Last Metro]]''</td>
<td>[[1980]]</td>
<td>[[Catherine Deneuve]], [[Gérard Depardieu]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td>P</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[L'amour en fuite]]''</td>
<td>''[[Love on the Run]]''</td>
<td>[[1979]]</td>
<td>[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]], [[Claude Jade]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td>P</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[La Chambre verte]]''</td>
<td>''[[The Green Room (film)|The Green Room]]''</td>
<td>[[1978]]</td>
<td>François Truffaut, [[Nathalie Baye]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td>P</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[L'homme qui aimait les femmes]]''</td>
<td>''[[The Man Who Loved Women]]''</td>
<td>[[1977]]</td>
<td>[[Charles Denner]], [[Brigitte Fossey]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind|Rencontres du troisième type]]''</td>
<td>''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]''</td>
<td>[[1977]]</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>A</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[L'Argent de poche]]''</td>
<td>''[[Small Change (film)|Small Change]]''</td>
<td>[[1976]]</td>
<td></td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td>P</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[L'Histoire d'Adèle H.]]''</td>
<td>''[[The Story of Adele H.]]''</td>
<td>[[1975]]</td>
<td>[[Isabelle Adjani]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[La Nuit américaine]]''</td>
<td>''[[La Nuit américaine|Day for Night]]''</td>
<td>[[1973]]</td>
<td>[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]], [[Jacqueline Bisset]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Une belle fille comme moi]]''</td>
<td>''[[Such a Gorgeous Kid Like Me]]''</td>
<td>[[1972]]</td>
<td>[[Bernadette Lafont]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Les deux anglaises et le continent]]''</td>
<td>''[[Two English Girls]]''</td>
<td>[[1971]]</td>
<td>[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Domicile conjugal]]''</td>
<td>''[[Bed & Board]]''</td>
<td>[[1970]]</td>
<td>[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]], [[Claude Jade]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[L'Enfant sauvage]]''</td>
<td>''[[The Wild Child]]''</td>
<td>[[1969]]</td>
<td>François Truffaut </td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[La Sirène du Mississippi]]''</td>
<td>''[[Mississippi Mermaid]]''</td>
<td>[[1969]]</td>
<td>[[Catherine Deneuve]], [[Jean-Paul Belmondo]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Baisers volés]]''</td>
<td>''[[Stolen Kisses]]''</td>
<td>[[1968]]</td>
<td>[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]], [[Claude Jade]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[La Mariée était en noir]]''</td>
<td>''[[The Bride Wore Black]]''</td>
<td>[[1968]]</td>
<td>[[Jeanne Moreau]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Fahrenheit 451 (film)|Fahrenheit 451]]''</td>
<td>''[[Fahrenheit 451 (film)|Fahrenheit 451]]''</td>
<td>[[1966]]</td>
<td>[[Julie Christie]], [[Oskar Werner]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[La peau douce]]''</td>
<td>''[[The Soft Skin]]''</td>
<td>[[1964]]</td>
<td>[[Françoise Dorléac]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[L'Amour à vingt ans]]'' ''([[Antoine et Colette]])'' </td>
<td>''[[Love at Twenty]]'' ''([[Antoine and Colette]])'' </td>
<td>[[1963]]</td>
<td>[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Jules et Jim]]''</td>
<td>''[[Jules et Jim|Jules and Jim]]''</td>
<td>[[1961]]</td>
<td>[[Jeanne Moreau]], [[Oskar Werner]], [[Henri Serre]], [[Marie Dubois]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Tire au flanc]]''</td>
<td>''[[Sad Sack, The]]''</td>
<td>[[1961]]</td>
<td></td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td>P</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Shoot the Piano Player|Tirez sur le pianiste]]''</td>
<td>''[[Shoot the Piano Player]]''</td>
<td>[[1960]]</td>
<td>[[Charles Aznavour]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[The 400 Blows|Les quatre cents coups]]''</td>
<td>''[[The 400 Blows]]''</td>
<td>[[1959]]</td>
<td>[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]]</td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td>P</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Les mistons]]''</td>
<td>''[[The Mischief Makers]]''</td>
<td>[[1957]]</td>
<td></td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>''[[Une visite]]''</td>
<td></td>
<td>[[1955]]</td>
<td></td>
<td>D</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</table>
==Quotes==
"The film of tomorrow appears to me as even more personal than an individual and autobiographical novel, like a confession, or a diary. The young filmmakers will express themselves in the first person and will relate what has happened to them. It may be the story of their first love or their most recent; of their political awakening; the story of a trip, a sickness, their military service, their marriage, their last vacation...and it will be enjoyable because it will be true, and new...The film of tomorrow will not be directed by civil servants of the camera, but by artists for whom shooting a film constitutes a wonderful and thrilling adventure. The film of tomorrow will resemble the person who made it, and the number of spectators will be proportional to the number of friends the director has. The film of tomorrow will be an act of love."
&mdash; François Truffaut, published in Arts magazine, May 1957
Source: [http://www.miaminewtimes.com/issues/1999-05-20/fil |
d been fans of the anarchic humour of [[The Goons]], and Harrison became a dedicated fan of their successors, the [[Monty Python]] team. He provided financial backing for the Python film ''[[The Life of Brian]]'' after the original backers (EMI Films) withdrew, fearing the subject matter of the film was too controversial. Other films produced by Handmade included ''[[Mona Lisa (movie)|Mona Lisa]]'', ''[[Time Bandits]]'', ''[[Shanghai Surprise]]'' and ''[[Withnail and I]]''. He made several cameo appearances in these movies, including appearing as a nightclub singer in ''[[Shanghai Surprise]]'', and as Mr. Papadopolous in ''[[Life of Brian]]''. One of his most memorable cameos was as a reporter in the cult Beatles parody [[The Rutles]], created by ex-Python [[Eric Idle]].
1989 saw the release of ''[[Best of Dark Horse 1976-1989]]'', a compilation drawn from his later solo work. This album also included three excellent new songs: "Poor Little Girl", "[[Cheer Down]]", and "[[Cockamamie Business]]", the last of which saw him once again looking wryly upon his Beatley past. Unlike his previous greatest hits package, Harrison made sure to oversee this one.
==1990s==
[[Image:1991 Japan Tour.jpg|thumb|240px|from Concert tour with [[Eric Clapton]] & His Band, [[December]] [[1991]]]]
The first year of the new decade saw a new Traveling Wilburys album, despite the untimely death of Roy Orbison. The band had allegedly approached [[Del Shannon]] about replacing Roy, but he also met an untimely death. The album was recorded as a four-piece.
It was not as successful as the previous album, but still managed to stay on the charts for quite a time, spawning the singles "She's My Baby" and "[[Wilbury Twist]]".
In 1991 Harrison staged a tour of Japan along with Eric Clapton. It was his first tour since the ill-fated 1974 U.S. tour, and, although he seemed to enjoy it, there were to be no others.
The ''[[Live in Japan]]'' recording came from these shows. In October of 1992, he played two songs ("[[If Not For You]]" and "[[Absolutely Sweet Marie]]") at a huge Bob Dylan tribute concert at [[Madison Square Garden]] in [[New York City]].
In [[1995]], at the height of the [[britpop]] movement - which was heavily influenced by Harrison's music - he became embroiled in a feud with [[Oasis (band)|Oasis']] Gallagher brothers. Devoted fans of The Beatles, the brothers were offended when Harrsion reffered to them as "silly" and "a passing fad". [[Noel Gallagher]] responeded by saying "George was always the quiet Beatle - maybe he should keep that up" whilst [[Liam Gallagher]] described him as a "nipple" and threatened to play golf off of Harrison's head should they ever meet. Apparently the feud was short lived, and when Noel Gallagher and Harrison actually met, they got on well.
Harrison's final television appearance wasn't intended as such; in fact, he wasn't the featured artist, and the appearance was to promote ''[[Chants of India]]'', another collaboration with Ravi Shankar released in 1997, at the height of interest in [[chant]] music. [[John Fugelsang]] conducted the interview, and at one point an acoustic guitar was produced, and handed to Harrison. When an audience member asked to hear "a Beatles song!" Harrison pulled a sheepish look and answered "I don't think I know any!" He did finish the show with a loose rendition of "All Things Must Pass".
A former [[tobacco smoking|smoker]], Harrison endured an ongoing battle with [[cancer]] throughout the 1990s, having growths removed first from his [[oral cancer|throat]], then his [[lung cancer|lung]].
Then there was an attempt on Harrison's life. On [[December 30]], [[1999]] crazed fan [[Michael Abram]] broke into the Harrison's [[Friar Park]] home in [[Henley-on-Thames]], stabbed George multiple times, ultimately puncturing his [[lung]]. Harrison and his wife, Olivia, fought the intruder and detained him for the police. 35-year-old Abram, who believed he was [[Spiritual possession|possessed]] by Harrison and was on a "[[Mission (Christian)|mission]] from [[God]]" to kill him, was later acquitted on grounds of [[insanity]].
In 2001 Harrison appeared as a guest musician on the [[Electric Light Orchestra]] album, ''[[Zoom]]'', and wrote a new song, ''[[Horse To The Water]]'', and recorded it (on what was his final recording, a few weeks before his death) with Jools Holland on the latter's album, ''[[Small World, Big Band]]''.
==Death==
George Harrison died at the home of a friend, security specialist ''Gavin de Becker'', in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]] on [[November 29]] [[2001]], at the age of 58. His death was ascribed to [[lung cancer]] that had [[metastasis|metastasized]] to the [[brain cancer|brain]]. He was [[cremation|cremated]], and although it was widely reported that his ashes were scattered in the River [[Ganga|Ganges]], the ceremony was not conducted at the expected time [http://www.theage.com.au/cgi-bin/common/popupPrintArticle.pl?path=/articles/2002/11/30/1038386359453.html]. The actual disposition of the ashes has not been publicly disclosed.
After his death, the Harrison family released the following statement: "He left this world as he lived in it: conscious of [[God]], fearless of death and at peace, surrounded by family and friends. He often said: 'Everything else can wait, but the search of [[God]] cannot wait; and love one another.'"
Harrison and [[Aaliyah|Aaliyah Haughton]] made UK chart history when they scored the first (and so far the only) pair of back-to-back posthumous number one hits as Aaliyah's "More than a Woman" (released on [[January 7]] [[2002]] and topped the chart on [[January 13]] [[2002]]) was followed by Harrison's "[[My Sweet Lord]]" (re-released on [[January 14]] [[2002]] and topped the chart on [[January 20]] [[2002]]).
Harrison's final album, ''[[Brainwashed (album)|Brainwashed]]'', was completed by [[Dhani Harrison]] and [[Jeff Lynne]] and released on [[November 18]] [[2002]].
On [[November 29]] [[2002]] &ndash; the first anniversary of George Harrison's death &ndash; the [[Concert for George]] saw the two remaining Beatles [[Paul McCartney]] and [[Ringo Starr]] join many of Harrison's other friends for a special memorial concert at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] in [[London]] that benefitted the [[Material World Charitable Foundation]].
Harrison was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] as a solo artist on [[March 15]] [[2004]].
==Personal and family life==
Harrison married model [[Pattie Boyd]] in 1966 and is reputed to have written the song "[[Something (song)|Something]]" for her in 1969, although he himself denied this, saying he was actually thinking about [[Ray Charles]]. In the late 1960s, [[Eric Clapton]] fell in love with Boyd, and famously poured out his unrequited passion on the landmark [[Derek and the Dominos]] album ''[[Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs]]'' (1971). Soon after its release Boyd left her husband and she and Clapton subsequently married. Despite this, the two men remained close friends, calling themselves "husbands in law."
Harrison married for a second time to Olivia Trinidad Arias (born [[18 May]] [[1948]]) in 1978. The ceremony took place on [[September 2]] at their home, with [[guitarist]] and singer [[Joe Brown (singer)|Joe Brown]], acting as [[best man]]. They had one son, [[Dhani Harrison]], born the previous month. Dhani looks so remarkably like his father, that McCartney quipped on stage at Concert For George: "It looks like George stayed young and we all got old."
==Pseudonyms==
Harrison used pseudonyms well before his work as a [[Traveling Wilburys|Traveling Wilbury]]. Some of these were due to his recording contracts - he could legally not be credited as himself on many collaborations, and others were merely humourous and often self-deprecating. Some of the aliases George used were Arthur Wax, Bette Y El Mysterioso, Carl Harrison, George H., George Harrysong, George O'Hara, George O'Hara-Smith, The George O'Hara-Smith Singers, George Ohnothimagen Harrison, Hari Georgeson, Jai Raj Harisein, L'Angelo Mysterioso, P. Roducer, and Son of Harry.
==See also==
* [[List of notable brain tumor patients]]
==Discography==
''For a detailed discography, see: [[George Harrison discography]]''
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://georgeharrison.com/ GeorgeHarrison.com] &mdash; Official Site
* {{imdb name|id=0365600|name=George Harrison}}
*[http://www.cnn.com/2001/SHOWBIZ/Music/11/30/harrison.obit/ "''Beatle George Harrison dies''"] &mdash; [[CNN.com]] article dated [[1 December]] [[2001]]
*[http://home.att.net/~chuckayoub/the_beatles_video_28.htm Sound clip on the life of George Harrison]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/1492446.stm "''George Harrison dies''"] &mdash; [[BBC News]] article dated [[30 November]] [[2001]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/1430259.stm "''George Harrison: Life in pictures''"] &mdash; Life story of George in pictures, BBC News dated [[30 November]] [[2001]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/1432634.stm "''George Harrison: The quiet Beatle''"] &mdash; Profile by BBC News dated [[30 November]] [[2001]] (more pictures can be found here) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/583411.stm UK version with different pictures]
*[http://georgeharrison.lyrics.info/ George Harrison lyrics] &mdash; A complete collection of lyrics organized by album from [http://lyrics.info/ lyrics.info]
*[http://www.thebeatles.com.hk/george/ The Beatles Studio: George Harrison] A Hong Kong based fansite with lyrics, discography and many George Harrison information.
*[http://www.beatlelinks.net BeatleLinks]
*[http://govinda.nu/music/artist/georg |
n other words, scientists attempt to ''explain'' phenomena, whereas engineers use any available knowledge, including that produced by science, to ''construct'' solutions to problems. This is no contradiction.
There is an overlap between science (fundamental and applied) and engineering. It is not uncommon for scientists to become involved in the practical application of their discoveries; thereby becoming, for the moment, engineers. Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists.
However, engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics and/or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner. The purpose of engineering research is then to find approximations to the problem that can be solved. Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the [[Navier-Stokes equations]] to solve aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of [[metal fatigue|Miner's rule]] to calculate fatigue damage to an engineering structure. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the [[Method of variation of parameters|method of parameter variation]].
In general, it can be stated that a scientist builds in order to learn, but an engineer learns in order to build.
===Other fields===
There are significant parallels between engineering and [[medicine]]. Both professions are well known for their pragmatism &mdash; the solution to real world problems often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous [[scientific]] sense.
There are also close connections between the workings of engineers and artists; they are direct in some fields, for example, [[architecture]], [[landscape architecture]] and [[industrial design]]; and indirect in others. Artistic and engineering creativity may be fundamentally connected.
==Top 15 branches==
(See [[fields of engineering]] for a full listing.)
* [[Aerospace engineering]]
* [[Architectural engineering]]
* [[Biomedical engineering]]
* [[Chemical engineering]]
* [[Civil engineering]]
* [[Computer engineering]]
* [[Electrical engineering]]
* [[Electronics engineering]]
* [[Environmental engineering]]
* [[Industrial engineering]]
* [[Materials science|Materials engineering]]
* [[Mechanical engineering]]
* [[Petroleum engineering]]
* [[Software engineering]]
* [[Systems engineering]]
==See also==
*[[List of engineering topics]] (covers the broad field of engineering).
*[[List of aerospace engineering topics]]
*[[List of biomedical engineering topics]]
*[[List of chemical engineering topics]]
*[[List of electrical engineering topics (alphabetical)|List of electrical engineering topics]] (alphabetical)
*[[List of electrical engineering topics]] (thematic)
*[[List of genetic engineering topics]]
*[[List of mechanical engineering topics]]
*[[List of nanoengineering topics]]
*[[List of software engineering topics (alphabetical)|List of software engineering topics]] (alphabetical)
*[[List of software engineering topics]] (thematic)
*[[List of engineers]]
*[[Open Design]]
*[[Fields of engineering]]
*[[Engineering society]]
*[[Iron Ring]]
*[[The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer]]
==Sources==
* [[Henry Petroski|Petroski, Henry]], ''To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design'', Vintage, 1992
* [[Henry Petroski|Petroski, Henry]], ''The Evolution of Useful Things: How Everyday Artifacts-From Forks and Pins to Paper Clips and Zippers-Came to be as They are'', Vintage, 1994
* Vincenti, Walter G. ''What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993
==External links==
*[http://www.nspe.org/govrel/gr2-ps1737.asp Licensure and Qualifications for the Practice of Engineering ]
*[http://www.order-of-the-engineer.org/e-ring.htm The Engineer's Ring]
*[http://ironring.ca/ The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer]
*[http://www.matscieng.sunysb.edu/disaster/ Engineering Disasters and Learning from Failure]
*[http://www.asee.org/ American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE)]
*[http://www.asee.org/about/publications/profiles/upload/2003engprofile.pdf ASEE engineering profile (2003) PDF]
*[http://www.ieee.org/ The Instititute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) ]
*The [http://engineering.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page Engineering Wiki] a [[wiki]] entirely dedicated to collecting information about Engineering.
*[http://www.incose.org/ International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE)]
*[http://www.interec.net Engineering Jobs, Resume, and Salary Database]
*[http://engineering.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page Engineering Wiki]
[[Category:Architecture and engineering occupations]]
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[af:Ingenieurswese]]
[[ar:هندسة تطبيقية]]
[[ast:Inxeniería]]
[[bg:Инженерство]]
[[bn:প্রকৌশলবিদ্যা]]
[[br:Ijinerezh]]
[[ca:Enginyeria]]
[[da:Ingeniørfag]]
[[de:Ingenieurwissenschaft]]
[[es:Ingeniería]]
[[eo:Inĝenierarto]]
[[fa:مهندسی]]
[[fr:Ingénierie]]
[[fy:Technyk]]
[[gl:Enxeñaría]]
[[ko:공학]]
[[hr:Strojarstvo]]
[[io:Injenior-arto]]
[[id:Teknik]]
[[iu:ᑎᑎᕋᐅᔭᖅ]]
[[it:Ingegneria]]
[[he:הנדסה]]
[[ka:საინჟინრო მეცნიერება]]
[[lad:Enjenyeriya]]
[[li:Techniek]]
[[hu:Mérnöki tudomány]]
[[ms:Kejuruteraan]]
[[nl:Techniek]]
[[ja:工学]]
[[pl:Inżynieria]]
[[pt:Engenharia]]
[[ro:Inginerie]]
[[sa:अभियांत्रिकी शास्त्रं]]
[[scn:Ncignirìa]]
[[simple:Engineering]]
[[sl:Tehnika]]
[[tl:Inhinyeriya]]
[[ta:பொறியியல்]]
[[th:วิศวกรรมศาสตร์]]
[[tr:Mühendislik]]
[[uk:Інженерія]]
[[zh:工程学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Education</title>
<id>9252</id>
<revision>
<id>42005204</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:14:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rfrisbie</username>
<id>896545</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ removed existing links, added glossary & list link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Klassenzimmer1930.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A German [[classroom]], dating to the 1930s.]] {{portalpar|Schools}}
{{portalpar|University}}
{{Portalpar|Education|Nuvola apps bookcase.png}}
'''Education''' is a [[social science]] that [[List of education topics|encompasses]] [[teaching]] and [[learning]] specific [[knowledge]], [[belief]]s, and [[skill]]s. Licensed and practicing teachers in the field use a variety of methods and materials in order to impart a [[curriculum]]. There has been a plethora of journals, magazines, books, and digests in the field of education that addresses these areas. Such literature addresses the teaching practices, with subjects that include lectures, game playing, testing, scheduling, record keeping, bullying, seating arrangements, interests, motivation, and computer access. However, the most important factors in any teacher's effectiveness is the interaction with students and personality of the teacher. The quality of their relationships provides the impetus for inspiration. The best teachers are able to translate good [[judgment]], experience, and [[wisdom]] into the art of communication that students find compelling. It is their ability to understand and overcome prejudices, generate passion, and recognize potential that enable teachers to invigorate students with higher expectations of themselves and society at large. The goal is aiding the growth of students so that they become productive members of a migratory society. An imparting of [[culture]] from generation to generation (see [[socialisation]]) promotes a greater awareness and responsiveness through social maturity to the needs of an increasingly diversified global society.
== Overview ==
It is widely accepted that the process of education begins at birth and continues throughout life. Some believe that education begins even earlier than this, as evidenced by some parents' playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development.
''Education'' is often used to refer solely to formal education (see below). However, it covers a range of experiences, from formal learning to the building of understanding through day to day experiences. Ultimately, all that we experience serves as a form of education.
Individuals receive informal education from a variety of sources. [[Family]] members and mass media have a strong influence on the informal education of the individual.
== Terminology ==
The word ''education'' is derived from the [[Latin]] ''educare'' meaning "to raise", "to bring up", "to train", "to rear", via "educatio/nis", bringing up, raising. In recent times the myth has arisen of its derivation from a different verb: ''educere'', meaning "to lead out" or "to lead forth"; however the English word from this verb is "eduction": drawing out. This false etymology is used to bolster one of the theories behind the function of education—to develop innate abilities and expand horizons.
== The psychology of education ==
{{main|Educational psychology}}
[[Educational psychology]] is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology]] of [[school]]s as [[organization]]s. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as [[:Category:Educational psychologists|educational psychologists]], whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as [[School psychol |
ni DiFranco]]
:[[Nick Drake]]
:[[Doyle Dykes]]
:[[Bob Dylan]]
:[[Dave Ellis (musician)|Dave Ellis]]
:[[Tommy Emmanuel]]
:[[John Fahey]]
:[[Gordon Giltrap]]
:[[Davey Graham]]
:[[Michael Hedges]]
:[[Bert Jansch]]
:[[Nic Jones]]
:[[Leo Kottke]]
:[[Adrian Legg]]
:[[Francois Luambo Makiadi]] "Franco"
:[[John Martyn]]
:[[Ellen McIlwaine]]
:[[Tony McManus]]
:[[Joni Mitchell]]
:[[Tom Paxton]]
:[[Al Perkins]]
:[[John Renbourn]]
:[[Rosenberg Trio|Stochelo Rosenberg]]
:[[Tony Rice]]
:[[Art Paul Schlosser]]
:[[Soïg Sibéril]]
:[[Dick Siegel]]
:[[Paul Simon]] ([[Simon and Garfunkel]])
:[[Ivan Nikolayevich Smirnov (musician)|Ivan Smirnov]]
:[[James Taylor]]
:[[Richard Thompson]]
:[[Leon Wesley Walls]]
:[[Doc Watson]]
:[[Hank Williams]]
:[[Mason Williams]]
----
===[[Blues]]===
:[[Luther Allison]]
:[[Duane Allman]]
:[[Blind Blake]]
:[[Michael Bloomfield]]
:[[Doyle Bramhall]]
:[[Big Bill Broonzy]]
:[[Roy Buchanan]]
:[[Chris Cain]]
:[[Eric Clapton]]
:[[Albert Collins]]
:[[Tracy Conover]]
:[[Ry Cooder]]
:[[Robert Cray]]
:[[Steve 'The Colonel' Cropper]]
:[[Paul Dye]]
:[[Robben Ford]]
:[[Jesse Fuller]]
:[[Lowell Fulson]]
:[[Rory Gallagher]]
:[[Guitar Shorty]]
:[[Guitar Slim]]
:[[Buddy Guy]]
:[[Chuck Hammer]]
:[[John Hammond, Jr.]]
:[[Jimi Hendrix]]
:[[John Lee Hooker]]
:[[Son House]]
:[[Mississippi John Hurt]]
:[[Elmore James]]
:[[Skip James]]
:[[Blind Lemon Jefferson]]
:[[Lonnie Johnson]]
:[[Luther 'Guitar Junior' Johnson]]
:[[Robert Johnson]]
:[[Rev.Jon Carr]]
:[[Albert King]]
:[[B.B. King]]
:[[Freddie King]]
:[[Little Jimmy King]]
:[[Sonny Landreth]]
:[[Leadbelly]]
:[[J.B. Lenoir]]
:[[Tweke Lewis]]
:[[Mance Lipscomb]]
:[[Lonnie Mack]]
:[[Taj Mahal (musician)|Taj Mahal]]
:[[Mississippi Fred McDowell]]
:[[Brownie McGhee]]
:[[Blind Willie McTell]]
:[[Little Milton]]
:[[Memphis Minnie]]
:[[Coco Montoya]]
:[[Gary Moore]]
:[[Keb' Mo']]
:[[Matt 'Guitar' Murphy]]
:[[Charlie Patton]]
:[[Bonnie Raitt]]
:[[Tampa Red]]
:[[Jimmy Reed]]
:[[Robert Ross (singer)|Robert Ross]]
:[[Otis Rush]]
:[[Kenny Wayne Shepherd]]
:[[Hubert Sumlin]]
:[[Sister Rosetta Tharpe]]
:[[Jimmy Vaughan]]
:[[Stevie Ray Vaughan]]
:[[Joe Louis Walker]]
:[[T-Bone Walker]]
:[[Muddy Waters]]
:[[Bukka White]]
:[[Josh White]]
:[[Johnny Winter]]
:[[Howlin' Wolf]]
:[[Pappo]]
----
===[[Rock and roll|Rock]]/[[Pop music|pop]]===
:[[Ace Andres]] ([[The X-15's]])
:[[Aly & A.J.]](sister singing group)
:[[Robin Guthrie]] ([[Cocteau Twins]])
:[[John Squire]] ([[Stone Roses]])
:[[Robby Krieger]] ([[The Doors]])
:[[Quinn Allman]] ([[The Used]])
:[[Olga (Michael Algar) ]]([[Toy Dolls]])
:[[Noble (musician)|Noble]] ([[British Sea Power]])
:[[Jim Adkins]] ([[Jimmy Eat World]])
:[[Duane Allman]] ([[Derek and the Dominos]], [[The Allman Brothers Band]])
:[[Ron Asheton]] ([[The_Stooges]])
:[[Matt Bellamy]] ([[Muse]])
:[[Trey Anastasio]] ([[Phish]])
:[[Joe Bishop]] ([[Caterwaul]])
:[[Michael Angelo Batio]]
:[[Chet Atkins]]
:[[Dave Ball]] ([[Procol Harum]])
:[[Perry Bamonte]]
:[[Andy Taylor]] ([[Duran Duran]])
:[[Syd Barrett]] ([[Pink Floyd]])
:[[David Bates (guitarist)|David Bates]]
:[[Jeff Beck]]
:[[Adrian Belew]] ([[Frank Zappa]], [[King Crimson]], [[The Bears]])
:[[Chuck Berry]]
:[[Ritchie Blackmore]] ([[Deep Purple]])
:[[Lindsey Buckingham]] ([[Fleetwood Mac]])
:[[Paul Burlison]] ([[The Rock and Roll Trio]])
:[[Charlie Christian]]
:[[Eric Clapton]] ([[The Yardbirds]], [[Cream (band)|Cream]], [[Derek and the Dominos]], [[Blind Faith]])
:[[Kurt Cobain]] ([[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]])
:[[Billy Corgan]] ([[The Smashing Pumpkins]])
:[[Warren Cuccurullo]] ([[Frank Zappa]], [[Missing Persons]], & [[Duran Duran]])
:[[Dick Dale]]
:[[Jean Pierre Danel]]
:[[Thomas Delonge]] ([[Blink182]], [[Boxcar Racer]], [[Angels and Airwaves]])
:[[Bo Diddley]]
:[[Duane Eddy]]
:[[Paul Dye]]
:[[Michael Nesmith]] ([[The Monkees]])
:[[Mattias Eklundh|Mattias "IA" Eklundh]] ([[Freak Kitchen]])
:[[David Howell Evans|David Evans]] aka The Edge ([[U2]])
:[[Mark Farner]] ([[Grand Funk Railroad]])
:[[Ace Frehley]] ([[KISS_(band)|Kiss]])
:[[Robert Fripp]] ([[King Crimson]])
:[[John Frusciante]] ([[Red Hot Chili Peppers]])
:[[Noel Gallagher]] ([[Oasis (band)|Oasis]])
:[[Jerry Garcia]] (the [[Grateful Dead]])
:[[David Gilmour]] ([[Pink Floyd]])
:[[Paul Gilbert]] ([[Mr. Big]])
:[[Mick Grabham]] ([[Cochise,Procol Harum]])
:[[Valeri Gradinarski]] ([[LZ]])
:[[Steve Hackett]] ([[Genesis (band)|Genesis]])
:[[Chuck Hammer]] ([[Lou Reed]], [[David Bowie]], [[Guitarchitecture]])
:[[George Harrison]] ([[The Beatles]])
:[[Jimi Hendrix]] ([[The Jimi Hendrix Experience]])
:[[Buddy Holly]]
:[[Tomoyasu Hotei]] ([[BOØWY]])
:[[Steve Howe (guitarist)|Steve Howe]] ([[Yes (band)|Yes]])
:[[Chrissie Hynde]] ([[The Pretenders]])
:[[Tony Iommi]] ([[Black Sabbath]])
:[[John Kay (musician)|John Kay]] ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]])
:[[Phil Keaggy]]
:[[Paula Kelley]]
:[[Cheyenne Kimball]]
:[[Mark Knopfler]] ([[Dire Straits]] & [[Notting HillBillies]])
:[[Wayne Kramer]] ([[MC5]])
:[[Goktan Kural]] ([[Hazerfan (band)|Hazerfan]])
:[[Shawn Lane]]
:[[Tweke Lewis]]
:[[Alex Lifeson]] ([[Rush (band)|Rush]])
:[[Tom Linton]] ([[Jimmy Eat World]])
:[[George Lynch (musician)|George Lynch]] ([[Dokken]])
:[[Kee Marcello]] ([[Europe (band)|Europe]])
:[[Johnny Marr]] ([[The Smiths]])
:[[Mick Mars]] ([[Mötley Crüe]])
:[[Hank B. Marvin]] ([[The Shadows (band)|The Shadows]])
:[[Tak Matsumoto]] ([[B'z]])
:[[Brian May]] ([[Queen (band)|Queen]])
:[[John Mayer]] ([[John Mayer Trio]])
:[[Andy McCoy]] ([[Hanoi Rocks]])
:[[Mike McCready]] ([[Pearl Jam]])
:[[Roger McGuinn]] ([[The Byrds]])
:[[Barry Melton]] ([[Country Joe and the Fish]], [[The Dinosaurs]])
:[[Midoru]]
:[[Kim Mitchell]]
:[[Vinnie Moore]]
:[[Tom Morello]] ([[Rage Against The Machine]])
:[[Steve Morse]]
:[[Dave Navarro]] ([[Jane's Addiction]], [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]])
:[[John Norum]] ([[Europe (band)|Europe]])
:[[Ted Nugent]]
:[[Jimmy Page]] ([[Led Zeppelin]], [[The Yardbirds]])
:[[Les Paul]]
:[[Joe Perry (musician)|Joe Perry]] ([[Aerosmith]])
:[[John Perry (musician)|John Perry]] ([[The Only Ones]])
:[[Tom Petty]] ([[Tom Petty & the Heartbreakers]])
:[[Prince (artist)|Prince]]
:[[Jade Puget]] ([[AFI (band)|AFI]])
:[[Johnny Ramone]] ([[The Ramones]])
:[[Chris Rea]]
:[[Vernon Reid]] ([[Living Colour]])
:[[Sheldon Reynolds]] ([[Earth, Wind & Fire]], solo artist)
:[[Keith Richards]] ([[The Rolling Stones]])
:[[Michael Roe]]
:[[Michael Monarch]] ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]])
:[[Mick Ronson]] (played with [[David Bowie]])
:[[Richie Sambora]] ([[Bon Jovi]])
:[[Claudio Sanchez]] ([[Shabutie]], [[Coheed and Cambria]], & [[The Prize Fighter Inferno]])
:[[Carlos Santana]]
:[[Joe Satriani]]
:[[Neal Schon]] ([[Journey (band)|Journey]])
:[[James Honeyman-Scott]] ([[The Pretenders]])
:[[Brian Setzer]] ([[The Stray Cats]], [[The Brian Setzer Orchestra]])
:[[Paul Simon]] ([[Simon and Garfunkel]])
:[[Slash (musician)|Slash]] ([[Slash's Snakepit]], [[Guns N' Roses]], & [[Velvet Revolver]])
:[[Robert Smith]]
:[[Frank Lee Sprague]]
:[[Billy Squier]]
:[[John Squire]]
:[[Izzy Stradlin]] ([[Guns N' Roses]])
:[[Andy Summers]] ([[The Police (band)|The Police]])
:[[Akira Takasaki]] ([[Loudness (heavy metal)|Loudness]])
:[[Teitur]]
:[[Porl Thompson]]
:[[Pete Townshend]] ([[The Who]])
:Jason Trachtenburg [[Trachtenburg Family Slideshow Players]] (band)
:[[Robin Trower]] ([[Paramounts,Procol Harum,Robin Trower]])
:[[Steve Vai]] ([[Frank Zappa]], [[Alcatrazz]], [[David Lee Roth]], & [[Whitesnake]])
:[[Gnome Dizzle]]
:[[Eddie Van Halen]] ([[Van Halen]])
:[[Tom Verlaine]] ([[Television (band)|Television]])
:[[Joe Walsh]] ([[The James Gang]], [[The Eagles]])
:[[Jack White (musician)|Jack White]] ([[The White Stripes]])
:[[Jason White]] ([[Pinhead Gunpowder]])
:[[Nancy Wilson (guitarist)|Nancy Wilson]] ([[Heart (band)|Heart]])
:[[Angus Young]] ([[AC/DC]])
:[[Malcolm Young]] ([[AC/DC]])
:[[Neil Young]] ([[Buffalo Springfield]], [[Crazy Horse (band)|Crazy Horse]], [[CSN&Y]], [[The Esquires]], [[The Stray Gators]])
:[[Frank Zappa]] (among other things, played with [[The Mothers of Invention]])
:[[Blues Saraceno]]
:[[John Mayer (musician)|John Mayer]]
:[[George Harrison]] ([[The Beatles]])
:[[Jimi Hendrix]] ([[The Jimi Hendrix Experience]])
:[[Buddy Holly]]
:[[Tomoyasu Hotei]] ([[BOØWY]], [[COMPREX (band)|COMPREX]])
:[[Chrissie Hynde]] ([[The Pretenders]])
:[[John Kay (musician)|John Kay]] ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]])
:[[Phil Keaggy]]
:[[Mark Knopfler]] ([[Dire Straits]] & [[Notting HillBillies]])
:[[Goktan Kural]] ([[Hazerfan (band)|Hazerfan]])
:[[Shawn Lane]]
:[[Paul Leary]] ([[Butthole_Surfers]])
:[[Alex Lifeson]] ([[Rush (band)|Rush]])
:[[Tom Linton]] ([[Jimmy Eat World]])
:[[Hank B. Marvin]] ([[The Shadows (band)|The Shadows]])
:[[Johnny Marr]] ([[The Smiths]])
:[[Mick Mars]] ([[Mötley Crüe]])
:[[J Mascis]] ([[Dinosaur_Jr.]])
:[[Tak Matsumoto]] ([[B'z]])
:[[Brian May]] ([[Queen (band)|Queen]])
:[[Andy McCoy]] ([[Hanoi Rocks]])
:[[Mike McCready]] ([[Pearl Jam]])
:[[Roger McGuinn]] ([[The Byrds]])
:[[Barry Melton]] ([[Country Joe and the Fish]], [[The Dinosaurs]])
:[[Midoru]]
:[[Kim Mitchell]]
:[[Michael Monarch]] ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]])
:[[Vinnie Moore]]
:[[Tom Morello]] ([[Rage Against The Machine]])
:[[Steve Morse]]
:[[Bob_Mould]] ([[H%C3%BCsker_D%C3%BC]])
:[[Dave Navarro]] ([[Jane's Addiction]], [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]])
:[[Ted Nugent]]
:[[Jimmy Page]] ([[Led Zeppelin]], [[The Yardbirds]])
:[[Les Paul]]
:[[Joe Perry (musician)|Joe Perry]] ([[Aerosmith]])
:[[Tom Petty]] ([[Tom Petty & the Heartbreakers]])
:[[Elvis Presley]]
:[[Prince (artist)|Prince]]
:[[Jade Puget]] ([[AFI (band)|AFI]])
:[[Johnny Ramone]] ([[The Ramones]])
:[[Chris Rea]]
:[[Vernon Reid]] ([[Living Colour]])
:[[Sheldon Reynolds]] ([[Earth, Wind & Fire]], solo artist)
:[[Keith Richards]] ([[The Rolling Stones]])
:[[Michael Roe]]
:[[Mick Ronson]] (played with [[David Bowie]])
:[[Richie Sambora]] ([[Bon Jovi]])
:[[Carlos Santana]]
:[[Joe Satriani]]
:[[Neal Schon]] ( |
found by a clue in an [[easter egg (virtual)|easter egg]]. However, during the day of [[24 August]] it was online sporadically. The game has been offline since then, because the Wumpus bot currently needs to keep all players on its roster, which is limited in size.
[[Andrew Plotkin]] used ''Hunt the Wumpus'' as the inspiration for his award-winning 1999 [[interactive fiction]] game ''[[Hunter, in Darkness]]''.
In 2005 Microsoft challenged high school students across the world to recreate Hunt The Wumpus in .NET. The winners were from Mr. Joe Croney’s class in the US Virgin Islands. The group included Anton Doos, Zach Hunter, Peter Roussev, Justin Aronstein, and Yannick Polius.
== GM ==
The first [[IRC bot]], GM, played a game of Hunt the Wumpus with users who communicated with it over IRC. GM was written by [[Greg Lindahl]].
== Notes ==
{{fnb|1}} ''Peoples Computer Company'', founded in October 1971, was a small non-profit group of independent educators who met in a small storefront on Menalto Rd. in [[Menlo Park, California]] during the [[1970s]]. The first issue of their journal, ''Peoples Computer Company'', was published in October 1972.
== References ==
* Ahl, David H. (Ed.) (1979), ''MORE BASIC Computer Games''. New York: Workman Publishing. ISBN 0894801376
==External links==
* Gregory Yob's 1975 [http://www.atariarchives.org/bcc1/showpage.php?page=247 description] in ''Creative Computing''.
* http://wurb.com/if/game/442 &ndash; resource where it is possible to download or play the game online
* [http://www.atariarchives.org/morebasicgames/showpage.php?page=178 Scans of description and BASIC source code for Hunt the Wumpus]
* [http://www.atariarchives.org/morebasicgames/showpage.php?page=181 Scans of description and BASIC source code for Hunt the Wumpus 2]
* [http://www.mobygames.com/game/ti-994a/hunt-the-wumpus MobyGames' entry for the TI-99/4A version of Hunt the Wumpus]
* [http://www.wurb.com/if/game/483 wurb.com entry for ''Hunter, In Darkness'']
* [http://javaunlimited.net/games/view.php?id=49 A tiny implementation for the Java 4K 2005 Programming Contest]
* [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play4sta1.htm The Dot Eaters entry] featuring a history of Hunt the Wumpus
* [http://tatsusoft.bubblebobble.com/wumpus.html Hunt the Wumpus from TatsuSoft] Fully playable PC version
[[Category:1972 computer and video games]]
[[Category: PC games]]
[[Category:TI-99/4A games]]
[[de:Hunt the Wumpus]]
[[ru:Вампус]]{{Link FA|ru}}
[[zh:Hunt the Wumpus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hash</title>
<id>14324</id>
<revision>
<id>38829655</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T22:40:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tsca.bot</username>
<id>601940</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot adding: pl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''hash''' can refer to:
* The [[number sign]] (#), called a "pound sign" in [[North America]].
* Hash - A slang term for [[Hashish]], a form of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]].
* [[Hash (food)]] - A food consisting of diced meat and potatoes, see also [[hash brown]].
* [[Hash (novel)]] ''Pölsan'' - A novel by Swedish author [[Torgny Lindgren]]
* [[Hash House Harriers]] - An informal running race in which "hashers" chase a "rabbit" (lead runner) on an improvised course.
* [[Hash Inc.]] - A software company. Created [[Animation:Master]].
* [[Hash function]] - A specialized type of function used to convert data with a large [[range]] to a smaller range (or from an alphanumeric string to a pure number).
** [[Cryptographic hash function]] - a hash function that is difficult to invert.
** [[Hash table]] - In computer science a type of [[Associative array]] using a hash function. The associative arrays in the [[Ruby programming language]] and the newer versions of [[Perl]] are called "hashes" after their implementation in terms of a hash table.
** [[Geometric hashing]] - A method for efficiently finding geometric objects of the same or similar shape.
{{disambig}}
[[pl:Hash]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hearst Corporation</title>
<id>14325</id>
<revision>
<id>41841925</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:23:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Assets */ Disambig Cosmopolitan (magazine)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hearst Corporation''' is a large privately-held [[media conglomerate]] based in [[Media of New York City|New York City]]. Founded by [[William Randolph Hearst]] as an owner of [[newspaper]]s, the company's holdings now include a wide variety of media. The Hearst family is involved in the ownership and management of the company.
=== Trustees of William Randolph Hearst's will (2003) ===
Under William Randolph Hearst's will, a common board of thirteen trustees--five family members and eight outsiders--administers the Hearst Foundation, the William Randolph Hearst Foundation, and the trust that owns (and selects the 21-member board of) the Hearst Corporation. The foundations shared ownership until tax law changed to prevent this. The present trustees are:
*[[George Randolph Hearst Jr.]], chairman of Hearst Corporation and president of the Hearst Foundation
*[[Victor F. Ganzi]], president and chief executive officer of the Corporation
*Frank A. Bennack Jr., vice chairman and longtime former president and chief executive of the Corporation
*[[William Randolph Hearst III]], president of the William Randolph Hearst Foundation
*John Randolph Hearst Jr., an officer and director of the corporation
*Virginia Hearst Randt, daughter of late former chairman [[Randolph Apperson Hearst]]
*Anissa Bouadjakdji Balson, granddaughter of David Whitmire Hearst Sr.
*Richard E. Deems, former head of Hearst Magazines, now a consultant
*Gilbert C. Maurer, succeeded Deems as head of Hearst Magazines, then preceded Ganzi as executive vice president and chief operating officer under Bennack, now a consultant
*Raymond J. Petersen, longtime executive vice president of Hearst Magazines, retains title but largely inactive
*Mark F. Miller, executive vice president of Hearst Magazines (retiring late 2005)
*John G. Conomikes, vice president of Corporation, oversees broadcast interests
*Harvey L. Lipton, lawyer and former vice president and Secretary of the Corporation
The trust dissolves when all grandchildren of William Randolph Hearst alive at his death have died.
==Assets==
:''Main article: [[List of assets owned by Hearst Corporation]]''
A non-exhaustive list of its properties and investments includes:
'''Magazines'''
* ''[[CosmoGIRL!]]''
* ''[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]]''
* ''[[Country Living]]''
* ''[[Esquire]]''
* ''[[Good Housekeeping]]''
* ''[[Harper's BAZAAR]]''
* ''[[House Beautiful]]''
* ''[[Marie Claire]]''
* ''[[O at Home]]''
* ''[[O, The Oprah Magazine]]''
* ''[[Popular Mechanics]]''
* ''[[Quick & Simple]]''
* ''[[Redbook]]''
* ''[[Seventeen]]''
* ''[[SHOP Etc.]]''
* ''[[SmartMoney]]''
* ''[[Teen]]''
* ''[[Town & Country]]''
* ''[[Town & Country TRAVEL]]''
* ''[[Veranda]]''
* ''[[Weekend]]''
'''Newspapers'''
* ''[[Beaumont Enterprise]]''
* ''[[Houston Chronicle]]''
* ''[[Jasper Newsboy]]''
* [[King Features Syndicate]]
* ''[[Laredo Morning Times]]''
* ''[[Midland Daily News]]''
* ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]''
* ''[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]]''
* ''[[San Antonio Express-News]]''
'''[[Television]] and [[Cable]] (investments)'''
* [[A&E Television Networks]] (Shared with [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] and [[NBC Universal]])
* [[ESPN]] (20% shared with Disney)
* [[Hearst-Argyle]]
* [[Lifetime Television]]
==Competitors==
*[[Condé Nast Publications]]
*[[Time Inc.]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.hearst.com/ Hearst Corporation home page]
*[http://hearstfdn.org/ The Hearst Foundation, Inc.]
*[http://www.hearstmags.com/ Hearst Magazines Subscription Center]
[[Category:Newspaper companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Magazine companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in New York City]]
[[Category:Hearst family]]
[[fr:Hearst Corporation]]
[[nl:Hearst Corporation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HMS Hercules</title>
<id>14326</id>
<revision>
<id>41047624</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:41:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KocjoBot</username>
<id>467651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Five ships of the British [[Royal Navy]] have borne the name '''HMS ''Hercules''''', after the Greek and Roman hero [[Hercules]].
*The first [[HMS Hercules (1759)|''Hercules'']] was a 74-gun [[ship of the line]], launched [[1759]], and sold [[1784]]. Captain [[John Porter (captain)|John Porter]] was in command in early [[1759]].
* ? ''Hercules'' was a 78-gun [[ship of the line]] taken prize by the British in [[1798]] and broken up in [[1810]]. ?
*The second [[HMS Hercules (1815)|''Hercules'']] was a 74-gun [[ship of the line]] launched in [[1815]], on harbour service from [[1853]] and sold [[1865]].
*The third [[HMS Hercules (1868)|''Hercules'']] was an early [[battleship]], launched [[1868]], on harbour service from [[1881]], a barracks from [[1905]], renamed ''Calcutta'' in [[1909]], ''Fisgard II'' in [[1915]], and sold [[1932]].
*The fourth [[HMS Hercules (1910)|''Hercules'']] was a [[Colossus class battleship (1910)|''Colossus''-class]] [[battleship]] built by Palmers, launched on [[May 10]], [[1910]], and commissioned on [[July 31]], [[1911]] at [[Portsmouth, England|Portsmouth]]. She was a 20,000-ton [[dreadnought]], mounting 10 12 inch (305 mm) guns and capable of 21 knots (39 km/h).
*[[HMS Hercules (R49)|''Hercules'']] was to be one of the six [[Majestic class aircraft carrier|''Majestic''-class]] li |
sometimes detected. Other contaminants include: [[ketamine]], [[ephedrine]], [[DXM]], [[Pseudophedrine]], and other unidentified chemicals. There are anecdotal stories of pills containing [[cocaine]], [[heroin]], or [[mescaline]]; however, there have been no documented cases where these contaminants have been found. Mescaline is an especially unlikely contaminant, as a large amount is required for an effective dose. There have been a few cases where an extremely potent synthetic opiate, Fenantyl, has been identified in pills.
[[Image:Ecstacy monogram.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ecstasy commonly appears in a tablet form, usually imprinted with a monogram.]]
Many legal pills such as [[aspirin]], [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen), or even [[dog|canine]] [[heartworm]] tablets have had the letter E scratched into them and been sold as ecstasy, for enormous profit. (This is a minor plot device in the movie [[Go (1999)|''Go'']].) Such false labeling can have deadly results, as a significant number of people are [[allergy|allergic]] to aspirin. Paracetamol is fairly [[hepatotoxicity|hepatotoxic]] and can cause significant [[liver]] damage or death if taken in large doses, as might happen to a person taking four or five tablets in quick succession, thinking the tablets to be ecstasy. While overdose from MDMA itself is rare, many more toxic substances are often sold as ecstasy, and overdose or other adverse reaction to adulterants is not uncommon.
Although full and proper characterization of ecstasy pills requires advanced lab techniques such as [[Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry]], it is also possible to use a less accurate presumptive [[alkaloid]] test known as the [[Marquis reagent]]. [[DanceSafe]] sells testing kits, and includes an extensive database of photographs of different pills, along with the results of a laboratory analysis of their contents. EcstasyData.org [http://www.ecstasydata.org/] is a non-profit site that tests the purity of street pills and compiles results. Most blackmarket pills are made in basement labs with household chemicals (often containing other products) and are thus dangerous because of their impurity content.
==Effects==
=== Pharmacodynamics ===
[[Serotonin]] is a neurotransmitter believed to play a role in the regulation of mood and pleasure. MDMA's main action is believed to cause [[serotonin]] vescicles in the brain to release quantities of serotonin into the [[Synapse|synapses]]. MDMA also has slight agonist effects on [[dopamine]] and [[norepinephrine]] levels and promotes the release of the hormone [[prolactin]]. These effects are primarily due to MDMA's action on the [[monoamine transporter]]s, SERT ([[serotonin transporter]]), DAT ([[dopamine transporter]]) and NET ([[norepinephrine transporter]]).
===Other short-term effects===
Apart from the dangers from impurities, the primary acute risks of taking MDMA are [[allergy|allergic reaction]], which is extremely rare, and [[dehydration]]. Like amphetamine, MDMA can mask the body's normal thirst and exhaustion responses, particularly if a user is dancing or is otherwise physically active for long periods of time without hydration. MDMA can temporarily reduce the body's ability to regulate its core temperature, and in high-temperature surroundings (e.g. clubs) combined with physical exertion this may lead to [[hyperpyrexia]] if precautions are not taken to remain cool. While dehydration is undesirable, there also have been a very small number of users overly concerned about hydration drinking excessive water and suffering from [[water intoxication]] and associated [[hyponatremia]] (dilution of the blood that can cause [[Edema|swelling]] of the [[brain]]). This is what caused the death of British teen [[Leah Betts]], which may be the world's most widely publicised MDMA-related fatality. Some users also report decreased libido or impotence; however, studies have had conflicting results [http://www.idmu.co.uk/esex.htm].
=== Long-term effects ===
Long-term effects are still unknown and heavily debated among scientists. There are several reports of [[Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder|Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder]] being induced by MDMA. In some cases, the disorder appears to be permanent. The disorder seems to occur in only a small percentage of users, and its mechanism of causation is unknown.
Some experiments indicate that prolonged or excessive use at very high doses may lead to the [[synaptic terminal]]s of serotonin neurons being damaged. The precise mechanism of this action is unknown, but recent evidence (Jones 2004; Miller 1997; Monks et al. 2004) suggests that the [[Metabolism|metabolic]] breakdown of MDMA includes the formation of [[reactive oxygen species]] (ROS), chemicals known to cause oxidative cell damage when taken up into the releasing synapse.
This effect has been experimentally verified in the brains of [[rat]]s, where the serotonin terminals of animals who are given extremely high doses of MDMA over a prolonged period of time (usually one to two orders of magnitude greater than a typical human dose) become withered and useless. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the administration of [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s ("SSRIs", which bind to the serotonin cell's reuptake transporters and thus block ROS from entering the serotonin cells) along with or immediately following MDMA seems to block neuron damage in rats given MDMA. Vitamin C in large doses has also been shown to prevent oxidative stress in vivo, and Vitamin C should be considered as a harm prevention adjunct to MDMA use.
Some MDMA users administer an SSRI while, or shortly after taking MDMA, in an attempt to prevent possible [[neurotoxicity]]. These SSRIs are typically [[antidepressant]]s such as [[Prozac]] or [[Zoloft]]. It should be noted, however, that MDMA use in conjunction with a different class of antidepressants, namely [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor]]s, is strongly contra-indicated due to danger of [[serotonin syndrome]] and the possibility of life-threatening hypertension.
Many users also attempt to replenish the deficit of [[serotonin]] which follows the use of MDMA by administering [[5-HTP]]. The [[serotonin]] precursor [[5-HTP]], which is commercially available as a dietary supplement, reportedly supplies the user with more of the raw materials to synthesize the [[neurotransmitter]]. Pre-loading with 5-HTP has not been shown to increase the subjective effects of MDMA.
Because MDMA's neurotoxicity is known to be highly dependent on its metabolic disposition (Jones 2004; de la Torre & Farré 2004), it is not known whether experiments in rats and monkeys have any direct bearing on human users.
Considerable research has been done into possible cognitive-behavioral deficits among ecstasy users but data have been largely inconclusive. At least two [[Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] of these studies have been completed (Morgan 2000; Sumnall & Cole 2005). Morgan's analysis of 17 studies showed that ecstasy users had a slight tendency to be more impulsive and depressed than controls. Sumnall and Cole's analysis showed a slight increase in the prevalence of depressive symptoms in ecstasy users over controls. Of course, in retrospective studies like these we are always faced with a chicken-or-egg question: did these impulsive and depressed people use ecstasy to self-medicate or did otherwise normal people become depressed and impulsive after using ecstasy? This question has not been answered. Moreover, such research is problematic as ecstasy users are much more likely than control subjects to have taken other drugs in addition to ecstasy. This makes it difficult for researchers to establish a direct causal relationship.
Although some experimental evidence exists indicating that long-term ecstasy users experience memory difficulties, a large study in 2002 (Strote et al.) showed that ecstasy users in 4-year colleges have [[GPA]]s which do not differ significantly from those of non-users.
According to one study, MDMA use has led to to [[rhabdomyolysis]] (muscle breakdown) as a consequence of MDMA-induced hyperpyrexia (abnormally high body temperature). [[Rhabdomyolysis]] can cause [[renal failure]] and death. Note the "degree to which the seriousness of the effects can be dependent on environmental factors other than the drug concentration" in describing the fact that of the fatalities, blood concentrations of the drug spanned a large range. This notwithstanding, "most of the cases of serious toxicity or fatality have involved blood levels... up to 40 times higher than the usual recreational range." (Kalant H., 2001) [http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/165/7/917]
=== Systemic effects ===
Other effects include:
* [[Pupil dilation]] with attendant photosensitivity and color perception
* Jaw clenching or [[bruxism]] ("[[gurning]]" or "[[grinding]]")
* Shutter vision ([[nystagmus]])
* General restlessness
* Loss of appetite/taste sensation changes
* Lack of focus / concentration
* Tingling
* Sweaty palms
* Increased heart rate
* Temporary Ulcers on Gums
* Long term memory loss
* Mood swings
* Weight loss (a result of increased cardio activity and loss of appetite)
=== Ecstasy and Parkinson's ===
Research at the [[University of Manchester]] indicates that ecstasy dramatically reduces tremors in patients receiving [[dopamine|L-DOPA]] treatment for [[Parkinson's Disease]].
In a now-retracted study, a research team led by Dr. [[George A. Ricaurte]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]] implicated MDMA as a ''cause'' of Parkinson's-like brain abnormalities in monkeys, suggesting that a single use of MDMA caused permanent and serious brain damage. These claims were hotly disputed by physicians, therapists, and other experts in the field, including a team of scientists at [[New York University]]. Criticisms of the study included its use of injection rath |
n the [[mucous membranes]] and the [[skin]] of around a third of the population, it is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure. It was the first bacterium in which [[penicillin]] resistance was found -- in 1947, just four years after the drug started being mass-produced. [[Methicillin]] was then the antibiotic of choice. MRSA ([[Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus|methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'']]) was first detected in Britain in 1961 and is now "quite common" in hospitals. MRSA was responsible for 37% of fatal cases of blood poisoning in the UK in 1999, up from 4% in 1991. Half of all ''S. aureus'' infections in the US are resistant to penicillin, methicillin, [[tetracycline]] and [[erythromycin]].
This left [[vancomycin]] as the only effective agent available at the time. However, VRSA ([[Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|Vancomycin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'']]) was first identified in Japan in 1997, and has since been found in hospitals in England, France and the US. VRSA is also termed GISA (glycopeptide intermediate ''Staphylococcus aureus'') or VISA (vancomycin intermediate ''Staphylococcus aureus''), indicating resistance to all [[Glycopeptide antibiotic|glycopeptide]] antibiotics.
A new class of antibiotics, [[Linezolid|oxazolidinone]]s, became available in the 1990s, and the first commercially available oxazolidinone, [[linezolid]], is comparable to vancomycin in effectiveness against MRSA. Linezolid-resistance in ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' was reported in 2003.
''[[enterococcus|Enterococcus faecium]]'' is another superbug found in hospitals: penicillin resistance was seen in 1983, vancomycin resistance (VRE) in 1987 and [[linezolid]] resistance (LRE) in the late 1990s.
Penicillin-resistant [[pneumonia]] (or pneumococcus, caused by ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'') was first detected in 1967, as was penicillin-resistant [[gonorrhea]]. Resistance to penicillin substitutes is also known beyond ''S. aureus''. By 1993 ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' was resistant to five [[quinolones|fluoroquinolone]] variants. ''[[tuberculosis|Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' is commonly resistant to [[isoniazid]] and [[rifampin]] and sometimes universally resistant to the common treatments. Other pathogens showing some resistance include ''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[Campylobacter]]'', and ''[[Streptococci]]''.
In November, 2004, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) reported an increasing number of ''[[Acinetobacter baumannii]]'' bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the [[Iraq]]/[[Kuwait]] region during [[Iraq war|Operation Iraqi Freedom]] and in [[Afghanistan]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] were treated. Most of these showed [[multidrug resistance]] (MRAB), with a few isolates resistant to all drugs tested. [http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5345a1.htm]
==Antibiotic resistance and the role of animals==
[[Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus|MRSA ]] is acknowledged to be a human commensal and pathogen. MRSA has been found in cats, dogs and horses, where it can cause the same problems as it does in humans. Owners can transfer the organism to their pets and vice-versa, and MRSA in animals is generally believe to be derived from humans.
This is not the case for other pathogens, however. There are concerns that some antibiotic resistant organisms may derive from the use of antibiotics in food animals. 15% of all antibiotics manufactured in Europe are used on animals. For precisely this reason, in many countries, antibiotics that are licensed for human use are banned from use in animals. However, related antbiotics are often used as growth promoters (particularly in poultry) and have been associated with the development of resistant strains.
The US [[Food and Drug Administration]] banned [[enrofloxacin]] from use in poultry in July 2005. [[Campylobacter]] is an avian gut [[commensal]], and Campylobacter [[gastroenteritis]] in humans is associated with the consumption of undercooked chicken. Campylobacter resistance is up to 20% in parts of the developed world. Enrofloxacin is a [[fluoroquinolone]] whose mechanism of action is very similar to ciprofloxacin; it is used in veterinary practice to treat respiratory infections of poultry, when it is added to water or to the feed and may be used to medicate a whole flock. Farmers lobby groups often agitate that there is no evidence of the transfer of antibiotic resistance in food animals to humans, but given Campylobacter does not naturally occur in humans and that ciprofloxacin resistance is increasing, it is difficult not to draw the conclusion that ciprofloxacin-resistant Campylobacter in humans arises from eating enrofloxacin-resistant Campylobacter in chickens, hence the FDA ban on [[enrofloxacin]].
The illegal use of [[amantadine]] to medicate poultry in the South of China and other parts of southeast Asia, means that although the H5N1 strain that appear in Hong Kong in 1997 was amantadine sensitive, the more recent strains have all been amantadine resistant. This seriously reduces the treatment options available to doctors in the event of an influenza pandemic.
Eighteen UK organisations banded together in November 1997 to set guidelines on the use of antibiotics in farm animals, in order to address the concerns of the larger public. The consortium is called RUMA ([[Responsible use of Medicine in Agriculture Alliance]]) Members of this consortium include the [[British Poultry Council]] and various industry and pharmaceutical firms. The European Union has banned the use of all antibiotics as growth promoters from [[1 January]] [[2006]].
==Alternatives to antibiotics==
===Prevention===
[[Hand washing|Wash hands properly]] to reduce the chance of getting sick and spreading infection. Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly. Avoid raw eggs and undercooked meat, especially in ground form.
Do not ''demand'' antibiotics from your physician; if antibiotics are not prescribed, there is a reason.
When given antibiotics, take them '''''exactly''''' as prescribed, and complete the full course of treatment; do '''''not''''' hoard pills for later use, or share leftover antibiotics.
===Vaccines===
[[Vaccine]]s do not suffer the problem of resistance because a vaccine enhances the body's natural defenses, while an antibiotic operates separately from the body's normal defenses. Nevertheless, new strains may evolve that escape immunity induced by vaccines.
While theoretically promising, anti-staphylococcal vaccines have shown limited efficacy, because of immunological variation between ''Staphylococcus'' species, and the limited duration of effectiveness of the antibodies produced. Development and testing of more effective vaccines is under way.
===Phage therapy===
[[Phage therapy]] is a more recent alternative that can cope with the problem of resistance.
==Development of newer antibiotics==
The resistance problem demands that a renewed effort be made to seek antibacterial agents effective against pathogenic bacteria resistant to current antibiotics. One of the possible strategies towards this objective is the rational localization of bioactive phytochemicals. Plants have an almost limitless ability to synthesize aromatic substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives such as tannins. Most are secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated, a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total{{fact}}. In many cases, these substances serve as plant defense mechanisms against predation by microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food yield useful medicinal compounds including those having antibacterial activity.
Traditional healers have long used plants to prevent or cure infectious conditions. Many of these plants have been investigated scientifically for antimicrobial activity and a large number of plant products have been shown to inhibit growth of pathogenic bacteria. A number of these agents appear to have structures and modes of action that are distinct from those of the antibiotics in current use, suggesting that cross-resistance with agents already in use may be minimal.
==See also==
*[[list of environment topics]]
*[[nosocomial infection]]
*[[tuberculosis]]
*[[bacterial conjugation]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cc.nih.gov/hes/vre.html Vancomycin Resistant Enterococcus - Guidelines for Healthcare Workers]
* [http://antibiotic.org Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics]
* [http://www.stoptriclosan.com StopTriclosan.com]
[[Category:Antibiotics]]
[[Category:Microbiology]]
[[da:Antibiotikaresistens]]
[[de:Antibiotikum-Resistenz]]
[[nl:Resistentie]]
[[fr:Résistance aux antibiotiques]]
==References==
* {{cite journal
| author=Lord Soulsby of Swaffham Prior
| title=Resistance to antimicrobials in humans and animals
| journal=Brit J Med
| year=2005
| volume=331
| pages=1219&ndash;20
| url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/extract/331/7527/1219?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1138116795534_11131&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&volume=331&firstpage=1219&resourcetype=1 }}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antigen</title>
<id>1915</id>
<revision>
<id>42046833</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:47:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Reinoutr</username>
<id>158685</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Origin of antigens */ added autoantigen</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''antigen''' is a substance that stimulates an [[immune system|immune]] response, especially the production of [[antibodies]]. ''Antigens'' are usually [[protein]]s or [[polysaccharide]]s, but can be any type of molecule, including small molecules ([[hapten]]s |
green parties]] in [[Europe]]. Since the change of statutes on [[February 21]], [[2004]], the European Federation of Green Parties can, apart from member parties, also have individual members, but this is rather rare. The federation has been partly succeeded by a [[European political party|party at the European level]], the [[European Greens]].
Prior to the founding of the European Greens, EFGP was one of the two subgroups in the [[European Greens - European Free Alliance|Greens-EFA]] group in the [[European Parliament]].
The European Federation facilitates communication between member parties. At meetings it arrives at shared manifestos for European elections, and provides an opportunity for networking and the discussion of strategy. It also gives support to new or small parties in order to strengthen them. They did work in Spain to unify divided groupings in each region, and succeeded to an extent -- two regions elected Green MPs to the Spanish Parliament.
As of 2005, the Federation includes 33 Green parties in 30 European countries. See [[European Greens]] for detailed information on membership.
==See also==
*[[Political parties of the world]]
{{Green Parties}}
[[Category:Green political parties]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Free Alliance</title>
<id>9864</id>
<revision>
<id>40792976</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T01:26:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Behemoth</username>
<id>203360</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_European_Political_Party |
party_name = European Free Alliance |
party_name_de = Europäische Freie Allianz |
party_name_fr = Alliance libre européenne |
party_name_it = Alleanza libera europea |
party_name_es = Alianza libre europea |
party_articletitle = European Free Alliance |
party_logo = [[Image:Efa logo.png|200px|Logo of the European Free Alliance]]|
president = [[Nelly Maes]] |
foundation = [[1981]]|
ideology = [[region|regional-]][[self-governance|autonomist]]|
international = ''none'' |
europarl = [[European Greens - European Free Alliance]] |
colours = [[Blue]] and [[Grey]]|
headquarters = 19 rue Woeringen<br/>1000 [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] |
website = [http://www.e-f-a.org/ www.e-f-a.org]
}}
The '''European Free Alliance''' ('''EFA''') is a grouping of various [[political party|political parties]] in [[Europe]] who believe in either full political [[independence]] ([[statehood]]), or some form of [[devolution]] or [[self-government]] for their country or region.
The group has five Members of the [[European Parliament]]:
*[[Jillian Evans]], [[Plaid Cymru]], [[Wales]]
*[[Ian Hudghton]], [[Scottish National Party]], [[Scotland]]
*[[Bernat Joan i Marí]], [[Republican Left of Catalonia]], (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya), [[Catalonia]]
*[[Alyn Smith]], [[Scottish National Party]], [[Scotland]]
*[[Tatjana Ždanoka]], [[For Human Rights in United Latvia]] (Par Cilveka Tiesibam Vieneta Latvija), [[Latvia]]
MEP Ždanoka is an individual affiliate to the EFA group at the European Parliament. Her party is not a member of EFA. EFA is in a joint group with the Greens in the European Parliament: [[European Greens - European Free Alliance]].
In November [[2005]], [[Sveriges Television]], [[Sweden]]'s state broadcaster, reported that the [[June List]], with 3 MEPs, were seriously considering changing allegiance in the European Parliament from the eurosceptic/EU-critical [[Independence and Democracy]] group to the [[centre-left]] European Free Alliance group.
==Participating parties==
{| border=1 cellpadding=5
|-
|'''Current State(s)'''||'''Party'''||'''Seeking to<br />represent'''
|-
|[[Austria]]||[[Enotna Lista]]||[[Slovenes]]
|-
|[[Belgium]]||[[Partei Deutschsprachigen Belgier]]||[[German-speaking community of Belgium|German speakers]]
|-
|[[Belgium]]||[[Spirit (Belgium)|Spirit]]||[[Flanders]]
|-
|[[Finland]]||[[Ålands Framtid]]||[[Åland]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Ligue Savoisienne]]||[[Savoie]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Mouvement Région Savoie]]||[[Savoie]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Partit Occitan]]||[[Occitania]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Partitu di a Nazione Corsa]]||[[Corsica]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Union démocratique bretonne]]||[[Brittany]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Union du Peuple Alsacien]]||[[Alsace]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Unitat Catalana]]||[[Catalonia]]
|-
|[[Greece]]||[[Vinozhito Rainbow Party]]||[[Macedonian Slavs]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Libertà Emiliana-Nazione Emilia]]||[[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Liga Fronte Veneto]]||[[Veneto]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Partido Sardo d'Azione]]||[[Sardinia]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Slovenska Skupnost]]||[[Slovenes]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Union für Südtirol]]||[[South Tyrol]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Union Valdôtaine]]||[[Aosta Valley]]
|-
|[[Lithuania]]||[[Lithuanian Polish People's Party]]||[[Poles]]
|-
|[[Netherlands]] / [[Germany]]||[[Fryske Nasjonale Partij]]||[[Friesland]]
|-
|[[Poland]]||[[Silesian Autonomy Movement]]||[[Silesia]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Bloque Nacionalista Galego]]||[[Galicia Spain|Galicia]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Chunta Aragonesista]]||[[Aragon]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya]]||[[Catalonia]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Eusko Alkartasuna]]||[[Basque Country]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Partido Andalucista]]||[[Andalusia]]
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]||[[Mebyon Kernow]]||[[Cornwall]]
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]||[[Plaid Cymru]]||[[Wales]]
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]||[[Scottish National Party]]||[[Scotland]]
|}
==Parties with Observer status==
{| border=1 cellpadding=5
|-
|[[Czech Republic]]||[[Moravian Democratic Party]]||[[Moravia]]
|-
|[[Romania]]||[[Liga Transilvania - Banat]]||[[Transylvania]]
|-
|[[Slovakia]]||[[Hungarian Federalist Party]]||[[Hungarians]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Partit Socialista de Mallorca Entesa Nacionalista]]||[[Balearic Islands]]
|}
==External links==
*[http://www.e-f-a.org/home.php European Free Alliance website]
*[http://www.efa-dppe.org/ European Free Alliance (EFA) Manifesto for the June 2004 European elections]
*[http://www.greens-efa.org/ The Greens-European Free Alliance Group in the European Parliament]
{{EU politics}}
[[Category:Political parties in Europe|Free Alliance]]
[[Category:Politics of Scotland]]
[[Category:European politics]]
[[Category:Politics of the United Kingdom]]
{{euro-party-stub}}
[[de:Europäische Freie Allianz]]
[[fr:Alliance libre européenne]]
[[it:Alleanza Libera Europea]]
[[nl:Europese Vrije Alliantie]]
[[pl:Wolny Sojusz Europejski]]
[[fi:Euroopan vapaa allianssi]]
[[sv:Europeiska fria alliansen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party</title>
<id>9865</id>
<revision>
<id>40780889</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T23:46:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Tom</username>
<id>12499</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.246.9.144|81.246.9.144]] ([[User talk:81.246.9.144|talk]]) to last version by Rich Farmbrough</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_European_Political_Party |
party_name = European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party |
party_name_de = Europäische liberale demokratische und Reformpartei |
party_name_fr = Parti européen des Libéraux, Démocrates et Réformateurs |
party_name_it = Partito europeo dei democratici, liberali e riformatori |
party_name_es = Partido Europeo de los Liberales, Demócratas y Reformistas |
party_articletitle = European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party |
party_logo = [[Image:Logo eldr.gif|200px|Logo of the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]] |
president = [[Annemie Neyts]] |
foundation = [[1993]] (EP group)<br/>[[April 30]], [[2004]] (Party)|
ideology = [[liberalism]]|
international = [[Liberal International]] |
europarl = [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] |
colours = [[Gold]] and [[Blue]]|
headquarters = rue Montoyer 40,<br/>1000 [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] |
website = [http://www.eldr.org/ www.eldr.org]
}}
The '''European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party''' (founded in [[1993]]) is a [[liberal parties|liberal party]], mainly active in the [[European Union]], composed of national [[liberal parties|liberal]] and [[centrist]] parties from across Europe.
Having developed from a loose confederation of national political parties in the 1970s, the ELDR is now a recognised [[European political parties|European political party]] incorporated as a non-profit association under [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[law]]. Despite this legal status, the ELDR Party has yet to acheive significant grassroots involvement and retains much of the character of a mere [[confederation]] of national [[political party|political parties]].
The Party is politically represented in the [[European Parliament]] by the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE Group]], formed in conjunction with the [[centrist]] [[European Democratic Party]], which is dominated by ELDR MEPs and led by [[Graham Watson]], a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] and former leader of the separate ELDR Parliamentary Group.
[[2006|As of 2006]], the ELDR is the third-largest political party represented in [[European Union|EU]] institutions, with 62 [[Member of the European Parliament|MEPs]] and 8 members of the [[European Commission]].
Nationally, ELDR member parties participate in the national governments of 10 out of the 25 [[European Union|EU]] Member States, contributing four [[prime minister|prime ministers]]:
* [[Andrus Ansip]] ([[Eesti Reformierakond|ERP]], [[Estonia]])
* [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] ([[Venstre]], [[Denmark]])
* [[Matti Vanhanen]] ([[Keskusta]], [[Finland]])
* [[Guy Verhofstadt]] ([[VLD]], [[Belgium]])
The youth wing of the ELDR Party is the [[European Liberal Youth]], which is curiously abbreviated to LYMEC, which is predominantly based upon youth and student [[liberal parties|liberal]] organisations from across [[Europe]] bu |
dies, his son, named as ''Ahaziah'' in Kings and as ''Jehoahaz'' in Chronicles (both names are equivalent, they are the same [[theophory]] as suffix and prefix respectively), rules over Judah in his place. Due to their family connection, Ahaziah supports Jehoram (king of Israel) at the battle of [[Ramoth-Gilead]] against Hazael, and later visits Jehoram while he is convalescing from his battle wounds. While visiting the convalescent, the forces of Jehu attack him and he flees, but is fatally wounded, and dies at Megiddo.
*'''The story of [[Jehu]]''' (2 Kings 9:1-10:31) - Elisha sends a prophet to anoint Jehu, a son of Jehoshaphat, as the king (despite Elijah already having done this). Once the prophet does this, Jehu organises a conspiracy against Jehoram (king of Israel), who was recovering at Jezreel from wounds inflicted by Hazael. When Jehu's troops approach Joram, Joram sends messengers to meet Jehu, but as Jehu forbids them to return to Joram, Joram is forced to meet Jehu himself. They meet in the field of Naboth, and Jehu accuses Jehoram's mother, Jezebel, of fornication and witchcraft, so Jehoram flees shouting that this is treason. However, on his way back, Jehoram is shot dead by Jehu with an arrow, and his body is taken to the field of Naboth in order to fulfil a prophecy. Ahaziah, the king of Judah, sees this, and flees, but is mortally wounded by Jehu, and dies at Meggido. Jehu heads to Jezreel, and when she learns of this, Jezebel puts on makeup, and calls down accusing him of murder, and asking if all is well. Jehu shouts out and pursuades the palace eunuchs to [[defenestration|defenestrate]] Jezebel, sending her to a gory death. Jehu challanges Israel to oppose him, but, frightened by him, they submit, and in accordance with his wishes, decapitate all the descendants of Ahab, sending Jehu the heads. Jehu also slaughters every descendant in Jezreel, and kills the kinsmen of Ahaziah (king of Judah) in a pit. Jehu then tricks the worshippers of Hadad (a.k.a. ''Ba'al'') by promising that he will worship Hadad, asking for them to gather at the temple of Hadad to make a sacrifice, evicting all the worshippers of Yahweh from the temple, closing the doors, and then slaughtering everyone inside. The temple of Hadad is then destroyed, and turned into a toilet.
*'''The story of [[Jehoahaz of Israel]]''' (2 Kings 10:32-35a, and 13:1-9a) During Jehu's reign, Hazael conquers Gilead. After Jehu dies, his son, Jehoahaz, becomes the new king, of the much reduced Israel. Under the yoke of Hazael, Jehoahaz appeals to Yahweh, and a saviour is sent to free Israel from Hazael (at no point does it explain who this saviour is, or what they do to save Israel). Hazael's aggression has resulted in Jehoahaz's army being reduced to a pittance.
*'''The story of [[Athaliah]]''' (2 Kings 11:1-20) - Athaliah, the mother of Ahaziah, on discovering the death of her son, sets out to kill the entire remaining royal family, and take the throne herself. However, her sister manages to hide Jehoash (sometimes abbreviated as ''Joash''), the son of Ahaziah, in the temple of Yahweh. Six years later, the priest summons the captain of the guards and Carian mercenaries, and shows them Jehoash. The priest has the guards and mercenaries surround the temple and defend it, while he publicly anoints Jehoash as king. Although Athaliah discovers this, and shouts that this is treason, the priest has Athaliah taken away and killed. The people then go and obliterate the temple of Hadad, and slaughter its priest.
*'''The story of [[Jehoash of Judah]]''' (2 Kings 12:1-22a) - Jehoash becomes a king loyal to the worship of Yahweh, though not insistant on centralised worship, and passes a law that the temple priests should get to keep the money offered at the temple, on the condition that they also take responsibility for carrying out repairs to it. While they keep the money, they fail to make repairs, so the king complains, and the priests choose to reject the money rather than be responsible for repairs. The money is put into a chest and when it becomes full, the contents are smelted together and used to pay for repairs, which a seperate individual is given oversight of. Ironically, after Hazael successfully besieges Gath, when he mounts an attack on Jerusalem, Jehoash is forced to buy him off with the treasures from the temple. In a later conspiracy, Jehoash is killed by his own men.
*'''The story of [[Jehoash of Israel]]''' (2 Kings 13:9b-13a, 13:13c-25 and 14:13-16a): Jehoash succeeds Jehoahaz, his father, as king of Israel. Jehoash goes to Elisha, who is dying, for help against Hazael. Elisha forces Jehoash to shoot an arrow through the window, and then prophecies that his doing so has ensured victory against Hazael. Elisha also makes Jehoash strike the ground with some arrows, and so Jehoash does so three times. Elisha states that this will ensure three victories, but by not striking the ground five or six times, has denied himself total outright victory. Elisha then dies, and is buried. While another funeral is taking place, Moabite raiders attack, so the mourners drop the body into Elisha's grave and flee, but when the body touches Elisha's, the man comes back to life. Hazael dies and is suceeded by the weaker [[Ben-hadad]], who is defeated thrice by Jehoash, fulfilling Elisha's promise. Jehoash is later forced to fight the aggressive king of Judah, but succeeds and captures him. Jehoash goes on to Jerusalem where part of the walls are torn down, and Jehoash takes the treasure of the palace and temple.
*'''The story of [[Amaziah]]''' (2 Kings 12:1-22b, 14:1-14 and 14:17-21) - Amaziah, the son of Jehoash (the king of Judah), succeeds him as king of Judah. Amaziah slaughters those who killed his father, though is merciful enough to spare their descendants. Amaziah then goes on military campaigns, conquering the Edomites. Amaziah challenges Jehoash (the king of Israel), but Jehoash responds with a parable about the [[Thistle of Lebanon]]. Amaziah attacks anyway, and the two sides meet in battle, but Judah is defeated, and Amaziah is captured. Later, Amaziah, now free (without explanation), hears of a conspiracy against him, so flees to Lachish, but is pursued there and killed.
*'''The story of [[Jeroboam II|Jeroboam (II)]]''' (2 Kings 13:13b and 14:23-29a) - Jeroboam becomes king of Israel after the death of Jehoash (the king of Israel), his father. Despite following Canaanite religion (for which the books of Kings, Chronicles, [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]], [[Book of Joel|Joel]], [[Book of Amos|Amos]], and [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]], condemn him), Jeroboam is otherwise a hero, as he manages to expand the boundaries of Israel as far as the [[Arabah]], and defeats Aram, returning [[Hamath]] to Israelite control, as had been prophecied.
*'''The story of [[Uzziah]]''' (2 Kings 14:22, 14:29b-15:7b, 15:32-36, and 15:38a) - The son of Amaziah, Uzziah (Kings mistakenly names him ''Azariah'', which in Chronicles is instead the name of his high priest), succeeds him as king of Judah, and rebuilds [[Elath]]. However, Uzziah suffers from leprosy, so his son, Jotham, reigns as regent (Chronicles states that Uzziah was deposed by a rebellion of the priesthood, and was cursed with leprosy as a result, and sent to live with the lepers). The construction of a gate of the temple is attributed to Jotham's mother. Jotham formally becomes king when Uzziah actually dies.
*'''The story of [[Menahem]]''' (2 Kings 15:8-22a) - Jeroboam is succeeded by [[Zechariah]], his son, as king of Israel, but Zechariah is soon killed by Shallum, who reigns in his place. [[Menahem]] hears about the assasination, and sets off to kill Shallum, but is held up by the people of [[Tappuah]]. After finally reaching Shallum, and killing him, Menahem exacts revenge on the people of Tappuah by slaughtering their entire population. Now that Menahem has become king, the king of Assyria, [[Tiglath-pileser]] (referred to in 15:16-22a as if a different individual named ''Pul'', though this is actually just the throne name of Tiglath-pileser) invades and Menahem gives him money to employ him to strengthen Menahem's own reign over Judah, but Tiglath-pileser just leaves with the money (In an inscription, Tiglath-pileser describes this simply as him invading, forcing Menahem to become a vassal, and receiving tribute). Menahem taxes the population to raise the funds for the tribute.
*'''The story of [[Pekah]]''' (2 Kings 15:22b-31 and 15:37) - When Menahem dies, his son, Pekahiah, succeeds him as king. However, Pekah, the [[adjutant]] to Pekahiah, conspires with the people from the eastern half of Israel, Gilead, and kills Pekahiah, becoming king in his place. Pekah enters into an alliance with [[Rezin]], the king of Aram, to attack Judah. Supporting Judah, now a vassal of Assyria, Tiglath-pileser invades Israel, capturing several cities, and deporting their populations. [[Hoshea]] conspires against Pekah, killing him and becoming king in his place (though an inscription by Tiglath-pileser states that he killed Pekah and placed Hoshea on the throne himself).
*'''The story of [[Ahaz]]''' (2 Kings 15:38b-16:20a) - Ahaz becomes king of Judah when Jotham, his father, dies. The alliance between Aram and Israel besiege Ahaz, and Edom is able to recover [[Elath]], so Ahaz responds by becomes a vassal of Tiglath-pileser, who is subjugating Israel. Tiglath-pileser then attacks Damascus (capital of Aram), killing Rezin, and deporting the inhabitants to another part of Assyria. Ahaz follows Canaanite religious practices, sacrificing at the high places and Asherah groves, and even immolating his son through the fire to [[Moloch]]. As a consequence, when Ahaz goes to Damascus to meet Tiglath-pileser, he is so impressed by the altar that he has a new altar made to the same design, and replaces the altar at the Jerusalem temple with it. Ahaz makes further alterations to the temple layout, even removing the throne |
the collections of his plays, ''Incarnations'' (1995) and ''Forms of Heaven'' (1996), as well as on the second printing of the original UK publications of his ''[[Books of Blood]]'' series. His artwork has been exhibited at the Bess Cutler Gallery in New York and La Luz De Jesus in Los Angeles. Many of his sketches and paintings can be found in the collection ''[[Clive Barker, Illustrator]]'', published in 1990 by Arcane/Eclipse Books. He also worked on the creative side of a horror [[computer game]], ''[[Clive Barker's Undying]]'', also providing the voice for the character Ambrose, a homicidal maniac who is never without his enormous axe. ''Undying'' was developed by [[DreamWorks Interactive]] and released in [[2001]] to moderate success and acclaim. Barker also provided the artwork for his young adult novel ''The Thief Of Always'' (1992) as well as the ''[[Abarat]]'' series.
==Comic books==
A longtime comics fan, Barker achieved his dream of publishing his own superhero books when [[Marvel Comics]] launched the [[Razorline]] imprint in [[1993]]. Based on detailed premises, titles and lead characters he created specifically for this, the four interrelated titles — set outside the Marvel universe — were ''[[Ectokid]]'' (written first by [[James Dale Robinson|James Robinson]], then by future ''[[The Matrix|Matrix]]'' co-creator [[Wachowski brothers|Larry Wachowski]], with art by Steve Skroce), ''[[Hokum & Hex]]'' (written by [[Frank Lovece]], art by [[Anthony Williams (comics)|Anthony Williams]]), ''[[Hyperkind]]'' (written by Fred Burke, art by Paris Cullins) and ''[[Saint Sinner]]'' (written by [[Elaine Lee]], art by Max Douglas). A 2002 Barker telefilm titled ''Saint Sinner'' bore no relation to the comic.
Barker horror adaptations and spin-offs in comics include the Marvel/Epic series ''[[Hellraiser]]'', ''[[Nightbreed]]'', ''[[Pinhead (Hellraiser)|Pinhead]]'', ''The Harrowers'', ''Book of the Damned'' and ''Jihad''; [[Eclipse Comics|Eclipse Books]]' series and [[graphic novels]] ''Tapping The Vein'', ''Dread'', ''Son of Celluloid'', ''Revelations'' ''The Life of Death'', ''Rawhead Rex'' and ''The Yattering and Jack''; and [[Dark Horse Comics]]' ''Primal'', among others.
In 2005, IDW published a three-issue adaptation of Barker's children's fantasy novel ''[[The Thief of Always]]'', written and painted by Kris Oprisko and Gabriel Hernandez. IDW is also going to be publishing 12 issue adaptations of Barker's novel ''[[The Great and Secret Show]]''
==Relationships==
Barker has been openly [[gay]] since the early 1990s, first mentioning his dating life to US audiences in the pages of ''[[The Advocate]]'' magazine. He currently lives in [[Los Angeles]], CA, with his partner, photographer [[David Armstrong (photographer)|David Armstrong]], and Armstrong's daughter from a previous relationship, Nicole. The household also includes a great many pets (dogs, fish, even a bird named Malingo).
Barker's play ''[[Frankenstein in Love]]'' will receive a rare staging in London at the end of September; see the Barons Court or www.ellupofilms.com for details.
==Bibliography==
===Novels===
* ([[1985]]) ''[[The Damnation Game (novel)|The Damnation Game]]''
* ([[1986]]) ''[[The Hellbound Heart]]''
* ([[1987]]) ''[[Weaveworld]]''
* ([[1988]]) ''[[Cabal (novel)|Cabal]]''
* ([[1989]]) ''[[The Great and Secret Show]]'' (first "Book of the Art")
* ([[1991]]) ''[[Imajica]]''
* ([[1992]]) ''[[The Yattering and Jack]]'' (also published in ''[[Books of Blood]]'' Volume 1)
* ([[1992]]) ''[[The Thief of Always]]''
* ([[1994]]) ''[[Everville]]'' (second "Book of the Art")
* ([[1996]]) ''[[Sacrament (book)|Sacrament]]''
* ([[1998]]) ''[[Galilee (book)|Galilee]]''
* ([[2001]]) ''[[Coldheart Canyon|Coldheart Canyon: A Hollywood Ghost Story]]''
* ([[2001]]) ''[[Tortured Souls]] (novelette)
* ([[2002]]) ''[[Abarat]]'' (first book of the Abarat Quartet)
* ([[2004]]) ''[[Abarat: Days of Magic, Nights of War]]'' (second book of the Abarat Quartet)
===Collections===
* ([[1984]]-[[1985]]) ''[[Books of Blood]]'' (vols. 1 through 6 were released between 1984 and 1985. vols. 4 through 6 were published in the U.S. as ''Cabal'', ''[[In the Flesh]]'', and ''[[The Inhuman Condition]]''.)
* ([[1985]]) ''Cabal'' (titular novella was also published as a ''[[Nightbreed]]'' mass market paperback)
* ([[1987]]) ''In the Flesh''
* ([[1987]]) ''The Inhuman Condition''
* ([[1990]]) ''[[Clive Barker, Illustrator]]''
* ([[1992]]) ''[[Illustrator II: The Art of Clive Barker]]''
* ([[1995]]) ''[[Incarnations|Incarnations: Three Plays]]''
* ([[1996]]) ''[[Forms of Heave|Forms of Heaven: Three Plays]]''
* ([[2006]]) ''[[The Scarlet Gospels]]'' (As of yet unpublished collection, the title story has become a long novella featuring the characters and mythology that first appeared in ''The Hellbound Heart'' centering around the character of [[Pinhead (Hellraiser)|Pinhead]] and also featuring Clive's character, [[Harry D'Amour]], from ''The Last Illusion'', ''The Great and Secret Show'', ''Everville'' and the film ''[[Lord of Illusions]]'')
===Biographies===
* ([[2002]]) ''[[Clive Barker: The Dark Fantastic]]'' by ''[[Douglas E. Winter]]''
==See also==
* [[Cenobite (Hellraiser)|Cenobite]]
* [[Lemarchand's box]]
==References==
* [http://www.clivebarker.com/ Clive Barker.com] - Lost Souls: Clive Barker's Official Website
* [http://www.clivebarker.dial.pipex.com/ Revelations: Clive Barker Information]
* [http://supervert.com/essays/art/clive_barker Catalogue essay for Barker's first art exhibit]
* [http://www.mobygames.com/game/sheet/p,3/gameId,3457/ Clive Barker's Undying on Mobygames.com]
* {{imdb name|id=0000850|name=Clive Barker}}
* {{isfdb name|id=Clive_Barker|name=Clive Barker}}
* [http://wiredforbooks.org/clivebarker/ 1987 and 1986 audio interviews of Clive Barker by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.godsandmonsters.net/ ''Gods and Monsters'' official website]
{{Clive Barker}}
<!-- Categories -->
[[Category:1952 births|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:British comics writers|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:English horror writers|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:Fantasy artists|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:Hellraiser|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:Liverpudlians|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:Living people|Barker, Clive]]
<!-- Translations -->
[[bg:Клайв Баркър]]
[[de:Clive Barker]]
[[it:Clive Barker]]
[[ja:&#12463;&#12521;&#12452;&#12532;&#12539;&#12496;&#12540;&#12459;&#12540;]]
[[pt:Clive Barker]]
[[fi:Clive Barker]]
[[sv:Clive Barker]]
[[es:Clive Barker]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comic fantasy</title>
<id>7574</id>
<revision>
<id>23748599</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-22T12:40:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Martpol</username>
<id>87217</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>italics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Fantasy}}
'''Comic fantasy''' is a subgenre of [[fantasy]] that is primarily humorous in intent and tone. Usually set in imaginary worlds, comic fantasy often includes puns on and parodies of other works of fantasy. It is sometimes known as '''low Fantasy''' in contrast to [[high fantasy]], which is primarily serious in intent and tone.
==Examples==
The subgenre rose in the latter half of the [[20th century|twentieth century]], with [[L. Sprague de Camp]] and Fletcher Pratt's [[Harold Shea (fictional series)|Complete Enchanter]] stories being early exemplars. In more modern times, [[Piers Anthony]]'s ''[[Xanth]]'' books, [[Robert Asprin]]'s ''[[MythAdventures]]'' of Skeeve and Aahz books, and [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]'' provide good examples. A rare example on radio is the [[BBC]]'s ''[[Hordes of the Things]]''.
[[Category:Fantasy genres]]
[[de:Humoristische Fantasy]]
{{fantasy-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CLU programming language</title>
<id>7575</id>
<revision>
<id>40662315</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T03:31:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jacobolus</username>
<id>166386</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Other features */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[pl:CLU]]
'''CLU''' is a [[programming language]] created at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] by [[Barbara Liskov]] and her students between [[1974]] and [[1975]]. It was notable for its use of constructors for abstract data types that included the code that operated on them, a key step in the direction of [[object oriented programming]] (OOP). However many of the other features of OOP are missing or incomplete, notably inheritance, and the language is also hindered by a sometimes frustrating syntax. CLU and [[Alphard programming language|Alphard]] both seem to get as close as possible to being a full OO language without actually being one.
==Clusters==
The [[syntax]] of CLU was based on [[ALGOL programming language|ALGOL]], then the starting point for most new language design. The key addition was the concept of a ''cluster'', CLU's type extension system and the root of the language's name (CLUster). Clusters correspond generally to the concept of an "object" in an OO language, and have roughly the same syntax. For instance, here is the CLU syntax for a cluster that implements [[complex number]]s:
<code>
complex_number = cluster is add, subtract, multiply, ....
rep = record [ real_part: real, imag_part: real ]
add = proc ... end add;
subtract = proc ... end subtract;
multiply = proc ... end multiply;
...
end complex_number;
</code>
While clusters offered a then-advanced system for structuring programs, CLU did not offer any sort of structure for the clusters themselves. Cluster nam |
h is contrary to the teaching of some of the English Reformers. Some give greater weight to the [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] books of the Bible. (See [[Biblical canon]].) Officially, Anglican teaching is that these books may be read in church for their instruction in morals, but not used to establish any doctrine. In recent years, prayer books (or "alternate services" books) of several countries have, out of deference to a greater agreement with Eastern [[Conciliarism]] (and a perceived greater respect accorded Anglicanism by Eastern Orthodoxy than by Roman Catholicism), instituted a number of historically Eastern and [[Oriental Orthodox]] elements in their liturgies, including replacing the [[Gloria in excelsis]] with the [[Trisagion]] and deleting the [[filioque]] from the [[Creed]].
For their part, those Anglicans who emphasise the Reformed-Protestant nature of the Church stress the Reformation themes of [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|salvation]] by grace through faith, the two dominical sacraments of the Gospel, and Scripture as containing all that is necessary to salvation in an explicit sense.
The range of Anglican belief and practice became particularly divisive during the 19th century, as the [[Anglo-Catholicism | Anglo-Catholic]] and [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] movements emphasised the more Catholic or the more Reformed sides of Anglican Christianity. These groups or "parties" are still often equated with the terms "High Church" and "Low Church", and these terms are commonly used to speak of the level of ceremony that is favoured. These terms are also used to discuss the theological place of the organised church within the Body of Christ.
The spectrum of Anglican beliefs and practice is too large to be fit into these labels. Most Anglicans are broadly Evangelical and Catholic and, in fact, stress that Anglicanism, rightly understood, is western Christianity's "[[Via Media]]" (middle way) between what were considered medieval "excesses" of Roman Catholicism and the "excesses" of the fervent European Continental Protestantism, represented strongly by Geneva. Via Media may also be understood as underscoring Anglicanism's preference for a communitarian and methodological approach to theological issues rather than either total relativism on the one hand or dogmatic absolutism on the other.
The nineteenth century saw new heights of intellectual activity in the Anglican Church. Since that time, the theological contributions of the Church to the wider spectrum of Christian thought have declined somewhat, though there is some resurgence on Anglicanism's theological left. Another recent trend has been the emergence of fundamentalism in some strands of Anglicanism. Fundamentalism, seen as an anti-intellectual movement, rejects all but the most literal readings of the Bible. This controversial doctrine is regarded by most as highly divisive, rejecting all prior tradition and is seen by its critics as a reactionary measure by those who cannot cope with the relativisation of truth that has been a predominant feature of the post-modernist epoch. Traditionally, Anglicanism had been associated with the English university systems and hence, the literary criticism produced in those organisations has been applied to the study of ancient scriptures, although not uncritically.
==Social issues==
A question of whether or not Christianity is a pacifist religion has remained a matter of debate for Anglicans. In 1937, the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship emerged as a distinct reform organisation, seeking to make pacifism a clearly defined part of Anglican theology. The group rapidly gained popularity amongst Anglican intellectuals, including [[Vera Brittain]], [[Evelyn Underhill]] and former British political leader [[George Lansbury]].
Whilst never actively endorsed by the Anglican Church, many Anglicans unofficially have adopted the Augustinian "[[the Just War Theory|Just War]]" doctrine. The Anglican Pacifist Fellowship remain highly active and rejects this doctrine. The Fellowship seeks to reform the Church by reintroducing the [[pacifism]] inherent in the beliefs of many of the earliest Christians and present in their interpretation of Christ's [[Sermon on the Mount]]. Confusing the matter all the more however, is that the 37th Article of Religion states clearly that "it is lawful for Christian men, at the commandment of the Magistrate, to wear weapons, and serve in the wars."
==Religious life==
A small yet influential aspect of Anglicanism is its [[religious order]]s of [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s. Shortly after the beginning of the revival of the [[Anglo-Catholicism|Catholic Movement]] in the Church of England, there was felt to be a need for some Anglican [[Sisters of Charity]]. In the 1840s Mother [[Priscilla Lydia Sellon]] became the first woman to take the vows of religion in communion with the [[Province of Canterbury]] since the Reformation, and a series of letters were exchanged publically between her and the Rev. James [[Spurrell]], Vicar of Great Shelford, Cambs., who criticised Miss Sellon's Sisters of Mercy. From the 1840s and throughout the next hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated in the [[UK]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[India]], as well as in various countries of [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and the [[Pacific]].
Anglican religious life at one time boasted hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of [[religious]]. An important aspect of Anglican religious life is that most communities of both men and women lived their lives consecrated to [[God]] under the [[vow]]s of [[poverty]], [[sexual abstinence|chastity]] and [[obedience]] (or in [[Benedictine]] communities, Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience) by practicing a mixed life of reciting the full eight services of the [[Breviary]] in choir, along with a daily [[Eucharist]], plus service to the poor. The mixed life, combining aspects of the [[contemplative order]]s and the [[active order]]s remains to this day a hallmark of Anglican religious life.
Since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in most parts of the Anglican Communion, just as in the Roman Catholic Church. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery comprised of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct.
There are however, still several thousand Anglican religious working today in approximately 200 communities around the world.
The most significant growth has been in the [[Melanesia]]n countries of the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. The [[Melanesian Brotherhood]], founded at [[Tabalia]], [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]], in [[1925]] by Ini Kopuria, is now the largest Anglican Community in the world with over 450 [[monk|brother]]s in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the [[Philippines]] and the United Kingdom. The [[Sisters of the Church]], started by Mother Emily Ayckbown in England in 1870, has more [[nun|sisters]] in the Solomons than all their other communities. The [[Community of the Sisters of Melanesia]], started in 1980 by Sister Nesta Tiboe, is a growing community of women throughout the Solomon Islands. The [[Society of Saint Francis]], founded as a union of various [[Franciscan]] orders in the 1920s, has experienced great growth in the Solomon Islands. Other communities of religious have been started by Anglicans in Papua New Guinea and in Vanuatu. Most Melanesian Anglican religious are in their early to mid 20s -- vows may be temporary and it is generally assumed that brothers, at least, will leave and marry in due course -- making the average age 40 to 50 years younger than their brothers and sisters in other countries. This growth is especially surprising because celibacy was not regarded as a Melanesian virtue; on the other hand, it is perhaps more accurate to conceptualise Melanesian religious as youth volunteers than as monastic orders on the medieval European model.
== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book
| first = Norman | last = Doe
| year = 1998
| title = Canon Law in the Anglican Communion: A Worldwide Perspective
| location = [[Oxford]]
| publisher = Clarendon Press
| id = ISBN 0198267827
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Hein, David (compiler)
| authorlink = David Hein
| year = 1991
| title = Readings in Anglican Spirituality
| location = Cincinnati
| publisher = Forward Movement Publications
| id = ISBN 0880281251
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Hein, David, and Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr.
| year = 2005
| title = The Episcopalians
| location = New York
| publisher = Church Publishing
}}
* {{cite book
| first = R.C.D. | last = Jasper
| authorlink = R.C.D. Jasper
| year = 1989
| title = The Development of the Anglican Liturgy, 1662-1980
| location = London
| publisher = SPCK
}}
* {{cite book
| author = More and Cross
| title = Anglicanism
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Stephen | last = Neill
| authorlink = Stephen Neill
| title = Anglicanism
}}
* {{cite book
| first = William L. | last = Sachs
| authorlink = William L. Sachs
| year = 1993
| title = The Transformation of Anglicanism: From State Church to Global Community
| location = [[Cambridge]]
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
}}
* {{cite book
| author = [[Stephen Sykes|Sykes, Stephen]], [[John Booty|Booty, John]], & [[Jonathan Knight (theologist)|Knight, Jonathan]], (eds.)
| title = The Study of Anglicanism
| location = Minneapolis, MN
| publisher = Fortress Press
}}
* {{cite book
| first = William | last = Temple
| authorlink = William Temple
| title = Doctrine in the Church of England
}}
==See also== |
ent Martyn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carl Meinhof</title>
<id>6331</id>
<revision>
<id>40410274</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T09:42:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobby1011</username>
<id>278977</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clarification</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Carl Friedrich Michael Meinhof''' ([[July 23]],[[1857]]-[[February 11]],[[1944]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[linguist]] known as one of the first linguists to study African languages. In [[1905]] he became professor at the School of Oriental Studies in [[Berlin]].
He was most notable for the work that he did developing comparative grammar studies of the [[Bantu languages]]. He followed from the pioneering work of [[Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel Bleek]] on Bantu grammar. In his work, Meinhof looked at the common Bantu languages such as [[Swahili]] and [[Zulu]] to determine similarities and differences.
In his work, Meinhof looked at [[Grammatical gender|noun classes]] with all Bantu languages having at least 10 classes and with 22 classes of nouns existing throughout the Bantu languages, though his definition of noun class differs slightly from the accepted one. While no language has all 22, [[Sesotho]] has 18. Several Bantu languages have a noun class specifically for humans and the [[Fula language]] having one reserved for liquids.
Meinhof also looked at other African languages including the [[Kordofanian languages]], [[Bushman]], [[Khoikhoi]] and [[Hamitic]] languages. During his career, Meinhof published several books on African languages and made recordings of East African music in 1902 which was one of the first recordings made of traditional African music.
==References==
* Meinhof, C 1948 (1st edn 1906) ''Grundzüge einer vergleichenden Grammatik der Bantusprachen''. Reimer, Berlin
{{Germany-bio-stub}}
{{academic-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1857 births|Meinhof, Carl]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Meinhof, Carl]]
[[Category:German linguists|Meinhof, Carl Friedrich Michael]]
[[de:Carl Meinhof]]
[[pt:Carl Meinhof]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carl Lepsius</title>
<id>6334</id>
<revision>
<id>15904485</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-17T14:03:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nefertum17</username>
<id>169937</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Karl Richard Lepsius]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cucurbitaceae</title>
<id>6335</id>
<revision>
<id>40057061</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T20:45:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.226.10.99</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cucurbitaceae
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Cucurbitales]]
| familia = '''Cucurbitaceae'''
| familia_authority = [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Juss.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
''[[Abobra]]''<br />
''[[Acanthosicyos]]''<br />
''[[Actinostemma]]''<br />
''[[Alsomitra]]''<br />
''[[Ampelosycios]]''<br />
''[[Anacaona]]''<br />
''[[Apatzingania]]''<br />
''[[Apodanthera]]''<br />
''[[Bambekea]]''<br />
''[[Benincasa]]''<br />
''[[Biswarea]]''<br />
''[[Bolbostemma]]''<br />
''[[Brandegea]]''<br />
''[[Bryonia]]''<br />
''[[Calycophysum]]''<br />
''[[Cayaponia]]''<br />
''[[Cephalopentandra]]''<br />
''[[Ceratosanthes]]''<br />
''[[Chalema]]''<br />
''[[Cionosicyos]]''<br />
''[[Citrullus]]''<br />
''[[Coccinia]]''<br />
''[[Cogniauxia]]''<br />
''[[Corallocarpus]]''<br />
''[[Cremastopus]]''<br />
''[[Ctenolepis]]''<br />
''[[Cucumella]]''<br />
''[[Cucumeropsis]]''<br />
''[[Cucumis]]''<br />
''[[Cucurbita]]''<br />
''[[Cucurbitella]]''<br />
''[[Cyclanthera]]''<br />
''[[Dactyliandra]]''<br />
''[[Dendrosicyos]]''<br />
''[[Dicoelospermum]]''<br />
''[[Dieterlea]]''<br />
''[[Diplocyclos]]''<br />
''[[Doyerea]]''<br />
''[[Ecballium]]''<br />
''[[Echinocystis]]''<br />
''[[Echinopepon]]''<br />
''[[Edgaria]]''<br />
''[[Elateriopsis]]''<br />
''[[Eureiandra]]''<br />
''[[Fevillea]]''<br />
''[[Gerrardanthus]]''<br />
''[[Gomphogyne]]''<br />
''[[Gurania]]''<br />
''[[Guraniopsis]]''<br />
''[[Gymnopetalum]]''<br />
''[[Gynostemma]]''<br />
''[[Halosicyos]]''<br />
''[[Hanburia]]''<br />
''[[Helmontia]]''<br />
''[[Hemsleya]]''<br />
''[[Herpetospermum]]''<br />
''[[Hodgsonia]]''<br />
''[[Ibervillea]]''<br />
''[[Indofevillea]]''<br />
''[[Kedrostis]]''<br />
''[[Lagenaria]]''<br />
''[[Lemurosicyos]]''<br />
''[[Luffa]]''<br />
''[[Marah (plant)|Marah]]''<br />
''[[Melancium]]''<br />
''[[Melothria]]''<br />
''[[Melothrianthus]]''<br />
''[[Microsechium]]''<br />
''[[Momordica]]''<br />
''[[Muellerargia]]''<br />
''[[Mukia]]''<br />
''[[Myrmecosicyos]]''<br />
''[[Neoalsomitra]]''<br />
''[[Nothoalsomitra]]''<br />
''[[Odosicyos]]''<br />
''[[Oreosyce]]''<br />
''[[Parasicyos]]''<br />
''[[Penelopeia]]''<br />
''[[Peponium]]''<br />
''[[Peponopsis]]''<br />
''[[Polyclathra]]''<br />
''[[Posadaea]]''<br />
''[[Praecitrullus]]''<br />
''[[Pseudocyclanthera]]''<br />
''[[Pseudosicydium]]''<br />
''[[Psiguria]]''<br />
''[[Pteropepon]]''<br />
''[[Pterosicyos]]''<br />
''[[Raphidiocystis]]''<br />
''[[Ruthalicia]]''<br />
''[[Rytidostylis]]''<br />
''[[Schizocarpum]]''<br />
''[[Schizopepon]]''<br />
''[[Sechiopsis]]''<br />
''[[Sechium]]''<br />
''[[Selysia]]''<br />
''[[Seyrigia]]''<br />
''[[Sicana]]''<br />
''[[Sicydium]]''<br />
''[[Sicyos]]''<br />
''[[Sicyosperma]]''<br />
''[[Siolmatra]]''<br />
''[[Siraitia]]''<br />
''[[Solena]]''<br />
''[[Tecunumania]]''<br />
''[[Telfairia]]''<br />
''[[Thladiantha]]''<br />
''[[Trichosanthes]]''<br />
''[[Tricyclandra]]''<br />
''[[Trochomeria]]''<br />
''[[Trochomeriopsis]]''<br />
''[[Tumacoca]]''<br />
''[[Vaseyanthus]]''<br />
''[[Wilbrandia]]''<br />
''[[Xerosicyos]]''<br />
''[[Zanonia]]''<br />
''[[Zehneria]]''<br />
''[[Zombitsia]]''<br />
''[[Zygosicyos]]''
<hr>
Ref: [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/cucurbit.htm Watson and Dallwitz]<br/>2002-09-03
}}
'''Cucurbitaceae''' is a family of plants including the [[melon]], [[cucumber]], [[calabash]], [[squash (vegetable)|squash]], and [[luffa]]. It is one of the most important families of food plants in the world, although certainly not nearly as important as the grass family, [[Poaceae]], legume family, [[Fabaceae]], or [[Nightshade]] family, [[Solanaceae]].
Most of the plants in this family are [[Annual plant|annual]] [[vine]]s with fairly large, showy [[blossom]]s.
Most of the plants in this family are readily susceptible to a [[moth]] [[larva]], the [[squash borer]].
==External links==
* [http://www.cucurbit.org/family.html Cucurbitaceae] in [http://www.cucurbit.org/family.html T.C. Andres (1995 onwards)].
* [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/cucurbit.htm Cucurbitaceae] in [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.] http://delta-intkey.com
* [http://nt.ars-grin.gov/sbmlweb/OnlineResources/Cucumis/ J.H. Kirkbride Jr and M.J. Dallwitz (2000 onwards). Cucumis and Cucumella (Cucurbitaceae): cucumbers and melons.]
<br/><hr><br/>
{{fruit-stub}}
[[Category:Plant families]]
[[Category:Cucurbitales]]
[[Category:Cucurbitaceae]]
[[da:Græskar-familien (Cucurbitaceae)]]
[[de:Kürbisgewächse]]
[[sl:Podančica]]
[[es:Cucurbitaceae]]
[[eo:Kukurbacoj]]
[[fr:Cucurbitacée]]
[[ja:&#12454;&#12522;&#31185;]]
[[lv:Ķirbju dzimta]]
[[nl:Komkommerfamilie]]
[[no:Gresskarfamilien]]
[[pl:Dyniowate]]
[[pt:Cucurbitáceas]]
[[sv:Gurkväxter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chorded keyboard</title>
<id>6336</id>
<revision>
<id>41782616</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:42:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Omegatron</username>
<id>18931</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ organize links and add some</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''chorded keyboard''' (sometimes called ''chording keyboard'' or simply ''chord keyboard'') is a [[list of input devices|computer input device]] designed to replace a traditional [[QWERTY]] [[computer keyboard]].
Instead of using one key for each character, the user presses multiple-key combinations, similar to the playing of [[chord (music)|chord]]s on a [[piano]]. Such technology has been around for many years but is little known to the public because more specialized training is needed to use it than the standard keyboard, which can be used in a "[[hunt and peck]]" style much more quickly. For example, each finger might control one key which corresponds to one [[bit]] in a [[byte]], so that one to eight fingers can enter any [[Character (computing)|character]] in the [[ASCII]] set if the user can remember the binary codes. There are many different designs based on the same concept, some requiring only one hand for operation.
Due to the small number of keys required (the minimal design only needs one key for each finger), a chorded keyboard is easily adapted |
ation of around 4 million. [[1920s Berlin]] was a very exciting and interesting city.
After the seizure of power by the [[National Socialist German Workers Party|National Socialists]] (Nazis) in [[1933]], Berlin became the capital of the [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]]. The Nazis used the [[1936]] [[Summer Olympic Games]] in Berlin for propaganda purposes. There were also plans to rebuild Berlin as “''[[Welthauptstadt Germania|Germania, Capital of the World]]''.” However, these plans were put aside because of [[World War II]].
Nazi rule destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which numbered 160,000 before the Nazi seizure of power. After the brutal pogrom of [[Kristallnacht]] in 1938, thousands of the city's Jews were imprisoned in the concentration camp at nearby [[Sachsenhausen]]. The last Jews in Berlin (except for a few married to non-Jews) were marched to the Grunewald railway station over several weeks in early 1943 and shipped in cattle cars to death camps such as [[Auschwitz]].
During the war, large parts of Berlin were destroyed by bombs and street combat. After the occupation of the city by the [[Red Army]] and the German surrender in [[1945]], Berlin was divided into four sectors, analogous to the occupation zones into which Germany was divided. The sectors of the Western Allies (the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]]) formed [[West Berlin]], while the sector of the [[Soviet Union]] formed [[East Berlin]].
For Berlin as a whole, all four allies retained shared oversight. However, the growing political differences between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union led the Soviet Union, which controlled the territory surrounding Berlin, to impose the [[Berlin Blockade]], an economic blockade of West Berlin from 1948 to 1949. The Allies successfully overcame this blockade through the Berlin Airlift.
[[Image:Berlin Wall graffiti&death strip.jpg|thumb|280px|left|The Berlin Wall in 1986, brightly painted on the western side. Those trying to cross the so-called death strip on the eastern side could be shot.]]In 1949 the democratic Federal Republic of Germany was founded in [[West Germany]], while the Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in [[East Germany]]. The founding of the two German states increased [[Cold War]] tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by the territory of the GDR. Due to Berlin's isolation and vulnerability, the Federal Republic established its provisional capital in [[Bonn]]. The GDR, however, proclaimed East Berlin, which included most of the historic centre, as its capital. The east-west conflict culminated in the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] between East and West Berlin and other barriers around West Berlin by the GDR on [[13 August]] [[1961]]. West Berlin was now de facto a part of the Federal Republic of Germany, although with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of the GDR.
The eastern and western portions of Berlin were now completely separated. It was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other only through strictly controlled checkpoints. For most Easterners, travel to West Berlin or West Germany was no longer possible. In [[1971]], the Four-Power Agreement on Berlin was signed. While the Soviet Union applied the oversight of the four powers only to West Berlin, the Western Allies emphasized in a [[1975]] note to the [[United Nations]] their position that four-power oversight applied to Berlin as a whole.
In [[1989]] pressure from the East German population brought a transition to democracy in the GDR, and Easterners gained free access across the Berlin Wall, which was quickly demolished. In [[1990]] the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany and Berlin became the German capital according to the unification treaty. In [[1991]], the [[Bundestag ]] (the lower house of the German parliament) decided, after a controversial public discussion, that the city should again be the seat of the German national government. Most branches of the German government relocated from Bonn to Berlin during the subsequent years. On [[1 September]] [[1999]] the German parliament and government began their work in Berlin.
==Geography==
===Geographic Setting===
Berlin is located in eastern Germany, about 70 kilometres (40 miles) west of the border with [[Poland]]. Berlin's [[landscape]] was shaped by [[ice sheets]] during the last [[Ice Age]]. The city centre lies along the river [[Spree]] in the Berlin-Warsaw 'urstromtal' (ancient river valley), formed by water flowing from melting ice sheets at the end of the last Ice Age. The urstromtal lies between the low plateaus of the Barnim, to the north, and the Teltow, to the south. In Berlin's westernmost borough, [[Spandau]], the Spree meets the river [[Havel]], which flows from north to south through western Berlin. The course of the Havel is much like a chain of lakes. The largest lakes along the Havel are the Tegelsee and [[Wannsee|Großer Wannsee]]. A series of lakes also feeds into the upper Spree, which flows through eastern Berlin's largest lake, [[Müggelsee|Großer Müggelsee]].
[[Image:Havel_Berlin.jpg|thumb|400px|The River Havel flows through a series of lakes in western Berlin.]]
Substantial parts of present-day Berlin extend onto the low plateaus that line the Spree Valley. Large parts of the boroughs [[Berlin-Reinickendorf|Reinickendorf]] and [[Pankow]] lie on the Barnim, while most of the boroughs [[Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf]], [[Steglitz-Zehlendorf]], [[Tempelhof-Schöneberg]], and [[Neukölln]] are on the Teltow. The borough of Spandau lies partly within the Berlin urstromtal and partly on the Nauen Plain, which stretches to the west of Berlin.
The highest elevations in Berlin are the Teufelsberg in the borough of Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf and the Müggelberge in the borough of [[Treptow-Köpenick]]. Both hills have an elevation of about 115 metres (377 feet), and are in fact artificial piles of rubble from the ruins of World War II.
===Climate===
The city has a moderate climate. The mean annual temperature for Berlin-Dahlem is 9.4 degrees Celsius (48.9 degrees Fahrenheit) and its mean annual precipitation totals 578 millimeters (22.8 inches). The warmest months are June, July, and August, with mean temperatures of 16.7 to 17.9 degrees Celsius (62.1 to 64.2 degrees Fahrenheit). The coldest are December, January, and February, with mean temperatures of -0.4 to 1.2 degrees Celsius (31.3 to 34.2 degrees Fahrenheit). The months with the highest precipitation are June and August, which average 70.7 millimeters (2.78 inches) and 65.3 millimeters (2.57 inches), respectively. The months with the lowest mean precipitation are October and February, with averages of 35.8 millimeters (1.41 inches) and 36.7 millimeters (1.44 inches), respectively.
==Demography==
Berlin has 3,393,933 inhabitants (as of September 2005) in an area of 891.75 square kilometres (344.31 [[square miles|mi²]]). Thus, the population density of the region amounts to 3,806 inhabitants per square kilometre (9,857/square mile). Berlin residents' average age is 41.7 years (as of 2004). A total of 450,900 inhabitants are foreigners who are citizens of 185 nations (as of December [[2004]]). Among them, approximately 36,000 citizens come from the nearest neighbouring country, [[Poland]], and 119,000 are from [[Turkey]]—Berlin is the largest Turkish municipality in Europe outside of Turkey. In 2004, 22.3% of the population were Protestants, 9.1% were Catholics, 6.2% were Muslims, and 0.4% were Jews.
Between approximately the 1890s and the mid-1920s, Berlin was the fourth-largest [[urban area]] in the world after [[London]], [[New York City|New York]], and [[Paris]]. Today, it is the sixth-largest [[Largest urban areas of the European Union|urban area in the European Union]], and approximately the 80th-largest urban area in the world.
For a table showing the historical development of Berlin's population, see [[Berlin population statistics]].
==Economy==
Berlin was once a major manufacturing centre and the economic and financial hub of Germany. The city suffered economically during the Cold War, when West Berlin was isolated geographically and East Berlin suffered from poor economic decisions made by East Germany’s central planners. Since reunification, the city has relied increasingly on economic activity in the service sectors.
===Economic history===
Berlin was founded at a point where trade routes crossed the River Spree and quickly became a commercial centre. During the early modern period, the city prospered from its role as Prussian capital by manufacturing luxury goods for the Prussian court and supplies for the Prussian military.
During the mid-1800s, the Industrial Revolution transformed the city’s economy. Berlin became Germany’s main rail hub and a centre of rail locomotive manufacturing. The city became a leader in the manufacture of other kinds of machinery as well, and developed an important chemical manufacturing sector. Toward the end of the 19th century, Berlin became a world leader in the then cutting-edge sector of electrical equipment manufacturing As the de facto centre of the German [[Zollverein]], or Customs Union, and later the seat of imperial Germany’s central bank, Berlin became Germany’s banking and financial centre as well.
Berlin suffered from both the German inflation of the 1920s and the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s. The city’s economy revived as a centre of armaments production under the Nazis, but it lost a pool of entrepreneurial talent when the Nazis forced Jewish businessmen to sell their holdings and ultimately massacred most who did not flee Germany. World War II severely damaged Berlin’s industrial infrastructure, and Soviet expropriation of machinery and other capital equipment as “reparations” further damaged Berlin’s industrial base. Soviet restrictions on transport impeded communication with West Germany and ende |
al Trials==
* [http://clinicaltrials.gov/search/term=Motor%20Neuron%20%20Diseases List of United States government funded clinical trials relating to MND]
* [http://www.alsa.org/patient/drug.cfm?id=59 Information on the ALS Association's Website about clinical trials of minocycline as an ALS treatment]
==Other Resources==
* [http://www.als.net/ ALS Therapy Development Foundation]
* [http://www.alsa.org/ ALS Association]
* [http://www.alsmndalliance.org/index.shtml ALS/MND Alliance]
* [http://www.mndassociation.org/full-site/home.shtml MND Association]
* [http://www.ALSLIGA.be ALS Liga Belgium (dutch and french language)]
* [http://hereditarymnd.org.au/index.html The Hereditary Motor Neurone Disease Foundation] - Australian group seeking to find a cure for familial Motor Neurone Disease.
* [http://brain.hastypastry.net/forums/forumdisplay.php?f=77/ BrainTalk Communities Forum for people with ALS/MND (US-Based)]
* [http://www.magimedia.co.uk/buildforum/ BUILD-UK Forum for people with ALS/MND (UK-Based)]
* [http://www.als.ca/ ALS Canada]
* [http://www.projectals.org/ Project A.L.S]
[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Motor Neuron Disease| ]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[de:Amyotrophe Lateralsklerose]]
[[es:Esclerosis Lateral Amiotrófica]]
[[fr:Sclérose latérale amyotrophique]]
[[ja:筋萎縮性側索硬化症]]
[[nl:Amyotrofische laterale sclerose]]
[[no:Amyotrofisk lateral sklerose]]
[[sv:Amyotrofisk lateralskleros]]
[[zh:肌肉萎缩症]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abjad</title>
<id>877</id>
<revision>
<id>40025728</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T16:13:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the traditional ordering of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, see [[Abjadi order]], [[Abjad numerals]].''
An '''abjad''' is a type of [[writing system]] in which there is one symbol per [[consonant|consonantal]] [[phoneme]], sometimes also called a '''consonantary'''. Abjads differ from [[alphabet|alphabets]], in that in an abjad, each basic [[grapheme]] represents a consonant, although [[vowel]]s may be indicated by [[vowel mark]]s on the basic graphemes. An alphabet has basic graphemes for both consonants and vowels. Abjads also differ from [[abugida|abugidas]]. In an abjad, each basic grapheme represents only a consonant. In an abugida, each basic grapheme represents a syllable consisting of a consonant and a vowel; the same consonant with a different vowel -- or with no vowel -- is represented by a modified or marked form of the same basic grapheme.
==Etymology==
The system takes its name from the first nonsense 'word' of the mnemonic sequence for the letters of the [[Arabic alphabet]] in the older [[Arabic alphabet#Abjadi order|abjadi order]]. It has been suggested that the word 'Abjad' may have earlier roots in [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] or [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]].
==History==
All known abjads belong to the Semitic family of scripts, and derive from the original Northern Linear Abjad. The reason for this is that [[Semitic languages]] have a [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphemic structure]] which makes the denotation of vowels redundant or unnecessary in most cases.
==Impure abjads==
"Impure" abjads (such as Arabic) may have characters for some vowels as well (called ''matres lectionis'', 'mothers of reading', singular [[ mater lectionis]]), or optional vowel diacritics, or both; however, the term's originator, [[Peter T. Daniels]], insists that it should be applied only to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators, thus excluding [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], and [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]].
Impure abjads develop when, due to [[phonetics|phonetic]] change, a previous [[consonant]] or [[diphthong]] becomes a vowel. Later generations, who receive their [[orthography]] without knowing that letter originally signified a consonant there, understand it to mean a [[vowel]] as it is in their spoken language. They then use that letter as a vowel in other places where it was never a consonant. For example, the Hebrew word הורישׁ probably underwent the following pronunciation change: {{unicode|*hi'''w'''riʃ}} → {{unicode|*ho'''w'''riʃ}} → {{unicode|h'''o'''riʃ}}. The ו, which was originally the consonant w, became the vowel o. Later, probably in the [[Second Temple]] period, the vowel use of ו was expanded to places where no consonant ever existed.
===Addition of vowels===
Many scripts derived from abjads have been extended with vowel symbols to become full [[alphabet]]s. This has mostly happened when the script was adapted to a non-Semitic language, the most famous case being the derivation of the [[Greek alphabet]] from the Phoenician abjad. The Greeks did not need the letters for the [[guttural consonant|guttural]] (&#1488;, &#1492;, &#1495;, &#1506;) and [[co-articulated consonant|co-articulated]] (&#1510;, &#1511;) consonants. They dropped some of them and turned others into vowels.
In other cases, the vowel signs come in the form of little points or hooks attached to the consonant letters, producing an [[abugida]] such as the system of writing [[Amharic]] (written using the Ge'ez alphabet, which was formerly an abjad before a vocalization occurred sometime after the 5th century BCE but before the 4th century CE).
==Related concepts==
Surprisingly, many non-Semitic languages such as English can be written without vowels and read with little difficulty. For example, the previous sentence could be written ''Srprsngly, mny nn-Smtc lnggs sch `s `nglsh cn b wrttn wtht vwls `nd rd wth lttl dffclty.'' This fact can be used to semi-bowdlerise offensive language, a practice known as [[disemvoweling]].
Some usages of [[1337speak]] drop vowels, especially for small words.
==See also==
* [[Abjad numerals]]
==References==
* {{cite book|author=Wright, W.|title=A Grammar of the Arabic Language | edition = 3<sup>rd</sup> ed.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1971|id=ISBN 0-521-09455-0}}, v. 1, p. 28.
==External links==
* [http://www.abjad.com/ Abjad - The Arabic Alphabet learning system]
[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[br:Abjad]]
[[ca:Abjad]]
[[de:Konsonantenschrift]]
[[es:Abyad]]
[[fa:ابجد]]
[[fr:Abjad]]
[[gl:Abxad]]
[[wa:Abdjad]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abugida</title>
<id>878</id>
<revision>
<id>41075774</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T22:13:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>139.76.128.71</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IndicText}}
An '''abugida''', '''alphasyllabary''', or '''syllabics''' is a [[writing system]] composed of signs ([[grapheme]]s) denoting [[consonant]]s with an inherent following [[vowel]], which are consistently modified to indicate other vowels, or, in some cases, the lack of a vowel. Examples include the various scripts of the [[Brahmic family]], Ethiopic [[Ge'ez language|Ge’ez]], and [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]].
A typical abugida is [[Devanagari]]. There is no basic sign representing the consonant ''k;'' rather the unmodified letter क represents the syllable ''ka;'' the ''a'' is the so-called "inherent" vowel. The vowel may be changed by adding vowel marks to the basic character, producing other syllables beginning with ''k-,'' such as कि ''ki'', कु ''ku'', के ''ke'', को ''ko''. These [[diacritic]]s are applied systematically to other consonantal characters. For example, from ल ''la'' is formed लि ''li'', लु ''lu'', ले ''le'', लो ''lo''. Such a consonant with either an inherent or marked vowel is called an [[akshara]].
In many abugidas, there is also a diacritic to suppress the inherent vowel, yielding the bare consonant. In Devanagari, क् is ''k,'' and ल् is ''l''. This is called the ''[[virama]]'' in [[Sanskrit]], or ''halant'' in [[Hindi]]. It may be used to form [[consonant cluster]]s, or to indicate that a consonant occurs at the end of a word. Other means of expressing these functions include special [[conjunct]] forms in which two or more consonant characters are merged to express a cluster, such as Devanagari: क्ल ''kla.'' (Note that on some fonts display this as क् followed by ल, rather than forming a conjunct.)
The diacritics may appear above (के), below (कु), to the left (कि), or to the right (को) of the consonantal character, or may surround it as in [[Tamil script|Tamil]] கௌ = ''kau,'' from க ''ka''. In many of the Brahmic scripts, a syllable beginning with a cluster is treated as a single character for purposes of vowel marking, so a vowel marker like ि ''-i,'' falling before the character it modifies, may appear several positions before the place where it is pronounced. For example, the game [[cricket]] in [[Hindi language|Hindi]] is क्रिकेट ''krikeţ;'' the diacritic for /i/ appears before the [[consonant cluster]] /kr/, not before the /r/. A more unusual example is seen in the [[Batak alphabet]]: Here the syllable ''bim'' is written ''ba-ma-i-(virama)''. That is, the vowel diacritic and virama are both written after the consonants for the whole syllable.
In Ge’ez, the prototype abugida, the form of the letter itself may be altered. For example, ሀ ''hä'' (basic form), ሁ ''hu'' (with a right-side diacritic that does not alter the letter), ሂ ''hi'' (with a subdiacritic compresses the letter, so that the whole fidel (akshara) occupies the same amount of space), ህ ''he'' (where the letter is modified with a kink in the left arm).
In the family of abugidas known as [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]], vowels are indicated by modification (rotation and reflection) of the akshara. For example, Inuktitut ᐱ ''pi,'' ᐳ ''pu,'' ᐸ ''pa;'' ᑎ ''ti,'' ᑐ ''tu,'' ᑕ ''ta''.
The [[Róng]] script used fo |
tally ordered subset (i.e. in a totally ordered subset which, if enlarged in any way, does not remain totally ordered).
In general, there are many maximal totally ordered subsets containing a given totally ordered subset.
[[Category:Set theory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hel (being)</title>
<id>13666</id>
<revision>
<id>37662922</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T11:47:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haukurth</username>
<id>16226</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Theories */ Typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Norse mythology]], '''Hel''' (sometimes Anglicized or Latinized as '''Hela''') is the queen of [[Hel (realm)|Hel]], the Norse [[underworld]].
In the [[Gylfaginning]], she is described as the daughter of [[Loki]] and [[Angrboða]] – a [[giantess]] (''gýgr'', see [[jotun]]) – and thus sister of the [[Fenrisulfr]] and the sea serpent [[Jörmungandr]]. Since her father is often described as a god, although both his parents were giants, the same might be said of Hel.
When [[Odin]] became aware of the existence of Loki's children, he banished them to remote places. Hel he cast down to her realm in the underworld and gave her authority over all those in the [[nine worlds]] who do not die gloriously in battle but of sickness or of old age. Her possessions are being described thus:
{| cellpadding="5"
|
''Hon á þar mikla bólstaði ok eru garðar hennar forkunnar hávir ok grindr stórar. ''Éljúðnir'' heitir salr hennar, ''Hungr'' diskr hennar, ''Sultr'' knífr hennar, ''Ganglati'' þrællinn, ''Ganglöt'' ambátt, ''Fallandaforað'' þresköldr hennar er inn gengr, ''Kör'' sæing, ''Blíkjandaböl'' ársali hennar. Hon er blá hálf en hálf með hörundarlit, því er hon auðkend ok heldr gnúpleit ok grimmlig.''
<br> [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/gg4par33.html]
|
She has great possessions there; her walls are exceeding high and her gates great. Her hall is called ''Sleet-Cold''; her dish, ''Hunger''; ''Famine'' is her knife; ''Idler'', her thrall; ''Sloven'', her maidservant; ''Pit of Stumbling'', her threshold, by which one enters; ''Disease'', her bed; ''Gleaming Bale'', her bed-hangings. She is half blue-black and half flesh-color (by which she is easily recognized), and very lowering and fierce. <br> <div align="right">—''Brodeur translation''</div>
|}
Later in the same source is described how [[Hermod|Hermóðr]] tries to retrieve the dead [[Baldr]]'s soul from Hel.
{| cellpadding="5"
|
''En þat er at segja frá ''Hermóði'' at hann reið níu nætr døkkva dala ok djúpa svá at hann sá ekki fyrr en hann kom til ''árinnar Gjallar'' ok reið á ''Gjallarbrúna''. Hon er þökt lýsigulli. ''Móðguðr'' er nefnd mær sú er gætir brúarinnar.''
<br> [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/gg4par49.html]
|
Now this is to be told concerning ''Hermóðr'', that he rode nine nights through dark dales and deep, so that he saw not before he was come to the ''river Gjöll'' (or ''Gjallar-river'') and rode onto the ''Gjöll-Bridge'' (or ''Gjallar-bridge''); which bridge is thatched with glittering gold. ''Móðguðr'' is the maiden called who guards the bridge.
|}
The path to Hel is known as the ''Helveg'' and their gates ''Helgrindr''. Here [[Garm]] is fastened, Hel's watchdog, who is bloody both on chest and neck.
[[Heimskringla]] relates that she procured herself a spouse by having the Swedish king [[Dyggve]] die a natural death.
Her name is the source of the [[English (language)|English]] word ''[[hell]]''.
==Theories==
It has been suggested that this description of Hel is of later date, and that she originally was a much more neutral goddess over the realm of shadows, where all, both good and evil, courageous and cowardly, gather after death. This is attested by the etymology of ''Hel'' ([[Latin|Lat]]. ''Celāre'', [[German language|Ger]]. ''hehlen''), meaning the "hider," a word used generally to denote death and the afterlife. It is important to note that also the noble [[Baldr]] and the brave [[Sigurd]] are sent to Hel after their death. Bishop [[Wulfila]] uses the [[Gothic language|Gothic]] word ''Halja'' to translate the Greek "[[Hades]]."
[[Viktor Rydberg]], in particular, advocated this view. In the book "Our Fathers' Godsaga" he theorizes that the correct name for Loki's daughter is in fact "Leikn" and that, in Christian times, she was confused with [[Urd (Norse Mythology)|Urd]], one of the three [[Norns]] and the [[dísir|dís]] of fate death, whose byname was Hel. Rydberg's theories are not generally accepted.
==See also==
*[[The Devil]] in [[Christian mythology]]
*[[Hades]] in [[Greek mythology]]
*[[Osiris]] in [[Egyptian mythology]]
*[[Pluto (god)|Pluto]] in [[Roman mythology]]<br><br>
{{NorseMythology}}
{{Ugglan}}
[[Category:Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Death goddesses]]
[[Category:Norse goddesses]]
[[da:Hel (dødsrige)]]
[[de:Hel (Mythologie)]]
[[gl:Hela]]
[[it:Hel]]
[[nl:Hel (godin)]]
[[ja:ヘル]]
[[lt:Helė]]
[[nb:Hel]]
[[nn:Hel]]
[[pl:Hel (bogini)]]
[[pt:Hela]]
[[fi:Hel]]
[[ru:Хель]]
[[sv:Hel]]
[[uk:Хель]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hawar Islands</title>
<id>13667</id>
<revision>
<id>39375019</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:24:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jabeen</username>
<id>914333</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bahrain-Juzur Hawar.png|right|Hawar Islands shown in red]]
The '''Hawar Islands''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: جزر حوار; [[Arabic transliteration|transliterated]]: Juzur Howar) are a group of [[island]]s situated off the west coast of [[Qatar]] in the [[Gulf of Bahrain]] of the [[Persian Gulf]].
[[Image:FlagofHawarIslands.png|thumb|Separatist flag]]
Despite their proximity to Qatar, the islands belong to [[Bahrain]] but were the subject of a dispute between Bahrain and Qatar (see [[Foreign relations of Qatar]]). A Hawari [[separatism|separatist]] movement exists in [[Europe]] but there is little evidence of support for their movement in the Hawar Islands. The islands were formerly part of the [[Juzur Hawar]] municipality and are now administered as part of the [[Southern Governorate]] of Bahrain.
In 2002, Bahrain applied to have the Hawar islands recognised as a [[World Heritage Site]], due to its unique environment and habitat for endangered species.
==External links==
*[http://www.hawar-islands.com/Hawar_application.htm WHS application]
*[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/iqb/iqbframe.htm International Court of Justice decision on the Hawar dispute (2001)]
{{MEast-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Bahrain|Hawar Islands]]
[[Category:Geography of Bahrain]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Halting problem</title>
<id>13668</id>
<revision>
<id>41833625</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:13:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R.e.s.</username>
<id>310282</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv edit by 84.94.122.20 to preceding version by 201.243.154.195</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Computability theory (computation) | computability theory]] the '''halting problem''' is a [[decision problem]] which can be informally stated as follows:
: ''Given a description of a [[computer program|program]] and its initial input, determine whether the program, when executed on this input, ever halts (completes). The alternative is that it runs forever without halting.''
[[Alan Turing]] proved in [[1936]] that a general [[algorithm]] to solve the halting problem for all possible inputs cannot exist. We say that the halting problem is ''[[undecidability|undecidable]]'' over [[Turing machine]]s. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halting_problem#Footnotes] with respect to attribution of "halting problem" to Turing.)
==Formal statement==
One possible way of formally stating the halting problem is as follows:
Given a [[Gödel numbering]] <math>\varphi</math> of the [[computable function]]s,
with <math>\langle i, x \rangle</math> the [[Cantor pairing function]],
the set <math>K_{\varphi}^{0} := \{ \langle i, x \rangle | \varphi_i(x) \ \mathrm{exists} \}</math>
is called the '''halting set'''.
The problem of deciding whether the halting set is recursive or not is called the '''halting problem'''. As the set is [[recursively enumerable]] the halting problem is not solvable by a computable function.
Alternative equivalent formulations, for instance explicitly using Turing machines, are possible.
==Importance and consequences==
The historical importance of the halting problem lies in the fact that it was one of the first problems to be proved [[undecidable]]. (Turing's proof went to press in May 1936, whereas [[Alonzo Church|Church's]] proof of the undecidability of a problem in the [[lambda calculus]] had already been published in April 1936.) Subsequently, many other such problems have been described; the typical method of proving a problem to be undecidable is with the technique of ''[[reduction (complexity)|reduction]]''. To do this, the computer scientist shows that if a solution to the new problem was found, it could be used to decide an undecidable problem (by transforming instances of the undecidable problem into instances of the new problem). Since we already know that ''no'' method can decide the old problem, no method can decide the new problem either.
One such consequence of the halting problem's undecidability is that there cannot be a general algorithm that decides whether a given statement about [[natural number]]s is true or not. The reason for this is that the [[proposition]] that states that a certain algorithm will halt given a certain input can be converted into an equivalent statement about natural numbers. If we had an al |
]] the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid. After the defeat of the [[France|French]] in the [[Battle of the Nile]] in [[1801]] the British Museum acquired more Egyptian sculpture and the [[Rosetta Stone]]. Many Greek sculptures followed, notably the Towneley collection in 1805 and the infamous [[Elgin Marbles]] in 1816.
The collection soon outgrew its surroundings and the situation became urgent with the donation in [[1822]] of [[George III of Great Britain|King George III]]'s personal library of 65,000 volumes, 19,000 pamphlets, maps, charts and topographical drawings to the museum. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished in 1845 and replaced by a design by the [[Neoclassicism|neoclassical]] architect Sir [[Robert Smirke (architect)|Robert Smirke]].
[[Image:British Museum Reading Room Panorama Feb 2006.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The circular [[British Museum Reading Room|Reading Room]].]]
Roughly contemporary with the construction of the new building was the career of a man sometimes called the 'second founder' of the British Museum, the Italian librarian [[Antonio Panizzi]]. Under his supervision the British Museum Library quintupled in size and became a well-organised institution worthy of being called a national library. The [[quadrangle]] at the centre of Smirke's design proved to be a waste of valuable space and was filled at Panizzi's request by a circular [[British Museum Reading Room|Reading Room]] of [[cast iron]], designed by Smirke's son, [[Sydney Smirke]].
The natural history collections were an integral part of the British Museum until their removal to the new British Museum (Natural History), now the [[Natural History Museum]], in [[1887]]. The [[ethnography]] collections were until recently housed in the short-lived [[Museum of Mankind]] in [[Piccadilly]]; they have now returned to Bloomsbury and the Department of Ethnography has been renamed the Department of [[Africa]], [[Oceania]] and the [[Americas]].
The temporary exhibition ''Treasures of [[Tutankhamun]]'', held by the British Museum in [[1972]], was the most successful in British history, attracting 1,694,117 visitors. In the same year the [[Act of Parliament]] establishing The [[British Library]] was passed, separating the collection of [[manuscripts]] and printed books from the British Museum. The Government suggested a site at [[St Pancras]] for the new British Library but the books did not leave the museum until 1997.
With the bookstacks in the central courtyard of the museum now empty, the process of demolition for [[Sir Norman Foster]]'s glass-roofed Great Court could begin. The Great Court, opened in [[2000]], while undoubtedly improving circulation around the museum, was criticised for having a lack of exhibition space at a time when the museum was in serious financial difficulties and many galleries were closed to the public. In [[2002]] the museum was even closed for a day when its staff protested about proposed redundancies. A few weeks later the theft of a small Greek statue was blamed on lack of security staff.
==Criticisms==
[[Image:Elgin Marbles east pediment.jpg|thumb|right|A few of the [[Elgin Marbles]] from the East [[Pediment]] of the [[Parthenon]].]]
It is a point of controversy whether museums should be allowed to possess artifacts taken from other countries, and the British Museum is a notable target for criticism. The [[Elgin Marbles]] and the [[Benin Bronzes]] are among its most disputed collections, and organisations have been formed demanding the return of both sets of artifacts to their native countries of [[Greece]] and [[Nigeria]] respectively.
The British Museum has refused to return either set, or any of its other disputed items, stating that the "restitutionist premise, that whatever was made in a country must return to an original geographical site, would empty both the British Museum and the other great museums of the world".[http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/gr/andart.html] The Museum has also argued that the British Museum Act of 1963 legally prevents it from selling any of its valuable artifacts, even the ones not on display. Critics have particularly argued against the right of the British Museum to own objects which it does not share with the public.
Supporters of the Museum claim that it has provided protection for artifacts that may have otherwise been damaged or destroyed if they had been left in their original environments. While some critics have accepted this, they also argue that the artifacts should now be returned to their countries of origin if there is sufficient expertise and desire there to preserve them. The British Museum has also argued that its objects benefit from their setting, where they can be seen for free alongside other artifacts from all over the world, although a counter-argument is that the objects would be better displayed in their native countries, closer to their original context.
The British Museum continues to assert that it is an appropriate custodian and has an inalienable right to its disputed artifacts under British law, while opponents of the Museum criticise it for theft, and what is perceived to be a cavalier attitude towards the property rights of other cultures.
[[Image:British Museum Great Hall.jpg|thumb|right|Inside the main entrance: The Great Court]]
== The building ==
The [[Greek Revival]] façade facing Great Russell Street is a characteristic building of Sir Robert Smirke in the [[Ionic order]]. The [[pediment]] over the main entrance is decorated by scultptures by Sir [[Richard Westmacott]] depicting ''The Rise of Civilisation'', installed in 1852.
The [[Joseph Duveen, 1st Baron Duveen of Millbank|Duveen]] Gallery housing the Elgin Marbles was designed by [[John Russell Pope]], architect of the [[Jefferson Memorial]] in [[Washington, DC]]. Although completed in 1938 it was hit by a bomb in 1940 and remained semi-derelict for 22 years before reopening in 1962.
The Queen [[Elizabeth II]] Great Court is a covered square at the centre of the British Museum designed by the architects [[Foster and Partners]]. The Great Court opened in December [[2000]] and is the largest covered square in Europe. The roof is a glass and steel construction with 1,656 pairs of uniquely shaped glass panes. At the centre of the Great Court is the Reading Room vacated by the [[British Library]], its functions now moved to St Pancras. The Reading Room is open to any member of the public who wishes to read there.
==The collections==
[[Image:British_Museum_int-250px.jpg|thumb|180px|The Egyptian sculpture galleries]]
[[Image:Elgin horse.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Parthenon Horses{{3d_glasses}}]]
The British Museum of today is primarily a museum of antiquities and ethnography. Lack of space has meant that it has had to shed its collections of natural history and books, but it still claims the mantle of 'universal museum'. The permanent exhibition on the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] in the King's Library gives some idea of the original scope of the museum.
In London the main collections of Western [[fine art]] and global applied art are housed in the independent [[National Gallery, London|National Gallery]] and [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]s, respectively. However, the British Museum retains its Department of Prints and Drawings, which includes a [[cartoon]] by [[Michelangelo]] and many other works of artistic merit.
Highlights of the collections include:
*The [[Elgin Marbles]], carvings from the Athenian [[Parthenon]]
*The [[Portland Vase]]
*The [[Rosetta Stone]]
*The [[Marc Aurel Stein|Stein collection]] from [[Central Asia]]
*The Clock Room
*Works by [[Albrecht Dürer]]: 1 volume of sketches and 4 volumes of manuscripts
*[[Egypt]]ian [[Mummy|Mummies]]
*The [[Benin Bronzes]]
*The [[Cyrus Cylinder]] and many other [[Iran|Persian]] artifacts
*[[Anglo-Saxon]] artifacts from the [[Sutton Hoo]] burial
*The [[Lewis chessmen|Lewis Chessmen]]
*The [[Mold, Flintshire|Mold]] cape (a [[Bronze age]] [[gold]] ceremonial cape)
*The [[basalt]] statue Hoa Hakananai'a from [[Easter Island]]
*The echo in the reading room, which [[Gerard Hoffnung]] recommended
The notorious Cupboard 55 in the Department of Medieval and Later Antiquities, inaccessible by the public and known as '[[the Secretum]]', has a reputation for containing some of the most erotic objects in the British Museum. Though claiming to be from ancient cultures, many of the objects are Victorian fakes and are deemed unfit for public display on grounds of quality, rather than because of their supposed obscenity.
==Information==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:BM_Bronze_handling.jpg|thumb|right|Diploma in Asian Art classroom]] -->
Admission to the British Museum is free, except for special exhibitions within the main museum.
Location
:Great Russell Street
:London WC1B 3DG
:Coordinates: {{Coor d|51.5186|N|0.126|W|type:landmark_scale:2000}}
Nearest [[London Underground]] stations:
* [[Tottenham Court Road tube station|Tottenham Court Road]] ([[Central Line|Central]], [[Northern Line|Northern]] lines)
* [[Holborn tube station|Holborn]] (Central, [[Piccadilly Line|Piccadilly]] lines)
* [[Russell Square tube station|Russell Square]] (Piccadilly line)
Between 1908 and 1933 there was a [[British Museum tube station|British Museum station]] on the London Underground between Tottenham Court Road and Holborn stations. The platforms of this 'ghost station' are still visible from trains passing between the two stations.
The British Museum, and especially the [[British Museum Reading Room|Reading Room]], is a recurring setting in [[David Lodge (author)|David Lodge]]'s [[1965 in literature|1965]] novel ''[[The British Museum Is Falling Down]]''.
The British Museum is also seen in ''The Mummy Returns''
==Galleries==
===Joseph E. Hotung Gallery (Asia)===
<gallery>
Image:IndusValleySeals.JPG|Seals of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]].
Image:MathuraLi |
'Duke'.
'''Daphne Moon''': Played by ''[[Jane Leeves]]''.
An immigrant from Manchester, England, Daphne was hired by Frasier to be Martin's physiotherapist and general helper (despite Frasier's initial reservations). Daphne claims to be [[psychic]], and claims her psychic flashes are most prominent when she is approaching her menstrual cycle.
Daphne often mentions her family, including her overbearing mother Gertrude, and her boorish brothers Simon, Steven, Michael and Nigel (played by Anthony LaPaglia, Richard E. Grant, Robbie Coltrane and Cameron Dye respectively). Another brother who is mentioned, Billy, is a ballroom dancer. Daphne also mentions her grandmother, Grammy Moon, who had some interesting food recipes.
'''Roz Doyle''': Played by ''[[Peri Gilpin]]''.
Roz is the producer of Frasier's radio show. She grew up as part of a large family in Wisconsin, including a cheese-making uncle. Her mother, Joanne, is the attorney general of Wisconsin. Roz is known for her sassy attitude and quick-witted remarks, and enjoys deflating Frasier's ego.
She is renowned as a serial dater and once claimed to have had three dates in one day, yet still found time to rotate her tires and defrost her freezer. She eventually becomes pregnant after a brief romance with a young college student, and her daughter Alice May Doyle is born in 1998.
The character was named after a producer of the television series [[Wings (TV series)|Wings]], who died shortly before the series began.
'''Eddie''': Played by ''[[Moose (dog actor)|Moose]]''.
Martin's [[Jack Russell Terrier]]. In the first season a running gag features Eddie staring at Frasier.
===Minor characters===
'''Bob "Bulldog" Briscoe''': The host of ''The Gonzo Sports Show'', which follows Frasier's show on KACL. "Bulldog", as he is popularly known, is a womanizer and also enjoys playing pranks on Frasier. Bulldog is fired from KACL in 1999 for falling ratings, although he returns in 2001 working behind the scenes. Played by ''[[Dan Butler]]''; the casting is ironic as Bulldog is a macho, chauvinistic womanizer, yet Butler himself is openly gay.
'''Gil Chesterton''': A pompous restaurant critic who hosts ''Restaurant Beat'' on KACL. Gil is apparently married to Deb, the owner of a chain of auto-repair stores, although his [[sexual orientation]] has been debated many times by other characters and is something of a running joke on the show. The character is apparently named after ''Frasier'' producer Christopher Lloyd's high school English teacher. Played by ''[[Edward Hibbert]]''.
'''Kenny Daley''': The nervous yet cheerful station manager of KACL from 1998 to 2004. Kenny ([[Tom McGowan]]) initially superstitiously refuses to unpack his boxes, believing that if he unpacked, he would be fired. Before becoming a station manager, Kenny was a DJ. At one stage in 1998 he is reduced to delivering pizzas. Kenny often asks Frasier for advice.
'''Bebe Glazer''': Frasier and Bulldog's (and later Roz's) ruthless and money-obsessed agent. Bebe is not afraid to use trickery and deceit to further her (and her clients') goals. Her methods include pretending to be suicidal during Frasier's contract negotiations and attempting to marry an old, rich millionaire (who unfortunately dies at the altar). Played by ''[[Harriet Sansom Harris]]''.
'''Noel Shempsky''': Frasier and Roz's ''[[Star Trek]]''-obsessed co-worker, Noel works in production at the radio station. Noel is infatuated with Roz, who does not reciprocate his feelings. Noel has a restraining order against him by [[William Shatner]], is able to speak fluent [[Klingon]] and can faint at will. Played by ''[[Patrick Kerr]]''.
'''Maris Crane''': Niles Crane's wife. She is never seen. She is regularly referred to throughout the series as an eccentric millionaire's daughter who is extremely thin, and suffers from a never-ending stream of medical problems, including:
* Various allergies;
* [[Hypoglycemia]];
* "Unusually rigid vertebrae";
* "Inability to produce saliva";
* Tight quadriceps;
* Various nervous breakdowns;
* An addiction to cough syrup;
* Fear of flying - after being removed from first class.
'''Frederick Crane''': Frasier's son who lives with his mother Lilith in Boston. Frederick regularly flies to Seattle to visit Frasier. Similar to his father and uncle, Frederick is academically gifted but has a distinct lack of physical prowess. He becomes a [[Goth]] during his teenage years. Played by [[Trevor Einhorn]]''.
==The series finale==
On [[May 13]], [[2004]], the [[series finale]] of ''Frasier'' aired. It was watched by 25.4 million viewers.
Several circumstances led to the decision to end the series:
*The high cost, which amounted to $75 million for the last season;
*The series had matched ''Cheers'' in number of seasons, a goal Grammer had for the show
*The changing [[broadcasting|broadcast]] time of the show. It was moved several times, and had to compete against very popular shows like ''[[American Idol]]'' and ''[[24 (television)|24]]''.
Special guest stars in the series finale included [[Wendie Malick]], [[Anthony LaPaglia]], [[Robbie Coltrane]], [[Richard E. Grant]], [[Laura Linney]], [[Jason Biggs]], and [[Jennifer Beals]].
The last show was dedicated to [[David Angell]], one of the creators of ''Frasier'', who, along with his wife, Lynne, died on [[American Airlines Flight 11]] in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] attacks.
==Records==
*As of [[2004]], the series won 37 [[Emmy Award|Emmys]], more than any other show; Kelsey Grammer and David Hyde Pierce each won four of them for acting, including one each for the final season.
*Grammer played Dr. Frasier Crane for twenty years, which tied the [[James Arness]] portrayal of Marshall Dillon on ''[[Gunsmoke]]'' in terms of character longevity in primetime television.
*Grammer was briefly the highest-paid TV star in history, reaching a salary of $1.6 million per episode for the last two seasons; his record was surpassed by [[Ray Romano]] within a year.
==Trivia==
*[[David Hyde Pierce]] ([[Niles Crane|Dr. Niles Crane]]) and [[John Mahoney]] ([[Martin Crane]]) are the only actors to appear in every episode of the series. Although the character of [[Frasier Crane]] appeared in every episode, [[Kelsey Grammer]] was not present at the filming of the fourth season "Head Game" due to his treatment for drug problems. Grammer and Pierce filmed the opening scene featuring Frasier at a later date.
*When the idea of ''Frasier'' was presented for the first time, the makers of ''Frasier'' questioned whether or not the idea of two brothers of similar temperament would work as a television series. However, the writers created a successful television series that lasted for 11 seasons.
*Frasier's radio show is on KACL 780 AM, which is so named to honor the show's creators: '''A'''ngell, '''C'''asey, '''L'''ee. (The K is a prefix because the station is west of the Mississippi river, a standard in broadcast stations. See [[North American call sign|the page on call signs]] for more on this.)
*The studios for KACL are based on the Los Angeles newsradio station, 790 KABC.
*Niles' wife Maris never makes an appearance on the show, even after 11 seasons. This was a continuation of a tradition started on ''Cheers''. Norm Peterson's wife, Vera, never shows her face (she does make two appearances, one in which she is hit with a pie before her face is actually shown and another where she is only shown from the knees down).
*Niles' and Daphne's son David Crane is named after ''Frasier'' co-creator David Angell.
*[[Lisa Kudrow]] was originally cast as Roz though the role was recast very early in production.
*The casting directors' second choices for the roles of Niles and Martin Crane were [[Peter MacNicol]] and [[Robert Prosky]] respectively. Prosky had previously played the father of another ''Cheers'' regular, Rebecca, on an episode of that show.
*''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' and ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' were filmed near the Frasier soundstage on the [[Paramount Pictures]] lot.
*Most of the surviving cast members of Cheers appeared at one time or another, excluding [[Kirstie Alley]]. <!--, who although she is alleged to have turned it down because she is a [[Scientology|Scientologist]] - Scientologists reject psychiatry/psychology- she in truth was never asked to appear on the show. -->
*The view from Frasier's apartment in Seattle is impossible to achieve. There is no place in the real city where the view he has from his apartment can be seen. The view was made as it is so that the landmark [[Space Needle]] would appear more prominent.
*''Frasier'' was voted by sitcom writers, producers and actors as the greatest sitcom of all time in the [[Channel 4|Channel 4 (UK)]] show ''[[The Ultimate Sitcom]]'', aired on [[January 2]] [[2006]].
==See also==
* [[List of celebrities playing radio show callers on Frasier]]
* [[List of Frasier episodes]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0106004|title=Frasier}}
*''[http://tviv.org/wiki/Frasier Frasier]'' at the [[TV IV]]
*[http://www.geocities.com/hollywood/derby/3267/ The Frasier Files], with transcripts of all episodes
*[http://www.nyx.net/~dnadams/frasier.html Frasier program guide website]
*[http://www.geocities.com/goodnightseattle/ Goodnight Seattle, the Unofficial Frasier Page]
*[http://www.frasieronline.co.uk Frasier Online, a UK Frasier fan site]
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<r |
his is consistent with both twentieth and twenty first century British politics, which is in turn an example of the traditional left-right spectrum of political analysis. When the Lib Dems oppose the trade unions, they do so from the centre of the political spectrum with the trade unions being to the left of them. When the Lib Dems oppose the power of the large corporations, they still do this from the centre of the political spectrum with the difference being that the corporations are to the right of them. According to this view, liberalism or political centrism is consistent with a left-right analysis of politics.
In regard to the claim that the Lib Dems are to the left of New Labour, this is due to the fact that the New Labour hierarchy have deliberately courted Conservative voters and even Conservative politicians on the basis that if they take the centre ground from the other parties, they gain power. They do this in the knowledge that their own voters have nowhere realistic to the left of Labour to turn, so the Lib Dems have tried to accommodate these people to a degree (e.g. celebrity "Marxist" [[Tariq Ali]] implored Londoners to vote Lib Dem before the 2005 general election over the Iraq war). However, this has led to massive voter disillusion and the lowest percentage General Election turnouts in the last two elections (2001 and 2005) since universal manhood suffrage was introduced in 1918. This is mainly caused by previous Labour voters abstaining. This shift in the political direction of Labour was begun in the 1980s but accelerated in response to the party's fourth consecutive election defeat in 1992.
There was a discussion in the Lib Dems at their conference in September 2005 as to whether the social liberal ideals have taken them as far as they can go, and whether they should now move back to the right in order to court Conservative voters. This would involve abolishing policies such as a 50% tax rate for those who earn over £100,000 which have been used by the Conservative supporting press to paint the party as 'left wing' and as such, risks votes in Lib Dem / Conservative marginals. Proponents of this say that left wing policies could see the Lib Dems losing marginal seats to the Conservatives that are vital to becoming the new opposition to a Labour government.
Ideological disputes aside, it is likely that the Lib Dems will only ever see power if a [[proportional representation]] voting system is brought in (short of a major shift in British politics). This is the arrangement that [[Paddy Ashdown]] agreed with Tony Blair before the 1997 election, until Blair discovered he could win huge landslide victories under [[first-past-the-post]] without any need for sharing power with the Lib Dems.
===Policies===
The Liberal Democrats' constitution speaks of "a fair, free and open society, in which we seek to balance the fundamental values of liberty, equality and community, and in which no-one shall be enslaved by poverty, ignorance or conformity. We champion the freedom, dignity and well-being of individuals". To this end:
* They support [[civil liberties]], and have opposed the more authoritarian of Labour's [[Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001|anti-terror laws]] (e.g. detention without trial).
* They support more open government, including substantial reforms to increase [[parliament]]ary oversight of the [[executive (government)|executive]].
* They are [[federalist]]s and support the decentralisation of power to the lowest possible level.
* They support "free education for all" and propose to abolish [[university]] [[top-up fees|tuition fees]] and set up a system of Government grants for university students.
* They propose a substantial non-means tested increase in pensions.
* They are in favour of a new 50% rate of [[income tax]] on incomes over £100,000 per year, the revenue from which would be used to abolish tuition fees, restore student maintenance grants and provide free personal care throughout the UK; the balance would be used to keep the rate of local taxation down.
* They support anti-discrimination laws. 25 Lib Dem MPs signed [http://edmi.parliament.uk/EDMi/EDMDetails.aspx?EDMID=29000 EDM710] calling on the government to extend the protections for religious groups, in respect of discrimination in the provisions of goods, facilities and services, to lesbians and gay men.
* They are in favour of introducing a local income tax in place of the current [[council tax]], which is collected based on the value of the taxpayer's house in 1991.
* They are in favour of full UK participation in the [[European Union]] and an early referendum on joining the [[Euro]], which they support.
* They are in favour of [[proportional representation]] for elections to both the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]] and a second chamber to replace the [[House of Lords]], preferably by the [[Single Transferable Vote|STV]] system.
The most well-known Liberal Democrat policy for most of the 1990s was to increase the basic rate of [[income tax]] by one percent to fund public services (especially education). This proposal was recently abandoned after [[Tony Blair]]'s [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government increased [[national insurance]] contributions by the same amount, a policy with much the same effect. Their current fiscal policies aim at increasing the top rate of income tax by 10 percent to 50% for those earning over £100,000 to fund their increased public spending plans, and to replace [[Council Tax]] with local income taxes. In 2003 the Liberal Democrats started to make their long-held pledge to abolish Council Tax a centrepiece of their campaign.
In relation to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq war]], the Liberal Democrats opposed UK participation prior to the conflict, but stated that they would support UK forces that had been ordered to fight while it was taking place. After the initial military action was completed, they renewed their political opposition.
The period after 2001 saw an internal discussion about the right policies for the party on economics and public spending, with some party members advocating that the party position itself as a defender of the traditional [[welfare state]] in order to gain support from those who had previously voted [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]. Others, most notably [[Mark Oaten]], advocated a policy of smaller government and ''[[laissez-faire]]'' (the "[[The Orange Book - Reclaiming Liberalism|Orange Book]]" published in 2004 was an example of this wing of the Liberal discussion). The party announced its policy of abolishing the [[Department for Trade and Industry]] in 2004.
Current party policies can be found on the party website:
*[http://www.libdems.org.uk/party/policy/manifesto.html Most recent manifesto] (external link)
*[http://www.libdems.org.uk/party/policy/paperlist.html Detailed policy papers] (external link)
The Liberal Democrats are a member party of the [[Liberal International]] and the [[European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]] and their 12 MEPs form part of the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] group in the [[European Parliament]].
===Green liberalism===
'''[[Green Liberalism]]''' is a term used to refer to [[liberals]] who have incorporated [[Green Politics|green]] concerns into their [[ideology]]. Within the Liberal Democrats, this trend is represented by the Green Liberal Democrats.
===Proportional Representation===
Unlike the other main [[political parties]] in the United Kingdom, the Lib Dems have always strongly advocated '''[[Proportional Representation]]'''. This has always been a cornerstone of the Party's policies, and on many occasions in the past has been cited as a key requirement of any Lib Dem involvement in a [[coalition government]].
Both the Liberal Democrats and its [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] and [[SDP (UK)|SDP]] predecessors have suffered under the current [[first past the post]] voting system. This is because they have maintained a substantial part of the popular vote, whilst being unable to focus that support in specific [[constituency|constituencies]]. This has been less of a problem in the 2001 and 2005 general elections, with the party focusing its resources on key winnable constituencies. Many credit this to the party's cheif election strategist [[Lord Rennard]].
There is currently a debate within the party as to whether it should remain such a high profile issue.
==Internal factions==
Broadly speaking, Liberal Democrats can be classified into two main political factions:
'''[[Modern liberalism|Social liberals]]''' have dominated the party since its formation in 1988. Drawing inspiration from the likes of [[David Lloyd George]], [[William Beveridge]] and [[John Maynard Keynes]], individuals from this wing of the party are keen advocates of the [[welfare state]] and of government regulation to protect consumers, employees and the environment. As with any form of liberalism, support for [[civil liberties]] and [[human rights]] are also key to the social liberal outlook. Modern examples of social liberals within the parliamentary party include [[Menzies Campbell]], [[Paul Holmes (politician)|Paul Holmes]] and [[Norman Baker]].
The '''[[Market_liberalism|economic liberal]]''' wing of the party share with the social liberals a belief in freedom. However, whereas the social liberals often argue in favour of [[positive liberty]] (using the power of the state to enhance the freedoms of its citizens), libertarians take a relatively non-interventionist approach to the economy, which emphasises [[negative liberty]]. This often manifests itself as support for greater [[economic freedom]], causing some tension between the two wings of the party. The two leading economic liberals within the party are [[Mark Oaten]] and [[Vincent Cable]]. Many commentators have argued that the senior positions held by these two MPs has led to a ' |
s'' records that in the cities of Buenos Aires province (which at that time also included [[Montevideo]], now in [[Uruguay]]) common foods were ''[[quibebe]]'', ''[[mazamorra]]'' (a sweet, milky corn pudding) as a dessert, ''[[chancaca]]'' (a sugary, brown, corn cake), the [[pacú]] fish, ''[[surubí]], [[sábalo]], ''asados'' (roasts) etc.''
When the [[Salta]]-born [[Juana Manuela Gorriti]] wrote her book ''La cocina ecléctica'' ("Eclectic Cuisine") in the last years of the 19th century, already a large part of the Argentine preparations mentioned in this book were forgotten among the people of the Central region and the Pampas. It was precisely in this era that the great innovative influx of Italian immigrants and Italian food occurred. The aforementioned L.V. Mansilla noted the existence of ''ravioles'' in principal cities of the [[Río de la Plata]] basin around the [[1880s]]; [[Jorge Luis Borges]] said that "the first time" that he came to know ravioli was at the beginning of the 20th century, while very young, at the home of Italian immigrants whose Argentine son invited him.
In the rural areas of the Pampas corresponding to la [[Pampa Húmeda]], principally in the center and south of Santa Fe, center, east and south of Córdoba and north Buenos Aires, sausage preparations such as ''salames'' ([[salami]]), ''[[bondiola]]s'', ''[[codeguín|codeguines]]'', ''[[salamín|salamines]]'', etc. are very common.
The preparation of [[ham]] is inherited as much from the Spanish ''[[jabugo]]s'' as from the ''[[prosciutto|prosciutti]]'' of Parma (Italy). The most famous Argentine hams are probably the '''jamones serranos''' (Serrano hams) from [[Sierras de Córdoba]] and environs.
<!--
Despite the fact that many Italian and Spanish immigrants came from coastal areas and despite the fact that Argentina is rich in marine resources, during the entire 20th century, the level of fish consumption has been relatively low. The main explanation of this phenomenon was the abundant availability of beef and poultry (mainly chicken) and to the fact that these types of meet are more filling than most fish, and shellfish; the most common preparations of fish have been simple [[escalope]]s of fillet of ''[[merluza]] y [[chapín]]es. Aunque desde la segunda mitad de s XX el porcentaje de católicos practicantes ha disminuido de continuo y en el 2005 quizás sólo sean un 20% de la población total, se mantienen en gran medida las festividades y los platos asociados a ellas'': [[Christmas]] &ndash; on Christmas it is traditional to eat oven-roasted ''[[pavo]] o chancho (puerco) al horno,'' accompanied by [[turron]]s, and ''[[pan dulce]]'' that is directly derived from [[Milan]]ese [[panettone]]. For [[Easter]] they eat [[Easter egg]]s. ''En tanto que para [[Semana Santa]] fechas en que la iglesia exige ayuno de carnes salvo las de pescados, son típicas las '''empanadas de vigilia''' (principalmente las rellenas de atún), y guisados con'' ''bacalao'' ([[cod]]) or, in its absence, ''[[cazón]]''.
Wine production in this part of Argentina is qualitatively and quantitatively inferior than that in the Northeast and the Cuyo; nonetheless, there are some interesting wines: in the colonial era, famous wines were made by the Jesuits en [[Alta Gracia]] (in the [[Sierras de Córdoba]]), and since the end of the 19th century notable wines have come from [[Caroya]], also in the province of Córdoba though not in the ''sierra'' but the piedemontof the Cordobam ''pampa''. ''También se ha producido y producen vinos de humilde calidad en la región llamada "La Costa"'', which is to say ''las zonas ribereñas del río Paraná y del Río de La Plata desde la ciudad de Santa Fe hasta las adyacencias de La Plata; del otro lado del Río de La Plata ,en Uruguay , se ha logrado la producción de un vino de más calidad ,principalmente en [[Juanicó]].
La producción láctea de la región pampeana es ingente (pese a que se vio perjudicada durante la década de los 90 de s XX y el primer lustro de s XXI por la llamada "soyización" o "sojización" del campo argentino). Aunque la gran producción láctea de la región aún no se ve reflejada en la producción a una escala importante de quesos típicos, sin embargo puede hacerse mención del [[queso Mar del Plata]] y del [[queso Colonia]] (el queso Colonia es de procedencia uruguaya, fabricado inicialmente en [[Colonia Suiza]], aunque su elaboración se ha difundido en zonas de Buenos Aires y Santa Fe). También originado fuera de esta zona, tal como su nombre lo señala, es el [[queso Chubut]] sin embargo durante el s XX el sur de la provincia de Buenos Aires ha sido importante productor de este tipo de queso. Las pizzas argentinas suelen ser preparadas con ''[[musarela]]'' ,queso que imita al italiano llamado [[mozzarella]], aunque por lo general la musarela es realizada con leche de oveja o leche de vaca, a diferencia de la leche de búfala que es la usada para la mozzarella, los fideos y otras pastas (inclusive la polenta) suelen ser cubiertas con [[queso rallado]]] de tipo [[parmigiano]] or [[regiano]]. Otro queso of Italian origin bastante apreciado en Argentina (y muchas veces cocinado junto a los asados) es el [[provolone]].
En líneas generales, durante el s XX el gusto más común entre los argentinos se ha dirigido a los quesos de tipo francés, y es debido a esto que en Argentina se logran buenas o aceptables imitations of French cheeses.
-->
===Northwest region===
The Northwest region includes the provinces of [[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]], [[Salta Province|Salta]], [[Catamarca Province|Catamarca]], [[Tucumán Province|Tucumán]], [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]], [[La Rioja Province, Argentina|La Rioja]], [[San Juan Province, Argentina|San Juan]], [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]], and [[San Luis Province|San Luis]].
The cuisine of this region shows the massive influence of the pre[[hispanic]] cultures in the [[Andes Mountains]]; in fact the historical centers of the provinces of this region are located in Andean areas, with the exception of Tucumán, Santiago del Estero y San Luis, although Tucumán and San Luis retain physical characteristics similar to the Andeans and their traditional products are in an Andean style (such as corn and potatoes) and include the existence of the "taco" or the native carob bean.
There also exist here, as in almost all of continental Argentina, an important cattle ranching industry, but there are also other herds of animals: aside from the indigenous species(especially the llama), in addition there are non-native species acclimated for almost half a millennium, such as goats, sheep and pigs. The native species in this region have been relegated almost exclusively to the arid zones of the Puna and the High Andean Desert.
In agriculture, in addition to potatoes and corn, one finds many varieties of indigenous vegetables: [[quinoa]] and [[kiwicha]] prosper in the least humid zones, while in more humid areas, beans, tomatoes, [[pumpkin]]s, [[chile pepper]]s, [[avocado]]s, and ''el cayote'' abound.
<!--
Non-native plant species are also cultivated in Northeast Argentina and Cuyo: excellent ''vides, olives, nuez/nueces, duraznos, peras, cebollas, ajos, damascos, ciruelas.
En las zonas más húmedas es grande la producción de: caña de azúcar, limón, plátanos (bananas), oranges;'' apples do well in the coldest zones ''correspondientes al Cuyo.''
Frome this we can infer that, traditionally, this region ''ha sido la dotada de una mayor base para una mayor variedad de platos. Si en toda la Argentina son típicas las empanadas, es en esta región en donde llega a su apogeo la preparación de las mismas, y las diversas provincias de este conjunto rivalizan en cúal de ellas tiene las mejores empanadas,en esto suelen destacarse las tucumanas y salteñas rellenas de carne ó de [[humita]].''
Another typical dish of the region (and available throughout the country) ''es la especie de suculento guiso preparado principalmente con granos de maíz: el locro. En lo real existen diversas variedades de locro (por ejemplo el [[huascha locro]] o locro pobre), siendo el [[mote]] una especie de locro.
-->
On the other hand, in this area the preparation of [[tamale]]s and [[humita]]s in corn husks is common.
Other culinary specialties of this region are almond paste ([[marzipan]]), dried peaches, [[maize]] cake, pork stew with corn, steak, cheap stew, meat stew and eggs ''quimbos''; as well as potato cake, although this last one is often made in other areas of Argentina in recent times.
Tucumán stands out for the excellent cheeses of Tafí.
While nearly all the provinces in the region (except for Tucumán and Santiago del Ester) produce wines that in most cases have won worldwide acclaim, among the wines one must mention at least one that is exclusively Argentine: ''torrontés'', a fragrant white wine with a fruity flavor, produced in the Calchaquíes Valleys. Among vintners producing ''torrontés'', the most famous is Cafayate. In the north, as well as in Tarija, liquors (''aguardientes'') are made from grapes or distilled from wine, such as [[singani]], or others similar to Chilean [[pisco]].
However, the great majority of Argentines prefer French-style wines (including sparkling wines like [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]]). This taste is found in the higher economic strata, where the purchasing power is greatest, and as a consequence, native, Italian, and Spanish wines all play second fiddle to French wines to Argentine palates (at least in the 20th century).
<!--
De los vinos de tipo italiano que se producen en Argentina se destacan los que imitan al ''Chianti'', de los de tipo español los más conocidos son los llamados carlón.
En ciertas zonas y en ciertos grupos socioeconómicos argentinos existe una preferencia por los vinos endulzados artificialmente (avocados) gusto quizás derivado de los "vinos de misa" (principalmente |
ge]] of their [[target market]]s to increase their popularity with the local audience by making them more accessible.
==Automated dialogue replacement / post-synch==
'''Automated dialogue replacement''' (ADR) is a film sound technique involving the re-recording of dialogue after photography. It is called '''post-synchronisation''' (post-sync) in the [[United Kingdom|UK]].
In conventional film production, a [[production sound mixer]] records dialogue during photography, but several uncontrollable issues, such as traffic or animal noise, during principal photography can cause the [[production sound]] to be unusable.
When the film is in post-production, a [[Sound designer|Supervising Sound Editor]] or [[ADR Supervisor]] reviews all of the dialogue in the film and rules which actor lines will have to be replaced using the ADR technique.
ADR is recorded during an ADR session. An actor, usually the original actor on set, is called to a sound studio equipped with video playback equipment and sound playback and recording equipment. The actor wears headphones and is shown the film of the line that must be replaced, and often he will be played the production sound recording. The film is then projected several times, and the actor attempts to re-perform the line while watching the image on the screen, while an [[ADR Recordist]] records the performances. Several takes are made, and based on the quality of the performance and sync, one is selected and edited by an [[ADR Editor]] for use in the film.
There are variations of the ADR process. ADR does not have to be recorded in a studio, but can be recorded on location, with mobile equipment; this process was pioneered by [[Matthew Wood]] of [[Skywalker Sound]] for ''[[The Phantom Menace]]''. ADR can also be recorded without showing the actor the image they must match, but only by having him listen to the performance. This process was used for years at [[Universal Studios]].
Although actors are trained to sing, few are of professional quality. Therefore, if a character must sing well in a movie, ADR is usually used to redub their singing. This technique was used by [[Billy Boyd]] and [[Viggo Mortensen]] in ''[[The Lord of the Rings#The Peter Jackson films|The Lord of the Rings]]''.
==Foreign films==
Dubbing is often used to [[localization|localize]] a foreign movie. The new voice track will usually be spoken by a [[voice artist]]. In many countries, most actors who regularly perform this duty are generally little-known, outside of popular circles such as [[anime]] fandom, for example, or when their voice has become indissociable from the role or the actor or actress whose voice they usually dub. Many of these actors also employ pseudonyms or go uncredited due to Actor's Guild regulations or simple desire to dissociate themselves from the role. However, famous local actors can also be hired to perform the dubbing, particularly for comedies and animated movies, as their names are supposed to attract moviegoers, and the entire Hollywood cast is dubbed by a local cast of similar notoriety.
Adding or replacing non-vocal sounds, such as [[sound effect]]s, is the task of a [[foley artist]].
[[Subtitle]]s may be used instead of dubbing, as different countries have different traditions regarding the choice between dubbing and subtitling. In most [[English language|English-speaking]] countries, dubbing is comparatively rare. In [[Israel]], some programmes need to be comprehensible to speakers of both [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. This cannot be accomplished with dubbing, so subtitling is much more commonplace - sometimes even with subtitles in both languages, with the soundtrack remaining in the original language, usually English. The same thing also applies to certain television shows in [[Finland]], where [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] are both official languages. In the [[Netherlands]] and [[Scandinavia]]n countries, films and television programmes are shown in the original language (usually English) with subtitles, and only some cartoons and children programmes are dubbed.
In [[Portugal]] this has traditionally also been the case, but one terrestrial channel, [[TVI (Portugal)|TVI]], dubs US series like ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'' into [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. In [[Brazil]], foreign television programmes have invariably dubbed in Portuguese, with only a few exceptions, partly because of lower literacy rates, although films shown at cinemas are usually subtitled.
For the [[German language|German]] or [[Italian language|Italian-speaking]] markets, virtually all films and foreign television shows are dubbed. There are few opportunities to watch Hollywood movies in their original versions, and even in the largest cities there are only a few theatres that screen original versions with subtitles, or no translation at all.
In [[France]], movies are often released theatrically in both dubbed and original versions. Big-budget Hollywood movies are usually available in both versions and art house movies are often available in their original version only. However, the availability of the original versions is often limited to certain districts of large cities.
In [[Greece]], all films are released theatrically in their original versions and contain subtitles. Only cartoon films (e.g. [[Finding Nemo]], [[The Incredibles]] etc.) are released in both original and dubbed versions, for children that cannot yet read fast or at all. Foreign TV shows are also shown in their original versions except for most cartoons. For example [[The Flintstones]] is always dubbed, while [[Family Guy]] is subtitled and contains the original dialogue, since it is mostly for adults rather than children.
In [[Quebec]], [[Canada]], most films and TV programmes in English are dubbed into French. This has the advantage of making [[children]]'s TV series comprehensible to younger audiences, but many [[bilingual]] Quebecois prefer subtitling since they would understand some or all of the original audio. American television series are only available in English on [[DVD]], or on English language channels. Most [[anime]] DVDs contain options for original Japanese, Japanese with subtitles, and English dubbed, except for a handful of series which have been heavily edited and/or [[Americanized]].
In some countries, such as [[Thailand]] and [[South Africa]], the original soundtrack is simultaneously carried or "simulcast" on the radio.
On [[DVD]]s with higher translation budgets, the option for both types will often be provided to account for individuals' preferences; [[purist]]s exist for both types of translation. For small markets (small language area or films for a select audience) subtitling is more suitable because it is cheaper. For films for small children, who can not yet read, or not yet very fast, dubbing is necessary.
==Other uses==
Dubbing is occasionally used on [[network television]] broadcasts of films which have dialogue that the network executives or [[censor]]s have decided to replace; this is usually done to remove [[profanity]]. In most cases, the original actor does not perform this duty; instead, an actor with a similar voice is called in. The results are sometimes seamless, but in many cases the voice of the replacement actor sounds nothing like the original performer, which becomes particularly noticeable when extensive dialogue needs to be replaced. Among the films considered notorious for using substitute actors that sound very different from their theatrical counterparts are the ''[[Smokey and the Bandit]]'' and ''[[Die Hard]]'' film series as shown on broadcasters such as [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]].
Dubbing is commonly used in [[science fiction]] television as well. Sound generated by effects equipment such as animatronic puppets will quite often make the original character dialogue unusable. ''[[Stargate]]'' and ''[[Farscape]]'' are two prime examples where ADR is used heavily to produce usable audio.
Since most anime series contain some extent of profanity, the studios recording the English dubs often re-record certain lines if a series or movie is going to be broadcast on [[Cartoon Network]], removing references to [[death]] and [[hell]] as well. Some companies will offer both an edited version and uncut version of the series on DVD, so there is also an edited script in case the series is broadcast. Other companies also edit the full-length version of a series, meaning that even on the uncut DVD, characters say things like "Blast!" "Darn!" in place of the original dialogue's profanity ([[Bandai|Bandai Entertainment]]'s English dub of [[G Gundam]] is infamous for this, among many other things).
Although there are many fans who prefer the English Dubs, there are still many people who would prefer the undubbed version to air on TV, only with subtitles.
Dubbing into a foreign language does not always entail the deletion of the original language; in some countries, a performer may read the translated dialogue as a voiceover. This often occurs in [[Russia]] and [[Poland]], where "lektories" or "lektors" read the translated dialogue into [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Polish language|Polish]]. In Poland, a single person reads all parts of the performance, both male and female. However, it is almost exclusively done for the television and home video markets, while theatrical releases are usually subtitled. Though, as of recently, the amount of high-quality, fully dubbed films has increased, especially for cartoons and children's movies. If a quality dubbed version exists for some film, it is shown in theaters (however, some films, such as [[Harry Potter]] or [[Star Wars]], are shown in both dubbed and subtitled versions varying with the time of the show) as well as on TV (although some channels drop it and do standard one narrator translation) and VHS/ |
births
:Female: 9 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 76.84 years
:Male: 74.26 years
:Female: 79.55 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:2.28 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 0.6% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 12,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 900 (2003 est.)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Costa Rican(s)
:Adjective: Costa Rican
===Ethnic groups===
:white (including mestizo) 94%, black 3%, Amerindian 1%, Chinese 1%, other 1%
===Religions===
:Roman Catholic 76.3%, Evangelical 13.7%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.3%, other Protestant 0.7%, other 4.8%, none 3.2%
===Languages===
:Spanish (official), English
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 96%
:Male: 95.9%
:Female: 96.1% (2003 est.)
==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
==External links==
*[http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/costarica_statistics.html#6 UNICEF Information about Costa Rica's Demographics]
*[http://www.inec.go.cr INEC]. [[Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos de Costa Rica|National Institute of Statistics and Census]] (in Spanish)
[[Category:Demographics of Costa Rica| ]]
[[es:Demografía de Costa Rica]]
[[pt:Demografia da Costa Rica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Costa Rica</title>
<id>5555</id>
<revision>
<id>39644169</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T22:12:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Quick facts: */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Costa Rica}}
[[Costa Rica]] is a [[democracy|democratic]] [[republic]] with a strong system of constitutional checks and balances. Executive responsibilities are vested in a [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|president]], who is the country's center of power. There also are two vice presidents and a 15-member cabinet that includes one of the vice presidents. The president and 57 [[Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica|Legislative Assembly]] deputies are elected for 4-year terms. A constitutional amendment approved in [[1969]] limits presidents and deputies to one term, although a deputy may run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term. The prohibition was officially recognized as anti-constitutional in April 2003, allowing [[Óscar Arias]] to run for President a second time in the [[Costa Rica presidential elections, 2006|2006 Costa Rican presidential elections]].
The electoral process is supervised by an independent Supreme Electoral Tribunal &ndash; a commission of three principal magistrates and six alternates selected by the [[Supreme Court]] of Justice. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice, composed of 22 magistrates selected for renewable 8-year terms by the Legislative Assembly, and subsidiary courts. A Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court, established in 1989, reviews the constitutionality of legislation and executive decrees and all habeas corpus warrants.
The offices of the Comptroller General of the Republic, the Procurator General of the Public, and the Ombudsman exercise autonomous oversight of the government. The Comptroller General's office has a statutory responsibility to scrutinize all but the smallest contracts of the public sector and strictly enforces procedural requirements.
Governors appointed by the president head the country's seven provinces, but they exercise little power. There are no provincial legislatures. Autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military but maintains domestic Police and armed National Guard forces securing its interests.
'''Principal Government Officials'''<br>
President: [[Abel Pacheco|Abel Pacheco de la Espriella]] ([[2002]]-[[2004]])<br>
Foreign Minister: Roberto Tovar Faja<br>
Ambassador to the [[Organization of American States|OAS]]: Walter Niehaus Bonilla<br>
Ambassador to the [[United Nations|UN]]: Bernd Niehaus (permanent office)
==Political conditions ==
Costa Rica long has emphasized the development of democracy and respect for [[human rights]]. Until recently, the country's political system has contrasted sharply with many of its [[Central America]]n and [[Caribbean]] neighbors; it has steadily developed and maintained democratic institutions and an orderly, constitutional scheme for government succession. Several factors have contributed to this tendency, including enlightened government leaders, comparative prosperity, flexible class lines, educational opportunities that have created a stable middle class, and high social indicators. Also, because Costa Rica has no armed forces, it has avoided the possibility of political intrusiveness by the military that some neighboring countries have experienced. Costa Rica experienced several unusual days of demonstrations and civil disturbance in early [[2000]] due to protests over legislation that would have permitted private sector participation in the telecommunications and electrical power sectors. These sectors currently are controlled by state-owned monopolies. The legislation was withdrawn, but the underlying question of the appropriate role of the state in the provision of public services remains sensitive.
Costa Rica's leading [[Political party|political parties]] are the Partido Unidad Social Cristiana (PUSC, [[Christian Democracy|christian democratic]]), Partido Liberación Nacional (PLN, [[Social Democracy|social democratic]]), [[Partido Acción Ciudadana]] (PAC, [[Populism|populist]] and reformist, largely but not exclusively left and center left) and [[Partido Movimiento Libertario]] (ML, [[Libertarianism|libertarian]]). Other minor parties include Partido Renovación Costarricense (PRC, Christian) and Fuerza Democrática (FD, left). New parties that will participate for the first time in the 2006 elections include Partido Unión Patriótica, Partido Unión para el Cambio, Partido Patria Primero, and Partido Alianza Democrática Nacionalista.
In the February [[1998]] national election, PUSC candidate [[Miguel Ángel Rodríguez]] won the presidency over PLN nominee Jose Miguel Corrales. President Rodriguez assumed office [[8 May]] [[1998]]. The PUSC also obtained 27 seats in the 57-member Legislative Assembly, for a plurality, while the PLN gained 23 and five minor parties won seven. Social Christian in philosophy, the PUSC generally favors neoliberalism, conservative fiscal policies, and government reform. President Rodriguez pledged to reduce the country's large internal debt, privatize state-owned utilities, attract additional foreign investment, eliminate social welfare programs, and promote the creation of jobs with decent salaries. The reforms he tried to promote found opposition from several parties, including his own, and he asserted several times the country was "ungovernable".
In the [[2002]] national election, a new party founded by former PLN Congressman and government Minister [[Ottón Solís]] captured 26% of the vote, forcing a runoff election for the first time in the country's history. Abel PACHECO was elected President, under a national unity platform, but continuing most of the neoliberal and conservative policies of [[Miguel Ángel Rodríguez]]. This election was also important because new parties won several seats in Congress, more than ever. The PUSC obtained 19 seats, PLN 17 seats, PAC 14 seats, PML 6 seats and PRC one seat.
During the year 2004, several high profile corruption scandals shattered the foundations of PUSC. Two former Presidents from the party, [[Miguel Ángel Rodríguez]] and [[Rafael Ángel Calderón]] were arrested on corruption charges and are currently waiting for the investigation to end and trial to begin. Also involved in scandals has been [[José María Figueres]], former President from PLN and former head of the [[World Economic Forum]].
There are at least 4 new important parties in the process of registration, some headed by important political figures such as Congressmen and former Congressmen and government ministers.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties of Costa Rica|Elections in Costa Rica}}
{{main|Costa Rican presidential election, 2006}}
{{Costa Rica presidential election, 2006}}
{{main|Costa Rican parliamentary election, 2006}}
{{Costa Rica parliamentary election, 2006}}
==Quick facts:==
*Conventional long form: Republic of Costa Rica
*Conventional short form: Costa Rica
*Local long form: República de Costa Rica
*Local short form: Costa Rica
*Data code:: CS
*Government type:Democratic republic
*Capital: [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]]
*Administrative divisions: 7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, Limón, Puntarenas, San José
*Independence: [[15 September]] [[1821]] (from Spain)
*National holiday: Independence Day, [[15 September]] (1821)
*Constitution: [[7 November]] [[1949]]
*Legal system: Based on Spanish civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
*Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
*Executive branch:
**[[Chief of state]]: [[President of Costa Rica|President]] [[Abel Pacheco|Abel PACHECO de la Espriella]] (since [[8 May]] [[2002]]); First Vice President Lineth SABORIO (since May 2002); Second Vice President (vacant) (since February 2005 when Luis FISHMAN resigned); note - president is both the chief of state and head of government
**[[Head of government]]: [[President of Costa Rica|President]] [[Abel Pacheco|Abel PACHECO de la Espriella]] (since [[8 May]] [[2002]]); First Vice President Lineth SABORIO (since May 2002); Second Vice President (vacant) (sinc |
98]] French Guiana was first visited by Europeans when [[Christopher Columbus]] sailed to the region and reportedly named it the "Land of pariahs". The early 1600's saw attempts by the [[France|French]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] settle in the area, though they faced difficulties in the face of Amerindian hostility and widespread tropical diseases. In [[1643]] the French managed to establish a settlement at [[Cayenne]] along with some small-scale plantations, however this was attacked by Amerindians. The French later re-established it in the 1660's, along with another settlement at [[Sinnamary]] (this was attacked by the Dutch in [[1665]]).
In [[1667]] the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] seized the area. Following the [[Treaty of Breda]] on 31st July [[1667]] the area was given back to France. The Dutch briefly occupied it for a period in [[1676]].
== Consolidation of French rule ==
After the [[Treaty of Paris]] in [[1763]], which deprived France of almost all her possessions in the Americas other than Guiana and a few islands, [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] sent thousands of settlers to Guiana who were lured there with stories of plentiful [[gold]] and easy fortunes to be made. Instead they found a land filled with hostile natives and tropical diseases. One and a half years later only a few hundred survived. These fled to three small islands which could be seen off shore and named them the [[Iles de Salut]] (or "Islands of Salvation"). The largest was called [[Royal Island]], another [[Ile Saint-Joseph|St. Joseph]] (after the patron saint of the expedition), and the smallest of the islands, surrounded by strong currents, Île du Diable (the infamous "[[Devil's Island]]"). When the survivors of this ill-fated expedition returned home, the terrible stories they told of the colony left a lasting impression in France.
In [[1794]], after the death of [[Robespierre]], 193 of his followers were sent to French Guiana. In [[1797]] the republican general [[Pichegru]] and many deputies and journalists were also sent to the colony. When they arrived they found that only 54 of the 193 deportées sent out three years earlier were left; 11 had escaped, and the rest had died of tropical fevers and other diseases. Pichegru managed to escape to [[United States]] and then returned to France where he was eventually executed for plotting against Napoleon.
Later on, slaves were brought out from Africa and plantations were established along the more disease-free rivers. Exports of sugar, hardwood, [[Cayenne pepper]] and other spices brought a certain prosperity to the colony for the first time. Cayenne, the capital, was surrounded by plantations, some of which had several thousand slaves.
== 1800's and the penal era ==
In [[1809]] an Anglo-Portuguese naval squadron took French Guiana and gave it to the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in [[Brazil]]. However with the signing of the [[Treaty of Paris]] in [[1814]] the region was handed back to the French, though a Portuguese presence remained until [[1817]].
In [[1848]] France abolished [[slavery]] and the ex-slaves fled into the rainforest setting up communities similar to the ones they had been stolen from in Africa. Now called [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]], they formed a sort of [[buffer zone]] between the Europeans who settled along the coast and main rivers, and the unconquered, and often hostile, Native American tribes of the inland regions. Without the availability of slave labour the plantations were soon taken over by the jungle, and the planters ruined.
In [[1850]] several shiploads of Indians, Malays and Chinese were brought out to work the plantations but, instead, they set up shops in Cayenne and other settlements.
[[Image:Quartier - Disciplinaire, St. Laurent.jpg|thumb|300px|"Quartier - Disciplinaire", St. Laurent, 1954]]
In [[1852]] the first shiploads of chained convicts arrived from France. In [[1885]], to get rid of habitual criminals and to increase the number of colonists, the French Parliament passed a law that anyone, male or female, who had more than three sentences for theft of more than three months each, would be sent to French Guiana as a "relégué." These relégués were to be kept in prison there for six months but then freed to become settlers in the colony. However, this experiment was a dismal failure. The prisoners were unable to make a living off the land and so were forced to revert again to crime, or to eke out a hand-to-mouth existence until they died. In fact, being sent to French Guiana as a relégué was a life sentence, and usually a short life sentence, as most of the relégués died very quickly from disease and malnutrition. The prisoners would arrive at [[St-Laurent du Maroni]] before being transported to various camps throughout the country. The [[Iles du Salut]] were used to house political prisoners and for solitary confinement. The islands became notorious for the brutality of life there, centering around the notorious [[Devils Island]]. Famous political figures to be sent to the islands included [[Alfred Dreyfus]] and [[Henri Charrière]], who managed escape. He later wrote a best-selling book about his experiences called ''[[Papillon (autobiography)|Papillon]]''.
[[Image:Condemened men's block, St. Laurent..jpg|thumb|left|300px|"Quartier Spécial" - Condemned men's block, St. Laurent, 1954 (the guillotine stood at the spot where the photographer took this photo)]]
In [[1853]] [[gold]] was discovered in the interior, precipitating [[border]] disputes with Brazil and [[Dutch Guiana]] (these were later settled in [[1891]], [[1899]] and [[1915]], though a small region of the border with [[Suriname]] is still disputed).
== 20th century ==
After the fall of France to [[Nazis]] in [[World War II]] the local government declared its allegiance to the [[Vichy]] government, despite widespread support for [[Charles de Gaulle]]. This government was later removed by the Allies.
French Guiana became an [[Département d'outre-mer|overseas ''département'']] of [[France]] on [[19 March]], [[1946]].
The infamous penal colonies, including Devil's Island, were gradually phased out, being formally closed in [[1951]]. At first, only those freed prisoners who could raise the fare for their return passage to France were able to go home, so French Guiana was haunted after the official closing of the prisons by numerous freed convicts leading an aimless existence in the colony.
Visitors to the site in December 1954 reported being deeply shocked by the conditions and the constant screams from the cell-block which had only tiny ventilation slots at the tops of the walls under the roof. Food was pushed in and bodies removed once a day.
In [[1964]] [[Kourou]] was chosen to be launch site for rockets, largely due to its favourable location near the [[equator]]. The [[Centre Spatial Guyanais]] was built and became operational in [[1968]]. This has provided limited local employment, but the mainly imported technicians, and the hundreds of troops stationed in the region to prevent sabotage bring some much-needed cash into the local economy.
[[Image:Guianaprotest.jpg|thumb|right|Protests in Cayenne, 2000]]
The 1970s saw the settlement of [[Hmong]] refugees from [[Laos]] in the county, primarilly to the towns of [[Javouhuy]] and [[Cacao]]. The Green Plan (Plan Vert) of [[1976]] aimed to improve production, though it had only limited success. A movement for increased autonomy from France gained momentum in the 70's and 80's, along with the increasing success of the Parti Socialiste Guyanais.
Protests by those calling for more autonomy from France have become increasingly vocal. Protests in [[1996]], [[1997]] and [[2000]] all ended in violence. While many Guianese wish to see more autonomy, support for complete independence is very low due to large economic support from France. Many are angry at the lack of oppurtunities and high unemployment figures.
Modern French Guiana is a land of idiosyncrasies, where European Space Agency satellite launches rattle the market gardens of displaced Hmong farmers from Laos and thinly populated rainforests swallow nearly all but the country's coastline.
== References ==
* Belebenoit, René. 1940. ''Hell on Trial''. Translated from the Original French Manuscript by Preston Rambo. E. P Dutton & Co. Reprint by Blue Ribbon Books, New York, 1941.
* Belbenoit, René. 1938. ''Dry guillotine: Fifteen years among the living dead''. Reprint: Berkley (1975). ISBN 0425029506. Reprint: Bantam Books, 1971.
* Charrière, Henri. ''Papillon''. Reprints: Hart-Davis Macgibbon Ltd. 1970. ISBN 0246639873 (hbk); Perennial, 2001. ISBN 0060934794
* Tissot, Jean-Michel: ''La Guyane telle quelle'', Paris (Le Créations du Pélican) 1998. ISBN 2719103799
{{South_America_in_topic|History of}}
[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[Category:History of South America]]
[[bn:ফরাসী গায়ানার ইতিহাস]]
[[de:Geschichte Französisch-Guayanas]]
[[es:Historia de Guayana Francesa]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Guyane]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of French Guiana</title>
<id>10762</id>
<revision>
<id>32866769</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-27T11:23:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pedro Aguiar</username>
<id>131787</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Elevation extremes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:french guiana sm04.png|right|Map Of French Guiana]]
'''Geography of [[French Guiana]].'''
===Location===
Northern [[South America]] and part of [[Caribbean South America]], bordering the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Brazil]] and [[Suriname]]
===[[Geographic coordinates]]===
{{coor dm|4|00|N|53|00|W|type:country}}
===Map references===
South America
===Area===
total: 91,000 km²<br>
land: 89,150 km²<br>
water: 1,850 km²
===Land boundaries:===
total: 1,183 km<br>
border countries: Brazil 673 km, Sur |
the league in rushing yardage. Those numbers resulted in Brown winning the [[Most Valuable Player]] award from the league.
The team's passing attack was hindered in the preseason with a major injury to wide receiver [[Paul Warfield]], who missed much of the campaign as a result. However, after shaking off an early-season 49-13 loss to St. Louis, the Browns won nine of their next 10 games, clinching the Eastern Conference with a 24-16 win over the [[Washington Redskins]] on [[December 5]].
Cleveland once again made the [[NFL Championship game]], this time against the [[Vince Lombardi]]-led [[Green Bay Packers]]. In the days leading up to the contest, the Browns seemed in prime position to win another title as Packer quarterback [[Bart Starr]] and running back [[Jim Taylor]]'s health made them questionable for the game.
When an early-morning snowstorm on the day of the game turned the field into a muddy mess, the Packers' reliance on their powerful running game proved to be a major factor in the game. Early on, Starr and Green Bay wideout [[Carroll Dale]] connected for the first score, aided by Browns defender [[Walter Beach]] slipping on the muddy field. Despite the slow start, Cleveland only trailed 13-12 at halftime, but only had the ball for 16 plays after intermission as the Packers pulled away with a [[Paul Hornung]] touchdown to win 23-12.
===1966-73: Playoff disappointments===
As training camp was beginning in July 1966, Jim Brown shocked the Browns, their fans and the NFL by announcing his retirement. Brown, who had been filming the movie ''The Dirty Dozen'' in London, was irritated by Browns' owner [[Art Modell]]'s threats of fines for not reporting for training camp and simply retired. [[Leroy Kelly]] became the Browns' new rushing threat for the 1966 season, ably filling Brown's shoes with the first of his three consecutive 1000-yard seasons. [[Frank Ryan]]'s 29 touchdowns also led the league. Entering the final month of the regular season, the Browns had remained in contention, but a costly 26-14 loss in a [[Thanksgiving Day]] game at Dallas put a major dent in their postseason hopes. Blanton Collier's squad placed one game behind the Cowboys with a 9-5 mark and missed the league championship game for the first time in three years.
The 1967 Browns began the season with two losses, defeats that were quickly forgotten with nine wins in the next 11 contests to help the team finish at 9-5 for the second consecutive year. Unlike the previous season, the NFL's new realignment made that record good enough for first place in the short-lived [[Century Division]], and a spot in the new Eastern Conference championship against the Cowboys. Unfortunately, the game between the two squads was over quickly as [[Don Meredith]] passed for two touchdowns, [[Dave Baynham]] ran for three and [[Bob Hayes]] generally made the Browns' life miserable on special teams as the Cowboys annihilated the Browns 52-14.
Following another slow start in 1968 Ryan was out at quarterback, in favor of [[Bill Nelsen]], who had been acquired from the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] in the offseason. In their October 20 game against the undefeated Baltimore Colts, the heavy underdog Browns stunned their opponents with a 30-20 win, sparking an eight-game winning streak. Nelsen's main target was fifth-year receiver [[Paul Warfield]], who had the best season of his career, with 1067 yards and 12 touchdowns. The team finished the regular season with a 10-4 mark, good enough for another first-place finish and a rematch with Dallas in the Eastern Conference final. After four consecutive losses to their Texas opponents, the Browns ended their frustration by not allowing the Cowboys an offensive touchdown until the final minute. [[Leroy Kelly]]'s two long runs for scores paced the offense, with the turning point in a 31-20 victory coming on [[Dale Lindsey]]'s return of a Don Meredith interception for a touchdown early in the second half. Cleveland advanced to the [[NFL Championship]] against the [[Baltimore Colts]]. [[Don Cockroft]] had an early field goal blocked, and the Browns would not have another chance to score again. [[Tom Matte]] ran for three touchdowns as the Colts shut out the Browns 34-0 to advance to [[Super Bowl III]].
The 1969 season produced similar results. Nelsen threw 2700 yards and 23 touchdowns (both career highs), and Warfield and [[Gary Collins]] both had at least ten touchdown catches. The team finished 10-3-1, again best in the Century Division, and once again played the Cowboys in the conference final. Nelsen threw for 219 yards and [[Walt Sumner]] returned an interception 88 yards for a touchdown as the Browns took their second straight Eastern championship by the score of 38-14. But the NFL Championship Game was another disappointment for the Browns. [[Joe Kapp]] of the [[Minnesota Vikings]] scored on the team's first possession and another rout began. The Vikings went up 20-0 by halftime and ended up winning 27-7.
The 1970 [[AFL-NFL merger]] would see the Browns, [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Baltimore Colts]] move to the new [[American Football Conference]] aligned with the 10 teams of the [[American Football League]]. While the realignment would greatly benefit the Steelers, the placement of the Browns into the AFC's Central Division would not be as good. The trade of [[Paul Warfield]] to the [[Miami Dolphins]] for a draft choice used on Purdue All American Mike Phipps did not help the Browns either. After defeating the [[New York Jets]] in the first-ever broadcast of [[Monday Night Football]], the Browns stumbled through the season finishing 7-7.
Coach [[Blanton Collier]] was replaced with [[Nick Skorich]] before the 1971 season. The Browns improved to 9-5, and a first-place finish in the AFC Central. This placed them in the divisional playoff against the [[Baltimore Colts]]; but much like their matchup three years earlier, the game went ugly early. Backup Colts running back [[Don Nottingham]] scored two first-half touchdowns, and it was all Baltimore would need. The Browns season ended in another 20-3 disappointment.
[[Mike Phipps]] was promoted to starting quarterback over Nelsen before the 1972 season. After a sluggish start, the Browns went on an 8-1 tear. That surge was highlighted by late comeback victories against the San Diego Chargers and Pittsburgh Steelers and a playoff-clinching victory at Cincinnati. A 10-4 mark earned them the AFC wild card berth and put them in a divisional playoff against the undefeated [[Miami Dolphins]]. The Browns took a lead in the fourth-quarter on a [[Fair Hooker]] touchdown catch, but [[Jim Kiick]] preserved the Dolphins' perfect season with a late touchdown run for the 20-14 decision.
In 1973, Phipps threw 20 interceptions to just nine touchdowns, and no rusher had more than 600 yards. After winning four of their first six games, the Browns slumped before bouncing back with a trio of victories, the last one a dramatic last-minute victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers on November 25. The following week, a fourth quarter rally salvaged a 20-20 tie against the Kansas City Chiefs, but a playoff berth evaporated the following week with a 34-17 loss against the Cincinnati Bengals. Cleveland ended the year at 7-5-2, good for third place in the division. Defensive lineman [[Jerry Sherk]], made the first of four consecutive trips to the NFL [[Pro Bowl]].
===1974-84: The Kardiac Kids===
The Browns' era of success came to a crashing halt as the team dropped to 4-10 in 1974. Neither Phipps nor rookie QB [[Brian Sipe]] were effective, throwing 24 combined interceptions to only 10 touchdowns. The Browns allowed 344 points, most in the league. It was the first losing season in franchise history and head coach [[Nick Skorich]] saw his tenure with the team end as a result of the collapse.
Assistant coach and former Green Bay Packer offensive lineman [[Forrest Gregg]] took over in 1975, but the bad fortunes of the team remained with an 0-9 start that finally came to an end on November 23 in a 35-23 comeback victory over the [[Cincinnati Bengals]]. Three weeks later, third-year running back [[Greg Pruitt]] paced the team with 214 yards rushing in a rout over the [[Kansas City Chiefs]], helping the team finish the season 3-11.
Cleveland showed marked improvement with a 9-5 mark in 1976 as [[Brian Sipe]] firmly took control at quarterback. Sipe had been inserted into the lineup after a [[Mike Phipps]] injury in the season-opening win against the [[New York Jets]] on September 12. After a 1-3 start brought visions of another disastrous year, the Browns jolted the two-time defending Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers with an 18-16 victory on October 10. Third-string quarterback [[Dave Mays]] helped lead the team to that victory, while defensive end [[Joe Jones]]' pile-driving sack of quarterback [[Terry Bradshaw]] fueled the heated rivalry between the two teams. That win was the first of eight in the next nine weeks, helping put the Browns in contention for the AFC playoffs. A loss to the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] in the regular season finale cost them a share of the division title, but running back [[Greg Pruitt]] continued his outstanding play by rushing for exactly 1000 yards, his second-straight four-digit season.
The Browns continued to roll in the first half of the [[1977 NFL season]], but an injury to [[Brian Sipe]] by [[Pittsburgh Steelers|Pittsburgh]]'s [[Jack Lambert (American football player)|Jack Lambert]] on [[November 13]] proved to be disastrous. Cleveland won only one of their last five games to finish at 6-8, a collapse that led to [[Forrest Gregg]]'s dismissal before the final game of the season. [[Dick Modzelewski]] served as interim coach in the team's 20-19 loss to the [[Seattle Seahawks]].
On [[December 27]], [[1977]],[[Sam Rutigliano]] was named head coach, and aided a healthy Sipe in throwing 21 touchdowns and garnering 2900 yards during |
60 was a great improvement on its successors." The full quote is "Here is a language so far ahead of its time, that it was not only an improvement on its predecessors, but also on nearly all its successors", but the [[Aphorism|aphoristic]] version is far better known. It is sometimes erroneously attributed to [[Edsger Dijkstra]], also known for his pointed comments, who helped to implement an early ALGOL 60 [[compiler]]. (This statement was in part a criticism of the bloatedness of ALGOL 68.)
The [[Burroughs Corporation]]'s [[B5000]] and its successors were [[stack machine]]s designed to be programmed in an extended variant of ALGOL 60, known as [[Elliott ALGOL]]; indeed their [[operating system]] the [[Master Control Program|MCP]], was written in Elliott ALGOL as far back as 1961. The [[Unisys Corporation]] still markets machines descended from the B5000 today, running the MCP and supporting a diverse set of Elliott ALGOL compilers. Another early implementation was [[Dartmouth ALGOL 30]] on the [[LGP-30]] computer.
==Properties==
ALGOL 60 as officially defined had no I/O facilities; implementations defined their own in ways that were rarely compatible with each other. In contrast, ALGOL 68 offered an extensive library of ''transput'' (ALGOL 68 parlance for Input/Output) facilities.
ALGOL 60 allowed for two [[evaluation strategy|evaluation strategies]] for [[Parameter (computer science)|parameter]] passing: the common call-by-value, and call-by-name. Call-by-name had certain limitations in contrast to call-by-reference, making it an undesirable feature in language design. For example, it is impossible in ALGOL 60 to develop a procedure that will swap the values of two parameters if the actual parameters that are passed in are an integer variable and an array that is indexed by that same integer variable. However, call-by-name is still beloved of ALGOL implementors for the interesting "[[thunk|thunks]]" that are used to implement it.
ALGOL 68 was defined using a two-level grammar formalism invented by [[Adriaan van Wijngaarden]] and which bears his name. ''Van Wijngaarden grammars'' use a [[context-free grammar]] to generate an infinite set of productions that will recognize a particular ALGOL 68 program; notably, they are able to express the kind of requirements that in many other programming language standards are labelled "semantics" and have to be expressed in ambiguity-prone natural language prose, and then implemented in compilers as ''ad hoc'' code attached to the formal language parser.
== Code sample (ALGOL 60) ==
(The way the bolded text has to be written depends on the implementation, e.g. 'INTEGER' (including the quotation marks) for '''integer'''.)
'''procedure''' Absmax(a) Size:(n, m) Result:(y) Subscripts:(i, k);
'''value''' n, m; '''array''' a; '''integer''' n, m, i, k; '''real''' y;
'''comment''' The absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size n by m
is transferred to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k;
'''begin''' '''integer''' p, q;
y := 0; i := k := 1;
'''for''' p:=1 '''step''' 1 '''until''' n '''do'''
'''for''' q:=1 '''step''' 1 '''until''' m '''do'''
'''if''' abs(a[p, q]) > y '''then'''
'''begin''' y := abs(a[p, q]);
i := p; k := q
'''end'''
'''end''' Absmax
Here's an example of how to produce a table using Elliott 803 ALGOL.
FLOATING POINT ALGOL TEST'
BEGIN REAL A,B,C,D'
READ D'
FOR A:= 0.0 STEP D UNTIL 6.3 DO
BEGIN
PRINT PUNCH(3),££L??'
B := SIN(A)'
C := COS(A)'
PRINT PUNCH(3),SAMELINE,ALIGNED(1,6),A,B,C'
END'
END'
PUNCH(3) sends output to the teleprinter rather than the tape punch.<br>
SAMELINE suppresses the carriage return + line feed normally printed between arguments.<br>
ALIGNED(1,6) controls the format of the output with 1 digit before and 6 after the decimal point.<br>
==Hello World==
Since ALGOL 60 had no I/O facilities, there is no portable "Hello World" program in ALGOL. The following code could run on an ALGOL implementation for a Burroughs A-Series mainframe, and is taken from [http://www.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis400/algol/hworld.html this site].
BEGIN
FILE F (KIND=REMOTE);
EBCDIC ARRAY E [0:11];
REPLACE E BY "HELLO WORLD!";
WHILE TRUE DO
BEGIN
WRITE (F, *, E);
END;
END.
An alternative example, using Elliott Algol I/O is as follows. In fact, Elliott Algol used different characters for 'open-string-quote' and 'close-string-quote', but [[ASCII]] does not allow these to be shown here.
'''program''' HiFolks;
'''begin'''
'''print''' "Hello world";
'''end''';
Here's a version for the Elliott 803 Algol (A104) The standard Elliott 803 used 5 hole paper tape and thus only had upper case. The code lacked any quote characters so £ (UK Pound Sign) was used for open quote and ? (Question Mark) for close quote. Special sequencies were placed in double quotes e.g. ££L?? produced a new line on the teleprinter.
HIFOLKS’
BEGIN
PRINT £HELLO WORLD£L??’
END’
==See also==
* [[ALGOL 68]]
* [[JOVIAL]]
* [[VALGOL programming language]], a spoof of ALGOL mixed with [[Valley girl]] slang.
== External links ==
* [http://www.masswerk.at/algol60/report.htm Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60] by Peter Naur, et al. ALGOL definition
* A BNF [http://www.lrz.de/~bernhard/Algol-BNF.html syntax summary] of ALGOL 60
* [http://www.braithwaite-lee.com/opinions/p75-hoare.pdf "The Emperor's Old Clothes"] -- Hoare's 1980 ACM Turing Award speech, which discusses ALGOL history and his involvement
* [http://www.billp.org/ccs/A104/ "803 ALGOL"] The manual for Elliott 803 ALGOL.
* [http://rogerdmoore.ca/JOUR/ AN IMPLEMENTATION OF ALGOL 60 FOR THE FP6000] Discussion of some implementation issues.
{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:Imperative programming languages]]
[[Category:Procedural programming languages]]
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[[Category:Structured programming languages]]
[[bg:ALGOL]]
[[da:ALGOL]]
[[de:ALGOL]]
[[es:Algol]]
[[fr:Algol (langage)]]
[[ko:알골 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[it:ALGOL]]
[[nl:Algol (programmeertaal)]]
[[ja:ALGOL]]
[[pl:Algol (język programowania)]]
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[[ru:Алгол]]
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[[sv:Algol (programspråk)]]
[[tr:ALGOL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AWK programming language</title>
<id>1456</id>
<revision>
<id>41968591</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:12:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DavidDouthitt</username>
<id>465615</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Sample applications */ gave titles to examples; removed example which would be meaningless to majority of general populace and useless to most of the rest</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''AWK''' is a general purpose [[computer language]] that is designed for processing text-based data, either in files or data streams. The name AWK is derived from the [[surname]]s of its authors — [[Alfred V. Aho|Alfred V. '''A'''ho]], [[Peter J. Weinberger|Peter J. '''W'''einberger]], and [[Brian Kernighan|Brian W. '''K'''ernighan]]; however, it is commonly pronounced "awk" and not as a string of separate letters. <tt>awk</tt>, when written in all lowercase letters, refers to the [[Unix]] program that runs other programs written in the AWK programming language.
AWK is an example of a [[programming language]] that extensively uses the [[String (computer science)|string]] [[datatype]], [[associative array]]s (that is, arrays indexed by key strings), and [[regular expression]]s. The power, terseness, and limitations of AWK programs and [[sed]] scripts inspired [[Larry Wall]] to write [[Perl]]. Because of their dense notation, all these languages are often used for writing [[one-liner program]]s.
AWK is one of the early tools to appear in [[Version 7 Unix]] and gained popularity as a way to add computational features to a Unix [[Pipeline (Unix)|pipeline]].
A version of the AWK language is a standard feature of nearly every modern [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]] available today. AWK is mentioned in the [[Single UNIX Specification]] as one of the mandatory utilities of a [[Unix]] [[operating system]]. Besides the [[Bourne shell]], AWK is the only other scripting language available in a [http://www.unix.org/version3/apis/cu.html standard Unix environment]. Implementations of AWK exist as installed software for almost all other operating systems.
==Structure of AWK programs==
Generally speaking, two pieces of data are given to AWK: a command file and a primary input file. A command file (which can be an actual file, or can be included in the [[command line]] invocation of <tt>awk</tt>) contains a series of commands which tell AWK how to process the input file. The primary input file is typically text that is formatted in some way; it can be an actual file, or it can be read by <tt>awk</tt> from the standard input. A typical AWK program consists of a series of lines, each of the form
/''pattern''/ { ''action'' }
where ''pattern'' is a [[regular expression]] and ''action'' is a command. AWK looks through the input file; when it finds a line that matches ''pattern'', it executes the command(s) specified in ''action''. Alternate line forms include:
; <tt>BEGIN { ''action'' }</tt>
: Executes ''action'' commands at the beginning of the script execution, i.e. before any of the lines are processed.
; <tt>END { ''action'' }</tt>
: Similar to the previous form, but executes ''action'' ''after'' the end of input.
; <tt>/''pattern''/</tt>
: Prints any lines matching ''pattern''.
; <tt>{ ''action'' }</tt>
: Executes ''action'' for each line in the input.
Each of these forms can be included multiple times in the command file. Lines in the c |
eviously, for example Gianlorenzo's father, [[Pietro Bernini]]'s crowded ''Assumption of the Virgin'' for [[Santa Maria Maggiore]](1606); but for most patrons, it was far too costly to use sculpted marble for such a large display as an altarpiece. In this relief, the two theatrically contrasted principal figures, the stern and courageous pope and the dismayed and frightened Attila, surge and protrude from the center. Only these two see the descending angelic warriers rallying to the pope's defense, while all others persist in the background reliefs, peforming respective earthly duties. The subject was apt for a papal state seeking clout, since it depicts the legendary moment when the greatest of Pope Leos, with supernatural aide, had deterred the Huns from looting Rome. From a baroque standpoint it is a moment of divine intervention in the affairs of man. Algardi's patron Leo XI hoped all viewers would be sternly reminded of the papal capacity to invoke divine retribution against enemies. Algardi died within a year of completing his famous relief, which was admired by contemporaries.
==Critical Assessment and Legacy==
Algardi was also known for his portraiture which shows an obsessive attention to details of psychologically revealing physiognomy in a sober but immediate naturalism, and minute attention to costume and draperies, such as in the busts of Laudivio Zacchia, Camillo Pamphilj, and Muzio Frangipane and his two sons Lello and Roberto [http://www.romeartlover.it/Algardi.html]. There is also a bronze statue of Innocent X for the ''Palazzo dei Conservatori'' in the [[Campidoglio]]. In St. Peter's Basilica, Algardi was also responsible for the prominent tomb of [[Leo XI]] (completed 1644). In temperament, his style was more akin to the classicized and restrained [[Baroque]] of [[François Duquesnoy]] than to the emotive works of Bernini. From an artistic point of view, he was most successful in portrait-statues and groups of children, where he was obliged to follow nature most closely. His terracotta models, some of them finished works of art, were prized by connoisseur collectors: an outstanding series of them is at the [[Hermitage Museum]], [[Saint Petersburg]].
In his later years Algardi controlled a large studio and amassed a great fortune. His students (including [[Ercole Ferrata]] and [[Domenico Guidi]]) and their followers carried forward their versions of Algardi's classicizing bravura manner well into the 18th century.
The latter two sudents completed his altarpiece at ''Vision of Saint Nicholas'' (San Nicola de Tolentino, Rome) using two separate marble pieces linked together in one event and place, yet successfully separating the divine and earthly spheres.
==Some major sculptures==
*''Saint Mary Magdalen'' (1629,)
*''Saint Philip Neri'' (1636-38,)
*''The beheading of Saint Paul''
The standard modern monograph is Jennifer Montagu, 1985. ''Alessandro Algardi'' (Yale University Press) ISBN 0-300-03173-4
==External links==
*[http://www.artnet.com/library/00/0017/T001772.asp Artnet Resource Library:] Alessandro Algardi
*[http://54.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AL/ALGARDI_ALESSANDRO.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911:] Alessandro Algardi
*[http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/a/algardi/ Web Gallery of Art:] Algardi, sculptures
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/1999/03/20/algardi.2.t.php Roderick Conway-Morris, "Casting light on a Baroque sculptor"], ''International Herald Tribune'', March 20, 1999: Review of exhibition "Algardi: The Other Face of the Baroque,", 1999
*[http://www.getty.edu/art/collections/objects/o453.html A landscape pen-and-ink drawing by Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, c 1650, to which Algardi has added figures of the Holy Family (Getty Museum)]
*[http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Algardi%20Alessandro/ Images of nearly all works]
[[Category:1598 births|Algardi, Alessandro]]
[[Category:1654 deaths|Algardi, Alessandro]]
[[Category:Italian sculptors|Algardi, Alessandro]]
[[de:Alessandro Algardi]]
[[es:Alessandro Algardi]]
[[fr:Alessandro Algardi]]
[[gl:Alessandro Algardi]]
[[it:Alessandro Algardi]]
[[pt:Alessandro Algardi]]
[[sv:Alessandro Algardi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alger of Liège</title>
<id>1643</id>
<revision>
<id>33048155</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-28T22:40:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JASpencer</username>
<id>11096</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alger of Liège''' ([[1055]]-[[1131]]), known also as Alger of Cluny and Algerus Magister, a learned [[France|French]] [[priest]] who lived in the first half of the [[12th century]].
He was first a [[deacon]] of the church of St Bartholomew at [[Liège (city)|Liège]], his native town, and was then appointed (c. 1100) to the cathedral church of [[Saint Lambert (martyr)|Saint Lambert]]. He declined many offers from German bishops and finally retired to the monastery of [[Cluny]], where he died at great age and leaving a good reputation for piety and intelligence.
His History of the Church of Liège, and many of his other works, are lost. The most important of those still extant are: 1. ''De Misericordia et Justitia'', a collection of biblical and patristic extracts with a commentary (an important work for the history of church law and discipline), which is to be found in the Anecdota of Martene, vol. v. 2. ''De Sacramentis Corporis et Sanguinis Domini''; a treatise, in three books, against the Berengarian heresy, highly commended by [[Peter of Cluny]] and
[[Erasmus]]. 3. ''De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio''; given in B. Pez's ''Anecdota'', vol. iv. 4. ''De Sacrificio Missae''; given in the ''Collectio Scriptor. Vet.'' of Angelo Mai, vol. ix. p. 371.
See [[Jacques Paul Migne|Migne]], ''[[Patrologia Latina|Patrol Ser. Lat.]]'' vol. clxxx. pp. 739-.972; Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyk. für prot. Theol.,'' art. by S. M. Deutsch.
==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01310c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
[[Category:Roman Catholic priests]]
[[Category:1055 births|Alger of Liège]]
[[Category:1131 deaths|Alger of Liège]]
[[wa:Ådjî d' Lidje]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algiers</title>
<id>1644</id>
<revision>
<id>40849621</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T11:57:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>161.74.11.24</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ style</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:Algeria-Alger.png|frame|right|Map of Algeria showing Algiers province]]
[[Image:Algiersnasa.jpg|left|250px|Algiers from space]]
'''Algiers''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''ولاية الجزائر''') ''El-Jazair'', The Islands) is the capital and largest city of [[Algeria]] in [[North Africa]]. According to the [[1998]] census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 whilst the total for the [[agglomeration]] was 2,135,630. Nicknamed ''El-Bahdja'' (البهجة) or ''Alger la Blanche'' ("Algiers the White") for the glistening white of its buildings as seen sloping up from the sea, it is situated on the west side of a bay of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The city name is derived from its location on the slopes of the "[[Sahel]]", a chain of hills parallel to the coast. Its geographical co-ordinates are: {{coor dm|36|47|N|3|4|E|}}.
The modern part of the city is built on the level ground by the seashore and the old part, the ancient city of the [[dey]]s, climbs the steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the [[casbah]] or citadel, 400 feet above the sea. The casbah and the two quays form a triangle.
==History==
[[Image:Algiers CNE-v1-p58-J.jpg|thumb|300px|right|City and harbour of Algiers, circa 1921]]
A [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] commercial outpost called ''Ikosim'', turned into a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] small town called [[Icosium]], existed on what is now the marine quarter of the city. The ''rue de la Marine'' follows the lines of a Roman street. Roman cemeteries existed near ''[[Bab-el-Oued]]'' and ''[[Bab Azoun]]''. The city was given [[Latin]] rights by [[Vespasian]]. The [[bishop]]s of Icosium are mentioned as late as the [[5th century]].
The present city was founded in [[944]] by [[Buluggin ibn Ziri]], the founder of the [[Zirid]]-[[Senhaja]] dynasty, which was overthrown by [[Roger II of Sicily]] in [[1148]]. The [[Zirid]]s had before that date lost Algiers, which in [[1159]] was occupied by the [[Almohades]], and in the [[13th century]] came under the dominion of the Abd-el-Wadid sultans of [[Tlemcen]].
Nominally part of the sultanate of [[Tlemcen]], Algiers had a large measure of independence under [[amir]]s of its own, [[Oran]] being the chief seaport of the Abd-el-Wahid. The islet in front of the harbour, subsequently known as the Penon, had been occupied by the Spaniards as early as [[1302]]. Thereafter a considerable trade grew up between Algiers and [[Spain]].
Algiers, however, continued to be of comparatively little importance until after the expulsion from Spain of the [[Moors]], many of whom sought an asylum in the city. In [[1510]], following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of [[Africa]], the Spaniards fortified the Penon. In [[1516]] the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the brothers Arouj and Khair-ad-Din ([[Khair ad Din|Barbarossa]]) to expel the Spaniards. Arouj came to Algiers, caused Selim to be assassinated, and seized the town. Khair-ad-Din, succeeding Arouj, drove the Spaniards from the Penon ([[1550]]) and was the founder of the ''pashalik'', afterwards ''deylik'', of Algeria.
[[Image:Sm Bombardment of Algiers, August 1816-Luny.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth, August 1816, painted by Thomas Luny]]
Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the [[Barbary pirates]]. In October [[1541]] the emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] s |
m A Criticism of the Idea of Arab Nationalism]
[[Category:Arab| ]]
[[als:Araber]]
[[ar:عرب]]
[[bg:Араби]]
[[de:Araber]]
[[eo:Araboj]]
[[et:Araablased]]
[[fa:عرب]]
[[fi:Arabit]]
[[fr:Arabes]]
[[he:ערבים]]
[[hr:Arapi]]
[[it:Arabo]]
[[ja:アラブ人]]
[[ko:아랍인]]
[[la:Arabi]]
[[nl:Arabieren]]
[[no:Arabere]]
[[pl:Arabowie]]
[[pt:Árabe]]
[[ru:Арабы]]
[[sl:Arabci]]
[[sv:Araber]]
[[tt:Ğäräp xalqı]]
[[zh:阿拉伯人]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Armadillo</title>
<id>2186</id>
<revision>
<id>41790357</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:47:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pbfurlong</username>
<id>29766</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>minor spelling correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Armadillo
| image = armadillo.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Xenarthra]]
| familia = '''Dasypodidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
[[Chlamyphorus]]<br />
[[Cabassous]]<br />
[[Chaetophractus]]<br />
[[Dasypus]]<br />
[[Euphractus]]<br />
[[Priodontes]]<br />
[[Tolypeutes]]<br />
[[Zaedyus]]
}}
{{Otheruses2|armadillo}}
'''Armadillos''' are any of several small [[mammal]]s of the family '''Dasypodidae''', mostly known for having a bony [[armor]] shell. Their average size is about 75 [[centimeter]]s (30 inches), including tail. All species are native to the [[Americas|American]] continents, where they inhabit a variety of environments. In the United States, the sole resident armadillo is the 9-banded armadillo ''(Dasypus novemcinctus)'', which is most common in the central southern states, particularly [[Texas]].
Armadillos are [[placenta]]l mammals in the order [[Xenarthra]], related to the [[anteater]]s and sloths. There are several species of armadillo, some of which are distinguished by how many bands they have on their armor. The nine-banded form can not roll itself into a ball. They mainly run away or burrow from predators .
They are prolific diggers, and many species use their sharp claws to dig for food such as [[grub]]s and/or to dig dens. The 9-banded armadillo prefers to build burrows in moist soil near the creeks, streams, and [[arroyo (creek)|arroyos]] near which it generally lives and feeds. The diet of armadillo species varies, but consists mainly of [[insect]]s, grubs, and other [[invertebrate]]s. Some species, however, are almost entirely termite/ant specialists.
The armor is formed by plates of dermal bone covered in small, overlapping , epidermal scales called ''[[scute]]s''. This armor-like skin would appear to be the main defense of many armadillos, though, in fact, most flee predators by running and/or digging rather than relying on their armor. Only the South American 3-banded armadillo (''[[Tolypeutes]]'') tends to rely heavily on its armor. When threatened by a [[predator]], Tolypeutes frequently will roll up into a ball. Other armadillo species cannot roll up because they have too many plates to curl. Instead, other armadillos will sometimes escape predators by running into thorny brush, relying on their armor to protect them from the thorns. The North American 9-banded armadillo tends to jump straight in the air when surprised, and consequently often smacks itself into the undercarriage of cars passing over it.
Armadillos are often used in the study of [[leprosy]], since they, along with [[mice]], are the only known non-human animal species that can contract the disease systemically. They are particularly susceptible due to their unusually low body temperature, which is hospitable to the leprosy [[bacterium]] ([[Mycobacterium leprae]]).
The 9-banded armadillos also serve science through their unusual reproductive system, in which four identical quadruplets (all the same sex) are born in each clutch of armadillos. Because they are always identical, the group of four armadillos provide good subjects for scientific, behavioral, or medical tests that need consistent biological and genetic makeup in the testees. This phenomenon of multiple identical birth, called ''[[polyembryony]]'', only manifests in the genus ''Dasypus'', not all armadillos as is commonly believed.
The armadillo was, over some resistance, made the state small mammal of Texas[http://www.shgresources.com/tx/symbols/smallmammal/]where it is considered a pest. In Maine, it is illegal to own an armadillo.
Armadillos can be kept as pets, although they require moist ground in which to dig and catch insects. They are difficult to domesticate fully.
==Trivia/interesting facts==
*In the [[Joe R. Lansdale]] novel ''Captains Outrageous'', a [[Texan]] armadillo named Bob is kept as a pet by Leonard Pine, one of the central characters.
*Because of the weight of its armor, an armadillo will sink in water unless it inflates its stomach with air, which often doubles its size.[http://www.flex.net/~lonestar/armadillo.htm]
*A number of towns in Texas hold beauty pageants for armadillos. [http://www.oaklaketrails.com/armadillo/armadillo.htm]
*''[[Glyptotherium texanum]]'' (extinct) was a close cousin of the armadillo, living in the tropical and subtropical regions of Florida, South Carolina, and Texas. It had a six-foot-long carapace and weighed in at approximately 2,000 pounds (1 ton).[http://www.amnh.org/science/biodiversity/extinction/Resources/Bestiary/Xenarthra.html]
*[[Bonobo]] chimpanzees and armadillos are the only mammals other than humans that engage in intercourse in the [[missionary position]] (face-to-face).
*German POWs in Texas would often refer to the armadillo as "panzer swine".
*Recorded to be the animal with the most dreams in sleep.
==External links==
*Photographs of armadillo rolling into a ball [http://seabed.nationalgeographic.com/splat_ngx_pathfinder/templates/output/articles/gallery.tmpl?DB_NUM_PARAMS=2&DB_PARAM_0=0503&DB_PARAM_1=2].
[[Category:Mammals]]
[[da:Bæltedyr]]
[[de:Gürteltiere]]
[[es:Dasypodidae]]
[[eo:Dazipedoj]]
[[fr:Tatou]]
[[io:Armadilo]]
[[he:ארמדיליים]]
[[lt:Šarvuotiniai]]
[[nl:Gordeldieren]]
[[ja:アルマジロ]]
[[pl:Pancerniki]]
[[pt:Tatu]]
[[ru:Броненосцы]]
[[fi:Vyötiäiset]]
[[sv:Bältdjur]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arabs and anti-Semitism</title>
<id>2187</id>
<revision>
<id>41941089</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:51:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Myopic Bookworm</username>
<id>944187</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Saudi Arabia */ moved material from Status of religious freedom article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Note.
If you intend to insert something to the effect: Arabs view this term as [[oxymoronic]], as they themselves are [[semites]] - Please read the section [[#Usage]] first.
-->
This article describes issues of '''[[anti-Semitism]]''' (hostility towards or discrimination against [[Jew]]s) in the '''[[Arab world]]'''.
[[Jewish diaspora|Jewish communities]] existed as a [[minority]] in the lands where the Arabs were the predominant population for at least 2,600 years, since the [[Babylonian captivity]] ([[597 BC|597 BCE]]). Since then, at various times and places, there have been periods of intense anti-Semitism and other periods of peaceful coexistence.
In the course of the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], alleged and actual anti-Semitism has been a recurring issue in Arab countries, even as most of the Jewish population of these countries [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|has fled or been forced to leave]].
== Usage ==
A person who exibits anti-Semitic behavior may be of any ancestry, including a Jew or an Arab. For example, [[Johannes Pfefferkorn]], [[Karl Marx]] and [[Bobby Fischer]] had Jewish ancestry, but are often considered to be anti-Semites. ''See related [[anti-Semitism#Etymology and usage|Etymology and usage of the term anti-Semitism]].''
Some reject being labelled as "anti-Semitic", claiming that their behavior is based on [[anti-Zionism]].
''See related [[Anti-Semitism#Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism|Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism]] and [[New anti-Semitism]].''
==History of Arab anti-Semitism before 1948==
Starting with the expansion of Islam in the first millennia, Jews, along with [[Christian]]s and [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]], typically had the legal status of [[dhimmi]] in Arab lands. As such, they were entitled to limited rights, tolerance, and protection, on the condition they pay a special poll tax (the "[[jizya]]"), which exempted them from military service, and also from payment of the [[Zakat]] alms tax required of Muslims. As dhimmi, Jews were typically subjected to several restrictions, the application and severity of which varied by time and place: residency in segregated quarters, obligation to wear distinctive clothing, public subservience to Muslims, prohibitions against proselytizing and marrying Muslim women, and limited access to the legal systems. They sometimes attained high positions in government, notably as [[vizier]]s and [[physician]]s. Jewish communities, like Christian ones, were typically constituted as semi-autonomous entities managed by their own laws and leadership, who carried the responsibility for the community towards the Muslim rulers.
Anti-Semitism in the [[Islamic world|Muslim world]] increased in the [[twentieth century]], as anti-Semitic propaganda and [[blood libel]]s were imported from [[Europe]] and as resentment against [[Zionism|Zionist]] efforts in [[British Mandate of Palestine]] spread. While anti-Semitism has certainly been heightened by the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], there were an increasing number of [[pogrom]]s against Jews prior to the foundation of [[Israel]], including [[Nazi]]-inspired pogroms in [[Algeria]] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the |
ndles or oil lamps. Electric lights are sometimes used and are acceptable in places where open flame is not permitted, such as a hospital room. When a formal [[candelabra]] or [[menorah]] is used, it is the special secular menorah used for Hanukkah - which holds eight candles, plus the servant candle. (A religious menorah holds only ''seven'' candles, plus the servant candle). [[Ashkenazi|Ashenazic Jews]] (central and east European Jews) usually call the eight-candled version a "Hanukkah [[menorah]]." Some [[Sephardi|Sephardic Jews]] (west European, Mediterranean and Latin American Jews) just call it "a hanukkah". In the [[State of Israel]], the secular menorah used for Hanukkah is usually called a "hanukiah".
[[Image:Tiffany_glasswork_Hanukkah_menora02.jpg|thumb|left|280px|A modern [[Lead came and copper foil glasswork|"Tiffany"]] Hanukkah menora]]
An extra light is lit each night and placed near the Hanukah lights. The purpose of this is to adhere to the prohibition of using the Hanukkah lights for anything other than publicizing - and meditating on - the Hanukkah story (in contrast to [[Sabbath]] candles which are meant to be used for illumination). Hence, if one were to need extra illumination, the extra "servant" candle would be available and one would avoid using the prohibited lights, as derived from the [[Talmud]] (Tracate Shabbat 21b-23a). Some use the "guard" candle to light the others.
The reason for the lights is not for the "lighting of the house within", but rather for the "illumination of the house without", so that passers-by should see it and be reminded of the holiday's miracle. Accordingly lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. It is customary amongst some [[Ashkenazi]]m to have a separate menorah for each family member (customs vary), whereas most [[Sephardi]]m light one ''hanukkah'' for the whole household. Only when there was danger of [[Anti-Semitism|anti-semitic persecution]] were lamps supposed to be hidden from public view, as was the case in [[Iran|Persia]] under the rule of the fire-worshipers, or in parts of Europe before and during World War II. However, some groups, e.g. [[Chabad-Lubavitch]], light lamps near an inside doorway, not in public view.
<br clear=left>
===When to light the lights===
Hanukkah lights should burn for at least one half hour after it gets dark. The standard candles sold for Hanukkah burn for half an hour, so on most days this requirement can be met by lighting the candles when it is dark out. Friday night presents a problem, however. Candles must be lit before the start of [[Shabbat]] and inexpensive Hanukkah candles do not burn long enough to meet the requirement. A simple solution is to use "tea lights" or Shabbat candles, arranging them in a straight line and setting the shammus candle apart and above the rest.
=== Blessings over the candles ===
[[Image:Hanukkah menorah stamp 1999.jpg|thumb|right||[[United States Postal Service|US]] [[Postage stamp|stamp]] honoring Hanukkah and showing a [[Menorah]] with colored candles]]
Typically three blessings (''Berakhot'' singular ''Berakhah'') are recited during this eight-day festival. On the first night of Hanukkah, Jews recite all three blessings, on all subsequent nights, they recite only the first two. The blessings are said before or after the candles are lit depending on tradition. On the first night of Hanukkah one light (candle, lamp, or electric) is lit on the right side of the [[Menorah]], on the following night a second light is placed to the left of the first and is lit first proceeding from left to right, and so on each night.
====The first blessing====
Recited all eight nights just prior to lighting the candles:
:''Baruch atah Adonai, Eloheinu melech ha-olam, asher kid'shanu b'mitzvotav v'tzivanu l'hadlik neir (shel) chanukah.''
Translation: "Praised are You, Lord our God, King of the Universe, Who sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us to kindle the Hanukkah lights."
====The second blessing====
Recited all eight nights just prior to lighting the candles:
:''Baruch atah Adonai, Eloheinu melech ha-olam, she-asah nisim la-avoteinu, bayamim haheim, (u)baz'man hazeh. ''
Translation: "Praised are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who performed wondrous deeds for our ancestors, in those days, at this season."
====The third blessing====
Recited only on the first night just prior to lighting the candles:
:''Baruch atah Adonai, Eloheinu melech ha-olam, shehecheyanu, v'kiyemanu, vehigi-anu laz'man hazeh. ''
Translation: "Praised are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who has kept us in life, sustained us, and enabled us to reach this season."
====After kindling the lights====
When the lights are kindled the ''Hanerot Halalu'' prayer is subsequently recited:
([[Ashkenazi|Ashkenazic]] version):
:''Hanneirot hallalu anachnu madlikin 'al hannissim ve'al hanniflaot 'al hatteshu'ot ve'al hammilchamot she'asita laavoteinu bayyamim haheim, (u)bazzeman hazeh 'al yedei kohanekha hakkedoshim. Vekhol-shemonat yemei Hanukkah hanneirot hallalu kodesh heim, ve-ein lanu reshut lehishtammesh baheim ella lir'otam bilvad kedei lehodot ul'halleil leshimcha haggadol 'al nissekha ve'al nifleotekha ve'al yeshu'otekha.''
Translation: "We light these lights For the [[miracle]]s and the wonders, for the redemption and the battles that you made for our forefathers, in those days at this season, through your [[Kohen|holy priests]]. During all eight days of Hanukkah these lights are sacred, and we are not permitted to make them serve except for to look at them in order to express thanks and praise to Your great Name for your miracles, Your wonders and Your salvations."
====Singing of ''Maoz Tzur'' after lighting====
Each night immediately after the lighting of the candles, while remaining within eyeshot of the candles, [[Ashkenazi]]m (and, in recent decades, some [[Sephardi]]m and [[Mizrahi]]m in Western countries, then usually sing the following hymn written in Medieval [[Ashkenaz]] ([[Germany]]). It lists a number of events of persecution in [[Jewish history]], and praises God for survival despite these tragedies.
:''Ma-oz Tzur Yeshu-ati, lecha na-eh leshabei-ah. Tikon beit tefilati vesham todah nezabei-ah. Le-et tachin matbe-ach mitzar hamnabei-ah. Az egmor beshir mizmor chanukat hamizbei-ah.''
:''Ra-ot sav'ah nafshi, b'yagon kochi kilah. Chayai meir'ru b'koshi, b'shibe-ud malchut eglah. Uv'yado hag'dolah hotzi et has'gulah. Cheil Par'oh vechol zaroh yardu ke-even bim'tzulah.''
:''D'vir kodsho hevi-ani vegam sham lo shakateti. Uva noges v'higlani ki zarim avad'ti. V'yein ra-al masachti kimat she-avarti. Keitz Bavel Zerubavel l'keitz shivim noshati.''
:''Kerot komat b'rosh bikesh Agagi ben Hamdatah. V'nih'yata lo lefach ul'mokesh vegavato nishbata. Rosh y'mini niseita ve-oyev shemo machita. Rov banav v'kinyanav al ha-etz talita.''
:''Y'vanim nikbetzu alai azai bimei Chashmanim. Ufartzu chomot migdalai vetimu kol hashmanim. Uminotar kankanim na-aseh nes lashoshanim. B'nei vinah yemei sh'monah kavu shir urna-anim.''
:''Chasof z'roa kodshecha v'karev keitz hayeshu-a. Nekom nikmat dam avadecha me-uma haresha-a. Ki archa lanu hasha-a ve-ein keitz limei hara-ah. Dechei admon b'tzeil tzalmon hakeim lanu ro'im shiv'ah.''
Many Jews sing only the first verse, repeating the lines to form the Hanukkah melody. It is also common to sing just the first and fifth verses, the fifth dealing specifically with Hanukkah.
=== Additions to the daily prayers ===
An addition is made to the "hoda'ah" (thanksgiving) benediction in the [[Amidah]], called ''Al ha-Nissim'' ("On/about the Miracles"). This addition refers to the victory achieved over the Syrians by the Hasmonean Mattathias and his sons. (The erroneous designation of Mattathias as son of Johanan the high priest seems to rest upon the late Hebrew apocryphal "[[Megillat Antiokhos]]" or "Megillat Hanukkah," which has other names and dates strangely mixed.) The liturgical part inserted reads as follows:
Transliteration:
:''Al hanisim v'al hapurkan v'al hag'vurot v'al hat'shuot, v'al hamilchamot she-asita la-avoteinu bayamim haheim bazman hazeh. Bimei Matityahu ben Yochanan kohein gadol chashmonai u-vanav, k'she-amda malchut yavan har'sha-a al amcha Yisrael l'hashkicham toratecha ul'ha-aviram meichukei r'tzonecha. V'ata b'rachamecha harabim amadta lahem b'eit tzaratam, ravta et rivam, danta et dinam, nakamta et nikmatam, masarta giborim b'yad chalashim v'rabim b'yad chalashim v'rabim b'yad m'atim, ut'mei-im b'yad t'horim, ursha-im b'yad tzadikim v'zeidim b'yad os'kei toratecha. Ul-cha asita t'shu-a g'dola ufurkan k'hayom hazeh. V'achar kein ba-u vanecha lidvir beitecha ufinu et heichalecha v'tiharu et mikdsashecha v'hidliku neirot b'chatzrot kodsecha v'kav'u sh'monat y'mei Chanuka eilu l'hodot ul'haleil l'shimcha hagadol.''
Translation:
:''We thank You also for the miraculous deeds and for the redemption and for the mighty deeds and the saving acts wrought by You, as well as for the wars which You waged for our ancestors in ancient days at this season. In the days of the Hasmonean Mattathias, son of Johanan the high priest, and his sons, when the iniquitous Greco-Syrian kingdom rose up against Your people Israel, to make them forget Your Torah and to turn them away from the ordinances of Your will, then You in your abundant mercy rose up for them in the time of their trouble, pled their cause, executed judgment, avenged their wrong, and delivered the strong into the hands of the weak, the many into the hands of few, the impure into the hands of the pure, the wicked into the hands of the righteous, and insolent ones into the hands of those occupied with Your Torah. Both unto Yourself did you make a great and holy name in Thy worl |
board of [[Christine Todd Whitman]]'s "Its My Party Too" organization.
Ford has experianced a few health problems in the last few years. He suffered two minor strokes at the 2000 Republican National Convention, but made a quick recovery. In January of 2006, he spent 11 days at the Eisenhower Medical Center in Rancho Mirage California for treatment of pneumonia.
==Resources==
===Memoirs and primary sources===
* Cannon, James. ''Time and Chance: Gerald R. Ford's Appointment with History''. New York: HarperCollins, 1993. (Chapters 1-3 concern Ford's early life and election to Congress; chapters 4&ndash;7 his congressional career; chapters 8&ndash;11 Watergate; chapters 12&ndash;19 concern Ford's appointment as Vice President, his Vice Presidency, the move to impeach Richard Nixon, and the transition to the Presidency; chapter 20 concerns the Nixon pardon; and chapter 21 is a summary of the Ford Presidency.)
* Casserly, John J. ''The Ford White House: Diary of a Speechwriter''. Boulder, CO: Colorado Associated University Press, 1977. (Memoir by a speechwriter for President Ford. It covers the period from November 1974 to January 1976.)
* Coyne, John R. ''Fall in and Cheer''. New York: Doubleday, 1979. (Memoir. Chapter 7 concerns his service as a Ford speechwriter, August 1974&ndash;February 1975.)
* Ford, Betty. ''The Times of My Life''. New York: Harper & Row, 1978. (Mrs. Ford's memoir - chapters 22- 37 concern her husband's Presidency. The book emphasizes personal and family experiences rather than political events.)
* Ford, Gerald R. ''Selected Speeches''. Arlington, VA: R.W. Beatty, 1973. (A collection of speeches Ford delivered between 1965 and 1972 concerning politics and domestic and foreign affairs.)
* Ford, Gerald R. ''A Time to Heal: The Autobiography of Gerald R. Ford''. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. (Memoir mainly concerning his Presidency.)
* ''The Ford Presidency: Twenty-Two Intimate Perspectives of Gerald Ford'', Edited by Kenneth W. Thompson. Portraits of American Presidents, VII. Lanham, MA: University Press of America, 1988. (Interviews with Ford administration officials.)
* Gerald R. Ford: ''Presidential Perspectives from the National Archives''. Washington, DC: National Archives Trust Fund Board, 1994. (Sections written by Frank H. Mackaman, Leesa Tobin, and David Horrocks of the Ford Library. Photographs selected by Audiovisual Archivist Ken Hafeli.)
* Hartmann, Robert T. ''Palace Politics: An Insider's Account of the Ford Years''. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. (Memoir. Several chapters concern his work as an assistant to Congressman and Vice President Ford. Chapters 7&ndash;16 concern his work as a White House Counsellor and supervisor of the speechwriting unit.)
* Hersey, John. ''The President: A Minute-by-Minute Account of a Week in the Life of Gerald Ford''. New York: Knopf, 1975. (A writer examines President Ford's activities during one week in March 1975. Originally appeared in the "New York Times Magazine," April 20, 1975. Reprinted in Hersey's book "Aspects of the Presidency: Truman and Ford in Office," New Haven, Ticknor and Fields, 1980.)
* Kissinger, Henry A., ''Years of Renewal''. (Kissinger's memoir of foreign policy decisions during his tenure as Secretary of State under Ford, including the Cyprus incident, the fall of Saigon, movement to an Egypt-Israeli peace agreement, Strategic Arms talks with the Soviet Union, and efforts to end fighting in Rhodesia.)
===Secondary sources===
* Congressional Quarterly, Inc. ''President Ford: The Man and His Record''. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1974. (Background on Ford's political career and legislative record prior to becoming President, including his statements on major issues.)
* Congressional Quarterly, Inc. ''Presidency''. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1974-1976. (Annual volumes reviewing activities or issues.)
* Firestone, Bernard J. and Alexej Ugrinsky, eds. ''Gerald R. Ford and the Politics of Post-Watergate America'' v 2 (1993), essays
* Greene, John Robert. ''The Limits of Power: The Nixon and Ford Administrations''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992. standard scholarly history
* Greene, John Robert. ''The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford.'' Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995. standard scholarly history
* Mieczkowski, Yanek. “Gerald Ford And The Challenges Of The 1970s”. University Press of Kentucky, 2005. ISBN: 0813123496. A four part examination on leadership, the economic, the energy crisis, and foreign relations.
* Reichley, James. ''Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations'' (1981), detailed narrative.
* Ugrinsky, Alexej and Bernard J. Firestone, eds. ''Gerald R. Ford and the Politics of Post-Watergate America'' v 1 (1993), essays; (Proceedings of a conference on the Presidency of Gerald R. Ford that took place at Hofstra University in April 1989.)
==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1976]]
* [[Interstate 196|Gerald R. Ford Freeway]]
* [[Gerald R. Ford International Airport]] in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]
* [[Gerald R. Ford Library]] in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
* [[Gerald R. Ford Museum]] in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]
* [[History of the United States (1964-1980)|History of the United States (1964&ndash;1980)]]
* [[List of notable World War II veterans|Notable World War II Veterans]]
* [[swine flu]]
==Trivia==
*[[Chevy Chase]] often did [[pratfall]]s on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' in imitation of Ford, who was caught in photos stumbling on two occasions during his term. This is ironic, though, as Ford is one of the most athletically skilled president in U.S. history. In addition to being a starter on the [[University of Michigan]] football team, he also turned down an opportunity to try out for the [[Green Bay Packers]] and chose instead to attend law school. Ford throughout his life was also an accomplished skier and swimmer, and was once even a forest ranger. He also coached boxing while in law school and played golf throughout his life.
*Ford is both a Knight of [[Malta]] (presumably honorary as he is not a [[Roman Catholic]]), and a [[Freemason]], two things which, not long ago, would have been [[mutually exclusive]].
==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Gerald+R.+Ford | name=Gerald Ford}}
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/gf38.html White House biography]
* [http://geraldrfordfoundation.org/ Gerald R. Ford Foundation]
* [http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov Ford Library and Museum]
* [http://www.usa-Presidents.info/union/ford-1.html First State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.historyguy.com/biofiles/ford_gerald.html Brief bio on Gerald Ford]
* [http://www.usa-Presidents.info/union/ford-2.html Second State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.usa-Presidents.info/union/ford-3.html Third State of the Union Address]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=FordGR Audio recordings of Ford's speeches]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[U.S. Congressional Delegations from Michigan|United States Representative for the 5th Congressional District of Michigan]]|before=[[Bartel J. Jonkman]]|after=[[Richard F. Vander Veen]]|years=1949&ndash;1973}}
{{succession box|title=[[Minority Leader of the United States House of Representatives|House Minority Leader]]|before=[[Charles A. Halleck]]|after=[[John J. Rhodes]]|years=1965&ndash;1973}}
{{succession box | title=[[Vice President of the United States]] | before=[[Spiro Agnew]] | after=[[Nelson Rockefeller]] | years=[[December 6]], [[1973]] &ndash; [[August 9]], [[1974]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[President of the United States]] | before=[[Richard Nixon]] | after=[[Jimmy Carter]] | years=[[August 9]], [[1974]] &ndash; [[January 20]], [[1977]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party Presidential nominee]] | before=[[Richard Nixon]] | after=[[Ronald Reagan]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1976|1976]] (lost)}}
{{end box}}
{{USPresidents}}
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{{US Vice Presidents}}
{{USRepPresNominees}}
{{Persondata
|NAME=Ford, Gerald
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Ford, Gerry
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=38th US President
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[July 14]], [[1913]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Omaha, Nebraska]], [[United States of America]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
[[Category:1913 births|Ford, Gerald R.]]
[[Category:Alpha Phi Omega honorary brothers|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:American football offensive linemen|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Delta Kappa Epsilon brothers|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Distinguished Eagle Scouts|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Eagle Scouts|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Elks|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:John F. Kennedy assassination|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Knights of Malta|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Living people|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Michigan Wolverines football players|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Omahans|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:People from Michigan|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Premature obituaries|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:United States Navy officers|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Vietnam War people|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Watergate figures|Ford, Gerald]]
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[[pt:Marquês de Sade]]
[[ru:Маркиз де Сад]]
[[simple:Marquis de Sade]]
[[fi:Markiisi de Sade]]
[[sv:Donatien Alphonse François de Sade]]
[[th:มาร์กีส์ เดอ ซาด]]
[[zh:萨德侯爵]]
{{Persondata
|NAME=de Sade, Marquis
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=de Sade, Donatien Alphonse François
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=French writer of pornography and philosophy
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[June 2]], [[1740]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Paris]], [[France]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[December 2]], [[1814]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Saint-Maurice, Val-de-Marne|Charenton-Saint-Maurice]]
}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daisy cutter</title>
<id>8788</id>
<revision>
<id>41996738</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:56:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RlyehRising</username>
<id>472450</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:MOSDAB|Disambig page]] style repair ([[Wikipedia:WikiProject Disambiguation|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Daisy Cutter''' may mean:
* [[Daisy cutter (fuse)]], a type of fuse
* A type of bomb, the [[BLU-82]]
* A ball ineptly bowled close to the ground in [[cricket]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DTD</title>
<id>8789</id>
<revision>
<id>37873323</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T18:20:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Johnteslade</username>
<id>102856</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Disambig page style repair ([[Wikipedia:WikiProject Disambiguation|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''DTD''' can stand for:
* [[Document Type Definition]], used in SGML and XML programming (similar to DOCTYPE Document Type Declaration)
* [[Delta Tau Delta]], a US-based college fraternity
* [[Double Talk Detection]], a method of detecting (voice) signals from both ends of a telephone line, useful in acoustic echo cancellation
* [[AN/CYZ-10|Data Transfer Device]], a cryptographic device for receiving, storing, and transferring keys
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dennis Hopper</title>
<id>8791</id>
<revision>
<id>40780548</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T23:43:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Liface</username>
<id>185795</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = Dennis Hopper
| image = Dennis_Hopper.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = [[May 17]], [[1936]]
| birth_place = [[Dodge City]], [[Kansas]], [[United States|USA]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Actor]] and [[film]]-maker.
| salary =
| networth =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Dennis Hopper''' (born [[May 17]], [[1936]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]] and [[film]]-maker.
Born in [[Dodge City]], [[Kansas]], Hopper was voted most likely to succeed by his high school class ([[Helix High School]], [[La Mesa, California]]) and it was there he developed an interest in acting. He was especially fond of the plays of [[William Shakespeare]]. Hopper made his acting debut on an episode of the Richard Boone television show ''Medic'' in 1955 playing a young epileptic. Hopper was then cast in two roles with [[James Dean]] (whom he admired immensely) ''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'' (1955) and ''[[Giant (film)|Giant]]'' (1956).
Dean's death in a 1955 car accident affected the young Hopper deeply and it was shortly afterwards that he got into a confrontation with veteran director [[Henry Hathaway]] on the film ''[[From Hell To Texas]]''. Hopper refused directions for 80 takes over several days. This infamous incident resulted in his being blacklisted from films for several years.
In his book ''[[Last Train to Memphis]]'', American popular music [[historian]] [[Peter Guralnick]] says that in 1956 when [[Elvis Presley]] was making his first film in Hollywood, Dennis Hopper was roommates with fellow actor [[Nick Adams]] and the three became friends and hung out together.
Hopper moved to New York and studied at the famous [[Lee Strasberg]] acting school. He appeared in over 140 episodes of television shows such as ''[[Bonanza]]'', ''[[The Twilight Zone]]'', ''[[The Defenders (TV)|The Defenders]]'', ''[[The Big Valley]]'', ''[[The Time Tunnel]]'' and ''[[Combat]]''. Hopper also became an accomplished professional [[photographer]] (he has had many exhibitions of his work). He also was very talented as a [[painter]] and a [[poet]].
Hopper had a supporting role as "Babalugats" the bet-taker in "Cool Hand Luke" (1967).
Although Hopper was able to resume acting in mainstream films including ''[[The Sons Of Kate Elder]]'' (1965) and ''[[True Grit]]'' (1969), in both of these films he had death scenes with [[John Wayne]], it was not until he teamed with [[Peter Fonda]] and made ''[[Easy Rider]]'' that he really shook up the Hollywood establishment. This film became an anthem of sorts to the lost generation of the [[Vietnam war]] and to this day is one of the most successful independent films ever made. Hopper won wide acclaim as the director of the film for his improvisational methods and [[stop action photography]].
Hopper wrote and directed another film that was released in 1971 called ''[[The Last Movie]]'' that was a box office failure and derailed his career for years. Hopper had long been an [[alcoholic]] and drug abuser and it was at this point his addiction began to dominate his life. However, Hopper did act in several films during this period such as ''[[Mad Dog Morgan]]'' (1976), ''[[Tracks (film)|Tracks]]'' (1976), ''[[The American Friend]]'' (1977), ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' (1979) and he won acclaim for directing and acting in ''[[Out of the Blue (1980 movie)|Out of the Blue]]'' (1980).
In the early [[1980s]], Hopper entered a [[drug rehabilitation]] program and cured himself of his addictions. He gave powerful performances in ''[[Rumble Fish]]'' (1983) and ''[[The Osterman Weekend]]'' (1983). However, it was not until he portrayed the [[alkyl nitrites]]-huffing, obscenity-screaming [[Frank Booth]] in [[David Lynch]]'s film ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' (1986) that his career truly revived. After reading the script, Hopper called Lynch and told him "You have to let me play Frank Booth. Because I am Frank Booth!" Hopper won critical acclaim and a slew of awards for this role and the same year won an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] nomination for Best Supporting Actor for ''[[Hoosiers]]''.
In 1988, Hopper directed a critically acclaimed film about [[Los Angeles]] gangs called ''[[Colors (movie)|Colors]]''. He has continued to be an important actor, photographer and director. He was nominated for an [[Emmy award]] for the 1991 [[HBO]] films ''[[Paris Trout]]'' and ''[[Doublecrossed]]'' (in which he played real life drug smuggler and [[DEA]] informant Barry Seal). He also co-starred in the 1994 blockbuster ''[[Speed (movie)|Speed]]'' with [[Keanu Reeves]] and [[Sandra Bullock]]. He recently contributed to the film ''[[1 Giant Leap]]'' with provocative anecdotes on spirituality, unity and culture.
In the early 90's, Hopper teamed with Nike to make a series of successful television commercials. Hopper appeared as a "crazed referee" in those ads.
In 2001, Hopper joined the cast of ''[[24 (TV series)|24]]'' for the last five episodes of Season 1. He is currently starring in the [[NBC]] television series ''[[E-Ring]]'', a drama set at [[The Pentagon]].
One of the top collectors of modern American art, Hopper's collection bring collect millions at auction.
On the 2005 [[Gorillaz]] album ''[[Demon Days]]'', Hopper performs the [[spoken word]] track "Fire Coming Out of the Monkey's Head."
Unlike most of his colleagues in Hollywood, Hopper is a strong supporter of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]
==Filmography==
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*''[[Johnny Guitar]]'' (1954)
*''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'' (1955)
*''[[I Died a Thousand Times]]'' (1955)
*''[[Giant (film)|Giant]]'' (1956)
*''[[Gunfight at the O.K. Corral]]'' (1957)
*''[[The Story of Mankind]]'' (1957)
*''[[Sayonara (film)|Sayonara]]'' (1957) (voice only)
*''[[From Hell to Texas]]'' (1958)
*''[[The Young Land]]'' (1959)
*''[[Key Witness]]'' (1960)
*''[[Night Tide]]'' (1961)
*''[[Tarzan and Jane Regained... Sort of]]'' (1964)
*''[[Screen Test 2|Screen Test #2]]'' (1965) (short subject)
*''[[Screen Test]]'' (1965) (short subject)
*''[[The Sons of Kate Elder]]'' (1965)
*''[[Screen Test 4|Screen Test #4]]'' (1966) (short subject)
*''[[Screen Test 3|Screen Test #3]]'' (1966) (short subject)
*''[[Queen of Blood]]'' (1966)
*''[[Luke (film)|Luke]]'' (1967) (short subject)
*''[[The Trip]]'' (1967)
*''[[Cool Hand Luke]]'' (1967)
*''[[The Glory Stompers]]'' (1968)
*''[[Hang 'Em High]]'' (1968)
*''[[Panic in the City]]'' (1968)
*''[[Head (movie)|Head]]'' (1968) ([[cameo appearance]])
*''[[Easy Rider]]'' (1969) (also director and writer)
*''[[True Grit]]'' (1969)
*''[[The Festival Game]]'' (1970) (documentary)
*''[[The American Dreamer]]'' (1971) (documentary) (also writer)
*''[[The Last Movie]]'' (1971) (also director and writer)
*''[[The Other Side of the Wind]]'' (1972) (unfinished)
*''[[Crush Proof]]'' (1972)
*''[[Kid Blue]]'' (1973)
*''[[Tracks (film)|Tracks]]'' (1976)
*''[[Mad Dog Morgan]]'' (1976)
*''[[The American Friend]]'' (1977)
*''[[The Sorcerer's Apprentice]]'' (1977)
*''[[Concorde Affair]]'' (1978)
*''[[Flesh Color]]'' (1979)
*''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' (1979)
*''[[The Sky Is Falling]]'' (1979)
*''[[Out of the Blu |
gton.png|right|thumb|100px|The Washington family [[coat of arms]]. This design may be the source of the red-and-white stripe motif of the United States flag]]
The flag has gone through 26 changes since the new union of 13 states first adopted it. The 48-star version holds the record, 47 years, for the longest time the flag has gone unchanged. The current 50-star version will tie the record if it is still in use on [[July 4]], [[2007]].
At the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, [[July 4]], [[1776]], the most commonly flown flag was the [[Grand Union Flag]]. This flag was initially flown by George Washington and is recorded as being first raised by Washington's troops at [[Somerville, Massachusetts#History|Prospect Hill]] on [[New Year's Day]] in 1776. This flag formed the basis of the Stars and Stripes, consisting of 13 red and white stripes with the original British Union Flag in the canton. The Grand Union Flag is the same as the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] flag of the same era, although the East India Company flag could have from 9 to 13 stripes.
[[Image:Grand Union Flag.svg|thumb|left|200px|Grand Union Flag.]]
The red-and-white stripe &mdash; and later, stars-and-stripes &mdash; motif of the flag may have been based on the Washington family [[coat of arms|coat-of-arms]], which consisted of a shield "''argent'', two ''bars gules'', above, three ''mullets gules''" (a white shield with two red bars below three red stars). Since [[1937]], the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] has used a flag based on this design.
[[Image:Bennington flag.png|thumb|right|200px|Bennington flag. This flag was most likely used at the Battle of Bennington]]
On [[June 14]], [[1777]], the [[Continental Congress#The Second Continental Congress|Second Continental Congress]] passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the United States be made of thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new Constellation." [[Flag Day]] is now observed on June 14 of each year. Tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June of [[1777]] by the [[Continental Army]] at the [[Middlebrook encampment]].
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement for the stars. Initially, a variety of designs were used, including a circular arrangement, but gradually a design featuring horizontal rows of stars emerged as the standard.
[[Image:Us flag large Betsy Ross.png|left|thumb|200px|13-star "Betsy Ross" flag]]
As further states entered the union, extra stars and stripes were added until this proved to cause too much clutter. It was ultimately decided that there would be a star for each state, but the number of stripes would remain at thirteen to honor the [[Thirteen Colonies|original colonies]]. It was the 15-star, 15-stripe flag that inspired [[Francis Scott Key]] to write "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]," now the [[national anthem]].
[[Image:Us flag large 15 stars.png|right|thumb|200px|15-star, 15-stripe "Star-Spangled Banner" flag]]
When the flag design changes, the change always takes place on [[July 4]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], as a consequence of the [[Flag Acts (U.S.)|Flag Act]] of [[April 4]], [[1818]]. [[July 4]], [[Independence Day (US)|Independence Day]] in the United States, commemorates the founding of the [[nation]]. The most recent change, from forty-nine stars to fifty, occurred in [[1960]] when [[Robert G. Heft]]'s design was chosen, after [[Hawaii]] gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of [[Alaska]] in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short-lived 49-star flag.
[[Image:Flag of the United States (1912-1959).svg|thumb|200px|left|48-star classic "Old Glory" flag, used [[1912]]-[[1959]]]]
The flag flew in battle for the first time at [[Cooch's Bridge]] in [[Delaware]] on [[September 3]], [[1777]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]].
The origin of the U.S. flag design is uncertain. A popular story credits [[Betsy Ross]] for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch by [[George Washington]] who personally commissioned her for the job. However, no evidence for this theory exists beyond Ross' own records. The British historian Sir [[Charles Fawcett]] has suggested that the design of the flag may have been derived from the [[flag]] and [[jack (flag)|jack]] of the [[British East India Company]]. [http://www.kimber.org/flag/index.htm Comparisons] between the 2 flags support Fawcett's suggestion. Another popular theory is that the flag was designed by [[Francis Hopkinson]]. He reportedly originally wanted the stars arranged in four bands, one vertical, one horizontal, and two diagonal. By the same reports, this arrangement was rejected due to similarity to the British flag.
===State stars and design duration===
In the following table depicting the 27 designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for each flag are merely the ''usual'' patterns, with the exception of the 48-, 49-, and 50-star flags, as there was no official arrangement of the stars until the proclamation of the 48-star flag by President [[William Howard Taft]] in [[1912]]. (For alternate versions, see [http://www.fotw.net/flags/us-ststr.html this page] at [[FOTW|Flags of the World]].)
<br clear="all">
{| class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor=#cccccc
! No. of<br>Stars !! Design !! States Represented by New Stars !! Dates in Use !! Duration in Years
|- valign="top"
| 13 || [[Image:us flag large 13 stars.png|125px]] || [[Thirteen Colonies|Original 13 colonies]] || [[June 14]], [[1777]]&ndash;[[May 1]], [[1795]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 18
|- valign="top"
| 15 || [[Image:us flag large 15 stars.png|125px]] || [[Kentucky]], [[Vermont]] || [[May 1]], [[1795]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1818]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 23
|- valign="top"
| 20 || [[Image:us flag large 20 stars.png|125px]] || [[Indiana]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[Ohio]], [[Tennessee]] || [[July 4]], [[1818]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1819]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 1
|- valign="top"
| 21 || [[Image:us flag large 21 stars.png|125px]] || [[Illinois]] || [[July 4]], [[1819]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1820]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 1
|- valign="top"
| 23 || [[Image:us flag large 23 stars.png|125px]] || [[Alabama]], [[Maine]] || [[July 4]], [[1820]]&ndash;[[July 4]], [[1822]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 2
|- valign="top"
| 24 || [[Image:us flag large 24 stars.png|125px]] || [[Missouri]] || [[July 4]], [[1822]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1836]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 14
|- valign="top"
| 25 || [[Image:us flag large 25 stars.png|125px]] || [[Arkansas]] || [[July 4]], [[1836]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1837]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 1
|- valign="top"
| 26 || [[Image:us flag large 26 stars.png|125px]] || [[Michigan]] || [[July 4]], [[1837]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1845]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 8
|- valign="top"
| 27 || [[Image:us flag large 27 stars.png|125px]] || [[Florida]] || [[July 4]], [[1845]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1846]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 1
|- valign="top"
| 28 || [[Image:us flag large 28 stars.png|125px]] || [[Texas]] || [[July 4]], [[1846]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1847]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 1
|- valign="top"
| 29 || [[Image:us flag large 29 stars.png|125px]] || [[Iowa]] || [[July 4]], [[1847]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1848]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 1
|- valign="top"
| 30 || [[Image:us flag large 30 stars.png|125px]] || [[Wisconsin]] || [[July 4]], [[1848]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1851]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 3
|- valign="top"
| 31 || [[Image:us flag large 31 stars.png|125px]] || [[California]] || [[July 4]], [[1851]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1858]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 7
|- valign="top"
| 32 || [[Image:us flag large 32 stars.png|125px]] || [[Minnesota]] || [[July 4]], [[1858]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1859]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 1
|- valign="top"
| 33 || [[Image:us flag large 33 stars.png|125px]] || [[Oregon]] || [[July 4]], [[1859]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1861]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 2
|- valign="top"
| 34 || [[Image:us flag large 34 stars.png|125px]] || [[Kansas]] || [[July 4]], [[1861]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1863]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 2
|- valign="top"
| 35 || [[Image:us flag large 35 stars.png|125px]] || [[West Virginia]] || [[July 4]], [[1863]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1865]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 2
|- valign="top"
| 36 || [[Image:us flag large 36 stars.png|125px]] || [[Nevada]] || [[July 4]], [[1865]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1867]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 2
|- valign="top"
| 37 || [[Image:us flag large 37 stars.png|125px]] || [[Nebraska]] || [[July 4]], [[1867]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1877]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 10
|- valign="top"
| 38 || [[Image:us flag large 38 stars.png|125px]] || [[Colorado]] || [[July 4]], [[1877]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1890]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 13
|- valign="top"
| 43 || [[Image:us flag large 43 stars.png|125px]] || [[Idaho]], [[Montana]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Washington]] || [[July 4]], [[1890]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1891]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 1
|- valign="top"
| 44 || [[Image:us flag large 44 stars.png|125px]] || [[Wyoming]] || [[July 4]], [[1891]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1896]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | |
rom that luminary —
:"From his huge vapouring train perhaps to shake
:Reviving moisture on the numerous orbs,
:Thro' which his long ellipsis winds; perhaps
:To lend new fuel to declining suns,
:To light up worlds, and feed th' ethereal fire."
::: &mdash;[[James Thomson (Seasons)|James Thomson]], "The Seasons" (1730; 1748).
As early as the 18th century, some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets' physical composition. In 1755, [[Immanuel Kant]] hypothesized that comets are composed of some volatile substance, whose vaporization gives rise to their brilliant displays near perihelion.{{hnote|Sagan, p. 77}} In 1836, the German mathematician [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]], after observing streams of vapor in the 1835 apparition of Comet Halley, proposed that the [[jet force]]s of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit and argued that the non-gravitational movements of [[Comet Encke]] resulted from this mechanism.{{hnote|Sagan, p. 117}}
However, another comet-related discovery overshadowed these ideas for nearly a century. Over the period 1864–1866 the [[Italy|Italian]] astronomer [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]] computed the orbit of the [[Perseids|Perseid]] [[meteor]]s, and based on orbital similarities, correctly hypothesized that the Perseids were fragments of [[Comet Swift-Tuttle]]. The link between comets and meteor showers was dramatically underscored when in 1872, a major meteor shower occurred from the orbit of [[Comet Biela]], which had been observed to split into two pieces during its 1846 apparition, and never seen again after 1852.{{hnote|Kronk, '3D/Biela'}} A "gravel bank" model of comet structure arose, according to which comets consist of loose piles of small rocky objects, coated with an icy layer.
By the middle of the twentieth century, this model suffered from a number of shortcomings: in particular, it failed to explain how a body that contained only a little ice could continue to put on a brilliant display of evaporating vapor after several perihelion passages. In 1950, [[Fred Lawrence Whipple]] proposed that rather than being rocky objects containing some ice, comets were icy objects containing some dust and rock.{{hnote|Whipple (1950)}} This "dirty snowball" model soon became accepted. It was confirmed when an armada of [[spacecraft]] (including the [[European Space Agency]]'s ''[[Giotto mission|Giotto]]'' probe and the [[Soviet Union]]'s ''[[Vega 1]]'' and ''[[Vega 2]]'') flew through the coma of Halley's comet in 1986 to photograph the nucleus and observed the jets of evaporating material. The American probe ''[[Deep Space 1]]'' flew past the nucleus of [[Comet Borrelly]] on [[September 21]] [[2001]] and confirmed that the characteristics of Comet Halley are common on other comets as well.
[[Image:Comet_wild_2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Comet Wild 2]] exhibits jets on lit side and dark side, stark relief, and is dry.]]
The [[Stardust (spacecraft)|''Stardust'']] spacecraft, launched in February 1999, collected particles from the coma of [[81P/Wild|Comet Wild 2]] in January 2004, and returned the samples to Earth in a capsule in January 2006. Claudia Alexander, a program scientist for Rosetta from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory who has has modeled comets for years, reported to space.com about her astonishment at the number of jets, their appearance on the dark side of the comet as well as on the light side, their ability to lift large chunks of rock from the surface of the comet and the fact that comet Wild 2 is not a loosely-cemented rubble pile.[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/stardust_results_040617.html]
Forthcoming space missions will add greater detail to our understanding of what comets are made of. In July 2005, the [[Deep Impact (space mission)|''Deep Impact'']] probe blasted a crater on [[9P/Tempel|Comet Tempel 1]] to study its interior. And in 2014, the European [[Rosetta space probe|''Rosetta'']] probe will orbit comet [[67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko|Comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko]] and place a small lander on its surface.
Rosetta observed the Deep Impact event, and with its set of very sensitive instruments for cometary investigations, it used its capabilities to observe Tempel 1 before, during and after the impact. At a distance of about 80 million kilometres from the comet, Rosetta was in the most privileged position to observe the event. Rosetta measured the water vapour content and the cross-section of the dust created by the impact. European scientists could then work out the corresponding dust/ice mass ratio, which is larger than one, suggesting that comets are composed more of dust held together by ice, rather than made of ice comtaminated with dust. Hence, they are now 'icy dirtballs' rather than 'dirty snowballs' as previously believed.
===Debate over comet composition===
[[Image:Comet_borrelly.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Comet Borrelly]] exhibits jets, yet is hot and dry.]]
As late as 2002, there is conflict on how much ice is in a comet. NASA's Deep Space 1 team, working at NASA's Jet Propulsion Lab, obtained high-resolution images of the surface of comet Borrelly. They announced that comet Borrelly exhibits distinct jets, yet has a hot, dry surface. The assumption that comets contain water and other ices led Dr. Laurence Soderblom of the U.S. Geological Survey to say, "The spectrum suggests that the surface is hot and dry. It is surprising that we saw no traces of water ice." However, he goes on to suggest that the ice is proabably hidden below the crust as "either the surface has been dried out by solar heating and maturation or perhaps the very dark soot-like material that covers Borrelly's surface masks any trace of surface ice".[http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_80.html]
The recent [[Deep Impact (space mission)|Deep Impact]] probe has also yielded preliminary results suggesting there is less ice in comets then originally predicted.
==Great comets==
While hundreds of tiny comets pass through the inner solar system every year, only a very few comets make any impact on the general public. About every decade or so, a comet will become bright enough to be noticed by a casual observer — such comets are often designated [[Great Comet]]s. In times past, bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population, being thought of as bad omens. More recently, during the passage of Halley's Comet in 1910, the Earth passed through the comet's tail, and erroneous newspaper reports inspired a fear that [[cyanogen]] in the tail might poison millions, while the appearance of [[Comet Hale-Bopp]] in 1997 triggered the mass suicide of the [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]] cult. To most people, however, a great comet is simply a beautiful spectacle.
Predicting whether a comet will become a great comet is notoriously difficult, as many factors may cause a comet's brightness to depart drastically from predictions. Broadly speaking, if a comet has a large and active nucleus, will pass close to the Sun, and is not obscured by the Sun as seen from the Earth when at its brightest, it will have a chance of becoming a great comet. However, [[Comet Kohoutek]] in 1973 fulfilled all the criteria and was expected to become spectacular, but failed to do so. [[Comet West]], which appeared three years later, had much lower expectations (perhaps because scientists were much warier of glowing predictions after the Kohoutek fiasco), but became an extremely impressive comet.{{hnote|Kronk, 'C/1975 V1 (West)'}}
The late 20th century saw a lengthy gap without the appearance of any great comets, followed by the arrival of two in quick succession — [[Comet Hyakutake]] in 1996, followed by Hale-Bopp, which reached maximum brightness in 1997 having been discovered two years earlier. As yet, the 21st century has not seen the arrival of any great comets.
==Peculiar comets==
Of the thousands of known comets, some are very unusual. Comet Encke orbits from inside the orbit of Jupiter to inside the orbit of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] while Comet [[29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann]] orbits in a nearly circular orbit entirely between Jupiter and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]].{{hnote|Kronk, '29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann 1'}} [[2060 Chiron]], whose unstable orbit keeps it between Saturn and [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]], was originally classified as an asteroid until a faint coma was noticed.{{hnote|Kronk, '95P/Chiron'}} Similarly, [[137P/Shoemaker-Levy|Comet Shoemaker-Levy 2]] was originally designated asteroid [[1990 UL3|1990 UL<sub>3</sub>]].{{hnote|Kronk, '137P/Shoemaker-Levy 2'}} Some [[near-earth asteroid]]s are thought to be extinct nuclei of comets which no longer experience outgassing.
Some comets have been observed to break up. [[3D/Biela|Comet Biela]] was one significant example, breaking into two during its 1846 perihelion passage. The two comets were seen separately in 1852, but never again after that. Instead, spectacular meteor showers were seen in 1872 and 1885 when the comet should have been visible. A lesser meteor shower, the Andromedids, occurs annually in November, and is caused by the Earth crossing Biela's orbit [http://comets.amsmeteors.org/meteors/showers/andromedids.html].
Several other comets have been seen to break up during their perihelion passage, including great comets West and [[Comet Ikeya-Seki]]. Some comets, such as the [[Kreutz Sungrazers]], orbit in groups and are thought to be pieces of a single object that has previously broken apart.
Another very significant cometary disruption was that of [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]], which was discovered in 1993. At the time of its discovery, the comet was in orbit around Jupiter, having been captured by the planet during a very close approach in 1992. This close approach had already broken the comet into hundreds of pieces, and over a period of 6 days in July 1994, these pieces slammed |
tes|U.S.]] prints are severely edited for [[Violence#Violence_in_the_media|violent content]] (some important plot points removed in the process). This film also had the first shot of nudity in a Godzilla film (gone from all U.S. prints): Katsura's prosthetic breasts exposed while Planet 3 surgeons graphically operate on her lower heart area.
== External links ==
* [http://www.geocities.com/nmdecke/TerrorofMechaGodzilla.html Terror of MechaGodzilla movie review]
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[[Category:1975 films]]
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<page>
<title>Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah</title>
<id>12002</id>
<revision>
<id>32929069</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-27T23:40:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crazilla</username>
<id>608941</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Plot */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah''''' ([[1991]]) is the 18th installment in the ''[[Godzilla]]'' series of films. The movie was released theatrically in Japan on [[December 14]], [[1991]]. It was directed by [[Kazuki Omori]] and produced by [[Shogo Tomiyama]]. The special effects provided by [[Koichi Kawakita]] was also another highlight in the credits. This film was considered the most controversial in the series. Mostly noticeable was the [[World War II]] sequence. The scene depicted U.S. soldiers being killed by [[Godzillasaurus]] on Lagos Island. After the movie's theatrical release, an [[United States|American]] cable news broadcast reported that the film included anti-[[United States|American]] sentiments. The time travelers, known as the Futurians, were also discussed due to their Western nationality. Director [[Kazuki Omori]] did defend ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' saying that the movie wasn't meant to be anti-[[United States|American]].
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
A spaceship appears in Japan, coinciding with Godzilla's awakening in the ocean. The ship actually turns out to be from the future, inhabited by time travellers who warn Japan of the grave future that it has ahead of them; due to industrialization and nuclear power, Godzilla will reappear and destroy the country for good, or so the Futurians say. A small group of Japanese civilians and military personnel are selected by the Futurians to go back to 1944 and delete Godzilla from history, thus preventing Japan's bleak future. Godzillasaurus (the dinosaur that would become Godzilla after radiation exposure) was relocated to the Bering Sea by the Futurians. Unbeknownst to the Japanese, however, the Futurians replace Godzillasaurus with three [[genetically engineered]] creatures called Dorats, who are exposed to the radiation meant for Godzilla and mutate into the three-headed, dragon-like [[King Ghidorah]], who appears in Japan in the present. It is then that the Futurians' true malevolent intentions are exposed; King Ghidorah is used as a weapon to destroy Japan. The present-day Japanese then seek out Godzillasaurus to create a new Godzilla, who is the only force powerful enough to defeat King Ghidorah and the Futurians. However, creating one wasn't necessary, since Godzilla would not be denied his destiny, and was created anyway, due to a massive nuclear explosion in the Bering Sea. He returned to Japan and defeated Ghidorah, decapitating its middle head, then destroyed the Futurians and their ship. He set out to finish what King Ghidorah started, by stomping across Japan and ravaging it himself. Before he could level Tokyo, a surviving Futurian resurrects King Ghidorah as a robotic [[android]] and uses it to subdue Godzilla, dropping him into the ocean, where he rests, for now.
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<page>
<title>Godzilla vs. Mothra</title>
<id>12003</id>
<revision>
<id>41991601</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:12:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.123.15.167</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Godzilla vs Mothra''''' (ゴジラvsモスラ - ''Gojira tai Mosura'' in [[Japanese (language)|Japanese]], released as '''''Godzilla and Mothra: The Battle for Earth''''' in the U.S.) is a [[1992]] [[daikaiju]] [[eiga]]. Fourth in [[Toho|Toho Studios]]' [[VS Series]] of [[Godzilla]] films, it was directed by [[Takao Okawara]] from a screenplay by [[Kazuki Omori]] with special effects by [[Koichi Kawakita]].
In the beggining of the world the dominent species were the shobijin, but they polluted the planet so the monster Battra was destroyed, a replica of the shobijin's Mothra. After destroying their race Battra went into hibernation so that he could destroy an asteroid that would strike earth in 10,000 years. But the monster is awoken early when a new race of creatures begins polluting the planet. On a far off island a large egg is unearthed in a storm. A pair of Shobijin who survived Battra's attack warned the humans that the egg belonged to Mothra and that she would attack them if they did not return it. But the humans did not listen and so Mothra took matters into her own hands. With Godzilla erupting from a volcano the three monsters began a vicious melee, which ended with the adult Mothra being killed. But the larvae Mothra who hatched from the egg transformed into her adult to fight Godzilla. Joining forces with Battra, who had also transformed to it's adult stage, the two insects managed to defeat and trap Godzilla underwater. However Battra was severely injured during the fight by Godzilla and died shortly afterwards. Mothra then left into space to take Battra's place and destroy the asteroid heading for earth.
{{sf-film-stub}}
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<page>
<title>Godzilla (1954 film)</title>
<id>12004</id>
<revision>
<id>40984149</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T07:38:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thanos6</username>
<id>105303</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Follow up */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Gojira ゴジラ (Godzilla) |
image = Gojira18.jpg|
writer = [[Ishiro Honda|Ishirō Honda]]<br>[[Takeo Murata]]<br>[[Shigeru Kayama]] (story) |
starring = [[Akira Takarada]]<br>[[Momoko Kochi|Momoko Kōchi]]<br>[[Akihiko Hirata]]<br>[[Takashi Shimura]] |
director = [[Ishiro Honda|Ishirō Honda]] |
producer = [[Tomoyuki Tanaka (producer)|Tomoyuki Tanaka]] |
distributor = [[Toho|Toho Eizo]] ([[Japan]])<br>[[Rialto Pictures]] ([[USA]]) |
released = [[November 3]] [[1954]] (Japan)<br>[[May 7]] [[2004]] (USA) |
runtime = 98 min. |
language = [[Japanese language|Japanese]]|
imdb_id = 0047034 |
budget = $1,00,000 US (est.) |
}}
'''''Godzilla''''' (ゴジラ - ''Gojira'') is a [[1954]] [[Japan|Japanese]] [[science fiction film]], produced by [[Toho|Toho Film Company Ltd]]. The film was directed by [[Ishiro Honda]] and had special effects by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]]. It was the first of many "giant monster" movies (known as ''[[kaiju]]'') to be produced in [[Japan]], many featuring the title character. Thanks to the magic of said men, this film revolutionized the [[tokusatsu]] fantasy film genre as we know it.
==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
Filmed in stark [[black and white]], ''Godzilla'' tells the story of a giant, fire-breathing prehistoric monster who is disturbed by [[United States|American]] [[atom bomb]] testing in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. The monster attacks a number of ships and makes a brief land appearance, before coming ashore in [[Tokyo]] and destroying the entire city during an unstoppable rampage.
The monster is finally defeated when a Japanese [[scientist]] named Serizawa ([[Akihiko Hirata]]) uses an experimental underwater weapon ([[Oxygen Destroyer|the Oxygen Destroyer]]) to destroy it. The scientist intentionally sacrifices his life while destroying Gojira, because he believes his invention is too terrible to be used by humanity.
==Analysis==
The monster [[Godzilla|Gojira]] is widely seen as an allegory for the [[atomic bomb]]: an unstoppable force, powered by radiation, that lays waste to Japan in a manner similar to what occurred in [[World War II]]. It could also be an allegory for America as a threatening nuclear power; this movie was made only nine years after Japan's defeat, and only a few months after the [[Castle Bravo]]/[[Daigo Fukuryu Maru]] nuclear testing accident which had a great psychological impact on Japanese society. Unlike later movies in the "giant monster" genre, ''Gojira'' was filmed in a completely serious manner, and it has lost little of its power in the years since. [[Ishiro Honda]], the director, was a second-unit director on several of [[Akira Kurosawa]]'s films, and his stark black-and-white cinematography seems more realistic, harsh, and terrifying than many of the later color ''kaiju'' [[movies]].
==Follow up==
For a limited time, ''Gojira'' was originally released in the [[United States]] in a subtitled version confined to theaters catering to Japanese-Americans. This was called ''[[Godzilla]]''. There it was discovered, however, and its footage reworked and supplemented for general commercial release as ''[[Godzilla, King Of The Monsters]]'' in [[1956]], and the giant monster would be known |
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<page>
<title>Amateur astronomy</title>
<id>748</id>
<revision>
<id>42139829</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:08:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mozasaur</username>
<id>475997</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>add amateur astro pics previously published by NASA</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Skygazing}}
'''Amateur astronomy''', often called '''back yard astronomy''' in the US, is a [[hobby]] whose participants enjoy observing celestial objects. It is usually associated with viewing the [[night sky]] when most celestial objects and events are visible, but sometimes amateur astronomers also operate during the day for events such as [[sunspot]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.
Amateur astronomers often look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes, but common tools for amateur astronomy include portable [[optical telescope|telescopes]] and [[binoculars]].
[[Image:AuroraAustralisDisplay.jpg|thumb|Aurora Australis Display Over Wellington NZ November 2001 Published by NASA SpaceWeather.com]]
[[Image:CometNeat.jpg|thumb|Comet Neat over Wellington NZ 2003]]
== Amateur astronomy and scientific research ==
Unlike professional astronomy, scientific research is not always the ''main'' goal for many amateur astronomers. Work of scientific merit is certainly possible, however, and many amateurs contribute to the knowledge base of professional astronomers very successfully. Astronomy is often promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which amateurs can still contribute useful data.
The majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection. In particular, this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than the relatively small number of large telescopes that are available to professional astronomers. Several organisations, such as the Center for Backyard Astrophysics [http://cba.phys.columbia.edu/], exist to help coordinate these contributions.
In particular, amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities such as monitoring the changes in brightness of [[variable star]]s, helping to track [[asteroid]]s, and observing [[occultation]]s to determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge of the [[Moon]] as seen from Earth.
In the past and present, amateur astronomers have also played a major role in discovering new [[comet]]s. Recently however, funding of projects such as the [[LINEAR|Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research]] and [[Near Earth Asteroid Tracking]] projects has meant that ''most'' comets are now discovered by automated systems, long before it is possible for amateurs to see them.
A newer role for amateurs is searching for overlooked phenomena (e.g. [[Kreutz Sungrazers]]) in the vast libraries of digital images and other data captured by Earth and space based observatories, much of which is available over the Internet.
== Societies for amateur astronomy ==
There are a large number of [[astronomical society|amateur astronomical societies]] around the world that serve as a meeting point for those interested in amateur astronomy, whether they be people who are actively interested in observing or "armchair astronomers" who may be simply interested in the topic. Societies range widely in their goals, depending on a variety of factors such as geographic spread, local circumstances, size and membership. For instance, a local society in the middle of a large city may have regular meetings with speakers, focusing less on observing the night sky if the membership is less able to observe due to factors such as [[light pollution]].
It is common for local societies to hold regular meetings, which may include activities such as [[star party|star parties]]. Other activities could include [[amateur telescope making]], which was pioneered in America by [[Russell W. Porter]], who later played a major role in design and construction of the [[Hale Telescope]].
== Approaches to using amateur telescopes ==
Amateur telescopes come in many shapes and sizes, both commercial and home-built. The preferences of people who use them often differ.
=== Star hopping ===
Some amateur astronomers prefer to learn the sky as accurately as they can, using maps to find their way between the stars. In this case a common approach is to use binoculars or a manually driven telescope, combined with star maps, to locate items of interest in the sky. The normal technique for doing this, by locating landmark stars and "hopping" between them, is called [[star hopping]].
=== GOTO telescopes ===
More recently as technology has improved and prices have come down, automated "GOTO" telescopes have also become a popular choice. With these computer-driven telescopes, the user typically enters the name of the item they wish to look at, and the telescope finds it in the sky automatically with comparatively little further effort required by the user.
The main advantage of a "GOTO" telescope for an experienced amateur astronomer is the reduction of "wasted" time that may have otherwise been used in trying to find a particular object. This time can therefore be used more effectively for ''studying'' the object.
=== Comparing methodologies ===
There is significant (though usually light-hearted) debate within the hobby about which method is better. Promoters of the [[star hopping]] approach for finding items in the sky usually argue that they know the sky much better as a result. The manual method also tends to require simpler equipment with less calibration and setup time, and is therefore more versatile. Promoters of "GOTO" telescopes often argue that they are more interested in studying objects, and the reward of finding them or learning exactly where they are is not as important to them.
It may also be argued that the money spent on complex electronics and mounting systems might be better spent on higher quality optics.
== Additional tools and activities ==
In addition to optical equipment, amateur astronomers use a variety of other tools such as celestial maps, and specialised computer software. There is a range of [[astronomy software]] available, from planetarium programs that simulate the sky to programs used to do various kinds of calculations pertaining to astronomical phenomena.
Most amateur astronomers also keep a record of their observations. This can take the form of an [[astronomical observing log|observing log]], in which they record details about which objects were observed and describing the details that were seen. [[Astrophotography]] and sketching are also popularly used to record observations.
== Beginning in amateur astronomy ==
There are a many ways for people to become involved in amateur astronomy and study the night sky. One option is to join a local [[astronomical society]], the members of which will often be very happy to help a newcomer take a more active part. Some people also prefer to simply teach themselves, in which case there are likely to be a large amount of books in the local library.
Common objects that are observed early are the [[Moon]] and [[planet]]s. Another thing that most newcomers to amateur astronomy become acquainted with are the more prominent [[constellation]]s in the night sky. When reading maps and interpreting instructions for future [[star hopping]], constellations are good starting points for identifying locations in the night sky. They are frequently referred to by amateur astronomers when discussing the location of items of interest when looked at with binoculars and telescopes.
=== Beginning with a GOTO telescope ===
A relatively new ''type'' of beginning amateur astronomer, brought about by the increased affordability of powerful "GOTO" telescopes, is one who begins with such a telescope. It is possible for an inexperienced person to immediately look at a large amount of deep sky objects in the night sky without necessarily having any prior experience or training.
There is currently some debate among amateur astronomers about the merits of this approach to becoming involved in the hobby, and the effects that low-priced GOTO telescopes may be having. Amateur astronomy is exposed to more people, as an individual is less likely to be discouraged by the need to learn how to locate objects in the night sky before being able to see them. Some are concerned, however, that newcomers may become bored very quickly. A GOTO telescope does not distinguish between objects that are easy and hard to see, and newcomers may therefore begin with objects that require large amounts of experience or understanding to properly appreciate.
=== Becoming acquainted with the night sky ===
Most tutors agree that it is very important to know one's way around the sky by means of the constellations. This ability forms a platform from which deeper explorations of the sky are then possible.
A planisphere can be used to find and identify the constellations. These devises show the location of the constellations for any time of the night or time of the year. An observer will also need a red flashlight to read star charts or the planisphere. Use of a red light helps preserve the dark adaptation of the eyes.
Having learned the main constellations, a beginner may want to extend their hobby and buy a pair of binocul |
tp://www.comicbookresources.com/news/newsitem.cgi?id=6488]
==Publication history==
===Volume 1: 1964 - 1998===
[[Image:Daredevil7.jpg|175px|thumb|right|''Daredevil'' #7 (April 1964): [[Wally Wood]] introduces the modern red costume.]]
====Early years====
Stan Lee's vision for the character found inspiration in such larger-than-life heroes as those of [[Alexandre Dumas]], as evidenced by one of Daredevil's earliest [[List of Marvel Comics endearments|nicknames]], the "Scarlet Swashbuckler". The characterization, however, over time lost its roots and Daredevil devolved into a second-rate [[Spider-Man]] given their shared proclivity for acrobatics and banter.
Everett, in an interview conducted by Marvel writer-editor and Everett's one-time roommate [[Roy Thomas]], in what the latter recalled as either "late 1969 or in 1970", said of ''Daredevil'''s creation five years earlier:
<blockquote>
:"I must have called Stan, had some contact with him, I don't know why. I know we tried to do it on the phone. I know he had this idea for ''Daredevil''; he ''thought'' he had an idea. ... With a long-distance phone call, it just wasn't coming out right, so I said, 'All right, I'll come down this weekend or something. I'll take a day off &nbsp;[from his job as [[art director]] of Eton Paper Corporation in [[Massachusetts]]] and come down to New York'. ... I did the one issue, but I found that I couldn't do it and handle my job, because it was a managerial job; I didn't get paid overtime but I was on an annual salary, so my time was not my own. I was putting in 14 or 15 hours a day at the plant and then to come home and try to do comics at night was just too much. And I didn't make deadlines — I just couldn't make them — so I just did the one issue and didn't do any more".{{fn|2}}
</blockquote>
Daredevil's original costume as created by Everett — with input from [[Jack Kirby]] — was a combination of black, yellow, and red, and went through minor revisions in issues #2 through #4 by [[EC Comics]] artist [[Joe Orlando]]. Fellow acclaimed EC verteran [[Wally Wood]] penciled #5-8, introducing the modern red costume in issue #7. [[Golden Age of comic books|Golden Age]] great [[Bob Powell (comics)|Bob Powell]] ([[Sheena, Queen of the Jungle]]) penciled two issues over Wood layouts, with the exception of #11, which Wood inked over Powell's pencils.
The procession of comic-book art legends continued, as issue #12 began a brief run by Kirby (layouts) and [[John Romita Sr.]]. It was Romita's return to superhero penciling after a decade of working exclusively as a [[romantic fiction|romance]]-comic artist for DC. Romita had felt he no longer wanted to pencil, in favor of being solely an inker{{fn|3}}, but his brief stint on ''Daredevil'' proved to be a stepping-stone for his famed, years-long pencilling run on ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man]]''. As Romita recalled, "What Stan Lee wanted was for me to do a two-part Daredevil story [#16-17, May-June 1966] with Spider-Man as a guest star, to see how I handled the character". [http://www.keefestudios.com/studio/romita/interview.htm]
[[Image:Daredevil47.jpg|left|175px|thumb|''Daredevil'' #47 (Dec. 1968): Art by Gene Colan (pencils) and [[George Klein (comics)|George Klein]] (inks).]]
When Romita left to take over ''Amazing Spider-Man'', Lee gave ''Daredevil'' to the character's first signature artist, [[Gene Colan]], who, with issue #20 (Sept. 1966), began the pencilling stint for which he is best known. Colan pencilled all but three issues through #100 (June 1973), plus the 1967 annual, followed by ten issues sprinkled from 1974-79. (He would return again, an established legend, for an eight-issue run in 1997.) Among the notable plot developments during this period was Matt Murdock's panicky creation of a "twin brother", the "sighted" and devil-may-care Mike Murdock, in #25 (Feb. 1967), whom Karen Page and Foggy Nelson were led to believe was Daredevil; "Mike's" death in #41 (June 1968); and Matt revealing his Daredevil identity to Karen Page in #57 (Oct. 1969).
Much like in ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man]]'' — and in what was already an established hallmark of Marvel Comics storytelling — interpersonal drama was as central to the series as action and adventure. A triangle of unrequited love developed between Foggy Nelson, Karen Page and Murdock, with Nelson unable to win over Page, and Matt unable to admit that Karen loved anyone other than Daredevil. When eventually Karen learned of Murdock's dual identity, the revelation proved too much for her and she left the firm and the comic, not to be seen again until the 1980s when she reappeared as a woman struggling through a [[heroin]] [[addiction]]. Page throughout the 1960s [[Silver Age of comic books]] was an underwritten character that was little defined beyond her love for Matt.
====Black Widow and the Bay Area====
Though it is hard to imagine a character who has become so tied to a particular geographical location moving anywhere else, Daredevil moved to [[San Francisco]] in the early 1970s. The series now featured a double billing with Daredevil's girlfriend, the [[Black Widow (comics)|Black Widow]], co-starring. The move did not last long: the Widow ended their relationship fearing that playing sidekick to Daredevil was causing her to lose her identity as a superheroine, and Murdock returned to Hell's Kitchen. The two remain intimate friends and occasional lovers.
====Frank Miller, the Kingpin and Ninjas====
[[Image:Dd181.png|thumbnail|right|175px|Elektra dies — temporarily — in ''Daredevil'' #181 (April 1982). Cover art by [[Frank Miller]] & [[Klaus Janson]].]]
The modern definition of ''Daredevil'' began in 1979 with [[Frank Miller]]'s entrance on the title. Miller's first contributions were as artist, where he imbued a new dynamism and a drastically different visual style. The series' tone became that of [[film noir|noir]] with [[Hell's Kitchen]] itself becoming a character.
With issue #168, Miller additionally became the series' writer, and the comic underwent a drastic metamorphosis. The most significant change was the introduction of [[Spider-Man]] villain [[Kingpin (comics)|Kingpin]] as Daredevil's new archnemesis. Until that point, Daredevil's enemies were primarily, though not exclusively, costumed villains. The Kingpin was a departure in that although he possessed extraordinary size, strength and fighting ability, his villainy came from his ruthless brilliance in running a criminal empire and not super-powers. The title still retained costumed antagonists — namely [[Bullseye (comics)|Bullseye]] and [[Elektra Natchios|Elektra]] — but found its central theme to be one more grounded in reality — [[organized crime]].
Miller also introduced [[ninjas]] into the Daredevil canon, bringing a greater focus on the [[martial arts]] aspect of Daredevil's fighting skills, and introducing the characters [[Stick (comics)|Stick]] and the [[Hand (comics)|Hand]]. This was a drastic change to a character once considered a swashbuckler. The focus of a ninja's control of the inner self served as a counterbalance to the emerging themes of anger and torment.
Following kidney failure and the loss of vision in one eye, [[Wally Wood]] returned to the character he helped define, inking Miller's cover of ''Daredevil'' #164 (May 1980).
It was one of artist's final assignments before his death in 1981.
====Born Again====
Miller's noir take on the character continued after he left. However, successor [[Denny O'Neil]], who had made similar changes to [[Batman]] in the 1970s, did not find the commercial success of his predecessor. In 1986 Miller returned to write the classic "[[Daredevil: Born Again|Born Again]]" storyline (#227-233, Feb.-Aug. 1986), with artist [[David Mazzuchelli]].
In ''Born Again'', Karen Page returned as a heroin-addicted star of [[adult films]]. Desperate for a fix, she sold Daredevil's secret identity for a hit. The information made it to the Kingpin, who used it to try to destroy Murdock piece by piece by blowing up his house, ruining his reputation as a lawyer, and menacing his personal life. With his life in shambles, Murdock nearly went insane. However, Miller ended the story on a positive note, with Murdock reuniting with the mother he had thought dead and picking up the pieces of a damaged but not unsalvageable life.
====Nocenti and Romita Jr.====
A round-robin of creators contributed in the year that followed ''Born Again'': writers [[Mark Gruenwald]], [[Danny Fingeroth]], [[Steve Englehart]] (under the [[pseudonym]] "John Harkness"), and [[Ann Nocenti]], and pencilers [[Steve Ditko]], [[Barry Windsor-Smith]], Louis Williams, [[Sal Buscema]], [[Todd McFarlane]], [[Keith Pollard]], and Chuck Patton. [[Longshot]] co-creator Nocenti, who'd written #236, became the regular writer for a four-and-a-quarter year run of all but two issues from #238-291 (Jan. 1987 - April 1991). [[John Romita Jr.]] joined as penciler from #270-289 (Sept. 1989 - Feb. 1991), and was generally inked by [[Al Williamson]]. The team specifically addressed societal issues, with Murdock, now running a non-profit urban legal center, confronting [[sexism]], [[racism]] and [[nuclear proliferation]] while fighting supervillains. Nocenti's run is also of note for introducing the popular antagonist [[Typhoid Mary (comics)|Typhoid Mary]], a supporting character from #254-263.
====''The Man Without Fear''====
Miller returned once more to the title with a retelling of Daredevil's origin in the five-issue [[limited series]] ''Daredevil: The Man Without Fear'' (Oct. 1993 - Feb. 1994), titled after the Silver Age tagline of the series. Originally written as a screenplay for an optioned but unproduced ''Daredevil'' movie,{{fact}}, ''The Man without Fear'' focused on Murdock's relationship with his father Jack, his mentor Stick, and his |
ping career after six years and numerous multi-platinum albums. Speculation began in early 2005 about a double-disc album to be released late that year, rumored to be titled ''The Funeral''. The album manifested itself under the name ''[[Curtain Call]],'' and was released on [[December 6]], 2005.
In [[July 2005]], the [[Detroit Free Press]] broke news of a potential final bow for Eminem as a solo performer, quoting members of his inside circle who said that he will begin to fully embrace the role of producer and label executive. The Free Press, Eminem's hometown paper, wrote that the aptly titled ''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'' album would now stand as his final solo album. [http://www.freep.com/entertainment/music/encore15e_20050715.htm]
Deep within Eminem's inner circle there is talk that the rapper is planning on retiring after he concludes his ''Anger Management Tour'' in Detroit. The reason for his retirement is to focus on acting, spending time with his daughter and niece, and more on his increasing popularity in production. Eminem and his manager Paul Rosenburg as well as their representatives will not comment on the situation. This may not mean his retirement from rapping completely, as he may well still contribute to many of his Shady Records and Aftermath artists projects as well as Dr. Dre's planned ''[[Detox (album)|Detox]]'' album.
[[Image:CurtainCall.jpg|thumb|Album cover of ''[[Curtain Call: The Hits]]'' (2005).]]
Eminem recently announced via [[MTV News]] that he does not plan on retiring soon, though he is planning on taking a break to produce music. He is still uncertain whether another album will be released, but his career has not come to a full stop. However, as he entered rehab in 2005 for dependency on sleep medication, many are speculating that he will use this event to lay down his microphone. The star is continuing to work out of the spotlight, including producing the [[Redman]] album ''Red Gone Wild''. One track to be released on that album which has a gained attention is "I C Dead People", which will feature raps from three deceased artists: [[Big Pun]], [[Big L (rapper)|Big L]] and the [[Notorious B.I.G.]]
At "Anger Management" in Madison Square Garden and Atlanta's HiFi Buys Amphitheater he openly announced that he is not retiring and indicates this is all just gossip by saying the moon exploding is a more credible rumor. However, many still speculate that he will be retiring and the announcement at Madison Square Garden was only a ploy to distract the fans.
Adding to the already feverish rumors from fans, Eminem released a track to be on ''Curtain Call'' entitled "When I'm Gone." The lyrics feature the topic of Slim Shady's destructive power over Marshall Mathers' life, and talks of laying Slim Shady to rest, one line featuring the lyrics "Find a gun on the ground / cock it, put it to my brain / scream 'Die Shady!' and pop it." Whether or not this is an unsubtle hint at retirement is currently up for speculation. The lyrics also show feelings of guilt, Eminem feeling he should've spent more time with his daughter Hailie; "'Daddy, where's Mommy? I can't find Mommy, where is she?' 'I don't know, go play, Hailie, baby, your daddy's busy.'"
On [[December 6]], 2005, the day of ''Curtain Call''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s release, Eminem told suburban Detroit radio station WKQI-FM's "Mojo in the Morning" show that he and Kim had reconciled and were probably going to remarry. He denied that he was retiring, but implied that he would at least be taking a break as an artist, saying, "I'm at a point in my life right now where I feel like I don't know where my career is going ... This is the reason that we called it 'Curtain Call,' because this could be the final thing. We don't know." [http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/arts/AP-People-Eminem.html]
==Eminem in D12==
In 2001, Eminem brought the rap group he was a member of, [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]], to the popular music scene. In 2001, D12 released their hit debut album titled ''Devil's Night''. The first single released off of the album was "[[Purple Pills]]," an ode to [[recreational drug use]] (although this was preceded in the UK by a song called "[[Shit On You]]", which was included on the Special Edition version of the album released in that country). The version of the song released on the radio and music television was heavily rewritten to remove much of the song's offensive nature, and retitled "Purple Hills." While the first single was a massive hit, the album's second single, "Fight Music," was not as successful. Some have attributed this to the emotional change caused in [[United States|American]] society due to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. After their debut, D12 took 3 years in hiatus from the studio, later regrouping to releasing their sophomore album, ''[[D12 World]]'', in 2004, which featured the popular hit single release "My Band." The other members of D12 have also appeared as guests on all of Eminem's albums since ''The Marshall Mathers LP''. D12's third album is tentatively scheduled for a 2006 release.
==Grammy Award History==
[[Image:eminem3.jpg]]
'''Grammy Stats'''
*Career Wins: 9
*Career Nominations: 21
'''Album of the Year'''
*The Eminem Show ''Nominated'' 2003
*[[The Marshall Mathers LP]] ''Nominated'' 2001
'''Song of the Year'''
*"Lose Yourself" w/ [[L. Restro]] & [[J. Bass]] ''Nominated'' 2004
'''Record of the Year'''
*"Lose Yourself" ''Nominated'' 2004
*"Without Me" ''Nominated'' 2003
'''Best Rap Solo Performance'''
*"Mockingbird" ''Nominated'' 2006
*"Just Lose It" ''Nominated'' 2005
*"The Real Slim Shady" '''WON''' 2001
*"My Name Is" '''WON''' 2000
'''Best Male Rap Solo Performance'''
*"Lose Yourself" '''WON''' 2004
*"Without Me" ''Nominated'' 2003
'''Best Rap Performance By a Duo or Group'''
*"Encore" w/ 50 Cent & Dr. Dre ''Nominated'' 2006
*"Forgot About Dre" w/ Dr. Dre '''WON''' 2001
*"Guilty Conscience" w/ Dr. Dre ''Nominated'' 2000
'''Best Rap Song'''
*"Lose Yourself" w/ [[L. Restro]] & [[J. Bass]] '''WON''' 2004
'''Best Rap Album'''
*''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'' ''Nominated'' 2006
*''The Eminem Show'' '''WON''' 2003
*''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'' '''WON''' 2001
*''[[Slim Shady LP]]'' '''WON''' 2000
'''Best Short-Form Music Video'''
*"Without Me" '''WON''' 2004
'''Best Song Written For a Motion Picture, Television Special or Other Media'''
*"Lose Yourself" w/ [[L. Restro]] & [[J. Bass]] ''Nominated'' 2004
==Discography==
===Albums and EPs===
*''[[Infinite (album)|Infinite]]'' (1996) (Sold roughly 500 copies out of the trunk of his car).
*''[[The Slim Shady EP]]'' (1997)
*''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'' (1999) #2 US ('''4x Platinum'''); #12 UK (Platinum) (9 million worldwide)
*''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'' (2000) '''#1''' US (8 weeks) ('''9x Platinum'''); '''#1''' UK (19 million worldwide)
*''[[The Eminem Show]]'' (2002) '''#1''' US (6 weeks) ('''8x Platinum'''); '''#1''' UK (over 19 million worldwide)
*''[[8 Mile Soundtrack]]'' (album production, and rapping on five of the tracks - 2002) '''#1''' US (4 weeks) ('''4x Platinum'''); '''#1''' UK (compilation chart) (Gold) (9 million worldwide)
*''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'' (2004) '''#1''' US (4 weeks) ('''4x Platinum'''); '''#1''' UK (3x Platinum) (11 million worldwide)
*''[[Curtain Call: The Hits]]'' (2005) '''#1''' US (2 weeks) ('''2x Platinum''') (4 million worldwide)
''For a more detailed list of works, see '''[[Eminem discography]]'''.''
===Movies===
*''[[Da Hip-Hop Witch]]'' (2000) (Appearance)
*''[[The Wash (movie)|The Wash]]'' (2001) (Cameo)
*''[[8 Mile]]'' (2002) (Starring)
==Children==
'''Hailie Jade Scott (Mathers)''' is the daughter of Eminem and his wife Kimberly Ann Scott. She was born on [[December 25]], [[1995]]. The songs "[[Mockingbird (song)|Mockingbird]]" on Eminem's album ''Encore'', "Hailie's Song" on ''The Eminem Show'', and Eminem's 2005 single "When I'm Gone" are dedicated to her. Hailie joins her father in the hook for "My Dad's Gone Crazy." She also features prominently in a number of his other songs, most notably in Just The Two Of Us on ''[[The Slim Shady EP]]'', later renamed '97 Bonnie &amp; Clyde on ''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'', which is a fictional account of Eminem, accompanied by [[Hailie Jade Scott|Hailie]], dumping the dead body of his wife into a lake, while he talks lovingly to his daughter in baby-talk.
'''Alaina Mathers''' is Eminem's eleven-year-old adopted daughter. The daughter of his wife Kim's twin sister, Eminem has custody of his niece and is raising her as Hailie's sister. She is also referenced in the song "[[Mockingbird (music)|Mockingbird]]" on ''Encore'', as "Laney".
'''Nathan Mathers''' is Eminem's younger half-brother by 14 years. He is Nathan's legal guardian.
Eminem is also determined to get custody of Whitney, Kim's child by another man, in order to become the girl's father. Eminem is quoted as saying about Whitney: "I'm in love with that girl, man. She's so sweet and funny." He plans to change Whitney's last name to Mathers.
==Trivia==
*The second "E" in his stage name has been reversed on his records since his second album ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]''. The backwards-E has become a logo for him, appearing prominently in his videos and stage set.
*Several songs were released in response to the track "[[Stan (song)|Stan]]" off of ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]''. Enemy rapper [[Canibus]] released the track "U Didn't Care," rapping as the Stan character and implying that Eminem doesn't care about his fans. The [[Pet Shop Boys]] released "The Night I Fell in Love," in |
games in relation to that of consoles can be found within the PC itself: a computer must meet certain minimum requirements such as [[Central processing unit|CPU]] speed, Random access memory (RAM), system clock speed (MHz or GHz), video card memory, [[hard drive]] space, operating system, Internet connection speed (for online games) and other criteria. Without the proper hardware, the game may perform poorly or not run at all, as opposed to console software, in which the software is designed based on the set hardware configuration of the console. Ease of [[software piracy]] is also a much greater threat with PC games, although console hardware modifications do make it possible to play pirated games on them as well.
====Internet====
{{main|Online game}}
Online Games are those which are played over the [[Internet]]. Online gaming began with PC games, but has expanded over time to include most modern consoles. The first console to incorporate this feature was the [[Sega Dreamcast]]. It is now a key feature of modern games, with the inclusion of Internet connectivity in consoles such as the [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]] and [[Gamecube]] (although it was only fully exploited on the Xbox); portable consoles such as the [[PlayStation Portable|PSP]] or [[Nintendo DS|DS]] that use [[Wi-Fi]], and in mobile/cellular phones. Online games need to allow several people to play at the same time, so not all genres are suitable; the most popular genres include MMORPGs, FPSs, racing/driving games, strategy games, and sports titles.
The Internet is also host to thousands of small web-based games, written using formats like ''[[Macromedia Flash|Flash]]'' and ''[[Javascript]]''. These games generally do not share the same magnitude of development costs, depth, or seriousness of PC and console games, and are generally quick to complete by comparison. Some are on going user-based games that have no ending. Some of these games, such as [[Runescape]], however, have expanded far beyond this, and can often be considered on the same level as "mainstream" PC games.
===Console===
{{main|Console game}}
Console games are played on a [[video game console]],or "home console", a specialized computer specifically designed to play games of a certain [[format]]. The player usually interacts with the game through a [[game controller|controller]], and video and sound are typically delivered to the player via a television through composite A/V cables, although most modern consoles support additional outputs, such as [[surround sound]], progressive scan, and High Definition setups through the use of component cables.
Consoles themselves branched off from [[personal computers]] around two decades ago, a fact which is still evident not only in the name, but also in many of the peripherals available for many consoles, like the keyboard and mouse peripherals released for the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation 2]] and the [[Sega]] [[Dreamcast]].
===Handheld===
{{main|Handheld video game}}
Handheld games are played on [[handheld game console]]s, such as the [[Nintendo]] [[Game Boy]] line, the [[Nintendo]] [[DS]] and the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation Portable|PSP]]. Handheld consoles act as their own [[game controller|controller]]s, which the player uses to interact with the game, as well as having in-built display and audio output devices. Because they are designed to be played on the go, they were traditionally small enough to carry conveniently in a bag or jacket (the [[Virtual Boy]] being an exception to this), but due to their small size, handheld consoles have reduced processing power compared to larger consoles, meaning that games are shorter, and until the release of the [[Nintendo DS]], were largely limited to [[2D]]. There have been some news and pictures of a new Microsoft handheld system codenamed "Origami". It is more of portable computer than a pure gaming device, but you can play games on it. It probably will not be released for some time.
===Arcade===
{{main|Arcade game}}
[[Arcade game]]s, traditionally, are "coin-operated games", and are played on a standalone device originally leased to commercial entertainment venues. These are programmed, equipped, and decorated for a specific game, consisting of a video display, a set of controls, and the coin slot. Controls are similar to those available for many consoles (albeit usually as peripherals) and range from the classic joystick and buttons (Pac-Man), to light guns (Duck Hunt), to pads on the ground that sense pressure (Dance Dance Revolution). Arcade games that are no longer profitable to lease can be purchased by private individuals, many of whom then explore the game dynamics by altering the programs in minor ways.
This term has now expanded to include any game that has more direct action, with fewer long term objectives, focuses on time limits and, for the most part, shorter in-game levels.
==Popularity==
The popularity of computer and video games, as a whole, has been increasing steadily ever since the 1984-1987 drop-off caused by the [[video game crash of 1983]], and the popularity appears to be continuing to increase. The average age of the video game player is now 30 {{ref|avgage}}, belying the myth that video games are largely a diversion for [[teenager]]s.
===Sales===
[[Image:Videogameretaildisplay.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A typical retail display (in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]) with a large selection of games for several major consoles]]
The four largest markets for computer and video games are the [[United States]], [[Japan]], [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Other significant markets include [[Spain]], [[Germany]], [[South Korea]], [[France]], and [[Italy]]. [[China]] is not considered a significant market, most likely because an estimated 95% of video games sold in the country are [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] {{ref|piracy}}.
Sales of different types of games vary widely between these markets due to local preferences. Japanese consumers avoid computer games and instead buy video games, with a strong preference for games created in Japan, that run on Japanese consoles (1 reason the Xbox series is less popular). In South Korea, computer games are preferred, especially [[MMORPG]] games and [[real-time strategy]] games; there are over 20,000 [[PC bang]] Internet cafes where computer games can be played for an hourly charge.
The [[NPD Group]] tracks computer and video game sales in the United States. It reported that [[as of 2004]]:
* Console and portable software sales: $6.2 billion, up 8% from 2003 {{ref label|sales|4|a}}
* Console and portable hardware and accessory sales: $3.7 billion, down 35% from 2003 {{ref label|sales|4|b}}
* PC game sales: $1.1 billion, down 2% from 2003 {{ref|ussales}}
These figures are sales in dollars, not units; unit shipments for each category were higher than the dollar sales numbers indicate, as more software and hardware was sold at reduced prices compared to 2003.
Retail PC game sales have been declining slightly each year since about 1998, but this fact should be taken with a grain of salt: the retail sales numbers from NPD do not include sales from online downloads, nor subscription revenue for games like [[MMORPG]]s.
There is a commonly repeated, mistaken belief that video game sales now exceed the revenues of the [[movie industry]]. This is untrue; in the United States, video game sales have exceeded the movies' total box office revenue each year since about 1996, but the [[movie studio]]s trounce the [[video game publisher]]s when the movies' "ancillary revenue" is counted, meaning sales of [[DVD]]s, sales to foreign distributors, and sales to [[cable TV]], [[satellite TV]], and broadcast [[television network]]s.
The game and film industries are also becoming increasingly intertwined, with companies like [[Sony]] having significant stakes in both. A large number of summer blockbuster films spawn a companion game, often launching at the same time in order to share the marketing costs.
===Computer and video games in the broader culture===
[[Image:EE3.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Electronic Entertainment Expo]] ([[E3|E³]]) is held every year in [[Los Angeles]]. New projects are shown every year.]]
Computer games are huge business worldwide. Take for example [[South Korea]]. Developers there boast [[MMORPG]]s such as ''[[Lineage (game)|Lineage]]'' and ''[[Ragnarok Online]]'' with millions of subscribers and a third of the world's MMOG revenue. ''[[StarCraft]]'' [[gosu]] (expert players) are celebrities in a game that some have called the country's [[national sport]]. The success of computer and online gaming there is usually credited to South Korea's push for [[broadband]] Internet connections in the home and earlier bans on Japanese products (these restrictions were removed by the late 1990s).
Numerous websites and publications devoted solely to games have been created, including ''[[Official Xbox Magazine]]'', ''[[Nintendo Power]]'', ''[[Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine]]'', ''[[GamePro]]'', ''[[Electronic Gaming Monthly]], ''[[GameSpot]]'', ''[[GameSpy]]'', ''[[IGN]]'', ''[http://www.ampedigo.com Amped News]'', and ''[[GameFAQs]]''.
Video gaming is now ingrained in popular culture in the United States. Many [[T-shirt]]s are available that directly reference video games, such as one with a picture of an [[NES]] controller with the text 'Know Your Roots.' Also, video games have also become a major part in cross marketing platforms, such as in [[Pokémon]] or [[Yu-Gi-Oh]], where a child can watch the television show, buy the trading cards, and play the various video games available.
Video game properties have had mixed success when migrating to the movies. One of the first films based on a video game property was ''[[The Wizard (movie)|The Wizard]]'', which some criticized as a 90-minute ad for ''[[Super Mario Bros (TV)#The Adventures of Super Mario Bros. 3|Super Mari |
egarded as the capital of Mid Wales, and several institutions have regional offices there. Perhaps the most important of the public bodies located in Aberystwyth is the [[National Library of Wales]]. The library also incorporates the [[National Screen and Sound Archive of Wales]], one of six British regional film archives. The [[Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales]], which maintains and curates the [[National Monuments Record of Wales]] (NMRW), provides the public with information about the built heritage of Wales, available through [[COFLEIN]] the online interactive mapping and database for the NMRW.
Aberystwyth is [[town twinning|twinned]] with [[Saint-Brieuc]], [[France]].
==History==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Aber_dusk_sized.jpg|thumb|250px|Aberystwyth at dusk]] -->
[[Image:Aberysarms.PNG|thumb|250px|Arms of Aberystwyth]]
The remains of an Iron Age fortress on [[Pen Dinas]], a hill overlooking Aberystwyth, indicate that the site was inhabited before 700 BCE. However the recorded history of Aberystwyth may be said to date from the building of a fortress on the present Castle Hill, in [[1109]]. [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] rebuilt [[Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|Strongbow]]'s castle in [[1277]], after its destruction by the Welsh. Between the years [[1404]] and [[1408]] [[Aberystwyth Castle]] was in the hands of [[Owain Glyndwr]], but finally surrendered to Prince Harry (the future King [[Henry V of England]]). Shortly after this the town was incorporated under the title of Ville de Lampadarn (the ancient name of the place being Llanbadarn Gaerog, or the fortified Llanbadarn, to distinguish it from [[Llanbadarn Fawr]], the village one mile inland). It is thus styled in a charter granted by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], but by [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]'s time the town was invariably termed Aberystwyth in all documents. In [[1647]] the Parliamentarian troops razed the castle, so that its remains are now inconsiderable, though portions of three towers still exist.
The [[Cambrian Railway]] line from Machynlleth reached Aberystwyth in the [[1860s]] closely followed by rail links to [[Carmarthen]]. Its arrival gave rise to something of a [[Victorian]] tourist boom and the town was once even billed as the "Biarritz of Wales" [http://www.gigaflop.demon.co.uk/aber/AberAdvS.gif]. During this time a number of hotels and fine town houses were built including the Queens Hotel. One of the largest of these hotels 'The Castle Hotel' was never completed as a hotel but following bankruptcy was sold cheaply to the 'Welsh National University Committee', a group of people dedicated to the creation of a Welsh University. The University College of Wales (later to become the [[University of Wales, Aberystwyth]]) was founded in [[1872]] in this building. Aberystwyth was the first university institution to be established in Wales.
The [[Vale of Rheidol Railway]] narrow gauge line from Devil's Bridge was constructed in 1901 and 1902, intended to ship mineral traffic, primarily lead, from Devils Bridge down to Aberystwyth for trans-shipment. By the time it was finished the lead mines were in a deep downturn and it therefore came to rely largely on the tourist industry. The railway opened for passengers in December 1902.
On the night of Friday 14th January [[1938]] a storm with estimated wind speeds of up to 90mph struck the town. Most of the promenade was destroyed, along with 200ft of the pier. Most properties on the seafront were damaged, most severely on Victoria Terrace.
[[Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg]] held their historic first protest in Aberystwyth, back in [[1963]], and here also the first ever independent Welsh [[evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Church was established (see [[Evangelical Movement of Wales]]).
[[Merched y Wawr]] have their national headquarters in Aberystwyth.
Aberystwyth hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1865]], [[1916]], [[1952]] and [[1992]].
On March 1, 2005, Aberystwyth was granted [[Fairtrade Town]] status.
==External links==
{{commons|Aberystwyth}}
*[[Penrhos]]
*[http://www.aber.ac.uk/ The University of Wales, Aberystwyth]
*[http://www.aber.co.uk/ For What's On In Aberystwyth At Night]
*[http://www.llgc.org.uk The National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth]
*[http://www.rcahmw.gov.uk Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales] in [[English language|English]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]]
*[http://www.aberystwyth-online.co.uk/ Aberystwyth-online.co.uk]
*[http://www.aberystwyth.com/ Aberystwyth website]
*[http://www.aberystwyth.org.uk/ AberInfo &mdash; The Aberystwyth Guide]
*[http://aberwiki.org AberWiki], a student wiki
*[http://www.gigaflop.demon.co.uk/aber.htm Aberystwyth Guide]
*[http://www.tinytrout.com/ Tinytrout.com] an independent Aberystwyth Fishing Guide with Diary & Forum
[[Category:Fairtrade settlements]]
[[Category:Seaside resorts in Wales]]
[[Category:Towns in Ceredigion]]
[[Category:Welsh market towns]]
[[cy:Aberystwyth]]
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[[gl:Aberystwyth]]
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[[pl:Aberystwyth]]
[[pt:Aberystwyth]]
[[sv:Aberystwyth]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abettor</title>
<id>2719</id>
<revision>
<id>27954367</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-10T20:39:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references. (testing)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abettor''' (from ''to abet,'' O. [[Frisian language|Fr.]] ''abeter'', ''a'' and ''beter'', to bait, urge dogs upon any one; this word is probably of Scandinavian origin, meaning to cause to bite), is a law term implying one who instigates, encourages or assists another to commit an offence.
An abettor differs from an [[Accessory (legal term)|accessory]] in that he must be present at the commission of the crime; all abettors (with certain exceptions) are principals, and, in the absence of specific statutory provision to the contrary, are punishable to the same extent as the actual perpetrator of the offence. A person may in certain cases be convicted as an abettor in the commission of an offence in which he or she could not be a principal, e.g. a woman or boy under fourteen years of age in aiding rape, or a solvent person in aiding and abetting a bankrupt to commit offences against the bankruptcy laws.
More recently, an abbetor is generally known as an [[accomplice]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Criminal law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abeyance</title>
<id>2720</id>
<revision>
<id>39152587</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T01:28:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robert A West</username>
<id>283748</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wikify</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abeyance ''' (from the Old French ''abeance'' meaning "gaping"), a state of expectancy in respect of property, titles or office, when the right to them is not [[vesting|vested]] in any one person, but awaits the appearance or determination of the true owner. In law, the term abeyance can only be applied to such future estates as have not yet vested or possibly may not vest. For example, an estate is granted to A for life, with [[Remainder (law)|remainder]] to the heir of B. During B's lifetime, the remainder is in abeyance, for until the death of B it is uncertain who his heir is. Similarly the [[Freehold (real property)|freehold]] of a [[benefice]], on the death of the incumbent, is said to be in abeyance until the next incumbent takes possession.
==Law of peerages==
The most common use of the term is in the case of English [[peerage]] dignities. Most such peerages pass to [[Order of succession#Salic Law|heirs-male]], but the ancient [[barony|baronies]] created by [[hereditary peer#Writs of summons|writ]], as well as some very old [[earldom]]s, pass instead to [[Order of succession#Primogeniture|heirs-general]], also known as ''male primogeniture''. In this system, sons are preferred from eldest to youngest, the heirs of a son over the next son, and and any son over daughters, but there is no preference among daughters: they or their heirs inherit equally.
If the daughter is an only child or her sisters are deceased and have no living issue, she (or her heir) is vested with the title; otherwise, since a peerage cannot be shared nor divided, the dignity goes into abeyance between the sisters or their heirs, and is held by no one. If through lack of issue, marriage or both, eventually only one person represents the claims of all the sisters, he or she can claim the dignity as a matter of right, and the abeyance is said to be terminated. On the other hand, the number of prospective heirs can grow quite large, since each share potentially can be divided between daughters.
A co-heir may petition the Crown for a termination of the abeyance. The Crown may choose to grant the petition, but if there is there is any doubt whatsoever as to the pedigree of the petitioner, the claim is normally referred to the [[Peerage law#Peerage disputes|Committee for Privileges]]. If the claim is unopposed, the Committee will generally award the claim, unless there is evidence of [[collusion]], the peerage has been in abeyance for more than a century, or if the petitioner holds less than one-third of the claim.
It is entirely possible for a peerage to remain in abeyance for centuries. For example, the [[Baron Grey of Codnor|Barony of Grey of Codnor]] was in abeyance for over 490 years between [[1496]] and [[1989]], and the [[Baron Hastings|Barony of Hastings]] was similarly in abeyance for over 299 years from [[1542]] to [[1841]]. Some other baronies became abeyant in the thirteenth century, and the abeyance has |
ock-Out Blackjack'', Olaf Vancura and Ken Fuchs, 1998, ISBN 0929712315
'''Mathematics of Gambling'''
* ''The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic'', Richard A. Epstein, 1977, ISBN 012240761X, 215-251
* ''Luck, Logic, and White Lies: The Mathematics of Games'', Joerg Bewersdorff, 2004, ISBN 1568812108, 121-134
==External links==
*[http://www.bjrnet.com/member/bjapr/Contents.htm Encyclopaedia of Casino Twenty-One]
*[http://www.bjmath.com Blackjack Mathematics]
*[http://www.bjstats.com Blackjack Stats]
*[http://www.beatblackjack.org/tables.html Interactive online calculator of probabilities and expectations for each possible card distribution in the shoe]
{{featured article}}
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[[zh:廿一點]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bicarbonate</title>
<id>3982</id>
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<id>40291180</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T15:53:17Z</timestamp>
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<username>Superjoel</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This refers to the bicarbonate ion, for baking soda, see [[Sodium bicarbonate]].}}
A '''Bicarbonate''' or, more properly, a '''hydrogen carbonate''' is a [[polyatomic ion]] whose [[chemical formula|formula]] is [[Hydrogen|H]][[Carbon|C]][[Oxygen|O]]<sub>3</sub><sup>&minus;</sup>. It is the intermediate form in the [[deprotonation]] of [[carbonic acid]]: removing the first [[proton]] from carbonic acid forms bicarbonate; removing the second proton leads to the [[carbonate]] ion.
The [[salt]]s which contain the bicarbonate ion are also known as '''bicarbonates''', such as [[sodium bicarbonate]] (baking soda) NaHCO<sub>3</sub>. Bicarbonates, when exposed to an [[acid]] such as [[acetic acid]] of [[vinegar]], release [[carbon dioxide]]. This is used to cause [[bread]]s to rise in [[cooking]] and to propel toy rockets.
The bicarbonate/carbonate ionic system is also a [[buffer_solution|buffer]] in [[blood]].
Bicarbonates are more correctly named hydrogen carbonates in the chemical [[nomenclature]] system. Occasionally they are referred to as "acid carbonates".
==See also==
* [[carbon dioxide]]
* [[carbonic acid]]
* [[carbonate]]
* [[hard water]]
* [[Ocean acidification]]
[[Category:Salts]]
[[Category:Bicarbonates]]
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[[sv:Vätekarbonatjon]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bopomofo</title>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<ip>24.93.53.199</ip>
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<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Zhuyin]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bernie Federko</title>
<id>3984</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:47:51Z</timestamp>
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<username>Canuck85</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Federko.jpg|thumb|Federko as captain of the Blues.]]
'''Bernard Allan Federko''' (born [[May 12]], [[1956]] in [[Foam Lake, Saskatchewan|Foam Lake]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]]) is a retired [[professional]] [[ice hockey]] center who played 14 seasons in the [[National Hockey League|NHL]] from [[1976]] to [[1990]].
==Playing career==
Federko started off his notable career with the [[Saskatoon Blades]] of the [[Western Hockey League|WHL]]. He played three seasons with the Blades, and in his final year with the club he led the league in assists and points in both the regular season ''and'' playoffs. As a reward, Federko was drafted 7th overall by the [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)|St. Louis Blues]] in the [[1976 NHL Amateur Draft]]. He started the next season with the Kansas City Blues of the CHL and was leading the league in points when he was called up mid-season to play 31 games with St. Louis. He scored three [[hat trick]]s in those 31 games. In the [[1978-79 NHL season]], Federko developed into a bonafide star, as he scored 95 points.
Federko would score 100 points in a season four times, and was a consistent and underrated superstar for the Blues. Federko scored at least 90 points in seven of the eight seasons between [[1978]] and [[1986]], and became the first player in NHL history to record at least 50 assists in 10 consecutive seasons. However, in an era when [[Wayne Gretzky]] was scoring 200 points a season, Federko never really got the attention many felt he deserved. In 1986, in a poll conducted by GOAL magazine, he was named the most overlooked talent in hockey. His [[General Manager]] [[Ron Caron]] said he was "A great playmaker. He makes the average or above average player look like a star at times. He's such an unselfish player."
On [[March 19]], [[1988]], Federko became the 22nd NHL player to record 1000 career points. After a poor season for Federko in [[1988-89 NHL season|1988-89]], he was traded to the [[Detroit Red Wings]] with [[Tony McKegney]] for future Blues star [[Adam Oates]], and [[Paul MacLean (hockey player)|Paul MacLean]]. In Detroit, Federko re-united with former Blues head coach [[Jacques Demers]], but he had to play behind [[Steve Yzerman]] and did not get his desired ice time. After his lowest point output since his rookie season, Federko decided to retire after the [[1989-90 NHL season|1989-90 season]].
Federko was inducted into the [[Hockey Hall of Fame]] in [[2002]], and is currently a television color commentator for the Blues. He also had his number '24' retired by the Blues on [[March 16]], [[1991]].
Federko was the head coach/general manager of the St. Louis InLine team of the RHI for the [[1993]] and [[1994]] seasons.
{{HHOF}}
==Awards==
*Named to the WCHL All-Star Team (1976)
*Named WCHL MVP (1976)
*Named to the CHL Second All-Star Team (1977)
*Won Ken McKenzie Trophy as CHL Rookie of the Year (1977)
*Played in the NHL All-Star Game (1980, 1981)
*Named NHL Player of the Week (For week ending [[December 3]], [[1984]])
==Records==
*St. Louis Blues team record for career games played (927)
*St. Louis Blues team record for career assists (721)
*St. Louis Blues team record for career points (1130)
*Shares St. Louis Blues team record for assists in one game (5 on [[February 27|Feb. 27]]/ [[1988|88]])
*St. Louis Blues team record for career playoff assists (66)
*St. Louis Blues team record for points in one playoff year (21 in 1986)
*St. Louis Blues team record for assists in one playoff year (15 in 1986)
==Career statistics==
<TABLE BORDER="0" CELLPADDING="3" CELLSPACING="0">
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#e0e0e0">
<TH ALIGN=center colspan="3" bgcolor="#ffffff">&nbsp;</th>
<TH ALIGN=center rowspan="99" bgcolor="#ffffff">&nbsp;</th>
<TH ALIGN=center colspan="9">Regular&nbsp;season</th>
<TH ALIGN=center rowspan="99" bgcolor="#ffffff">&nbsp;</th>
<TH ALIGN=center colspan="5">Playoffs</th>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#e0e0e0">
<TH ALIGN=center>Season</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>Team</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>League</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>GP</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>G</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>A</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>Pts</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>PIM</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>PM</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>PP</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>SH</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>GW</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>GP</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>G</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>A</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>Pts</th>
<TH ALIGN=center>PIM</th>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>1973-74</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>Saskatoon Blades</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>WCHL</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>68</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>22</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>28</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>50</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>19</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>6</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>0</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>0</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>0</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>2</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>1974-75</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>Saskatoon Blades</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>WCHL</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>66</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>39</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>68</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>107</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>30</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</th>
<TD ALIGN=center>-</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>17</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>15</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>7</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>22</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>8</td>
</tr>
<TR ALIGN=center bgcolor="#f0f0f0">
<TD ALIGN=center>1975-76</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>Saskatoon Blades</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>WCHL</td>
<TD ALIGN=center>72</td>
<TD ALIGN=center |
nglish and Welsh 12,000 to 8,000. The numbers may have been exaggerated for patriotic reasons by the English.{{ref|times}}
===Military leadership during the First World War===
The military leadership of the [[British Army]] during the [[First World War]] was frequently condemned as poor by historians and politicians for decades after the war ended. Common charges were that the generals commanding the army were blind to the realities of [[trench warfare]], ignorant of the conditions of their men and were unable to learn from their mistakes, thus causing enormous numbers of casualties. However, during the 1960s historians such as [[John Terraine]] began to challenge this interpretation. In recent years as new documents have come forth and the distance of time has allowed for more objective analysis, historians such as [[Gary D. Sheffield]] and [[Richard Holmes]] observe that the military leadership of the British Army on the [[Western Front]] had to cope with many problems that they could not control such as a lack of adequate military [[communication|communications]], furthermore military leadership improved throughout the war culminating in the [[Hundred Days]] advance to victory in [[1918]]. Some historians, even revisionists, still criticise the British [[High Command]] severly, but they are less inclined to portray the war in a simplistic manner with brave troops being led by foolish officers.
There has been a similar movement regarding the [[French Army]] during the war with contributions by historians such as [[Anthony Clayton]]. Revisionists are far more likely to view commanders such as French General [[Ferdinand Foch]], British General [[Douglas Haig]] and other figures, such as American General [[Pershing]], in a sympathetic light.
==Notes==
<!--wikipedia:footnotes-->
<!-------------------------------------Agincourt---------------------->
#{{note|2020}}Page 288. Matthew Strickland ''The Great Warbow''. Pub Sutton, 2005, ISBN 0750931671
#{{note|curry}}Anne Curry. ''Agincourt: A New History'', Pub Tempus, 2005, ISBN 0752428284
#{{note|times}} Richard Brooks [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-523-1632547,00.html Henry V’s payroll cuts Agincourt myth down to size] [[May 29]], 2005
[[Category:Historiography|Revisionism]]
[[ca:Revisionisme històric]]
[[de:Revisionismus]]
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[[sv:Historierevisionism]]
[[zh:历史修正主义]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of the petroleum industry in North America</title>
<id>13294</id>
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<id>32799552</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-26T21:22:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Xaosflux</username>
<id>502540</id>
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<comment>/* Titusville, Kerosene */ fix for disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''history of the petroleum industry''' in North America began nearly simultaneously in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]].
==Petrolia==
North America's [[oil industry]] was born in [[1858]] when [[James Miller Williams]] built the first successful oil well on a deposit of "[[gum bed]]s" located near the present-day towns of [[Oil Springs, Ontario|Oil Springs]] and [[Petrolia, Ontario|Petrolia]], in the southwest corner of [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. The beds had first been recognized by the Tripp brothers in [[1851]], but they failed to develop the find and sold the rights to Williams. Williams pumped 1,500 m&sup3; of [[crude oil]] from his wells in his first two years. He then launched the first integrated oil company -- exploring, drilling and refining the oil into finished products -- with the founding of "[[The Canada Oil Company]]" in [[1860]].
For the next 50 years, these fields supplied 90% of the oil consumed in Canada and Petrolia became home to the world's most advanced oil development and refining technologies. The boom times were over by the turn of the century, but commercial wells continue pumping to this day. In all, the region has produced an estimated 10 billion [[barrel (unit)|barrels]] (1.59&nbsp;km&sup3;). When the Petrolia oil rush began to slow, the drillers there who had learned how to get oil from the ground efficiently found their skills and methods in high demand. Oil men who learned their trade in Petrolia dispersed around the world, to as many as 87 countries, to open today's great oil fields in the [[Middle East]], [[Gobi Desert]], [[South America]], and elsewhere.
==Titusville, Kerosene==
Native Americans had known of the oil in western Pennsylvania, and had apparently made some use of it for many years before the mid 19th century. However, interest grew substantially in the mid 1850s as geologists studied and reported on the market potential in the context of the emerging industrial age.
There, on [[August 28]], [[1859]] [[George Bissell (industrialist)|George Bissell]] and [[Edwin L. Drake]] made the first successful use of a drilling rig at [[Titusville, Pennsylvania]]. This single well soon exceeded the entire cumulative oil output of [[Europe]] since the [[1650s]]. The principal product of the oil was [[kerosene]], which quickly replaced whale oil for illuminating purposes in the United States.
Originally dealing in whale oil which was widely used for illumination, [[Charles Pratt]] (1830-1891) of Massachusetts was an early pioneer of the natural [[oil industry]] in the United States. He was founder of [[Astral Oil Works]] in the Greenpoint section of [[Brooklyn, New York]]. Pratt's product later gave rise to the slogan, "''The holy lamps of Tibet are primed with Astral Oil''." He joined with his protégé [[Henry H. Rogers]] to form [[Charles Pratt and Company]] in [[1867]]. Both companies became part of [[John D. Rockefeller]]'s [[Standard Oil]] in [[1874]].
==Spindletop==
Capt. [[Anthony F. Lucas]], an experienced mining engineer drilled the first major oil well at [[Spindletop]]. On the morning of [[January 10]], [[1901]], the little hill south of [[Beaumont, Texas]] began to tremble and mud bubbled up over the rotary table.
A low rumbling sound came from underground, and then, with a force that shot 6 tons of 4 inch (100 mm) pipe out over the top of the derrick, knocking off the [[crown block]], the Lucas Gusher roared in and Spindletop, history's most famous oil field, was born.
It is estimated that this initial discovery was over 100,000 barrels (16,000 m&sup3;) of oil per day. That one well was producing more oil than all the other wells in the United States combined.
==See also==
*[[Ignacy Lukasiewicz|Ignacy &#321;ukasiewicz]]
*[[Enrico Mattei]]
*[[Early uses of petroleum|Early uses of petroleum]]
*[[John D. Rockefeller]]
*[[Charles Pratt]]
*[[Henry H. Rogers]]
*[[South Improvement Company]]
*[[Wamsutta Oil Refinery]]
*[[Standard Oil]]
*[[Ida M. Tarbell]]
*[[Seven Sisters (oil companies)|The Seven Sisters]]
*[[Oil industry]]
== Reference Links ==
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/OO/doogz.html ''The Handbook of Texas Online:'' Oil and Gas Industry]
[[Category:History of the petroleum industry]]
[[Category:Peak oil]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Herb</title>
<id>13296</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-14T02:41:05Z</timestamp>
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<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[herb (disambiguation)]].}}
{{cuisine}}
A '''herb''' (pronounced "hurb" in [[Commonwealth English]] and "urb" in [[American English]]) is a [[plant]] grown for culinary, medicinal, or in some cases even spiritual value. The green, leafy part of the plant is typically used. General usage differs between culinary herbs and medicinal herbs. A medicinal herb may be a shrub or other woody plant, whereas a culinary herb is a non-woody plant. By contrast, [[spice]]s are the [[seed]]s, [[berry|berries]], [[bark]], [[root]], or other parts of the plant, even leaves in some cases; although any of these, as well as any edible fruits or vegetables, may be considered "herbs" in medicinal or spiritual use. Culinary herbs are distinguished from [[vegetable]]s in that they are used in small amounts and provide [[flavor]] (are spices) rather than substance to [[food]].
==Botanical definitions==
In [[botany]], a '''herb''' is a plant that does not produce a [[wood]]y stem, and in temperate climates usually dies, either completely (annual herb) or back to the roots (perennial herb), at the end of the growing season. Examples include bulbs, [[Peony|Peonies]], [[Hosta]], and [[Poaceae|grasses]].
The term '''''herbaceous''''' means either having the characteristic of a herb or being leaf-like in color and texture. A related term from American English is [[forb]], which means a non-woody plant that is '''not''' a grass and is not grass-like. This means that the term forb excludes sedges ([[Cyperaceae]]) and rushes ([[Juncaceae]]) along with true grasses ([[Poaceae]]). '''''Non-herbaceous''''' plants are [[woody plant]]s which have stems above ground that remain alive during winter and grow shoots the next year, such as [[trees]], [[shrubs]], and woody [[vines]].
== See also ==
* [[Apothecary]]
* [[Perennial plant|Herbaceous perennials]]
* [[Herbalism]]
* [[Herbology]]
* [[List of herbs and spices]]
* [[Remedy]]
* [[Herb farm]]
== External links ==
* [http://herbsociety.org/ The Herb Society of America]
{{cookbook}}
{{wikiquote}}
[[Category:Plant morphology]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[da:Krydderurt]]
[[de:Kraut]]
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[[ko:허브 (식물)]]
[[nl:Kruid (keuken)]]
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[[ja:ハーブ]]
[[no:Urt]]
[[nn:Urt]]
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[[pt:Erva]]</text>
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<title>Hudson's Bay Company</title>
<id>1 |
, anti-Semitism and belief in Jewish manipulation of Japan and the world remains despite the lack of any Jewish community in Japan. Books about Jewish conspiracies are best sellers. According to a 1988 survey, 8% of Japanese had read one of these books.
== Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism ==
[[Anti-Zionism]] is a term that has been used to describe several very different political and religious points of view (both historically and in current debates) all expressing some form of opposition to [[Zionism]]. A large variety of commentators - politicians, journalists, academics and others - believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to anti-Semitism. In turn, critics of this view believe that associating anti-Zionism with anti-Semitism is intended to stifle debate, deflect attention from valid criticism, and taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies. This subject is discussed in the main article on [[Anti-Zionism]].
[[Image:Tishreen-Apr-30-2000.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Cartoon from the Syrian Arab daily newspaper Tishreen (Apr 30, 2000). Negative [[zoomorphism]] is commonly used in anti-Semitic discourse.]]
=== New anti-Semitism ===
{{main|New anti-Semitism}}
In recent years some scholars of history, psychology, religion and representatives of Jewish groups, have noted what they describe as the ''new anti-Semitism'', which uses the language of anti-Zionism and criticism against Israel to attack the Jews more broadly.
The European Commission on Racism and Intolerance formally defined some of the ways in which anti-Zionism may cross the line to anti-Semitism: "Examples of the ways in which anti-Semitism manifests itself with regard to the State of Israel taking into account the overall context could include: Denying the Jewish people right to [[self-determination]], e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor; applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation; using the symbols and images associated with classic anti-Semitism (e.g. claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis; drawing comparisons of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the Nazis; and holding Jews collectively responsible for actions of the State of Israel."
== Anti-Semitism in the 21st century ==
According to the 2005 U.S. State Department Report on Global Anti-Semitism, anti-Semitism in Europe has increased significantly in recent years. Beginning in 2000, verbal attacks directed against Jews increased while incidents of vandalism (e.g. graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries) surged. Physical assaults including beatings, stabbings and other violence against Jews in Europe increased markedly, in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death.
On [[January 1]], [[2006]], Britain's chief [[rabbi]], Sir [[Jonathan Sacks]], warned that what he called a "[[tsunami]] of anti-Semitism" was spreading globally. In an interview with BBC's [[Radio Four]], Sacks said that anti-Semitism was on the rise in Europe, and that a number of his rabbinical colleagues had been assaulted, synagogues desecrated, and Jewish schools burned to the ground in France. He also said that: "People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because ... British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making ... some European Jewish communities uncomfortable." [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1676509,00.html]
Much of the new European anti-Semitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running Israeli-Arab conflict since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large immigrant Arab communities in European cities. According to ''The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism'', most of the current anti-Semitism comes from militant Islamist and Muslim groups, and most Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim immigrants reside. [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2004/general-analysis.htm]
Similarly, in the Middle East, anti-Zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to demonize Israel and its leaders. This rhetoric often crosses the line separating the legitimate criticism of Israel and its policies to become anti-Semitic vilification posing as legitimate political commentary. At the same time, Holocaust denial and Holocaust minimization efforts find increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries.
The problem of anti-Semitism is not only significant in Europe and in the Middle East, but there are also worrying expressions of it elsewhere. For example, in Pakistan, a country without a Jewish community, anti-Semitic sentiment fanned by anti-Semitic articles in the press is widespread. This reflects the more recent phenomenon of anti-Semitism appearing in countries where historically or currently there are few or even no Jews.
== See also ==
{{commons|Category:Anti-Semitism}}
* [[Jew]]s and [[Judaism]]
** [[Jewish history]]
* Other articles on anti-Semitism:
** [[History of anti-Semitism]]
** [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]
** [[Christian opposition to anti-Semitism]]
** [[Anti-globalization and Anti-Semitism]]
** [[Arab anti-Semitism]]
*** [[Saudi Arabia and anti-Semitism]]
** [[Islam and anti-Semitism]]
** [[New anti-Semitism]]
** [[Persecution of the Jews]]
* Related topics:
** [[Allophilia]]
** [[Anti-Zionism]]
** [[Judeophobia]]
** [[Self-hating Jew]]
** [[Racism]]
* Topics related to religious anti-Semitism:
** [[Anti-Judaism]]
** [[Spanish Inquisition]]
** [[Blood libel]]
*** [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis trial]] in Russia
** [[Host desecration]]
** [[Edgardo Mortara]]
* Anti-semitic laws, policies, and government actions
** [[Pogrom]]s in Russia
** [[May Laws]] in Russia
** [[March 1968 events]] in Poland
** [[Dreyfus affair]] in France
** [[Farhud]] in Iraq
** [[General Order No. 11]] in the United States
** [[Historical revisionism (political)]]
* [[Nazi]] Germany and the [[Holocaust]]
** [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany]]
* Anti-semitic websites
** [[Jew Watch]]
** [[Radio Islam]]
** [[Institute for Historical Review]]
* Organizations working against anti-Semitism
** [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]]
** [[Anti-Defamation League]]
**[[Jewish Defense League]][http://www.jdl.org.il]
* Other concepts
** [[Religious Persecution]]
** [[Persecution of Christians]]
** [[Persecution of Muslims]]
** [[Persecution of Hindus]]
** [[Persecution of Atheists]]
== References ==
*John M. G. Barclay, ''Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-117 CE)''. University of California, 1999.
*Pieter Willem Van Der Horst, ''Philo's Flaccus: the First Pogrom''. Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series. Brill. 2003.
*Bodansky, Yossef. ''Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument'', Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999
*Gideon Bohak, "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Anti-Semitism' in Historical Context" in Menachem Mor et al, ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud''. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003. p 27-43.
*Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II'', Cambridge University Press 2001
*Cohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide'', Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996.
*Freudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'', University Press of America, 1994.
*Gillan, Audrey. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1676509,00.html "Chief rabbi fears 'tsunami' of hatred"], ''The Guardian'', January 2, 2006
*Hilberg, Raul. ''[[The Destruction of the European Jews]]''. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes
*Lipstadt, Deborah. ''Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory'', Penguin, 1994.
*Matas, David. ''Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and anti-Semitism''. Dundurn Press, 2005.
*A M Roth, Norman Roth, Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain, Brill Academic, 1994.
*Selzer, Michael (ed). ''"Kike!" : A documentary history of anti-semitism in America'', New York 1972
*[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/40258.htm ''U.S. State Department Report on Global Anti-Semitism'', 2005.]
*[http://www.adl.org/antisemitism_survey/survey_print.asp Anti-Semitism and Prejudice in America]
*Peter Schafer. ''Judeophobia'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1997. p 208.
== External links ==
*[http://www.aish.com/seminars/whythejews/ Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism]
*[http://www.antisemitism.org.il/ Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism] (with up to date calendar of anti-semitism today)
*[http://har2.huji.ac.il:83/ALEPH/ENG/SAS/BAS/BAS/START Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism] hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/antisem.html Anti-Semitism and responses]
*[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/ The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary anti-Semitism and Racism] hosted by the Tel Aviv University - (includes an annual report)
*[http://www.shma.com/nov02/pierre.htm Jews, the End of the Vertical Alliance, and Contemporary Antisemitism]
*[http://www.masada2000.org/Who-Us.html An Israeli point of view on antisemitism, by Steve Plaut]
*[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/article.asp?aid=11906035_1 The Anti-Semitic Disease] - an analysis of Anti-Semitism by [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]] in ''[[Commentary Magazine]]''
*[http://w |
gt;2</sub> = 2<sup>6</sup>+2<sup>5</sup>+2<sup>2</sup>, algorithm needs 8 multiplications instead of 99
* ''x''<sup>1,000</sup> = ((((((((''x''<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup> because 10<sup>3</sup> = (1,111,101,000)<sub>2</sub>, algorithm needs 14 multiplications instead of 999
* ''x''<sup>1,000,000</sup> = ((((((((((((((((((''x''<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup> because 10<sup>6</sup> = (11,110,100,001,001,000,000)<sub>2</sub>, algorithm needs 25 multiplications
* ''x''<sup>1,000,000,000</sup> = ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((''x''<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*''x'')<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup> because 10<sup>9</sup> = (111,011,100,110,101,100,101,000,000,000)<sub>2</sub>, algorithm needs 41 multiplications
== Example implementations ==
=== Computation by powers of 2 ===
This is a non-recursive implementation of the above algorithm in the [[Ruby programming language]].
In most [[static typing|statically typed]] languages, <tt>result=1</tt> must be replaced with code assigning an [[identity matrix]] of the same size as <tt>x</tt> to <tt>result</tt> to get a matrix exponentiating algorithm. In Ruby, thanks to coercion, <tt>result</tt> is automatically upgraded to the appropriate type, so this function works with matrices as well as with integers and floats.
<pre>def power(x,n)
result = 1
while (n != 0)
# if n is odd, multiply result with x. decrement n by 1
if (n.modulo(2) == 1)
result = result * x
n = n-1
end
# last iteration: no need to compute x = one more power of 2
if (n > 0) then
x = x*x
n = n/2
end
end
return result
end</pre>
==== Runtime example: Compute 3<sup>10</sup> ====
parameter x = 3
parameter n = 10
result := 1
'''Iteration 1'''
n = 10 -&gt; n is even
x := x<sup>2</sup> = 3<sup>2</sup> = 9
n := n / 2 = 5
'''Iteration 2'''
n = 5 -&gt; n is odd
-&gt; result := result * x = 1 * x = 1 * 3<sup>2</sup> = 9
n := n - 1 = 4
x := x<sup>2</sup> = 9<sup>2</sup> = 3<sup>4</sup> = 81
n := n / 2 = 2
'''Iteration 3'''
n = 2 -&gt; n is even
x := x<sup>2</sup> = 81<sup>2</sup> = 3<sup>8</sup> = 6,561
n := n / 2 = 1
'''Iteration 4'''
n = 1 -&gt; n is odd
-&gt; result := result * x = 3<sup>2</sup> * 3<sup>8</sup> = 3<sup>10</sup> = 9 * 6561 = 59,049
n := n - 1 = 0
return result
=== Computation by binary representation ===
<pre>function power ( x, n )
if ( n equals 0 ) return 1
result := x
bin := binary_representation_of ( n )
for digit := second_digit_of_bin to last_digit_of_bin
result := result * result
if ( digit equals "1" ) result := result * x
end
return result
end</pre>
==== Runtime example: Compute 3<sup>10</sup> ====
result := 3
[[bin]] := "1010"
'''Iteration for digit 2:'''
result := result<sup>2</sup> = 3<sup>2</sup> = 9
1'''0'''10<sub>bin</sub> - Digit equals "0"
'''Iteration for digit 3:'''
result := result<sup>2</sup> = (3<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup> = 3<sup>4</sup> = 81
10'''1'''0<sub>bin</sub> - Digit equals "1" --&gt;&nbsp;result := result*3 = (3<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*3 = 3<sup>5</sup> = 243
'''Iteration for digit 4:'''
result := result<sup>2</sup> = ((3<sup>2</sup>)<sup>2</sup>*3)<sup>2</sup> = 3<sup>10</sup> = 59,049
101'''0'''<sub>bin</sub> - Digit equals "0"
return result
JavaScript-Demonstration: http://home.arcor.de/wzwz.de/wiki/ebs/en.htm
=== Generalization with example ===
==== Generalization ====
Let the pair ( '''S''', '''*''' ) be a [[Semigroup]], that means '''S''' is an arbitrary [[set]]
and '''*''' is an [[associative]] [[binary operation]] on '''S''':
* For all elements a and b of '''S''' is '''a*b''' also an element of '''S'''
* For all elements a, b and c of '''S''' is valid: '''(a*b)*c''' equals '''a*(b*c)'''
We may call '''*''' a "multiplication" and define an "exponentiation" '''E''' in the following way:<br>
For all elements a of '''S''':
* '''E''' ( a, 1 ) := a
* For all [[natural number|natural numbers]] n > 0 is defined: '''E''' ( a, n+1 ) := '''E''' ( a, n ) '''*''' a
Now the algorithm exponentiation by squaring may be used for fast computing of '''E'''-values.
====Text application====
Because the concatenation '''+''' is an associative operation on the set of all finite [[string (computer science)|strings]] over a fixed alphabet
( with the empty string "" as its [[identity element]] ) exponentiation by squaring may be used for fast repeating of strings.
Example ( javascript ):
function repeat ( s, n ) {
if ( s == "" || n < 1 ) return ""
var res = s
var bin = n.toString ( 2 )
for ( var i = 1 ; i < bin.length ; i++ ) {
res = res + res
if ( bin.charAt ( i ) == '1' ) res = res + s
}
return res
}
The call '''repeat ( 'Abc', 6 )''' returns the string '''AbcAbcAbcAbcAbcAbc'''
===Calculation of products of powers===
Exponentiation by squaring may also be used to calculate the product of 2 or more powers.
====Example====
The formula a<sup>7</sup>×b<sup>5</sup> may by calculated within 3 steps:
:((a)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a (four multiplications for calculating a<sup>7</sup>)
:((b)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup></span>)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>b (three multiplications for calculating b<sup>5</sup>)
: (a<sup>7</sup>)<span style="color:red;">×</span>(b<sup>5</sup>) (one multiplication to calculate the product of the two)
so one gets eight multiplications in total.
A faster solution is to calculate both powers simultaneously:
:((a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b
which needs only 6 multiplications in total. Note that a×b is calculated twice, the result could be stored after the first calculation which reduces the count of multiplication to 5.
Example with numbers:
:2<sup>7</sup>×3<sup>5</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;((2×3)<sup>2</sup>×2)<sup>2</sup>×2×3&nbsp;=&nbsp;(6<sup>2</sup>×2)<sup>2</sup>×6&nbsp;=&nbsp;72<sup>2</sup>×6&nbsp;=&nbsp;31,104
Calculating the powers simultaneously instead of calculating them separately always reduces the
count of multiplications [[iff]] at least two of the exponents are greater than 1.
==== Using transformation ====
The example above a<sup>7</sup>×b<sup>5</sup> may also be calculated with only 5
multiplication if the expression is transformed before calculation:
a<sup>7</sup>×b<sup>5</sup> = a<sup>2</sup>×ab<sup>5</sup> with ab := a×b
<dl>
<dd>ab := a<span style="color:red;">×</span>b (one multiplication)</dd>
<dd>a<sup>2</sup>×ab<sup>5</sup> = ((ab)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>a)<span style="color:red;"><sup>2</sup>×</span>ab (four multiplications)</dd>
</dl>
Generalization of transformation shows the following scheme:<br>
For calculating a<sup>A</sup>×b<sup>B</sup>×...×m<sup>M</sup>×n<sup>N</sup><br>
1st: define ab := a×b, abc = ab×c, ...<br>
2nd: calculate the trans |
te ehn-gleh-skee)
|}
== [[Breton language|Breton]] ([[Celtic languages|Celtic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
|-
|Breton:
|''Brezhoneg''
|{{IPA|/"bʁetɔ̃n/}}
|-
|hello:
|''salud''
|{{IPA|/"saːlyt/}}
|-
|good-bye:
|''kenavo''
|{{IPA|/kenaˈvoː/}}
|-
|please:
|''mar plij''
|{{IPA|/maʁ pliʃ/}}
|-
|thank you:
|''trugarez''
|{{IPA|/tʁyˈgaːʁɛs/}}
|-
|sorry:
|''digarez''
|{{IPA|/diˈgaʁɛs/}}
|-
|that one:
|''hennezh''
|{{IPA|/ˈennɛs/}}
|-
|how much?:
|''pegement''
|{{IPA|/peˈgemɛn/}}
|-
|yes:
|''ya''
|{{IPA|/ja/}}
|-
|no:
|''nann''
|{{IPA|/nãn/}}
|-
|I don't understand:
|''Ne gomprenan ket''
|{{IPA|/ne gɔ̃mpʁenãn ket/}}
|-
|Where's the bathroom?:
|''Pelec'h emañ ar sal dour ?''
|{{IPA|/peˈlɛx ema aʁ zal duʁ/}}
|-
|generic toast:
|''yec'hed mat !''
|{{IPA|/jehɛt mat/}}
|-
|Do you speak English?:
|''Kaozeal a rit saozneg?''
|{{IPA|/kozeal a ʁit saoznɛk/}}
|}
== [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|- valign=top
|-
|hello || здравей || || {{IPA|/&#712;zdrav&#603;j/}} || zdravey
|-
|hello || здрасти || || {{IPA|/&#712;zdrasti/}} || zdrasti || informal
|-
|good morning || Добро утро || || {{IPA|/&#712;d&#596;br&#596; &#712;utr&#596;/}} || dobro oo-tro
|-
|good day || Добър ден || || {{IPA|/&#712;d&#596;b&#601;r d&#603;n/}} || dobar den
|-
|good evening || Добър вечер || || {{IPA|/&#712;d&#596;b&#601;r &#712;v&#603;t&#643;er/}} || dobar vecher
|-
|good night || Лека нощ || || {{IPA|/&#712;l&#603;ka n&#596;&#643;t/}} || leka nosht
|-
|goodbye || Довиждане || || {{IPA|/d&#596;vi&#712;&#658;dan&#603;/}} || dovizhdane
|-
|how are you? || Как си? || || {{IPA|/&#712;kak si/}} || kak see || informal
|-
|I'm fine || Добре съм || || {{IPA|/&#712;d&#596;br&#603; s&#601;m/}} || dobre sam
|-
|Where is the toilet? || Къде е тоалетната? || || {{IPA|/k&#601;d&#603; &#603; t&#596;a&#712;l&#603;tnata/}} || kade e to-alet-nata
|-
|all the best || Всичко най-хубаво || || {{IPA|/v&#712;sit&#643;k&#596; nai-xub&#712;av&#596;/}} || vsich-ko nay hoo-bavo
|-
|regards || Поздрави || || {{IPA|/p&#596;zdra&#712;vi/}} || pozdravi
|-
|thank you || Благодаря || || {{IPA|/blag&#596;da&#712;r&#690;a/}} || blago-darya
|-
|happy birthday || Честит рожден ден! || || {{IPA|/t&#643;&#603;&#712;stit r&#596;&#658;d&#712;&#603;n d&#603;n/}} || chestit rozhden den
|-
|Bulgarian language || Български език || || {{IPA|/b&#601;lg&#712;arski &#603;&#712;zik/}} || balgarski ezik
|-
|yes || да || || {{IPA|/da/}} || da
|-
|no || не || || {{IPA|/n&#603;/}} || ne
|-
|of course || разбира се || || {{IPA|/raz&#712;bira s&#603;/}} || razbira se
|-
|Please, enter! || Влезте, моля! || || {{IPA|/&#712;vl&#603;zt&#603; &#712;m&#596;&#654;a/}} || vlezte molya || formal (2nd p. plural)
|-
|Enter! || Влез! || || {{IPA|/vl&#603;z/}} || vlez || informal (2nd p. singular)
|}
== [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|-
|Catalan:
|''català'', ''valencià''
|{{IPA|[kətəˈlɑ], [vałensi'ɑ]}}
|-
|hello:
|''hola''
|{{IPA|[ˈɔlə]}}
|-
|good-bye:
|''adéu''
|{{IPA|[əˈðew]}}
|-
|please:
|''si us plau'', ''sisplau''
|{{IPA|[sisˈplɑw]}}
|-
|thank you:
|''gràcies''; ''mercès''
|{{IPA|[ˈgrɑsjəs]; [mərˈsɛs]}}
|-
|sorry:
|''perdó''
|{{IPA|[pərˈðo]}}
|-
|that one:
|''aquest'' (m.); ''aquesta'' (f.)
|{{IPA|[əˈkɛt]; [əˈkɛstə]}}
|-
|how much?:
|''quant val''; ''quant és''
|{{IPA|[ˈkwɑmˈbɑl]; [ˈkwɑnˈes]}}
|-
|yes:
|''sí''
|{{IPA|[ˈsi]}}
|-
|no:
|''no''
|{{IPA|[ˈno]}}
|-
|I don't understand:
|''No ho entenc''
|{{IPA|[ˈnowənˈteŋ]}}
|-
|Where's the bathroom?:
|''On és el bany?''; ''on és el lavabo?''
|{{IPA|[ˈonˈezəlˈβɑɲ]; [ˈonˈezəlləˈβɑβu]}}
|-
|generic toast:
|''Salut!''
|{{IPA|[səˈlut]}}
|-
|Do you speak English?:
|''Que parleu anglès?'' (formal), ''Que parles anglès?'' (informal)
|{{IPA|[kəpərˈlɛwənˈglɛs]; [kəˈpɑrləzənˈglɛs]}}
|-
|Do you speak Catalan?:
|''Que parleu català?'' (formal), ''Que parles català?'' (informal)
|{{IPA|[kəpərˈlɛwkətəˈlɑ]; [kəˈpɑrləskətəˈlɑ]}}
|}
==[[Chinese language]]s==
===[[Standard Cantonese|Chinese, Cantonese]] ([[Chinese language|Sinitic]])===
''Note: Cantonese is a [[tone (linguistics)|tonal language]]. Pronunciations provided below include numbers indicating tone. Tone 1 is high and level/falling; 2 is medium and rising; 3 is medium and level; 4 is low and falling; 5 is low and rising, 6 is low and level. For more info, see [[Standard Cantonese]]. The characters shown are [[Traditional Chinese character]]s. Pronunciation is given using [[Jyutping]] and [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]. However, non-use of the tones will not hinder comprehension for such simple phrases.''
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Jyutping
! align=left | IPA
|-
|Cantonese:
|廣東話
|''gwong2 dung1 waa2''
|{{IPA|/kwɔːŋ2 tʊŋ1 wɑː2/}}
|-
|hello
|你好
|''nei5 hou2''
|{{IPA|/nei5 hou2/}}
|-
|good-bye
|再見
|''zoi3 gin3''
|{{IPA|/tsɔːi3 kiːn3/}}
|-
|bye-bye
|拜拜
|''baai1 baai3''
|{{IPA|/pɑːi1 pɑːi3/}}
|-
|please
|唔該
|''m4 goi1''
|{{IPA|/m̩4 kɔːi1/}}
|-
|thank you (for gifts)
|多謝
|''do1 ze3''
|{{IPA|/tɔː1 tsɛː3/}}
|-
|thank you (for services rendered)
|唔該
|''m4 goi1''
|{{IPA|/m̩4 kɔːi1/}}
|-
|sorry
|對唔住
|''deoi3 m4 zyu6''
|{{IPA|/dɵy3 m̩4 tsyː6/}}
|-
|this one
|呢個
|''ni1 go3'' or ''nei1 go3''
|{{IPA|/niː1 kɔː3/}} or {{IPA|/nei1 kɔː3/}}
|-
|that one
|嗰個
|''go2 go3''
|{{IPA|/kɔː2 kɔː3/}}
|-
|how much/many? (ask for quantity)
|有幾多呀
|''yau5 gei2 do1 aa3''
|{{IPA|/jɐu5 kei2 tɔː1 ɑː3/}}
|-
|how much? (ask for amount of money)
|幾多錢呀
|''gei2 do1 cin2 aa3''
|{{IPA|/kei2 tɔː1 ts̚in2 ɑː3/}}
|-
|yes
|係
|''hai6''
|{{IPA|/hɐi6/}}
|-
|no
|唔係
|''m4 hai6''
|{{IPA|/m̩4 hɐi6/}}
|-
|correct/right
|啱
|''am1''
|{{IPA|/a:m1/}}
|-
|incorrect/wrong
|唔啱
|''m4 am1''
|{{IPA|/m̩4 a:m1/}}
|-
|I don't understand
|我唔明白
|''ngo5 m4 ming4 baak6''
|{{IPA|/ŋɔː5 m̩4 mɪŋ4 bɑːk6/}}
|-
|Where's the bathroom?
|洗手間喺邊度呀？
|''sai2 sau2 gaan1 hai2 bin1 dou6 aa3''
|{{IPA|/sɐi2 sɐu2 kɑːn1 hɐi2 piːn1 tou6 ɑː3/}}
|-
|Do you speak English?
|你識唔識講英文呀？
|''nei5 sik1 m4 sik1 gong2 jing1 man2 aa3''
|{{IPA|/nei5 sɪk1 m̩4 sɪk1 kɔːŋ2 jɪŋ1 mɐn2 ɑː3/}}
|}
Note: Cantonese, like most of the other Chinese languages, does not actually have words for "yes" and "no." Translations for "yes" and "no" given above actually mean "it is" and "it is not" and can be used for questions asking for confirmation. However, for certain yes/no questions, one would normally respond with the verb or the negation of the verb. For instance, to respond to a question such as "do you want to go?" one would respond with "want" or "not want."
=== [[Standard Mandarin|Chinese, Mandarin]] ([[Chinese language|Sinitic]]) ===
''Note || Mandarin Chinese is a [[tonal language]]. Tone 1 (e.g. mā) is high and level; 2 (e.g., má) is rising; 3 (e.g., mǎ) is low dipping; 4 (e.g., mà) is falling. For more info, see [[pinyin]]. Also note that the first set of characters preceding the slashes are in [[Simplified_Chinese|simplified Chinese characters]] and the ones following the slashes are in [[Traditional_Chinese|traditional characters]]. If the simplified- and traditional-character versions of a phrase are identical, only one phrase is shown.''
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pinyin
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
! align=left | Literal meaning
|-
| Mandarin Chinese || 国语 / 國語or <br> 普通话 / 普通話 || (''guóyǔ'') <br> (''pǔtōnghuà'') || {{IPA|[kwɔ̌ jỳ]}} <br> {{IPA|[pʰù tʰʊ̋ŋ xwɑ̂]}} || (gwo yew)<br> (poo-toong-hwa) || National language <br> Common speech
|-
| hello || 你好 || (''ní hǎo'') || {{IPA|[nǐ xàw]}} ||(knee-how) || You're good
|-
| good-bye || 再见 / 再見 || (''zàijiàn'') || {{IPA|[tsâj ʨjɛ̂n]}} ||(dzai-jyen) || Meet again, lit "to the next sighting"
|-
| please || 请 / 請 || (''qǐng'') || {{IPA|[ʨʰìŋ]}} ||(cheeng)
|-
| thank you || 谢谢 / 謝謝 || (''xièxie'') || {{IPA|[ɕjɛ̂-ɕjɛ̂]}} ||(shyeh-shyeh)
|-
| that one || 那个 / 那個 || (''nèige'') || {{IPA|[nêj gə]}} ||(nay guh) ||''See Usage Note 1''
|-
| sorry || 对不起 || (''duì bù qǐ'') || ||(dway boo chee)
|-
| how much? || 多少 || (''duōshǎo'') || {{IPA|[twɔ̋ ʂàw]}} ||(dwo shahw) || Many few
|-
| English || 英文 || (''Yīngwén'') || {{IPA|[jɪ̋ŋ wə̌n]}} ||(ing when)
|-
| yes || 是 || (''shì'') || {{IPA|/ʂɻ̂/}} ||(sher as in sherpa) || ''See Usage Note 2'' || [It] is
|-
| no || 不 ||(''bù'') || {{IPA|[pû]}} ||(boo)
|-
| where's the toilet? || 厕所在哪里 / 廁所在哪裏 || (''cèsuǒ zài nálǐ?'') || {{IPA|[tsʰɤ̂ swɔ̀ tsâj nɑ̌ lì]}} ||(tsuh swo dzai nah lee?) || ''Not the politest, but you'll get your point across!'' || Bathroom at/in where
|-
| generic toast || 干杯 / 乾杯 || (''gān bēi'') || {{IPA|[ka̋n pe̋j]}} ||(gahn bay) || || Dry glass/cup
|}
====Usage Notes====
# The second syllable of "nèige" is actually a generic [[measure word]]; it is replaced by the appropriate measure word for the noun it refers to. You may therefore hear a number of different syllables after the initial nèi. In many parts of southern China, nèi is also pronounced nà.
# This actually means "it is" and can only be used in an answer to a questi |
W m<sup>-2</sup> in the [[SAR_(IPCC)|SAR)]]) with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m<sup>-2</sup>". [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm].
[[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]]
[[Category:Climatology]]
[[Category:Climate forcing]]
[[Category:Astrophysics]]
[[als:Albedo]]
[[bg:Албедо]]
[[bs:Albedo]]
[[ca:Albedo]]
[[cs:Albedo]]
[[da:Albedo]]
[[de:Albedo]]
[[et:Albeedo]]
[[es:Albedo]]
[[eo:Albedo]]
[[fr:Albédo]]
[[gl:Albedo]]
[[ko:반사율]]
[[hr:Albedo]]
[[it:Albedo]]
[[he:אלבדו]]
[[hu:Albedó]]
[[nl:Weerkaatsingsvermogen]]
[[ja:アルベド]]
[[no:Albedo]]
[[nn:Albedo]]
[[pl:Albedo]]
[[pt:Albedo]]
[[ru:Альбедо]]
[[sk:Albedo]]
[[sr:Албедо]]
[[fi:Albedo]]
[[sv:Albedo]]
[[uk:Альбедо]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AfroAsiaticLanguages</title>
<id>40</id>
<revision>
<id>15898969</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:39:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ArtificalLanguages</title>
<id>42</id>
<revision>
<id>39218545</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T16:19:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nikai</username>
<id>9759</id>
</contributor>
<comment>R from misspelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abu Dhabi</title>
<id>43</id>
<revision>
<id>41580021</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T07:19:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.193.1.105|71.193.1.105]] ([[User talk:71.193.1.105|talk]]) to last version by Bloodshedder</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AbuDhabi02.JPG|thumb|View of Abu Dhabi|right|300px]]
[[Image:Abu Dhabi from Space-ISS006-E-32079-March 2003.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Abu Dhabi (March 2003)]]
[[Image:Emirates_Palace_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi_front.jpg|thumb|Emirates Palace Hotel Front|right|300px]]
[[Image:Emirates_Palace_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi_side.jpg|thumb|Emirates Palace Hotel from the side|right|300px]]
'''Abu Dhabi''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: &#1571;&#1576;&#1608; &#1592;&#1576;&#1610; ''&#700;Ab&#363; &#7826;aby'') is the largest of the seven [[emirate]]s that comprise the [[United Arab Emirates]] and was also the largest of the former [[Trucial States]]. '''Abu Dhabi''' is also a city of the same name within the Emirate that is the [[capital city|capital]] of the country, in north central UAE. The city lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the [[Persian Gulf]] from the central western coast. An estimated 1,000,000 lived there in 2000, with about an 80% [[expatriate]] population. Abu Dhabi city is located at {{coor d|24.4667|N|54.3667|E}}. [[Al Ain]] is Abu Dhabi's second largest urban area with a population of 348,000 ([[2003]] census estimate) and is located 150 kilometres inland.
==History==
Parts of Abu Dhabi were settled as far back as the [[3rd millennium BC]] and its early history fits the nomadic, herding and fishing pattern typical of the broader region. Modern Abu Dhabi traces its origins to the rise of an important tribal confederation the Bani Yas in the late 18th century, who also assumed control of [[Dubai]]. In the 19th century the Dubai and Abu Dhabi branches parted ways.
Into the mid-20th century, the economy of Abu Dhabi continued to be sustained mainly by camel herding, production of dates and vegetables at the inland oases of [[Al Ain]] and Liwa, and fishing and pearl diving off the coast of Abu Dhabi city, which was occupied mainly during the summer months. Most dwellings in Abu Dhabi city were, at this time constructed of palm fronds (barasti), with the better-off families occupying mud huts. The growth of the cultured pearl industry in the first half of the 20th century created hardship for residents of Abu Dhabi as pearls represented the largest export and main source of cash earnings.
In 1939, Sheikh [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]] granted [[Petroleum]] concessions, and oil was first found in 1958. At first, oil money had a marginal impact. A few lowrise concete buildings were erected, and the first paved road was completed in 1961, but Sheikh Shakbut, uncertain whether the new oil royalties would last, took a cautious approach, prefering to save the revenue rather than investing it in development. His brother, [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan]], saw that oil wealth had the potential to transform Abu Dhabi. The ruling Al Nahayan family decided that Sheikh Zayed should replace his brother as Ruler and carry out his vision of developing the country. On [[August 6]], [[1966]], with the assistance of the British, Sheikh Zayed became the new ruler. See generally, Al-Fahim, M, ''From Rags to Riches: A Story of Abu Dhabi'', Chapter Six (London Centre of Arab Studies, 1995), ISBN 1 900404 00 1.
With the announcement by Britain in 1968 that it would withdraw from the Gulf area by 1971, Sheikh Zayed became the main driving force behind the formation of the [[United Arab Emirates]].
After the Emirates gained independence in 1971, oil wealth continued to flow to the area and traditional [[Mudbrick|mud-brick]] [[hut]]s were rapidly replaced with [[banks]], boutiques and modern [[highrise]]s.
==Current ruler==
His Highness Sheikh [[Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahayan]] is the hereditary [[Emir|emir]] and ruler of Abu Dhabi, as well as the current president of the [[United Arab Emirates]] (UAE).
==Postal History==
[[Image:Stamp_Abu_1967_40f-170px.jpg|right|170px|thumb|[[Shaikh]] [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Zaid]], [[1967]].]]
Now part of the [[United Arab Emirates]], '''Abu Dhabi''' was formerly the largest of the seven sheikdoms which made up the [[Trucial States]] on the so-called [[Pirate Coast]] of eastern [[Arabia]] between [[Oman]] and [[Qatar]]. The [[Trucial States]] as a whole had an area of some 32,000 square miles of which Abu Dhabi alone had 26,000. The capital was the town of Abu Dhabi which is on an offshore island and was first settled in 1761.
The name [[Trucial States]] arose from [[treaties]] made with [[Great Britain]] in 1820 which ensured a condition of [[truce]] in the area and the suppression of [[piracy]] and [[slavery]]. The [[treaty]] expired on [[31 December]] [[1966]]. The decision to form the [[UAE]] was made on [[18 July]] [[1971]] and the [[federation]] was founded on [[1 August]] [[1972]], although the inaugural [[UAE]] stamps were not issued until [[1 January]] [[1973]].
[[petroleum|Oil]] production began on [[Das Island]] after [[prospecting]] during 1956-1960. [[Das Island]] is part of Abu Dhabi but lies well [[offshore]], about 100 miles north of the mainland. [[petroleum|Oil]] production on the [[mainland]] began in 1962. As a major [[petroleum|oil]] producer, Abu Dhabi soon acquired massive [[financial]] wealth. [[Investment]] in long-term [[construction]] projects and the establishment of a [[finance]] sector has led to the area becoming a centre of [[commerce]] which may well secure its lasting importance when the [[petroleum|oil]] resources are exhausted.
In December 1960, [[postage stamps]] of [[Compendium of postage stamp issuers (Brit - British)#British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia|British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia]] were supplied to the [[construction]] workers on [[Das Island]] but the [[postal service]] was administered via the agency office in [[Bahrain]]. The [[mail]] was also [[postmark]]ed [[Bahrain]] so there was no clear indication that a [[letter]] had come from [[Das Island]].
On [[30 March]] [[1963]], a British agency was opened in Abu Dhabi and issued the agency stamps after the sheik objected to the use of the [[Trucial States]] [[definitive]]s. [[Mail]] from [[Das Island]] continued to be administered by [[Bahrain]] but was now cancelled by an Abu Dhabi [[Trucial States]] [[postmark]].
The first Abu Dhabi stamps were a [[definitive series]] of [[30 March]] [[1964]] depicting [[Shaikh]] [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]]. There were eleven values under the [[India|Indian]] [[currency]] that was used of 100 [[paisa|naye paise]] = 1 [[rupee]]. The range of values was 5 np to 10 [[rupee]]s. Despite the introduction of these [[definitive]]s, the British agency stamps remained valid in both Abu Dhabi and [[Das Island]] until the end of 1966 when they were withdrawn.
A [[post office]] was opened on [[Das Island]] on [[6 January]] [[1966]] and this ended the [[Bahrain]] service. [[Mail]] from [[Das Island]] was now handled within Abu Dhabi.
When the [[treaty]] with [[Great Britain]] expired at the end of 1966, Abu Dhabi introduced a new [[currency]] of 1000 [[fils]] = 1 [[dinar]] and took over its own postal administration, including the [[Das Island]] office. The earlier issues were subject to [[surcharge]]s in this [[currency]] and replacement [[definitive]]s were released depicting the new ruler [[Shaikh]] [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Zaid]]. Issues continued until introduction of [[UAE]] stamps in 1973.
In all, Abu Dhabi issued 95 stamps from 1964 to 1972, the final set being three views of the [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]].
'''Source''': [http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html Encyclopaedia of Postal History]
==Climate==
Sunny/blue skies can be expected through-out the year. The months June through September are generally hot and humid with temperatures averaging above 40ºC(110ºF). The weather is usually pleasant from October to May. January to February is cooler and may require the use of a light jacket. The oasis city of [[Al |
= \sinh(i x) \;</math>
==Other applications==
In [[differential equations]], the function ''e''<sup>''ix''</sup> is often used to simplify derivations, even if the final answer is a real function involving sine and cosine. [[Euler's identity]] is an easy consequence of Euler's formula.
In [[electrical engineering]] and other fields, signals that vary periodically over time are often described as a combination of sine and cosine functions (see [[Fourier analysis]]), and these are more conveniently expressed as the real part of exponential functions with [[imaginary number|imaginary]] exponents, using Euler's formula.
==Proofs==
===Using Taylor series===
Here is a proof of Euler's formula using [[Taylor series]] expansions
as well as basic facts about the powers of ''i'':
: <math>i^0=1 \,</math>
: <math>i^1=i \,</math>
: <math>i^2=-1 \,</math>
: <math>i^3=-i \,</math>
: <math>i^4=1 \,</math>
: <math>i^5=i \,</math>
and so on. The functions ''e''<sup>''x''</sup>, cos(''x'') and sin(''x'') (assuming ''x'' is [[real number|real]]) can be written as:
: <math> e^x = 1 + x + \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^3}{3!} + \cdots </math>
: <math> \cos x = 1 - \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^4}{4!} - \frac{x^6}{6!} + \cdots
</math>
: <math> \sin x = x - \frac{x^3}{3!} + \frac{x^5}{5!} - \frac{x^7}{7!} + \cdots
</math>
and for complex ''z'' we ''define'' each of these function by the above series, replacing ''x'' with ''iz''. This is possible because the radius of convergence of each series is infinite. We then find that
: <math>e^{iz} = 1 + iz + \frac{(iz)^2}{2!} + \frac{(iz)^3}{3!} + \frac{(iz)^4}{4!} + \frac{(iz)^5}{5!} + \frac{(iz)^6}{6!} + \frac{(iz)^7}{7!} + \frac{(iz)^8}{8!} + \cdots</math>
: <math>= 1 + iz - \frac{z^2}{2!} - \frac{iz^3}{3!} + \frac{z^4}{4!} + \frac{iz^5}{5!} - \frac{z^6}{6!} - \frac{iz^7}{7!} + \frac{z^8}{8!} + \cdots</math>
: <math>= \left( 1 - \frac{z^2}{2!} + \frac{z^4}{4!} - \frac{z^6}{6!} + \frac{z^8}{8!} + \cdots \right) + i\left( z - \frac{z^3}{3!} + \frac{z^5}{5!} - \frac{z^7}{7!} + \cdots \right) </math>
: <math>= \cos (z) + i\sin (z) \,</math>
The rearrangement of terms is justified because each series is absolutely convergent. Taking ''z'' = ''x'' to be a real number gives the original identity as Euler discovered it.
[[Q.E.D.]]
===Using calculus===
Define the complex number <math>z</math> such that
:<math>z=\cos x + i\sin x \,</math> (ignoring the modulus term, as this cancels later)
Differentiating <math>z</math> with respect to <math>x</math>:
:<math>\frac{dz}{dx}=-\sin x + i\cos x</math>
Using the fact that ''i''<sup>2</sup> = -1:
:<math>\frac{dz}{dx}=i^2\sin x + i\cos x=i(\cos x + i\sin x)=iz</math>
Separating variables and integrating both sides:
:<math>\int\frac{1}{z}\,dz=\int i\,dx</math>
:<math>\ln z=ix + C\,</math>
where
:<math>C</math> is the constant of integration.
To finish the proof we have to argue that <math>C</math> is zero. This is easily done by substituting <math>x=0</math>.
:<math>\ln z = C\,</math>
But <math>z</math> is just equal to:
:<math>z = \cos x + i\sin x = \cos 0 + i \sin 0 = 1 \,</math>
thus
:<math>\ln 1 = C \,</math>
:<math>C = 0 \,</math>
So now we just exponentiate
:<math>\ln z = ix \,</math>
:<math>e^{\ln z} = e^{ix} \,</math>
:<math>z = e^{ix} \,</math>
:<math>e^{ix} = \cos x + i\sin x \,</math>
''Q.E.D.''
==References==
* Feynman, Richard P., ''The Feynman Lectures on Physics'', vol. I Addison-Wesley ([[1977]]), ISBN 0201020106, ISBN 02010211161
==External links==
*[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/Eulerformula.htm Euler and his beautiful and extraordinary formula] by Antonio Gutierrez from Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas.
*[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/Puzzle_EulerFormula.htm Euler's Formula - Puzzle: 55 pieces in a six star style of piece] by Antonio Gutierrez from Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas.
*[http://www.DJTricities.com/eulers Detailed Proof of Euler's Relation] by Craig Lewis.
*[http://ccrma-www.stanford.edu/~jos/mdft/Proof_Euler_s_Identity.html Proof of Euler's Formula] by Julius O. Smith III
*[http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2006/02/eulers-formula.html Euler's Formula and Fermat's Last Theorem]
==See also==
* [[Leonhard Euler]]
* [[Euler's identity]]
* [[Complex number]]
* [[Exponential function]]
* [[Trigonometry]]
[[Category:Complex analysis]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
[[de:Eulersche Formel]]
[[es:Fórmula de Euler]]
[[fr:Formule d'Euler]]
[[he:&#1504;&#1493;&#1505;&#1495;&#1514; &#1488;&#1493;&#1497;&#1500;&#1512;]]
[[it:Formula di Eulero]]
[[ja:&#12458;&#12452;&#12521;&#12540;&#12398;&#20844;&#24335;]]
[[ko:&#50724;&#51068;&#47084; &#44277;&#49885;]]
[[nl:Formule van Euler]]
[[pl:Wzór Eulera]]
[[ru:Формулы Эйлера]]
[[fi:Eulerin kaava]]
[[sv:Eulers formel]]
[[th:สูตรของออยเลอร์]]
[[vi:Công th&#7913;c Euler]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eductor-jet pump</title>
<id>9614</id>
<revision>
<id>30531988</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-08T00:03:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JohJak2</username>
<id>316316</id>
</contributor>
<comment>interwiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eductor-[[jet]] [[pumps]]''' are useful for draining areas which may contain [[volatile]] fluids (which could ignite if exposed to the workings of a standard electric or [[internal combustion]] powered pump) or high levels of debris (which could damage screws or blades in conventional pump designs).
A source of pressurized fluid (eg, a firehose) is connected to a chamber which is open on one end, and leads to an exhaust hose on the other end. The pressurized fluid is forced through [[nozzle]]s (called eductor jets) mounted axially on the inside of the pump chamber, pointed in the direction of the exhaust hose. The passage of the pressurized fluid through the chamber and into the exhaust hose creates a suction on the open end of the chamber ([[Venturi]] effect), such that any fluid the pump chamber has been submerged in will be drawn into the chamber and thence into the exhaust hose along with the fluid from the eductor jet nozzles.
[[Category:Pumps]]
[[nl:Waterstraalpomp]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Édouard Manet</title>
<id>9615</id>
<revision>
<id>42029322</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:48:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.126.68.131</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Manet-Nadar.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Édouard Manet (portrait by [[Nadar]])]]
'''Édouard Manet''' ([[January 23]], [[1832]] &ndash; [[April 30]], [[1883]]) was a [[France|French]] painter. One of the first [[19th century]] artists to approach modern-life subjects, his art bridged the gap between [[realism (arts)|Realism]] and [[Impressionism|Impressionism]].
== Early life ==
Édouard Manet was born in [[Paris]]. His mother, Eugénie-Desirée Fournier, was the goddaughter of the [[Sweden|Swedish]] crown prince, Charles Bernadotte from whom the current Swedish monarchs are descended, and his father, Auguste Manet, was a French judge. His father wanted him to also pursue a career in law, but he wanted a career in the arts. His uncle, Charles Fournier, encouraged him to pursue painting and often took young Manet to the [[Louvre]].
From [[1850]] to [[1856]], after failing the examination to join the navy, Manet studied under academic painter [[Thomas Couture]]. In his spare time he copied the [[Old Master|old masters]] in the Louvre. He visited [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]], during which time he absorbed the influences of the Dutch painter [[Frans Hals]], and the Spanish artists [[Diego Velázquez]] and [[Francisco Goya|Francisco José de Goya]].
Manet, in imitation of the then current style of [[realism (arts)|realism]] initiated by [[Gustave Courbet]], painted everyday subjects like beggars, cafés, bullfights, and other events and scenery. He produced very few religious, mythological, or historical paintings.
== Music in the Tuileries ==
[[Image:Edouard Manet 036.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Music in the Tuileries]]
Manet painted a picture of people he knew enjoying themselves in the Tuileries Gardens. ''Music in the Tuileries'' was a painting of the sort of lifestyle which he enjoyed; music, conversation, dancing and fun. While the picture has been regarded as not very well finished by some, the atmosphere created gives the viewer a sense of what it would be like in the Tuileries gardens at the time; the music which would be playing, the conversation and the sounds of glasses clinking. The senses are very much a part of this work. The work includes a self-portrait. The painting shows people he knew personally; artists, authors and musicians. He based the work on a series of sketches which he did when he visited the Tuileries gardens and did sketches of people relaxing and playing.
== Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe) ==
:''See main article [[The Luncheon on the Grass]]''
[[image:manet.dejeuner.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[The Luncheon on the Grass]] (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe)''. [[1863]]. Édouard Manet.]]
One of Manet's best known early paintings is ''[[Le déjeuner sur l'herbe|The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe)]]''. The [[Paris Salon]] rejected it for exhibition in [[1863]] but he exhibited it at |
sal the means to a career as a Roman noble; clearly he was not a child. If we accept the date 480 for his birth, we may fix the date of his abandonment of his studies and leaving home at about A.D. [[500]].
Benedict does not seem to have left Rome for the purpose of becoming a [[hermit]], but only to find some place away from the life of the great city; moreover, he took his old nurse with him as a servant and they settled down to live in [[Enfide]], near a church to [[St. Peter]], in some kind of association with ''a company of virtuous men'' who were in sympathy with his feelings and his views of life. Enfide, which the tradition of Subiaco identifies with the modern [[Affile]], is in the [[Simbrucini]] mountains, about forty miles from Rome and two from Subiaco. [[image:it238th.jpg|right]]
A short distance from Enfide is the entrance to a narrow, gloomy valley, penetrating the mountains and leading directly to Subiaco. Crossing the [[Anio]] and turning to the right, the path rises along the left face oft the ravine and soon reaches the site of [[Nero]]'s [[villa]] and of the huge mole which formed the lower end of the middle lake; across the valley were ruins of the [[Roman baths]], of which a few great arches and detached masses of wall still stand. Rising from the mole upon twenty five low arches, the foundations of which can even yet be traced, was the bridge from the villa to the baths, under which the waters of the middle lake poured in a wide fall into the lake below. The ruins of these vast buildings and the wide sheet of falling water closed up the entrance of the valley to St. Benedict as he came from Enfide; to-day the narrow valley lies open before us, closed only by the far off mountains. The path continues to ascend, and the side of the ravine, on which it runs, becomes steeper, until we reach a cave above which the mountain now rises almost perpendicularly; while on the right hand it strikes in a rapid descent down to where, in St. Benedict's day, five hundred feet below, lay the blue waters of the lake. The cave has a large triangular-shaped opening and is about ten feet deep. On his way from Enfide, Benedict met a monk, Romanus, whose monastery was on the mountain above the cliff overhanging the cave. Romanus had discussed with Benedict the purpose which had brought him to Subiaco, and had given him the monk's habit. By his advice Benedict became a hermit and for three years, unknown to men, lived in this cave above the lake. St. Gregory tells us little of these years. He now speaks of Benedict no longer as a youth (''puer''), but as a man (''vir'') of God. Romanus, he twice tells us, served the saint in every way he could. The monk apparently visited him frequently, and on fixed days brought him food.
During these three years of solitude, broken only by occasional communications with the outer world and by the visits of Romanus, he matured both in mind and character, in knowledge of himself and of his fellow-man, and at the same time he became not merely known to, but secured the respect of, those about him; so much so that on the death of the abbot of a monastery in the neighbourhood (identified by some with [[Vicovaro]]), the community came to him and begged him to become its abbot. Benedict was acquainted with the life and discipline of the monastery, and knew that ''their manners were diverse from his and therefore that they would never agree together: yet, at length, overcome with their entreaty, he gave his consent'' (ibid., 3). The experiment failed; the monks tried to poison him, and he returned to his cave. From this time his miracles seem to have become frequent, and many people, attracted by his sanctity and character, came to Subiaco to be under his guidance. For them he built in the valley twelve monasteries, in each of which he placed a superior with twelve monks. In a thirteenth he lived with ''a few, such as he thought would more profit and be better instructed by his own presence'' (ibid., 3). He remained, however, the father or abbot of all. With the establishment of these monasteries began the schools for children; and amongst the first to be brought were Maurus and Placid.
St. Benedict spent the rest of his life realizing the ideal of monasticism which he had drawn out in his [[Rule of St Benedict|rule]]. He died at [[Monte Cassino, Italy]] on March 21 and was named patron protector of Europe by Pope Paul VI in 1964. His feast day is July 11.
==See also==
* [[Benedictine|Benedictine Order]]
* [[Rule of St Benedict]]
* [[Anthony_the_Great|Saint Anthony the Great]]
{{catholic}}
[[Category:Italian saints]]
[[Category:Benedictines]]
[[Category:History of Catholic monasticism]]
[[Category:Natives of Umbria]]
[[Category:480 births]]
[[Category:547 deaths]]
[[de:Benedikt von Nursia]]
[[es:Benito de Nursia]]
[[fr:Benoît de Nursie]]
[[hr:Sveti Benedikt]]
[[it:San Benedetto da Norcia]]
[[la:Benedictus de Nursia]]
[[hu:Nursiai Szent Benedek]]
[[nl:Benedictus van Nursia]]
[[ja:ベネディクトゥス]]
[[pl:Benedykt z Nursji]]
[[pt:Bento de Núrsia]]
[[sk:Benedikt z Nursie]]
[[sv:Benedikt av Nursia]]
[[ru:Бенедикт Нурсийский]]
[[uk:Бенедикт Святий]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beaumarchais</title>
<id>4003</id>
<revision>
<id>15902305</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T09:16:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Pierre_Beaumarchais]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pierre_Beaumarchais]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BSoD (disambiguation)</title>
<id>4004</id>
<revision>
<id>39346807</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T15:13:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Computerjoe</username>
<id>145799</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}
[[BSoD]] is the [[abbreviation]] for
* [[Black screen of death]] &mdash; a failure mode of [[Windows 3.x]] and a system or application error screen in [[OS/2]]
* '''Black Screen of Death''' &mdash; dark electro producer
* [[Blue Screen of Death]] &mdash; a system error screen in all versions of [[Microsoft Windows]]
The original abbreviation referred to the Windows 3.x failure mode, but over time the system error screens came to be referred to as "screens of death" too. The [[Jargon File]] suggests that the term was originally an allusion to the "floating head of death" in a popular ''[[The Far Side|Far Side]]'' cartoon.
{{4LC}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Battle of Pharsalus</title>
<id>4005</id>
<revision>
<id>41015818</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T14:27:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.70.40.110</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Pharsalus
|partof=the [[Roman Republican civil wars]]|
|image=[[Image:Battle pharsalus.gif|300px]]
|caption=
|date=[[August 9]], [[48 BC]]|
|place=[[Pharsalus]] ([[Greece]])
|result=Caesarian victory
|combatant1=[[Populares]]
|combatant2=[[Optimates]]
|commander1=[[Julius Caesar]]
|commander2=[[Pompey|Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]]
|strength1=Approximately 23,000 [[legionaries]], 5,000-10,000 [[Auxiliaries]] and Allies, and Allied Cavalry of 1400
|strength2=Approximately 50,000 [[legionaries]], 4,200 [[Auxiliaries]] and Allies, and Allied Cavalry of 4,000-7,000
|casualties1=1,200
|casualties2=6,000-10,000
}}
{{Campaignbox Caesar's Civil War}}
The '''Battle of Pharsalus''' occurred in [[Pharsalus]], [[Thessaly]], northern [[Greece]].
[[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]] defeated [[Pompey|Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] (Pompey) and the [[Roman Senate|Senatorial]] forces at the battle of Pharsalus on [[August 9]], [[48 BC]] and solidified Caesar's control over the ancient Mediterranean world.
Pompey and the Senate's army had left [[Italy]] for [[Greece]], in [[49 BC]]. Caesar, for lack of a fleet, solidified his control over the western Mediterranean &mdash; [[Spain]] and [[North Africa]], specifically, before assembling ships to follow Pompey.
An indecisive winter ([[49 BC|49]]&ndash;[[48 BC]]) of blockade and siege followed. Pompey eventually pushed Caesar into [[Thessaly]] and attacked at Pharsalus. Caesar began the battle with a smaller, but veteran, force. Pompey's troops were more numerous, but far less experienced. Moreover, Pompey's senatorial allies disagreed with Pompey over whether to fight at Pharsalus, and pushed Pompey into a quick decision.
==Prelude==
After [[Pompey]] and the [[Roman Senate]] fled over to [[Greece]] to avoid Caesar's invasion of [[Italy]], they began to prepare an army to defend themselves in Greece. Caesar therefore marched overland through southern [[France]] meanwhile, blockading what is now [[Marseille]], and managing to assemble a small fleet. After crushing Pompey's forces in [[Spain]], Caesar focused once again on Pompey and his troops in Greece. Pompey had a fleet, as well as much support from all Roman [[provinces]] and [[Client state|client states]] east of Italy. Caesar, however managed to cross the Adriatic in the winter with [[Marc Antony]] following a little later, because Caesar lacked ships. Although Pompey had a larger army, he recognized that Caesar's was more experienced, and could prove victorious in a pitched battle. Instead, Pompey waited Caesar's troops out, attempting to starve them by cutting off Caesar's supply lines. After a disastrous attack on Pompey's camp at [[Dyrrhachium]], Caesar was forced to pull away. Pompey did not immediately follow up on his success; but urged on by his senatorial allies, he confronted Caesar near Pharsalus.
Caesar had the following legions with him:
* Legions of veterans from the [[Gallic wars]] &ndash; Caesar's favourite legion, [[Legio X Gemina|X ''Equestris'']], and those later known with th |
), [[Stephen Smale]] (US)
* [[1962]]: [[Lars Hörmander]] (Sweden), [[John Milnor]] (US)
* [[1958]]: [[Klaus Roth]] (GB), [[Rene Thom]] (France)
* [[1954]]: [[Kunihiko Kodaira]] (Japan), [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] (France)
* [[1950]]: [[Laurent Schwartz]] (France), [[Atle Selberg]] (Norway)
* [[1936]]: [[Lars Ahlfors]] (Finland), [[Jesse Douglas]] (US)
== The Fields Medal in popular culture ==
In the 1997 film [[Good Will Hunting]], fictional [[MIT]] professor Gerald Lambeau (played by [[Stellan Skarsgård]]) is described as having been awarded a [[Fields Medal]] for his work in [[combinatorics|combinatorial mathematics]].
== See also ==
* [[Abel Prize]]
* [[Nevanlinna Prize]]
* [[Schock Prize]]
* [[Wolf Prize in Mathematics]]
* [[List of medals]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.mathunion.org/medals/ Official site]
[[Category:Prizes]]
[[Category:Mathematics awards]]
[[ca:Medalla Fields]]
[[de:Fields-Medaille]]
[[es:Medalla Fields]]
[[eo:Medalo Fields]]
[[fr:Médaille Fields]]
[[ko:필즈상]]
[[it:Medaglia Fields]]
[[he:מדליית פילדס]]
[[mn:Фильдсийн медаль]]
[[nl:Fields-medaille]]
[[ja:フィールズ賞]]
[[no:Fieldsmedaljen]]
[[pl:Medal Fieldsa]]
[[ro:Medalia Fields]]
[[sl:Fieldsova medalja]]
[[sv:Fieldsmedaljen]]
[[zh:菲尔兹奖]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Trial</title>
<id>10861</id>
<revision>
<id>42052325</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:48:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.32.128.119</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Relations between ''The Trial'' and ''Crime and Punishment'' */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:the_trial.jpg|thumb|200px|The Trial book cover]]
'''''The Trial''''' (German '''''Der Prozess''''') is a [[surrealism|surreal]] novel by [[Franz Kafka]] about a character named ''[[Joseph K.]]'', who awakens one morning and, for reasons never revealed, is arrested and subjected to the rigours of the judicial process for an unspecified crime.
Like Kafka's other novels, ''The Trial'' was left unfinished at his death, and was never intended to be published. Its manuscript was rescued by his friend [[Max Brod]]. It was first published in [[German language|German]] in [[1925]] as ''Der Prozess''.
''[[The Trial (1962 film)|The Trial]]'' has been filmed by the director [[Orson Welles]], with [[Anthony Perkins]] (as Josef K.) and [[Romy Schneider]]. A more recent [[remake]] featured [[Kyle MacLachlan]] in the same role. In [[1999]] it was adapted for comics by the [[Italian people|Italian]] artist [[Guido Crepax]].
== Plot Synopsis by Chapter ==
{{spoiler}}
=== The Arrest - Conversation with Frau Grubach then Fräulein Bürstner ===
On the morning of his thirtieth birthday, a junior bank manager, Josef K., who lives in lodgings, is unexpectedly arrested by two unidentified agents for an unspecified crime. The agents do not name the authority for which they are acting. He is not taken away, but left at home to await instructions from the Interrogation Commission. That evening K misses his regular visit to a prostitute, Elsa.
K's landlady, Frau Grubach tries to console Josef but unintentionally offends him by speculating that perhaps the arrest was related to an illicit relationship with Fräulein Bürstner, K's neighbor. Josef visits Fräulein to discuss his plight, but ends up kissing her - belatedly fulfilling the landlady's speculation. This is an early indication that Josef is no longer in control of his fate.
=== First Interrogation ===
K is instructed to appear at a local court, but the time of the trial is not specified. This causes him to waste his time waiting to be called. When he is finally called, he is told, confusingly, that he is late. As the interrogation begins, he is asked an ill-informed question, which he uses as the basis for his attack on the preceding events and the general competence of the court. As he leaves, the Examining Magistrate tells K that "...today you have flung away with your own hand all the advantages which an interrogation invariably confers on an accused man."
=== In the Empty Interrogation Chamber - The Student - The Offices ===
Josef K tries to visit the Examining Magistrate, but finds only the Law-Court Attendant's wife. Looking at the Magistrate's books, he finds that they are not law books, but pornography. The woman tries to seduce him. As Josef resolves to succumb to the woman as an act of defiance against the Court, a law student appears and, after an argument with Josef, carries the woman off in his arms.
Josef later spots the Attendant, who complains about his wife's wantonness and offers Josef a tour of the court offices. There are many other defendants waiting hopelessly for information about their cases. Josef struggles to cope with the "dull and heavy...hardly breathable" air, and almost faints. To his shame, he has to be carried out of the court by two officials.
=== Fräulein Bürstner's Friend ===
Josef returns home to find Fräulein Montag, a lodger from another room, moving in with Fräulein Bürstner. He suspects that this is to prevent him from pursuing his affair with the latter woman. Yet another lodger, Captain Lanz, appears to be in league with Montag.
=== The Whipper ===
Later, in a store room at his own bank, Josef K discovers the two agents who arrested him being whipped by a superior. This surreal event appears to have been staged for his viewing, either to simply frighten him, or to demonstrate the seriousness in which the court views incompetence and corruption. The next day he returns to the store room and is shocked to find everything as he left it, including the Whipper and the two agents.
=== K.'s Uncle - Leni ===
Josef K is visited by his influential uncle, who by coincidence is a friend of the Clerk of the Court. The uncle is, or appears to be, distressed by Josef's predicament and is at first sympathetic, but becomes concerned that K is underestimating the seriousness of the case. The uncle introduces Josef K to an Advocate, who is attended by Leni, a nurse. K visits Leni, whilst his uncle is talking with the Advocate and the Chief Clerk of the Court, much to his uncle's anger, and to the detriment of his case.
=== Advocate - Manufacturer - Painter ===
K visits the advocate and finds him to be a capricious and unhelpful character. K returns to his bank but finds that his colleagues are trying to undermine him.
Josef K is advised by one of his bank clients to visit Titorelli, a painter, for advice. Titorelli has no official connections, yet seems to have a deep understanding of the process. He explains: "You see, everything belongs to the Court." He sets out what K's options are, but the consequences of all of them are unpleasant. The laborious requirements of these options, and the limited outlook that they offer, lead the reader to lose hope for Josef K.
=== The Commercial Traveller - Dismissal of the Advocate ===
Josef K decides to take control of his own destiny and visits his advocate with the intention of dismissing him. At the advocate's office he meets a downtrodden individual, Block, a client who offers K some insight from a client's perspective. Block's case has continued for five years, yet he appears to have been virtually enslaved by his dependence on the advocate's unpredictable advice. This experience further poisons K's opinion of his advocate, and K is bemused as to why his advocate would think that seeing such a client, in such a state, could change his mind.
=== In The Cathedral ===
K has to show an important client from Italy around the Cathedral. The client doesn't show, but just as K is leaving the Cathedral, the priest calls out K's name, although K has never known the priest. The priest works for the court, and tells K a fable, also published separately as Before the Law that is meant to explain his situation, but instead causes confusion, and implies that K's fate is hopeless. The gravity of the priest's words prepares the reader for an unpleasant ending.
===The End===
On the last day of Josef K's thirtieth year, two men arrive to execute him. He offers little resistance, suggesting that he has realised this as being inevitable for some time. They lead him to a quarry where he is expected to kill himself, but he cannot. The two men then execute him. His last words describe his own death: "Like a dog!".
==Evaluation==
''The Trial'' is a chilling story that maintains a constant, relentless atmosphere of unease, right up to the brutal ending. Superficially the subject matter is political; an illustration of a truly twisted brand of law enforcement. However, one of the strengths of the novel is in its description of the effect of these circumstances on the life and mind of Josef K. It presents the absurdity of human nature, of drudging along without direction, and without result. It can also be considered allegorically in a number of frameworks, for example, emotional. If it were published today, it might be described as a "[[paranoid thriller]]", but it is unusually uncompromising and depressing by modern standards.
<p>When analyzing ''The Trial'', it is important to note that the end of the novel, the death scene, was the first part written by Kafka. This is what in part gives Josef K.'s trial and ultimate conviction a sense of inevitability, greatly adding to the paranoia of the text. Josef K. is never told what he is on trial for, and he maintains his innocence throughout. What becomes clear to the reader is that Josef K. is on trial precisely for his innocence; for to be human is to be guilty. By admitting his basic guilt as a human being, perhaps Josef K. could have freed himself from the proceedings. Then again, the trial against K. was set up because he was incapable of admitting his guilt, and, by extension, his humanity.
<p>Another way to evaluate ''The Trial'' is to consider what [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] has to say abou |
er in, for instance, [[1957]].
The cellar in which Fawkes watched over his gunpowder was damaged in the [[1834 fire]] and
destroyed in the rebuilding of the [[Palace of Westminster]] in the 19th century. The lantern Guy Fawkes carried in 1605 is in the [[Ashmolean Museum]], [[Oxford]].
== Modern theories ==
Many modern historians think that Cecil's agents had infiltrated the plot early on in its gestation but allowed it to continue for dramatic effect; certainly the [[propaganda]] value of a "[[Popish Plot|Popish plot]]" was not underplayed during the next few hundred years.
Another theory is that King James, searching for greater acceptance of Catholics, desired a test case with which to demonstrate Catholic loyalty to Parliament and the nation. Father Henry Garnet, the chief Jesuit of England, had turned in Catholic plotters in an earlier event. On this occasion, however, he did not, but passed the information on to the Pope who, in turn, took no action. Because the plot was allowed to proceed, the Catholic cause for freedom in Britain was set back considerably. True freedom was denied until the mid 19th century.
A darker supposition is that Cecil helped to arrange the Gunpowder Plot himself, though assuring a means to insulate himself from blame, as a mechanism to remove a Catholic absolute royalist sovereign. The sovereign had wanted to unwind everything that the Cecils and allied aristocratic Protestant families had worked on for generations, as demonstrated in James I's revocation of Dutch Protestant support, his rejection of religious toleration, and his refusal to work with Parliament. The idea of the state spy agency facilitating the assassination of an abrasive sovereign such as James I is not unheard of. For example, only two years before, in 1603, Robert Cecil's own brother-in-law [[Henry Brooke, Lord Cobham]], was himself implicated in the two other plots against James I &mdash; the [[Bye Plot]] and the [[Main Plot]]. These plots were attempts to remove James I from the throne and replace him with Lady [[Arabella Stuart]], who would then be paired with the continental [[House of Savoy]].
==Modern re-enactment: Would the plot have killed the King?==
A study on an [[ITV]] [[television programme|programme]] broadcast on [[1 November]] [[2005]]{{ref|Hammond}} re-enacted the plot, by blowing up an exact replica of the [[17th century]] [[House of Lords]] filled with test dummies, using the exact amount of gunpowder in the underground of the building. The dramatic experiment, conducted on the Advantica Spadeadam test site, proved unambiguously that the explosion would have killed all those attending the State Opening of Parliament in the Lords chamber.
The power of the explosion was such that seven-foot deep solid concrete walls (made deliberately to replicate how archives suggest the walls in the old House of Lords were constructed) were reduced to rubble. Measuring devices placed in the chamber to calculate the force of the blast were themselves destroyed by the blast, while the skull of the dummy representing King James, which at been placed on a throne inside the chamber surrounded by courtiers, peers and bishops, was found a large distance away from the site. According to the findings of the programme, no-one within 100 metres of the blast would have survived, while all the stained glass windows in [[Westminster Abbey]] would have been shattered, as would all windows within a large distance of the Palace. The power of the explosion would have been seen from miles away. Even if only half the gunpowder had gone off, everyone in the House of Lords and its environs would have been killed instantly.
The programme also disproved claims that some deterioration in the quality of the gunpowder would have prevented the explosion. A portion of deliberately deteriorated gunpowder, at such a low quality as to make it unusable in firearms, when placed in a heap and detonated, still managed to create a large explosion. The impact of even deteriorated gunpowder would have been magnified by impact of its compression in wooden barrels, with the compression overcoming any deterioration in the quality of the contents. The compression would have have created a cannon effect, with the powder first blowing up from the top of the barrel before, a millisecond later, blowing out.
The impact of the test explosion in the specially constructed chamber visually surprised even gunpowder experts. The entire concrete chamber was demolished as if made from wood at the moment of the explosion. Plans to examine the test dummies to see the nature of the impact of their injuries and whether they could have survived, were abandoned such was the force of the blast and complete destruction caused by the explosion.
== The plot in popular culture ==
The plot is immortalised in the popular verse:
:'' Remember, remember the fifth of November,''
:'' gunpowder, treason and plot,''
:'' I see no reason why gunpowder treason''
:'' should ever be forgot.''
:'' Guy Fawkes, Guy Fawkes,''
:'' 'twas his intent''
:'' to blow up the King and the Parliament.''
:'' Three score barrels of powder below,''
:'' Poor old England to overthrow:''
:'' By God's providence he was catch'd''
:'' With a dark lantern and burning match.''
:'' Holloa boys, holloa boys, make the bells ring.''
:'' Holloa boys, holloa boys, God save the King!''
:'' Hip hip hoorah!''
(traditionally the following verses were also sung, but they have fallen out of favour because of their content)
:'' A penny loaf to feed the Pope.''
:'' A farthing o' cheese to choke him.''
:'' A pint of beer to rinse it down.''
:'' A faggot of sticks to burn him.''
:'' Burn him in a tub of tar.''
:'' Burn him like a blazing star.''
:'' Burn his body from his head.''
:'' Then we'll say ol' Pope is dead.''
:'' Hip hip hoorah!''
:'' Hip hip hoorah!''
Guy Fawkes day was used in an episode[http://theavengers.tv/forever/gale2-6.htm] of "[[The Avengers (television)|The Avengers]]". In this episode entitled "November Five" the Avengers investigate the theft of a nuclear warhead. The thief plans to detonate it in the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]]([[London]]), on November the fifth.
In the [[dystopia]]n [[science fiction]] [[graphic novel]], ''[[V for Vendetta]]'', V, a mysterious [[anarchist]] who disguises and models himself as a latter day Guy Fawkes, finally explodes the abandoned parliament buildings on a future [[November 5]] as his first move to bring down the nation's [[fascism|fascist]] [[tyrant|tyranny]].
The Gunpowder Plot is also the topic of a several songs and ballads&ndash;of note, the song ''Remember'', from [[John Lennon]]'s album ''[[Plastic Ono Band]]'', ends with the phrase "the fifth of November" and an explosion.
== See also ==
*[[UK topics]]
== Footnotes ==
'''1 & 2''' {{note|Hammond}} ''The Gunpowder Plot: Exploding the Legend'', presented by [[Richard Hammond]], broadcast on [[ITV 1]], [[1 November]] [[2005]]. Due to the amount of gunpowder needed the programme had to import gunpowder from [[Spain]] because not enough was available in the [[United Kingdom]]. The explosion took place on the Advantica Spadeadam test site in the middle of an RAF base. All aircraft flights overhead had also to be cancelled while the experiment took place.
== External links ==
* [http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/g08.pdf The Gunpowder Plot (House of Commons Information Sheet)]
* [http://www.gunpowder-plot.org The Gunpowder Plot Society]
* [http://www.bonfirenight.net/gunpowder.php A Summary of The Gunpowder Plot Events]
* [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/5567/publications.html Publications about the Gunpowder Plot]
* [http://www.bcpl.net/~cbladey/guy/html/song.html Songs for Fawkes Day Celebration]
* [http://www.bcpl.net/~cbladey/guy/html/maina.html The Center for Fawkesian Pursuits]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/monarchs_leaders/gunpowder_hutton_01.shtml What if the gunpowder plot had succeeded]
* [http://www.exmsft.com/~davidco/History/fawkes1.htm A contemporary account of the executions of the plotters]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/games/gunpowder/index.shtml The Gunpowder Plot Game] [[BBC]]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,1605605,00.html Interactive Guide: Gunpowder Plot] [[Guardian Unlimited]]
* [http://www.spadeadam.net Advantica Spadeadam Test Site]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in England]]
[[Category:Terrorism in London]]
[[da:Krudtsammensværgelsen]]
[[de:Gunpowder Plot]]
[[fr:Conspiration des poudres]]
[[he:מזימת אבק השריפה]]
[[ja:火薬陰謀事件]]
[[no:Kruttsammensvergelsen]]
[[ru:Пороховой заговор]]
[[sv:Krutkonspirationen]]
[[zh:火药阴谋]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gelatin</title>
<id>13160</id>
<revision>
<id>41310777</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T13:24:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Femto</username>
<id>96285</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert, incorrect and mentioned below</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gelatin''' (also '''gelatine''') is a translucent brittle solid substance, colorless or slightly yellow, nearly tasteless and odorless, which is created by prolonged boiling of animal [[skin]], [[connective tissue]] or [[bones]]. It has many uses in food, medicine, and manufacturing. Substances that contain or resemble gelatin are called '''gelatinous'''. Gelatin is also known as [[E number]] E441.
== Physical properties ==
Gelatin is [[protein]] product produced by partial [[hydrolysis]] of [[collagen]] extracted from [[skin]], [[bone]]s, [[cartilage]], [[ligament]]s, etc. The natural molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a form that rearranges more easily. Gelatin melts when heated and solidifies when cooled again. Together with water it forms a semi-solid [[colloid]]al [[gel]].
== Production ==
On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from [[b |
ccuracy, though it can also lead to an increase in case life. For these specialty applications, cost is usually not a primary motivator, and such cartridges may cost more than commercial ones.
As with any hobby, the pure enjoyment of the reloading process may well be the most important benefit.
==Variables in the reloading process==
The handloading process can realize increased accuracy through improved consistency of manufacture. Each cartridge loaded can have each component carefully matched to the rest of the cartridges in the batch. Brass cases can be matched by volume and weight, [[bullet]]s by weight and concentricity, [[Smokeless powder|powder]] charges by weight. [[Percussion cap|Primers]] also play a role in accuracy and consistency, but the handloader usually has no ability to manufacture these, so the handloader is limited to experimenting with different primers available commercially. In addition to these items that are considered critical, the equipment used to assemble the cartridge also have an effect on its performance; [[die (manufacturing)|dies]] used to size the cartridges can be matched to a given rifle's chamber, high precision scales can give more consistent and accurate measures of powder.
==Atypical handloading==
It is typically agreed that [[rimfire]] cartridges (e.g. [[.22 Long Rifle]]) are not hand-loaded, although there are some shooters that unload commercial rimfire cartridges, and use the primed case to make their own loads, or to generate special rimfire wildcat cartridges. These cartridges can be remarkably labor intensive to produce, and the process of unloaded the live rimfire cases can be dangerous, since any crushing of the thin brass rim can ignite the primer and cause the case to explode.
Berdan primers, with their off-center flash holes and lack of self contained anvil, are more difficult to work with than the easily removed Boxer primers. The primers may be punctured and pried out from the rear, or extracted with [[hydraulic]] pressure. Primers must be selected carefully, as there are more sizes of Berdan primers than the standard large and small pistol, large and small rifle of Boxer primers. The case must also be inspected carefully to make sure the anvil has not been damaged, because this could result in a failure to fire.
==Materials required==
*[[Firearm brass|Cases]] or [[shotshell]] hulls. For shotshells, [[plastic]] or [[paper]] cases can be reloaded, though plastic is more durable. [[Steel]] and [[aluminium]] cases do not have the correct qualities for reloading, so a brass case is essential.
*[[Gun powder]] of an appropriate type. Generally, [[handgun]] cartridges and shotshells use faster powders, [[rifle]] cartridges use slower powder. Powder is generally of the 'smokeless' type in modern cartidges, although on occasions the older 'black' powder more commonly known as 'gunpowder' may be used.
*[[Bullet]]s, or shot and wads for shotshells.
*[[Percussion cap|Primer]]s
==Reloading process==
The operations performed when handloading are:
*Case inspection (reloading only)
*Remove the fired primer (reloading only)
*[[Ream]] or [[swage]] crimp from primer pocket (reloading military cases only)
*Resize the case (reloading only)
*Expand the neck to accept the bullet
*Seat a new primer
*Add a measured amount of powder
*Seat the bullet in the case
*[[Crimp]] the bullet in place (optional)
*Cartridge inspection
When previously fired cases are used, they must be inspected before loading. Cases that are dirty or tarnished are polished in a tumbler to remove [[oxidation]] and allow easier inspection of the case. Cracked necks, non-reloadable cases (steel, aluminium, or Berdan primed cases), and signs of head separation all are reasons to reject a case. Cases are measured for length, and any that are over the recommended length are trimmed down to the minimum length. Competition shooters will also sort cases by brand and weight to ensure consistency.
Removal of the primer, called ''decapping'', is usually done with a die containing a steel pin that punches out the primer. Berdan primed cases require a different technique, either a [[hydraulic]] ram or a hook that punctures the case and levers it out from the bottom. Military cases have crimped in primers, and decapping leaves a slight ridge that inhibits seating a new primer. A reamer or a swage is used to remove this crimp.
When a cartridge is fired, the internal pressure expands the case to fit the chamber. To allow ease of chambering the cartridge when it is reloaded, the case is swaged back to size. Competition shooters, using [[bolt action]] rifles which are capable of camming a tight case into place, often resize only the neck of the cartridge, called ''neck sizing'', as opposed to the normal full length resizing process. Neck sizing is only useful for cartridges to be re-fired in the same firearm, as the brass may be slightly oversized in some dimensions for other chambers, but the precise fit of case to chamber will allow greater consistency and therefore greater potential accuracy. [[Semiautomatic]] rifles and rifles with [[SAAMI]] minimum chamber dimensions often require a special ''small base'' resizer, that sizes further down the case than normal dies, and allow for more reliable feeding.
Once the case is sized down, the inside of the neck of the case will actually be slightly smaller than the bullet diameter. To allow the bullet to be seated, the end of the neck is slightly expanded to allow the bullet to start into the case. Boattailed bullets need very little expansion, while unjacketed [[lead]] bullets require more expansion to prevent shaving of lead when the bullet is seated.
Priming the case is the most dangerous step of the loading process, since the primers are pressure sensitive. Seating a Boxer primer not only places the primer in the case, but it seats the [[anvil]] of the primer down onto the priming compound, in effect arming the primer. A correctly seated primer will sit slightly below the surface of the case. A primer that protrudes from the case can cause a number of problems; it will tend to hang up when feeding, and the anvil will not be seated correctly so the primer may not fire when hit by the firing pin. Berdan primers must also be seated carefully, and since the anvil is part of the case, the anvil must be inspected before the primer is seated.
The quantity of gunpowder is specified by weight, but almost always measured by volume. A powder scale is needed to determine the correct volume setting for the powder measure, as loads are specified with a precision of 0.1 grain (0.007 grams). Competition shooters will generally throw a slightly underweight charge, and use a ''powder trickler'' to add few granules at a time to the charge to bring it up to the exact weight for maximum consistency. Special care is needed when charging large capacity cases with fast burning, low volume powders. In this instance, it is possible to put two charges of powder in a case without overflowing the case, which can lead to dangerously high pressures and a significant chance of bursting the chamber of the firearm. Non-magnum [[revolver]] cartridges are the easiest to do this with, as they generally have relatively large cases, and tend to perform well with small charges of fast powders.
Competition shooters also often sort bullets by weight, often down to 0.1 grain (0.007 grams) increments. The bullet is placed in the case mouth by hand, and then seated with the press. At this point, the expanded case mouth is also sized back down. A crimp can optionally be added, either by the seating die or with a separate die. Taper crimps are used for cases that are held in the chamber by the case mouth, while roll crimps may be used for cases that headspace on a rim or on the cartridge neck. Roll crimps hold the bullet far more securely, and are preferred in situations, such as magnum [[revolver]]s, where recoil velocities are significant. A tight crimp also helps to delay the start of the bullet's motion, which can increase chamber pressures, and help develop full power from slower burning powders (see [[internal ballistics]]).
==Equipment==
The basic piece of equipment for handloading is the press. A press is a device that uses compound [[leverage]] to push the cases into the [[die]]s that perform the loading operations. Presses vary from simple, inexpensive single stage models, to complex progressive models that will eject a loaded cartridge with each pull of a lever, at rates of 10 rounds a minute.
===Presses===
Single stage presses are the simplest. They perform one step on one case at a time. When using a single stage press, cases are loaded in batches, one step per batch at a time. Batches should be kept small, about 50 cases at a time, so that a batch is never left in a partially completed state. Once a case is primed, it should be finished as soon as possible, since high humidity can degrade the primer.
Progressive presses handle several shells at once, with each pull of the lever performing a single step on all the cases at once. Progressive presses hold all the dies needed, plus a powder measure and a primer feed, and often also include an additional station where the powder levels are checked, to prevent over or under charges. Progressive presses also often feature case feeds that will hold hundreds of cases to be loaded, and all the user has to do is hold the bullet in place over the appropriate case mouth, and pull the lever.
Shotshell presses are a special case, and are generally a single unit that handles all functions. Shotshell reloading is similar to cartridge reloading, except that instead of a bullet, a wadding and a measure of shot are used, and after loading the shot, the shell is crimped shut. The shotshell loader contains stations to resize the shell, measure powder, load the wad, measure shot, and crimp the shell. Due to the low cost |
ibellus Islandorum''), written in 1122-1133 claims that the Norwegian Ingólfur Arnarson was the first man to settle in Iceland ([[Reykjavík]]) in 870. The families were accompanied by servants and slaves, some of whom were [[Celt]]s or [[Picts]] from Scotland and Ireland (known as ''Westmen'' to the [[Norse]]). Some literary evidence suggests that [[Papar|Irish monks]] may have been living in Iceland before the arrival of Norse settlers, but no archaeological evidence has been found.
[[Erik the Red]], or Eirikr Þorvaldson, was exiled from Iceland for manslaughter in 980, and set sail for the west, to explore the lands to the west. He established the first settlements in [[Greenland]] around this time, naming the land, according to legend, to attract settlers.
Eirikr's son, [[Leif Ericson|Leifr Eiriksson]], finally set foot in the Americas around the year 1000. While some say he was blown off course, it is most likely that he was deliberately seeking the land spotted by [[Bjarni Herjólfsson]] several years earlier. He is believed to have established a colony at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] in [[Newfoundland]], which lasted only a year. Two further attempts at colonization by his brother ended in failure.
The [[Althing|Alþingi]] (general assembly) was founded in 930, marking the beginning of the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]]. It was the predecessor to the modern Icelandic legislature. The Althing is the oldest, still-standing, parliament in the world that has written documents to prove its age.
Iceland was a free state, without a king, until the end of the [[Sturlungaöld]] civil war in 1262, when it joined the Norwegian kingdom as a Norwegian [[colony]]. From 1387 Iceland was in practice ruled by Denmark, following the union of the two kingdoms. When that union was dissolved in 1814, through the [[Treaty of Kiel]], which saw Norway entering a union with Sweden, Iceland became a Danish colony. Home rule was granted by the Danish government in 1904, and independence followed in 1918. From 1918 Iceland was in a [[personal union]] with Denmark, with foreign relations being carried out by the Danes, as instructed by the Icelandic government until the [[World War II]] military occupation of Denmark by Germany in 1940. Subsequently, Iceland was occupied by the [[Allies]]. The Danish king remained the ''de jure'' sovereign of the nation until 1944, when the current [[republic]] was founded after the 1918 treaty had lapsed.
The new republic became a charter member of [[NATO]] in 1949 and signed a treaty with the [[United States]] in 1951 to take responsibility for the defense of Iceland. Today the US continues to operate a military base in [[Keflavík]] based on this agreement, while Iceland has no armed forces of its own. The economy of Iceland remained dependent on fisheries in the post-war decades and the country has had several clashes with its neighbours over this vital resource, most notably the [[Cod Wars]] with the [[United Kingdom|British]]. The economy has become more diverse recently owing to large investments in heavy industry such as [[aluminium]] smelting and deregulation and privatization in the financial sector. Iceland is a member of the [[Common market]] of the [[European Union|European Union]] through the [[European Economic Area|EEA agreement]] but has never applied for membership of the EU itself.
== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Iceland}}
[[Image:ogrimsson.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson]], President of Iceland]]
[[Image:HalldórÁsgrímsson.jpg|thumb|left|[[Halldór Ásgrímsson]], Prime Minister of Iceland]]
The modern parliament, called "[[Althing]]" or "Alþingi", was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish king. It was widely seen as a reestablishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the [[Icelandic Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] period and suspended in 1799. It currently has 63 members, each of whom is elected by the population every four years. The [[president of Iceland]] is a largely ceremonial office that serves as a diplomat, figurehead and [[head of state]]. The [[head of government]] is the prime minister, who, together with the cabinet, takes care of the executive part of government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after general elections to Althing; however, this process is usually conducted by the leaders of the political parties, who decide among themselves after discussions which parties can form the cabinet and how its seats are to be distributed (under the condition that it has a majority support in Althing). Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves in reasonable time does the president exercise this power and appoint the cabinet himself. This has never happened since the republic was founded in 1944, but in 1942 the regent of the country ([[Sveinn Björnsson]], who had been installed in that position by the Althing in 1941) did appoint a non-parliamentary government. The regent had, for all practical purposes, the position of a president, and Björnsson in fact became the country's first president in 1944. The governments of Iceland have almost always been coalitions with two or more parties involved, due to the fact that no single political party has received a majority of seats in Althing in the republic period. The extent of the political powers possessed by the office of the president are disputed by legal scholars in Iceland; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers but other provisions and traditions suggest differently.
The president is elected every four years (last 2004), the cabinet is elected every four years (last 2003) and town council elections are held every four years (last 2002).
===See also===
* [[List of political parties in Iceland]]
* [[List of Presidents of Iceland]]
* [[Prime minister of Iceland]]
== Subdivisions ==
{{main|Subdivisions of Iceland}}
[[Image:Municipalities of Iceland.png|right|thumb|100px|The municipalities of Iceland]]
=== Municipalities ===
{{main|Municipalities of Iceland}}
There are 98 municipalities in Iceland which govern most local matters like schools, transportation and zoning.
=== Counties ===
{{main|Counties of Iceland}}
[[Image:Counties of Iceland with county seats.PNG|right|thumb|100px|The administrative counties of Iceland]]
Iceland's 23 counties are for the most part historical divisions. Currently, Iceland is split up between 26 magistrates that represent government in various capacities. Among their duties are local police (except in Reykjavík, where there is a special office of police commissioner) tax collection, declaring bankruptcy and marrying people outside of the church.
=== Regions ===
{{main|Regions of Iceland}}
[[Image:Regions of Iceland english.png|right|thumb|100px|The regions of Iceland]]
There are eight regions which are primarily used for statistical purposes; the district court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division.
=== Constituencies ===
{{main|Constituencies of Iceland}}
Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliament elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution they were changed to the current six constituencies. The change was made in order to balance the weight of different districts of the country since a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system, but still exists.
== Geography ==
[[Image:Ic-map.png|frame|thumb|right|200px|Map of Iceland]]
:''Main articles: [[Geography of Iceland]] and [[List of settlements in Iceland]].''
Iceland is located in the North Atlantic Ocean just south of the [[Arctic Circle]], which passes through the small island of [[Grimsey]] off Iceland's northern coast, but not through mainland Iceland. Unlike neighbouring [[Greenland]], Iceland is considered to be a part of [[Europe]], not a part of [[The Americas|North America]]. The island is the [[List of islands by size|world's 18th largest island]].
Approximately 10 percent of the island is glaciated. Many [[fjord]]s punctuate its 4,970 km long coastline, which is also where most towns are situated because the island's interior, the [[Highlands of Iceland]], is a cold and uninhabitable desert. The major towns are the capital [[Reykjavík]], [[Keflavík]], where the national airport is situated, and [[Akureyri]]. The island of [[Grímsey]] on the [[Arctic Circle]] contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland.
Iceland has four national parks: [[Jökulsárgljúfur National Park]], [[Skaftafell National Park]], [[Snæfellsnes National Park]], and [[Þingvellir]]
===Geological and volcanic activity===
Iceland is located on both a geological [[Hotspot (geology)|hot spot]], thought to be caused by a [[mantle plume]], and the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]]. This combined location means that the island is extremely geologically active, having many [[volcano]]es, notably [[Hekla]], and [[geyser]]s (itself an Icelandic word). With this widespread availability of [[geothermal power]], and also because of the numerous rivers and waterfalls that are harnessed for hydropower, residents of most towns have hot water and home heat for a low price. The island itself is composed primarily of cooled basalt lava.
'''[[Volcanoes of Iceland]]'''
===Area===
* Whole country: 103,000 km²
* Vegetation: 23,805 km²
* Lakes: 2,757 km²
* Glaciers: 11,922 km²
* Wasteland: 64,538 km²
''Numbers are from the [http://www.lmi.is/landsurvey.nsf/pages/index.html National Land Survey of Iceland'']
[[Image:Low_pressure_system_over_Iceland.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A large [[low pressure area]] swirls off the southwestern coast of Iceland. September 4, 2003]]
===Largest lakes===
* [[Þórisvatn]] ([[Reservoir (water)|Reservoir]]): 83-88 km²
* [[Þingvallavatn]]: 82 km²
* [[Lögurinn]]: 53 km²
* [[Mývatn]]: 37 km²
* [[Hvítárvatn]]: 30 km²
* [[H |
ype called "house sanctuaries". Samos excavations have revealed votive offerings, many of them late 8th and 7th century, which reveal that Hera at Samos was not merely a local Greek goddess of the [[Aegean_civilization|Aegean]]: the museum there contains figures of gods and suppliants and other votive offerings from [[Armenia]], [[Babylon]], [[Iran]], [[Assyria]], [[Egypt]], testimony to the reputation which this sanctuary of Hera enjoyed and to the large influx of pilgrims&mdash; and a general reminder to us that Greek myths did not evolve in a cultural vacuum (Burkert 1998).
In [[Euboea]] the festival of the [[Daedalus|Great Daedala]], sacred to Hera, was celebrated on a sixty-year cycle.
In Hellenistic imagery, Hera's wagon was pulled by peacocks, birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]: Alexander's tutor, [[Aristotle]], refers to it as "the Persian bird." The peacock motif was revived in the Renaissance iconography that unified Hera and Juno, and which European painters have kept familiar to us (Seznec 1953). A bird that had been associated with Hera on an archaic level, where most of the Aegean goddesses were associated with "their" bird, was the [[cuckoo]], which appears in mythic fragments concerning the first wooing of a virginal Hera by Zeus.
Her archaic association was primarily with cattle, as a Cow Goddess, who was especially venerated in "cattle-rich" [[Euboea]]. Her familiar [[epithets in Homer|Homeric epithet]] ''boôpis'', is always translated "cow-eyed", for, like the Greeks of Classical times, we reject its other natural translation "cow-faced" or at least "of cow aspect". A cow-headed Hera, like a [[Minotaur]] would make a dark demon of fear. But on Cyprus, very early archaeological sites contain bull skulls that have been adapted for use as masks (see [[Bull (mythology)]])<!--"and the crow"?-->.
The pomegranate, an ancient emblem of the Great Goddess (see [[Pomegranate]]), remained an emblem of Hera: many of the votive pomegranates and [[Opium|poppy capsule]]s recovered at Samos are made of ivory, which survives burial better than the wooden ones that must have been more common. Like all goddesses, Hera may be displayed wearing a diadem and be veiled.
== Hera and children ==
Hera presides over the right arrangements of the marriage and is the archetype of the union in the marriage bed, but she is not notable as a mother. The legitimate offspring of her union with Zeus is [[Ares]], [[Hebe]] (the goddess of youth), [[Eris]] (the goddess of discord) and [[Eileithyia]] (goddess of childbirth). Hera was jealous of Zeus' giving birth to [[Athena]] without recourse to her (actually with [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]]), so she gave birth to [[Hephaestus]] without him. (An alternate version discounts this and says Zeus and Hera were both parents of Hephaestus) Zeus and/or Hera herself were then disgusted with Hephaestus' ugliness and threw him from [[Mount Olympus]]. As another alternative version, Hera gave birth to all of the children usually accredited to her and Zeus together, alone by beating her hand on the Earth, a solemnizing action for the Greeks, or by eating [[lettuce]]<!--a reference to a cult practice is needed for this-->.
Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical throne which, when she sat on it, didn't allow her to leave it. The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go but he repeatedly refused. [[Dionysus]] got him drunk and took him back to Olympus on the back of a mule. Hephaestus released Hera after being given [[Aphrodite]] as his wife.
== Hera the nemesis of Heracles ==
Hera was the enemy of Heracles, the hero who, more than even [[Perseus]], [[Cadmus]] or [[Theseus]], introduced the Olympian ways in Greece (Ruck and Staples 1994). When [[Alcmene]] was pregnant with [[Hercules|Heracles]], Hera tried to prevent the birth from occurring. She was foiled by [[Galanthis]], her servant, who told Hera that she had already delivered the baby. Hera turned her into a [[weasel]].
While Heracles was still an infant, Hera sent two [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpents]], to kill him as he lay in his cot, the mythographers interpreted the event. Heracles throttled a single snake in each hand and was found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were child's toys. The anecdote is built upon a representation of the hero gripping a serpent in each hand, precisely as the familiar Minoan snake-handling goddesses had once done.
One account of the origin of the [[Milky Way]] is that Zeus had tricked Hera into nursing the infant Heracles: discovering who he was, she had pulled him from her breast, and a spurt of her milk formed the smear across the sky that can be seen to this day.
==== The Twelve Labors ====
Hera assigned Hercules to labor for King [[Eurystheus]] at Mycenae. She attempted to make almost each of Hercules' twelve labors more difficult.
When he fought the [[Lernaean Hydra]], she sent a crab to bite at his feet in the hopes of distracting him. To annoy Hercules after he took the cattle of [[Geryon]], Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle, irritate them and scatter them. Hera then sent a flood which raised the water level of a river so much Heracles could not ford the river with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower. When he finally reached the court of [[Eurystheus]], the cattle were sacrificed to Hera.
Eurystheus also wanted to sacrifice [[Cretan Bull]] to Hera, who hated Heracles. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles. The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the [[Marathonian Bull]].
== Hera's jealousies ==
=== [[Echo (mythology)|Echo]] ===
For a time, a [[nymph]] named [[Echo (mythology)|Echo]] had the job of distracting Hera from Zeus' affairs by incessantly talking. When Hera discovered the deception, she cursed Echo to only speak the words of others (hence our modern word "echo").
=== [[Leto]] and [[Artemis]]/[[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] ===
When Hera discovered that [[Leto]] was pregnant and that Hera's husband, Zeus, was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "terra-firma", or the mainland, or any island at sea. She found the floating island of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island and gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. As a gesture of gratitude, Delos was secured with four pillars. The island later became sacred to [[Apollo]]. Alternatively, Hera kidnapped [[Ilithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods forced Hera to let her go. Either way, [[Artemis]] was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo. Another version states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo.
=== [[Callisto (mythology)|Callisto]]/[[Arcas]] ===
Hera also figures in the myth of [[Callisto (mythology)|Callisto]] and [[Arcas]].
A follower of [[Artemis]], Callisto took a [[vow]] to remain a [[virgin]]. But [[Zeus]] fell in love with her and disguised himself as [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] in order to lure her into his embrace. Hera then turned Callisto into a bear out of revenge. Later, Callisto's son with Zeus, [[Arcas]], nearly killed her in a hunt and Zeus placed them up in the clouds in the beautiful An alternate version: One of [[Artemis]]' companions, Callisto lost her virginity to Zeus, who had come disguised as Artemis. Enraged, Artemis changed her into a bear. Callisto's son, Arcas, nearly killed his mother while hunting, but Zeus or Artemis stopped him and placed them both in the sky as [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]].
Another alternate version: Artemis killed Callisto in bear form, deliberately.
Hera was not pleased with the placement of Callisto and Arcas in the sky, so she asked her nurse, [[Tethys (titan)|Tethys]], to help. Tethys, a marine goddess, cursed the constellations to forever circle the sky and never drop below the horizon, hence explaining why they are circumpolar.
=== [[Semele]]/[[Dionysus]] ===
[[Dionysus]] was a son of Zeus by a mortal woman. A jealous Hera again attempted to kill the child, this time by sending Titans to rip Dionysus to pieces after luring the baby with toys. Though Zeus drove the Titans away with his thunderbolts but only after the Titans ate everything but the heart, which was saved, variously, by [[Athena]], [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]], or [[Demeter]]. Zeus used the heart to recreate Dionysus and implant him in the womb of [[Semele]], hence he was again "the twice-born". Sometimes it was said that he gave Semele the heart to eat to impregnate her.
See also [[Dionysus#Birth|Dionysus' birth]] for other variations.
=== [[Io (mythology)|Io]] ===
Hera almost caught Zeus with a mistress named [[Io (mythology)|Io]], a fate avoided by Zeus turning Io into a beautiful white heifer. However, Hera was not completely fooled and demanded Zeus give her the heifer as a present.
Once Io was given to Hera, she placed her in the charge of Argus to keep her separated from Zeus. Zeus then commanded Hermes to kill [[Argus]], which he did by lulling all one-hundred eyes to sleep. Hera sent a gadfly to sting Io as she wandered the earth.
Alternate version: Io was transformed back into a nymph by Hera in Egypt. The Egyptians saw her, and worshipped her as a goddess and her former form, the cow.
=== [[Lamia (mythology)|Lamia]] ===
[[Lamia (mythology)|Lamia]] was a queen of [[Libya]], whom Zeus loved. Hera turned her into a monster and murdered their children. Or, alternately, s |
nheritance tax''', also known in some countries outside the United States as a '''death [[duty (economics)|duty]]''' and referred to as an '''estate tax''' within the U.S, is a form of [[tax]] imposed upon the transfer of the property of the [[Estate (law)|estate]] of a deceased person that is left to a living person or organisation.
Supporters of the inheritance tax argue that it is not a death tax per se, but simply a tax on a transfer of wealth. Opponents argue that the tax is applied to the full estate, and not merely the amount transferred, which arguably increases the effective transfer tax rate. In the United States, the tax is imposed only on the "taxable estate," which is generally less than the value of the full estate.
If an asset is left to a spouse or a charitable organization, some countries do not apply the tax. The tax is also imposed on other transfers of property made as an incident of the death of the owner, such as a transfer of property from an [[intestate]] estate or trust, or the payment of certain [[life insurance]] benefits or financial account sums to beneficiaries.
''For UK Inheritance tax, see [[Inheritance Tax (United Kingdom)]].
==United States==
In the United States, estate and/or inheritance taxes may be imposed at both the national (Federal) level and the state level.
===Federal estate tax===
The Federal ''estate tax'' is imposed "on the transfer of the taxable estate of every decedent who is a citizen or resident of the United States." See {{usc|26|2001(a)}}.
====The "gross estate"====
The "gross estate" for Federal estate tax purposes often includes more property than that included in the "probate estate" under the property laws of the state in which the decedent lived at the time of death. The starting point for the calculation of the estate tax is the value of the "gross estate" defined at {{usc|26|2031}} and {{usc|26|2033}}, as modified by certain other statutory provisions. The gross estate (before the modifications) may be considered to be the value of all the property interests of the decedent at the time of death. To these interests are added the following property interests generally not owned by the decedent at the time of death:
*the value of property to the extent of an interest held by the surviving spouse as a "dower or curtesy" (see {{usc|26|2034}});
*the value of certain items of property in which the decedent had, at any time, made a transfer during the three years immediately preceding the date of death (i.e., even if the property was no longer owned by the decedent on the date of death), other than certain gifts, and other than property sold for full value (see {{usc|26|2035}});
*the value of certain property transferred by the decedent before death for which the decedent retained a "life estate," or retained certain "powers" (see {{usc|26|2036}});
*the value of certain property in which the recipient could, through ownership, have possession or enjoyment only by surviving the decedent (see {{usc|26|2037(a)(1)}});
*the value of certain property in which the decedent retained a "reversionary interest," the value of which exceeded five percent of the value of the property (see {{usc|26|2037(a)(2)}});
*the value of certain property transferred by the debtor before death where the transfer was revocable (see {{usc|26|2038}});
*the value of certain annuities (see {{usc|26|2039}});
*the value of certain jointly owned property (see {{usc|26|2040}});
*the value of certain "powers of appointment" (see {{usc|26|2041}});
*the amount of proceeds of certain life insurance policies (see {{usc|26|2042}}).
The above list of modifications is not comprehensive.
As noted above, life insurance benefits may be included in the gross estate (even though the proceeds arguably were not "owned" by the decedent and were never received by the decedent). Life insurance proceeds are generally included in the gross estate if the benefits are payable to the estate, or if the decedent was the owner of the life insurance policy or had any "incidents of ownership" over the life insurance policy (such as the power to change the beneficiary designation). Similarly, bank accounts or other financial instruments which are "payable on death" or "transfer on death" are usually included in the taxable estate, even though such assets are not subject to the [[probate]] process under state law.
====Deductions, the taxable estate, and the tentative tax====
Once the value of the "gross estate" is determined, the law provides for various "deductions" (in Part IV of Subchapter A of Chapter 11 of Subtitle B of the [[Internal Revenue Code]] in arriving at the value of the "taxable estate." Deductions include but are not limited to:
*Funeral expenses, administration expenses, and claims against the estate (see {{usc|26|2053}});
*Certain [[charity|charitable]] contributions (see {{usc|26|2055}});
*Certain items of property left to the surviving spouse (see {{usc|26|2056}}).
After subtracting the deduction amounts from the gross estate amount to arrive at the "taxable estate" amount, the tax rate is imposed on the value of the "taxable estate" to compute the tentative tax.
====Tax credit, the exemption equivalent, and the tax====
However, the law then provides for a credit against the tentative tax. The credit may be thought of as providing, in effect, for an "exemption equivalent" or [[tax exemption|exempted value]] with respect to the value of the property. For a person dying during 2005, an estate with a value less than $1,500,000 would not pay a federal estate tax and most likely would not have to file a federal estate tax return. The applicable exclusion amount increases to $2,000,000 for decedents dying in the years 2006, 2007 and 2008. The amount increases to $3,500,000 for 2009. According to the Econonic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001, the federal estate tax disappears for the year 2010, but the tax returns in 2011 at the 2001 level.
====Requirements for filing return and paying tax====
For estates larger than the current federally exempted amount, any estate tax due is paid by the [[executor]] or other person responsible for administering the estate. That person is also responsible for filing a Form 706 return with the [[Internal Revenue Service]]. The return must contain detailed information as to the valuations of the estate assets and the exemptions claimed, to ensure that the correct amount of tax is paid.
====Criticisms of the Federal estate tax====
Many of its opponents refer to the estate tax as the "[[death tax]]" and have called for its abolition. Since 2003, the top rate has dropped from 50% by one percent per year; it is scheduled to drop to 45% in 2009, thence to 0% in 2010, but [[as of 2006]], if no further changes in the law are enacted, the tax will be reimposed at a top rate of 50% in 2011. It is possible, however, that Congress could act in the interim and extend the abolition of the estate tax indefinitely, and legislation has been introduced to this effect.
====Exemptions and tax rates====
<div style="float:left; width:55%;">
As noted above, a certain amount of each estate is exempted from taxation by the federal government. Below is a table of the amount of exemption by year an estate would expect. Estates above these amounts would be subject to estate tax, but only for the amount above the exemption.
For example, assume an estate of $3.5 million in 2005. There are two beneficiaries who will each receive equal shares of the estate. The maximum allowable credit is $1.5 million for that year, so the taxable value is therefore $2 million. Since it is 2005, the tax rate on that $2 million is 47%, so the total taxes paid would be $940,000. Each beneficiary will receive $750,000 of untaxed inheritance and $530,000 from the taxable portion of their inheritance for a total of $1,280,000. This means that they would have paid (or, more precisely, the estate would have paid) a taxable rate of 26.9%.
</div><div style="float:right; width:40%; margin: 0.5em; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #8888aa; ">
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">Year
</td>
<td><br></td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<p align="center">Max. Estate<br>Tax Credit
</p>
</td>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2">
<p align="center">Marginal Tax<br>
Rate</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>&nbsp; </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2002</td>
<td><br></td>
<td >$1 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td >50%</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2003</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$1 million</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td>49%</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2004</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$1.5 million</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>48%</td>
<td><br></td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2005</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$1.5 million</td>
<td><br>
</td>
<td>47%</td>
<td><br></td>
<td><br></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2006</td>
<td><br></td>
<td>$2 million</td>
<td><br></td>
&l |
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<title>AbdomeN</title>
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<title>AbdominalSurgery</title>
<id>246</id>
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<title>AbeceDarians</title>
<id>247</id>
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<title>AbeL</title>
<id>248</id>
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<timestamp>2005-12-10T09:01:43Z</timestamp>
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<username>Spiffy sperry</username>
<id>79741</id>
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<comment>fix double redirect - [[Special:DoubleRedirects|click here to help]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cain and Abel]]</text>
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<page>
<title>AbensbergGermany</title>
<id>249</id>
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<title>AberdeenSouthDakota</title>
<id>251</id>
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<timestamp>2002-08-17T11:23:12Z</timestamp>
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<username>DavidLevinson</username>
<id>1689</id>
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<comment>fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aberdeen, South Dakota]]</text>
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<title>AardwolF</title>
<id>252</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aardwolf]]
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<page>
<title>AbadanIran</title>
<id>253</id>
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<timestamp>2003-11-08T12:12:19Z</timestamp>
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<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
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<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abadan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>ArthurKoestler</title>
<id>254</id>
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<title>AynRand</title>
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<title>AlexanderTheGreat</title>
<id>256</id>
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<title>AnchorageAlaska</title>
<id>258</id>
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<title>ArgumentForms</title>
<id>259</id>
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<title>ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod</title>
<id>260</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Existence of God]]</text>
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<page>
<title>APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge</title>
<id>261</id>
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<timestamp>2005-06-29T11:11:17Z</timestamp>
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<page>
<title>AnarchY</title>
<id>263</id>
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<timestamp>2002-11-05T13:28:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tzartzam</username>
<id>3624</id>
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<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Anarchy]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anarchy]]</text>
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<page>
<title>AsciiArt</title>
<id>264</id>
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<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:40:04Z</timestamp>
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<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[ASCII art]]</comment>
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<title>AndreAgassi</title>
<id>268</id>
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<title>AcademyAwards</title>
<id>269</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Awards]]</text>
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<page>
<title>AcademyAwards/BestPicture</title>
<id>270</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]</text>
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<title>AustriaLanguage</title>
<id>271</id>
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<timestamp>2005-07-19T21:19:49Z</timestamp>
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<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
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<comment>Why are people too lazy to fix dbl redirs when they move a page?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Austrian German]]</text>
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<page>
<title>AcademicElitism</title>
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<title>AxiomOfChoice</title>
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<title>AmericanFootball</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American football]]
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<title>AmericA</title>
<id>278</id>
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<id>19987901</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-31T16:10:07Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<comment>{{R from CamelCase}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amer |
)|Titan]] - [[Saturn|Saturn's]] largest moon, and the only known moon with a significant atmosphere. Recently visited by the [[Huygens probe]]. Latest discoveries indicate that there is no global or widespread ocean, but small and/or seasonal liquid hydrocarbon [http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/images/image-details.cfm?imageID=1577 lakes] are still possible.
* [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] - probably has a [[salt]] ocean under a thick ice crust. If there is life there, many expect to find habitats similar to hydrothermal vents on Earth. Astrobiologists also hold out hope that we could find aerobic life, living off oxygen brought down into the ocean through the churning of the moon's icy surface.
* [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]] - [[Jupiter|Jupiter's]] largest moon, and indeed the largest moon in the entire solar system
* [[Enceladus (moon)|Enceladus]] - Another one of Saturn's moons, may have liquid water beneath its surface. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7159]
Numerous other bodies have been suggested as potentially life-bearing. For example, atmospheric life has been hypothesised on Venus and the gas giants. [[Fred Hoyle]] also proposed that microbial life might exist on comets. Some Earth microbes also managed to survive on a lunar probe for some years. It is considered highly unlikely that complex multicellular organisms exist in any of these places.
==Dealing with extraterrestrial life==
If intelligent extraterrestrial life is found and it is possible to communicate with it, the people of the world and their governments will need to determine how to manage those interactions. The development of policy guidelines for dealing with extraterrestrial beings and territory has been considered by authors such as Michael Salla and [[Alfred Webre]] and termed [[exopolitics]].
==See also==
*[[Are We Alone?]]
*[[Astrobiology]]
*[[Astrosociobiology]]
*[[Back-contamination]]
*[[Drake equation]]
*[[Fermi paradox]]
*[[Frank Drake]]
*[[Habitable zone]]
*[[Paleocontact theory]]
*[[Panspermia]]
*[[Planetary habitability]]
*[[Rare Earth hypothesis]]
*[[Scientific skepticism]]
*[[Sentience Quotient]]
*[[Seth Shostak]]
*[[SETI]]
*[[Aurelia and Blue Moon]]
*[[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] - an [[ESA]] mission designed to find Earth-like planets and analyze their atmosphere for signs of life.
==References==
* {{cite book
| author = [[Jack Cohen (scientist)|Jack Cohen]] and [[Ian Stewart (mathematician)|Ian Stewart]]
| year =2002
| title=[[Evolving the Alien|Evolving the Alien: The Science of Extraterrestrial Life]]
| publisher = Ebury Press
| id = ISBN 0-091-87927-2
}}
*{{cite journal
| author=J. Deardorff, B. Haisch, B. Maccabee, [[Harold E. Puthoff]]
| title=Inflation-Theory Implications for Extraterrestrial Visitation
| journal=[[Journal of the British Interplanetary Society]]
| year=2005 | volume=58 | pages=43–50
| url= http://www.ufoskeptic.org/JBIS.pdf
}} (''links to pdf file'')
* Berger, Brian (2005). [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/mars_life_050216.html Exclusive: NASA Researchers Claim Evidence of Present Life on Mars]. Posted Feb. 16, 2005.
*spacetoday.net (2005). [http://www.spacetoday.net/Summary/2804 NASA denies Mars life reports]. Posted Feb 19, 2005.
*Michelson, Marcel (2005). [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/nm/space_mars_dc European Scientists Believe in Life on Mars]. Posted Feb 25, 2005.
* {{cite book
| author = [[John C. Baird]]
| year = 1987
| title = [[The Inner Limits of Outer Space]]: A Psychologist Critiques Our Efforts to Communicate With Extraterrestrial Beings
| location = Hanover
| publisher = University Press of New England
| id = ISBN 0-87451-406-1
}}
* {{cite book
| author = [[Donald Goldsmith]]
| year = 1997
| title = [[The Hunt for Life on Mars]]
| location = New York
| publisher = A Dutton Book
| id = ISBN 0525943366
}}
* {{cite book
| author = [[Michael T. Lemnick]]
| year = 1998
| title = Other Worlds: The Search for Life in the Universe
| location = New York
| publisher = A Touchstone Book
}}
* {{cite book
| author = [[Cliff Pickover]]
| year = 2003
| title = [[The Science of Aliens]]
| location = New York
| publisher = Basic Books
| id = ISBN 0-465-07315-8
}}
== Related books and media ==
* {{cite book
| last = Crowe | first = Michael J.
| title = The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750--1900
| publisher = Dover Publications
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Sagan, Carl and [[Iosif Samuilovich Shklovskii|I.S. Shklovskii]]
| title = [[Intelligent Life in the Universe]]
| publisher = Random House
| year = 1966
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Sagan | first = Carl
| title = [[Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence]]
| publisher = MIT Press
| year = 1973
}}
==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/lifebeyondearth/index.html ''PBS: Life Beyond Earth'' a film by Timothy Ferris]
*[http://www.ufoskeptic.org ''ufoskeptic.org'' by Bernard Haisch]
*[http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/Xenopsychology.htm ''Xenopsychology'' by Robert A. Freitas Jr.]
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/05/0520_050520_tv_aliens.html "What Aliens Might Look Like"] from [[National Geographic]]
*[http://www.sylviaengdahl.com/space/poetry1.htm Sylvia Engdahl , "Early Space Poetry" Part I]: Didactic and other poetry concerning other inhabited worlds, well-known and obscure poets, 17th-18th centuries. [http://www.sylviaengdahl.com/space/poetry2.htm "Part II":] 19th century
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4728228.stm Top stars picked in alien search]
*[http://www.auforn.com Australian UFO Research Network]
[[Category:Astrobiology]]
[[Category:Extraterrestrials|*]]
[[da:Liv i rummet]]
[[de:Außerirdischer]]
[[eo:Ekstertera vivo]]
[[es:Vida extraterrestre]]
[[et:Maaväline elu]]
[[fa:زیست فرازمینی]]
[[fr:Extraterrestre]]
[[hu:Földönkívüliek]]
[[ja:地球外生命]]
[[pl:Życie pozaziemskie]]
[[sl:Izvenzemeljsko življenje]]
[[vi:Sinh vật ngoài Trái Đất]]
[[zh:外星生命]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>ESPRIT</title>
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<timestamp>2005-12-24T12:46:34Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of "Esprit", see [[Esprit (disambiguation)]].''
'''ESPRIT''' is an acronym for the '''European Strategic Program on Research in [[Information Technology]]''' of the [[European Union]], run by the Directorate General for Industry of the [[European Commission]].
ESPRIT developed the initial version of [[SAMPA]] before being superseded by the [[Information Society Technologies]] (IST) programme ([http://www.cordis.lu/ist/home.html]).
==External links==
*http://www.cordis.lu/esprit/home.html
{{EU-stub}}
[[Category:History of the European Union]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Erlang</title>
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<minor />
<comment>grammar in intro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Erlang''' may refer to:
* [[Erlang unit]], a unit to measure telecommunications (or other) traffic
* [[Erlang distribution]], a probability distribution describing waiting times in queuing systems
* [[Erlang programming language]], a programming language oriented to the development of concurrent software.
* [[Agner Krarup Erlang]], the mathematician and engineer after whom all the above concepts are named.
* [[Erlang Shen]] is a famous Chinese deity.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Erlang]]
[[fr:Erlang]]
[[nl:Erlang]]</text>
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<page>
<title>E. E. Cummings</title>
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<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EECummings.jpg|thumb|right|E. E. Cummings]]
'''Edward Estlin Cummings''' ([[October 14]], [[1894]] &ndash; [[September 3]], [[1962]]), typically abbreviated '''E.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;Cummings''', was an [[Poetry of the United States|American poet]], [[painter]], [[essayist]], and [[playwright]]. Though a representation not endorsed by him{{ref|capsokay}}, his publishers often mirrored his atypical syntax by writing his name in lower case, '''e.&nbsp;e.&nbsp;cummings'''.
However, this point was corrected in "Not e. e. cummings: Revisited."
Cummings is probably best known for his unorthodox usage of both capitalization and punctuation, in which unexpected and seemingly misplaced punctuation sometimes interrupt sentences and even individual words. Many of his poems were best understood when read on the page.
Despite Cummings' affinity for [[avant garde]] styles and for unusual typography, much of his work is traditional. Many of his poems are [[sonnet]]s, and he occasionally made use of the [[blues]] form and [[acrostics]] as well. Cummings' poetry often deals with themes of [[love]] and nature, as well as satire and the relationship of the individual to the masses and to the world. But, while his poetic forms and even themes show a close continuity with the romantic tradition, his work universally shows a particular idiosyncrasy of [[syntax]] or way of arranging individual words into larger phrases and sentences. Many of his most striking poems do not involve any typographical or punctuational innovations at all, but purely syntactic ones.
During his lifetime, he published more than 900 poems, along with two novels, several essays, as well as numerous drawings, sketches, and paintings. He is r |
ains and highlands near Adriatic coastline and islands
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br />
''lowest point:''
[[Adriatic Sea]] 0 m
<br />
''highest point:''
[[Dinara]] 1,830 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[Petroleum]], some [[coal]], [[bauxite]], low-grade [[iron]] ore, [[calcium]], natural [[asphalt]], [[silica]], [[mica]], [[clay]]s, [[salt]], [[hydropower]]
'''Land use:'''
<br />
''arable land:'' 23.55%
<br />
''permanent crops:'' 2.24%
<br />
''other:'' 74.21% (1998 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
30 km² (1998 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
destructive [[earthquake]]s
'''Environment - current issues:'''
[[air pollution]] (from metallurgical plants) and resulting [[acid rain]] is damaging the forests; coastal pollution from industrial and domestic waste;
[[land mine|landmine]] removal and reconstruction of infrastructure consequent to 1992-95 civil strife
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br />
''party to:''
[[Air Pollution]],
Air Pollution-[[Sulfur]] 94,
[[Biodiversity]],
[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]],
[[Desertification]],
[[Endangered Species]],
[[Hazardous Wastes]],
[[Law of the Sea]],
[[Marine Dumping]],
[[Nuclear Test Ban]],
[[Ozone Layer Protection]],
Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]),
[[Wetlands]]
<br />
''signed, but not ratified:''
Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants,
Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]
'''Geography - note:'''
controls most land routes from Western Europe to [[Aegean Sea]] and Turkish Straits
:''See also :'' [[Croatia]] and [[Extreme points of Croatia]]
[[Category:Geography of Croatia| ]]
[[nl:Geografie van Kroatië]]
[[hr:Zemljopis Hrvatske]]
[[pt:Geografia da Croácia]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Demographics of Croatia</title>
<id>5576</id>
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<contributor>
<username>TimBentley</username>
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<minor />
<comment>fix link to dab page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Croatia]] is inhabited mostly by [[Croats]], while [[minority]] groups include [[Serbs]], [[Bosniaks]], [[Hungarians]], [[Italians]], [[Germans]], [[Czechs]], [[Roma]], and others. [[Catholicism]] is the predominant religion, while there's also [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] and [[Islam]].
The natural growth rate is minute, as the [[demographic transition]] is long done. Life expectancy and literacy rates are reasonably high.
[[Image:Croatia-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Croatia, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==
===Population===
:4,495,904 (July 2005 est.)
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 16.4% (male 378,615/female 359,231)
:15-64 years: 67% (male 1,497,355/female 1,514,993)
:65 years and over: 16.6% (male 283,460/female 462,250) (2005 est.)
===Median age===
:Total: 39.97 years
:Male: 38.01 years
:Female: 41.76 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:-0.02% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:9.57 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:11.38 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:19.58 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.61 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.92 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 6.84 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 6.79 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 6.88 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 74.45 years
:Male: 70.79 years
:Female: 79.31 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:1.39 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 200 (2001 est.)
:Deaths: less than 10 (2001 est.)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Croat(s), Croatian(s)
:Adjective: Croatian
===Ethnic groups===
:Croat 89.6%, Serb 4.5%, Bosniak 0.5%, Hungarian 0.4%, Slovene 0.3%, Czech 0.2%, Roma 0.2%, Albanian 0.1%, Montenegrin 0.1%, others 4.1% (2001)
===Religions===
:Roman Catholic 87.8%, Orthodox 4.4%, Muslim 1.3%, Protestant 0.3%, others and unknown 6.2% (2001)
===Languages===
:Croatian 96%, other 4% (including Italian, Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, and German)
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 98.5%
:Male: 99.4%
:Female: 97.8% (2003 est.)
==Ethnic groups according to the 2001 census==
''Source: [http://www.dzs.hr/default.htm Croatian Institute for Statistics], 2004''
<table>
<tr><th></th><th></th><th>Population</th><th>Structure (%)</th></tr>
<tr><td>'''Total'''</td><td></td><td>4.437.460</td><td>100</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[Croats]]'''</td><td></td><td>3.977.171</td><td>89,63</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[National minority|National minorities]]'''</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''Total'''</td><td>331.383</td><td>7,47</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Albanians]]'''</td><td>15.082</td><td>0,34</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Austrians]]'''</td><td>247</td><td>0,01</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Bosnians]]'''</td><td>20.755</td><td>0,47</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Bulgarians]]'''</td><td>331</td><td>0,01</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Czechs]]'''</td><td>10.510</td><td>0,24</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Germans]]'''</td><td>2.902</td><td>0,07</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Hungarians]]'''</td><td>16.595</td><td>0,37</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Italians]]'''</td><td>19.636</td><td>0,44</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Jews]]'''</td><td>576</td><td>0,01</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Macedonians]]'''</td><td>4.270</td><td>0,10</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Montenegrins]]'''</td><td>4.926</td><td>0,11</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Poles]]'''</td><td>567</td><td>0,01</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Roma]]'''</td><td>9.463</td><td>0,21</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Romanians]]'''</td><td>475</td><td>0,01</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Russians]]'''</td><td>906</td><td>0,02</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Ruthenes]]'''</td><td>2.337</td><td>0,05</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Serbs]]'''</td><td>201.631</td><td>4,54</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Slovaks]]'''</td><td>4.712</td><td>0,11</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Slovenes]]'''</td><td>13.173</td><td>0,30</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Turkish people|Turks]]'''</td><td>300</td><td>0,01</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Ukrainians]]'''</td><td>1.977</td><td>0,04</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''[[Vlachs]]'''</td><td>12</td><td>0,00</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Others'''<sup>1</sup></td><td></td><td>21.801</td><td>0,49</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Refrained from stating'''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''their nationality'''</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''Total'''</td><td>89.130</td><td>2,01</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''stated regional'''</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>'''affiliation'''</td><td>9.302</td><td>0,21</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Unknown'''</td><td></td><td>17.975</td><td>0,41</td></tr>
</table>
<small><sup>1</sup> This mode includes, among others, [[Yugoslavians]] and [[Muslims]].</small>
== Changes in the late 20th century ==
The census of [[1991]] was the last one held before the war in Croatia, marked by ethnic conflict between the Orthodox Serbs and the Catholic Croats. In the ethnic and religious composition of population of Croatia of that time, those two sets of numbers are quoted as important:
* Croats 78.1%, Catholics 76.5%
* Serbs 12.2%, Orthodox Christians 11.1%
After the end of the war of the [[1990s]] and everything else that it entailed, the numbers are:
* Croats 89.6%, Catholics 87.8%
* Serbs 4.5%, Orthodox Christians 4.4%
The population change is seen by some as a campaign of [[ethnic cleansing]] between 1990 and 1995. In earlier stages of the war, most of the Croats of eastern Slavonia, Baranja, Banija, Kordun, eastern Lika, northern Dalmatian Zagora and Kona |
the [[Seven Against Thebes]] and [[Epigoni]]. For obvious reasons, this generation was extremely popular among the Athenian tragedians.
[[Image:The Rage of Achilles by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|"The Rage of Achilles" by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]]
====Troy and the Aftermath====
As the turning point between the Heroic Age and what the Greek considered the historical period, the [[Trojan War]], its preludes and epilogues, outweighs the rest of the age combined in the sheer amount of source material available. The Trojan cycle includes:
*The events leading up to the war: [[Eris]] and the [[golden apple]] of [[Kallisti]], the [[Judgement of Paris]], the abduction of [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], the sacrifice of [[Iphigenia]] at [[Aulis]].
*The events of the [[Iliad]], including the quarrel of [[Achilles]] with [[Agamemnon]] and the deaths of [[Patroclus]] and [[Hector]].
*The ruse of the [[Trojan Horse]] and the destruction of [[Troy]].
*The homecomings of heroes from Troy, including the wanderings of [[Odysseus]] (the [[Odyssey]]) and [[Aeneas]] (the [[Aeneid]]), and the murder of [[Agamemnon]]
*The children of the Trojan generation: e.g. [[Orestes]] and [[Telemachus]]
==Theories of Origin==
In antiquity, historians such as [[Herodotus]] theorized that the Greek gods had been stolen directly from the [[Egypt]]ians. Later on, Christian writers tried to explain Hellenic paganism through degeneration of [[Biblical]] religion. Since then, the sciences of archaeology and linguistics have been applied to the origins of Greek mythology with some interesting results.
To begin with, extant literary sources indicate that the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] used the word &#913;&#953;&#952;&#953;&#959;&#960;&#943;&#945; to refer to a peoples:
* whom they considered sacred, favored by the gods, and
* living immediately to the south of [[ancient Egypt]].
For example, [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]] was regarded as one of [[Ancient Greece]]'s noblest heroes. Also, a [[mosaic]] discovered in the ruins of [[Pompeii]] vividly depicts [[Hercules]] as a black man ([http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110Tech/RomanAfrica2/pompei%26herc1.jpg], [http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110Tech/RomanAfrica2/#Subject]).
But, historical linguistics, on the one hand, demonstrates that particular aspects of the Greek pantheon were inherited from [[Indo-European]] society, as were the roots of the Greek language. Thus, for example, the name [[Zeus]] is cognate with Latin [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], [[Sanskrit]] [[Dyaus]] and Germanic [[Tyr]] (see [[Dyeus]]), as is [[Ouranos]] with Sanskrit [[Varuna]]. In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove &mdash; as in the case of the Greek [[Moirae]] and the [[Norns]] of [[Norse mythology]].
And archaeology, on the other hand, has revealed that the Greeks were inspired by some of the civilizations of Asia Minor and the Near East. [[Cybele]] is rooted in [[Anatolia]]n culture, and much of [[Aphrodite]]'s [[iconography]] springs from the Semitic goddesses [[Ishtar]] and [[Astarte]].
Textual studies reveal multiple layers in tales, such as secondary asides bringing [[Theseus]] into tales of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]]. Such tales concerning tribal [[eponym]]s are thought to originate in attempts to absorb mythology of one tradition into another, in order to unite the cultures.
In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the still poorly understood pre-Hellenic societies of Greece, such as the [[Minoans]] and so-called [[Pelasgians]]. This is especially true in the case of [[chthonic]] deities and [[mother goddess]]es. For some, the three main generations of gods in [[Hesiod]]'s [[Theogony]] (Uranus, Gaia, etc.; the Titans and then the Olympians) suggest a distant echo of a struggle between social groups, mirroring the three major high cultures of Greek civilization: [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]], [[Mycenaean]] and [[Hellenic]].
The extensive parallels between Hesiod's narrative and the [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] myth of [[Anu]], [[Kumarbi]], and [[Teshub]] makes it very likely that the story is an adaptation of borrowed materials, rather than a distorted historical record. Parallels between the earliest divine generations ([[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]] and its children) and [[Tiamat]] in the ''[[Enuma Elish]]'' are possible (Joseph Fontenrose, ''Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins'': NY, Biblo-Tannen, 1974).
Jungian scholars such as [[Karl Kerenyi]] have preferred to view the origin of myths (and dreams) in universal [[archetype]]s. Though not all readers are confident of interpretations of myth in terms of [[Carl Jung]]'s psychology of dreams (by Kerenyi or [[Joseph Campbell|Campbell]] for examples), most agree that myths are dreamlike in two aspects: they are not consistent, perhaps not wholly consistent even within a single myth-element; and they often reflect some momentary experience of the essence of the godhead, some [[epiphany]], which then must be assembled into a narrative thread, much as dreams are recreated as sequential happenings.
In sum, the origins of Greek mythology remain a fascinating and open question.
==Did the Greeks believe their myths?==
"Our own myths we call reality" is one of the axioms with which Carl A.P. Ruck and Danny Staples commence ''The World of Classical Myth''; to the Greeks, mythology was a part of their history; few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the [[Trojan War]] in the ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]''. The Greeks used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities, and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace one's descent from a mythological hero or a god.
Sophisticated Greeks experienced a cultural crisis in the [[5th century BC]], when increased literacy and the development of logic forced a more comparative skeptical turn of mind, a crisis of which [[Socrates]] was the most famous victim.
On the other hand, a few radical philosophers like [[Xenophanes]] were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies in the [[6th century BC]]; this line of thought found its most sweeping expression in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Plato's Republic|Republic]]'' and ''Laws''. More sportingly, the 5th century BC [[tragedy|tragedian]] [[Euripides]] often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. In other cases Euripides seems to be directing pointed criticism at the behavior of his gods.
Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often adapted stories of characters in Greek myth in ways that did not reflect earlier actual beliefs. Many of the most popular versions of these myths that we have today were actually from these fictional retellings, which may blur the archaic beliefs.
===Hellenistic Rationalism===
The skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced in the [[Hellenistic]] era. Most daringly, the mythographer [[Euhemerus]] claimed that stories about the gods were only confused memories of the cruelty of ancient kings. Although Euhemerus's works are lost, interpretations in his style are frequently found in [[Diodorus Siculus]].
Rationalizing [[hermeneutic]]s of myth became even more popular under the [[Roman Empire]], thanks to the physicalist theories of [[Stoicism|Stoic]] and [[Epicureanism|Epicurean]] philosophy, as well as the pragmatic bent of the Roman mind. The antiquarian [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]], summarizing centuries' worth of philosophic tradition, distinguished three kinds of gods:
* The gods of nature: personifications of phenomena like rain and fire.
* The gods of the poets: invented by unscrupulous bards to stir the passions.
* The gods of the city: invented by wise legislators to soothe and enlighten the populace.
[[Cicero]]'s ''De Natura Deorum'' is the most comprehensive summary of this line of thought.
===Syncretizing Trends===
One unexpected side-effect of the rationalist view was a popular trend to syncretize multiple Greek and foreign gods in strange, nearly unrecognizable new cults. If [[Apollo]] and [[Serapis]] and [[Sabazios]] and [[Dionysus]] and [[Mithras]] were all really [[Helios]], why not combine them all together into one [[Sol Invictus|Deus Sol Invictus]], with conglomerated rites and compound attributes? The surviving [[2nd century|2nd century AD]] collection of [[Orpheus|Orphic Hymns]] and [[Macrobius]]'s ''Saturnalia'' are products of this mind-set.
But though Apollo might in religion be increasingly identified with Helios or even Dionysus, texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice.
==Modern Interpreters==
A bibliography of modern works on Greek myth, beginning from [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]]'s '' Genealogia degli Dei de Gentili'': [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Bibliography2.html Carlos Parada, Greek Mythology Link].
The developers of modern mythography and [[hermeneutics]], starting from Bulfinch's genteel Christian tradition, in approximate chronological order:
*[[Thomas Bulfinch]]
*[[Johann Jakob Bachofen]]
*[[James George Frazer]]
*[[Jane Ellen Harrison]]
*[[Walter Burkert]]
*[[Otto Rank]]
*[[Carl Jung]]
*[[Walter Otto]]
*[[Edith Hamilton]]
*[[Karl Kerenyi]]
*[[Robert Graves]]
*[[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[[Michael Grant]]
*[[Joseph Campbell]]
*[[Timothy Gantz]]
*[[H.R. Rose]]
==See also==
* [[List of Greek mythological characters]]
* [[List of Greek mythological creatures]]
* [[Odysseus]]
* [[Family tree of the Greek gods]]
* [[Greek religion]]
* [[Classical mythology]]
* [[Similarities between Rom |
[Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs]] of the [[United States Department of State|State Department]], which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty.
Further information is provided by the [[Office of Polar Programs]] of the [[National Science Foundation]].
== See also ==
{{Antarctica claims}}
== External links ==
{{Wikisource|The Antarctic Treaty}}
* [http://www.70south.com/resources/treaty/ 70South: Info on the Antarctic Treaty]
* [http://www.ats.aq Antarctic Treaty Secretariat]
* [http://www.nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp Full Text of the Antarctic Treaty]
* [http://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=OPP National Science Foundation - Office of Polar Programs]
* [http://www.ats.aq/meetings.php List of all Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings]
* [http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20050825/news_lz7e25koreas.html An Antarctic Solution for the Koreas] San Diego Union-Tribune, August 25, 2005 (Both South Korea and [[North Korea are members of the Antarctic Treaty)
[[Category:Antarctica]]
[[Category:Cold War treaties]]
[[Category:New Zealand and the Antarctic]]
[[Category:Treaties]]
[[cs:Antarktický smluvní systém]]
[[de:Nationales Antarktisprogramm]]
[[es:Tratado Antártico]]
[[fr:Traité sur l'Antarctique]]
[[ko:남극 조약]]
[[nl:Antarctisch Verdrag]]
[[ja:南極条約]]
[[no:Antarktis-traktaten]]
[[pl:Traktat Antarktyczny]]
[[pt:Tratado da Antártida]]
[[simple:Antarctic Treaty System]]
[[sv:Antarktisfördraget]]
[[uk:Антарктичний договір]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algernon Swinburne</title>
<id>1292</id>
<revision>
<id>40556504</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T11:49:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AndrewMcQ</username>
<id>87960</id>
</contributor>
<comment>details of birth</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Swinburne.jpg|thumb|150px|Algernon Swinburne, Portrait by [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Rossetti]] ]]
'''Algernon Charles Swinburne''' ([[April 5]], [[1837]] &ndash; [[April 10]], [[1909]]) was a [[Victorian era]] [[England|English]] poet. His [[poetry]] was highly controversial in its day, much of it containing recurring themes of [[sadomasochism]], death-wish, [[lesbian|lesbianism]] and anti-[[Christianity|Christian]] sentiments.
Swinburne was born in [[London]], and raised on the [[Isle of Wight]], and at [[Capheaton Hall]], near [[Wallington Hall|Wallington]], [[Northumberland]]. He was associated with the [[Pre-Raphaelite]] movement, and counted among his best friends [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]].
He is considered a ''[[Decadence|decadent]]'' poet, albeit that he professed to perhaps rather more vice than he actually indulged in, a fact which [[Oscar Wilde]] notably and acerbically commented upon.
Many of his early and still admired poems evoke the Victorian fascination with the [[Middle Ages]], and some of them are explicitly [[medieval_(term)|medieval]] in style, tone and construction, these representatives notably being "The Leper," "Laus Veneris," and "St Dorothy".
He was an [[Alcoholism|alcoholic]] and a highly excitable character. His health suffered as a result, until he finally broke down and was taken into care by his friend [[Theodore Watts]], who looked after him for the rest of his life in [[Putney]]. Thereafter he lost his youthful rebelliousness and developed into a figure of social respectability.
His [[vocabulary]], [[rhyme]] and [[Meter (poetry)|metre]] arguably make him one of the best poets of the [[English language]]; but his poetry has been criticized as overly flowery and meaningless, choosing words to fit the rhyme rather than to contribute towards meaning.
Works include: ''Atalanta in Calydon'', ''Poems and Ballads'' (series I, II and III -- these contain most of his more controversial works), ''Songs Before Sunrise'', ''Lesbia Brandon'' (novel published posthumously).
He also wrote poems in favour of the unification of [[Italy]]. He was a student at [[Balliol College, Oxford]], and his work in his day was very popular among undergraduates at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], though today it has largely gone out of fashion. This, at least, is the current popular and even the academic view of the decline of Swinburne's reputation, but it contains some distortion.
In fact Swinburne's ''Poems and Ballads, First Series'' and his ''Atalanta in Calydon'' have never been out of critical favor. It was Swinburne's misfortune that the two works, published when he was nearly 30, soon established him as England's premier poet, the successor to [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]] and [[Robert Browning]]. This was a position he held in the popular mind until his death, but sophisticated critics like [[A. E. Housman]] felt, rightly or wrongly, that the job of being one of England's very greatest poets was beyond him.
Swinburne may have felt this way himself. He was a highly intelligent man and in later life a much-respected critic, and he himself believed that the older a man was, the more cynical and less trustworthy he became. Swinburne may have been one of the first people not to trust anyone over thirty. This of course created problems for him after he himself passed that age.
After the first ''Poems and Ballads'', Swinburne's later poetry is devoted more to politics and philosophy. He does not utterly stop writing love poetry, but he is far less shocking. His versification, and especially his rhyming technique, remain masterful to the end. He is the virtual star of the third volume of [[George Saintsbury]]'s famous ''History of English Prosody'', and Housman, a more measured and even somewhat hostile critic, devoted paragraphs of praise to his rhyming ability.
It should also be noted that Swinburne continues to impact today's culture though in small degree. In the [[Cradle of Filth]] song "The Forest Whispers My Name" from the album The Principle Of Evil Made Flesh (1994) the following selection from Swinburne's ''The Garden of Proserpine'' can be found:
"Pale, beyond porch and portal,
Crowned with leaves, she stands,
Who gathers all things mortal,
With cold immortal hands,
Her languid lips are sweeter,
Than love's who fears to greet her,
To men that mix and meet her,
From many times and lands."
The other lyrics of Cradle of Filth also follow a similar vein as the writings of Swinburne. Themes of romance, love lost, mythical imagery and the macabre are frequent and a clear Swinburne influence is apparent.
Some of his poems:
*[[Hymn to Proserpine]]
*[[The Triumph of Time]]
==Further Reading==
{{wikisource author}}
A modern study of his religious attitudes:
*''Swinburne and His Gods: the Roots and Growth of an Agnostic Poetry'' by Margot Kathleen Louis (ISBN 0773507159)
==Trivia==
'''Ernest Wheldrake''' was a fictional character invented by Swinburne, who reviewed imaginary works by him. This was as a satire on the [[spasmodic poets]]. Wheldrake is also a character used by [[Michael Moorcock]] in his fiction.
== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Algernon+Charles+Swinburne | name=Algernon Swinburne}}
[[Category:1837 births|Swinburne, Algernon Charles]]
[[Category:1909 deaths|Swinburne, Algernon Charles]]
[[Category:English poets|Swinburne, Algernon]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Swinburne, Algernon]]
[[de:Algernon Swinburne]]
[[fr:Algernon Swinburne]]
[[sv:Algernon Swinburne]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alfred Lawson</title>
<id>1293</id>
<revision>
<id>40673630</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T05:16:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.73.169.108</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfred William Lawson''' ([[1869]]-[[1954]]) was a professional [[baseball]] player from 1887 through 1908 and went on to play a pioneering role in the US aircraft industry, publishing an early aviation trade journal. During this time he also wrote a novel, Born Again, clearly inspired by the popular Utopian fantasy [[Looking Backward]] by [[Edward Bellamy]], an early harbinger of the metaphysical turn his career would take. He is frequently cited as the inventor of the [[airliner]] and claimed to have been the first to deliver air mail on a schedule. However, his several attempts at building his own airplanes all ended in crashes which discouraged investors.
In the 1920s he promoted [[vegetarianism]] and claimed to have found the secret of living to 200. He also developed his own highly unusual theories of physics, according to which such concepts as "penetrability" and "zig-zag-and-swirl" were discoveries on par with [[Einstein]]'s [[Theory of Relativity]]. Numerous books confidently expounding on these concepts flowed from his pen, all set in the distinctive typography which makes Lawson publications recognizable at 50 paces. Most of the books confidently predict the worldwide adoption of Lawsonian principles by the year 2000.
He later propounded his own philosophy [[Lawsonomy]], and the [[Lawsonian religion]]. He also developed during the [[Great Depression]] the [[populist]] economic theory of [[direct credit]]s, according to which banks are the cause of all economic woe, the oppressors of both capital and labour. Lawson believed that the government should replace banks as the provider of loans to business and workers. His rallies and lectures attracted thousands of listeners in the early 30s, mainly in the upper midwest, but by the late 30s the crowds had dwindled.
In 1943 he founded the so-called University of Lawsonomy in Des Moines to spread his teachings and offer the degree of "Knowlegian," but after various IRS and other investigations it was closed and finally sold in 1954, the year of Lawson's death. Lawson's financial arrangements remain mysterious to this day and in later years he seems to have owned little property, moving from city to city as a gues |
he lands;
:For those who've come across the seas
:We've boundless plains to share;
:With courage let us all combine
:To advance Australia fair.
:In joyful strains then let us sing
:"Advance Australia fair!"
===Dodds' original lyrics===
:Australia's sons let us rejoice,
:For we are young and free;
:We've golden soil and wealth for toil,
:Our home is girt by sea;
:Our land abounds in Nature's gifts
:Of beauty rich and rare;
:In history's page, let every stage
:Advance Australia fair!
:In joyful strains then let us sing,
:"Advance Australia fair!"
:When gallant Cook from Albion sail'd,
:To trace wide oceans o'er,
:True British courage bore him on,
:Till he landed on our shore.
:Then here he raised Old England's flag,
:The standard of the brave;
:With all her faults we love her still,
:"Britannia rules the wave!"
:In joyful strains then let us sing
:"Advance Australia fair!"
:Beneath our radiant southern Cross,
:We'll toil with hearts and hands;
:To make this youthful Commonwealth
:Renowned of all the lands;
:For loyal sons beyond the seas
:We've boundless plains to share;
:With courage let us all combine
:To advance Australia fair.
:In joyful strains then let us sing
:"Advance Australia fair!"
:While other nations of the globe
:Behold us from afar,
:We'll rise to high renown and shine
:Like our glorious southern star;
:From England, Scotia, Erin's Isle,
:Who come our lot to share,
:Let all combine with heart and hand
:To advance Australia fair!
:In joyful strains then let us sing
:"Advance Australia fair!"
:Shou'd foreign foe e'er sight our coast,
:Or dare a foot to land,
:We'll rouse to arms like sires of yore
:To guard our native strand;
:Britannia then shall surely know,
:Beyond wide ocean's roll,
:Her sons in fair Australia's land
:Still keep a British soul.
:In joyful strains then let us sing
:"Advance Australia fair!"
===Version for religious occasions===
There is a version of the anthem that is only authorised for use on religious occasions. For instance, it was sung in a special service at St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney, on [[July 10]], [[2005]] with Prime Minister [[John Howard]] present. The lyrics are as follows:
:Australians all let us rejoice, for we are young and free;
:We've golden soil and wealth for toil, our home is girt by sea;
:Our land abounds in Nature's gifts of beauty rich and rare;
:In history's page, let every stage advance Australia fair!
:In joyful strains then let us sing advance Australia fair!
:Beneath our radiant southern Cross, we'll toil with hearts and hands;
:To make this Commonwealth of ours, renowned of all the lands;
:For those who've come across the seas, we've boundless plains to share;
:With courage let us all combine, to advance Australia fair.
:In joyful strains then let us sing Advance Australia fair!
:With Christ our head and cornerstone, we'll build our nation's might
:Whose way and truth and light alone, can guide our path aright
:Our lives, a sacrifice of love reflect our Master's care,
:With faces turned to heaven above, advance Australia Fair.
:In joyful strains then let us sing, advance Australia Fair.
Some people think this was the original version, but it was not McCormick's own (see above). The third, explicitly Christian verse was written by an unknown author early in the 21st century.
== Media ==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Adavnce Australia Fair vocal.ogg|title=Vocal|description=Sung by Julie Anthony|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Adavnce Australia Fair instrumental.ogg|title=Instrumental|description=Performed by Royal Australian Air Force Central Band|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==External links==
{{Wikisource}}
*[http://www.hamilton.net.au/advance.html Brief history]
*[http://www.geocities.com/EnchantedForest/Cottage/6936/midi/anthem.mid MIDI File]
*[http://www.pm.gov.au/audio/anthem_instrumental.mp3 Instrumental MP3 (1.5 MB)]
*[http://www.pm.gov.au/audio/anthem_vocal.mp3 Vocal MP3 - first verse only (1.12 MB)]
*Australian Government websites:
**[http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/singing_anthem.html Official published words and music with band parts]
**[http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/pdf/anthem_words_and_music.pdf Four-part musical score & words PDF 169 KB]
**[http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/nat_anthem.html Department of Foreign Affair and Trade's webpage on Advance Australia Fair]
[[Category:National anthems]]
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[[vi:Advance Australia Fair]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aikidoka</title>
<id>2057</id>
<revision>
<id>15900504</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-16T04:49:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aikido]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atheists</title>
<id>2058</id>
<revision>
<id>15900505</id>
<timestamp>2003-02-18T14:33:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MyRedDice</username>
<id>5862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[atheism]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[atheism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Automatic number announcement circuit</title>
<id>2061</id>
<revision>
<id>42040563</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:25:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.193.255.165</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Canada */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''automatic number [[announcement]] circuit (ANAC)''' is a special [[telephone number]] that is meant to be used by [[phone company]] technicians and other telecommunications technicians to determine the phone number of a particular line.
The way an ANAC works is fairly simple: A technician will call a local ANAC's phone number (in Connecticut, they would dial 970). This number connects to a computer at a local [[central office]] which uses a voice synthesizer or digital samples to "speak" the phone number of the line calling in. The main purpose of this system is to allow phone company technicians to identify which telephone line they are connected to. Because this system is based on [[automatic number identification]] (not caller ID) and meant for phone company technicians, the ANAC system works with unlisted and even numbers with [[caller ID]] blocking.
Some ANACs are very regional or local in scope, while others are state or [[area code]]-wide. There appears to be no national cohesive system for them. Every telephone company (big or small) can determine its own ANAC for each individual central office, leading to a mish-mash of overlapping and/or spotty coverage.
In most North American area codes, 958-xxxx and 959-xxxx exchanges are reserved for various local and long-distance test purposes (a few may also reserve 999-xxxx); ANAC numbers sometimes appear in the 958-xxxx range but there is no requirement that they reside there. Other local test numbers may include [[ringback]] (to test the ringer when installing telephones) and [[loop line]]s (which connect a call to another inbound call to the same or another test number). Some carriers (such as [[Bell Canada]]) have been known to program [[payphone]]s to disable calls to 958 or 959 test lines.
Some large telephone companies have toll-free numbers set-up, but these numbers remain undisclosed to prevent abusive use.
There are some private national toll-free numbers that use [[Automatic number identification|ANI]] and then have a computer read back the number that is calling, but these are not intended for use in identifying your phone number, they are used in order for you to confirm the phone you are calling from so that a computer can automatically pull up your account for the next available customer service representative. However, if one were to call up one of these numbers, listen for the number confirmation and hang up, they would in effect be using this system as if it were an ANAC.
:''"Our records indicate you are calling from 555-555-5555, if this is correct, press 1, if it is not correct, press 2... CLICK"''
==ANAC numbers==
For easier reference, the list is presented by area code. In some regions, there are several numbers depending on the telephone company and/or the area you are calling from as there can be several central offices serving some areas. All are local numbers.
Information is presented in the following form:
Area code: ANAC approximate geographic region
===United States===
This List is Primarily for Historic Archival Purposes
*201: 958 Hackensack/Jersey City/Newark/Paterson, NJ
*202: 811 District of Columbia
*203: 970 CT
*205: 300-222-2222 Birmingham, AL
*205: 300-555-5555 Many small towns in AL
*205: 300-648-1111 Dora, AL
*205: 300-765-4321 Bessemer, AL
*205: 300-798-1111 Forestdale, AL
*205: 300-833-3333 Birmingham
*205: 557-2311 Birmingham, AL
*205: 811 Pell City/Cropwell/Lincoln, AL
*205: 841-1111 Tarrant, AL
*205: 908-222-2222 Birmingham, AL
*206: 411 WA (Not US West)
*207: 958 ME
*209: 830-2121 Stockton, CA
*209: 211-9779 Stockton, CA
*210: 830 Brownsville/Laredo |
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[[th:นามธรรม]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Amnesty International</title>
<id>2973</id>
<revision>
<id>41348664</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:37:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joel7687</username>
<id>311307</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Freedom of Expression */ spelling and grammar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amnesty_Logo.gif|right|75px]]
'''Amnesty International''' (commonly known as '''Amnesty''' or '''AI''') is an [[global|international]], [[non-governmental organization]] with the stated purpose of promoting all the [[human rights]] enshrined in the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and other international standards. In particular, Amnesty International campaigns to free all [[prisoner of conscience|prisoners of conscience]]; to ensure fair and prompt trials for [[political prisoner]]s; to abolish the [[death penalty]], [[torture]], and other treatment of prisoners it regards as cruel; to end [[political killing]]s and [[forced disappearance]]s; and to oppose all human rights abuses, whether by governments or by other groups.
==History==
Amnesty International was founded in 1961 by a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[lawyer]] named [[Peter Benenson]] and a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] named [[Eric Baker (activist)|Eric Baker]]. Benenson was reading his newspaper and was shocked and angered to come across the story of two [[Portugal|Portuguese]] students sentenced to seven years in prison &ndash; for the crime of raising their glasses in a toast to [[freedom]]. Benenson wrote to [[David Astor]], editor of ''[[The Observer]]'' newspaper, who, on [[May 28]], published Benenson's article entitled ''The Forgotten Prisoners'' [http://www.amnesty.fi/history/the_forgotten_prisoners.htm] that asked readers to write letters showing support for the students. The response was so overwhelming that within a year groups of letter writers had formed in more than a dozen countries, writing to defend victims of injustice wherever they might be.
By mid-1962, Amnesty had groups working or forming in [[West Germany]], [[Belgium]], [[Switzerland]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Ireland]], [[Canada]], [[Ceylon]], [[Greece]], [[Australia]], the [[United States]], [[New Zealand]] ([[Amnesty International Aotearoa New Zealand]]), [[Ghana]], [[Israel]], [[Mexico]], [[Argentina]], [[Jamaica]], [[Malaya]], [[Congo (Brazzaville)]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Nigeria]], [[Burma]], and [[India]]. Later in that year, a member of one of these groups, Diana Redhouse, designed Amnesty's Candle and Barbed-Wire logo.
In its early years, Amnesty focused only on articles 18 and 19 of the [[United Nations]] [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] &ndash; those dealing with political prisoners, or more precisely, [[prisoners of conscience]] who espoused non-violence.
Amnesty and its writers campaigned for the release of prisoners in many oppressive regimes around the world; all such regimes were pressured equally, no matter which side (if either) of the [[Cold War]] they might align with. For example, the Spring 1986 newsletter campaigns for the release of specific prisoners from [[Guatemala]], [[South Korea]], [[South Africa]], [[Syria]], the [[Soviet Union|U.S.S.R.]], and [[Vietnam]].
Amnesty International was in particular a thorn in the side of the [[Soviet Union]]; they published detailed reports both of conditions in Soviet prisons and of how the Soviet political system as a whole was structured to prevent dissent and political freedom. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/07/AR2005060701497.html]
Soviet internal security documents later found in archives indicated concern about Amnesty's anti-Soviet activities. [http://psi.ece.jhu.edu/~kaplan/IRUSS/BUK/GBARC/pdfs/dis70/dis70-e.html]
[[Natan Sharansky]] is one of the more famous Soviet prisoners whose eventual release was secured with the help of Amnesty.
Amnesty was also very active in condemning oppressive regimes which commited murders, disappearances, extrajudicial killings, and outright massacres against their own citizens. For example, the September/October 1988 newsletter's lead article was an appeal to the [[United Nations Security Council]] to "act immediately to stop the massacre of Kurdish civilians by Iraqi forces" under [[Saddam Hussein]].
In 1977 Amnesty won the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for its work defending human rights around the world.
During the 1980s, Amnesty increased its visibility via popular culture events, including [[The Secret Policeman's Balls]] series, the 1986 U.S.-based [[A Conspiracy of Hope Tour]], and the 1988 worldwide [[Human Rights Now! Tour]].
Over time, the organization has expanded its mission to work to prevent and end grave abuses of the rights to physical and mental integrity, freedom of conscience and expression, and freedom from discrimination, within the context of its work to promote all human rights. Amnesty is currently running global campaigns to "Control Arms", "Stop Violence Against Women" and to end the "Death Penalty", amongst others. Amnesty also works directly on behalf of individuals suffering human rights abuses. In 2000 alone, AI worked on the cases of 3,685 named individuals &ndash; and in over a third of those cases, an improvement in the prisoner's condition occurred. Today, there are upwards of 7,500 AI groups with almost two million members operating in 162 countries and territories. Since AI was founded, it has worked to defend more than 44,600 prisoners in hundreds of countries.
==Goals and strategy==
AI aims to maintain every human's basic rights as established under the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. In accordance with this belief, Amnesty works to:
* Free all [[Prisoner of conscience|Prisoners of Conscience]] (a "POC" is a person imprisoned for the peaceful exercise of their beliefs, which differs somewhat from the typical use of the term [[political prisoner]]).
* Ensure fair and prompt [[trial (law)|trial]]s.
* Abolish all forms of [[torture]] and ill-treatment of prisoners, including the use of the [[death penalty]].
* End state-sanctioned terrorism, killings, and disappearances.
* Assist political [[asylum-seeker]]s.
* Co-operate with organizations that seek to put an end to human rights abuses.
* Raise awareness about human rights abuses around the world.
To fulfill these goals, Amnesty sends teams of researchers to investigate claims of human rights abuses. It publicizes its findings and mobilizes its members to [[Lobbying|lobby]] against the abuse &mdash; by letter-writing (to various government officials), protesting, demonstrating, organizing fund-raisers, educating the public about the offence, or sometimes all of the above.
Amnesty International works to combat individual offences (e.g. one man imprisoned for distributing banned literature in [[Saudi Arabia]]) as well as more general policies (e.g. the recently overturned policy of executing juvenile offenders in [[Capital punishment in the United States|certain U.S. states]]). Amnesty works primarily on the local level but its forty-year history of action and its Nobel Peace Prize give it international recognition.
Most AI members utilize letter-writing to get their message across. When the central Amnesty International organization finds and validates to its satisfaction instances of human rights abuse, they notify each of more than 7,000 local groups as well as over one million independent members, including 300,000 in the United States alone. Groups and members then respond by writing letters of protest and concern to a government official closely involved in the case, generally without mentioning Amnesty directly.
Amnesty International follows a neutrality policy called the "country rule" stating that members should not be active in issues in their own [[nation]], which also protects them from potential mistreatment by their own government. This principle is also applied to researchers and campaigners working for the [[International Secretariat]] to prevent domestic political loyalties influencing coverage.
Recently, Amnesty has expanded the scope of its work to include economic, social and cultural rights, saying that these concerns had arisen out of its traditional work on political and civil rights. Its 2004 annual report said that "it is difficult to achieve sustainable progress towards implementation of any one human right in isolation. ... AI will strive to ... assert a holistic view of rights protection. It will be particularly important to do so in relation to extreme poverty, and the human rights issues underlying poverty."[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/hragenda-6-eng] As an example it asserts that "The right to effective political participation depends on a free media, but also on an educated and literate population."[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/hragenda-6-eng]
== Freedom of Expression ==
Amnesty International's postion on freedom of expression is more restrictive than what is legislated in some countries. The organisation endorses restrictions on hate speech, racial, religious or otherwise. In reference to the [[Muhammad cartoon controversy]], the organisation stated:
:"However, the right to freedom of expression is not absolute -- neither for the creators of material nor their critics. It carries responsibilities and it may, therefore, be subject to restrictions in the name of safeguarding the rights of others. In particular, any advocacy of national, racial or r |
o-air victories over a jet fighter (a German [[Me 262]]). An additional victory which was not officially counted for him came during the period before his combat status was reinstated: during a training flight in his P-51 over the North Sea, he happened on a German JU-88 attacking a downed [[B-17 Flying Fortress]] crew. Yeager's quick thinking and reflexes saved the B-17 crew, but because he was not supposed to be flying combat that day, his gun camera film and credit for the kill were given to his wingman, Eddie Simpson.
<!-- Source, page 60, Yeager, Paperback Edition 1986, don't know how to properly source it, but here it is-->
[[Image:YeagerX1.jpeg|thumb|200px|left|Yeager with Bell X-1, which - as with all of the aircraft assigned to him - he named "Glamorous Glennis" after his wife]]
Yeager remained in the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] (USAF) after the war, becoming a test pilot and eventually being selected to fly the rocket-powered [[Bell X-1]] in a [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics|NACA]] program to research high-speed flight. Yeager broke the [[sound barrier]] on [[October 14]], [[1947]], flying the experimental X-1 at [[Mach number|Mach]] 1 at an altitude of 45,000 feet (13,700&nbsp;m). Two nights before the scheduled date for the flight, he broke two ribs while riding a horse. He was so afraid of being removed from the mission that he went to a veterinarian in a nearby town for treatment and told only his friend [[Jack Ridley]] about it. On the day of the flight, Yeager suffered from such pain that he could not seal the airplane's hatch by himself. So his friend, Ridley, then worked up a device (really just the end of a broom handle, used as an extra lever) to allow Yeager to seal the hatch of the airplane. Yeager's X-1 is on display at the [[Smithsonian Institution]]'s [[National Air and Space Museum]]. When the Navy put out the claim that Yeager's flight shouldn't have counted, since he launched from a mothership whereas their test aircraft, the [[Douglas Skystreak]], took off from the ground, Yeager's team conducted an impromptu X-1 flight, lifting off from the ground on a half-load of fuel, breaking the sound barrier and returning to the dry lake bed (the X-1's landing gear were intentionally built light for weight savings, at the cost of being too weak to sustain the aircraft's fully-fueled weight on the ground).
He later went on to break many other speed and altitude records. He also was one of the first American pilots to fly a [[MiG-15]] after its pilot defected to [[South Korea]] with it. During the latter half of 1953, Yeager was involved with the USAF team that was working on the X-1A, an aircraft designed to surpass Mach 2 in level flight. That year, he flew chase for civilian pilot [[Jacqueline Cochran]], a close friend of his, as she became the first woman to fly faster than sound. However, on [[November 20]], the NACA's [[Douglas Skyrocket]] and its pilot, [[Scott Crossfield]], became the first team to reach double the speed of sound. After they were bested, Ridley and Yeager decided to beat Crossfield's speed record in a flight series that they dubbed "Operation NACA Weep." Not only did they beat Crossfield, but they did it in time to spoil some celebrations planned for the [[Wright brothers|50th anniversary of flight]] that were going to call Crossfield "the fastest man alive."
In 1962, he started the [[USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School]], which produced astronauts for [[NASA]] and the USAF. It was an [http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/NF-104A_crash_site.htm accident] in one of the school's [[F-104|NF-104]]s that put an end to his record attempts. Between December 1963 and January 1964, Yeager completed five flights in the [[NASA M2-F1]] [[lifting body]]. In 1966, he took command of the [[405th Fighter Wing]], whose units were deployed in [[South Vietnam]] and elsewhere in Southeast Asia. There he racked up another 414 hours of combat time, mostly in a [[English Electric Canberra|Martin B-57]] light bomber. In 1968, he was promoted to the rank of [[Brigadier General]], and was assigned as the vice-commander of the [[Seventeenth Air Force]] in July of the following year.
In 1975, following spells in Germany and Pakistan, he retired from the Air Force at [[Norton Air Force Base]], but still spent time flying for the USAF and NASA as a consulting test pilot at [[Edwards Air Force Base]].
On [[October 14]], [[1997]], on the 50th anniversary of his historic flight past Mach 1, he flew a new ''Glamorous Glennis'', an [[F-15|F-15D]], past Mach 1 with Lt. Col. Troy Fontaine. He was chased by a [[F-16]] piloted by [[Bob Hoover]], a famous air show pilot and the chase pilot for the first Mach 1 flight, who flew with Col. [[Jimmy Doolittle III]]. This was Yeager's last official flight with the Air Force. At the end of his speech to the crowd he concluded, "All that I am...I owe to the Air Force." In 2004, Congress voted to authorize the President to promote Brig. Gen Yeager to Major General on the retired list; to date, [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] has not decided to go ahead with the promotion.
<!--See Public Law 108-375 sec 563-->
Yeager, who never attended [[college]] and was often modest about his background, is considered to be one of the great pilots of all time. Despite his lack of higher education, he has been supportive of educational efforts in his home state. [[Marshall University]] has named its highest academic scholarship, the [[Society of Yeager Scholars]], in his honor. Additionally, [[Yeager Airport]] in [[Charleston, West Virginia]], is named after him. The [[Interstate Highway|Interstate 77]] bridge over the [[Kanawha River]] in Charleston is named for Yeager. He was the chairman of [[EAA]]'s [[Young Eagle Program]]. Yeager served on the presidential commission that investigated the explosion of the [[Space Shuttle Challenger|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] on [[STS-51-L]].
He is now retired from military test flight, after having continued in that role for three decades after his official retirement from the Air Force.
Yeager now resides in [[Grass Valley, California]], where he is a local hero.
==The ''Right Stuff''==
Yeager was a primary subject of [[Tom Wolfe]]'s book ''[[The Right Stuff]]'', and of the movie made from it, in which he is played by [[Sam Shepard]]. He has a short cameo in a scene as bartender who&mdash;as an in-joke because [[NASA]] didn't recruit him as an astronaut because he lacked a college education&mdash;wants to serve the NASA recruiters some [[Scotch whisky|Scotch]] and is puzzled when they only want a [[Coca-Cola|Coke]]. He was the prototype flier with the "right stuff", although the modest Yeager denied any such attribute, saying it was just a combination of "luck" and "knowing the airplane" (in his autobiography, Yeager states that he does believe in the concept of "the right stuff"). Romantic as his character appears to be, his portrayal in the movie is somewhat skewed; Yeager was actually partially responsible for the design of the X-1. In addition, he did not take the modified [[F-104 Starfighter]] without authorization, as seen in the motion picture; he simply did not have authorization to attempt to break the Russian record. He did, however, receive 3rd-degree burns on his head and hands from the rocket exhaust of the [[ejector seat]].
On [[February 26]], [[1945]], Yeager married Glennis Dickhouse (died [[1990]]). They had four children. In [[August]] [[2003]], nearly 13 years after her death, he married sometime-actress Victoria Scott D'Angelo, 36 years his junior. Three of his children are currently suing for control of his holdings, claiming that D'Angelo married Yeager for his fortune. Yeager contends they simply want more money.
There is a disputed claim by German pilot [[Hans Guido Mutke]] to be the first person to break the [[sound barrier]], on [[April 9]], [[1945]], in a [[Messerschmitt]] [[Me 262]]. Postwar testing, however, determined that the Me-262 would go out of control and break apart well short of Mach 1. As well, many contend that American pilot [[George Welch]] broke the sound barrier while diving an [[XP-86 Sabre]] two weeks before Yeager and again just 30 minutes before. In a period documentary, the USAF said that Yeager and the X-1 were the first to break the sound barrier "in level flight". This leaves the door open for claims of breaking the sound barrier in a dive before Yeager broke it in the X-1.
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Yeager supersonic flight 1947.ogg|title= First supersonic flight|description= [[Chuck Yeager]] broke the sound barrier on [[October 14]], [[1947]] in the [[Bell X-1]].|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video end}}
== Further reading ==
* Chuck Yeager, Leo Janos: ''Yeager: An Autobiography''. (Bantam Books, 1986) (ISBN 0-553-256742)
* Chuck Yeager, Charles Leerhsen: ''Press on! Further Adventures in the Good Life''. (Bantam Doubleday Dell Pub, 1988) (ISBN 0-553-053337)
* [[Tom Wolfe]]: ''[[The Right Stuff]]''. (Bantam Books, 1980) (ISBN 0-553-138286)
* Richard P. Hallion: "Designers and Test Pilots". (ISBN 0809433168)
== External links ==
* [http://www.generalchuckyeager.com Official Website]
* [http://www.chuckyeager.org Fan website and original Yeager Website]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/x1/chuck.html Charles E. (Chuck) Yeager on the NASA web site.]
* [http://www.edwards.af.mil/history/docs_html/people/yeager_biography.html Edwards AFB Bio on BG Yeager]
* [http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/NF-104A_crash_site.htm The Crash of Yeager's NF-104]
[[Category:1923 births|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:American World War II flying aces|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:American aviators|Yeager, Charles]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Yeager, Chuck]] |
came good friends. It was Spencer Tracy, in [[1930]], who first called Bogart "Bogie." The name stuck.
===''The Petrified Forest''===
In [[1934]], Bogart starred in the [[stage play|play]] ''Invitation to a Murder''. The producer [[Arthur Hopkins]] saw the play and sent for Bogart when he chose to produce [[Robert E. Sherwood]]'s new play, ''The Petrified Forest''. Bogart arrived in Hopkins' office while Sherwood was there; Hopkins told him: "I've got a good role for you. A gangster role." Robert Sherwood was sure Hopkins was wrong; Bogart should play the football player. Bogart said later: "They argued back and forth, and I thought Sherwood was right. I couldn't picture myself playing a gangster. So what happened? I made a hit as the gangster."
''The Petrified Forest'' had 197 performances in New York; Bogart played escaped killer Duke Mantee. [[Leslie Howard]], who played the lead, knew how crucial Bogart was to the success of the play. He and Bogart became friends, and he promised to help Bogart reprise his role if Hollywood made the play into a movie.
Bogart was proud of his success as an actor, but the fact that it came from playing a gangster weighed on him. He once said, "I can't get in a mild discussion without turning it into an argument. There must be something in my tone of voice, or this arrogant face&#8212;something that antagonizes everybody. Nobody likes me on sight. I suppose that's why I'm cast as the heavy."
[[Warner Bros.]] bought the screen rights to ''The Petrified Forest'', signed up Leslie Howard, then tested several Hollywood veterans for the Duke Mantee role, and chose [[Edward G. Robinson]]. Bogart cabled news of this to Howard, who was in [[Scotland]]. Leslie Howard insisted that Bogart play Duke Mantee. When Warner Bros. saw that Leslie Howard would not budge, they hired Bogart to play Mantee. Bogart never forgot this, and named his only daughter Leslie.
===Early film career===
[[Robert E. Sherwood]] remained a close friend of Bogart's. In [[1936 in film|1936]], the movie version of ''The Petrified Forest'' came out. Bogart got excellent reviews. Still, he was now stuck in a series of crime dramas for Warner Bros. and cast as a heavy, with little acting range. All told, in his career as a tough guy, Bogart went to the electric chair 12 times, and got over 800 years of hard labor. [[Jack Warner]] saw nothing wrong with that; as long as the movies made money, and the actors got paid, he saw no reason for anyone to complain.
Mary Philips refused to give up her Broadway career to come to Hollywood with Bogart, and soon they were divorced.
On [[August 21]], [[1938]], Bogart made a disastrous third marriage, which only heightened his frustration. His third wife was [[Mayo Methot]], a lively, friendly woman when sober, but a paranoid drunk. She was convinced that her husband was cheating on her. The more she and Bogart drifted apart, the more she drank and the more she got furious and threw things at him: plants, crockery, anything close at hand. Bogart sometimes returned fire, and the press dubbed them "the Battling Bogarts." "The Bogart-Methot marriage was the sequel to the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]," said their friend [[Julius Epstein]]. Another wag observed that there was madness in his Methot. During his marriage to Mayo Methot, Bogart bought a sailboat, which he lightheartedly named Sluggy after his hot-tempered wife.
In [[1938 in film|1938]], Warner Bros. made Bogart do a "[[hillbilly]] musical" called ''Swing Your Lady'', playing a wrestling promoter managing the career of an idiotic giant. In [[1939 in film|1939]], Bogart reached a new low when he had to play a mad scientist in ''The Return of Doctor X''. Bogart cracked: "If it'd been Jack Warner's blood&hellip;I wouldn't have minded so much. The trouble was they were drinking mine and I was making this stinking movie."
The studio system, then in its heyday, largely restricted actors to one studio, and Warner Bros. had no interest in making Bogart a star. The system was made for quantity, not quality. Shooting on a new movie might begin days or only hours after shooting on the last movie was complete. Any actor who refused a role could be suspended without pay. Bogart didn't like the roles chosen for him, but he worked steadily: between [[1936 in film|1936]] and [[1940 in film|1940]], Bogart averaged a new movie every two months. He thought that Warner Bros. were cheap in their wardrobe department, and often wore his own personal suits in his movies. On the movie ''High Sierra'', Bogart used his own mutt to play his character's dog "Pard."
The leading men ahead of Bogart included not just such classic stars as [[James Cagney]], Spencer Tracy and Edward G. Robinson&#8212;but also actors far less well-known today, such as [[Victor McLaglen]], [[George Raft]] and [[Paul Muni]]. Most of the better movie scripts Warner Bros. bought went to these men. Bogart had to take what was left. He made movies with names like ''Racket Busters'', ''San Quentin'', and ''You Can't Get Away With Murder''. The only substantial roles he ever got during this period were in [[Samuel Goldwyn]]'s ''[[Dead End]]'' (1937) and ''Angels with Dirty Faces'' (1938) (another picture in which he gets shot by James Cagney). Bogart rarely saw his own movies and didn't even attend the premieres, which were an expected part of the actor's job.
Bogart had been raised to believe that acting was something beneath a gentleman. Acting in movies was even worse than on the stage, and playing depraved gunmen in "B" pictures for Warner Bros. was not something to be mentioned in polite company.
In California, in the [[1930s]], Bogart bought a 55-foot sailing yacht from [[Dick Powell]]. The sea was his sanctuary. He was a serious sailor, respected by other sailors who had seen too many Hollywood actors and their boats. About 30 weekends a year, he went out on his boat. He once said: "An actor needs something to stabilize his personality, something to nail down what he really is, not what he is currently pretending to be."
He had a lifelong disgust for the pretentious, fake or phony. Sensitive yet caustic, and disgusted by the inferior movies he was churning out, Bogart cultivated the persona of a soured idealist, a man exiled from better things in New York, living by his wits, drinking too much, cursed to live out his life among second-rate people and projects. When he thought an actor, director or a movie studio had done something shoddy, he spoke up about it, and was willing to be quoted on the record. The Hollywood press, unaccustomed to candor, was delighted. Bogart once said, "All over Hollywood, they are continually advising me 'Oh, you mustn't say that. That will get you in a lot of trouble' when I remark that some picture or writer or director or producer is no good. I don't get it. If he isn't any good, why can't you say so? If more people would mention it, pretty soon it might start having some effect."
==Rise to stardom==
===''High Sierra''===
''[[High Sierra]]'', a [[1941 in film|1941]] [[Raoul Walsh]] movie, was written by Bogart's friend and drinking partner, [[John Huston]]. The movie was a step forward for Bogart. He still played the villain, "Mad Dog" Roy Earle. He still died at the end; but at least he got to kiss [[Ida Lupino]], and to play a character with some depth. In a climactic scene, Bogart's character slid 90 feet down a mountainside to his punishment. His stunt double, [[Buster Wiles]], bounced a few times going down the mountain and wanted another take to do better. "Forget it," said Raoul Walsh. "It's good enough for the 25-cent customers."
Bogart and Huston enjoyed each other, and drew on each other's gifts. Bogart had always been self-conscious about being a small man (5'8" tall); Huston was six-two (and his rail-thin build made him appear to be even taller). Bogart had never been close to his father; Huston was very close to his father, the actor [[Walter Huston]].
Bogart admired and somewhat envied Huston because Huston got to write scripts, to shape a story and make sure it had heft. Though a poor student, Bogart was a lifelong reader. He could quote [[Plato]], [[Alexander Pope|Pope]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and over a thousand lines of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. He admired writers, and some of his best friends were screenwriters, including [[Louis Bromfield]], [[Nathaniel Benchley]] and [[Nunnally Johnson]].
John Huston reported being easily bored, and admired Bogart not just for his acting talent but for his intense concentration. It was Huston who would later give Bogart one of his best roles - the psychotic Fred C. Dobbs in the 1948 classic, ''[[The Treasure of the Sierra Madre]]''.
===''The Maltese Falcon''===
James Cagney and George Raft had both turned down Bogart's part in ''High Sierra''; Raft didn't want to play a character who died at the end. Then [[George Raft]] turned down the male lead in John Huston's directorial debut, ''The Maltese Falcon'', also [[1941 in film|1941]].
Bogart grabbed the part and audiences saw him play a leading role with real complexity. His character, Sam Spade, was still capable of duplicity and violence, but he was a leading man: handsome, smart, fated to survive. When he discovered his sexy client was a murderess, he turned her in, with a speech he made famous: "I don't care who loves you. I won't play the sap for you! You killed Miles and you're going over for it. I hope they don't hang you by your sweet neck. If you're a good girl, you'll be out in 20 years and you'll come back to me. If they hang you, I'll always remember you."
As America entered [[World War II]], it was turning to a new kind of leading man, less dapper and polished, but tougher and more willing to use violence to make t |
sh; )
*[[Boris Spassky]] (Russia, France, [[1937]]&#8211; )
*[[Jon Speelman]] (England, [[1956]]&#8211; )
*[[Rudolf Spielmann]] (Austria, [[1883]]&#8211;[[1942]])
*[[Kevin Spraggett]] (Canada, [[1954]]&#8211; )
*[[Gideon Stahlberg]] (Sweden, [[1908]]&#8211;[[1967]])
*[[Phillip Stamma]] (Syria, England, France, [[1705]]&#8211;[[1755]])
*[[Charles Stanley (Chess player)|Charles Stanley]] (England,USA [[1819]]&#8211;[[1901]])
*[[Nava Starr]] (Latvia, Canada, [[1949]]&ndash; )
*[[Howard Staunton]] (England, [[1810]]&#8211;[[1874]])
*[[Antoaneta Stefanova]] (Bulgaria, [[1979]]&#8211; )
*[[Leonid Stein]] (Ukraine, [[1934]]&ndash;[[1973]])
*[[Herman Steiner]] (USA, [[1905]]&ndash;[[1955]])
*[[Wilhelm Steinitz]] (Bohemia, USA, [[1836]]&#8211;[[1900]])
*[[Daniel Stellwagen]] (Netherlands, [[1987]]&#8211; )
*[[Gosta Stoltz]] (Sweden, [[1904]]&ndash;[[1963]])
*[[Alexey Suetin]] (USSR, [[1926]]&ndash;[[2001]])
*[[Mir Sultan Khan]] (Pakistan, [[1905]]&#8211;[[1966]])
*[[Emil Sutovsky]] (Israel, [[1977]]&ndash; )
*[[Evgeny Sveshnikov]] (Latvia, [[1950]]&ndash; )
*[[Peter Svidler]] (URSS, [[1976]]&ndash; )
*[[Laszlo Szabo|László Szabó]] (Hungary, [[1917]]&ndash;[[1998]])
=== T ===
*[[Mark Taimanov]] (Russia, [[1926]]&#8211; )
*[[Mikhail Tal]] (Latvia, USSR, [[1936]]&#8211; [[1992]])
*[[Siegbert Tarrasch]] (Germany, [[1862]]&#8211;[[1934]])
*[[Ksawery Tartakower]] (Poland, France, [[1887]]&#8211;[[1956]])
*[[Richard Teichmann]] (Germany, [[1868]]&#8211;[[1925]])
*[[Jan Timman]] (Netherlands, [[1951]]&#8211; )
*[[Sergei Tiviakov]] (Russia, Netherlands, [[1973]]&ndash; )
*[[Alexander Tolush]] (Russia, [[1910]]&#8211;[[1969]])
*[[Veselin Topalov]] (Bulgaria, [[1975]]&#8211; )
*[[Eugenio Torre]] (Philippines, [[1951]]&ndash; )
*[[Carlos Torre Repetto]] (México,[[1902]]&#8211;[[1978]])
*[[Karel Traxler]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1866]]&ndash;[[1936]])
*[[Karel Treybal]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1885]]&ndash;[[1941]])
*[[Petar Trifunovic]] (Croatia, [[1910]]&ndash;[[1980]])
*[[Vitaly Tseshkovsky]] (Russia, [[1944]]&ndash; )
*[[T H Tylor|Theodore Tylor]] (England, [[1900]]&#8211;[[1968]])
=== U ===
*[[Wolfgang Uhlmann]] (GDR, [[1935]]&#8211; )
*[[Wolfgang Unzicker]] (Germany, [[1925]]&#8211; )
*[[Richard Urwand]] (Egypt, France, [[1914]]&#8211;[[2006]])
=== V ===
*[[Francisco Vallejo Pons]] (Spain, [[1982]]&ndash; )
*[[Loek van Wely]] (Netherlands, [[1972]]&ndash; )
*[[Milan Vidmar]] (Slovenia, [[1885]]&#8211;[[1962]])
*[[Evgeny Vladimirov]] (Kazakhstan, [[1957]]&ndash; )
*[[Alexey Vyzmanavin]] (Russia, [[1960]]&ndash;[[2000]])
=== W ===
*[[Peter Winston]] (USA)
*[[Szymon Winawer]] (Poland, [[1838]]&ndash;[[1920]])
*[[William Winter]] (England)
*[[Patrick Wolff]] (USA, [[1968]]&ndash; )
*[[Marmaduke Wyvill]] (England, [[1814]]&ndash;[[1896]])
=== X ===
*[[Bu Xiangzhi]] (China, [[1985]]&ndash; )
*[[Jun Xie]] (China, [[1970]]&ndash; )
*[[Jun Xu]] (China, [[1962]]&ndash; )
=== Y ===
*[[Daniel Yanofsky]] (Poland, Canada, [[1925]]&#8211;[[2000]])
*[[Frederick Yates]] (England, [[1884]]&#8211;[[1932]])
*[[Jiangchuan Ye]] (China, [[1960]]&#8211; )
*[[Alex Yermolinsky]] (USA, [[1958]]&ndash; )
*[[Leonid Yudasin]] (USSR, Israel, [[1959]]&ndash; )
*[[Leonid Yurtaev]] (Kyrgyzstan, [[1959]]&ndash; )
*[[Artur Yusupov]] (Russia, Germany, [[1960]]&#8211; )
=== Z ===
* [[Alexander Zaitsev (chess player)|Alexander Zaitsev]] (USSR, [[1935]]&#8211;[[1971]])
* [[Zhong Zhang]] (China, [[1978]]&#8211; )
* [[Eugene Znosko-Borovsky]] (Russia, France [[1884]]&#8211;[[1954]])
* [[Johannes Zukertort]] (Poland, [[1842]]&#8211;[[1888]])
=== Ø ===
* [[Berge Østenstad]] (Norway, [[1967]]&#8211; )
==Famous people who were/are avid chess players==
The people in this list are famous in other areas of activity, but are known to have played chess or maintain a current interest in chess.
*[[Woody Allen]]
*[[Atahualpa]]
*[[George Airy]]
*[[LaVar Arrington]]
*[[Newell Banks]] (USA, World [[English draughts|American Checkers (English Draughts)]] Champion [[1887]]&#8211;[[1977]])
*[[Humphrey Bogart]]
*[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]
*[[Henry Thomas Buckle]] (English historian)
*[[John Cage]]
*[[Lewis Carroll]]
*[[Charlemagne]]
*[[Aleister Crowley]] (diabolist)
*[[Steve Davis]]
*[[Marcel Duchamp]]
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Paul Erd&#337;s]]
*[[Leonhard Euler]]
*[[Richard Feynman]]
*[[Benjamin Franklin]]
*[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
*[[Dominik Hašek]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson]]
*[[Ephraim Kishon]] (satirist, ''Kishon Chesster'' chess computer)
*[[Alfred Kreymborg]]
*[[Stanley Kubrick]]
*[[Yosef Lapid]]
*[[Pope Leo XIII]]
*[[Lennox Lewis]]
*[[Samuel Loyd]]
*[[Abraham de Moivre]]
*[[Vladimir Nabokov]] (Russian writer)
*[[Alexander Pushkin]] (Russian writer)
*[[Sergei Prokofiev]] (Russian composer & pianist)
*[[Saladin]]
*[[Jonathan Sarfati]] (Australian scientist and author)
*[[George C. Scott]] (U.S. actor)
*[[Nathan Sharansky]]
*[[Juan Maria Solare]] (Argentine composer & pianist)
*[[Raymond Smullyan]]
*[[Josip Broz Tito]]
*[[Leo Tolstoy]]
*[[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]
*[[George Washington]]
*[[John Wayne]]
*[[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]
*[[Bono]]
*[[Sting]]
*[[Stephen Fry]]
*[[Steve Martin]]
*[[Chris Evans]]
*[[Martin Amis ]]
==Computers==
*[[Deep Blue]], the [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[computer chess|chess playing computer]], was victorious in a [[1997]] match against then-world champion [[Garry Kasparov]]. ([[Deep Thought (chess computer)|Deep Thought]] was an earlier, similar machine.)
*[[Deep Fritz]] achieved a draw in the [[2002]] match, "[[Brains in Bahrain]]", against [[Vladimir Kramnik]]. A variant, [[X3D Fritz]], drew against Kasparov.
*[[Hydra (chess)]], currently the strongest chess player in the world.
*[[Shredder (chess)|Shredder]] is another strong program, having won the [[World Computer Chess Championship]] eight times.
==See also==
*[[World Chess Championship]]
*[[International Grandmaster]]
*[[World Junior Chess Championship]]
*[[List of national chess championships]]
*[[List of Israeli chess players]]
*[[List of female chess players]]
==External links==
* http://www.fide.com
* http://www.uschess.org
* http://www.muljadi.org
* http://www.iccf.com
[[Category:Chess players|*]]
[[bg:Списък на шахматисти]]
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[[he:קטגוריה:שחמטאים]]
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[[pt:Lista de jogadores famosos de xadrez]]
[[ru:Список шахматистов]]
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[[sv:Lista över kända schackspelare]]
[[tr:Ünlü satranç oyuncuları]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Foresight Institute</title>
<id>11751</id>
<revision>
<id>36017021</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T22:52:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>"alyosha"</username>
<id>686055</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rem bold per style guidelines and anti-advert, minor copyedit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Advertisement}}
The '''Foresight Nanotech Institute''' is a [[501(c)(3)]] [[nonprofit organization]] formed to help prepare society for anticipated advanced technologies. Its primary focus is on [[molecular nanotechnology]], the ability to build atomically precise products. The development of this technology has broad implications for the future of our civilization. The institute was founded by [[K. Eric Drexler]], along with [[Christine Peterson]] who is the current chairman. Also on the board are [[Brad Templeton]], [[Glenn Reynolds]] and [[James Bennett]].
Since [[1989]], Foresight Institute has sponsored conferences on molecular nanotechnology. Foresight publishes a quarterly newsletter, the Foresight Update, to inform a wide audience about both technical and non-technical developments in nanotechnology.
Foresight's sister organizations are:
*The [[Institute for Molecular Manufacturing]], a non-profit research organization founded to promote research in nanotechnology and molecular manufacturing. The goal of this organization is that nanotechnology be developed faster.
*The [[Center for Constitutional Issues in Technology]] (CCIT), created to pursue public policy issues arising from the emergence of new technologies
Among Foresight's projects is the [[Web Enhancement Project]], whose goal is to make the [[World Wide Web]] connect in multiple directions and in multiple ways.
== Foresight Challenges ==
The overall goals of the Foresight Institute are summed up by the following Foresight Challenges:
* 1. Meeting global energy needs with clean solutions
* 2. Providing abundant clean water globally
* 3. Increasing the health and longevity of human life
* 4. Maximizing the productivity of agriculture
* 5. Making powerful information technology available everywhere
* 6. Enabling the development of space
== See also ==
* [[K. Eric Drexler]]
* [[Ralph Merkle]]
* [[Center for Responsible Nanotechnology]]
* [[Future Technologies Advisory Group]]
* [[Nanomedicine]]
* [[Environmental technology]]
* [[Information Technology]]
* [[Space Technology]]
* [[Transhumanism]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.foresight.org/ Foresight Institute] - official website
[[Category:non-profit organizations|Foresight Institute]]
[[Category:Nanotechnology|Foresight Institute]]
[[Category:Space advocacy|Foresight Institute]]
[[de:Foresight Institute]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>List of freshwater aquarium invertebrate species</title>
<id>11752</id>
<revision>
<id>18050454</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-03T04:20:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Robert Weemeyer</username>
<id>47347</id>
</contributor>
<minor |
John Woo found himself in a new land with a new culture. He was commissioned by [[Universal Studios]] to direct the [[Jean Claude Van Damme]] film ''[[Hard Target]]''. While Woo was used to creative freedom in Hong Kong, he was forced to deal with a compressed production schedule. He also faced studio-imposed restrictions such as how many people could be killed in each scene, how many bullets Van Damme could pump into somebody, how Van Damme could behave and so on. When initial cuts failed to yield an [[MPAA film rating system|"R" rated film]], the studio took the film from Woo's hands and pared it down themselves in order to produce a cut that was "suitable for American audiences". A "rough cut" of the film, supposedly his original unrated version, is still circulated among fans.
It would be three long years before Woo made another American directorial attempt. Starring [[John Travolta]] and [[Christian Slater]], ''[[Broken Arrow (duan jian xing dong)(1996 film)|Broken Arrow]]'' was a frantic chase-picture with a bigger budget. Unfortunately, Woo once again found himself hampered by studio interference and editors who did not share his sense of aesthetics and filming style. What resulted was a film that, despite modest financial success, lacked Woo's trademark style.
Still smarting from his bitter experiences, Woo cautiously rejected the script for ''[[Face/Off]]'' several times until it was rewritten to suit him (by shifting the futuristic setting to a modern one). With [[Paramount Studios]] offering him significantly more freedom this time around, Woo set out to craft a complex story of two enemies&mdash; a law enforcement agent played by [[John Travolta]] and a terrorist played by [[Nicolas Cage]]&mdash;who embark on a fantastical surgical procedure that allows them to switch faces. Trapped in each other's identities, they play a cat-and-mouse game that allowed Woo to do what he did best: emotional characterization and elaborate action. ''Face/Off'' opened in [[1997 in film|1997]] to critical acclaim and performed well at the box office, grossing over $100 million in the [[United States]] alone. As a result, John Woo became the first Asian director to hit mainstream, paving the way for other Asian filmmakers to follow in his footsteps.
John Woo has made three additional Hollywood films: ''[[Mission: Impossible II]]'', ''[[Windtalkers]]'' and ''[[Paycheck (short story)|Paycheck]]''. While ''Mission: Impossible II'' was a huge hit in [[2000 in film|2000]], ''Windtalkers'' and ''Paycheck'' have been box office duds that were lambasted by critics. It is unclear whether Woo will be able to bounce back from these disappointments.
At the moment John Woo has many projects in mind, including three remakes of French famous thrillers starring [[Alain Delon]] and a videogame called ''[[stranglehold (game)|Stranglehold]]'' for Xbox 360. However he had to give up two projects of videogames' adaptations, ''[[Spy Hunter]]'', which was already in production, and ''[[Metroid]]''. In 2006 he will go back to China with Chow Yun-Fat to shoot his next major project, the highly anticipated ''[[The War of the Red Cliff]]'', based on a historical epic battle from ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''.
==Trivia==
* One of Woo's trademarks is doves. He was quoted in the June 2000 edition of ''Premiere'' magazine:
:"I love doves. I am a Christian. Doves represent the purity of love, beauty. They're spiritual. Also the dove is a messenger between people and God... When I shot ''The Killer'', these two men, the killer and the cop, they work in different ways, but their souls are pure, because they do the right thing. In the church scene, I wanted to bring them together. I wanted to use a metaphor of the heart. I came up with doves &mdash;they're white. When the men die, I cut to the dove flying &mdash;it's the soul, rescued and safe and also pure of heart. So the dove became one of my habits: I used it in ''Hard Boiled'', ''Face/Off'', and in ''Mission: Impossible II''".
* In the anime series, ''[[R.O.D the TV]]'' which features three girls named after real life Hong Kong action stars, 'John Woo' is the name of a mysterious carrier pigeon.
* [[Quentin Tarantino]] has been quoted in reply to a studio executive who said "I suppose Woo can direct action scenes" as saying "Sure, and Michelangelo can paint ceilings!"
* When Jean-Claude Van Damme was trying to get Woo for ''Hard Target'' he described him as "the [[Martin Scorsese]] of Asia".
* In another anime series, ''[[FLCL]]'', two characters can be seen watching the climactic end sequence of an action movie. Although the screen in not visible, it can be surmised that it is indeed a John Woo film, as one of the film's characters exclaims, "What are all these pigeons doing in here?" and a multitude of flapping wings heard. The screen was then broken, and a flock of white doves flew out of the TV set.
* A [[Mexican standoff]] is a common situation in his movies.
* At some point the main characters see and talk to each other using mirrors.
* Japanese [[professional wrestler]] SUWA, of the promotions Dragon's Gate and [[Pro Wrestling NOAH]], utilizes a seated [[dropkick]] that frequently sends its victim flying back-first into the corner. As a fan of Hong Kong action cinema, he calls this move the "John Woo", as a [[homage]] to the impact of [[shotgun]] blasts on the human body in Woo's films.
*In the video game [[Max Payne]] there are many homage and reference of John Woo. For example the black suit and tie Max was seen wearing at the beginning, the dual guns and jumping and shooting in slow motion. Also John Woo's name was mentioned at one point in the game.
* John Woo likes the look of the [[Beretta 92F/FS]] pistol and had featured it in many of his movies. He stated in an interview that it "is a great character" and added that "it's so strong and elegant." He also mentioned that other pistols looked dumb to him.
* John Woo enjoyed watching [[Western (genre)|Western]] movies during his youth, especially the final scene in ''[[Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid]]'' where the two comrades run out gun blazing (where he got the inspiration of holding two guns). Woo is also a fan of Hollywood musicals and at one point, was a contender for the director's chair for ''[[Phantom of the Opera]]''.
* In the [[PC game]] ''[[F.E.A.R. (computer game)|F.E.A.R.]]'', the developer admitted that they been inspired by John Woo action movies that they wanted the action to be exactly epic to Woo movies.
* The Christian rock band [[Newsboys]] has a song called "John Woo" which makes reference to the religious symbolism he often employs in his films.
==Filmography==
* ''[[The War of the Red Cliff (film)|The War of the Red Cliff]]'' ([[2007 in film|2007]])
* ''[[He-Man (film)|He-Man]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[Honor among Thieves (film)|Honor among Thieves]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[Rider on the Rain (film)|Rider on the Rain]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[The Prone Gunman (film)|The Prone Gunman]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[The Red Circle (film)|The Red Circle]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[Stranglehold (game)|Stranglehold]]'' ([[video game]]) ([[2006]])
* ''[[Paycheck (short story)|Paycheck]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]])
* ''Hostage (short [[BMW films|BMW film]])'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
* ''[[Windtalkers]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
* ''[[Mission: Impossible II]]''
* ''[[Blackjack (film)|Blackjack]]'' ([[1998]]) (TV)
* ''[[Face/Off]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
* ''[[Once a Thief (1996 film)|Once a Thief]]'' ([[1996]]) (TV)
* ''[[Broken Arrow (1996 film)|Broken Arrow (duan jian xing dong)]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]])
* ''[[Hard Target]]''
* ''[[Hard Boiled]] (Lashou shentan)''
* ''[[Once a Thief (1991 film)|Once a Thief]] (Zong sheng si hai)'' (1991)
* ''[[Bullet in the Head]] (Die xue jie tou)'' ([[1990 in film|1990]])
* ''[[The Killer (film)|The Killer]] (Die xue shuang xiong)''
* ''[[Tragic Heroes]] (Yi dan qun ying)'' (1989)
* ''[[A Better Tomorrow II]] (Ying xiong ben se II)'' ([[1987 in film|1987]])
* ''[[A Better Tomorrow]] (Ying xiong ben se)''
* ''[[Heroes Shed No Tears]] (Ying xiong wu lei)'' (1986)
* ''[[Run, Tiger, Run]] (Liang zhi lao hu)'' ([[1985 in film|1985]])
* ''[[When You Need a Friend]] (Xiao jiang)'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
* ''[[Plain Jane to the Rescue]] (Ba cai Lin Ya Zhen)'' ([[1982 in film|1982]])
* ''[[Laughing Times]] (Hua ji shi dai)'' (1981) (as Wu Hsiang-fei)
* ''[[To Hell with the Devil (movie)|To Hell with the Devil]] (Mo deng tian shi)'' ([[1981 in film|1981]])
* ''[[Hello, Late Homecomers]] (Ha luo, ye gui ren)'' (1978)
* ''[[Last Hurrah for Chivalry]] (Hao xia)'' (1978)
* ''[[Follow the Star]] (Da sha xing yu xiao mei tou)'' ([[1978 in film|1978]])
* ''[[Money Crazy]] (Fa qian han)''
* ''[[From Riches to Rags]] (Qian zuo guai)'' (1977)
* ''[[Princess Chang Ping]] (Dinu hua)'' (1975) (as Yusen Wu)
* ''[[Hand of Death]]/Countdown in Kung Fu (Shao Lin men)'' ([[1975 in film|1975]])
* ''[[Fist to Fist]]/Fists of the Double K'' (1974)
* ''[[Belles of Taekwondo]]/The Dragon Tamers (Nu zi tai quan qun ying hui)'' (1974)
* ''[[The Young Dragons]] (Tie han rou qing)''
==See also==
* [[Cinema of China]]
* [[Cinema of Hong Kong]]
==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000247|name=John Woo}}
* [http://www.mediacircus.net/johnwoo.html A John Woo Retrospective]
* [http://www.geocities.com/danwangkw ACTION WEB - Your John Woo & Tsui Hark Resource]
[[Category:1946 births|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Living people|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Chinese film directors|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Hong Kong film directors|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Lutherans|Woo, John]]
[[Category:American film directors|Woo, John]]
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]
*[[Tiw]]
*[[Þunor]]
*[[Ingui|Ingui Fréa]]
*[[Eostre]]
*[[Seaxneat|Seaxnéat]]
*[[Wayland Smith|Wéland]]
*[[Elf|Elves]]
*[[Giant (mythology)|Giants]]
*[[Dwarf|Dwarfs]]
== [[Akamba mythology|Akamba]] ==
*[[Asa]]
== [[Akan mythology|Akan]] ==
*[[Brekyirihunuade]]
*[[Kwaku Ananse]]
== [[Ashanti mythology|Ashanti]] ==
*[[Anansi]]
*[[Asase Ya]]
*[[Bia (mythology)|Bia]]
*[[Nyame]]
== [[Australia]]n [[Aboriginal mythology|Aboriginal]] ==
*[[Altjira]]
*[[Baiame]]
*[[Bamapana]]
*[[Banaitja]]
*[[Bobbi-bobbi]]
*[[Bunjil]]
*[[Daramulum]]
*[[Dilga]]
*[[Djanggawul]]
*[[Eingana]]
*[[Galeru]]
*[[Gnowee]]
*[[Kidili]]
*[[Kunapipi]]
*[[Julunggul]]
*[[Mangar-kunjer-kunja]]
*[[Numakulla]]
*[[Pundjel]]
*[[Ulanji]]
*[[Walo]]
*[[Wawalag]]
*[[Wuriupranili]]
*[[Yurlungur]]
== [[Ayyavazhi]] ==
*[[Ayya Vaikundar]] - Triune God ''(see: [[Ayyavazhi Trinity]])''
*[[Sivan]]
*[[Nathan]]
*[[Thirumal]]
*[[Arumukan]]
== [[Aztec mythology|Aztec]] ==
(see much longer list at [[Aztec mythology]])
*[[Chalchiuhtlicue]] - goddess of lakes and streams
*[[Cinteotl]] - god of [[maize]]
*[[Coyolxauhqui]] - goddess of the moon
*[[Ehecatl]] - the god of the wind
*[[Huehueteotl]] - an ancient god of the hearth, the fire of life
*[[Huitzilopochtli]] - god of the sun, fire, and war
*[[Ilamatecuhtli]]- goddess of the earth, death, and the [[milky way]].
*[[Itztlacoliuhqui-Ixquimilli]] - god of hard stone
*[[Mayahuel]] - goddess of [[maguey]]
*[[Mictlantecuhtli]] - god of death
*[[Ometeotl]] - god/goddess of heaven
*[[Quetzalcoatl]] - god of the breath of life
*[[Tepeyollotl]] - god of earthquakes
*[[Tezcatlipoca]] - god of discord
*[[Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli]] - god of dawn
*[[Tlaloc]] - god of rain and lightning
*[[Toci]] - goddess of earth
*[[Tonacatecuhtli]] - god of food
*[[Xipe Totec]] - god of spring
*[[Xochipilli]] - flower god
*[[Xochiquetzal]] - love goddess
== [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] ==
The Bahá'í Faith is a monotheistic religion contending that various figures from other prominent religions - for example, [[Moses]] ([[Judaism]]), [[Jesus]] ([[Christianity]]), [[Muhammad]] ([[Islam]]), [[Zoroaster]] ([[Zoroastrianism]]), and [[Krishna]] ([[Hinduism]]) were all messengers of the one God.
== [[Bushongo mythology|Bushongo]] ==
*[[Bomazi]]
*[[Bumba (god)|Bumba]]
== [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]] ==
See much more complete lists at [[Celtic mythology]] and [[Celtic polytheism]].
*[[Belenus]]
*[[Bran (mythology)|Bran]]
*[[Brigit]]
*[[Ceridwen]]
*[[Cernunos]]
*[[Dagda]]
*[[Danu (Irish goddess)|Danu]]
*[[Epona]]
*[[Glanis]]
*[[Gwydion]]
*[[Lugh]]
*[[Lyr]]
*[[Manannan mac Lir]]
*[[Morrigan]]
*[[Nemain]]
*[[Nuadha]]
*[[Ogma]]
== [[Chinese mythology|Chinese]] ==
*[[Chang'e (mythology)|Chang'e]]
*[[Chi You]]
*[[Dragon Kings]]
*[[Eight Immortals]]
*[[Erlang Shen]]
*[[Four Heavenly Kings]]
*[[Fei Lian]]
*[[Fu Hsi]]
*[[God of North]]
*[[Gong Gong]]
*[[Great Yu]]
*[[Guanyin]]
*[[Guan Di]]
*[[Guan Gong]]
*[[Guan Yu]]
*[[Hotei]]
*[[Huang Di]]
*[[Jade Emperor]]
*[[Kua Fu]]
*[[Kuan Yin]]
*[[Lei Gong]]
*[[Long Mu]]
*[[Three Pure Ones]]
*[[Matsu (goddess)|Matsu]]
*[[Meng Po]]
*[[Nezha]]
*[[Nüwa]]
*[[Pangu]]
*[[Qi Yu]]
*[[Shang Ti]]
*[[Shennong]]
*[[Shing Wong]]
*[[Sun Wukong]]
*[[Wong Tai Sin]]
*[[Xi Wangmu]]
*[[Yan Luo]]
*[[Yuk Wong]]
*[[Yi the Archer]]
*[[Zao Jun]]
== [[Chippewa mythology|Chippewa]] ==
*[[Nanabozho]]
*[[Sint Holo]]
*[[Wemicus]]
== [[Christianity|Christian]] ==
Like [[List of deities#Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism]], Christianity is a [[revealed religion]] with [[monotheism|one God]] in the form of a trinity presiding over a heavenly hierarchy of [[archangels]] and [[angels]]. (The three Zoroastrian [[Biblical Magi|Magi]] were the first to worship Christ.)
*[[God]], (Holy) Lord, (The Holy and undivided) [[Trinity]], the Three-in-one, the Threeness, [[Yahweh]]
:*[[God the Father]], the '''First Person of the Holy Trinity'''
:*God the Son, the '''Second Person of the Holy Trinity''', [[Jesus]], the [[Christ]], the [[Saviour]], the (only-begotten) [[Son of God]], Son of the Father, the (Holy) [[Logos]]/Word, the Lord
:*God the [[Holy Ghost]]/Spirit, the '''Third Person of the Holy Trinity'''
*([[Satan]], the [[Devil]] - not a god, but a fallen archangel)
**A few believe that Satan never fell, or that he will ultimately be forgiven(see [[Origen]]/[[Apokatastasis]]).
== [[Creek mythology|Creek]] ==
*[[Hisagita-imisi]]
== [[Dacian mythology|Dacian]] ==
*[[Zamolxis]]
*[[Gebeleizis]]
*[[Bendis]]
== [[Dahomey mythology|Dahomey]] ==
*[[Agé]]
*[[Ayaba]]
*[[Da (Dahomey)|Da]]
*[[Gbadu]]
*[[Gleti]]
*[[Gu (Dahomey)|Gu]]
*[[Lisa (Dahomey)|Lisa]]
*[[Loko]]
*[[Mawu]]
*[[Nana Buluku]]
*[[Sakpata]]
*[[Sogbo]]
*[[Xevioso]]
*[[Zinsi]]
*[[Zinsu]]
== [[Dinka mythology|Dinka]] ==
*[[Abuk]]
*[[Denka]]
*[[Juok]]
*[[Nyalitch]]
== [[Efik mythology|Efik]] ==
*[[Abassi]]
*[[Atai]]
== [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian]] ==
Egyptian deities are often portrayed as having animal heads in art; as an example, Anubis is often portrayed in statuary as having the body of a [[human]], but the head of a [[canidae|canine]]. Many gods were portrayed with different animal heads, depending upon the situation. The Egyptians did '''not''' actually believe that most of their gods had animal heads; rather, they portrayed them that way as artistic symbolism. This may have been for the benefit of the illiterate.
*[[Amun]], creator deity
*[[Anubis]], God of Embalming, Friend of the Dead, originally god of the dead
*The [[Aten]], the embodiment of the Sun's rays in a brief, [[monotheism|monotheistic]] interlude
*[[Apep]], Serpent of the Underworld, enemy of [[Ra]]
*[[Atum]], a creator deity, and the setting sun
*[[Bast (goddess)|Bast]], Goddess of Cats
*[[Bes]], God-Demon of Protection, Childbirth and Entertainment
*The [[Four sons of Horus]]
*[[Geb]], God of the Earth
*[[Hapy]] God of the Nile and Fertility
*[[Hathor]], Goddess of Love and Music
*[[Heget]] Goddess of Childbirth
*[[Horus]] the falcon-headed god
*[[Imhotep]] God of wisdom, medicine and magic
*[[Isis]], Goddess of Magic, sister of Nephthys
*[[Khepry]], the scarab beetle, the embodiment of the dawn
*[[Khnum]], a creator deity
*[[Maahes]], god of war
*[[Ma'at]], Concept of Truth, Balance and Order, sometimes depicted as a goddess
*[[Menhit]], Goddess of war
*[[Mont]], god of war
*[[Naunet]], the primal waters
*[[Neith]], goddess of war, then great mother goddess
*[[Nephthys]], mother of Anubis
*[[Nut (goddess)|Nut]], goddess of heaven and the sky
*[[Osiris]], god of the underworld, fertility and agricultural, possible father of Anubis
*[[Ptah]], a creator deity
*[[Ra]], the sun, possible father of Anubis
*[[Sekhmet]], goddess of war and battles
*[[Sobek]], Crocodile God
*[[Set (mythology)|Set]], God of Storms, possible father of Anubis, later became god of evil
*[[Taweret]], Goddess of pregnant children and protecter at childbirth
*[[Tefnut]], goddess of order, justice, time, Heaven and Hell and weather
*[[Thoth]], god of the moon, drawing, writing, geometry, wisdom, medicine, music, astronomy, and magic
*[[Wepwawet]]
See http://touregypt.net/godsofegypt/ for the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism's extensive information on Egyptian Deities.
== [[Estonian mythology|Estonian]] ==
*[[Peko]], god of fertility, crops and brewing
*[[Pikne]] (the long one), god of thunder
*[[Tharapita]], god of war
*[[Vanemuine]] (the ancient one), god of music (possibly fake tradition)
== [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan]] ==
*[[Alpan]]
*[[Aplu]]
*[[Menrva]]
*[[Nethuns]]
*[[Tinia]]
*[[Turan (goddess)]]
*[[Uni]]
*[[Voltumna]]
== [[Finland|Finnish]] ==
There are very few written documents about old Finnish religions; also the names of deities and practices of worship changed from place to place. The following is a summary of the most important and most widely worshipped deities.
*[[Ukko]], god of heaven and thunder
*[[Rauni]], Ukko's wife, goddess of fertility
*[[Tapio]], god of forest and wild animals
*[[Mielikki]], Tapio's wife
*[[Pekko]] (or ''Peko''), god or goddess (the actual gender is obscure) of fields and agriculture
*[[Ahti]], (or ''Ahto'') god of streams, lakes and sea
*[[Otso]], son of a god, ''king of the forest'' whose carnal form is the bear
*[[Tuoni]], god of the underworld
*[[Tuonetar]], The wife of Tuoni
*[[Loviatar]], One of Tuoni's daughters. goddess of pain.
*[[Perkons|Perkele]], a god of the Lithuanians, drafted to do duty as "the devil"
*[[Jumala]], a physical idol, later the name of the Christian god
== [[Ancient Greece|Ancient]] [[Greek mythology|Greek]] ==
{{Greek myth}}
*[[Aphrodite]] - goddess of beauty, one of the twelve Olympians
*[[Apollo]] - god of poetry, music, the sun, an Olympian
*[[Ares]] - god of war, an Olympian
*[[Artemis]] - goddess of the hunt, later also goddess of moon, an Olympian
*[[Athena]] - goddess of wisdom, defensive war, Athens, an Olympian
*[[Kronos]] - (Cronus/Cronos) god of time, father of the first six Olympians, a Titan
*[[Demeter]] - goddess of the harvest, nature, often considered an Olympian
*[[Dionysus]] - god of wine, took Hestia's place as an Olympian
*[[Eris]] - goddess of discord
*[[Eros]] - god of love ([[Cupid]])
*[[Eos (mythology)|Eos]] - goddess of the dawn
*[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] - primordial goddess of earth, mother of the Titans
*[[Hades]] - god of the underworld, often considered an Olympian
*[[Hebe (mythology)|Hebe]] - wife of Heracles
*[[Hekate]] - goddess of witchcraft, crossroads
*[[Helios]] - god who drives of the sun
*[[Hephaestus]] - god of smiths, an Olympian
*[[Hera]] - chief goddess, goddess of marriage, an Olympian
*[[Hermes]] - messenger of the gods, an Olympian
*[[Hestia]] - goddess of the hearth, gave up seat at Olympus to Dionysus
*[[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] - god of shepherds
*[[Persephone]] - daughter of Demeter, queen of the dead
*[[Poseidon]] - god of the sea, an Olympian
*[[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] - mother of the first six Olympians, a Titan
*[[Selene]] - goddess who drives the moon
*[[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] - primordial god of the heavens, father o |
rial Guinea has other largely unexploited human and natural resources, including a tropical climate, fertile soils, rich expanses of water, deepwater ports, and an untapped, if unskilled, source of labour. Following independence in 1968, the country suffered under a repressive dictatorship for 11 years, which devastated the economy. The agricultural sector, which historically was known for cocoa of the highest quality, has never fully recovered. In 1969 Equatorial Guinea produced 36,161 tons of highly bid cocoa, but production dropped to 4,800 tons in 2000. Coffee production also dropped sharply during this period to bounce back to 100,000 metric tons in 2000. Timber is the main source of foreign exchange after oil, accounting for about 12.4% of total export earnings in 1996-99. Timber production increased steadily during the 1990s; wood exports reached a record 789,000 cubic meters in 1999 as demand in Asia (mainly China) gathered pace after the 1998 economic crisis. Most of the production (mainly Okoume) goes to exports, and only 3% is processed locally. Environmentalists fear that exploitation at this level is unsustainable and point out to the permanent damage already inflicted on the forestry reserves on Bioko.
Consumer price inflation has declined from the 38.8% experienced in 1994 following the CFA franc devaluation, to 7.8% in 1998, and 1.0% in 1999, according to BEAC data. Consumer prices rose about 6% in 2000, according to initial estimates, and there was anecdotal evidence that price inflation was accelerating in 2001.
Equatorial Guinea's policies, as defined by law, comprise an open investment regime. Qualitative restrictions on imports, non-tariff protection, and many import licensing requirements were lifted when in 1992 the government adopted a public investment program endorsed by the World Bank. The Government of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea has sold some state enterprises. It is attempting to create a more favourable investment climate, and its investment code contains numerous incentives for job creation, training, promotion of non-traditional exports, support of development projects and indigenous capital participation, freedom for repatriation of profits, exemption from certain taxes and capital, and other benefits. Trade regulations have been further liberalized since implementation in 1994 of the ICN turnover tax, in conformity with Central African tax and custom reform codes. The reform included elimination of quota restrictions and reductions in the range and amounts of tariffs. The CEMAC countries agreed to replace the ICN with a value added tax (VAT) in 1999.
While business laws promote a liberalized economy, the business climate remains difficult. Application of the laws remains selective. Corruption among officials is widespread, and many business deals are concluded under non-transparent circumstances.
There is little industry in the country, and the local market for industrial products is small. The government seeks to expand the role of free enterprise and to promote foreign investment but has had little success in creating an atmosphere conducive to investor interest.
The Equato-Guinean budget has grown enormously in the past 3 years as royalties and taxes on foreign company oil and gas production have provided new resources to a once poor government. The 2001 budget foresaw revenues of about 154 [[billion]] CFA francs (154 GCFAF) (about U.S.$200 million), up about 50% from 2000 levels. Oil revenues account for about two-thirds of government revenue, and VAT and trade taxes are the other large revenue sources.
Year 2001 government expenditures were planned to reach 158 billion CFA francs, up about 50% from 2000 levels. New investment projects represented about 40% of the budget, and personnel and internal and external debt payments represented about one-third of planned expenditures.
The Equato-Guinean Government has undertaken a number of reforms since 1991 to reduce its predominant role in the economy and promote private sector development. Its role is a diminishing one, although many government interactions with the private sector are at times capricious. Beginning in early 1997, the government initiated efforts to attract significant private sector involvement through a Corporate Council on Africa visit and numerous ministerial efforts. In 1998, the government privatized distribution of petroleum products. There are now Total and Mobil stations in the country. The government has expressed interest in privatizing the outmoded electricity utility. A French company operates cellular telephone service in cooperation with a state enterprise. The government is anxious for greater U.S. investment, and President Obiang visited the U.S. three times between 1999 and 2001 to encourage greater U.S. corporate interest. Investment in agriculture, fishing, livestock, and tourism are among sectors the government would like targeted.
Equatorial Guinea's balance-of-payments situation has improved substantially since the mid-1990s because of new oil and gas production and favourable world energy prices. Exports totalled about francs CFA 915 billion in 2000 (1.25 G$US), up from CFA 437 billion (700 M$US) in 1999. Crude oil exports accounted for more than 90% of export earnings in 2000. Timber exports, by contrast, represented only about 5% of export revenues in 2000. Additional oil production coming on line in 2001, combined with methanol gas exports from the new CMS-Nomeco plant, should increase export earnings substantially.
Imports into Equatorial Guinea also are growing very quickly. Imports totalled francs CFA 380 billion (530 M$US), up from franc CFA 261 million (420 M$US) in 1999. Imports of equipment used for the oil and gas sector accounted for about three-quarters of imports in 2000. Imports of capital equipment for public investment projects reached francs CFA 30 billion in 2000, up 40% from 1999 levels.
Equatorial Guinea's foreign debt stock was approximately francs CFA 69 billion (100 M$US) in 2000, slightly less than the debt stock in 1999, according to BEAC data. Equatorial Guinea's debt service ratio fell from 20% of GDP in 1994 to only 1% in 2000. Foreign exchange reserves were increasing slightly, although they were relatively low in terms of import coverage. According to the terms of the franc CFA zone, some of these reserves are kept in an account with the French Ministry of Finance.
Equatorial Guinea in the 1980s and 1990s received foreign assistance from numerous bilateral and multilateral donors, including European countries, the [[United States]], and the [[World Bank]]. Many of these aid programs have ceased altogether or have diminished. [[Spain]], [[France]], and the [[European Union]] continue to provide some project assistance, as do [[China]] and [[Cuba]]. The government also has discussed working with World Bank assistance to develop government administrative capacity.
Equatorial Guinea operated under an [[IMF]]-negotiated [[Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility]] (ESAF) until 1996. Since then, there have been no formal agreements or arrangements. The International monetary Fund held Article IV consultations (periodic country evaluations) in 1996, 1997, and in August 1999. After the 1999 consultations, IMF directors stressed the need for Equatorial Guinea to establish greater fiscal discipline, accountability, and more transparent management of public sector resources, especially energy sector revenue. IMF officials also have emphasized the need for economic data. In 1999, the Equato-Guinean Government began attempting to meet IMF-imposed requirements, maintaining contact with IMF and the World Bank representatives. However, the newfound oil wealth allowed the government to avoid improving fiscal discipline, transparency and accountability.
== Infrastructure ==
Infrastructure is generally old and in poor condition. Surface transport is extremely limited at present, with little more than 700 kilometres of paved roads. The African Development Bank is helping to improve the paved roads from Malabo to Luba and Riaba; the Chinese are undertaking a project to link Mongomo to Bata on the mainland, and the European Union is financing an inter-states road network linking Equatorial Guinea to Cameroon and Gabon. Road maintenance is often inadequate.
Electricity is available in Equatorial Guinea's larger towns thanks to three small overworked hydropower facilities and a number of aged generators. In 1999, national production was about 13 MWh. In Malabo, the American company, CMS-Nomeco, built a 10 megawatt electricity plant financed by the government, which came in line in mid-2000, and plans to double capacity are advancing. This plant provides improved service to the capital, although there are still occasional outages. On the mainland the largest city, Bata, still has regular blackouts.
Water is only available in the major towns and is not always reliable because of poor maintenance and mismanagement. Some villages and rural areas are equipped with generators and water pumps, usually owned by private individuals.
Parastatal Getesa, a joint venture with a minority ownership stake held by a French subsidiary of [[France Télécom]], provides telephone service in the major cities. The regular system is overextended, but France Télécom has introduced a popular GSM system, which is generally reliable in Malabo and Bata.
Equatorial Guinea has two of the deepest Atlantic seaports of the region, including the main business and commercial port city of Bata. The ports of both Malabo and Bata are severely overextended and require extensive rehabilitation and reconditioning. The British company, Incat, has an ongoing project with the government to renovate and expand Luba, the country's third-largest port which is located on Bioko Island. The government hopes Luba will become a major transportation hub for offshore oil and gas companies operating in the Gulf |
hich improved upon the 19-year [[Metonic cycle]], about that time. He had the first year of his first cycle start at the summer solstice of [[28 June]] [[330 BC]] ([[Julian calendar|Julian]] [[proleptic]] date), but later he seems to have counted lunar months from the first month after Alexander's decisive battle at [[Gaugamela]] in fall [[331 BC]]. So Callippus may have obtained his data from Babylonian sources and his calendar may have been anticipated by Kidinnu. Also it is known that the Babylonian priest known as [[Berossus]] wrote around [[281 BC]] a book in Greek on the (rather mythological) history of Babylonia, the ''[[Babyloniaca]]'', for the new ruler [[Antiochus I]]; it is said that later he founded a school of [[astrology]] on the Greek island of [[Kos]]. Another candidate for teaching the Greeks about Babylonian [[astronomy]]/[[astrology]] was [[Sudines]] who was at the court of [[Attalus I|Attalus I Soter]] late in the [[3rd century BC]].
In any case, the translation of the astronomical records required profound knowledge of the [[cuneiform script]], the language, and the procedures, so it seems likely that it was done by some unidentified Chaldeans. Now, the Babylonians dated their observations in their lunisolar calendar, in which months and years have varying lengths (29 or 30 days; 12 or 13 months respectively). At the time they did not use a regular calendar (such as based on the [[Metonic cycle]] like they did later), but started a new month based on observations of the [[New Moon]]. This made it very tedious to compute the time interval between events.
What Hipparchus may have done is transform these records to the [[Egyptian calendar]], which uses a fixed year of always 365 days (consisting of 12 months of 30 days and 5 extra days): this makes computing time intervals much easier. Ptolemy dated all observations in this calendar. He also writes that "All that he (=Hipparchus) did was to make a compilation of the planetary observations arranged in a more useful way" (''Almagest'' IX.2). Pliny states (''Naturalis Historia'' II.IX(53)) on eclipse predictions: "After their time (=[[Thales]]) the courses of both stars (=Sun and Moon) for 600 years were prophecied by Hipparchus, ...". This seems to imply that Hipparchus predicted eclipses for a period of 600 years, but considering the enormous amount of computation required, this is very unlikely. Rather, Hipparchus would have made a list of all eclipses from Nabonasser's time to his own.
Other traces of Babylonian practice in Hipparchus' work are:
* first Greek known to divide the circle in 360 [[degree (angle)|degrees]] of 60 [[arc minute]]s.
* first consistent use of the [[sexagesimal]] number system.
* the use of the unit ''pechus'' ("cubit") of about 2° or 2½°.
* use of a short period of 248 days = 9 anomalistic months.
Also see G.J. Toomer (1981?): ''Hipparchus and Babylonian Astronomy''.
== Geometry and trigonometry ==
Hipparchus is recognised as the first mathematician who compiled a [[trigonometry]] table, which he needed when computing the [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] of the [[orbit]]s of the Moon and Sun. He tabulated values for the [[chord (geometry)|chord]] function, which gives the length of the chord for each angle. He did this for a circle with a circumference of 21,600 and a radius of (rounded) 3438 units: this has a unit length of 1 arc minute along its perimeter. He tabulated the chords for angles with increments of 7.5°. In modern terms, the chord of an angle equals twice the [[trigonometric function|sine]] of half of the angle, i.e.:
: chord(''A'') = 2&nbsp;sin(''A''/2).
He described it in a work (now lost), called ''Toon en kuklooi eutheioon'' (''Of Lines Inside a Circle'') by [[Theon of Alexandria]] ([[4th century]]) in his commentary on the ''Almagest'' I.10; his table seems to have survived in astronomical treatises in [[India]], for instance the [[Surya Sidhanta]]. This was a significant innovation, because it allowed Greek astronomers to solve any triangle, and made it possible to make quantitative astronomical models and predictions using their preferred geometric techniques. See [Toomer 1973].
For his chord table Hipparchus must have used a better approximation for [[pi|π]] than the one from [[Archimedes]] (between 3 + 1/7 and 3 + 10/71); maybe the one later used by Ptolemy: 3;8:30 ([[sexagesimal]]) (''Almagest'' VI.7); but it is not known if he computed an improved value himself.
Hipparchus could construct his chord table using the [[Pythagorean theorem]] and a [[theorem]] known to Archimedes. He also might have developed and used the theorem in [[plane geometry]] called [[Ptolemy's theorem]], because it was proved by Ptolemy in his ''Almagest'' (I.10) (later elaborated on by [[Lazare Carnot|Carnot]]).
Hipparchus was the first to show that the [[stereographic projection]] is [[conformal map|conformal]], and that it transforms circles on the [[sphere]] that do not pass through the center of projection to circles on the [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]. This was the basis for the [[astrolabe]].
Besides geometry, Hipparchus also used [[arithmetic]] techniques from the [[Chaldea]]ns. He was one of the first Greek mathematicians to do this, and in this way expanded the techniques available to astronomers and geographers.
There is no indication that Hipparchus knew [[spherical trigonometry]], which was first developed by [[Menelaus of Alexandria]] in the [[1st century]]. Ptolemy later used the new technique for computing things like the rising and setting points of the [[ecliptic]], or to take account of the lunar [[parallax]]. Hipparchus may have used a globe for this (to read values off the coordinate grids drawn on it), as well as approximations from planar geometry, or arithmetical approximations developed by the Chaldeans.
== Lunar and solar theory ==
=== Motion of the Moon ===
Hipparchus also studied the motion of the [[Moon]] and confirmed the accurate values for some periods of its motion that Chaldean astronomers had obtained before him. The traditional value (from Babylonian System B) for the mean [[synodic month]] is 29&nbsp;days;31,50,8,20 (sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... d. Expressed as 29&nbsp;days + 12&nbsp;hours + 793/1080&nbsp;hours this value has been used later in the [[Hebrew calendar]] (possibly from Babylonian sources). The Chaldeans also knew that 251 [[synodic month]]s = 269 [[anomalistic month]]s. Hipparchus extended this period by a factor of 17, because after that interval the Moon also would have a similar latitude, and it is close to an integer number of years (345). Therefore, eclipses would reappear under almost identical circumstances. The period is 126007&nbsp;days 1&nbsp;hour (rounded). Hipparchus could confirm his computations by comparing eclipses from his own time (presumably [[27 January]] [[141 BC]] and [[26 November]] [[139 BC]] according to [Toomer 1980]), with eclipses from Babylonian records 345 years earlier (''Almagest'' IV.2; [Jones 2001]). Already [[al-Biruni]] (''Qanun'' VII.2.II) and [[Copernicus]] (''de revolutionibus'' IV.4) noted that the period of 4,267 lunations is actually about 5 minutes longer than the value for the eclipse period that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus. However, the best clocks and timing methods of the age had an accuracy of no better than 8 minutes. Modern scholars agree that Hipparchus rounded the eclipse period to the nearest hour, and used it to confirm the validity of the traditional values, rather than try to derive an improved value from his own observations. From modern ephemerides [Chapront ''et al.'' 2002] and taking account of the change in the length of the day (see [[Delta T|ΔT]]) we estimate that the error in the assumed length of the synodic month was less than 0.2&nbsp;s in the [[4th century BC]] and less than 0.1&nbsp;s in Hipparchus' time.
=== Orbit of the Moon ===
It had been known for a long time that the motion of the Moon is not uniform: its speed varies. This is called its '''anomaly''', and it repeats with its own period; the [[anomalistic month]]. The Chaldeans took account of this arithmetically, and used a table giving the daily motion of the Moon according to the date within a long period. The Greeks however preferred to think in geometrical models of the sky. [[Apollonius of Perga]] had at the end of the [[3rd century BC]] proposed two models for lunar and planetary motion:
# In the first, the Moon would move uniformly along a circle, but the Earth would be eccentric, i.e., at some distance of the center of the circle. So the apparent angular speed of the Moon (and its distance) would vary.
# The Moon itself would move uniformly (with some mean motion in anomaly) on a secondary circular orbit, called an '''epicycle''', that itself would move uniformly (with some mean motion in longitude) over the main circular orbit around the Earth, called '''deferent'''; see [[deferent and epicycle]].
Apollonius demonstrated that these two models were in fact mathematically equivalent. However, all this was theory and had not been put to practice. Hipparchus was the first to attempt to determine the relative proportions and actual sizes of these [[orbit]]s.
Hipparchus devised a geometrical method to find the parameters from three positions of the Moon, at particular phases of its anomaly. In fact, he did this separately for the eccentric and the epicycle model. Ptolemy describes the details in the ''Almagest'' IV.11. Hipparchus used two sets of three lunar eclipse observations, which he carefully selected to satisfy the requirements. The eccentric model he fitted to these eclipses from his Babylonian eclipse list: 22/23 [[December]] [[383 BC]], 18/19 [[June]] [[382 BC]], and 12/13 [[December]] [[382 BC]]. The epicycle model he fitted to lunar eclipse observations made in Alexandria at [[22 September]] [[201 BC]], [[19 March]] [[200 B |
he dialogue is, at best, functional and the style is, at best, transparent. [...] The robot stories&mdash;and, as a matter of fact, almost all Asimov fiction&mdash;play themselves on a relatively bare stage.
This description applies well to a large proportion of Asimov's fiction, including that written after 1980. Gunn observes that there are places where Asimov's style rises to the demands of the situation; he cites the climax of "Liar!" as an example. Sharply-drawn characters occur at key junctures of his storylines: in addition to [[Susan Calvin]] in "Liar!" and "Evidence", we find [[Arkady Darell]] in ''[[Second Foundation]],'' [[Elijah Baley]] in ''[[The Caves of Steel]]'' and [[Hari Seldon]] in the Foundation prequels. (In ''[[Forward the Foundation]],'' Seldon becomes a partial mirror of Asimov himself.)
These criticisms are to some extent the flip side of Asimov's aforementioned rationalism: his books, like his characters, tend to be cerebral and more interested in ideas and puzzles than in character and feeling. His idea of "[[psychohistory]]," where the individual quirks of human beings could be averaged out at the statistical level of an entire galaxy's population, is perhaps revealing in that regard. What helps keep Asimov's fiction readable is the charm of the author, which is conveyed to his characters.
Asimov was also criticised for the lack of sex and aliens in his science fiction. Asimov once explained that his reluctance to write about aliens came from an incident early in his career when ''Astounding'''s editor John Campbell rejected one of his early science fiction stories because the alien characters were portrayed as superior to the humans. He decided that, rather than write weak alien characters, he would not write about aliens at all. Nevertheless, in response to these criticisms he wrote ''[[The Gods Themselves]]'', which contains aliens, sex, and alien sex. Asimov said that of all his writings, he was most proud of the middle section of ''The Gods Themselves''.
Others have criticised him for a lack of strong female characters in his early work. In his autobiographical writings, he acknowledges this, and responds by pointing to inexperience. His later novels, written with more female characters but in essentially the same prose style as his early SF stories, brought this matter to a wider audience. For example, the [[25 August]] [[1985]] ''Washington Post''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s "Book World" section reports of ''Robots and Empire'' as follows:
:In 1940, Asimov's humans were stripped-down masculine portraits of Americans from 1940, and they still are. His robots were tin cans with speedlines like an old Studebaker, and still are; the Robot tales depended on an increasingly unworkable distinction between movable and unmovable artificial intelligences, and still do. In the Asimov universe, because it was conceived a long time ago, and because its author abhors confusion, there are no computers whose impact is worth noting, no social complexities, no genetic engineering, aliens, arcologies, multiverses, clones, sin or sex; his heroes (in this case [[R. Daneel Olivaw]], whom we first met as the robot protagonist of ''The Caves of Steel'' and its sequels) feel no pressure of information, raw or cooked, as the simplest of us do today; they suffer no deformation from the winds of the Asimov future, because it is so deeply and strikingly orderly.
A considerable portion of such criticism boils down to the charge that Asimov's works are simply dated. In fact, some details of Asimov's imaginary future technology as he described more than fifty years ago have not aged well. He has, for example, described powerful robots and computers from the distant future as still using [[punch card]]s or [[punch tape]] and engineers using [[slide rule]]s. His stories also have occasional internal contradictions: names and dates given in [[The Foundation Series]] do not always agree with one another, for example. Some such errors may plausibly be due to mistakes the characters make, since characters in Asimov stories are seldom fully informed about their own situations. Other contradictions resulted from the many years elapsed between the time Asimov began the Foundation series and when he resumed work on it; occasionally, advances in scientific knowledge forced him to [[retcon]] his own fictional history.
Other than the books by Gunn and Patrouch, there is a relative dearth of "literary" criticism on Asimov (particularly when compared to the sheer volume of his output). Cowart and Wymer's ''Dictionary of Literary Biography'' (1981) gives a possible reason:
:His words do not easily lend themselves to traditional literary criticism because he has the habit of centering his fiction on plot and clearly stating to his reader, in rather direct terms, what is happening in his stories and why it is happening. In fact, most of the dialogue in an Asimov story, and particularly in the [Foundation] trilogy, is devoted to such exposition. Stories that clearly state what they mean in unambiguous language are the most difficult for a scholar to deal with because there is little to be interpreted.
In fairness, Gunn and Patrouch's respective studies of Asimov both take the stand that a clear, direct prose style is still a style. Gunn's 1982 book goes into considerable depth commenting upon each of Asimov's novels published to that date. He does not praise all of Asimov's fiction (and nor does Patrouch), but he does call some passages in ''[[The Caves of Steel]]'' "reminiscent of [[Marcel Proust|Proust]]". When discussing how that novel depicts night falling over futuristic [[New York City]], Gunn says that Asimov's prose "need not be ashamed anywhere in literary society".
Although he prided himself on his unornamented prose style (for which he credited [[Clifford Simak]] as an early influence), Asimov also enjoyed giving his longer stories complicated narrative structures, often by arranging chapters in non-chronological ways. Some readers have been put off by this, complaining that the nonlinearity is not worth the trouble and adversely impacts the clarity of the story. For example, the first third of ''The Gods Themselves'' begins with Chapter 6, then backtracks to fill in earlier material [http://homepage.mac.com/jhjenkins/Asimov/Books/Book121.html]. (In fairness, one should note that John Campbell advised Asimov to begin his stories as late in the plot as possible. This tidbit of advice helped Asimov create "[[Reason (Asimov)|Reason]]," one of the early Robot stories. See ''In Memory Yet Green'' for details of that time period.) Asimov's tendency to contort his timelines is perhaps most apparent in his later novel ''[[Nemesis (Asimov)|Nemesis]],'' in which one group of characters live in the "present" and another group starts in the "past", beginning fifteen years earlier and gradually moving toward the time period of the first group.
In 2002, [[Donald Palumbo]], an English professor at [[East Carolina University]] published ''Chaos Theory, Asimov’s Foundations and Robots, and Herbert’s Dune: The Fractal Aesthetic of Epic Science Fiction''. This includes a review of Asimov's narrative structures that compares them with the scientific concepts of [[fractals]] and [[chaos]]. Palumbo finds that a fascination with the [[The Foundation Series|Foundation]] and [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series|Robot]] [[metaseries]] remains, and he determines that the purposeful complexities of the narrative build unusual symmetric and recursive structures to be perceived by the mind's eye. This volume contains some of the most scholarly and in-depth criticism of Asimov to date.
John Jenkins, who has reviewed the vast majority of Asimov's written output, once observed,
:It has been pointed out that most sf writers since the 1950s have been affected by Asimov, either modeling their style on his or deliberately avoiding anything like his style. [http://homepage.mac.com/jhjenkins/Asimov/NonAsimov/White.html]
In the [[Hugo Award]]-winning novella, "[[Gold (Asimov short story)|Gold]]", Asimov describes an author clearly based on himself who has one of his books (''[[The Gods Themselves]]'') adapted into a "compu-drama", essentially photo-realistic [[computer animation]]. The director criticizes the fictionalized Asimov ("Gregory Laborian") for having an extremely non-visual style making it difficult to adapt his work, and the author explains that he relies on ideas and dialogue rather than description to get his points across. Ironically, the story mimics the same style the author in it uses to describe his work, and one can see it as Asimov's reply to his critics.
==Quotations==
{{wikiquote}}
* "If my doctor told me I had only six minutes to live, I wouldn't brood. I'd type a little faster."
* "Writing, to me, is simply thinking through my fingers."
* "Night was a wonderful time in Brooklyn in the 1930s. [[Air conditioning]] was unknown except in [[movie theater|movie houses]], and so was [[television]]. There was nothing to keep one in the house. Furthermore, few people owned [[automobile]]s, so there was nothing to carry one away. That left the streets and the stoops. The very fullness served as an inhibition to [[crime]]."
* "What I ''will'' be remembered for are the [[Foundation Trilogy]] and the [[Three Laws of Robotics]]. What I ''want'' to be remembered for is no one book, or no dozen books. Any single thing I have written can be paralleled or even surpassed by something someone else has done. However, my total corpus for quantity, quality and ''variety'' can be duplicated by no one else. That is what I want to be remembered for", [[September 20]], [[1973]], ''Yours, Isaac Asimov,'' page 329.
* "Violence is the |
nn's teachings, in particular
* insistence on the doctrines of miasm and vitalism;
* emphasis on psychological symptoms (as opposed to physical pathology) in prescribing; and
* regular use of very high potencies.
Today, the ease with which large [[database]]s can be manipulated has profoundly changed the way homeopathy is practised. Today, many homeopaths use computers to sift through thousands of provings and case studies. Because information about lesser-known remedies is more accessible, it is now more common for homeopaths to prescribe them, which has led to an increase in the number of new provings.
''See also:'' [[List of important homeopaths]]
=== Homeopathy around the world ===
There are estimated<ref>[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1575855,00.html Homeopathy Seeks More Acknowledgement] from Deutsche Welle</ref> to be more than 100,000 practitioners of homeopathy worldwide, with an estimated 500 million people receiving treatment. More than 12,000 medical doctors and licensed health care practitioners administer homeopathic treatment in the UK, [[France]], and [[Germany]]. Since 2001, homeopathy is regulated in the [[European Union]] by Directive 2001/83/EC; the latest amendments make it compulsory for member states to implement a registration procedure for homeopathic remedies.
<!--English speaking countries-->
In the UK, homeopathic remedies may be sold over the counter. The UK has five homeopathic hospitals where treatment, funded by the [[National Health Service]], is available and many regional clinics. Homeopathy is not practised by most of the medical profession, but there is a core of public support, including from the English royal family.
In India, homeopathy has been practised since the middle of the [[19th century]], and is officially recognized. India has the largest homeopathic infrastructure in the world, with 300,000 qualified homeopaths, 180 colleges, 7500 government clinics, and 307 hospitals.<ref>Dr. Raj Kumar Manchanda & Dr. Mukul Kulashreshtha, ''[http://www.delhihomeo.com/paperberlin.html Cost Effectiveness and Efficacy of Homeopathy in Primary Health Care Units of Government of Delhi- A study]''</ref> Also in India, Ayurveda, another form of medicine that could be likened to homeopathy, was used before 5000 B.C. <ref>[http://indianmedicine.nic.in/html/ayurveda/ayurveda.htm]</ref>
In the USA, homeopathic remedies are, like all healthcare products, regulated by the [[Food and Drug Administration]]. However, the FDA treats homeopathic remedies very differently to conventional medicines. Homeopathic products do not have to be approved by the FDA before sale, they do not have to be proved to be either safe or effective, they do not have to be labeled with an expiration date, and they do not have to undergo finished product testing to verify contents and strength. Unlike conventional drugs, homeopathic remedies do not have to identify their active ingredients on the grounds that they have few or no active ingredients. In the USA, only homeopathic medicines that claim to treat self-limiting conditions may be sold over the counter; homeopathic medicines that claim to treat a serious disease can be sold only by prescription.
<!--deutschsprachiger Raum-->
In Germany, about 6,000 physicians specialize in homeopathy. In [[1978]] homeopathy, [[Anthroposophy|anthroposophically extended medicine]] and [[herbalism]], were recognized as "special forms of therapy", meaning that their medications are freed from the usual requirement of proving efficacy. Since [[January 1]], [[2004]] homeopathic medications, with some exceptions, are no longer covered by the country's public health insurance<ref>[http://www.dhu.de/wc_800/archiv/GMG.shtml Gesundheitssystem: Was bringt das neue Gesetz?] (in German)</ref>. Most private health insurers continue to cover homeopathy.
In [[Austria]] homeopathy has been a recognized part of the medical system since [[1983]].
In [[Switzerland]] homeopathic medications were formerly covered by the basic health insurance system, if prescribed by a physician. This ended in June 2005<ref>[http://www.kaufmann-net.ch/ Bundesratsentscheid über die Leistungen für Alternativmedizin: Information about Homeopathy in Switzerland by Vera Kaufmann, BHSc.Hom.] (in German)</ref>. The Swiss Government, after a 5-year trial, withdrew insurance coverage for homoeopathy and four other complementary treatments because they did not meet efficacy and cost-effectiveness criteria. This applies only to compulsory insurance; homeopathy and other complementary medicine is covered by additional insurance, if the treatment is provided by a medical doctor.
In [[Mexico]] the Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN) has had a school of Homeopathy since 1936. This school has both bachelor and master degrees.
=== Classical versus non-classical homeopathy ===
Hahnemann's formulation of homeopathy is often referred to as ''classical homeopathy'' Classical homeopaths use one remedy at a time, and base their prescription also on incidental or constitutional symptoms. However, homeopathic remedies are often used both by professionals and by the public based on formulations marketed for specific medical conditions. Occasionally single remedies are so used, but more typically, mixtures of several remedies are used in a practice known as ''complex homeopathy''. Some formulations are based on a 'shot-gun' approach of the most commonly indicated single remedies in mixture form, while others, such as those by ''Heel'' and ''Reckeweg'', are proprietary mixtures marketed for specific diagnostic critera based on various diagostic systems. Many members of the public are not familiar with classical homeopathy, and equate these practices with homeopathy; others are familiar with the classical approach but regard these as legitimate variants; while others consider it a misuse of the term. Use of non-classical approaches probably exceeds that of classical homeopathy, at least in places where over-the-counter preparations are popular and where many doctors use natural medicines in a conventional clinical setting.
== The popularity of homeopathy ==
In the [[1930s]] the popularity of homeopathy waned, especially in [[Europe]] and the USA, partly due to advances in conventional medicine, to the [[Flexner Report]] (1910) which led (in the USA) to the closure of virtually all medical schools teaching alternative medicine. Homeopathy had a renaissance in the [[1970s]], largely because of [[George Vithoulkas]] in Europe and the USA, that continues to this day. In the USA, in 1995, retail sales of homeopathic medicines were estimated at US$201 million, and growing at 20% per year, according to the American Homeopathic Pharmaceutical Association, and the number of homeopathic practitioners increased from fewer than 200 in the 1970s to approximately 3,000 in 1996.
The rise in popularity of homeopathy is part of a general rise in interest in [[alternative medicine]] over the past few decades.<ref>[http://www.thespiritofhomoeopathy.com/evolution.html The Evolution of Homoeopathy]</ref>
==The scientific validity of homeopathy==
The following statement was adopted as policy of the American Medical Association (AMA) in 1997, after a report on a number of alternative therapies including homeopathy:[http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13638.html]
''<blockquote>There is little evidence to confirm the safety or efficacy of most alternative therapies. Much of the information currently known about these therapies makes it clear that many have not been shown to be efficacious. Well-designed, stringently controlled research should be done to evaluate the efficacy of alternative therapies.</blockquote>''
[[scientific skepticism|Scientists]] consider homeopathy to be lacking a plausible mechanism to explain its alleged workings, and that homeopathy is a [[pseudoscientific]] remnant from the age of [[alchemy]]. Others reject homeopathy due to its "religious" nature, i.e. the lack of scientific principles or reasonable proof of efficacy.
The primary criticisms of homeopathy include the lack of evidence in form of studies conforming to a high scientific standard; the lack of a mechanism to explain how ultra-dilute solutions can retain an imprint of a molecule that no longer exists in solution; and the high level of subjectivity involved in both giving and receiving treatment.
Further criticism is based on theoretical understanding of physical/chemical/biological properties of matter and its interaction in the biological sphere. Regardless of whether the dilution medium is water or alcohol, the existing theory of [[molecular physics]] does not provide a mechanism for clinically efficacious imprinting of anything much in a liquid medium once those molecules have been diluted to near non-existence.
Experiments trying to measure this effect have failed, and none have ever been reliably reproduced, thus eluding one of the foundational requirements of science, ''consistent and reliable reproducibility of results'' in double-blind trials by largely impartial clinicians, practicing on largely impartial patients.
Critics also reject homeopathy as logically incoherent. They ask: Why should only the properties of the one intended remedy be imprinted during dynamization, and not the properties of all of the impurities in the water, particularly as all of the substances in complex mother tinctures are presumably imprinted? Why should artificial shaking and swirling imprint the water, but not similar processes in nature? Why should the same information be imprinted by dynamization with alcohol or by trituration with sugar, although the properties of these substances are very different from those of water?
Several [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] have yielded inconclusive or unfavourable results, with two obse |
ware can often be an extremely beneficial tool when used to find, analyze, and eliminate common problems in an organization's computing environment.
The user notifies the help desk of his or her issue, and the help desk issues a ticket that has details of the problem. If the first level is able to solve the issue, the ticket is closed and updated with documentation of the solution to allow other help desk technicians to reference. If the issue needs to be escalated, it will be dispatched to a second level.
==Organization==
Large help desks have different levels to handle different type of questions. The first-level help desk are prepared to answer the most commonly asked questions, such as those that perhaps belong in an [[FAQ]]. The second or higher levels handle more difficult calls.
Larger help desks have a person or team responsible for managing the tickets and are commonly called queue managers. The queue manager is responsible for the ticket [[queue]]s, which can be setup in various ways depending on the help desk size or structure. Typically, larger help desks have several teams that are experienced in working on different issues. The queue manager will assign a ticket to one of the specialized teams based on the type of issue. Some help desks may have phone systems with [[Automatic_call_distributor|ACD splits]] that ensure that calls about specific topics are put through to analysts with experience or knowledge on that topic.
Many help desks are also strictly rostered. Time is set aside for analysts to perform tasks such as following up problems, returning phone calls, and answering questions via e-mail. The roster system ensures that all analysts get time to follow up on calls, and also ensures that analysts are always available to take incoming phone calls. As the incoming phone calls are random in nature, help desk agent schedules are often maintained using an Erlang C calculation.
===Deskside team===
The deskside team is responsible for the [[desktop computer|desktops]], [[laptop]]s and [[computer peripheral|peripherals]] such as [[personal digital assistant|PDAs]]. The help desk will assign the deskside team the second level deskside issues that the first level was not able to solve. They set up and [[computer configuration|configure]] computers for new users and are typically responsible for any physical work relating to the computers such as repairing software or [[hardware]] issues and moving [[workstation]]s to another location.
===Network team===
The [[computer network|network]] team is responsible for the network software, hardware and infrastructure such as [[server]]s, [[switch]]es, [[backup]] systems and [[firewall (networking)|firewalls]]. They are responsible for the network services such as [[email]], file, and [[computer security|security]]. The help desk will assign the network team issues that are in their field of responsibility.
===Other teams===
Some companies have a [[telecommunication|telecom]] team that is responsible for the [[telephone|phone]] infrastructure such as [[PBX]], [[voicemail]], [[VOIP]], telephone sets, [[modems]] and [[fax machine]]s. They are responsible for configuring and moving telephone numbers, voicemail setup and configuration and are assigned these types of issues from the help desk.
Companies with custom [[Application_software|application software]] may also have an applications team, who are responsible for development of any in-house software. The Applications team may be assigned problems such as [[Software_bug|software bugs]] from the Help Desk. Requests for new features or capabilities to in-house software that come through the Help Desk are also assigned to Applications groups.
Not all of the help desk staff and supporting [[information technology|IT]] staff are in the same location. With [[remote]] access applications--such as Microsoft Remote Desktop, PcAnywhere, IBM Tivoli and Dameware--technicians are able to solve many help desk issues from another location or their home office. There is a need for on-site support to physically work on some help desk issues; however, help desks are able to be more flexible with their remote support. They can also audit workstations.
''Help desk'' is a broadly applied term referring to a staffed resource&mdash;often, an actual desk, or a telephone service&mdash;that can help persons answer questions or to use resources such as [[audio-visual]] or computer resources.
==See also==
* [[library reference desk]]
* [[programming help desk]]
* [[help desk humor]]
* [[Technical support]]
* [[List of remote administration tools]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ajeebo.com/Help_Desk_Software Find Help Desk Software] - Ajeebo: listing of help desk, customer support software and more
* [http://www.metaquest.com/Solutions/DesktopManagement/HelpDesk.html HelpDesk] - Web-based HelpDesk Issue Tracking Software
* [http://helpdesk.wyopub.com Help Desk Journal] - Tips and techniques for Help Desk excellence
* [http://www.imiddleton.com Help Desk Research] by an academic whose site has reports & downloads on success factors, statistics, industry etc
* [http://www.helpdesk.com/software-helpdesk.htm Help Desk Software Directory] (Helpdesk.com)
* [http://www.simpleticket.net SimpleTicket] - Open Source Ticketing System produced by Architel
* [http://www.vector-networks.com/solutions/help-desk-solution.php PC-Duo Enterprise HelpDesk] - IT Web-based Help Desk system
* [http://www.userscape.com/products/helpspot HelpSpot Help Desk] - ISV developed solution for small to medium size organizations
* [http://www.magnoware.com DataTrack System] - Web-enabled service and support solution by Magnoware
* [http://www.servicedeskplus.com ServiceDesk Plus] - Affordable IT Help Desk and Asset Management software
* [http://www.getahelpdesk.com Get A Helpdesk] - Web based helpdesk software by Innovate it.
* [http://www.cerberusweb.com Cerberus Helpdesk] - Popular e-mail management package by WebGroup Media, LLC.
[[Category:Computer specialists]]
[[es:Help desk]]
[[fr:Service de dépannage]]
[[nl:Helpdesk]]
[[pl:Help desk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Bordeaux</title>
<id>13545</id>
<revision>
<id>40705975</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T13:03:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>* {{gutenberg author| id=Henry+Bordeaux | name=Henry Bordeaux}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Henri Bordeaux''' ([[25 January]] [[1870]] in [[Thonon-les-Bains]] - [[29 march]] [[1963]]) was a French writer and lawyer. His novels included:
* ''Le Pays natal'' (1900)
* ''La Peur de vivre'' (1902)
* ''La Petite mademoiselle'' (1905)
* ''Les Roquevillard'' (1906)
* ''Les Yeux qui s’ouvrent'' (1908)
* ''La Croisée des chemins'' (1909)
* ''La Robe de laine'' (1910)
* ''La Neige sur les pas'' (1911)
* ''La Maison'' (1913)
* ''La Résurrection de la chair'' (1920)
* ''La Chartreuse du reposoir'' (1924)
* ''La Revenante'' (1932)
His writing was likened to [[Paul Bourget]]'s.
== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Henry+Bordeaux | name=Henry Bordeaux}}
{{France-writer-stub}}
[[Category:1870 births|Bordeaux, Henri]]
[[Category:1963 deaths|Bordeaux, Henri]]
[[Category:French lawyers|Bordeaux, Henri]]
[[Category:French novelists|Bordeaux, Henri]]
[[fr:Henry Bordeaux]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Fielding</title>
<id>13546</id>
<revision>
<id>41962152</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:26:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.47.136.129</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>phrase was opinionated</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Henry_Fielding.jpg|right|]]
'''Henry Fielding''' ([[April 22]], [[1707]] &ndash; [[October 8]], [[1754]]) was an [[England|English]] [[novelist]] and [[dramatist]] known for his rich earthy humor and [[satire|satirical]] prowess and as the author of the [[novel]] ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]''.
Born near [[Glastonbury]] in [[Somerset]] in [[1707]], Fielding was educated at [[Eton College]]. His younger sister, [[Sarah Fielding|Sarah]], was also destined to be a successful writer. After a romantic episode with a young woman which ended in his getting into trouble with the law, he went to [[London]] where his literary career began.
In [[1728]], he travelled to [[Leiden]] to study. On his return, he began writing for the [[theatre]], some of his work being savagely critical of the contemporary government under Sir [[Robert Walpole]]. The [[Licensing Act 1737|Theatrical Licensing Act]] of [[1737]] is alleged to be a direct result of his activities. The particular play that triggered the Licensing Act was ''The Vision of the Golden Rump'', but Fielding's satires had set the tone. When the licensing act passed, political satire on the stage was virtually impossible, and playwrights whose works were staged were viewed as suspect. Fielding therefore retired from the theatre and resumed his career in law, becoming a [[Justice of the peace]] in [[1748]] for [[Middlesex]] and [[Westminster]].
Fielding never stopped writing political satire and satires of current arts and letters. His ''Tragedy of Tragedies'' of Tom Thumb was, for example, quite successful as a printed play. He also contributed a number of works to journals of the day. He wrote for [[Tory]] periodicals, usually under the name of "Captain Hercules Vinegar." As Justice of the Peace he issued a warrant for the arrest of [[Colley Cibber]] for "murder of the English language."
Fielding's first major success in a novel was ''[[An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews|Shamela]]'', an anonymous [[parody]] of [[Samuel Richardson]]'s melodramatic novel, ''[[Pamela]]''. It is a satire that follows the model of the famous Tory satirists of the |
makeup of the municipality is 72.23% [[White]] ([[Caucasian race|Caucasian]]), 5.55% are [[Asian American]]s, 5.84% are [[African American]]s, 7.28% are [[American Indians (U.S. Census)|American Indians]] or [[Alaska Native]]s, 0.93% are [[Pacific Islander]]s, 5.69% are [[Hispanic American]]s or [[Latino]]s of any race, 5.98% are from two or more races, and 2.19% are from other non-white backgrounds.
There are 94,822 households out of which 38.9% have children under the age 18 living with them, 51.1% are [[married couples]] living together, 11.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 32.4% are non-families. 23.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 3.8% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.67 and the average family size is 3.19.
In the city the population is spread out with 29.1% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 33.9% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 5.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 101.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 102.4 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $55,546, and the median income for a family is $63,682. Males have a median income of $41,267 versus $63,682 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $25,287. 7.3% of the population and 5.1% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 8.8% of those under the age of 18 and 6.4% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors. There is, even among businesspeople in Anchorage, a tendency to "dress down". (There is no [[dress code]] in any Anchorage restaurant.) This, and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in [[Alaska]] generally, gives Anchorage a relatively casual, relaxed atmosphere compared to some other American cities. (These cultural characteristics are only more exaggerated the farther one moves out of the city into the rest of [[Alaska]].) The city has traditionally served as a destination for immigrants, and there are active [[Asian]], [[Eastern European]], and [[Hispanic]] populations, along with communities of [[African Americans]] and various groups of [[indigenous peoples|aboriginal]] Alaskans. Over 95 languages are spoken by students in the Anchorage School District.
== Government ==
Anchorage is administered by an elected [[mayor]] and [[city council|assembly]], and a [[city manager]]. The city's current mayor is [[Mark Begich]].
{{See also|List of mayors of Anchorage, Alaska}}
=== Sister cities ===
Anchorage is internationally partnered with a number of [[Town twinning|sister cities]] to promote global cooperation, cultural exchange and economic collaboration.
Today, Anchorage has six sister cities, including [[Chitose]], ([[Japan]]); [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], ([[Australia]]); [[Incheon]], ([[South Korea]]); [[Magadan]], ([[Russia]]); [[Tromso]], ([[Norway]]); and [[Whitby]], ([[England]]).
== Economy ==
Anchorage is the center of [[commerce]] for [[Alaska]] and a major port, receiving over 95% of all freight entering Alaska passes, as well as a major hub of the famous [[Alaska Railroad]]. Several [[petroleum|oil]] and [[gas]] industries like: [[BP]] Exploration (Alaska}, Inc.; [[ConocoPhillips]] Alaska, Inc.; Doyon Universal Services; Enstar Natural Gas Co.; [[ExxonMobil]] Production; Flint Hills Resources; Norcoast Mechanical; [[Tesoro]] Alaska Petroleum Co.; Udelhoven Oilfield System Services, Inc.; [[Union Oil Company]] of California; and VECO Alaska, Inc. are all headquartered in Anchorage.
Anchorage is home to two major corporations which provide communication services to Alaska: [[Alaska Communications Systems]] and [[General Communications, Inc.]], both of which offer local and long distance telephone service, dial up and [[broadband Internet]] access, and [[cellular telephone]] service.
Many corporations, such as large [[banks]], [[real estate]], [[transportation]], other [[communication|communications]], and [[government]] agencies are all headquartered in Anchorage. There are two strategically important [[U.S. military]] bases bordering Anchorage on the north: [[Elmendorf AFB]] and [[Fort Richardson]]. Both military bases together station over 9,000 military personnels.
Numerous visitor and [[tourist]] facilities and services are available throughout the Municipality of Anchorage. Nearly all [[Alaska Interior]]-bound tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in Alaska. This is particulatly true since the [[Alaska Railroad]] has its southern terminus in Anchorage. Not surprisingly, the summer is [[tourist|tourist season]], and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways and railroads leading north and south of the city, are typically teeming with tourists. Anchorage has seasonal factors contribute to a fluctuating, though low, unemployment rate.
== Education ==
Education in Anchorage, [[Eagle River, Alaska|Eagle River]], [[Chugiak]], [[Eklutna, Alaska|Eklutna]], [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]], [[Fort Richardson]], and [[Elmendorf AFB]] is managed by the [[Anchorage School District]].
Anchorage has an excellent [[public school]] system that is ranked among the finest in the nation. The Anchorage School District is the 81st largest district in the [[United States]], with nearly 50,000 students attending 88 schools.
The district's average SAT and ACT [[College]] entrance exam scores are consistently above the national average and [[Advanced Placement]] courses are offered at each of the district's [[high schools]]. The [[International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme]] is also offered at West High, one of the local high schools. The average [[teacher]]/[[student]] ratio in the district's [[elementary schools]] is one teacher to approximately every 25 students.
The district offers a comprehensive curriculum that emphasizes the basic communication skills of [[reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]], and [[arithmetic]]. The standard program also includes [[social studies]], [[health]], [[science]], and [[physical education]]. All students receive a quality [[education]] enriched with [[technology]], [[foreign language]], [[visual]] and [[performing arts]], and [[social sciences]].
A variety of programs and alternative learning environments meet the needs of the diverse student population. Some examples include ABC (back-to-basics curriculum) and Montessori schools, open-optional programs, foreign-language immersion, vocational/technical training and [[charter schools]]. [[Comprehensive]] services for bilingual students and students with special needs are also available.
=== Colleges and universities ===
Ninety percent of Anchorage's adults have high-school [[diplomas]], 65 percent have attended one to three years of college, and 17 percent hold advanced [[Academic degree|degrees]], placing Anchorage among the top [[metropolis|metropolitan]] cities in educational attainment.
Anchorage boasts four excellent [[higher education|higher-education]] facilities that offer quality higher education. The [[University of Alaska Anchorage]] and [[Alaska Pacific University]] are within walking distance of each other, and [[Charter College]] and [[Wayland Baptist University (Anchorage, Alaska)|Wayland Baptist University]] are also located in city limits.
== Culture ==
=== Performing arts ===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Alaska_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Alaska Center for the Performing Arts building in downtown Anchorage.]] -->
Despite the relative remoteness of the location, the city sports a lively arts community. Located next to Town Square Municipal Park in downtown Anchorage, the [[Alaska Center for the Performing Arts]] [http://www.alaskapac.org] is a three-part complex host to many [[performing arts]] events. The facility can accommodate more than 3,000 patrons. In 2000, nearly 245,000 people visited 678 public performances. It is home to eight resident performing arts companies and has featured mega-musicals such as CATS, Grease, Les Miserables, Phantom of the Opera and Big River. The center hosts the [[Anchorage Symphony Orchestra]] which is a semi professional symphony [[orchestra]]. The center also hosts the world famous [[International Ice Carving Competition]] as part of the [[Fur Rendezvous festival]] in February. There are also weekly sessions of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Jazz]], and other musical scenes.
The [[Anchorage Concert Association]] brings 15 to 20 world-class performing arts events to the community each [[winter]], and numerous independent perforance groups.
=== Museums and art collections ===
The [[Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum]] is a museum with artifacts reflecting Alaska's unique aviation history. The [[Alaska State Troopers Museum]] was formed in the late 1960s, and shares the history of the Alaska State Troopers. The [[Anchorage Fire Department Museum]] is a museum that relive Anchorage history among the displays of fire-fighting memorabilia, including a vintage 1921 LaFrance fire truck. The [[Imaginarium]] is a hands-on Science Discovery Center. The [[Oscar Anderson House Museum]] is Anchorage's only house museum established in 1915. The [[Russian Orthodox Museum]] [http://dioceseofalaska.org] is a museum that represents history of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] in Alaska. The [[Wolf Song of Alaska]] [http://www.wolfsongalaska.org] was incorporated in 1988, is a world-class observation facility. The [[Alaska Museum of Natural History]] [http://alaskamuseum.org] is a non-profit museum that educates exclusively on Alaska's unique geological, cultural, and ecological history.
History art collections are at the [[Anchorage Museum of History and Art]], opened in 1968, is a |
0.279</small>'''
|'''<small>0.539</small>'''
|'''<small>0.356</small>'''
|'''<small>0.895</small>'''
|'''<small>117</small>'''
|'''<small>42</small>'''
|'''<small>32</small>'''
|'''<small>0.689</small>'''
|'''<small>6.87</small>'''
|'''<small>325</small>'''
|'''<small>68</small>'''
|'''<small>0.260</small>'''
|'''<small>0.416</small>'''
|'''<small>0.590</small>'''
|'''<small>15</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>8</small>'''
|'''<small>14</small>'''
|'''<small>460</small>'''
|'''<small>688</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center" bgcolor="silver"
|'''<small>1967</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>33</small>'''
|'''<small>155</small>'''
|'''<small>600</small>'''
|'''<small>113</small>'''
|'''<small>184</small>'''
|'''<small>37</small>'''
|'''<small>3</small>'''
|'''<small>39</small>'''
|'''<small>6.50</small>'''
|'''<small>109</small>'''
|'''<small>63</small>'''
|'''<small>97</small>'''
|'''<small>17</small>'''
|'''<small>6</small>'''
|'''<small>0.307</small>'''
|'''<small>0.573</small>'''
|'''<small>0.369</small>'''
|'''<small>0.943</small>'''
|'''<small>126</small>'''
|'''<small>55</small>'''
|'''<small>41</small>'''
|'''<small>0.735</small>'''
|'''<small>7.75</small>'''
|'''<small>344</small>'''
|'''<small>79</small>'''
|'''<small>0.267</small>'''
|'''<small>0.390</small>'''
|'''<small>0.608</small>'''
|'''<small>19</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>6</small>'''
|'''<small>11</small>'''
|'''<small>439</small>'''
|'''<small>669</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center"
|'''<small>1968</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>34</small>'''
|'''<small>160</small>'''
|'''<small>606</small>'''
|'''<small>84</small>'''
|'''<small>174</small>'''
|'''<small>33</small>'''
|'''<small>4</small>'''
|'''<small>29</small>'''
|'''<small>4.79</small>'''
|'''<small>86</small>'''
|'''<small>64</small>'''
|'''<small>62</small>'''
|'''<small>28</small>'''
|'''<small>5</small>'''
|'''<small>0.287</small>'''
|'''<small>0.498</small>'''
|'''<small>0.354</small>'''
|'''<small>0.852</small>'''
|'''<small>104</small>'''
|'''<small>45</small>'''
|'''<small>40</small>'''
|'''<small>0.736</small>'''
|'''<small>6.06</small>'''
|'''<small>302</small>'''
|'''<small>66</small>'''
|'''<small>0.211</small>'''
|'''<small>0.355</small>'''
|'''<small>0.546</small>'''
|'''<small>23</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>5</small>'''
|'''<small>21</small>'''
|'''<small>463</small>'''
|'''<small>676</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center" bgcolor="silver"
|'''<small>1969</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>35</small>'''
|'''<small>147</small>'''
|'''<small>547</small>'''
|'''<small>100</small>'''
|'''<small>164</small>'''
|'''<small>30</small>'''
|'''<small>3</small>'''
|'''<small>44</small>'''
|'''<small>8.04</small>'''
|'''<small>97</small>'''
|'''<small>87</small>'''
|'''<small>47</small>'''
|'''<small>9</small>'''
|'''<small>10</small>'''
|'''<small>0.300</small>'''
|'''<small>0.607</small>'''
|'''<small>0.396</small>'''
|'''<small>1.003</small>'''
|'''<small>127</small>'''
|'''<small>58</small>'''
|'''<small>41</small>'''
|'''<small>0.750</small>'''
|'''<small>8.36</small>'''
|'''<small>332</small>'''
|'''<small>77</small>'''
|'''<small>0.307</small>'''
|'''<small>0.464</small>'''
|'''<small>0.635</small>'''
|'''<small>19</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>3</small>'''
|'''<small>14</small>'''
|'''<small>410</small>'''
|'''<small>639</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center"
|'''<small>1970</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>36</small>'''
|'''<small>150</small>'''
|'''<small>516</small>'''
|'''<small>103</small>'''
|'''<small>154</small>'''
|'''<small>26</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>38</small>'''
|'''<small>7.36</small>'''
|'''<small>118</small>'''
|'''<small>74</small>'''
|'''<small>63</small>'''
|'''<small>9</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>0.298</small>'''
|'''<small>0.574</small>'''
|'''<small>0.385</small>'''
|'''<small>0.958</small>'''
|'''<small>115</small>'''
|'''<small>42</small>'''
|'''<small>32</small>'''
|'''<small>0.693</small>'''
|'''<small>8.15</small>'''
|'''<small>296</small>'''
|'''<small>65</small>'''
|'''<small>0.275</small>'''
|'''<small>0.436</small>'''
|'''<small>0.615</small>'''
|'''<small>15</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>6</small>'''
|'''<small>13</small>'''
|'''<small>381</small>'''
|'''<small>598</small>'''
|'''<small>RF</small>'''
|- align="center" bgcolor="silver"
|'''<small>1971</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>37</small>'''
|'''<small>139</small>'''
|'''<small>495</small>'''
|'''<small>95</small>'''
|'''<small>162</small>'''
|'''<small>22</small>'''
|'''<small>3</small>'''
|'''<small>47</small>'''
|'''<small>9.49</small>'''
|'''<small>118</small>'''
|'''<small>71</small>'''
|'''<small>58</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0.327</small>'''
|'''<small>0.669</small>'''
|'''<small>0.410</small>'''
|'''<small>1.079</small>'''
|'''<small>135</small>'''
|'''<small>73</small>'''
|'''<small>60</small>'''
|'''<small>0.804</small>'''
|'''<small>1.47</small>'''
|'''<small>331</small>'''
|'''<small>72</small>'''
|'''<small>0.341</small>'''
|'''<small>0.485</small>'''
|'''<small>0.689</small>'''
|'''<small>21</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>5</small>'''
|'''<small>9</small>'''
|'''<small>348</small>'''
|'''<small>573</small>'''
|'''<small>1B</small>'''
|- align="center"
|'''<small>1972</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>38</small>'''
|'''<small>129</small>'''
|'''<small>449</small>'''
|'''<small>75</small>'''
|'''<small>119</small>'''
|'''<small>10</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>34</small>'''
|'''<small>7.57</small>'''
|'''<small>77</small>'''
|'''<small>92</small>'''
|'''<small>55</small>'''
|'''<small>4</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>0.265</small>'''
|'''<small>0.514</small>'''
|'''<small>0.390</small>'''
|'''<small>0.904</small>'''
|'''<small>90</small>'''
|'''<small>30</small>'''
|'''<small>20</small>'''
|'''<small>0.675</small>'''
|'''<small>6.96</small>'''
|'''<small>231</small>'''
|'''<small>44</small>'''
|'''<small>0.249</small>'''
|'''<small>0.463</small>'''
|'''<small>0.572</small>'''
|'''<small>15</small>'''
|'''<small>1</small>'''
|'''<small>0</small>'''
|'''<small>2</small>'''
|'''<small>17</small>'''
|'''<small>349</small>'''
|'''<small>544</small>'''
|'''<small>1B</small>'''
|- align="center" bgcolor="silver"
|'''<small>1973</small>'''
|'''<small>Braves</small>'''
|'''<small>39</small>'''
|'''<small>120</small>'''
|'''<small>392</small>'''
|'''<small>84</sm |
defeat of the Spanish Armada]]'' &ndash; a Pulitzer Prize award-winning account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada.([[1959]]),
* Rodger, N.A.M. ''The Safeguard of the Sea; A Naval History of Britain 660-1649.'' (London, 1997).
* Mrs. Charles Merideth, ''Notes and Sketches of New South Wales, during a residence in that colony from 1839 to 1844; BOUND WITH: "Life of Drake" by [[Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet|John Barrow]]'' (1st ed, 1844) [xi, 164; and xii, 187 pp. respectfully]
==External links==
*[http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/static/content/3525.html Vice Admiral Sir Francis Drake c1540-1596]
*[http://www.mcn.org/2/oseeler/drake.htm Oliver Seeler's website "Sir Francis Drake"]
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUDdrakeF.htm Francis Drake]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/england/1650689.stm Mission to rescue Drake's body]
*[http://international.loc.gov/intldl/drakehtml/rbdkhome.html Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drake at the Library of Congress]
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/FloridaHighlights/mapstaug.cfm Hand-colored map depicting Sir Francis Drake's attack on Saint Augustine] from the State Archives of Florida
*[http://ccgi.bluepig.plus.com/php/Pmp/author.php?author=22 Michael Turner] author who has visited most of the places Drake visited and has written of both his own and Drake's experiences
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34303 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
* [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/ships/html/sh_039600_goldenhind.htm Golden Hind], (Ships of the World: An Historical Encyclopedia)
[[Category:1540 births|Drake, Francis]]
[[Category:1596 deaths|Drake, Francis]]
[[Category:Tudor people|Drake, Francis]]
[[Category:English explorers|Drake, Francis]]
[[Category:Explorers of the Pacific|Drake, Francis]]
[[Category:Privateers|Drake, Francis]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals|Drake, Francis]]
[[Category:People connected with Plymouth|Drake, Francis]]
[[Category:English sailors|Drake, Francis]]
[[Category:English MPs|Drake, Francis]]
[[Category:Natives of Devon|Drake, Francis]]
[[ast:Francis Drake]]
[[bg:Френсис Дрейк]]
[[bs:Francis Drake]]
[[ca:Francis Drake]]
[[cs:Francis Drake]]
[[cy:Francis Drake]]
[[da:Francis Drake]]
[[de:Francis Drake]]
[[es:Francis Drake]]
[[eo:Francis DRAKE]]
[[eu:Francis Drake]]
[[fr:Francis Drake]]
[[gl:Francis Drake]]
[[hr:Francis Drake]]
[[id:Francis Drake]]
[[is:Francis Drake]]
[[it:Francis Drake]]
[[la:Franciscus Drakus]]
[[ms:Francis Drake]]
[[nl:Francis Drake]]
[[ja:フランシス・ドレーク]]
[[no:Francis Drake]]
[[pl:Francis Drake]]
[[pt:Francis Drake]]
[[ro:Francis Drake]]
[[ru:Дрейк, Фрэнсис]]
[[sco:Francis Drake]]
[[simple:Francis Drake]]
[[sk:Francis Drake]]
[[sl:Francis Drake]]
[[sr:Френсис Дрејк]]
[[fi:Francis Drake]]
[[sv:Francis Drake]]
[[tr:Francis Drake]]
[[uk:Дрейк Френсіс]]
[[zh:法蘭西斯·德瑞克]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finlandssvensk</title>
<id>11509</id>
<revision>
<id>22276056</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-31T20:40:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karmosin</username>
<id>181365</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finland-Swedes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fleming</title>
<id>11511</id>
<revision>
<id>41512655</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:36:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tisco</username>
<id>210350</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''Fleming''' is an inhabitant of [[Flanders]], see [[Flemings]].
'''Fleming''' is also the name of several persons:
*[[Alexander Fleming]], the discoverer of [[penicillin]]
*[[Arthur Fleming]], namesake of [[Caltech]]'s [[Fleming House]].
*[[Craig Fleming]], an English [[footballer]]
*[[Donald Fleming]], a Canadian parliamentarian
*[[Ian Fleming]], the author of the [[James Bond]] novels
*[[John Ambrose Fleming]], a British engineer
*[[John Fleming]], a Scottish writer and television producer
*[[Klaus Fleming]], a Finnish admiral and nobleman
*[[Marcus Fleming]], a economist
*[[Michael Anthony Fleming]], a Newfoundland Roman Catholic Bishop
*[[Mike Fleming]], a conservative radio talk show host
*[[Peter Fleming]], tennisplayer
*Major General [[Raymond H. Fleming]], chief of [[National Guard Bureau]] from August 14, 1951 to February 15, 1953
*[[Renée Fleming]], an American soprano
*[[Richard E. Fleming]], American hero of [[World War II|WWII]]
*[[Sandford Fleming]], a Canadian engineer
*[[Stephen Fleming]], a New Zealand [[cricket]] captain
*[[Thomas Fleming]], several people
*[[Victor Fleming]], an American film director (''Gone With the Wind'')
<!--several more could be added to this list-->
Fleming is also the name of several [[Swedish nobility|Swedish noble families]], some of which have been historically significant.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Fleming]]
[[fr:Fleming]]
[[ko:플레밍]]
[[ja:フレミング]]
[[fi:Fleming]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fast Fourier transform</title>
<id>11512</id>
<revision>
<id>40462880</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T19:10:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevenj</username>
<id>7918</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv irrelevant link; this page is about FFT algorithms, not Fourier transforms in general</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''fast Fourier transform''' ('''FFT''') is an efficient [[algorithm]] to compute the [[discrete Fourier transform]] (DFT) and its inverse. FFTs are of great importance to a wide variety of applications, from [[digital signal processing]] to solving [[partial differential equation]]s to algorithms for quickly [[multiplication algorithm|multiplying large integers]]. This article describes the algorithms, of which there are many; see [[discrete Fourier transform]] for properties and applications of the transform.
Let ''x''<sub>0</sub>, ...., ''x''<sub>''n''-1</sub> be [[complex number|complex numbers]]. The DFT is defined by the formula
:<math> f_j = \sum_{k=0}^{n-1} x_k e^{-{2\pi i \over n} jk }
\qquad
j = 0,\dots,n-1. </math>
Evaluating these sums directly would take O(''n''<sup>2</sup>) arithmetical operations (see [[Big O notation]]). An FFT is an algorithm to compute the same result in only O(''n'' log ''n'') operations. In general, such algorithms depend upon the [[factorization]] of ''n'', but (contrary to popular misconception) there are O(''n'' log ''n'') FFTs for all ''n'', even [[prime number|prime]] ''n''.
Since the inverse DFT is the same as the DFT, but with the opposite sign in the exponent and a 1/''n'' factor, any FFT algorithm can easily be adapted for it as well.
== The Cooley-Tukey algorithm ==
''Main article: [[Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm]].''
By far the most common FFT is the [[Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm|Cooley-Tukey]] algorithm. This is a [[divide and conquer algorithm]] that [[recursion|recursively]] breaks down a DFT of any [[composite number|composite]] size ''n'' = ''n''<sub>1</sub>''n''<sub>2</sub> into many smaller DFTs of sizes ''n''<sub>1</sub> and ''n''<sub>2</sub>, along with O(''n'') multiplications by complex [[roots of unity]] traditionally called '''twiddle factors'''.
This method (and the general idea of an FFT) was popularized by a publication of J. W. Cooley and J. W. Tukey in [[1965]], but it was later discovered that those two authors had independently re-invented an algorithm known to [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] around [[1805]] (and subsequently rediscovered several times in limited forms).
The most well-known use of the Cooley-Tukey algorithm is to divide the transform into two pieces of size <math>n / 2</math> at each step, and is therefore limited to power-of-two sizes, but any factorization can be used in general (as was known to both Gauss and Cooley/Tukey). These are called the '''radix-2''' and '''mixed-radix''' cases, respectively (and other variants have their own names as well). Although the basic idea is recursive, most traditional implementations rearrange the algorithm to avoid explicit recursion. Also, because the Cooley-Tukey algorithm breaks the DFT into smaller DFTs, it can be combined arbitrarily with any other algorithm for the DFT, such as those described below.
== Other FFT algorithms ==
''Main articles: [[Prime-factor FFT algorithm]], [[Bruun's FFT algorithm]], [[Rader's FFT algorithm]], [[Bluestein's FFT algorithm]].''
There are other FFT algorithms distinct from Cooley-Tukey. For <math>n = n_1n_2</math> with [[coprime]] <math>n_1</math> and <math>n_2</math>, one can use the [[Prime-factor FFT algorithm|Prime-Factor]] (Good-Thomas) algorithm (PFA), based on the [[Chinese Remainder Theorem]], to factorize the DFT similarly to Cooley-Tukey but without the twiddle factors. The [[Rader-Brenner FFT algorithm|Rader-Brenner algorithm]] (1976) is a Cooley-Tukey-like factorization but with purely imaginary twiddle factors, reducing multiplications at the cost of increased additions and reduced numerical stability. Algorithms that recursively factorize the DFT into smaller operations other than DFTs include the Bruun and [[QFT algorithm|QFT]] algorithms. (The Rader-Brenner and QFT algorithms were proposed for power-of-two sizes, but it is possible that they could be adapted to general composite <math>n</math>. Bruun's algorithm applies to arbitrary even composite sizes.) [[Bruun's FFT algorithm|Bruun's algorithm]], in particular, is based on interpreting the FFT as a recursive factorization of the [[polynomial]] <math>z^n-1</math>, here into real-coefficient polynomials of the form <math>z^m-1</math> and
<math>z^{2m} + az^m + 1</math>. Another polynomial viewpoint is exploited by the [[Winograd FFT algorithm|Winograd]] algorit |
retire it. There is talk that Dale Earnhardt Jr. will use the number 3 towards the end of his career, and possibly even using the familiar Black paint scheme.
===Death===
[[Image:Earnhardt crash.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|The final turn of 2001's [[Daytona 500]]]]
Dale Earnhardt died on [[February 18]], [[2001]], on the last lap of the [[Daytona 500]]. Earnhardt had what many thought was the best car throughout the race, as he led 17 laps and stayed at the front of the pack. But as Earnhardt saw the way the race was developing with his two drivers, one his son, Dale Earnhardt Jr., and the other a man he considered a brother, Michael Waltrip, it appeared Earnhardt backed off, trying to hold the pack at bay and let his two drivers decide the outcome. He decreased his speed to block the rest of the field when, in Turn 4, he was nudged by [[Sterling Marlin]]'s bumper. It appeared Earnhardt had it saved but the car took off up the track. As it went up towards the wall it hit [[Ken Schrader]], which veered his car into a direct head on hit and severed the seat belt. Michael Waltrip went on to win his first race in over 400 races competed, and his son, Dale Jr. came in second. Earnhardt, who throughout his career let nobody get by him or stay in front of him, and did all he could to get by them including wrecking them, was killed on impact by massive head injuries trying to let another win. Coincidentally, the crash occurred at the same place where his good friend [[Neil Bonnett]] was killed. Because both crashes occurred as a result of a car dipping below the banking of the track onto the flat area (called the "apron" of the track) NASCAR implemented a new rule stating that in no instance is any car allowed to drive below the apron at Daytona, and at a similar track in [[Talladega]], [[Alabama]].
He is survived by his third wife Teresa and four children: Son [[Kerry Earnhardt|Kerry]] (from his first marriage to Latane Brown), Kelley, Dale Jr. (both from his second marriage to Brenda Gee), and daughter Taylor (from his third marriage). Kerry and Dale Jr. are both NASCAR drivers. Dale Jr. finished second when his father died at the 2001 Daytona 500. The winner of that race, [[Michael Waltrip]], was one of Dale's closest friends, and drove for DEI.
Three weeks after Earnhardt's death, young California driver [[Kevin Harvick]], who was hired to replace Earnhardt in the now-renumbered and repainted #29 GM Goodwrench Service Plus Chevrolet, scored a win at Atlanta. The [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] television commentators' call of the final lap of the 2001 [[Golden Corral 500]], Harvick beating [[Jeff Gordon]] by .006 seconds, and the images of Earnhardt's longtime fueler, Danny "Chocolate" Myers, crying after the victory, are among the most memorable moments in recent [[USA|U.S.]] motorsports history. [[Dale Earnhardt Jr.]] scored an emotional victory in the Pepsi 400 at Daytona International Speedway on [[July 7]], [[2001]].
===Controversy over cause of death===
At a news conference five days after the fatal crash, NASCAR officials announced that a seat belt had broken in Earnhardt's car. [[Daytona International Speedway]] physician Dr. [[Steve Bohannon]] said he thought the faulty belt had allowed Earnhardt's chin to strike the steering wheel, causing a basilar skull fracture, killing him. The manufacturers of seat belts for NASCAR, [[Simpson Race Products]] of [[Charlotte, North Carolina]], maintained that the belt had failed because it had been installed in an unapproved fashion in order to increase Earnhardt's comfort, an allegation that had been supported by some who were familiar with the situation.
Certainly, being held responsible for the death of NASCAR's most popular driver was not a desirable prospect for Simpson. On the other hand, NASCAR also did not wish to be seen as negligent in not requiring adequate [[HANS device|head and neck restraint]] for drivers in the wake of five fatal accidents in the past 11 months, including popular drivers [[Kenny Irwin, Jr.]], [[Tony Roper]], and [[Adam Petty]], grandson of NASCAR's legendary driver, [[Richard Petty]]. They also soon made it a requirement to wear full faced helmets (although Earnhardt had been one of the very few to still use an open face helmet).
The [[Orlando Sentinel]], particularly Sentinel sportswriter [[Ed Hinton]], attempted to acquire Earnhardt's autopsy records and photos for study, autopsy records being normally public documents in Florida, but Earnhardt's widow, Teresa, (along with public opinion) petitioned a judge to seal the records. After a short court battle, it was mutually agreed to appoint Dr. [[Barry Myers]], a [[Duke University]] expert on crash injuries, to independently study Earnhardt's death. On [[April 10]], [[2001]], Myers published his report rejecting NASCAR's explanation, finding that Earnhardt's death was in fact the result of his inadequately restrained head and neck snapping forward, independent of the broken seat belt (making the question of proper or improper installation irrelevant).
:"If the outboard lap belt had remained intact throughout the crash, Mr. Earnhardt's head would still likely have experienced similar inertial forces and similar contact forces with the steering wheel. As such, the restraint failure does not appear to have played a role in Mr. Earnhardt's fatal injury." [http://www.orlandosentinel.com/orl-dalereporttext041001,0,6293625.story?coll=orl-home-headlines]
Dr. [[Philip Villanueva]], a [[University of Miami]] [[neurosurgeon]] who had previously analyzed the crash for the Sentinel before the autopsy records were available, said he had reached the same conclusion, but had wanted to examine the autopsy photos to be certain. Dr. [[Steve Olvey]], medical director of [[Championship Auto Racing Teams]] for 22 years, and [[Wayne State University]] crash expert [[John Melvin]] also agreed with Myers' report. Simpson's founder, [[Bill Simpson]], called the report "the best news I've heard in seven weeks. I've been living in daily hell."
On the same day as Myers' report was made public, NASCAR announced its own investigation, after having remained silent for six weeks since the accident. However, when the greatly anticipated official NASCAR report[http://www.nascar.com/SPECIAL/er/download/], which had cost over a million dollars, was published on [[August 21]], [[2001]], it cited collision with another car, the speed and angle of impact, and separation of the seat belt as factors in the fatality. After NASCAR's report, Simpson retired, citing the stress as "too much." The Simpson company attorneys asked NASCAR to unequivocally assert:
*The belts were of high quality in workmanship and there were no design or manufacturing defects.
*The belts met the NASCAR rule book requirements.
*The belts, as installed, did not conform to manufacturer installation requirements.
*The separation of the left lap belt was not a result of design or manufacturing defect, but caused by improper installation.
*The belt separation was not the cause of Earnhardt's death.
NASCAR, however, did not respond.
Consonant with its report, NASCAR declined at the time to require drivers to wear the uncomfortable [[HANS device|head and neck restraints]]. NASCAR president [[Mike Helton]] said that "We are still not going to react for the sake of reacting." However, it did state that it "encouraged their use." Drivers were indeed encouraged, with 41 out of 43 drivers wearing them at the [[Pepsi 400 by Meijer]] at [[Michigan International Speedway]] on [[August 19]], [[2001]], just two days before NASCAR's report came out.
In the end, there was no controversy, as all competitors and insiders knew the truth. Before Earnhardt's death, drivers [[Kenny Irwin, Jr.|Kenny Irwin]], [[Adam Petty]], and [[Tony Roper]] had all died of basilar skull fractures due to a blunt impact with the wall delivered at a critical angle, their impacts and angles nearly identical to Earnhardt's accident. In 1999, NASCAR mandated new rules for the cars' chassis that lessened the amount of energy the car absorbed and increased the amount of energy the driver absorbed on impact. Leading experts all knew that, with the chassis change, lack of soft walls, and/or head and neck restraints, the configuration was a recipe for disaster. NASCAR knew of all these concerns prior to Earnhardt's accident; however, it took the death of one of the sport's greatest stars before NASCAR finally reacted.
==Autopsy Photographs Controversy==
Dale Earnhardt's death changed Florida's laws as to who and how public record medical examiner files, to include autopsy photographs would be released to members of the public.
On or about February 19, 2001, the Volusia Country Medical Examiner (hereinafter the "Medical Examiner") performed an autopsy on Dale Earnhardt's body.
During a press conference, Amy Rippel of the Orlando Sentinel made a public records request to inspect the public record autopsy records of Dale Earnhardt.
The unusual act of notifying NASCAR and Teresa Earnhardt was made prior to releasing the records sought by members of the public and media.
Shortly thereafter, on February 22, 2001, Teresa Earnhardt, then filed a [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010222_01_(S)_EARN-COMPLAINT_FOR_DECLAR_AND_INJUNCT_RELIEF_(05P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief] (hereinafter the "Injuction") in the Circuit Court of the Seventh Judicial Circuit, in and for Volusia County, Florida (Case No. 2001-30373-CICI Div. 32) (hereinafter "Earnhardt v. Volusia").
The attorneys who filed the Injunction in Earnhardt v. Volusia included Laurence Bartlett, of Crotty & Bartlett, P.A., 1800 W. International Speedway Blvd., Daytona Beach, Florida 32114 (hereinafte |
osto]]
[[he:אוגוסט]]
[[jv:Agustus]]
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[[ka:აგვისტო]]
[[csb:Zélnik]]
[[kw:Mys Est]]
[[ku:Gelawêj (meh)]]
[[la:Augustus (mensis)]]
[[lv:Augusts]]
[[lt:Rugpjūtis]]
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[[zh:8月]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aaron</title>
<id>1006</id>
<revision>
<id>41885933</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:28:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Waggers</username>
<id>878293</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Revert to revision 41655597 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the word Aaron, see [[Aaron (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:GoldCalf.jpg|thumb|right|]]
'''Aaron'''
('''&#1488;&#1463;&#1492;&#1458;&#1512;&#1465;&#1503;''', a word meaning "bearer of martyrs" in Hebrew (perhaps also, or instead, related to the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] "Aha Rw," "Warrior Lion"), [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Aharon''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#702;Ah&#259;r&#333;n'''), was one of two brothers who play a unique part in the history of the [[Hebrew people]]. He was the elder son of [[Amram]] and [[Jochebed]] of the tribe of [[Levi]]; [[Moses]], the other son, being three years younger, and [[Miriam]], their sister, several years older ([[Exodus]] 2:4; [[Exodus]] 6:16 ff.; [[Numbers]] 33:39). Aaron was the great-grandson of [[Levi]] ([[Exodus]] 6:16-20) and represented the priestly functions of his tribe. While [[Moses]] was receiving his education at the [[Egypt]]ian court and during his exile among the [[Midianites]], Aaron and his sister remained with their kinsmen in the eastern border-land of [[Egypt]]. Here he gained a name for eloquent and persuasive speech; so that when the time came for the demand upon [[Pharaoh]] to release Israel from captivity, Aaron became his brother’s ''nabi '', or spokesman, to his own people ([[Exodus]] 4:16) and, after their unwillingness to hear, to [[Pharaoh]] himself ([[Exodus]] 7:9).
==His function==
Aaron’s function included the duties of speaker and implied personal dealings with the court on behalf of [[Moses]], who was always the central moving figure. The part played by Aaron in the events that preceded the [[Exodus]] was, therefore, ministerial, and not directive. He, along with [[Moses]], performed “signs” before his people which impressed them with a belief in the reality of the divine mission of the brothers ([[Exodus]] 4:15-16). At the command of [[Moses]] he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues ([[Exodus]] 7:19, 8:1, 12). In the infliction of the remaining plagues he appears to have acted merely as the attendant of [[Moses]], whose outstretched rod drew the divine wrath upon [[Pharaoh]] and his subjects ([[Exodus]] 9:23, 10:13, 22). The potency of Aaron’s rod had already been demonstrated by its victory over the rods of the [[Egypt]]ian magicians, which it swallowed after all the rods alike had been turned into serpents ([[Exodus]] 7:9 ''et seq.''). During the journey in the wilderness Aaron is not always prominent or active; and he sometimes appears guilty of rebellious or treasonable conduct. At the battle with [[Amalek]] he is chosen with [[Hur]] to support the hand of [[Moses]] that held the “rod of [[God]]” ([[Exodus]] 17:9 ''et seq.''). When the revelation was given to [[Moses]] at [[Sinai]], he headed the elders of Israel who accompanied [[Moses]] on the way to the summit. [[Joshua]], however, was admitted with his leader to the very presence of [[the Lord]], while Aaron and [[Hur]] remained below to look after the people ([[Exodus]] 24:9-14). It was during the prolonged absence of [[Moses]] that Aaron yielded to the clamors of the people, and made a golden calf as a visible image of the divinity who had delivered them from [[Egypt]] ([[Exodus]] 32:1-6). At the intercession of [[Moses]], Aaron was saved from the plague which smote the people ([[Deuteronomy]] 9:20; [[Exodus]] 32:35), although it was to Aaron’s tribe of [[Levi]] that the work of punitive vengeance was committed ([[Exodus]] 32:26 ''et seq.'').
==Becomes priest of Israel==
At the time when the tribe of [[Levi]] was set apart for the priestly service, Aaron was anointed and consecrated to the priesthood, arrayed in the robes of his office, and instructed in its manifold duties ([[Exodus]] 28 and 29). On the very day of his consecration his sons, [[Nadab|Nadav]] and [[Abihu|Avihu]], were consumed by fire from [[the Lord]] for having offered incense in an unlawful manner ([[Leviticus]] 10).
==Rebellion of [[Korah]]==
From the time of the sojourn at [[Sinai]], where he became the anointed priest of Israel, Aaron ceased to be the minister of [[Moses]], his place being taken by [[Joshua]]. He is mentioned in association with [[Miriam]] in a jealous complaint against the exclusive claims of [[Moses]] as [[the Lord]]’s prophet. The presumption of the murmurers was rebuked, and [[Miriam]] was smitten with ''tzara'as''. Aaron entreated [[Moses]] to intercede for her, at the same time confessing the sin and folly that prompted the uprising. Aaron himself was not struck with the plague on account of sacerdotal immunity; and [[Miriam]], after seven days’ quarantine, was healed and restored to favor ([[Numbers]] 12). It is noteworthy that the prophet [[Micah]] (6:4) mentions [[Moses]], Aaron, and [[Miriam]] as the leaders of Israel after the [[Exodus]] (a judgment wholly in accord with the tenor of the narratives). In the present instance it is made clear by the express words of the oracle ([[Numbers]] 12:6-8) that [[Moses]] was unique among men as the one with whom [[the Lord]] spoke face to face. The failure to recognize or concede this prerogative of their brother was the sin of [[Miriam]] and Aaron. The validity of the exclusive priesthood of the family of Aaron was attested after the ill-fated rebellion of [[Korah]], who was a first cousin of Aaron. When the earth had opened and swallowed up the leaders of the insurgents ([[Numbers]] 16:25-35), [[Eleazar]], the son of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests. And when the plague had broken out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels, Aaron, at the command of [[Moses]], took his censer and stood between the living and the dead till the plague was stayed ([[Numbers]] 17:1-15, 16:36-50, Authorized Version). Another memorable transaction followed. Each of the tribal princes of Israel took a rod and wrote his name upon it, and the twelve rods were laid up over night in the tent of meeting. On the morrow Aaron’s rod was found to have budded and blossomed and borne ripe almonds ([[Numbers]] 17:8; see [[Aaron’s Rod]]). The miracle proved merely the prerogative of the tribe of [[Levi]]; but now a formal distinction was made in perpetuity between the family of Aaron and the other [[Levites]]. While all the [[Levites]] (and only [[Levites]]) were to be devoted to sacred services, the special charge of the sanctuary and the altar was committed to the Aaronites alone ([[Numbers]] 18:1-7). The scene of this enactment is unknown, nor is the time mentioned.
==Death==
Aaron, like [[Moses]], was not permitted to enter [[Canaan]] with the successful invaders. The reason alleged is that the two brothers showed impatience at Meribah (Kadesh) in the last year of the desert pilgrimage ([[Numbers]] 20:12, 13), when they, or rather [[Moses]], brought water out of a rock to quench the thirst of the people. The action was construed as displaying a want of deference to [[the Lord]], since they had been commanded to speak to the rock, whereas [[Moses]] struck it with the wonder-working rod ([[Numbers]] 20:7-11). Of the death of Aaron we have two accounts. The principal one gives a detailed statement to the effect that, soon after the above incident, Aaron, with his son [[Eleazar]] and [[Moses]], ascended [[Mount Hor]]. There [[Moses]] stripped him (Aaron) of his priestly garments, and transferred them to [[Eleazar]]. Aaron died on the summit of the mountain, and the people mourned for him thirty days ([[Numbers]] 20:22-29; compare 33:38, 39). The other account is found in [[Deuteronomy]] 10:6, where [[Moses]] is reported as saying that Aaron died at [[Mosera]] and was buried there. Some scholars think that [[Mosera]] is not on [[Mount Hor]], since the itinerary in [[Numbers]] 33:31-37 records seven stages between [[Moseroth]] ([[Mosera]]) and [[Mount Hor]].
==Typical signification in apocryphal and rabbinical literature==
The older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth; men without the spirit of [[God]] and lacking the will-power requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities. Thus Aaron, the typical priest, ranks far below [[Moses]]: he is but his mouthpiece, and the executor of the will of [[God]] revealed through [[Moses]], although it is pointed out (Sifra, Wa-yiḳra, 1) that it is said fifteen times in the Pentateuch that “[[the Lord]] spoke to [[Moses]] ''and'' Aaron.” Under the influence of the priesthood which shaped the destinies of the nation under [[Persians|Persian]] rule, a different ideal of the priest was formed, as is learned from [[Malachi]] 2:4-7; and the prevailing tendency was to place Aaron on a footing e |
----->
# {{note|Rummel}}[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/GENOCIDE.HTM Domocide versus genocide; which is what?]
<!-------------------Prosecution of genocide------------>
#{{note|treaty1gen}} [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/treaty1gen.htm United Nations Treaty Collection (As of 9 October 2001): Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide] on the web site of the [http://www.ohchr.org/english/ Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]
<!-------International prosecution of genocide-------->
#[http://www.amicc.org/docs/U.S.%20statement%20on%20ICC%20draft%20resolution_23Nov051.pdf Statement by Carolyn Willson, Minister Counselor for International Legal Affairs, on the Report of the ICC, in the UN General Assembyy](PDF) [[November 23]] 2005
<!---------------------------------Rwanda------------->
# {{note|rwanda}} These figures need revising they are from the [[ICTR]] page which says see [http://www.ictr.org www.ictr.org]
<!---------------------------------Belgium----------->
#{{note|Belgium}}[http://www.hrw.org/press/2003/08/belgium080103.htm Belgium: Universal Jurisdiction Law Repealed] web page on [[Human Rights Watch]] [[August 1]], 2003
<!---------------------------------France------------>
#{{note|times051226}} [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-1959137,00.html French Army faces inquiry on genocide in Rwanda] by Adam Sage in [[The Times]] [[26 December]] [[2005]]
<!---------------------------------Netherlands------------>
#{{note|indi_051224}} {{note label|indi_05122|5|a}} [http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article334972.ece Dutch court says gassing of Iraqi Kurds was 'genocide'] by Anne Penketh and Robert Verkaik in [[The Independent]] [[December 24]] [[2005]]
#{{note|cbc_051223}}[http://www.cbc.ca/story/world/national/2005/12/23/kurds-sentence051223.html Dutch man sentenced for role in gassing death of Kurds] [[CBC]] [[December 23]] [[2005]]
<!---------------------------------Spain----------------->
#{{note|bbc_26092005}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3085482.stm Profile: Judge Baltasar Garzon] [[BBC]] [[26 September]] [[2005]]
#{{note|NYT_30062003}} [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20A13FD3F5E0C738FDDAF0894DB404482 Spanish Judge Sends Argentine to Prison on Genocide Charge] by Emma Daly [[New York Times]] [[30 June]] 2003.
#{{note|spain_jan11}}Spanish courts to investigate if a genocide took place in Tibet.
#* "Spain to investigate 'genocide' in Tibet" [[The Independent]] in the section "European News in brief" on Wednesday [[11 January]] [[2006]] Page 19
#* [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=2&ObjectID=10363286 Spanish court to investigate Tibet massacre case] Reuters report in the [[New Zealand Herald]] [[12 January]] 2006
<!----------------------UK----------------------------------->
#{{note|bhrc}} [http://www.barhumanrights.org.uk/ Bar Human Rights Committee] "is the international human rights arm of the [http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/ Bar of England and Wales]. It is an independent body primarily concerned with the protection of the rights of advocates and judges around the world."
==External links==
'''Overviews'''
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1701562.stm BBC on defining genocide]
*[http://www.ushmm.org/conscience Committee on Conscience of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]; Responding to Threats of Genocide
*[http://www.law-ref.org/GENOCIDE/index.html Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide at Law-Ref.org] - fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
*[http://www.warcrimes.info/ Documents and Resources on War, War Crimes and Genocide]
*[http://www.genocideinterventionfund.org/ Genocide Intervention Network]
*[http://www.genocidewatch.org/eightstages.htm Genocide Watch] stages of genocide
*[http://www.isg-iags.org/ International Association of Genocide Scholars]
*[http://www.neveragaininternational.org/ Never Again] International youth genocide prevention organization; organized the 2004 Rwanda Forum at the Imperial War Museum in London.
*[http://www.neveragaininternational.org/wiki Never Again Wiki]
*[http://preventgenocide.org Prevent Genocide International]
'''Darfur'''
*[http://www.africaaction.org/index.php Africa Action] Africa advocacy organization seeking 400,000 signatures on petition demanding US action to stop genocide in Darfur
*[http://www.DarfurFast.org International Solidarity Fast for Darfur]
*[http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/ Photographs from the Sudan genocide]
*[http://www.stopgenocidenow.org Stop Genocide Now] Global community to change the way the world responds to genocide>
*[http://www.STANDarfur.org/ Students Taking Action Now: Darfur] Student movement to end the genocide in Darfur with over 75 chapters in the US and Canada
* [http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/podcasts United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: Voices on Genocide Prevention Podcast] Stay up-to-date on the crisis in Darfur and the continuing challenge or preventing and responding to genocide
'''Research Programs'''
* [http://www.chgs.umn.edu/ Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, University of Minnesota]
* [http://www.yale.edu/gsp/ Genocide Studies Program, Yale University]
* [http://migs.concordia.ca/ Montreal Institute for Genocide Studies, Concordia University]
'''Other'''
*[http://www.genocide.org.uk/ Genocide of Tamils in Sri Lanka]
*[http://www.icssag.com/ International Campaign to Stop South African Genocide]
*[http://www.tamilnation.org/indictment/genocide83/index.htm Genocide'83 of Tamils in Sri Lanka]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Clinton</title>
<id>12442</id>
<revision>
<id>40308028</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T18:34:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.137.192.187</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George Clinton''' may refer to:
*[[George Clinton (royal governor)]] (c. 1686&ndash;1761), British colonial governor of New York
*[[George Clinton (vice president)]] (1739&ndash;1812), US Vice President and Governor of New York
*[[George Clinton (congressman)]] (1771&ndash;1809), congressman son of Governor and Vice President George Clinton
*[[George Clinton (funk musician)]] (born 1941), an American funk musician
*[[George S. Clinton]] (born 1947), another American musician who made several film soundtracks
{{hndis}}
[[de:George Clinton]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glycerine</title>
<id>12444</id>
<revision>
<id>15910130</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-07T22:51:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cacycle</username>
<id>83784</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to [[glycerin]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[glycerin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gabriel García Márquez</title>
<id>12445</id>
<revision>
<id>40782610</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:00:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Keithlaw</username>
<id>171631</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Short stories, novellas, and collections */ revert - the English title is "Melancholy"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Marquez.gif|thumb|150px|Gabriel García Márquez]]
'''Gabriel José García Márquez''' (born [[March 6]], [[1928]]) is a [[Colombia]]n [[novel|novelist]], [[journalist]], publisher, and political activist. Born in the town of [[Aracataca]] in the department of [[Magdalena Department|Magdalena]], he has lived mostly in [[Mexico]] and [[Europe]] and currently spends much of his time in [[Mexico City]].
García Márquez is widely considered to be the leading exponent of the literary style known as [[magical realism]], and while much of his writing is strongly emblematic of this style, it cannot be categorized thus in its entirety.
García Márquez began his career as a reporter for the [[Bogotá]] daily ''[[El Espectador]]'', and later worked as a [[foreign correspondent]] in [[Rome]], [[Paris]], [[Barcelona]], [[Caracas]], and [[New York City]].
His first major work was ''[[The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor]]'' (''Relato de un náufrago''), which he wrote as a newspaper series in [[1955]]. The book told the true story of a shipwreck by exposing the fact that the existence of contraband aboard a Colombian Navy vessel had contributed to the tragedy due to overweight. This resulted in public controversy, as it discredited the official account of the events, which had blamed a storm for the shipwreck and glorified the surviving sailor. This led to the beginning of his foreign correspondence, as García Márquez became a sort of [[persona non grata]] for the government of General [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]]. It was later published in [[1970]] and taken by many to have been a novel.
Several of his works have been classified as both [[fiction]] and [[non-fiction]], notably ''[[Chronicle of a Death Foretold]]'' (''Crónica de una muerte anunciada'') ([[1981]]), which tells the tale of revenge killing recorded in the newspapers, and ''[[Love in the Time of Cholera]]'' (''El amor en los tiempos del cólera'') ([[1985]]), which is loosely based on the story of his parents' courtship. Many of his works, includi |
.borland.com/pub/delphi/techpubs/delphi5/d5oplr.zip Windows Help])
**[ftp://ftpc.borland.com/pub/delphi/techpubs/delphi1/objlang.zip Delphi 1.0 Object Pascal Language Reference Guide]
**[http://community.borland.com/soapbox/techvoyage/article/1,1795,10280,00.html Object Pascal Style Guide]
* [[Visual component library|VCL]]/[[Component Library for Cross Platform|CLX]] Reference
**[ftp://ftpc.borland.com/pub/delphi/devsupport/general/delphi1/vclref.zip Delphi 1.0 Visual Component Library Reference]
More from [http://info.borland.com/devsupport/delphi/downloads/ Delphi Developer Support] section ([ftp://ftpc.borland.com/pub/delphi/techpubs/ FTP archives]).
*[http://delphiturkiye.gunduz.info/ Turkish Seminar videos,articles and help files] [http://www.delphiturkiye.com/ Delphi Turkiye] seminar video files, and offline chm forum(help,article etc..)
==External links==
*[http://www.borland.com/us/company/news/Tod_Nielsen_customer_shareholder_letter_02-08-06.html Press Release] Borland to divest itself of Delphi
<!-- Please keep the following list alphabetized. Thanks! -->
*[http://delphi.about.com About Delphi Programming]
*[http://www.adug.org.au Australian Delphi User Group] &mdash; informative email list
*[http://www.borland.com/delphi/ Borland website - Delphi subsite]
*[http://crossfpc.untergrund.net/ CrossFPC] project to integrate the Free Pascal compiler with multi-platform targets into the Windows Delphi IDE (not yet finished)
*[http://crosskylix.untergrund.net/ CrossKylix] integrates the Linux Kylix compiler into the Windows Delphi IDE
*[http://www.delphi3000.com/ delphi3000.com]
*[http://www.delphibasics.co.uk Delphi Basics] Tutorial and Reference information on the basics of Delphi.
*[http://chuacw.ath.cx/chuacw/ Delphi Developers' Asia and Singapore]
*[http://www.delphigamedev.com delphigamedev.com] Many tutorials on game development with Delphi.
*[http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/delphi/chapter/ch02.html The Delphi Object Model]
*[http://www.delphipages.com/ Delphi Pages]
*[http://delphi.icm.edu.pl/ Delphi Super Page]
*[http://www.Delphi-Central.com/tutorials/ Delphi Tutorials on Delphi Central]
*[http://www.drbob42.com/ Dr. Bob's Delphi, C++Builder and JBuilder Programming Clinic]
*[http://www.freebyte.com/programming/delphi/ Freebyte's Guide to free Delphi programming]
*[http://www.howtodothings.com/ViewSubCategory.aspx?SubCategory=41 How to do things] &mdash; Lots of Delphi articles
*[http://www.lazarus.freepascal.org/ Lazarus] Freepascal based, Cross platform, Free/Opensource, Delphi compatible IDE.
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/Delphi/ Delphi]
*[http://www.delphi-jedi.org/ Project JEDI]
*[http://www.swissdelphicenter.com/ SwissDelphiCenter.com] Quality programming tips
*[http://www.torry.net/ Torry's Delphi Pages]
*[http://www.awitness.org/delphi_pascal_tutorial/c++_delphi/class_inheritance.html Translating C++ Code into Delphi Pascal]
*[http://www.delphigamer.com/ Pascal Game Development]
*[http://www.delphiturkiye.com/ Delphi Turkiye] Turkish developer network, forum
*{{wikicities|delphi|The Delphi Wiki}}
*[http://newton.delphigl.de/ Newton Game Dynamics Engine]
*[http://www.delphigl.com/index2.php DelphiGL]
{{Major programming languages small}}
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[[es:Lenguaje de programación Delphi]]
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[[ko:델파이 프로그래밍 언어]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diffusion pump</title>
<id>8293</id>
<revision>
<id>41285331</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T07:37:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arnero</username>
<id>233665</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[ja:&#25313;&#25955;&#12509;&#12531;&#12503;]]
'''Diffusion pumps''' are a type of [[vacuum pump]] designed to achieve better vacuum pressures than possible by use of mechanical pumps alone. They use a high speed jet of fluid to direct residual gas [[molecule]]s in the pump throat down into the bottom of the pump and out the exhaust. The high speed jet is generated by boiling the fluid (typically silicone oil) and directing the vapor through a multistage jet assembly. Often several jets are used in series to enhance the pumping action. The outside of the diffusion pump is cooled using either air flow or a water line. As the vapor jet impacts the outer cooled shell of the diffusion pump the gas entrained in the jet flow coalesces, carrying the entrained pumped gases into the base of the pump where the gas pressure is increased and pumped by the secondary mechanical or rough pump from the diffusion pump outlet.
Unlike mechanical pumps, diffusion pumps have no moving parts and as a result are quite durable and reliable. They can function over pressures ranges of 10<sup>-8</sup> to 1 pascals. They are driven only by [[convection]] and thus have a very low efficiency. Diffusion pumps cannot discharge directly into the atmosphere, so a mechanical forepump is typically used to maintain an outlet pressure around 10 pascals.
One major disadvantage of diffusion pumps is the tendency to backstream oil into the vacuum chamber. This oil can contaminate surfaces inside the chamber or upon contact with hot filaments or electrical discharges may result in carbonaceous or siliceous deposits. Due to backstreaming, diffusion pumps are not suitable for use with highly sensitive analytical equipment or other applications which require an extremely clean vacuum environment. Often [[cold trap]]s and baffles are used to minimize backstreaming, although this results in some loss of pumping ability.
==Compressed-air vacuum pumps==
One class of diffusion vacuum pumps is the multistage compressed-air driven ejector, as marketed by the Piab company. It is very popular in applications where objects are moved around using suction cups and vacuum lines.
==Steam ejectors==
The steam ejector is a popular form of diffusion pump for vacuum [[distillation]] and [[freeze-drying]]. A jet of steam entrains the vapour that must be removed from the vacuum chamber. Steam ejectors can have a single or multiple stages, with and without [[Condenser (steam turbine)|condensers]] in between the stages.
== See also ==
* [[Vacuum pump]]
==External links==
* [http://www.piab.com/ Piab company website]
* [http://www.croll.com/_website/pr/vetheory.asp Croll Reynolds page on steam ejector theory]
[[Category:Pumps]]
[[Category:Vacuum]]
[[he:משאבת דיפוזיה]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Derivation of the partition function</title>
<id>8294</id>
<revision>
<id>41342096</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T18:45:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>HappyVR</username>
<id>910297</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve"> {{attention}}
In [[statistical mechanics]], the '''[[Partition function (statistical mechanics)|partition function]]''' provides a link between the microscopic properties of atoms and molecules (e.g. size, shape and characteristic energy levels) and the bulk [[thermodynamic]] properties of matter. In order to understand the partition function, how it can be derived, and why it works, it is important to recognize that these bulk [[thermodynamic]] properties reflect the average behavior of the atoms and molecules. For example, the pressure of a gas is really just the average force per unit area exerted by its particles as they collide with the container walls. It doesn't matter which particular particles strike the wall at any given time or even the force with which a given particle strikes the wall. In addition it is not necessary to consider the fluctuations in pressure as different numbers of particles hit the walls, since the magnitude of these fluctuations is likely to be extremely small. Only the average force produced by all the particles over time is important in determining the pressure. Similarly for other properties, it is the average behavior that is important. The partition function provides a way to determine the most likely average behavior of atoms and molecules given information about the microscopic properties of the material.
In order to derive the partition function, consider a system composed of ''N'' molecules. Although the system has a constant total energy of ''E'', the energy may be distributed among the molecules in any number of ways. As molecules interact, the energy is continually redistributed. Not only is energy exchanged between molecules, but between the various modes of motion (e.g. rotation, vibration, etc...). Instead of attempting to determine the energy of each individual molecule at every instant in time, we instead focus on the population of each energetic state. In other words, we would like to determine on average how many molecules, ''n<sub>i</sub>'', are in a particular energetic state, ''E<sub>i</sub>''. Over time the population of each state remains almost constant, although the individual molecules in each state may change at every collision.
In order to proceed we assume the [[ergodic hypothesis]]. This means that we assume that all states corresponding to a given energy are [[principle of indifference|equally probable]]. (If there are other conserved quantities like particle number, this |
inogénesis]]
[[fr:Cancérogène]]
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[[it:Agenti cancerogeni]]
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[[zh:致癌物質]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Camouflage</title>
<id>6446</id>
<revision>
<id>40889559</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T18:11:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gobeirne</username>
<id>37144</id>
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<comment>rm linkspam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the German synth pop band, see [[Camouflage (band)]].''
[[Image:Anole 8172.JPG|right|framed|''[[Carolina Anole|Anolis caroliensis]]'' showing blending camouflage and counter-shading.]]
'''Camouflage''' is the method which allows an otherwise visible [[organism]] or object to remain [[Invisibility|indiscernible from the surrounding environment]]. Examples include a [[tiger]]'s stripes and the [[battledress]] of a modern soldier. Camouflage is a form of [[deception]]. The word camouflage comes from the [[French language|French]] word 'camoufler' meaning 'to disguise'.
==Natural camouflage==
[[Image:Camouflage.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|An infant [[cuttlefish]] blends into the surrounding sand substrate]]
In nature, there is a strong evolutionary pressure for animals to blend into their environment or conceal their shape; for prey animals to avoid predators and for predators to be able to sneak up on prey. Natural camouflage is one method that animals use to meet these aims.
[[Image:P9300228.jpg|left|250px|thumbnail|[[Tawny Frogmouth]] blends in with colour and texture of tree bark]]
Different aspects of animal camouflage exist due to difference in the [[sensory]] abilities of different animals. Some animals use [[mimicry]], seeming to be something else, such as a leaf, a stone, a twig, or a similar but more dangerous/poisonous animal.
Some mimics also simulate natural movement, e.g., of a leaf in the wind. This is called procryptic behaviour or habit. Other animals attach or attract natural materials to their body for concealment.
A few animals have chromatic response, changing colour in changing environments, either seasonally ([[ermine]], [[snowshoe hare]]) or far more rapidly with [[chromatophore]]s in their integument ([[chameleon]], the [[cephalopod]] family).
Some animals, notably in aquatic environments, also take steps to camouflage the odours they create that may attract predators.
Some herd animals or school of fishes adopt a similar pattern to make it difficult to distinguish a single animal such as Zebras, or a large school of fish, with reflecitive scales or similar markings, making it difficult to distinguish a single fish.
Countershading (or obliterative camouflage), the use of different colours on upper and lower surfaces in graduating tones from a light belly to a darker back, is common in the sea and on land. This is sometimes called Thayer's law, after Abbott H. Thayer who published a paper on the form in [[1896]].
[[Image:Ibexes.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Countershaded [[Ibex]] are almost invisible in the Israeli desert.]]
[[image:bristol.zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dead Leaf mantis from Madagascar, surely the ultimate in camouflage]]
==Military camouflage==
<i>For more details, see [[Military camouflage]].</i>
Camouflage was not in wide use in early warfare. [[19th century]] armies tended to use bright colours and bold, impressive designs. These were intended to daunt the enemy, attract recruits, foster unit cohesion, allow easier identification of units in the [[fog of war]].
Smaller, irregular units of scouts in the [[18th century]] were the first to adopt colours in drab shades of brown and green. Major armies retained their colour until convinced otherwise. The British in India in [[1857]] were forced by casualties to dye their red [[tunic]]s to neutral tones, initially a muddy tan called [[khaki (color)|khaki]] (from the [[Urdu]] word for 'dusty'). This was only a temporary measure. It became standard in Indian service in the [[1880s]], but it was not until the [[Second Boer War]] that, in [[1902]], the uniforms of the entire British army were standardised on this dun tone for [[battledress]].
The United States was quick to follow the British, going khaki in the same year. Russia followed, partially, in [[1908]]. The Italian army used ''grigio-verde'' ("grey-green") in the Alps from [[1906]] and across the army from [[1909]]. The Germans adopted ''feldgrau'' ("field grey") in [[1910]].
Other armies retained brighter colours. At the beginning of [[World War I]] the French experienced heavy losses because the troops wore red (''garance'') trousers as part of their uniform. This was changed in early [[1915]], partly due to casualties and partly because the red dye was manufactured in Germany. The French army also adopted a new "horizon blue" jacket. The Belgian army started using khaki uniforms in [[1915]].
The French also established a ''Section de Camouflage'' (Camouflage Department) in [[1915]], briefly headed by [[Eugene Corbin]] and then by [[Lucien-Victor Guirand de Scévola]]. The camouflage experts were, for the most part, painters, sculptors, theatre set artists and such. Technological constraints meant that patterned camouflage uniforms were not mass manufactured during [[WW I]]. Each patterned uniform was hand-painted, and so restricted to snipers, forward artillery observers, and other exposed individuals. More effort was put into concealing larger pieces of equipment and important structures. By mid-1915 the French ''section'' had four workshops - one in Paris and three nearer the front - mainly producing camouflage netting and painted canvas. Netting quickly moved from wire and fabric to use [[raffia]], [[Burlap|hessian]], and [[cocoa]] - the integration of natural materials was always recommended.
Units of ''Camoufleurs'' who were artists, designers, or architects in civilian life were also largely used by the forces of the [[United Kingdom]] (Camouflage Section established in late [[1916]] based at Wimereux) and the US (New York Camouflage Society established in April [[1917]], official Company A, 40th Engineers set up in January [[1918]] and the Women's Reserve Camouflage Corps) and to a lesser extent by Germany (from [[1917]], '''see''', for example, [[Lozenge]] - possibly the earliest printed camouflage), [[Italy]] (''Laboratorio di mascheramento'' established in [[1917]]), [[Belgium]]] and [[Russia]]. The word camouflage first entered the English language in [[1917]].
Camouflage added to helmets was unofficially popular, but these were not mass-produced until the Germans began in [[1916]] to issue ''stahlhelme'' (steel helmets) in green, brown, or [[ochre]]. Mass-produced patterned, reversible, cloth covers were also issued shortly before the end of the war, although hand-made examples were in use from late [[1914]]. Net covering was also examined, either fitted with natural vegetation or with coloured fabric strips called [[scrim]].
Specialist troops, notably [[snipers]], could be supplied with various items of camouflage, including patterned veils for the head and gun, hand-painted overalls and scrim covered netting or sacking - an adaptation of the rag camouflage used in [[Scotland]] by anti-poaching wardens, ''gillies'', the first [[ghillie suit]]s.
[[Image:HMMWV_camouflage.JPG|left|thumb|150px|Two [[HMMWV]]s, one in desert camouflage, one in woodland]]
The first mass produced military camouflage material was the Italian ''telo mimetico'' ("mimetic cloth") pattern of [[1929]], used to cover a shelter-half (''telo tenda''), an idea copied by the Germans in [[1931]]. With mass-production of patterned fabrics possible, they became far more common on individual soldiers in WW II. Initially patterning was uncommon, a sign of elite units, to the extent that captured camouflage uniforms would be often 'recycled' by an enemy. The Red Army issued "amoeba" disruptive pattern suits to snipers from [[1937]] and all-white ZMK top-garments the following year, but it was not until hostilities began that more patterns were used.
The Germans had experimented before the war and some army units used "splinter" pattern camouflage. [[Waffen-SS]] combat units experimented with various patterns, including ''palmenmuster'' ("palm pattern"), ''sumpfmuster'' ("swamp pattern"), ''erbsenmuster'' ("pea pattern"), and also ''telo mimetico'' ("mimetic cloth") using fabric seized from the Italians in [[1943]] - the [[Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler|''Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler'']] division often wore this pattern.
The British did not use disruptive-pattern uniforms until [[1942]], with the hand-painted [[Denison Smock|Denison smock]] for paratroopers, followed in 1943 with a similar style M42 garment.
[[Image:Camouflaged ship c.jpg|thumb|300px|A Royal Norwegian Navy craft, in a splinter camouflage pattern]]
The US Corps of Engineers began wide-ranging experiments in [[1940]], but little official notice was taken until [[1942]] when General [[Douglas MacArthur|MacArthur]] demanded 150,000 jungle camouflage uniforms. A [[1940]] design, dubbed "frog-skin", was chosen and issued as a reversible beach/jungle coverall - soon changed to a two-part jacket and trousers. It was first issued to the [[US Marines]] fighting on the [[Solomon Islands]]. Battle-field experience showed that pattern was unsuitable for moving troops and production was halted in [[1944]] with a return to standard single-tone uniforms.
With the return of war camouflage sections were revived. The British set up the Camouflage Development and Training Centre in [[1940]] at [[Farnham Castle]], [[Surrey]]. Early staff included artists from the Industrial Camouflage Research Unit such as [[Roland Penrose]] and [[Frederick Gore]], and the stage magician [[Jasper Maskelyne]] (later f |
</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:31:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Worldtraveller</username>
<id>93723</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/147.182.5.50|147.182.5.50]] ([[User talk:147.182.5.50|talk]]) to last version by 165.247.40.235</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Carbonate''' is an [[anion]] with a charge of &minus;2 and an [[empirical formula]] of CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2&minus;</sup>.
Simple carbonate salts tend to be insoluble in water, with [[solubility constant|solubility constants]] of less than 1×10<sup>&minus;8</sup>. The exceptions to this are salts formed with the [[ammonium]] ion (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>) or ions of the [[alkali metals]].
For an [[aqueous solution]], carbonate exists in three forms. In strongly basic conditions, the carbonate ion, CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2&minus;</sup>, predominates. In weakly basic conditions, [[bicarbonate]] ion, HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>&minus;</sup> is prevalent. In acid conditions, aqueous [[carbon dioxide]], CO<sub>2</sub>(aq), is the main form. This also contains a minute amount of [[carbonic acid]], H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>. Thus [[sodium carbonate]] is basic, [[sodium bicarbonate]] is weakly basic, while carbon dioxide itself is a weak acid.
In biological systems the [[enzyme]], [[carbonic anhydrase]], [[catalyzes]] this interconversion between carbon dioxide and carbonate ions. To test for the presence of the carbonate anion in a salt, the addition of dilute [[hydrochloric acid]] will yield carbon dioxide gas.
Carbonate-containing [[salt]]s are industrially and [[mineral]]ogically
ubiquitous. The term "carbonate" is also commonly used to refer to one of these salts or [[carbonate minerals]]. Most common is [[calcite]], or calcium carbonate, the chief constituent of [[limestone]]. The process of removing carbon dioxide from these salts by heating is called [[calcination]].
The term is also used as a verb, to describe the process of
raising carbonate and [[bicarbonate]] concentrations in water, see also [[carbonated water]], either by the introduction under pressure of [[carbon dioxide]] gas into the water, or by dissoving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water.
At one time, it was thought that the presence of carbonates in [[Rock (geology)|rock]] was unequivocal evidence for the presence of liquid water. Recent observations of two [[planetary nebula]]e reported in the [[January 17]], [[2002]] issue of the scientific journal [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']] indicate that carbonates can form in interplanetary space.
Carbonates were detected in the [[Gusev Crater]] on Mars by the [[Mars Exploration Rover]] ''Spirit'' on [[January 9]], [[2004]]. [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/mer2004/rover-images/jan-09-2004/captions/image-10.html]
==See also==
* [[Ocean acidification]]
{{chem-stub}}
[[Category:Carbonates]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Catalyzes</title>
<id>5913</id>
<revision>
<id>15904088</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Catalysis]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catalysis</title>
<id>5914</id>
<revision>
<id>39832047</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T04:00:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JohnJohn</username>
<id>188357</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Catalyst_effect.png|thumb|right|292px|Generic graph showing the effect of a catalyst in an hypotetical exothermic chemical reaction. Notice that the catalysed (red) pathway, despite having a lower activation energy, produces the same final result.]]
In [[chemistry]] and [[biology]], '''catalysis''' is the acceleration of the [[reaction rate]] of a [[chemical reaction]] by means of a substance, called a [[catalyst]], that is itself not consumed by the overall reaction. The word is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[noun]] &#954;&#945;&#964;&#940;&#955;&#965;&#963;&#953;&#962;, related to the [[verb]] &#954;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#955;&#973;&#949;&#953;&#957;, meaning ''to annul'' or ''to untie'' or ''to pick up''. The chinese symbol for catalyst is the same as the one for marriage broker.
Catalysts accelerate the chemical reaction by providing a lower energy pathway between the [[reactant]]s and the reaction products. This usually involves the formation of one or more intermediates, which cannot be formed without the catalyst. The formation of this intermediate and subsequent reaction generally has a much lower [[activation energy]] barrier than is required for the direct reaction of reactants to products. The [[SI derived unit]] for measuring '''catalytic activity''' is the [[katal]], which is moles per second. The degree of activity of a catalyst can also be described by the [[turn over number]] or TON and the catalytic efficiency by the ''turn over frequency'' (TOF). The biochemical equivalent is the [[enzyme unit]].
The opposite of a catalyst is an [[inhibitor]], which slows down the rate of a chemical reaction. In [[Autocatalysis]] a reactant or reaction product is itself the [[catalyst]]. Two types of catalysis are generally distinguished. In [[homogeneous catalysis]] the reactants and catalyst are in the same phase and in [[heterogeneous catalysis]] the catalyst is in a different phase than the reactants and products. A '''promoter''' is an accelerator of catalysis, but not a catalyst by itself.
In nature [[enzyme]]s are catalysts in the [[Metabolic pathway]]. In [[biochemistry]] catalysis is also observed with [[Abzyme]]s, [[Ribozyme]]s and [[deoxyribozyme]]s. Catalysis is at the heart of the [[Bombardier beetle]] defence mechanism. In [[biocatalysis]] enzymes are used as catalyst in [[organic chemistry]].
The phrase ''catalysis'' was coined by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] in 1835 who was the first to note that certain chemicals speed up a reaction. Other early chemists involved in catalysis were [[Alexander Mitscherlich]] who in 1831 referred to ''contact processes'' and [[Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner]] who spoke of ''contact action'' and whose [[Lighter (fire starter)|lighter]] based on [[hydrogen]] and a [[platinum]] sponge became a hugh commercial success in the 1820’s.
Catalysis is a very important process from an industrial point of view since the production of most industrially important chemicals involve catalysis. The earliest commercial processes are the [[Haber process]] for [[ammonia]] synthesis and the [[Fischer-Tropsch synthesis]]. Research into catalysis is a major field in applied science, and involves many fields of chemistry, notably in [[organometallic chemistry]],
and physics.
Catalysis is important in many aspects of [[environmental science]] from the [[catalytic converter]] in automobiles to the causes of the [[ozone hole]].
==Important catalytic processes==
*[[Haber process]]
*[[Steam reforming]] of [[hydrocarbons]] to produce [[synthesis gas]]
*[[Methanol]] synthesis
*[[Fischer-Tropsch synthesis]].
*[[Hydrogenation]]
*[[Sulfuric acid]] production
*[[Nitric acid]] production
*[[Petroleum]] refining and processing
**[[Catalytic cracking]] - breaking long-chain hydrocarbons into smaller pieces
**[[Naphtha]] reforming
**[[Alkylation]]
*[[Fuel cell]]s
*[[Transesterification]]
*[[Acid-base catalysis]]
== External links==
* W.A. Herrmann Technische Universität presentation [http://aci.anorg.chemie.tu-muenchen.de/wah/vortraege/catalysis.pdf]
* [[University of York]] catalyst pages [http://www.uyseg.org/catalysis/pages/cat_frames.htm]
[[Category:Catalysts]]
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<page>
<title>Catalyst</title>
<id>5915</id>
<revision>
<id>41868200</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:23:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Morven</username>
<id>19833</id>
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A '''catalyst''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: &#954;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#955;&#973;&#964;&#951;&#962;, ''catalytēs'') is a substance that accelerates the [[rate]] (speed) of a [[chemical reaction]] (see also [[catalysis]]). Chemical catalysts, the focus of this article, participate in reactions but are neither chemical reactants nor chemical products. More generally, one may sometimes call anything which accelerates a reaction without itself being consumed or transformed a catalyst (for example, a "catalyst for political change").
== Catalysts and reaction energetics ==
Catalysts enable reactions to occur much faster or at lower temperatures because of changes that they induce in the reactants. Catalysts provide an alternative pathway of lower [[activation energy]], for a reaction to proceed whilst remaining chemically unchanged themselves. This can be observed on a Boltzmann distribution and energy profile diagram. This means that catalysts reduce the amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction. Molecules that w |
the late 1980s and early 1990s; for example [[RC5]], [[Blowfish (cipher)|Blowfish]], [[International Data Encryption Algorithm|IDEA]], [[NewDES]], [[SAFER]], [[CAST5]] and [[FEAL]]. Most of these designs kept the 64-bit block size of DES, and could act as a "drop-in" replacement, although they typically used a 64-bit or 128-bit key.
DES itself can be adapted and reused in a more secure scheme. Many former DES users now use [[Triple DES]] (TDES) which was described and analysed by one of DES's patentees (see [[Federal Information Processing Standard |FIPS]] Pub 46-3); it involves applying DES three times with different keys. TDES is regarded as adequately secure, although it is quite slow. A less computationally expensive alternative is [[DES-X]], which increases the key size by XORing extra key material before and after DES. [[GDES]] was a DES variant proposed as a way to speed up encryption, but it was shown to be susceptible to differential cryptanalysis.
In 2001, after an international competition, NIST selected a new cipher: the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES), as a replacement. The algorithm which was selected as the AES was submitted by its designers under the name [[Rijndael]]. Other finalists in the NIST [[AES competition]] included [[RC6]], [[Serpent (cipher)|Serpent]], [[MARS]], and [[Twofish]].
==Description==
[[Image:DES-main-network.png|right|250px|thumb|''Figure 1'' — The overall Feistel structure of DES]]
:''For brevity, the following description omits the exact transformations and permutations which specify the algorithm; for reference, the details can be found in [[DES supplementary material]].''
DES is the archetypal [[block cipher]] — an algorithm that takes a fixed-length string of [[plaintext]] bits and transforms it through a series of complicated operations into another [[ciphertext]] bitstring of the same length. In the case of DES, the [[block size (cryptography)|block size]] is 64 bits. DES also uses a [[key (cryptography)|key]] to customize the transformation, so that decryption can only be performed by those who know the particular key used to encrypt. The key ostensibly consists of 64 bits; however, only 56 of these are actually used by the algorithm. Eight bits are used solely for checking [[parity]], and are thereafter discarded. Hence the effective [[key length]] is 56 bits, and it is usually quoted as such.
Like other block ciphers, DES must be used in a [[block cipher mode of operation|mode of operation]] if applied to a message longer than 64 bits. FIPS-81 specifies several modes for use with DES, including one for [[authentication]] [http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/fip81.htm]. Further comments on the usage of DES are contained in FIPS-74 [http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/fip74.htm].
===Overall structure===
The algorithm's overall structure is shown in Figure 1: there are 16 identical stages of processing, termed ''rounds''. There is also an initial and final [[permutation]], termed ''IP'' and ''FP'', which are [[inverse (function)|inverse]]s (IP "undoes" the action of FP, and vice versa). IP and FP have almost no cryptographic significance, but were apparently included in order to facilitate loading blocks in and out of mid-1970s hardware. Before the main rounds, the block is divided into two 32-bit halves and processed alternately; this criss-crossing is known as the [[Feistel scheme]].
The Feistel structure ensures that decryption and encryption are very similar processes — the only difference is that the subkeys are applied in the reverse order when decrypting. The rest of the algorithm is identical. This greatly simplifies implementation, particularly in hardware, as there is no need for separate encryption and decryption algorithms.
The red <math>\oplus</math> symbol denotes the [[XOR|exclusive-OR]] (XOR) operation. The ''F-function'' scrambles half a block together with some of the key. The output from the F-function is then combined with the other half of the block, and the halves are swapped before the next round. After the final round, the halves are not swapped; this is a feature of the Feistel structure which makes encryption and decryption similar processes.
===The Feistel (F) function===
The F-function, depicted in Figure 2, operates on half a block (32 bits) at a time and consists of four stages:
[[Image:DES-f-function.png|left|thumb|270px|''Figure 2'' —The Feistel function (F-function) of DES]]
# ''Expansion'' — the 32-bit half-block is expanded to 48 bits using the ''expansion permutation'', denoted ''E'' in the diagram, by duplicating some of the bits.
# ''Key mixing'' — the result is combined with a ''subkey'' using an XOR operation. Sixteen 48-bit subkeys — one for each round — are derived from the main key using the ''[[key schedule]]'' (described below).
# ''Substitution'' — after mixing in the subkey, the block is divided into eight 6-bit pieces before processing by the ''[[Substitution_box|S-box]]es'', or ''substitution boxes''. Each of the eight S-boxes replaces its six input bits with four output bits according to a non-linear transformation, provided in the form of a [[lookup table]]. The S-boxes provide the core of the security of DES — without them, the cipher would be linear, and trivially breakable.
# ''Permutation'' — finally, the 32 outputs from the S-boxes are rearranged according to a fixed [[permutation]], the ''P-box''.
The alternation of substitution from the S-boxes, and permutation of bits from the P-box and E-expansion provides so-called "[[confusion and diffusion]]" respectively, a concept identified by [[Claude Shannon]] in the 1940s as a necessary condition for a secure yet practical cipher.
===Key schedule===
[[Image:DES-key-schedule.png|right|thumb|220px|''Figure 3'' — The key-schedule of DES]]
Figure 3 illustrates the ''key schedule'' for encryption — the algorithm which generates the subkeys. Initially, 56 bits of the key are selected from the initial 64 by ''Permuted Choice 1'' (''PC-1'') — the remaining eight bits are either discarded or used as [[parity]] check bits. The 56 bits are then divided into two 28-bit halves; each half is thereafter treated separately. In successive rounds, both halves are rotated left by one or two bits (specified for each round), and then 48 subkey bits are selected by ''Permuted Choice 2'' (''PC-2'') — 24 bits from the left half, and 24 from the right. The rotations (denoted by "<<<" in the diagram) mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys.
The key schedule for decryption is similar — it must generate the keys in the reverse order. Hence the rotations are to the right, rather than the left.
==Security and cryptanalysis==
Although more information has been published on the cryptanalysis of DES than any other block cipher, the most practical attack to date is still a brute force approach. Various minor cryptanalytic properties are known, and three theoretical attacks are possible which, while having a theoretical complexity less than a brute force attack, require an unrealistic amount of [[known plaintext|known]] or [[chosen plaintext]] to carry out, and are not a concern in practice.
===Brute force attack===
For any cipher, the most basic method of attack is [[brute force attack|brute force]] — trying every possible key in turn. The [[key length|length of the key]] determines the number of possible keys, and hence the feasibility of this approach. For DES, questions were raised about the adequacy of its key size early on, even before it was adopted as a standard, and it was the small key size, rather than theoretical cryptanalysis, which dictated a need for a replacement algorithm. It is known that the NSA encouraged, if not persuaded, IBM to reduce the key size from 128 to 64 bits, and from there to 56 bits; this is often taken as an indication that the NSA possessed enough computer power to break keys of this length even in the mid-1970s.
[[Image:Board300.jpg|thumbnail|right|260px|The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation|EFF]]'s US$250,000 [[EFF DES cracker|DES cracking machine]] contained 1,536 custom chips and could brute force a DES key in a matter of days — the photo shows a DES Cracker circuit board fitted with several Deep Crack chips.]]
In academia, various proposals for a DES-cracking machine were advanced. In 1977, Diffie and Hellman proposed a machine costing an estimated US$20 million which could find a DES key in a single day. By 1993, Wiener had proposed a key-search machine costing US$1 million which would find a key within 7 hours. The vulnerability of DES was practically demonstrated in the late 1990s. In 1997, [[RSA Security]] sponsored a series of contests, offering a $10,000 prize to the first team that broke a message encrypted with DES for the contest. That contest was won by the DESCHALL Project, led by Rocke Verser, [[Matt Curtin]], and Justin Dolske, using idle cycles of thousands of computers across the Internet. The feasibility of cracking DES quickly was demonstrated in 1998 when a custom DES-cracker was built by the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] (EFF), a cyberspace civil rights group, at the cost of approximately US$250,000 (see [[EFF DES cracker]]). Their motivation was to show that DES was breakable in practice as well as in theory: "''There are many people who will not believe a truth until they can see it with their own eyes. Showing them a physical machine that can crack DES in a few days is the only way to convince some people that they really cannot trust their security to DES.''" The machine brute-forced a key in a little more than 2 days' search; at about the same time at least one attorney from the US Justice Department was announcing that DES was unbreakable.
===Attacks faster than brute-force===
There are three attacks known that can break the full sixteen rounds of DES with le |
21.5 to $28 million. As of 2005, the legal issues remain unresolved &ndash; although at a press conference in late January 2006, Warner Bros. hinted at a 25th "Anniversary Edition" to be released in 2007 &ndash; including release on a next generation High Definition home video format (either [[HD-DVD]] or [[Blu-Ray]]).{{ref|25anniv}} For the time being, Warner Bros. remains the film's distributor and is authorized to release the 1992 Director's Cut on video. Warner Bros. also acts as distributor for the original 1982 theatrical version, which remains in circulation on television (albeit edited for the medium).
== Documentaries ==
[[Image:BladeRunner Fancher and Peoples.jpg|right|thumb|275px|From the ''Edge'' documentary, featuring the Blade Runner screenwriters Fancher (left) and Peoples (now friends).]]
'''''On the Edge of Blade Runner''''' (55 minutes), produced in 2000 by Nobles Gate Ltd. (for [[Channel 4]]), was directed by [[Andrew Abbott]] and hosted/written by [[Mark Kermode]], and will be included in the Special Edition. Interviews with production staff, including Ridley give details into the creative process and turmoil during preproduction. Stories from [[Paul M. Sammon]] and Fancher provide insight into [[Philip K. Dick]] and the origins of ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]''
Interweaved are cast interviews with the notable exceptions of [[Harrison Ford]] and [[Sean Young]]. Through these interviews we get a sense of how difficult and frustrating the film was to make as a result of an exacting director without allies and hot, wet, smoggy conditions; which added to the high pressure atmosphere everyone increasingly felt as the film went over budget. There is also a tour of some locations, most notably the [[Bradbury Building]] and the [[Warner Bros.|Warner Brothers]] backlot that was the LA 2019 streets, which look very different from Ridley's dark version.
The documentary then details the test screenings postproduction editing/changes (voice over and happy ending, deleted Holden hospital scene), special effects, soundtrack by [[Vangelis]], and the unhappy relationship between the filmmakers and the investors; which culminated in Deeley and Ridley being fired but still working on the film. The question of whether or not [[Themes in Blade Runner#Deckard: replicant or human.3F|Deckard]] is a replicant surfaces. After being a "disaster" in the box office (a financial loss initially) Blade Runner was reborn in the video rental market, and a great reception of a chance screening of Ridley's workprint at the Fairfax Theater, Los Angeles, in May 1990 led to Warner Bros. having the "Director's Cut" done by film archivist [[Michael Arick]].
'''''Future Shocks''''' (27 minutes), a more recent documentary from 2003 by [[TVOntario]] (as part of their [[Film 101]] series), has interviews with executive producer [[Bud Yorkin]], [[Syd Mead]], and the cast along with Sean Young, but again without Harrison Ford. There is extensive commentary by science fiction author [[Robert J. Sawyer]] and film critics as the documentary focuses on the themes, visual impact and influence of the film. Olmos goes into Ford's participation and personal experiences during filming are related by Young, Walsh, Cassidy and Sanderson. They also relate a story where crew members created t-shirts which took pot shots at Ridley. The versions of the film are critiqued and how closely Blade Runner predicted the future is discussed.
== Novel ==
:''See also: [[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?#Differences Between the Novel and Film|Differences Between the Novel and Film]]''
The original screenplay by [[Hampton Fancher]] was based loosely on [[Philip K. Dick]]'s ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'', which he optioned in 1980 after an unsuccessful previous attempt. However, Fancher's script focused more on environmental issues and less on issues of humanity and faith, which weighed heavily in the novel. When [[Ridley Scott]] became involved with the film, he wanted changes to the script made, and eventually hired [[David Peoples]] to perform the re-writes after Fancher refused. The film's title also changed several times during the writing process, it was to be called ''Dangerous Days'' in Fancher's last draft before eventually taking the name Blade Runner, actually borrowed (with permission) from a [[William S. Burroughs]] treatment of [[Alan E. Nourse]]'s science fiction novel ''The Bladerunner'' (1974).
As a result of Fancher's divergence from the novel, numerous re-writes before and throughout shooting the film and Ridley Scott never having entirely read the novel it was based on, the film diverged significantly from its original inspiration. The changes have led many critics and fans to consider them as independent works of fiction; despite the fact ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'' was reprinted for a time with the title ''Blade Runner'' to help promote sales. Some of the themes in the novel that were minimized or entirely removed include: fertility/sterility of the population, [[religion]], [[mass media]], Deckard's uncertainty that he is human, and real versus synthetic [[pet]]s and [[emotion]]s.
The producers of the film arranged for a screening of some rough cuts for Philip K. Dick shortly before he died in early 1982. Despite the fact that the movie deviated significantly from his book and his well known skepticism of [[Hollywood]] in principle, he became quite enthusiatic about the film. He predicted that: "This will change the way we look at movies."
== Sequels ==
Three official and authorized ''Blade Runner'' novels have been written by [[Philip K. Dick]]'s friend [[K. W. Jeter]] that continue the story of Rick Deckard and attempt to resolve many of the differences between ''Blade Runner'' and ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]''. The novel ''Blade Runner 2'' contains numerous inconsistencies with the film, however, including the resurrection of a dead character and a complete reworking of the nature of another. The final result is more of an alternate universe than a direct sequel.
*''[[Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human]]'' (1995)
*''[[Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night]]'' (1996)
*''[[Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon]]'' (2000)
[[David Peoples]], who co-wrote ''Blade Runner'' and wrote the 1998 film [[Soldier (film)|''Soldier'']], has said that ''Soldier'' is intended to be a "sidequel" to ''Blade Runner''. ''Soldier'' takes place in the same universe, and the spinners used in ''Blade Runner'' are also used in ''Soldier''. However, ''Soldier'' is an unofficial sidequel, as it was never formally approved by the ''Blade Runner'' partnership, who own the rights to the elements of ''Blade Runner'' that appear in ''Soldier'', and to that overall universe.
Though not an official sequel to ''Blade Runner'', many fans have noted the similarity of the 1999 TV series ''[[Total Recall 2070]]'' to the Blade Runner universe. Many consider the series a sequel to, or at least set in, the same universe as ''Blade Runner''. Some truth actually lies in this assumption. ''Total Recall 2070'' was based on two works by Phillip K. Dick: the short story, ''[[We Can Remember It for You Wholesale]]'' (on which the film [[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]] is based), and the novel ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'', on which ''Blade Runner'' is based.
== Games and comics ==
[[Image:BladeRunner PC Game (Front Cover).jpg|right|thumb|140px|PC game cover.]]
There are two [[computer and video games|computer games]] based on the film, one for [[Commodore 64]] and [[ZX Spectrum]] by CRL Group PLC (1985) based on the music by [[Vangelis]] (due to licensing issues), and another action adventure [[Blade Runner (videogame)|PC game]] by [[Westwood Studios]] (1997). The [[Blade Runner (videogame)|latter game]] featured new characters and branching storylines based on the ''Blade Runner'' world, coupled with voice work from some of the original cast from the film. A prototype board game was also created in California (1982) that had game play similar to [[Scotland Yard (board game)|Scotland Yard]].
The cult computer game ''[[Snatcher]]'' was heavily influenced by ''Blade Runner'', so much so that websites exist detailing the numerous similarities between the two.{{ref|snatcher}}
[[Archie Goodwin]] scripted the comic book interpretation, ''A Marvel Comics Super Special: Blade Runner'', published September, 1982. The [[Jim Steranko]] cover leads into a 45-page adaptation illustrated by the team of [[Al Williamson]], Carlos Garzon, Dan Green and [[Ralph Reese]]. (This adaptation includes one possible explanation of the title's significance in story context: the narrative line, "Blade runner. You're always movin' on the edge.") Also there was a parody comic of Blade Runner called "Blade Bummer" by [[Crazy (magazine)|Crazy]] comics.{{ref|crazy}}
== Curse ==
Among the folklore that has grown up around the film over the years has been the belief that the film was a [[curse]]{{ref|curse}} to the companies whose [[logo]]s were displayed prominently in some scenes. While they were market leaders at the time, many of them experienced disastrous setbacks over the next decade and hardly exist today:
*[[Atari]], which dominated the [[video game console|home video game]] market when the film came out, never recovered from [[video game crash of 1983|the next year's downturn]] in the industry, and by the 1990s had ceased to exist as anything more than a brand, a back catalog of games and some legacy computers.
*The [[Bell System]] [[monopoly]] was broken up that same year, and some of the resulting [[Regional Bell operating companies]] have since changed their names and [[merger|merged]] with each other or other companies.
*[[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]] went [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]] in 1991, after a decade of mounting losses.
*[[Cuisinart]] simil |
perial interest.
California was poorly settled until modern public health eliminated the endemic outbreaks of [[yellow fever]], [[malaria]] and [[Black plague|plague]], caused because the area lacks frosts to kill mosquitos and fleas.
In 1846, at the outset of the [[Mexican-American War]] (1846-1848), the [[California Republic]] was founded and the [[Flag of California|Bear Flag]] was flown, which featured a [[Brown bear|golden bear]] and a star. The Republic came to a sudden end, however, when Commodore [[John D. Sloat]] of the [[United States Navy]] sailed into [[San Francisco Bay]] and claimed California for the United States. Following the war, the region was divided between [[Mexico]] and the United States. The Mexican portion, Baja (lower) California was later divided into the states of [[Baja California]] and [[Baja California Sur]]. The western part of the U.S. portion, [[Alta California|Alta (upper) California]], was to become the U.S. state of California.
In 1848, the Spanish-speaking population of distant upper California numbered around 4,000. But after gold was discovered, the population burgeoned with Americans, Europeans, and other immigrants in the great [[California gold rush]]. In 1850, the state was admitted to the Union of the [[USA]] as a [[free state]] (one in which [[slavery]] was prohibited).
During the [[American Civil War]], California officially entered on the side of the North, but there was significant support for the South as well and many went east to fight for the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]].
At first, travel between the far Pacific West to the eastern population centers was time consuming and dangerous, requiring either long ocean voyages, or difficult transcontinental passages by [[stagecoach]] and on foot. A more direct connection came in 1869 with the completion of the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|first transcontinental railroad]]. After this rail link was established, hundreds of thousands of Americans came west, where new Californians were discovering that land in the state, if irrigated during the dry summer months, was extremely well suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Citrus, oranges in particular, were widely grown, and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production of today.
During the early 20th century, migration to California accelerated with the completion of major transcontinental highways like the [[Lincoln Highway]] and [[U.S. Highway 66|Route 66]]. In the period from 1900 to 1965 the population grew from fewer than one million to become the most populous state in the Union. From 1965 to the present, the population demographic changed radically and became one of the most diverse in the world. The state is generally liberal-leaning, technologically and culturally savvy, and a world center of engineering businesses, the film and television industry, music industry, and as mentioned above, American agricultural production.
== Law and government ==
{{main|California government and politics}}
California is governed as a [[republic]], with three [[separation of powers|branches of government]], the [[executive branch]] consisting of the [[Governor of California]] and the other independently elected constitutional officers, the [[legislative branch]] consisting of the [[California Assembly|Assembly]] and [[California State Senate|Senate]], and the [[judicial branch]] consisting of the [[Supreme Court of California]] and lower courts. The state also allows direct participation of the electorate by [[referendum]], [[recall election|recall]], and [[ratification]].
The [[Governor of California]] and the other state constitutional officers serve four-year terms and may be re-elected only once. The [[California State Legislature]] consists of a 40 member [[California State Senate|Senate]] and 80 member [[California State Assembly|Assembly]]. Senators serve four year terms and Assembly members two. The terms of the Senators are staggered so that half the membership is elected every two years. The Senators representing the odd-numbered districts are elected in years evenly divisible by four, i.e., presidential election years. The Senators from the even-numbered districts are elected in the intervening even-numbered years, in the gubernatorial election cycle. California's legislature is organized in such a way that the party caucus leaders wield great power and can usually speak on behalf of their caucuses. Many important legislative decisions are thus not made on the floor of the legislature but in back-room deals by the "[[Big Five (California)|Big Five]]", which comprises the governor and the Democratic and Republican leaders of each chamber. Members of the Assembly are subject to [[term limits]] of 3 terms, and members of the Senate are subject to term limits of 2 terms.
For the 2005&ndash;2006 session, there are 48 [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] and 32 [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]] in the Assembly. In the Senate, there are 25 Democrats and 15 Republicans. The current governor is action film star [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], Republican, whose current term lasts through January 2007. Schwarzenegger was only the second person in the history of the United States to be put into office by a [[recall election|recall]] of a sitting governor (the first was the 1921 recall of [[North Dakota]] Governor [[Lynn Frazier|Lynn J. Frazier]]). Schwarzenegger replaced Governor [[Gray Davis]] (1999&ndash;2003), who was removed from office by the October 2003 [[2003 California recall|California recall election]].
The state's capital is [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]. During California's early history under European control, the capital was successively located in [[Monterey, California|Monterey]] (1775&ndash;1849), [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] (1849&ndash;1851), [[Vallejo, California|Vallejo]] (1852&ndash;1853), [[Benicia, California|Benicia]] (1853&ndash;1854), and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] (1862). The capital moved to Sacramento temporarily in 1852 when construction on a State House could not be completed in time in Vallejo. The capital's final move to Sacramento was on [[February 25]], [[1854]] where it has been permanently, except for a four-month temporary move in 1862 to San Francisco, due to severe flooding in Sacramento.
California's giant [[judiciary]] is the largest in the United States (with a total of 1,600 judges, while the federal system has only about 840). It is supervised by the seven Justices of the [[Supreme Court of California]]. Justices of the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal are appointed by the Governor, but are subject to retention by the electorate every 12 years. Judges of the trial courts, the Superior Courts in each county, may be appointed by the Governor or elected directly by the voters, depending on when the vacancy occurs. Superior Court judges serve six-year terms, after which they may run for re-election. Unlike the retention elections for Supreme Court and Court of Appeal justices, Superior Court judges run for re-election in open races, in which other qualified candidates may run as challengers.
California's legal system is explicitly based on English [[common law]] but carries a few features from Spanish [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]]. [[Capital punishment in California|Capital punishment]] is a legal form of punishment and the state has the largest "[[Death Row]]" population in the country.
At the national level, California is represented by two senators and 53 representatives, as of 2005. It has 55 electoral votes in the [[U.S. Electoral College]]. (Since California is the most populous state in the Union, its counts of Congressmen and Presidential Electors are also the largest.) The two [[United States Senate|U.S. Senators]] from California are Democrats [[Dianne Feinstein]] and [[Barbara Boxer]]. 33 Democrats and 20 Republicans represent the state in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]].
California is considered a strong [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] state. Once very conservative, having elected conservatives such as [[Ronald Reagan]] as governor and [[William Knowland]] as Senator, California has flipped sides in recent decades and became a liberal bastion, having elected statewide liberals such as [[Dianne Feinstein]] and [[Barbara Boxer]] to the Senate. The latter is known for being one of the most liberal members of the US Senate. Even some recent [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] politicians elected statewide, such as Governors [[Pete Wilson]] and [[Arnold Schwarzeneggar]] are considered members of the more moderate to liberal wing of the national [[Republican Party]]. While California is among the most Democratic and liberal states in the nation because of the large concentration of liberal voters in populous areas along the coast, much of California is politically very conservative, notably the Central Valley, the Inland Empire, Orange and San Diego counties, and most inland, eastern, and rural areas. Democratic bastions are mostly coastal and include the entire San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles, Salinas, Santa Barbara, and Imperial County. The state has supported Democrats in the last four presidential elections. In 2004, Republican President [[George W. Bush]] received a majority of votes in more than half the state's 58 counties, but still lost California's 55 electoral votes to John Kerry, who won 54.3% of the popular vote, by a margin of 10 percentage points.
'''Ballot qualified political parties'''
*[[American Independent Party]]: [http://www.aipca.org link]
*[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]: [http://www.cadem.org/ link]
*[[Green Party (United States)|Green Party]]: [http://www.ca |
28]], [[1914]], [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria]], heir presumptive to his uncle the Emperor [[Franz Josef I of Austria|Franz Josef]] (Franz Josef's [[Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria|only son]] had died under still-mysterious circumstances, and Mexican republicans had executed the [[Maximilian of Mexico|Emperor's brother]]), visited the Bosnian capital [[Sarajevo]] where Bosnian Serb militants of the nationalist group Mlada Bosna, supplied by the violent Serbian militant group [[Black Hand]], ambushed his convoy and assassinated him. ''See: [[Assassination in Sarajevo]]''
After the [[Congress of Berlin]] the Empire's military spending didn't even double, while that of Germany rose fivefold, and British, Russian and French rose threefold. The Empire had previously lost ethnically Italian areas to [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]] due to nationalist movements sweeping through Italy, and many Austro-Hungarians felt the threat of losing the southern territories inhabited by Slavs to [[Serbia]] as imminent. Serbia had recently gained a significant amount of territory in the [[Second Balkan War]] of 1913, causing much distress in government circles in Vienna and Budapest. Some members of the government, such as [[Conrad von Hötzendorf]] had wanted to confront the resurgent Serbian nation for some years. The leadership of Austria-Hungary, especially Count Leopold von Berchtold, backed by its ally [[Germany]], decided to confront Serbia militarily before it could incite a revolt: using the assassination as an excuse, they presented a list of [[ten demands]] [http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/austrianultimatum.htm] expecting Serbia would never accept. When Serbia accepted nine of the ten demands but only partially accepted the remaining one, Austria-Hungary declared war.
These events brought the Empire into conflict with Serbia and over the course of July and August 1914, caused the start of [[World War I]], as Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, setting off a series of counter-mobilizations.
[[Italy]] initially remained neutral, although it had an alliance with Austria-Hungary. In 1915 it switched to the side of the [[Entente powers]], hoping to gain territory from Austria-Hungary.
General Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf was the Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff during the war. Under his command, Austro-Hungarian troops initially crushed Serbia, defended the routes into Hungary and repulsed Italian advances in [[Gorizia]]. The Russians then began considerable war aid to their slavic Serbian allies. The [[Austro-Hungarian Army]] suffered very serious casualties throughout the war. However, they had considerable successes (albeit with German aid and direction) even advancing into enemy territory following the German-led victory in Galicia (May 1915), taking [[Belgrade]] despite the heroics of Serbian General Radomir Putnik (October 1915), and again with the Germans at [[Battle of Caporetto | Caporetto]] on the Italian front (October 1917), sending the [[Italian First Army]] reeling in retreat. As World War I dragged on, the Austro-Hungarian war effort had become more and more subordinate to the direction of German planners. Supply shortages, low morale, and the high casualty rate began to seriously affect the operational abilities of the army by the last years of the war.
In June 1918, Conrad attempted a double edged offensive with the bulk of remaining Austro-Hungarian forces. Its failure left the empire vulnerable, and in October 1918 an Italian-led [[Allies of World War I | Allied]] army attacked, gaining victory in the battle of [[Vittorio Veneto]], destroying the last of the Austrian Army and ended the Habsburg Empire.
==Dissolution of the Empire==
[[Image:Austria obituary.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A humorous "obituary" of the Austrian Empire, published in [[Kraków]] in late 1918. Click on the image to read a translation.]]
As it became apparent that the Allied Powers of the United Kingdom, France, Italy and the United States would win World War I, nationalist movements which had previously been calling for a greater degree of autonomy for various areas, started pressing for full independence. With defeat in the war imminent, Czechoslovakia declared independence on [[28 October]] [[1918]] and on [[29 October]] the southern slav areas declared the [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]]. In [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], separate republics were declared at the end of the war in November. The [[treaty of Saint Germain]] between the victors of World War I and Austria, and the [[treaty of Trianon]] between the victors and Hungary regulated the dissolution of Austria-Hungary. The last Habsburg emperor-king, [[Karl I of Austria|Karl I]] (styled Károly IV in Hungary), renounced participation in affairs of state (but did not abdicate) and fled to [[Switzerland]].
A monarchist revival in Hungary after a short-lived [[Hungarian Soviet Republic|communist revolution]] and the Romanian intervention of [[1919]] resulted in the restoration of the Hungarian monarchy (March [[1920]]), with the royal powers entrusted to a [[regent]], the naval hero Admiral [[Miklós Horthy]]. Ill prepared attempts by [[Karl I of Austria|Karl]] to regain the throne in Budapest (March, October [[1921]]) collapsed when the initially wavering Horthy, who had received threats of intervention from the [[Allies of World War I|Allied powers]] and neighboring countries, refused his cooperation. Subsequently the British took custody of Karl and removed him and his family to the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] island of [[Madeira]], where he died the following year.
[[Image:Österreich-Ungarns Ende.png|thumb|250px|right|Austria-Hungary and new states that emerged in [[1918]]
{{legend|white|border=grey solid 2px|Border of Austria-Hungary in 1914}}
{{legend|white|border=black solid 2px|Borders in 1914}}
{{legend|white|border=red solid 2px|Borders in 1920}}
{{legend|#EB955C|[[Empire of Austria]] in 1914}}
{{legend|#FAF0EE|[[Kingdom of Hungary]] in 1914}}
{{legend|#92A2CB|[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1914}}
]]
The following successor states were formed (entirely or in part) from the former Habsburg lands:
* [[Austria]]
* [[Hungary]]
* [[Czechoslovakia]]
* [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]] (joined with the Kingdom of [[Serbia]] on [[1 December]] [[1918]] to form the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]], later [[Yugoslavia]])
* [[Poland]]
Some Austro-Hungarian lands were also ceded to [[Romania]] and [[Italy]]. [[Liechtenstein]], which had formerly looked to Vienna for protection, formed a customs and defence union with [[Switzerland]], and adopted the Swiss currency instead of the Austrian. In April 1919 [[Vorarlberg]], the westernmost province of Austria, voted by a large majority to join Switzerland; however both the Swiss and the Allies disregarded this result.
==Historiography==
Historical views of Austria-Hungary have varied throughout the 20th century:
Historians in the early part of the century tended to have emotional and/or personal involvement with the issues surrounding Austria-Hungary. Nationalist historians tended to view the Habsburg polity as [[despot]]ic and obsolete. Other scholars, usually associated with the old government, became apologists for the traditional leadership and tried to explain their policies.
* Major writers from the early period who remain influential include: Oskar Jászi and Josef Redlich.
Subsequent experience of the region's inter-war "[[Balkanization]]", of [[Nazi]] occupation, and then of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] domination, led to a more sympathetic interpretation of the Empire, based primarily in a large exiled community in the United States. Meanwhile, Marxist historians still tended to judge the Empire in a negative way.
* Major scholars of this period include: C. A Macartney, Robert A. Kann, Charles Ingrau and Arthur J. May.
One controversy among historians remains: whether the Empire faced inevitable collapse as the result of a decades-long decline; or whether it would have survived in some form in the absence of military defeat in World War I.
* [[Alan Sked]] has advanced the view that, "to speak of decline and fall with regard to the Monarchy is simply misleading: it fell because it lost a major war." (''The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815&ndash;1918'')
* David F. Good supports Sked's view.
* Others, such as Solomon Wank, remain skeptical.
==Territorial legacy==
The current countries whose entire territory were located inside Austria-Hungary by the time of the dissolution of the empire are:
*[[Austria]]
*[[Hungary ]]
*[[Czech Republic]]
*[[Croatia]]
*[[Slovakia]]
*[[Bosnia and Hercegovina]]
*[[Slovenia]]
The current countries whose part of their territory were located inside Austria-Hungary by the time of the dissolution of the empire are:
*[[Poland]] (voivodships of [[Silesian Voivodship|Silesia]], [[Lesser Poland Voivodship|Lesser Poland]] and [[Subcarpathian Voivodship|Subcarpathia]])
*[[Ukraine]] (oblasts of [[Zakarpattia Oblast|Zakarpattia]], [[Lviv Oblast|Lviv]], [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast|Ivano-Frankivsk]], [[Ternopil Oblast|Ternopil]] and [[Chernivtsi Oblast|Chernivtsi]])
*[[Romania]] (region of [[Transylvania]] and the county of [[Suceava County|Suceava]])
*[[Serbia and Montenegro]] (autonomous province of [[Vojvodina]] in [[Serbia]] and the bay of [[Boka Kotorska]] in [[Montenegro]])
*[[Italy]] (autonomous regions of [[Trentino-South Tyrol]] and [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]])
==Flags of Austria-Hungary==
<gallery>
Image:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|Flag of Austria
Image:Kuk-doppeladler.jpg|Coat of Arms of Austria
Image:Austria-Hungary-flag-1869-1918-naval-1786-1869-war.gif|War Flag
Image:Austria-Hungary flag 1869-1918.gif|Merchant Flag
Image:Flag of Hungary.svg|Flag of Hungary
Image:Hungary COA.jpg|Coat of Arms of Hungary
Image:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|Flag of the Habsburg Empire (Before the [[Ausg |
in the well-known [[Battle of Mohacs]] against Turks), when Bohemian Parliament voted for Ferdinand of Habsburg as the king of Bohemia. The Bohemian state and the Bohemian Crown (which included Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia) never lost their independence in juristic terms, but Habsburg kings drove centralisation, strong governement, Germanification and eventually the annihilation of Bohemian political elites and Bohemian parliament.
There were 4 big Bohemian revolts against Habsburg king's centralisation:
First revolt (1546-1547) - against king Ferdinand I, who contravened the Bohemian law - in 1547 Ferdinand I destroyed the military opposition of Bohemian nobility and towns; there were persecutions and confiscations of property and two aristocrats and two burghers were executed.
Second revolt (1618-1622} - uprising of non-Catholic majority against the realignment to Catholicism of the Catholic old king Matyas II of Habsburg and his heir, the ultra-Catholic duke Ferdinand of Stiria. The king's officers were defenestrated (thrown out of the windows) and all negotiation attempts failed after Matyas II's death in March 1619. Ferdinand of Stiria was deposed by the so-called Directorium (cabinet with 30 of the leading men of country, created and voted in by Bohemian parliament in summer 1618) and parliament voted Fridrich, Elector Palatinate as king of Bohemia (his wife was Elisabeth Stuart, daughter of English king James). In November 1620, troops of Ferdinand of Stiria defeated king Fridrich of Bohemia at Bila Hora, near Prague. In 1622, Ferdinand took aver the country and overthrew Fridrich who with Elisabeth fled to exile. As king of Bohemia Ferdinand II started a reign of terror: confications, persecutions, and forced realignment to Catholicism. 27 men of the Bohemian elite (mainly members of cabinet (Directorium)) were horribly tortured and executed in 1621 at Old Town Square, Prague. In 1627, decrees were passed that meant that all non-Catholics had to convert to Catholicism or be exiled from the country.
Third revolt (1741-1742} - part of Bohemian nobility recognized Karel Albrecht of Bavaria as Bohemian king Karel III. In autumn 1742, troops of Maria Theresia of Habsburg defeated Karel III's troops. In 1743, Maria became Bohemian queen.
Fourth revolt (1914-1918) - Political movements by Bohemian exiles and the [[First World War]] led to the independence of Bohemian Kingdom and removal of the Habsburgs.
Thomas G. Masaryk became a P. M. of Bohemian exile cabinet. Bohemian exile government became a member of Britain-France-Russia coalition and independent Bohemian army was formed in Serbia, France, Italy and Russia (this famous Bohemian Legion fought against Russian Bolsheviks}. In October 28, 1918, a home resistance group called 'Maffia' orchestrated a coup against the Habsburgs. In November 13, 1918, Bohemian Kingdom became a republic and integrated a new province, Slovakia to become the state of 'Czechoslovakia'. -->
[[Image:Czechoslovakia1927.png|thumb|right|200px|Bohemia within Czechoslovakia in 1927]]
[[Image:Kingdom_of_Bohemia.gif|thumb|right|The Banner of Arms of the King of Bohemia]]
[[Image:Flag of Bohemia.svg|thumb|right|[[Flag of Bohemia|Flag]].]]
After [[World War I]], Bohemia became the cornerstone of the newly-formed country of [[Czechoslovakia]]. Czechoslovakia became a rich and liberal democratic republic, and [[Tomas Garrigue Masaryk|Tomáš Masaryk]] was elected as its first president.
<!-- deleted stuff which partially belongs to [[Czechoslovakia]] (and is already dealt with there), not Bohemia, partially were far too long, and partially were grossly POV -->
Following the [[Munich Agreement]] in 1938, the border regions of Bohemia inhabited predominantly by ethnic Germans, were annexed to Germany - it was the first and only time in the whole history of Bohemia that it was divided. Between [[1939]]-[[1945]], the remaining part of Bohemia together with [[Moravia]] formed the German [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] (''Reichsprotektorat Böhmen und Mähren'') under the Occupation.
[[Agnes of Bohemia]] (Sv. Anezka Ceska, 1211-1282) was the first saint from a Central European country to be canonized by [[Pope John Paul II]] before the 1989 "[[Velvet Revolution]]".
After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in [[1993]], Bohemia became part of the new [[Czech Republic]].
The Czech constitution from 1992 refers to the "citizens of the Czech Republic in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia" and proclaims continuity with the statehood of the Bohemian Crown. Bohemia is not currently an administrative unit of the Czech Republic. Instead, it is divided into [[Prague]], the [[Central Bohemian Region]], the [[Pilsen Region]], the [[Carlsbad Region]], the [[Usti nad Labem Region]], the [[Liberec Region]], the [[Hradec Kralove Region]], and parts of the [[Pardubice Region|Pardubice]], [[Vysocina Region|Vysocina]] and [[South Bohemian Region|South Bohemian]] regions.
===See also===
*[[Bohemia (disambiguation)|Bohemia]] (for other definitions)
*[[Bohemian (disambiguation)|Bohemian]]
*[[History of the Czech Lands]]
*[[List of rulers of Bohemia]]
==References==
{{unreferenced}}
{{Czech lands}}
[[Category:Geography of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Czech history]]
[[Category:States of the Holy Roman Empire]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
[[ar:بوهيميا]]
[[bg:Бохемия]]
[[br:Bohemia]]
[[cs:Čechy]]
[[da:Bøhmen]]
[[de:Böhmen]]
[[et:Čechy]]
[[es:Bohemia]]
[[eo:Bohemio]]
[[fr:Bohême]]
[[ko:체히]]
[[is:Bæheimur]]
[[it:Boemia]]
[[he:בוהמיה]]
[[la:Bohemia]]
[[lt:Bohemija]]
[[hu:Komáromcsehi]]
[[nl:Bohemen]]
[[ja:ボヘミア]]
[[no:Böhmen]]
[[pl:Bohemia]]
[[pt:Boémia]]
[[ro:Boemia]]
[[ru:Богемия]]
[[sk:Čechy]]
[[sr:Бохемска]]
[[fi:Böömi]]
[[sv:Böhmen]]
[[zh:波希米亚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BBC</title>
<id>4347</id>
<revision>
<id>41604514</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T13:11:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Puffball</username>
<id>709639</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:BBC.svg|250px|thumb|right|Corporate logo of the British Broadcasting Corporation.]]
'''The <!-- NOTE: "The" is part of the name; see Talk page - archive FIVE--> British Broadcasting Corporation''' ('''BBC''') is the national [[public service broadcasting|public service broadcaster]] of the [[United Kingdom]] (see [[British television]]). It produces programmes and information services, broadcasting on [[television]], [[radio]], and the [[Internet]]. It is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world. The [[BBC coat of arms|motto of the BBC]] is ''Nation Shall Speak Peace Unto Nation.''
The BBC's domestic services on television are [[BBC One]], [[BBC Two]], [[BBC Three]], [[BBC Four]], [[BBC News 24]], [[BBC Parliament]] — the UK's only dedicated politics channel — and the children's channels [[CBBC]] and [[CBeebies]]. BBC One and BBC Two are available via conventional analogue transmission &mdash; the remainder can be viewed only by those with [[Digital_terrestrial_television_in_the_United_Kingdom|digital reception]] equipment (now in widespread use in the UK, with analogue transmission expected to be phased out from [[2008]]). In the [[Republic of Ireland]] the [[Northern Ireland]] regionalised BBC one & BBC Two are available via analogue tranmissions deflecting signals from the North and also carried out on [[Sky Digital]], [[NTL Ireland]] and [[Chorus Communications|Chorus]]
The corporation has five national radio stations: [[BBC Radio 1|Radio 1]], [[BBC Radio 2|Radio 2]], [[BBC Radio 3|Radio 3]], [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]], and [[BBC Radio Five Live]]. It also has national [[Digital audio broadcasting|digital radio]] services: [[1Xtra]], [[BBC 6 Music]], [[BBC 7]], [[BBC Five Live Sports Extra]], and the [[BBC Asian Network]]. There is also a huge catalogue of [[BBC Local Radio]] stations (such as [[BBC Hereford and Worcester]] and [[BBC Radio London]]) Open Centres, BBC Buses, and BBC Big Screens. In addition the BBC operates the [[BBC World Service]] on radio, internet and satellite television, funded by and operated in cooperation with the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]].
The BBC's commercial operations are run by [[BBC Worldwide]]. These include its international television services which are funded commercially and include the international news channel [[BBC World]], as well as entertainment channels [[BBC Prime]], [[BBC America]], [[BBC Canada]] and [[BBC Japan]]. There is also a Canadian children's channel [[BBC Kids]]. BBC Worldwide also co-runs, with [[Flextech]], the [[UKTV]] network of stations in the UK, producers of amongst others [[UKTV Gold]]. In [[Australia]] BBC Worldwide runs the [[UK.TV]] network jointly with [[Foxtel]] and Fremantle Media. In [[New Zealand]] some BBC programmes run on [[TVNZ|TV ONE]].
The BBC produces a large body of programming for domestic and worldwide broadcast. Many programmes (especially [[Documentary film|documentaries]]) are sold to foreign television stations, and [[comedy]], [[documentary film|documentaries]] and [[Costume drama|historical drama]] productions are popular on the international DVD market.
It is an autonomous corporation run by a board of governors appointed by the [[government of the United Kingdom|government]] for a term of four years (formerly five years). This is soon to be replaced with a BBC [[Trust (property)|trust]]. Management of the organisation is in the hands of a [[Director-General of the BBC|Director-General]] appointed by the governors. Its domestic programming and broadcasts are funded by levying [[television licence]] fees upon the owners of television sets. This allows domestic programming to be free of commercials, and allows program content to be free of bias towards commercial sponsors.
==History==
[[Image:BBC Virtual Crest.JPG|thumb|Compu |
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